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V
Cncpclopaetua Brttanmca
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
31«uatrateti toitlj nearly sir ljunOrcD OEngrattinpi.
VOL. VIII.
INDOCTI discant; ament meminisse periti.
EDINBURGH:
Printed at the Encyclopedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
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Encyclopaedia Britannica
E L E
Elcaricity -p LECTMCITY, Medical. See Materia
Elca'rome- c 0
ter. •E-i-JLU anciently iflands in the Adriatic
fea, which received their name from the quantity
of amber (^elecirum) which they produced. They
■were at the mouth of the Po, according to Apollonius
oi Rhodes j but fome hidorians doubt of their exif-
tence.
ELEC L ROMETER. In various parts of the ar-
licle Eleciricity, we have deferibed a great variety
of inftruments for afeertaining the prefence of eleefrici-
ty, and meafuring its quantity or proportion.
But there are feveral inftruments of this kind that
have not been deferibed in that article } and as they are
well. deferving a place in this work, either from the in¬
genuity of their conftruifion, the reputation of their in¬
ventors, or the intrinfic value of the inftruments them-
Plate lelves, we (hall give an account of them here.
FjV. i. r n/r’* r^‘ ^^ate a geometrical reprefentation
°|. j L . avallo’s improved atmofphcrical eleftrometer,
of half its real fize. 1. he principal part of tins in-
ftiuipent is a glafs tube CDMN, cemented at the bot¬
tom into the wooden piece AB, by which part the inftru-
inent is to be held when fifed for the atmofphere 5 and
!t aho ferves to ferew the inftrument into its wooden
Fig. 2. cafe ABO, fig. 2. when it is not to be ufed. The
upper part of the tube CDMN, is fliaped tapering to a
fmaller extremity, which is entirely covered with feal-
mg-wax, melted by heat, and not dilfolved in fpirits.
Into this tapering part a fmall tube'is cemented, the
lower extremity G of which being alfo covered with feal-
mg-wax, projects a ihort way within the tube CDMN.
Into this fmaller tube a wire is cemented, which with
its lower extremity touches the flat piece of ivory H, faften-
ed to the tube by means of cork 5 the upper extremity of
the wire projefts about a quarter of an inch above the
tube, and ferews into the brafs cap EF, which cap is
open at the bottom, and ferves to defend the waxed
Fig. 3. part of the inftrument from the rain, &c. In fig. o.
a feition. of this brafs cap is reprefented, in order to
mow its internal ftiape, and the manner in which it is
. fere wed to the wire, projecting above the tube L. The
iinaft tube L, and the upper extremity of the large
tune CDMN, appear tike one continued piece, on ac~
count <d the fealing-wax, which covers them both.
I»e conical corks P of this eleftrometer, which by
their repulfion fhow the eleftricity, &c. are as fmall as
vql. VIII. Part I.
E L E
can conveniently be made, and they are fufpended by Eledtrome-
exceedingly fine filver wires. Thefe wires are iliaped in ter.
a ring at the top, by which they hang very loofely on the ’'‘“"'“v—
flat piece of ivory H, which has two holes for that pur-
pofe. By this method of fufpenfion, which is applica¬
ble to every fort of electrometer, tlie fridfion is leilened
almoft to nothing, and thence the inftrument is fenftble
of a very fmall degree of electricity. IM, and KN,
are two narrow flips of tin-foil, ftuck to the infide of
the glafs CD IVIN, and communicating with the wooden
bottom AB ; they ferve to convey off that electricity,
which, when the corks touch the glafs, is communicated
to it, and being accumulated, might difturb the free
motion of the corks.
In regard to its ufe, this inftrument may ferve to
obferve the artificial, as well as the atmofpherical elec¬
tricity. When it is to be ufed for artificial eleclricity,
this eledhometer is fet upon a table or other convenient
fupport j then it is electrified by touching the brafs cap
Ef with an eledtrified body, which eledlricity will
fometimes be preferved for more than an hour. Mr
Cavallo had one of thefe eledfrometers which would re¬
main eledtrical for more than twelve hours, though in
a 10°u1 without a fire. If in an electrified ftate, any
eledtrified fubftance be brought near the cap EF, the
corks of the eledtrometer, by their converging, or by in-
cleafing their divergency, will ftiew the fpecies of that
body’s eledtricity.
It is neceffary to remark, that to communicate any
eledtricity to this eledtrometer, by means of an excited
eledtric, e. g, a piece, of fealing-wax, (which we fup-
poie is always negatively eledtrified), is not very rea-
dily done in the ufual manner, on account of the cap
Eh being well rounded, and free from points or fliarp
edges. By the approach of the wax, the eledtrometer
win be caufed to diverge 5 but as foon as the wax is re¬
moved, the wires immediately collapfe. The belt me¬
thod to elearify it, is to bring the excited wax fo near
the cap, that one or both the corks may touch the fide
of tae bottle CDMN; after which, they will foon col¬
lapfe and appear uneledtrified: if now the wax be
moved, they will again diverge, and remain ekarified
pofitively.
. When this inftrument is to be ufed to try the ekari-
city of the fogs, the air, the clouds, &c. the obferver
18 do nothing more than to unferew it from its cafe,
and, holding it by the bottom AB, to prefent it to the
©pen
Electrome¬
ter.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. &
E L E [2
open air, a little above his head, fo that he may conve¬
niently fee the corks P, which will immediately diverge
if there be any fufficient quantity of electricity 5 whofe
nature, i. e. whether pofitive or negative, may be af-
certained by bringing an excited piece of fealing-wax,
or other electric, towards the brafs cap EF.
It is perhaps unnecefiary to remark, that this obfer-
vation mull be made in an open place, as the roads out
of town, the fields, the top of a houfe, &c.
The principal advantages of this electrometer, as Hat¬
ed by Mr Cavallo, are as follows.
1. The fmallnefs of its fize. Mr Cavallo made one
fo fmall, that its cafe, which was of brafs, meafured
only three inches and a half in length, and nine-tenths
of an inch in diameter, and yet it a fled perfectly well.
2. Its being always ready for experiments, without
fear of entangling the threads, or having an equivocal
refult by the lluggifimefs of its motion.
3. Its not being difturbed by wind or rain.
4. Its great fenfibility 5 and,
5. Its keeping the communicated electricity longer
than any other electrometer.
II. Saufure's Electrometer. M. de Sauffure’s
eledrometer, with which he made the obfervations on
atmofpherical eleftricity, that have been related in the
fecond chapter of Part V. of the article Electrici¬
ty, and reprefented at fig. 4. is much the fame with
that of Mr Cavallo above defcribed. The following
are the moll material circumftances in which they dif¬
fer : Firft, the fine wires, by which the balls are fuf-
pended, fhould not be long enough to reach the tin-
foil which is parted on the infide of the glafs, becaufc
the eleClricity, when rtrong, will caufe them to touch
this tin-foil twice confecutively, and thus deprive them
in a moment of their eleftricity.^ To prevent this de¬
fect, and yet give them a fufficient degree of motion,
It is neceffary to ufe larger glafles than thofe that are
generally applied to Mr Cavallo’s electrometer ; two
or three inches in diameter will be found to anfwer the
purpofe very well. But as it is necelfary to carry off
the eledhricity which may be communicated to the in¬
fide of the glafs, and thus be confounded with that
which belongs to thofe fubftances that are under exa¬
mination j four pieces of tm-foil fliould be palled on the
infide of the glafs ; the balls fliould not be more than
one-twentieth of an inch diameter, fufpended by filver
wires, moving freely in holes nicely rounded. The
bottom of the electrometer fliould be of metal j for this
renders it more eafy to deprive it of any acquired elec¬
tricity, by touching the bottom and top at the fame
time. t .
In order to colleft a great quantity of electricity
from the air, the electrometer is furniffied with a point¬
ed wire, 15 inches or two feet long, which unfcrews
in three or four pieces, to render the inftrument more
portable } fee fig. 4. When it rains or fnows, the Imall
5 parapluie, fig. 5. is to be fcrewed on the top of the
inftrument, as by this its infulation is preferred, not-
withftanding the rain. ^ . .
This inftrument indicates not only the eleftricity of
foo-s, but that alfo of ferone weather, and enables us to
difcover the kind of ele&ricity ndiiclpreigns in the at-
mofphere ; and to a certain degree to form an eftimate
©f its quantity, and that under two different points of
] E L E
view, the degree of intenfity, and the diftance from Elcdromt-
the earth at which it firft begins to be fenfible. , tLr'
A conductor raifed for the purpofe of making obfer-
vation on atmofpherical eledlricity will be found to ex¬
hibit figns of electricity, only when the eleftric fluid is
more or lefs condenfed in the air, than in the earth.
Though the air refills the paffage of the ele&rie fluid,
it is not abfolutely impermeable to it 5 it fuffers it to pafs
gradually, and generally with more eafe in proportion
as its mafs or thicknefs is lefs. It is therefore intereft-
ing to difcover at what height it is neceffary to be ele-r
vated, in order to find a fenfible difference between the
eledlricity of the earth, and that of the air. A very
fenfible difference may be generally difcovered by this
inftrument, at the diftance of four or five feet from the
ground } fometimes it may be feen if the inftrument is
placed even on the ground ; while at others, it mull
be raifed feven or more feet before the balls will open j
fometimes, though feldom, this height is not fufficient.
This diftance is generally greateft when the eleclricity
is ftrongeft, though neceffarily modified by a variety of
circumftances, fome of which are known, as the de¬
gree of drynefs or humidity of the air, and others are
unknown.
The degree of intenfity, at a given height, may be
diicovered thus } raife the electrometer, and judge b\
the divifions which are placed on the edge of it, the de¬
gree of their divergence. To find the relation between
this degree of divergence, and the force of the eleclri¬
city, M. de Sauffure took the following method As
he could not with certainty double or triple a given
quantity of eleclricity } yet as a given force may be re¬
duced one half, a fourth or eighth, &c. by dividing
between two equal and fimilar bodies, the cleclricity
contained m one ^ he took two of his unarmed elc(Uro¬
meters, which were as fimilar as poffible, and eledlri-
fied one of them, fo that the balls feparated precifely
fix lines •, he then touched the top thereof by the top
of that which was not electrified j in an inftant the elec¬
tricity was equally divided between them, as was evi¬
dent by the divergence of the balls, which was four
lines in each } confequently a diminution of half the
denfity had only leffened the divergence one-third.
One of thefe elearometers was then deprived of its elec¬
tricity, and was afterwards brought in contaa. with the
other, as before j the remaining clearichy divided it-
felf again between them, and the balls fell from four to
twenty-eight lines, nearly in the fame proportion as be¬
fore •, in the third operation they fell to nineteen : in
the fourth to one, where he was obliged to flop, as there
was not now fuffieient force in the fluid to pafs from one
elearometer to the other, and diftribute itfelf uniform¬
ly between them. The fame experiment, repeated fe-
veral times, gave very nearly the fame refults. Nega¬
tive elearicity decreafed* alfo in the fame proportion as
the pofitive. The following table may therefore be
confidered as giving a general, though not exaCl idea
of the increafe in force, which corresponds to different
degrees of divergence in the balls •, it is only ^calculated
to every fourth of a line j the force of elearicity is al¬
ways expreffed by whole numbers, as it would be ridi¬
culous to put a greater degree of exaanefs in the num¬
bers than is to be found in the experiments which form
the bafes of the calculation.
Diftance
L E
Eic&romo- Dlftance of tlie
, in fourths of
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
* !3
14
15
16
J7
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
E
balls
a line.
[
Correfponding forces
of electricity.
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
J7
20
23
26
29
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
Thofe who are defirous to carry this meafure of the
cleCtric force further, may do it by having limilar e-
leCtrometers conltructed, but made upon a larger fcale,
and with heavier balls, which would only feparate one
line, with the degree of electricity that makes the
1 mailer ones diverge fix lines • thefe would confequently
meafure a force 1024 times greater than that which
forms the unity of the preceding table ; and thus by
degrees we may be enabled to difeover the ratio of the
itrongeft difeharge of a great battery, or perhaps even
of thunder itfelf, to that of a piece of amber, which
only attracts a bit of draw or anyt other light fub-
ftance.
In order to obferve the electricity of the atmofphere
with this inftrument, we mult firil bring the electric
fluid contained in the electrometer to the fame degree
of denfity with that at the furface of the earth ; this is
eafily done by letting the bottom and top touch the
ground at the fame time ; then raife the point, keep¬
ing the bottom dill in contact with the ground, from
whence it may be lifted up in a vertical polition till the
balls are level with the eye.
i he fecond circumdance is to render the divergence
of the balls, which is occafloned by the electricity of
the air, permanent. This is effected by touching the
top of the cleftrometer with the finger 5 but here the
acquired eleftricity becomes contrary to that of the bo¬
dy by which they are eleftrified. Let us fuppofe, for
example, that the eleftrometer is at five feet from the
ground, and the balls diverging; touch the top of the
eleftrometer with the finger, and the balls will clofe ;
but they will again open, if the eleftrometer is with¬
drawn from the influence of the eleftricity of the air,
by being brought nearer the ground, or into the houfe.
M. Saufllire only employed this method when the elec¬
tricity was fo weak that he could not perceive any un¬
til the eleftrometer was raifed confiderably above his
•ye t as in this cafe he could not perceive the diver-
3 ] E L E
gence of the balls, he always endeavoured to obtain a Ele&rome-
permanent eleftricity in the foregoing manner. ter-
The following example will render the ufe of the v ~
foregoing obfervations more familiar. Choofe an open
fituation free from trees and houfes, ferew the conductor
on the top of the eleftrometer, lay hold of it by its
bafe, and place it fo that the bafe and conduftor may
touch the ground at the fame time; then elevate it to
the height of the eye, and obferve the quantity oflines,
or fourths of a line, that the balls have diverged ; now
lower it till the balls almoft touch each other, and ob¬
ferve at what diftance the top of the conduftor is from
the ground 5 and this is the height from the ground at
which the eleftricity of the air begins to be fenfible.
If the eleftricity of the air is fufficiently ftrong to make
the balls diverge when it Hands upon the ground, one
of the lengths of the eleftrometer mult be unferewed
from it. If the balls, however, Hill diverge, the other
parts of the conduftor ihould alfo be unferewed, and
you may mark down, that the eleftricity is fenfible at
zero, or on the furface of the earth. If, on the con¬
trary, the eleftricity is fo weak, as not to caufe the
balls to diverge when they are even with the eye, and
confequently when the conduftor is two feet higher, or
feven feet from the ground, you ihould then raife it a
foot higher; while it is thus elevated, touch the top
with the other hand ; when this hand is taken away,
lower the eleftrometer, and if it is eleftrified, you may
fay the eleftricity is fenfible at eight feet 5 if it is not,
raife it as high as the arm can reach, and repeat the
fame operation ; if any eleftricity is found, write down
eleftricity fenfible at nine feet 5 if not, mark o, or no
eleftricity relative to this inftrument, and this mode of
employing it 5 for figns of eleftricity may ftill be ob¬
tained, by throwing a metallic ball 50 or 60 feet into
the air, which is at the fame time connefted with the
eleftrometer by a metallic thread.
One advantage of this inftrument is, that it will often
exhibit figns of eleftricity when none can be obtained
from a conduftor of 100 feet in height, becaufe it can
more eafily be preferved from humidity, &c. which will
deftroy the inhalation of the large conduftors.
This eleftrometer may be ufed inftead of the con-
denfer of M. Volta, by only placing it on a piece of
oiled filk, fomewhat larger than the bafe of the inftru¬
ment; but in this cafe, it is the bafe, and not the
top of the inftrument, which muft be brought into
contaft with the fubftance whofe eleftricity is to be ex¬
plored.
It is eafy to difeover alfo by this inftrument, the elec¬
tricity of any fubftance, as of cloths, hair of different
animals, &c. For this purpofe, it muft be held by the
bafe, and the fubftance rubbed brilkly (only once) by
the ball of the eleftrometer ; the kind of eleftricity
may be afeertained in the ufual manner. It is proper,
however, to obferve here, that as the top of the eleftro¬
meter afts in this cafe as an infulated rubber, the elec*
tricity it acquires is always contrary to that of the rub¬
bed body.
III. Cadet's Electrometer, is thus deferibed by
the author, as tranflated in Nicholfon’s Journal.
Fig. 6. In a glafs tube A, 18 or 20 inches long, Fig. 6,
is inclofed another fhorter tube X, fealed at botli ends.
This tube contains a graduated fcale : one of the ends
of thefe two tubes is cemented in a handle of turned
A 2 wood,.
E L E [4
Electronic- wood, C, by wliicli it Ls held in the hand; the other
^r" end is doled by a brafs cap, D *, the diftance between
t" v~* ' tjie extrernities of the fmall tube and that of the large
one is filled with red wax, B, B } on the cap D is
fcrewed at pleafure, either a ring E, or a brafs hook
F. The ring is ufed for applying the inftrument to the
ball of a conductor, and the hook when it is hung
to a ring: on the cap D is a brafs fitem G, termi¬
nating by a knob. This Item is bended, and the
extremity of its kriob mull be diredly beneath the line
with which the graduated fcale of the fmall tube com¬
mences.
Round the large tube is a brafs ring FI, half of which
extends to the length of twelve or fifteen lines in the
form of a half tube P, applied againlt the lides of the
tube. This gutter ferves to mark the degrees, by Hid¬
ing along the graduated fcale by means of a button be¬
neath I. On the ring H is fixed one of the fmail
electrometers invented by Sauffure, K, K, which is fur-
mounted by a Item V, on which Item is fixed at pleafure
either a point L, or a ball M, of the feme lize as that
which terminates the Item G, oppofite which it is
placed. The extremity of this point or ball mult be
placed immediately over the extremity of the half tube
or fcale P, and horizontally to the centre of the ball,
which terminates tire Item G.
At the top of Sauffure’s eleffromeier is a fmall ring
N, "which ferves to connect it with the chain Z when
required.
To explain the ufe of this inltrument by a fingle ex¬
periment, charge a Leyden jar, till the fpontaneous
overflowing announces it to be faturated. Then place
the ring E on the knob of this bottle, and caufe the
electrometer of Sauffure, armed with its point, to Hide
towards it. Obferve the degree at which the divergence
of the thread itream commences, and at that inltant
fupprefs the point, and adapt in its place the ball M.
Continue to advance the electrometer of Sauffure till
the eleCtric preffure of the atmofphere in the jar caufes
the threads to diverge; again obierve the degrees, re¬
place the point L, and clofe the Ihutters of the room }
then continue to advance the electrometer till the lumi¬
nous point appears, which again affords new degrees.
Laftly, replace the ball M, and fix the chain Z to the
fmall ring N *, caufe it to communicate with the exterior
coating of the jar, and advance the eleCtrometer till the
explofion takes place. Then comparing the different
degrees, we may afeertain the comparative difference
between the refpeCtive methods.
As foon as thefe relative proportions have been once
accurately afeertained by attentive obfervations, one of
thofe methods alone will be fufficient for meafuring the
intenfity of eledtricity } and, in fa£t, if the body intend¬
ed to be fubmitted to examination be little charged writh
the electric fluid, the diverging of the threads, by means
of the point, will fix the limits of the eledtric atmo¬
fphere : if it be more, the preffure of the atmofphere on
the ball M, which is fubftituted for the point, will in¬
dicate this quantity. In fliort, if the body be loaded
with a confiderable mafs of electric matter, it will be
fhown by the luminous point. If a Leyden jar, inftead
of being pofitively, is negatively electrified, the point
indicates it at the fame time that it meafures the elec-
:iric atmofphere, for inftead of a luminous point, a ftar
] E L E
will be obferved upon the ball of the jar, and another Electrome¬
at the end of the point, . ter-
Let us now apply this electrometer to ufeful-obferva- v
tions.
In order to connect the idea of a determinate quanti¬
ty of fluid to each degree of the eleCtrometer, it is necef-
fary to compare thefe degrees with the known quanti¬
ties. Suppofe for inftanee we have a jar, the coating
of which is fix inches fquare 5 eleCtrify it till a fpon¬
taneous difeharge takes place, and remark, by means
of Henley’s electrometer, at what degree this difeharge
is effected. Again, electrify the jar, till it is nearly fa¬
turated, and meafuring with this electrometer, obferve,
that the luminous point appears for inftance at two de¬
grees ; then fey, that wThen the electrometer, applied
to an eleCtrified body, marks tv/o degrees, the body
contains fix inches fquare of eleCtricity. Repeat this
experiment with a plate of glafs, the coating of which is
feven, eight, ten, or twrelve fquare inches, and we may
form a fcale of proportion, which is of the greateft uti¬
lity in accurate experiments.
“ In endeavouring to afeertain fome of thefe pro-
pofitions, (fays M. Cadet), I have made an obfervation
which has convinced me of the utility of my electrome¬
ter in difeovering the capacity of eleCtric apparatus.
Having taken a jar from an eleCtric battery, I eleCtri-
fied it, and meafured it with a point which I paffed a-
long a firing of lilk j on obferving the diftance at w hich
the luminous point appeared, I joined this jar to another
of the fame fize, and imagined that by doubling the
quantity of matter, the meafure I had taken wmuld alfo
be doubled, 011 the contrary, however, the latter
meafure was not more than about one-third of the for¬
mer : I then added a third bottle ; and ftill obtained
nearly the feme refult; whence the following propofi-
tion appears to be eftabliihed *, namely, that the extent
of the eleCtric atmofphere is in an inverfe ratio to the
quantity of fluid accumulated! Another obfervation
which I have leveral times made, on meafuring the elec¬
tric atmofphere of a conductor, is, that the limits of this
atmofphere form an elliptic figure around the body,
nearly fimilar to that reprefented at fig. 7. Fig. 7.
“ This doubtlefs arifes from the eleCtrified body
fufpended in a chamber, being nearer to the earth than
the ceiling 5 but it would be a curious experiment to
meafure it at an equal diftance from every attraCling
body, in order to obferve whether the fluid has not
really a tendency to defeend towards the earth, rather
than in any other direCapn. It is my intention to re¬
peat this experiment, as I conftder it of great impor¬
tance to afeertain whether eleCtricity gravitates towards
the globe.
“ From thefe firft attempts, I conceive my eleCtrome-
ter would be well adapted for meafuring the abfolute
capacity of Leyden jars, and alfo their capacity with
regard to their fize, or to the quality of the glafs of
which they are conftruCted} for the latter, by its
greater or lefs denfity, abforbs a greater or lefs quantity
of fluid.”
IV. Lawfori's Electrometer. This is a Amplified
improvement on Brooke’s fteelyard eleCtrometer, and
fliould have been deferibed when that inftrument was
mentioned, inftead of Mr Adams’s ; but it did not oc¬
cur to us till after that Iheet was printed.
The
6
Fig. 8
Fig. p.
E L E [
The following account is given of this electrometer,
in a letter from Mr Lawfon to the editor of the Philofo-
phical Magazine.
“ Some time ago it ftruck me that fome additions to
Brooke’s electrometer might be made, fo as to fit it for
a good difchai ging electrometer to meafure the repuifion
between two balls (of a certain fize) in grains, and alfo
effedt the difeharge of a battery at the fame time. The
inftrument known by the name of Cuthbertfon’s dif-
charging eledfrometer, (See Electricity, N° 203.)
was at that time the beft, and indeed the only in¬
ftrument for difeharging batteries or jars by its own
adtion, then made 5 but I think this will be found, in
the effentials, and in the theory and ufe, a more perfect
inftrument.
On the balls (fig. 8.) is fixed the glafs pillar G,
fupporting the hollow brafs ball B. I is a light gra¬
duated brafs tube, divided (from the weight W towards
the ball B) into thirty parts, reprefenting grains. W
is a Aiding weight. L, a light brafi ball ferewed to
the end of the tube I. On the other end of which tube
adjufts the heavy counterbalance ball C, the tube I
and its two balls being fufpended at their common centre
of gravity by a filk line in the centre of the ball B, the
mechanifm of which is (hewn in fig. 9. The brafs ball
F is ftationary, and of the fame fize as the ball L 5 and
is fixed by, and adjufts clofe to, the ball L, or at any
lower ftation between that and the ring r. The brafs
tube to which the ball A is fixed is divided into inches
halves, and quarters : (a more minute divifion is unne-
ceflary and improper). The divifions begin, or the line
o is marked on the faid tube at the ring r, when the
three balls A, L, F, are clofe together. The ring
r ferves as an index, as the divifions pafs in fucceftion
into the glafs tube P on lowering the ball A. The
hook H is ferewed into the bafe of P. The quadrant,
or Henley’s ele&rometer, (,), is fupported in a long brafs
ftem, to keep it out of the atmofphere of the lower part
of the inftrument. Fig. 9. fhows the internal conftruc-
tion .of the ball B, fig. 8. In the firft place the ball
fecews in half, horizontally. The light tube I palfes
through the ball, and is fufpended nearly in the centre
of it by fome filk twift, .r, which fmall filk twift is fixed
into the eye of the adjufting rvire, a, part of which
wire is filed fquare and goes through the fquare hole //.
The nut n ferews on «, and ferves to adjuft the light
tube I vertically. The light plates PP are of copper,
and move freely on the wire vo w fomewhat like a hinge,
and reft on the Copper wires CC, ferving'to make the,
direft communication between the infide and out of the
battery or jar. NN are notches ferving to let the tube
I defeend when the difeharge is made. Into the tube Z
the glafs pillar is ground. Note, that at the bottom of
the notch N is a piece of brafs filled with a Y, and
to placed as to keep the centres of the balls L and
h, fig. 8. under each other when they come clofe to¬
gether.
“ When the inftrument is adjufted, which is done by
placing the weight W, fig. 8. at o on the line of grains,
and then . ferewing or unferewing the counterbalance
ball C, till the tube I rifes flowly into its horizontal
pofition j then fet the ball A at the diftance from the
ball L that you choofe, and the weight W placed at the
divifion or number of grains that you wifti the repulfive
power of the eleclricity to arrive at before the difeharge
5 ] E L E
is made: this being done, conneft the battery of jarFh&miiwv
with the ball B, by means of the wire y, the end cf lcv'
which goes into B at the - hole X, and ftiould ftand at '—W
right angles to B, the ball of // refting on the battery :
then conned! the outfide of the battery or jar with the
hook H. As the battery charges, the electrometer Q
continues to rife 5 and when it is fo highly charged that
the repulfive power between the balls L and ¥ is equal
to the number of grains at which the weight W was
placed, the ball L will defeend, and deliver the charge
of the batteiy to the ball A. I he fubftance or thing
through which the fhock is intended to be paiTed, mult
form part of the communication between the hook H
and the outfide of the battery or jar.”
V. tlauch ,r Electrometer, fig. 10. contains a re~
prefentation of this electrometer, and the different parts *
of which it confifts. OP is a board of dry mahogany,
twelve inches in length and four in breadth, which ferves
as a ftand for the inftrument. In this board are faften-
ed two maffy glals pillars, M and N, which fupport the
two brafs caps or rings GG, with the two forks of tem¬
pered fteel KK ferewed into them. The two rings GG
are well covered with varnifli.
In the ring is faftened a brafs rod, which terminates
in a ball E of the fame metal, and an inch in diameter.
The length of the rod and ball together is four inches
and a half.
A very delicate beam AB, the arms of which are of
unequal length, moves on a (harp triangular axis (a knife
edge) of well tempered fteel, on the fork K of the pillar
M. It is feventeen inches in length, and fo conftrufted
that the ftiort arm forms a third, and the long one two-
thirds of the whole beam. The ftiort arm of brafs fur-
niftied with the ball B, exaClly of the fame fize as the
ball E, is divided into forty-five parts equivalent to grains.
I he long arm A is of glafs covered with copal varnifli,
and ends in an ivory ball A, into which is fitted an ivory
hook ft, deftined to fupport the ivory fcale H. In order
to render the infulation more complete, this fcale is fuf¬
pended by three hairs.
A very delicate beam CD, eleven inches m length,
moves on an axis like the former, on the pillar N*
though not here ftiewn. This beam is proportioned in
the fame manner, one arm being a third and the other
tuo-thirds of the whole length. The long arm of brafs
is furniftied at the end with a ball D, and divided into
thirty parts correfponding to grains. The ftiort arm of
glafs terminates in a long roundifti plate C, covered with
copal varnifli, T he fteel forks are ftiewn by the fections
of the two brafs caps FF, as are alfo the two knife edges
L, L. By thefe caps the efcape of the eleClric matter
is partly prevented,
A brafs ring f) , capable of being moved along the
fliort arm of the upper beam AB, ftiews by means of
marks determined by trial and cut out on the beam,
the number of grains which muft be placed in the
fmall fcale to reftore the equilibrium of the beam,
at each diftance of the ring £) from the point of
fulpenfion.
On the long arm CD of the longer beam there is al-
fo a moveable ring S, which, like the ring ftiews in
grains, by its diftance from the point of fufpenfion, the
power requifite to overcome the preponderance of LD
in regard to LC.
The power neceffary for this purpofe will be found, if
the
E L E
[ 6
Itkvftrome- the {hell H, which weighs exactly fourteen grains, be
, ter- fuffered to link down on the glafs plate C, and the ring
" " ,r be pulhed forwards till both the arms of the beam are
in equilibrium. The part of the beam on which the
ring s has moved, is divided into fourteen parts, fo that
O marks the place where the ring s muft itand when
the beam, in its free date, is in equilibrium ; and 14
Hands at the place where the ring s again reftores a
perfe£t equilibrium when the Ihell H is laid on the glafs
plate C. Each of thefe parts, which are divided into
quarters, indicates a grain. The lower divilions of the
leale will be found with more accuracy, if quarters of a
grain be put, in fucceffion, into the Ihell H (after it has
been laid on the plate C), and the ring s be moved be¬
tween each quarter of a grain until the perfect equili¬
brium be reftored. This place on the beam is then to
be marked, and you may continue in tins manner until
the 30th part of a grain be given. Both fcales, for the
fake of diftinclnefs, are divided only fo low as quarters
of a grain •, though the initrument is fo delicate, and
muft abfolutely be fo, that i-20th of a grain is fufftcient
to deftroy the equilibrium.
The two glafs pillars M and N, together with the
fteel forks ailixed to them, are fo fitted into the ftand
that both the beams lie parallel to each other as well as
to the rod GE. In this pofition of the beams AB, the
balls B and E are juft in contact. The fmalleft giafs
pillar N is of fuch a height that the ball of the beam
CD Hands at the diftance of exactly four lines from the
ring G, and cannot move without touching the latter.
The fmall fhell II is fufpended in fuch a manner that
there is a diftance of exactly two lines between it and
the ft>ell C. In each of the brafs rings GG is a fmall
hole, that the inftrument may be conne6ted with the
two fides of an eleftric jar. I is. a brafs wire, with a
hollow bit of ivory, a, deftined to fupport the beam
CD, which is neceffarily preponderate at D, in order
to prevent ofcillation between the difchargfes to be
examined by the inftrument.
It may be readily comprehended that, when the
beam AB has moved, A muft pafs over twice the fpace
that B does ; and that in the beam CD, the cafe is the
fame in regard to C and D. If AB be therefore con-
nefled with the external, and CD with the internal fide
of a battery, but in fuch a, manner that the inftrument
is at a fufficient diftance beyond the electric atmofphere;
and if the battery be charged, the repulfive effeft of
the eledlric power will oblige the ball B to feparate
from the ball E ; the Ihell L muft therefore naturally
fink down with double velocity, fo that when the
ball B rifes a line, the {hell H muft fink two : when it
reaches this depth it will touch the {hell C, and the lat¬
ter, by the power excited in it, will be obliged to fink,
by which D muft naturally again afcend in a double
proportion to the finking of C ; fo that when C has
fallen two lines, D muft have afcended four, and D
that moment touches the ring by which the two fides
of the battery are connecled with each other, and dif-
charges the battery.
But as the attractive electric powTer between unlike
atmofpheres, under like circumftances, is at leaft as
ftrong as its repulfive power- between like atmofpheres,
it would thence follow, that the electric power, inftead
ef repelling the ball B from the ball E, would rather
attradt D, and by its contadt with G, promote the dif-
C
] E L E
charging j by which the inftrument would fail of its Eledtrome.
object, and be fubjedted to the temperature of the at - , ,
mofphere like ail other eledtrometers j and, befides this,
the eledtric power could no longer be determined by
weight. To obviate this inconvenience, the inftrument,
in all electrical experiments, muft be applied in fuch a
manner that the power with which the ball D is attract ¬
ed by AB may exceed in ftrength the power required
to repel the ball B from the baft E. For this purpofe
the ring r muft always be removed two divifions farther
on CD, towards D, than the ring ()_ is ftiiited on AB
towards B. If, for example, an eledtric force were re¬
quired equal to eight grains, according to tins electro¬
meter, the ring f) mult be removed to the place where
8 Hands, and the ring s to the place marked 10. The
repulfive power will then naturally repel the balls B and
E before G is in a condition to attradl the ball D, as
a power of two grains would be neceffary for this pur¬
pofe, befides that of the eight already in action. The
ihell IT with its weight of fourteen grains, will eafily
overcome the preponderance of LD or LC, as it
amounts only to ten grains, and therefore nothing exifts
that can impede the difeharging.
When the ring 1, according to the required power,
is removed fo tar towards D, that the {hell H is not
able by its weight to deftroy the preponderance of LD
in regard to LC, the adtive power of the {hell H muft
be fo far increafed by the addition of weights, that it
can act with a preponderance of four grains on the
plate C. If, for example, an eledlric power of 14
grains be required, the ring 1 muft be removed to 16,
by which LD refts upon a, with a preponderance of
16 grains in regard to LC. Now, to make H adt on
the plate C with a preponderance of four grains, it mull
be increafed to 20 grains, that is, ftx grains weight
more muft be added, as it weighs only 14 j which fix
grains are again laid upon LB j and therefore the ring
is fliifted to 20, as the ftrength of the repulfive power
is pointed out by 14 grains.
If an eledlric power of 25 grains be required, the
ring s muft be removed to 27, and the weight of 17
grains be put into the {hell H, in order to produce a
preponderance of four grains in regard to r. T hefe 17
grains are added to the required power of 25 grains,
and the ring is puftied to 42, &c. In this manner
the repulfive power always adds before the attradliye
power can.
It may be readily perceived that the faults and in¬
conveniences common to all the eledlrometers hitherto
employed, and which have been already mentioned,
cannot take place here ; becaufe the difeharging is per¬
formed by immediate connedtion between the pofitive
and negative eledlrieity in the inftrument itfelf, without
any external means being employed.
One of the moft effential advantages of this inftru¬
ment is, the certainty Avith Avhich the fame refult may
be expedled Avhen the experiment is repeated. From
the fame degree of eledlrie poAver, whatever be the
temperature of the atmofphere, it will always be necef¬
fary to commence tire feparation of the tAvo balls B and
E from each other, the quantity of coated glafs and the
diftance of the ring Q from the axis L being the
fame.
Another no lefs important advantage of this inftru¬
ment is, that in an experiment where the fame eledlric
poAver,.
E L E
t 7 ]
E L E
Electronic- power, often repeated, is neceTary to afeertain the re-
tcr- fult with accuracy ; fuch, for example, as the charging
y a battery through acids, water, &c. j the fame degree
of precaution is not necelTary as is indifpenfably lo in
any other eleftrometer, as the perfon who puts the ma¬
chine in motion has nothing to do but to count how
often the electrometer difeharges itfelf j and the inftru-
ment may be inclofcd in a glafs cafe, or prevented in
any other manner from external contact, or any other
circumftances which might render the experiment un¬
certain.
“ i Hatter myfelf (fays M. Hauch), that the fimplicity
of the conftruction of this inftrument, the facility with
which it may be made at a very fmall expence, and the
certainty that two inftruments, prepared according to
the fame fcale, with a like quantity of coated glafs, muft
exaflly correfpond with each other •, but above all, that
the certainty and accuracy by which experiments may
be made with it, and by thefe means be accurately de-
feribed, are advantages which will not be found united
* Phil. in any of the electrometers hitherto invented.”*
Ma%ct*. We (hall clofe this account of electrometers with
vol iv. deferibing the conltruction and ufe of M, Coulomb’s
electrometer, or, as he calls it, EleRrical Balance.
Fig. n. AEI3C (fig. n.) reprefents a glafs cylinder, twelve
inches in diameter and the fame in height, covered by a
glafs plate fitted to it by a projecting fillet on the under
furface. This cover is pierced with two round holes
one inch and three-fourths in diameter. One of them
f is in the centre, and receives the lower end of the
glafs tube f h, of twenty-four inches height, which is
fixed in the hole with a cement made of fealing-wax,
or other electric fubftance. The top of this tube re-
Fig. i*. ceives the brafs collar H, (fig. 12. N° 3.) bored truly
cylindrical with a fmall Ihouldcr, which refts on the
top of the tube. This collar is fattened with cement,
and receives the hollow cylinder^ (fig. 12. N° 2.),
to which is joined the circular plate a b, divided on the
edge into 360 degrees. It is alfo pierced with a round
hole G in the centre, which receives the cylindrical
pin i (fig. 12. N° 1.) having a milled head b, and fur-
nifhed with an index i 0, whofe point is bent down fo
as to mark the divifions on the circle a b. This pin
turns ftifly in the hole G, and the cylinder (p moves
tteadily in the collar H. To the lower end of the cen¬
tre pin is fattened a little pincer, y, formed like the
end of a port-crayon, and tightened by the ring y, fo
as to hold faft the fufpenfion wire, the lower end of
Fig. 13- which is grafped bv a fimilar pincer, P 0 (fig. 13.)
tightened by the ring <p. The lower end <p 0 is cylin¬
drical, and is of fuch a weight, as to draw the wire
perfectly ftraight, but without any rilk of breaking it.
It may be made equal to half of the weight that will
jutt break it.
This pincer is enlarged at C, and pierced with a
hole, which tightly receives the arm C y of the elec¬
trometer. This arm is eight inches long ; and confifts
of a dry filk thread, or . a flender ttraw completely
dried, and dipped in melted lac or fine fealing-wax,
■and held perpendicularly before a clear fire, till it be¬
come a flender cylinder of about one-tenth of an inch
in diameter. This occupies fix of the eight inches,
from g to y; the remaining two inches confift of a fine
thread of the lac or fealing-wax, as it drains off in
fcrming the arm. At a, is a ball of pith or fine cork,,
one-fourth or one-half of an inch in diameter, made very Elec'trome
fmooth, and gilded. It is balanced by a vertical circle )cr-
of paper g, of large dimenfions, made ftiff with varnifh. v
The refiilance of the air to this plane foon checks the
ofeillations of the arm.
The whole inttrument is feenin its place in fig. 11.
where the arm hangs horizontally about the middle of
the height of the great cylinder. In its ofcillations
the ball a moves round in a circle, whofe centre is in
the axis of the whole inftrument. Its fttuation is indi¬
cated by a graduated circle 23 0 y, drawn on a flip of
paper, and made to adhere to the glafs by varnifti.
The electrified body whofe action is to be obferved, is
another fmall ball of cork t, alfo gilt, or a brafs ball
well poliftied. This is carried by a ftalk of lac m <p,
inclofing a dry filk thread. This ftalk is grafped by a
clamp of cleft deal, or any ftmilar contrivance, which
is made to lie firm on the glafs cover. When this ball
is let down through the hole m, it Hands fo as to touch
the ball a on the arm, when that ball is oppofite to o
on the graduated circle.
In order to ele£trify the ball t, we are to employ
the infulating handle, fig. 14. which is a flender flick Fig. 14.
of fealing-wax or lac, holding a metal wire that carries
a fmall polifhed metallic ball. This is to be touched
with fome electrified body, fuch as the prime conductor
of a machine, the knob of a jar, &c. This eleftrified
ball is to be introduced cautioufly into the hole tn, and
the ball t is to be touched with it. The ball a is im¬
mediately repelled to a diftance, twifting the fufpenfion
wire, till the force of twift exerted by the wire ba¬
lances the mutual repulfion of the balls t and a.
This is the procefs for examining the law of electric
action. When it is defired to examine the action of
different bodies in different ftates, another apparatus is
wanted. This is reprefented by the piece c A. d (fig.
15.) confifting of a plug of fealing-wax A, fitting
tightly into the hole m, and pierced by the wire c d, '
hooked at c, to receive a wire to conneft it occafionally
with an electrified body, and having below a poliftied
metal ball d.
The inftrument is fitted for obfervation in the follow¬
ing manner : The milled button b is turned at top, till
the twift index i 0 is at the mark o of the twift circle.
Then the whole -is turned in the collar H, till the ball
a ftand oppofite to the mark o of the paper circle 2; 0 (,),
and at the fame time the ball t or d h touched. The
obfervation is thus made. The ball t is firft eleftrified,
as juft deferibed, and thus a is repelled, and retiring
twills the wire, fettling, after a few ofcillations, at fuch
a diftance as is proportional to the repulfion. The twift-
index is now turned fo as to force a nearer to t. The
repulfion thus produced is eftimated by adding the mo¬
tion of the index to the angle at which the ball firft:
Hopped. Giving the index another, we have another
repulfion, which is eftimated in a fimilar way, and thus
we obtain as many meafures as required.
It is not neceffary to make this inftrument of very
large dimenfions; one 14 inches high, and five in dia¬
meter, of which the arm a g fhould occupy two inches
and a half, will be fufficiently large for moft purpofes.
The diameter of the glafs cylinder muft always be
double the length of the arm a g, that the pofition of
this may not be difturbed by the aftion of the glafs.
Dr Robifon confidered this eleftrometer as one of
the
/
E L E [8
Elcftromc-
ter.
the moil valuable inftruments that have been made, as
it it is not only extremely delicate, but gives abfolute
1 meafures with the greateft accuracy. For all purpofes
in which only repulhons were to be meafured, he prefer¬
red it to his own inftrument defcribed in Electricity,
N° 206.
He, however, fuggefted feveral improvements in it,
which are deferving of attention.
The bottom fhould be furnilhed with a round hole,
admitting the lower end of the cylinder C c belonging
to the lower pincer (when the wire is drained at both
ends) to hang freely, by which means much tedious ol-
cillaiion will be prevented. It is much more conveni¬
ent to have the fufpenfion wire drained at both ends j
and it diould extend as far below the arm as above it,
and the lower extremity ihould be grafped by a pincer
that turns by a milled head in a hole at the end of a
dender fpring. The indrument may then be fpcedily
adjuded by' placing the twid index at o, and gently
turning the lower button till the ball s point exactly at
o on the paper circle.
The indrument will be greatly improved, if, in place
of the apparatus with the ball /, we fubditute the piece
reprefented at fig. 15. making fome little changes in its
condruftion. Thus, indead of the wire c i/, is ufed
the fmalled glafs tube that will admit of being vamiihed
on the infide, which is done by drawing through it a
filk thread dipped in varnidi, made of lac.
The outfide of the tube mud alfo be varnidied, and
a brafs ball d fixed at its lower end, and a dender wire,
furmounted by a ball, is to be infertcd into the tube,
fo as to touch the ball below. The pofition of the ball
d will not be liable to alteration, when the hole m is
once dopped with the plug. In making delicate ex¬
periments, the upper ball c, mud be touched with the
charger, reprefented at fig. 14. by which means the ball
d is ele&rified. Then drawing out C by means of the
forceps, the ball d is left completely infulated. In ex¬
amining the cleftricity of the atmofphere, to which
purpofe this indrument is well adapted, the wire mud
be allowed to remain in the tube.
It was by means of this incomparable indrument,
that M. Coulomb made the valuable experiments, to
which we alluded to in the article Electricity, when
treating of the law of aftion of the electric fiuid. By
means of this electrometer, he alfo made his experi¬
ments on the didipation of eleftricity into the air, and
along imperfeft conductors. He afeertained the law of
didipation into the air from bodies in contafl, and the
relation which this bore to the original repulfion, by
fird obferving the gradual approach of the ball a to¬
wards /, in proportion as the electricity didipated from
both, and then dackening the twid index till the ball a
refumed its original fituatibn.
The following was the general refult of Mr Cou¬
lomb’s experiments.
That the momentary didipation of moderate degrees
a»f electricity is proportional to the degree of eleftricity
at the moment.' He found that the didipation is not
fen lib! y affetted by the date of the barometer or ther¬
mometer •, nor is there any fenfible difference of bodies
«f different fizes or different fubdances, or even differ¬
ent figures, provided that the electricity is very weak.
But lie found that the didipation was greatly affected
] E L E
by the different dates of humidity of the air. In the Elec'lrome.
fcale of Sauffure’s hygrometer, the relation to the quan- ^ .
tity of water which a cubic foot of air is capable of *
holding in dilution is didincdly marked j the relation
of this dilution to the didipation of eleclricity in Cou¬
lomb’s experiments may hence be feen in the following
table, the fird column of which marks the degrees of
Saudure’s hygrometer, the fecond how many grains of
water are dilfolved in a cubic foot of air at each degree,
and the third column {hews the correfponding didipation
per minute. .
69 6,197 tjV
75 7>295 tt
80 8,045 tV
87 9,221
Hence it follows, that the didipation is very nearly
in the triplicate ratio of the moidure of the air. Thus
if we make
* 6,180
8,045
make -£-£
6,180
9,24°|
5 m will 66=2,764. If we
m will- be = 2,76 ; and if we
„ , , m will be = 5,61 ; or at a me-
6,i8o| 7 0
dium m will be =r 3,40.
The immediate object, that M. Coulomb had in view
in his experiments, was to afeertain the diminution of
repulfion. He found that this, in a given date of the
air, was a certain proportion of the whole repulfion
taken at the moment of diminution, which is double
the proportion of the denfity of the fluid 5 for the re-
pulfions by which we judge of the didipation are reci¬
procal, being exerted by every particle of fiuid in the
ball t of the eleftrometer, on every particle of fluH in
the ball a. The diminution of repulfion is therefore
proportional to the denfity of the electric duid in each
ball; and, as during the whole didipation, the denfitics
continue to have their original proportion, and as the
diminution of repulfion is directly proportional to the
diminution of the products of the denfities, it is con-
fequently directly proportional to the Iquare of
either. If we put d for the denfity, the mutual
repulfion will be reprefented by d1, and its momen¬
tary diminution by the fiuxion oi d*, or i dd z=z 2 dxd.
But 2dxd : d1 — 2d \ d. The diminution of repul¬
fion obferved by experiment will be to the whole re¬
pulfion, in double the proportion that the diminution of
denfity, or the didipation of fiuid will have to the
whole quantity of duid at the moment of obfervation.
Let us, for inftance, fuppofe the obferved diminution of
repulfion to be ^ •, we may conclude, that the quanti¬
ty of fiuid loft by didipation is -g^-. M. Coulomb did
not examine the proportion of the difiipations from bo¬
dies of various fizes. But we know, that if two fpheres
communicate by a very long canal, their fuperficial
denfities, and the tendencies of fiuid to efcape from
them, are inverfely as the diameters of the fpheres.
Now, in a body that has twice the diameter of another
body, the furface of the former is quadruple of that of
the latter ; and though the tendency of fluid to efcape
from the former is only the half of its tendency to ef¬
cape from the latter, yet the greater furface of the
former may fo far make up for its fmallcr denfity, that
the
E L E [
Ek drome- the diiTipation of fluid from a large fphere may in fa cl
t tC1' be greater tiian that from a fmall one in the lame given
^ time.
We have remarked above, that thefe experiments
were made in a particular date of the air; and the law
of diiTipation aicertaihed by them is of oourfe adapted
only to that given date. In a different date of the air,
even if this diould be impregnated with the fame pro¬
portion of moidure, the law of diidpation may be dif¬
ferent. The inference which M. Coulomb expected to
draw from his experiments was, that the ratio of diiTi¬
pation would prove to be Ids than the cube of lire
quantity of water held in folulion, except when that
quantity of water was what the air was capable of
holding in folution at the given temperature.
This is agreeable to obfervation 5 for we know that
air which is confldered as dry, that is, when it is not
nearly faturated with moidure, is the mod favourable to
eleflrieal phenomena.
Such is the general refult of Coulomb’s experiments
on the diiTipation of eleftricity into the air.
A he method in which M. Coulomb examined the
diflipation along imperfect conductors, by means of this
indrument, was, by completely inddating the ball /,
and then after obferving the lofs fudained by a body in
contact with it from the air, hiding a metallic rod
down the infulating dalk, till the diflipation began to
exceed what took place only by the air.
From his experiments refpefting the diflipation along
imperfect conductors, he found that this took place in a
different manner from that in which eledricily efcaped
by communication with the contiguous air. The elec¬
tricity feems to be diffufed chiefly along the furface of
the infulator, and appears principally to be produced
by the moiflurc that is more or lefs attached to it; M.
Coulomb illuftrates this in the following manner.
Water is found to adhere to the furface of all bodies
from which it is prevented by adheflon from efcaping
when the bodies are eleftrified, and is thus rendered
capable of receiving a greater degree of ele&ric power.
Let us fuppofe that the particles of moifture are difpofed
uniformly over the furface, with intervals between them;
the electricity that is communicated to one particle,
muft: acquire a certain degree of denfity, before it can
fly from this particle to the next, acrofs the intervening
infulating fpace. When an imperfeCt conductor of this
kind is eleCtrifled at one extremity, the communicated
eleCtricity, in pafling to the other extremity, mult be
weakened every ftep in pafling from particle to particle.
Suppofe we have three adjacent particles, which we
may call a, b, and c ; we infer from N° 374. of the ar¬
ticle Elixtricty, that the motion of b is fenflbly effect¬
ed, only by the difference of a and c; and therefore
the paffage of eleCtric fluid from b to c, requires that
this difference be fuperior, or at leaft equal to the force
neceffary for clearing this coercive interval. Let a par¬
ticle pafs over. The denfity of fluid of the particle b is
diminifhed, while the denfity of the particle on the
other fide of a remains as before. Therefore feme
fluid will pafs from a to />, and from the particle pre¬
ceding a to n ; and fo on, till we come to the electri¬
fied end of this infulator. It is plain, from this con-
fideration, that we muff at lafl: arrive at a particle be¬
yond e, where the Avhole repulfion of the precedinp-
Vol. VIII. Part I. . 6
9 1 E I. E
particle is juft Tifhcient to clear the coercive interval. Elsft
borne fluid will come over 5 and the repulfion of this,
acting now in the oppolite direction, will prevent any
fluid from coming to fupply its place in the particle,
which it has juft quitted •, the transference of fluid will
therefore flop here, and beyond this point the iniukition
will be complete. Hence we perceive that there is a
mathematical relation between the infulating power, and
the length of the canal 5 and this may be aicertained by
tiie theory which we adopted in the article Electri¬
city. We ihall here give an inltance of this invefli-
gation 5 and, for the fake of fimplicity, we Ihall take a
very probable cafe, viz. where the infulating interval,
or, as we may more properly call it, the coercive inter¬
val, is equal in every part of the canal.
Let R reprefent the coercive power of the infulator,
or the degree of force required to clear the coercive
interval between two particles. Suppofe a ball C, fig.
16. fufpended by a filken thread AB ; and let us de-
note the quantity of redundant fluid in the ball by C,
and let the denfities at the different points of the canal
be denoted by AH, P &c. ordinates to lome curve
1) d B, cutting the axis in B, the point where the thread
A B begins to infulate completely. Let Pp be an element
of the axis; draw the ordinate p f a tangent to the
curve dfY, the normal r/E, and draw f e perpendicu¬
lar to Pi/. Suppofe AC—r, AP—v, and P</—y.
Then we fiiall have Pprr.v, and dc~ —y It was
fliewn in N°(374. of the article Electricity, that the
only fen Able action of the fluid on a particle at P is 
x'
when the action of the redundant fluid in the globe on
the particle at P, having the denfity y, is denoted by
7 | TI* T herefore — is —R, the coercive power of
(y-j-xj x r
the thread, which is fuppofed to be conftant, ———5
Pp
is therefore equal to feme conftant line R. But Pp
(or f e) : d e ■= Y d : PE. The fubnormal PE, is
therefore a conftant line. But as this is the property
of a parabola, the curve of denfity H d B muft be a
parabola, of which 2PE = 2R, is the parameter.
Cor. 1.—The denfities at different points of an im-
perfeeft infulator are in the fubduplicate ratio of their
diftances from the point of complete infulation: for
P d* : ADHrBP : BA.
Cor. 2.—The lengths of canal requifite for infulating
different denfities of the electric fluid are in the dupli-
yV J)* , *
cate ratio of their denfities: for AB=: —t--. ■■■, and PE
2PE’
Cor. 3.—The length of canal requifite for infulation
is inverfely as its coercive power, and may be repre-
- ., H* T, ^ DA* T>1
fentedby —. For AB
2PE'
B*
2R*
If we refleft on this theory, we fliall perceive, that
our formulae determine the diftribution of fluid along
the furface of an imperfect conductor, only in a cei>
tain manner, fuppofmg that the ball C has received a
certain determinate portion of fluid, for this portion dif-
fufing itfelf, particle by particle, through the conduc¬
ing matter, will extend to b in fuch a manner, as that
21 the
E L E [ i
the repulfioTi {hall be everywhere in equilibrio with the
coercive power of the infulating interval, taken at a
maximum. We mult here remark that this refxitance is
not aclive, but only coercive, and may be compared to
the refiftance atforded by vilcidity or friction. Any
repulfion of electric fluid, which falls Ihort of this,
will not difturb the {lability of the fluid that is fpread
along the canal, according to any law whatever. So
that if AD reprefent the electric deniity of the globe,
and remain conftant, any curve of denflty will aniwer,
d'd
provided that — be everywhere lefs than R. It is there-
x
fore an indeterminate problem, to afilgn in general the
difpofition of fluid in the canal. The deniity is as the
ordinates of a parabola on this fuppofltion only, that the
maximum of R is everywhere the fame. And, in this
cafe, the diitance AE is a minimum : for, in other
cafes of denfity we mull have — lefs than R. If, there-
x
fore, we vary a Angle element of the curve I) dB, in or¬
der that the liability of the fluid may not be dillurbed,
having d conilant, we mull necefiarily have x larger,
that may ftill be lefs than R } that is, we mult
x
lengthen the axis.
The reafonings which b?^/e thus been deduced from
theory, were confirmed by M. Coulomb in a numerous
fet of experiments. Thefe are chiefly valuable for ha¬
ving Hated the relation that fubfills between the electric
denfity, and the length of fupport necefiary for com-
qdete infulation. But as M. Coulomb has not given
us the fcale of his electrometer, according to which
the abfolute meafures of the denfities were determined,
the experiments can be of but little ufe till this be
known.
We hinted, at the end of the theoretical part of
Electricity, that the theory of Volta’s condenftr
might be more fatisfadiorily explained after we had
confidered the above experiments of Coulomb. The
account which we gave of the condenfer in Chap. xiii.
of that article, (chiefly from Cavallo), was the only one
we could properly give in that early part of our view of
the fcience. We are now prepared for a more fcientific
account of the effects of that inllrurnent. The follow¬
ing is nearly the manner in which Dr Robifon confider¬
ed the fubjedl.
Let the cover of an eledlrophorus be furnished with
a graduated electrometer, fuels as may indicate the pro¬
portional degrees of elcftricity ; electrify it pofitively to
any degree, we lhall fuppofe fix, while it is held in the
hand, at a little dillance, dire61 ly over a metallic plate
lying on a wine glafs, or fuels like infulating Hand,
but made to communicate with the ground by a wire.
Nov/ bring it gradually down towards the plate. The¬
ory teaches, and we fee it confirmed by experiment,
that the electrometer will gradually fubfide, and will
perhaps fall to 2°, before the electricity is communicated
in a fpark : but let us Hop it before this happens ; the
attraction of the lying plate produces a compenfation of
four degrees of the mutual repulfion of the parts of the
cover, by condcnfing the fluid on its inferior furface, and
forming a deficient ffratum above. This needs no farther
explanation, after what we faid under Electricity, on
]
E L E
the charging of coated glafs plates. Now we may fuppofe Eledtrome-
that the eicape of the fluid from this body into the air, tcr-
begins as loon as it is electrified to 6°, and that,it will V“""
fiy to the infulated plate w ith the degree 2, if it be
brought nearer. But if we can prevent this commu¬
nication to the iilfulated plate, by interpofing an elec¬
tric, we may clebtrify the cover again, while fo near
the metallic plate, to 6°, before it will pals off into
the air. If now it be removed from the lying plate,
the fluid would caufe she electrometer to rife to io°, if
it did not immediately pal's off; and an eleblric exciter
ment of any kind which could raife this body only to
6° by its intenfity, will, by means of this apparatus,
raife it to the degree io, if it be fufficicntly copious in'
extent. If w e do the fame thing when the wire which
connects the lying plate with the ground is taken away,
we know that the fame diminution of the eleftricity of
the other plate cannot be produced by bringing it down
near the lying infulated plate.
The theory of Volta’s condenfer now becomes very
fimple. M. Volta feems to have obfeured his con¬
ceptions of it, by being intent on she eleclrophorus
which he had lately invented, and was thus led into
fruitlefs attempts to explain the advantages of the im-
perfedt condubtor above the perfect ixxlulator. But the
condenfing apparatus is wholly different from an elec-
trophorus j its operations are more analogous to thofe
of a coated plate not charged, and inlulated ossly on
one fide 5 and fuels a coated plate lying on a table will
be a complete condessfer, if the upper coating be of the
fame dimenisons as the plate of the condenfer. All
the directions given by M. Volta for preparing the
imperfect condix61ors prove, that the effebt produced
is to snake them as perfebl condubtors as poffxble for
any degree of eleblricity that exceeds a certain fmall
intenfity, but fuch as lhall not fuffer this very weak e-
leblricity to clear the firff ftep of the condubting fpaee.
The marble muff be thoroughly dried, and even heat¬
ed in-an oven, and either ufed in this warm Hate, or
mull be varnilhed, fo as to prevent the reabforption of
moiffure. We kisowr that marble of flender dimenfions,
fo as to be completely dried throughout, will not con-
dubt eleblricity till it has-again become moift. A thick
piece of marble is rendered dry only fuperficially, and
Hill condubls internally. It is then in the bell poffible
Hate for a condenfer. The fame is the cafe with dry
unbaked wood. Varniflsing the upper furface of a
piece of marble or wood is equivalent to covering it
svith a thin glafs plate. Now by this method of cover¬
ing the top of the marble, a book, or even the table,
with a piece of clean dry fflk, they all become moff
perfebl condenfators. This view of the matter has
great advantage. We learn from it how to forsss a
condenfing apparatus much more fimple and at the
fame tisne much more efficacious. We require only
the fimple moveable plate, which muff be covered on
the under fide vdth a very thin coating of the fineff coach-
paissters varnilh. By connebting this, by a ware, with
the fubffance vhofe wreak eleblrscity is to be examined,
this eleblricity will be raifed in the proportion of the
thieknefs of the varnilh to the fourth of the plate’s dia¬
meter. This condenfation will be produced by detach¬
ing the wire from the infulating handle of the condenfing
plate, and then lifting this from the table on w hich it was
lying. It will then afford fparks, though the original
eleblricity
I
IV. ArcA ifia/d Jtu/p '
'
*'
E L E [
ilroroc- electricity was not Urong enough to afFecl the moft de-
t''r licate electrometer.
q|its ELECTROPHOgUS. S?e Electricity
- - ELECTRUM, in Natural Hiftory. bee Amber.
ELECTUARY, in Pharmacia a form of medicine
compofed of powders and other ingredients, incorpo¬
rated with fume conferee, honey, or fyrup \ to be di¬
vided into dofes, like bolides, when taken.
Voilius obferves, that all the remedies preferibed for
the nek, as well as the confections taken by way of
regale, were called by the Greeks, ix.x^yu.x.ru, and
iKteucrx, or the verb a£(^s», ” I like j” whence, lays he,
was formed the Latin eleStarium, and afterwards elec-
luanum. This conjecture he funports from the laws of
Sicily, where it is ordained/ that electuaries, fyrups,
and other remedies, be prepared after the legal manner.
T he Bollandifts, who relate this etymology, feem to
confirm it. For the compofition and different forts of
electuaries, fi e Pharmacy.
ELEEMOSYNA Carucarum, or pro Aratris, or
Aratn, in our ancient cuftoms, a penny which King E-
thelred ordered to be paid for every plough in Eng¬
land towards the fupport of the poor Sometimes it
is alfo called eleemofuna regis, beeaufe firft appointed by
the kine.
ELEEMOSYNARIUS, in our old writers, is
ufied,for the almoner or peculiar officer who received
the eleemofynary rents and gifts, and diftributed them
to pious and charitable ufes. There was fuch an offi¬
cer in gill religious houfes. The biffiops alfo ufed to
have their almoners, as now the king has.
ELEGANCE, (from e/igo, “ I choofe,”) denotes a
manner of doing or faying things politely, agreeably,
and with choice. With choice, fo as to rife above the
common manners ; politely, fo as to ftrike people of de¬
licate tafte j and agreeably, fo as to diffuie a reliih
which gratifies every body.
Elkganck, in oratory and compofition, an ornament
of politenefs and agreeablenefs fhown in any difeourfe,
with fuch a choice of rich and happy expreffions, as to
rife politely above the common manners, fo as to ftrike
people of a delicate tafte.
It is obferved, that elegance, though irregular, is
preferable to regularity without elegance : that is, by
being fo fcrupulous of grammatical conftrubtion, we
lofe certain licences wherein the elegance of language
- confifts.
ELEGI \C, in ancient poetry, aruy thing belong¬
ing to elegy. See Elegy.
ELEGIT, in Law, a writ of execution, which lies
for a perfon who has recovered debt or damages ; or
upon a recognizance in any court againft a defendant
that is not able to fatisfy the fame in his goods.
ELEGY, a mournful and plaintive kind of- poem.
See the article Poetry.
ELEMENT'S, in PJiyJtcs, the firft principles of
which all bodies in the fyftem of nature are com¬
pofed.
Thefe are fuppofed to be few in number, unchange¬
able, and by their combinations to produce that ex
tenfive variety oft objects to be met with in the works
of nature.
That there is in reality fome foundation for this doc¬
trine of elementary bodies is plain ; for there are fome
principles evidently exempted from every change or
•i ] E L E
decay, and which can be mixed or changed into different Elements,
ioims or matter. A perfon who furveys the works ol'—
nature in an inattentive manner, may perhaps form a
contrary opinion, when he coniiders ike numerous
triues ox foffils, plants, and animals, with the wonder¬
ful variety that appears among them in almoit every
i utanee. He may from thence be induced to con¬
clude, that nature employs a vail variety of materials
in producing fuch prodigious diveriily. But lei him
inquire into the origin of this apparent divinity, and he *
will find that thefe bodies which feem the molt dilierent
Tom each other are compofed nearly of ibe fame ele .
ments. T hus the blood, chyle, milk, urine, &c. as well
as the various folid parts of animals, are all eoixipoied of
one particular fubitance 5 graft, for inftance, by the
affiftance of air and water, and even iometimes of very
infipid kinds of graft. The fame fimplicity prefents
itfelf in the original compofition of the nouriihment
of vegetables, notwithstanding the variety' among them
with reipect to hardnefs, foftnefs, elaificity, tafte,
odour, and medical qualities. They chiefty depend,
for tbefe, upon water and the light of the fun 5 and
the fame fimplicity muft take place in animals that
are fed on vegetables. The analyfis of animal fub-
itances confirms this hypothefis ; for they can all be re¬
duced into a few principles, which are the fame in all,
and only differ with regard to the proportions in which
they are combined. With regard to animals, the cafe
appears to be the fame: and the more we are acquainted
with them, the more reafon we have to believe that th«
variety in their origin is very fmall.
Notwithftanding the infinite variety of natural pro-
duefions, therefore, it appears, that the materials em¬
ployed in their formation are but few; that thefe
are uniformly and certainly the fame, totally exempted
from any change or decay 5 and that the conflant and
gradual change of one body into another is produced
by the various reparations and combinations of the
original and elementary parts, which is plain from the
regularity and uniformity of nature at ail times. There
is a change of forms and combinations through which
it paffes, and this has been the cafe from the eariiefi:
accounts of time *, the productions of nature have al¬
ways been of the fame kind, and fucceeded one an¬
other in the fame order. If we examine an oak, for
i ilance, we find it compofed of the fame matter with
that of any other that has exifted from the earlieft ages.
1 his regularity and uniformity in the courfe of nature
fliows that the elementary parts of bodies are perma¬
nent and unchangeable 5 for if thefe elementary parti¬
cles which eonftituted an oak fome thoufand years
ago, had been undergoing any gradual decay, the
oaks of the prefent times would have been found con-
fiderably different from thofe that exifted long ago ;
but as no difference has been obferved, it would feem
that the ultimate elements of bodies have always con¬
tinued the fame.
Reflections of this kind have fuggefted an idea of
feveral principal elements of which all other bodies
are compofed, which by their various combinations
furniihed all the variety of natural bodies. Democri¬
tus, and other great philofophers of antiquity, fixed
the number to four, which have retained the name of
elements ever fince. I ht fe are, fire, air, earth, and
water; each of which they imagined was naturally
B 2 v difpofed
E L E [i
dlipofed to hold its own place in the univerfe. Thus,
the earlh, as heavielt, naturally tended towards the
centre, and occupied the lower parts $ the water, as
approaching next to it in gravity, was fpread chiefly
on the outfide of the earth : the air, being more lubtile
and rare, occupied the middle place 5 while the fire, be¬
ing ftili more fubtile and active, receded to the great-
elf alliance of all, and wras fuppofed to compoi’c the
planets and liars. This fyltem was extended to all the
productions of nature. Meteors were produced from
a combination of fire and ah*; animals were ednfidered
as compofed of earth and water ; and thofe that were
warm had like wife a proportion of the element of fire.
Thus they went on, explaining feme of the molt link¬
ing qualities of the feveral productions of nature from
the different proportions of the four elements they con¬
tained.
But though this fyltem appears not at all deftitute of
beauty and propriety, and on this account has been
long received, we know from modern difeoveries that,
thei’e four fubtiances are not really elementary bodies;
nor do they anfwer our purpofe in forming a fyitem, as
we know too little of the intimate urubture and texture
of them to enable us to explain other bodies by them.
Any other attempts that have been made to aflign
the number of elementary bodies have been much lefs
fortunate. The older ehemilts, with Paracelfus at their
head, pretend to fpeak of four elementary bodies, fait,
fulphur, earth, and mercury : but when we attempt to
form an idea of what they mean, we find it very per¬
plexed } and that the expreffions concerning them are
enveloped in fo much obfeurity, that they cannot be
comprehended } and the theory is built entirely upon
experiments made on metallic fubltances.
Attempts have been made by fome to fhow that
the elements, Avhatever they are, mull neceffarily be
invifible or imperceptible by any of our fenfes. An
inquiry into their number or properties therefore mult
be attended with very little fuccefs ; and all the know¬
ledge we can have upon the fubjeft mull be drawn from
a view of their combinations, and reafoning analogically
from the tranfmutations we obferve to take place in
nature. The modern dlfqoveries in aerology have ena¬
bled us to proceed farther in this way than what it was
poflible for the ancient philofophers to do. We now
find that all the different kinds of air are compofed of
that invifible and fubtile fluid named heat, united in a
certain way with fome other fublfance : by which union
the compound acquires the properties of gravitation,
expanfion, rarefaction, &c. for pure heat, unlefs when
united with fome terreftrial fubltance, neither gravi¬
tates nor expands. This is evident from the phenome¬
na of the burning glafs, where the light concentrated
in the focus will neither heat the air nor water, unlefs
it meets with fomething with which it can form a per¬
manent union. Heat therefore is jultly to be confi-
dered as one of the original elements •, being always ca¬
pable of uniting with bodies, and of being extricated
Irom them unchanged \ while the fame bodies are by
their union with it changed into various forms j water,
for inftance, into ice or vapour, both of which return in¬
to their original ftate by the abftraciion or addition of
heat in a certain degree. Hence it becomes almofl na¬
tural to conclude, that there are only two elements in
the univerfe; and this opinion we find adopted by fe-
2 ] e L E
veral philofophers, particularly the count de Trefian in Elcm
his Efiay on the Eledric Fluid. According to his 1 ' v
dodrine, two primitive material fubftances feem to cxilt
in nature *, one that inceffantly ads, and to which it
is elfential to be in motion } the other abfolutely paf-
five, and whofe nature it is to be inert, and move en¬
tirely as direded by the former. Should this dodrine
be adopted, little difficulty would occur in determining
the adive matter to be that univerfal fluid, which, in its
various modifications of light, heat, and eledricity,
has fuch a {hare in the operations of nature. But in
fixing on the paflive element we are greatly embar-
raffed •, nor are the difeoveries in aerology or any other
feienee as yet able to remove the difficulty entirely.
According to the dodrines which long prevailed among
chemical philofophers, there are three things that feem
to be unchangeable, via. earth } phlogifton 5 and that
invifible, though terreftrial and gravitating principle,
called by the antiphlogiftians the oxygenous or acidify¬
ing principle, and by the phlogiftians the bafts of dc-
phlogifticated air. In our experiments, fay they,
on the firft, we find that earth, though vitrified by
the moft intenfe fire, may be recovered in its proper
form : and fome very pure earths, particularly niag-
r.efia alba, cannot be changed even in the focus of
the moft powerful mirror. In like manner we may
diffipate charcoal in vacuo by the lolar rays, and
the ^compound is inflammable air : we may decompoie
this compound by a metallic calx, and we have our
charcoal again unchanged, for all metals contain char¬
coal in fubftanee. Let us try to deftroy it by common
fire, and we have it then in the fixed air produced,
from which it may be recovered unchanged by means
of the eledlrie fpark. V; il h the bafis of dephlogiftica-
ted air the cafe is ftill more difficult; for we cannot
by any means procure a fight of it by itfelf. We may
combine it with heat, and eve have dephlogiilicated air}
to the compound we may add charcoal, and we have
fixed air : by decompofing the former by burning iron
in it, we have the metal greatly increafed in weight by
fome unknown fubftanpe : and if we attempt to feparate
the latter, we have water, or fome kind of vapour which
ftill conceals it from our view.
In fome experiments which were made by the in¬
genious Mr Watt, it was found that nitrous acid
might be phlogifticated by the pureft earth or me¬
tallic calx •, whence, according to this doctrine, it
is not unreafonable to fuppofe that phlogifton may be
only a certain modification of earth, and not an element
diftinft from it : but with regard to the bafis of de-
phlogifticated air, no experiment has ever ffiown that
it can either be procured by itfelf, or changed into
any other fubftance 5 fo that it appears to have the na¬
ture of an element as much as light or heat. Though
we ffiould therefore be inclined to divide the whole
matter of the univerfe into two claffes, the one aftive
and the other a61ed upon, we muft allow that the paf-
five matter even on this earlh is not precifely of the
fame kind : much lefs are we to extend our fpecula-
tions in this refpefl to the celeftial regions ; for who
can determine whether the fubftance of the moon is
the fame with that of our earth, or that the elements
of Jupiter are the fame with thofe of Saturn ? There
is even a difficulty with regard to the divifion which.
feems fo well eftabliftied, viz. of mattef in general into
afliv^
E L E [i
Element active and pa Have j for no perfon can prove, that the
r, II ^ nutter which is active in one cafe may not be paffive
' in another, and occafionally refume its activity. Some¬
thing like this certainly happens in the cafe of the
electric Raid, which is modified into heat or light, ac¬
cording to different circumflances •, and we cannot
know but it is the very fame fubftance that conftitutes
the moft folid bodies. This, opinion at leait did not
feem abfurd to Sir Ifaac Newton, who propofed it as
a query, Whether grofs bodies and light were not con¬
vertible into one another ? The end of our inquiries on
this fubjed therefore mult be, That the univerfe may
be compofed of many elements, or of one element; and
of the nature of thefe elements, or of the fmgle one, we
know nothing.
E EE WENT, in a figurative fenfe, is ufed for the prin¬
ciples and foundations of any art or fciencej as Euclid’s
Elements, &c.
Elements, in Agronomyy are thofe principles, de¬
duced from aftronomical observations and calculations,
and thofe fundamental numbers which are employed in
the conftruction of tables of the planetary motions.
Thus, the elements of the theory of she fun, or ra¬
ther of the earth, are his mean motion and eccentricity,
and the motion of the aphelia. The elements of the
theory, of the moon are its mean motion 5 that of its
node and apogee, its eccentricity, the inclination of its
orbit to the plane of the ecliptic, &c.
ELEMI, or Elemy, in the Materia Medica. See
Amyris.
ELENCHU3, in antiquity, a kind of ear-rings fet
with large pearls.
Elenchus, in Logic, by the Eatins called argumen-
tuni' and inqiufitio, ss a vicious or fallacious argument,
which deceives under the appearance of a truth } the
fame with what is otherwife called fophifm.
ELEPHANT. See Elephas, Mammalta Index.
American ELEPHANT: An animal only known in a
folTii date, and that but partially, from the teeth, fome
of the jaw-bones, the thigh-bones, and vertebras, found
with many others five or fix feet beneath the farface on
the banks of the Ohio. But thefe bones differ in fe-
veral refpefls from thofe of the elephant; for which
fee Pqji/ BONES. As yet the living animal has eva¬
ded our fearch. Mr Pennant thinks it “ more than
probable, that it dill exiffs in lome of thofe remote parts
of the vail new continent unpenetrated yet by Europeans.
Providence maintains and continues every created fpecies;
arid we have as much affurance that no race of animals
will any more ceafe while the earth remains, than feed-
tune and harveff, cold and heat, Jiimmer and winter,
day or night. See Mammoth.
ELEPUANT-Beetle. See Scarabteus, Entomolo-
G Y Index.
Knights of the ELEPHANT, an order of knighthood
in Denmark, conferred upon none but perfons of lhe firfl
quality and merit. _ It is alfo called the order of St Mary.
Its inffitution is faid to have been owing to a gentleman
among the. Danifli croifes having killed an elephant, in ,
an expedition againft the Saracens, in 1184 j in memory
of which, King Canutus inftituted this order, the badge
of which is a towered elephant, with an image of the
holy virgin encircled with rays, and hung on a watered
fey-coloured ribbon, like the george in England.
ELEI KAN i A, a fniall, but very remarkable
6
3 1 E L E
iiland, about five miles from the caftle of Bombay in Elephants,
the Eait Indies. Of this we have the following de- v '
feription in Mr Grofe’s Voyage to the Eaft Indies.
“ It can at moft be but about three miles in compafs,
and confifts of almoft all hill; at the foot of which, as
you land, you fee, juft above the fhore, on your right,
an elephant, coarfely cut out in ftone, of the natural
bignefs, and at fome little diftance not impoflible to be
taken for a real elephant, from the ftone being natu¬
rally of the colour of that beaft. It Hands'on a plat¬
form of Hones of the fame colour. On the back of
this elephant was placed, Handing, another young one,
appearing to have been all of the fame ftone, but has
been long broken down. Of the meaning, or hiftory,
of this image, there is no tradition old enough to give
any account. Returning then to the foot of the hill,
you afeend an eafy ilant, which about half way up the
hill brings you to the opening or portal of a large ca¬
vern hewn out of a folid rock into a magnificent
temple : for fuch furely it may be termed, confidering
the immenfe workmanfhip of fuch an excavation ; and
feems to me a far more bold attempt than that of the
pyramids of Egypt. There is a fair entrance into this
fuoterraneous temple, which is an oblong fquare, in
length about 80 or 90 feet, by 40 broad? The- roof
is nothing but the rock cut Hat at top, and in which
I could not difeern any thing that did not Ihow it to
be all of one piece. It is about ten feet high, and fup-
ported towards the middle, at equidiftance from the
iides and from one another, with two regular row's of
pillars of a lingular order. They are very maffive,
fhort in proportion to their thieknefs, and their capi¬
tal bears fome refemblance to a round cufhion prefied
by the fuperineumbent mountain, with which they are
alfo of one piece. At the further end of this temple.
are three gigantic figures 5 the face of one of them is
at leaft five feet in length, and of a proportionable
breadth. But thefe reprefentatipns have no reference
or connexion either to any known hiftory or the
mythology of the Gentoos. They had continued in
a tolerable Hate of prefervation and wholenefs, confi¬
dering the remotenefs of their antiquity, until the. ar¬
rival of the Portuguefe, who made themfelves mafters
of the place 5 and in the blind fury of their bigotry,
not fuffering any idols but their own, they muff have
even been at fome pains to maim and deface them, as
they now remain, confidering the hardnefs of the ftone.
It is faid they even brought field-pieces to the demoli¬
tion of images, which fo greatly deferved to be fpared
for the unequalled curiofity of them. Of this Oueen
Catherine of Portugal was, it feems, fo feniible, that
fhe could not conceive that any traveller v'ould return
from that fide of India without vifiting the w'onders
of this cavern j of which too the fight appeared to me
to exceed all. the deferiptions I had heard of them.
About tvvo-tiurds of the way up this temple, on each
fide,, and fronting each other, are tw'o doors or out¬
lets into 1 mailer grots or excavations, and freely open
to the air. Near and aoout the door-way, on the
right hand, are feveral mutilated images, fingle and in
groups. In one of the laft, I remarked a.kind of re-
lemblance to the ftory of Solomon dividing the child,
there Handing a figure with a drawn fword, holding in
one hand an infant with the head downwards, which
it appears in ,att to cleave through the middle. The.
©utlet
Eleve
E L E [i
Elephanta oUclet of the other on the left hand is into an area of
about 20 feet in length and i 2 in breadth ; at the up-
j per end of which, as you turn to the right, prefents it-
felf a colonnade covered at top, of -io or 12 feet deep,
and in length anfwering to the breadth of the area :
this joins to an apartment of the moft regular architec¬
ture, an oblong fquare, with a door in perfect fymme-
try j and the whole executed in quite a contrary tafte
and manner from any of the oldeft or beft Gcntoo build¬
ings anywhere extant. I took particular notice of
feme paintings round the cornices, not for any thing
curious in the dengn, but for the beauty and frefhnefs
of the colouring, which mull have lafted fome thou-
fands of years, on fuppoiing it, as there is all realon to
fuppofe it, cotemporary with the building itfelf. The
door of the apartment is generally full of water, its
pavement or ground-work not permitting it to be
drawn off or to be foaked up. For it is to be obfer-
ved, that even the cavern itfelf is not viii table after the
rains until the ground of it has had time to dry into a
competent hardnefs.”
ELEPHANT! A.SIS, called alfo the Zqora of the
Arabians, in Medicine, a chronical difeafe, one of the
two fpecies of leprofy which affects the whole body,
where even the bones as well as the fkin are covered
with fpots and tumours, which being red, at laft turn
black. See Medicine Index.
ELEPHANTINE, or Elephantis, in Ancient
Geography, an ifland in the Nile to the fouth of Syenej
with a cognominal town, where the navigation on the
Nile ends, becaufe juft below the lefs catarafl. And
here to the weft of the Nile flood the laft Roman gar-
rifon (Notitia Imperii).
Elephantine, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given to the books wherein were regiftered the tranf-
a cl ions of the fenate and magiftrates of Rome, of the
emperors or generals of armies, and even of the provin¬
cial magiftrates 5 the births and claffes of the people
and other things relating to the cenfus.
They are fuppofed to have been fo called, as being
made of leaves of ivory or elephants tulks.
ELEPHANTOMACHI. See Ethiopia.
ELEPH ANTOPUS, a genus of plants belonging
to the fyngenefta clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49'ih order, Compofitce. See Botany
Index.
ELEPHAS, the Elephant, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of bruta. See Mammalia
Index.
ELEVATION, the fame with Altitude or
height.
ELEVATION of the Hof, in the church of Rome, that
part of the mafs where the prieft raifes the hoft above
lus head for the people to adore.
ELEVATOR, in Anatomy, the name of feveral
mufcles, fo called from their ferving to raife the parts of
the body to which they belong.
ELEVATORY, in Surgery, an inftrument for rai¬
ling depreffed or fraftured parts of the Ikull, to be ap¬
plied after the integuments and periofteum are removed.
See Surgery.
ELEVE, a term purely French, though of late ufed
alfo in our language. Literally it fignifies a difciple or
fcholar bred up under any one, being formed from the
Italian aliievo, an “ apprentice” or “ novice.”
4 ] E L E
It was firft ufed by the French writers in Leaking Ek-vs
of painters j fuch a painter was an eleve of Da Vinci, , li
of Raphael, &c. From painting it came to be applied ,'
to fuch as ftudied or learned any other art under a ma¬
iler. In the Royal Academy oi Sciences, there were
20 eleves 5 and in that of inferiptions, 10 eleves. The
eleves are to aid in concert with the penhonaries. See
Academy.
The denomination e/cve, however, has been fince
fuppreiied, and that of adjoint mbftiiuted in its room j,
beeauie eveiy' body did not know the lenle attixtd to
it by the academy : and now the penfionary academifts
have not, as formerly, each of them an deve ; but the
eleves are become adjoints, or aflbeiates of the acade¬
my.
ELEVENTH, or chord of the eleventh. See In¬
terval.
ELEUSINIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival kept
in honour of Ceres, every fourth year by fome ft ales,
but by others every fifth. The Athenians celebrated
it at Eleuiis, a town of Attica : whence the name.
Ceres, fays an Athenian orator (Ifocrates), wan¬
dering in queft of her daughter Proferpine, came into
Attica, where fome good offices were done her, which
it is unlawful for thole who are not initiated to hear.
In return Ihe conferred two unparalleled benefits ; to
wit, the knowledge of agriculture, by which the hu¬
man race is raifed above the brute crealion 5 and the-
myfteries, from which the partakers derive fweeter
hopes than other men enjoy, bolh as to the prefent life
and to eternity. It was the popular opinion, that
the Eleufiman goddefles liiggefted prudent eounfel to
their votaries, and influenced their conduft ; that
thefe were relpefted m the infernal regions, and had
precedence in the affemblies of the bleffed •, while the
unhallowed were in utter darknefs, wallowing in mire,
or labouring to fill a leaky veffel. The Athenians
were folieitous to fecure thefe advantages to their
children, by having them initiated as foon as was al¬
lowed.
Ceres was fuppofed to be particularly partial to Eleu-
fis and its vicinity. There were the memorials of her
prefence and of her bounty ; the well named Callicho-
rus, by which the had refted, in the reign of Erec-
theus 5 the ftone on which ihe fat, named the forrow-
ful; the Rharian plain, where barley was firft fown j
and the threftiing-tloor and altar of Triptolemus, a
herdfman whom Ihe initructed in the culture of that
grain, the ufe of which fucceeded to acorns. Tier
myfteries continued to poffefs a pre-eminence in holi-
nefs, and to be accounted as much fuperior to all other
religious feftivals as the gods were to the heroes. Even
the garments worn at the folemnity were fuppofed to
partake of their efficacy, and to be endued with fignal
virtues. It was ufual to retain them until they were
periihing} and then to dedicate them in the temple,
or to referve them for the purpofe of enwrapping newr-
born children.
The myftic temple, as it ivas called, provided by
Pericles for the folemnity, created fuch a we by its
fanclily as could be equalled only by the effccl of its
beauty and magnitude, which excited aftonilhment in
every beholder * The profane or uninitiated were for¬
bidden to enter it on any pretence. Two young A- -
carnanians happened inadvertently to mix with the
crowd
E L E [ i
Eleufmia. crowd at the feafon of the myfteries, and to go in 5 but
v" the qucflion fuggefted by their ignorance prefently be¬
trayed them, and their intrufion was puniftied with
death. The chief prieft, hierophant, or myftagcgue,
was taken from the Eumoipidse, a holy family flouriliv¬
ing at Athens, and defcended from Eumolpus, a fhep-
hcrd and favourite of Ceres. He was enjoined celiba¬
cy, and wore a dole or long garment, his hair, and a
wreath of myrtle. The grand requiiites in his cha¬
racter were ftrength and melody of voice, folemnity of
deportment, magnificence, and great decorum. .Un¬
der him, belides many of inferior ftation, was the
daduchus or torch-bearer, who had likewife his hair,
with a fillet j the pried, who officiated at the altar 5 and
the hiero-ceryx or facred herald ; all very important
perfonages. The latter was of a family which claimed
the god Mercury and Aglauros the daughter of Cecrops
for its ancedors.
The fccrecy in which the myderies were enveloped,
ferved to enhance the idea of their confequence, and to
increafe the defire of participation. It was fo particu¬
lar, that no perfon was allowed even to name the hiero¬
phant by whom he had been initiated. Public abhor¬
rence and detedation awaited the babbler, and the law
direfled he diould die.
The Athenians differed none to be initiated into
thefe myderies but fuch as were members of their ci¬
ty. This regulation, which compelled Hercules, Caf-
tor, and Pollux, to become citizens of Athens, was
driftly obferved in the fird ages of the inditution, but
after-wards all perfons, barbarians excepted, were freely
initiated.
The fedivals were divided into great and lefs my¬
deries. The lefs were indituted from the following
circumdance. Hercules paffed near Eleufis while the
Athenians were celebrating the myderies, and defined
to be initiated. As this-could not be done, becaufe he
was a dranger, and as Eumolpus wTas unwilling to dif-
pleafe him on account of his great power, and the fer-
vices which he had done to the Athenians, another
fedival was indituted without violating the laws. It
was called and Hercules was folemnly admitted
to the celebration and initiated. Thefe lefs myderies
were obferved at Agree near the Ilifliis. The greater
were celebrated at Eleufis, from which place Ceres
has been called Eleufinia, In later times the fmaller
fedivals were preparatory to the greater, and no per¬
fon could be initiated at Eleufis without a previous pu •
rification at Agrae. This purification they performed
by keeping themfelves pure, chade, and unpolluted,
during nine days ; after which they came and offered
facrifices and prayers, wearing garlands of flowers, call¬
ed or and having under their feet
xsAov, Jupiter's [kin, which was the fkin of a victim
offered to that god. The perfon who aflided was call¬
ed v^^xvog from iAg water, which was ufed at the nu-
rification, and they themfelves were called pvrrxt, the
initiated.
A year after the initiation at the lefs mvderies they
facrificed a fow to Ceres, and were admitted in the
greater, and the fecrets of the fedivals were folemnly
revealed to them, from which they were called ityopoi
and zTToTTTxi, infpeElators.
This fedival was obferved in the month Boedro-
mion or September, and continued nine days from the
5 ] E L E
15th till the 23d. During that time it was unlawful Eleufinia.
to arred any man, or prefent any petition, on pain of' v——
forfeiting a thoufand drachmas, or according to others
on pain of death. ' It was alfo unlawful for thofe who
were initiated to fit upon the cover of a well, to eat
beans, mullets, or weazels. If any woman rode to
Eleufis in a chariot, (he was obliged by an edict of
Lycurgus to pay 6000 drachmas. The defign of this
law was to dedroy all didinction between the richer
and poorer fort of citizens. When the feafon ap¬
proached, the my die or perfons who had been initiated
only in the lefler myderies, repaired to Eleufis to be
indrufted in the ceremonial. The fervice for the open¬
ing of the temple, with morning facrifice, wras per¬
formed. The ritual was then produced from the fanc-
tuary. It was enveloped in fymbolieal figures of ani- v
mals, which fuggeded words compendioufly, in letters
with ligatures, implicated, the tops huddled together,
or difpofed circularly like awheel; the whole utterly
inexplicable to the profane. The cafe, which was
called petroma\ confided of two dones exactly fitted.
The myderious record was replaced after the reading,
and doled up until a future fedival. The principal
rite was nocturnal, and confined to the temple and its-
environs. The my dm waited without, with impati¬
ence and apprehenfion. Lamentations and drange
noifes were heard. It thundered. Flafhes of light
and of fire rendered the deep fucceeding darknefs more-
terrible. They were beaten, and perceived not the
hand. They beheld frightful apparitions, monders,
and phantoms of a canine form. They were filled
with terror, became perplexed and unable to dir.
The feene then fuddenly changed to brilliant and
agreeable. The propylaea or veitibules of the temple
were opened, the curtains withdrawn, the hidden
things difplayed. They were introduced by the hiero¬
phant and daduchus, and the former fhowed them the
myderies. The fplendor of illumination, the glory
of the temple and of the images, the fittging and dan¬
cing which accompanied the exhibition, all contributed'
to foothe the mind after its late agitation, and to render
the wondering devotee tranquil and felf-tatisfied. Af¬
ter this infpeCfion, or, as it was called, the autopjia,
they retired, and others advanced. The fucceeding
days were employed in purification, in facrifice, in
pompous proceflions, and fpe&acles, at which they
aflided, wearing myrtle crowns. The fecond day was
called ctXcJdi. pvrxi, to the fea, you that are initiated; be¬
caufe they vrere commanded to purify themfelves by
bathing in the fea. On the third day facrifices, and
chiefly a mullet, were offered ; as alfo barley from a
field of Eleufis. Thefe oblations were called ©t><e, and
held fo facred that the prieds themfelves w ere not, as in
other facrifices, permitted to partake of them. On the
fourth day they made a folemn proceflion, in which
the xxaxSiov, holy hafket of Ceres, was carried about in a
confecrated cart, while on every fide the people Ihouted
Hail, Ceres! After thefe followed women,
called x.<s-o03go(, who carried hafkets, in which wras fefa-
min, carded w'ool, grains of fait, a ferpent, pomegra¬
nates, reeds, ivy boughs, certain cakes, &c. The fifth
was called H the torch day; becaufe
on the following night the people ran about with
torches in their hands. It was ufual to dedicate
torches to Ceres, and contend which diould offer the
digged,
Eleuftnia.
biggeft
E L E [16
in commemoration of the travels of the god-
defs, and of her lighting a torch in the flames of Mount
/Etna. The fixth day v.ras called I*:*:;/«?, from lacchus,
the fon of Jupiter and Ceres, who accompanied his
mother in her fearch after Proferpine with a torch in
his hand. From that circumftance his Itatue had a
torch in his hand, and was carried in folemn proceflion
from the Ceramicus to Eicufls. The ftatue with
thofe that accompanied it, called laK^nyxyov^ was
crowned with myrtle. In the way nothing was heard
but finging and the noife of brazen kettles as the vo¬
taries danced along. The way through which they
iffued from the city was called the [acred way,
the retting place Tsg* from •& fig-tree which grew in
the neighbourhood. They alfo flopped on a bridge
over the Cephifus, where they derided thofe that patted
by. After they had patted this bridge, they entered
Eleufls by a place called y-vw/i the myfiical en¬
trance. On the feventh day were fports, in which the
vihiors were rewarded with a meafure of barley, as that
grain had been firft fown in Eleutts. The eighth day
was called T.Ttrtoav^tuiv becaufe once /Efculapius at
liis return from Epidaurus to Athens was initiated by
the repetition of the lefs myfteries. It became cuftom-
ary therefore to celebrate them a fccond time upon
this, that fuch as had not hitherto been initiated might
be lawfully admitted. The ninth and laft day of the
feftival was called n>.r:u.nyjxi, earthen v fife Is, becaufe it
was ufual to fill two luch veflels with wine } one of
them being placed towards the eaft, and the other to¬
wards the weft ; which, after the repetition of feme
mytticAl words, were both thrown down, and the wine
being fpilt on the ground, was ottered as a libation.
The ftory of Ceres and Proferpine, the foundation of
the Eleufinian myfteries, was partly local. It was both
verbally delivered, and reprefented in allegorical fhow.
Proferpine was gathering flowers when fhe was ftolen by
Pluto. Hence the proceflion of the holy bafket, which
was placed on a car dragged along by oxen, and follow¬
ed by a train of females, fome carrying the myftic chefts,
lhouting, Hail, Ceres ! At night a proceflion wTas made
with lighted torches, to commemorate the goddefs
fearching for her daughter. A meafure of barley, the
grain which, it was believed, fhe had given, was the re¬
ward of the vicious in the gymnic exercifes j and the
tranfaclion at the temple had a reference to the le¬
gend. A knowledge of thefe things and places, from
which the profane were excluded, was the amount of
initiation ; and the mode of it, which had been devifed
by craft, was fkilfully adapted to the reigning fuper-
ftitions. The operation was forcible, and the effcdl
in proportion. The priefthood flouriftied as piety in-
creafed. The difpenfation was corrupt, but its ten¬
dency not malignant. It produced fanftity of man¬
ners and an attention to the focial duties 5 defire to
be as difdnguifhed by what was deemed virtue as by
filence.
Some have fuppofed the principal rites at this fefti¬
val to have been obfeene and. abominable, and that
from thence proceeded all the myfterious fecrecy. They
were carried from Eleufis to Rome in the reign of
Adrian, where they were obferved with the fame ce¬
remonies as before, though perhaps with more free¬
dom and licentioufnefs. They lafted about 1800
] E L E
years, and were at laft abolished by Thecdofius the Eleufinia,
Great. Eleufis,
ELEUSIS, in Ancient Geography, a town in Atti- * ^
ca, between Megara and the Piraeus, celebrated for the
feftivals of Ceres. See the preceding article.—1 hofe
rites were finally extinguifhed in Greece upon the inva-
fion of Alaric the Goth. Eleufis, on the overthrow
of its goddefs and the Ceflation of its gainful traffic,
probably became foon an obfeure place, without cha¬
racter or riches. For fome ages, however, it was not
entirely forfaken, as is evident from the vaft confump-
tion of the ancient materials, and from the prefent re¬
mains, of which the following account is given by l)r
Chandler *. “ The port was fmall and of a circular * Travels
form. The Hones of one pier are ft en above wx\ex, into Greece,
and the correfpending fide may be traced. About half?' lS9*
a mile from the fficre is a long hill, which divides the
plain. In the fide next the fea are traces of a theatre,
and on the top are cifterns cut in the rock. In the way
to it, fome mattes of wall and rubbifh, partly ancient,
are Handing; with ruined churches 5 and beyond, a
long broken aqueduil crofles to the mountains. The
Chriftian pirates had infefted the place fo much, that in
1676 it was abandoned. It is now a fmall
village
at
the eaftern extremity of the rocky brow,-on which was
once a eaftle j and is inhabited by a few Albanian fa¬
milies, employed in the culture of the plain, and fuper-
intended by a Turk, who refides in an old fquare tower.
The proprietor was Achmet Aga, the primate or prin¬
cipal perfon of Athens.
“ The myftic temple at Eleufis was planned by
Idlinus, the architefl of the Parthenon. Pericles was
overfeer of the building. It was of the Doric order ;
the cell fo large as to admit the company of a theatre.
The columns on the pavement within, and their capi¬
tals, were raifed by Coreebus. Mentagenes of Xypete
added the architraves and the pillars above them, which
fuftained the roof. Another completed the edifice.
This was a temple in antis, or without exterior columns,
which would have occupied the room required for the
viciims. The afpedt was changed to Prcfiylos under
Demetrius the Phalerean; Philo, a famous architeft,
eredling a portico, which gave dignity to the fabric,
and rendered the entrance more commodious. The
file was beneath the brow, at the eaft; end, and eneom-
paffed by the fortrefs. Some marbles, which are un¬
commonly maflive, and fome pieces of the columns,
remain on the fpot. The breadth of the cell is about
1 50 feet *, the length, including the prenaos and por¬
tico, is 216 feet; the diameter of the columns, which
are fluted, 6 inches from the bottom of the (hafts, is 6
feet and more than 6 inches. The temple was a do-
caftyle, or had 10 columns in the front, which was to
the eaft. The peribolus or inclofure, which furround-
ed it on the north-eaft and on the feuth fide, m'eafures
387 feet in length from north to fouth, and 328 feet
in breadth from eaft to weft. On the weft fide it join¬
ed the angles of the weft end of the temple in a ftraight
line. Between the weft wall of the incloftire and temple
and the wall of the citadel was a paffzge of 42 feet 6
inches wide, which led to the fummit of a high rock
at the north-weft angle of the inclofure, on which are
vifible the traces of a temple in antis, in length 74 feet
6 inches from north to fouth, and in breadth from the
eaft
. E L E [i
Eleuthena. eaft to the Avail of the citadel, to which it joined on
the weft, 54 feet. It was perhaps that facred to Trip-
tolemus. This fpot commands a very exteniive view
of the plain and bay. About three fourths of the cot-
. tages are within the precinfts of the myftic temple,
and the fquare tower Hands on the ruined wall of the
inclofure.
“ - At a fmall di dance from the north end of the m-
olofure is a heap of marble, coniifting of fragments of
the Doric and Ionic orders; remains, it is likely, of
the temples of Diana Propylea and of Neptune, and
of the Propyleum or gateway . Wheler faw lome large
Hones carved with wheat-ears and bundles of poppy.
Near it is the buit of a coloffal flatue of excellent
workmanihip, maimed, and lire face disfigured ; the
breadth at llie ihoulders, as meafured by Pococke, five
feet and a half 3 and the bafket on the head above two
feet deep. It probably reprefented Proferpine. In
the heap are two or three inferibed pedeftals 5 and on
one are a couple of torches, eroffed. We faw another
fixed in the fame Hairs, which lead up the fquare tower
on the outfide. It belong-ed to the Hatue of a lady,
who was hierophant or prieftefs of Proferpine, and had ,
covered the altar of the goddefs with filver. A well
in the village was perhaps that called Callichorus, where
the women of Eleufis were accuilomed to dance in ho¬
nour of Ceres. A tradition prevails, that if the broken
flatue be removed, the fertility of the land will ceafe.
Achmet Aga was fully poflefTed with this fuperflition,
and declined permitting us to dig or meafure there,
until I had overcome his fcruples by a preient of a
handfome fnufF-box containing feveral zechins or pieces
of gold.”
ELEUTHERIA, a feflival celebrated at Plataea
in honour of Jupiter Eleutherius, or “ the afTertor of
liberty,” by delegates from almofl all the cities of
Greece. Its inflitution originated in this : After the
victory obtained by the Grecians under Paufanias over
Mardonius the Perfian general, in the country of Pla¬
taea, an altar and flatue were erefted to Jupiter Eleu-
therius, who had freed the Greeks from the tyranny
of the barbarians. It was further agreed upon in a
general affembly, by the advice of Ariftides the Athe¬
nian, that deputies fhould be fent every fifth year,
from the different cities of Greece, to celebrate Eleu-
theria, feftxvals of liberty. The Plataeans celebrated
alfo an anniverfary feftival in memory of thofe who had
loft their lives in that famous battle. The celebration
was thus : At break of day a proccflion was made with
a trumpeter at the head, founding a fignal for battle.
After him followed chariots loaded with myrrh, gar¬
lands, and a black bull, and certain free young men,
as no' figns of fervility were to appear during the fo-
lemnity, becaufe they in whofe honour the feftival was
inftituteo had died in the defence of their country.
They carried libations of Avine and milk in large-eared
veffels, with iars of oil, and precious ointments. Laft
of all appeared the chief magiftrate, who, though not
permitted at other times to touch iron, or Wear gar-
xnents of anv colour but white, yet appeared clad in
purple, and taking a water-pot out of the city-cham¬
ber, proc' .-ded through the middle of the town, with
a !word in h’s hand, towards the fepulchres. There
.he drew water from a neighbouring fpring, and wafhed
and anointed the monuments, after which he facrificed
Vol. VIII. Part I.
7 1 EEC
a bull upon a pile of wood, invoking Jupiter and infer- Ueutheria
nal Mercury, and inviting to the entertainment the ,
fouls of thofe happy heroes who had periflied in the
defence of their country. After this he filled a bowl
with wine, laying, I drink to thofe who loft their lives
in the defence of the liberties of Greece. There was
alfo a feftival of the fame name obferved by the Samians
in honour of the god of love. Slaves allb, when they
obtained their liberty, kept a holiday, which they call¬
ed Eleutheria.
ELF, a term now almoft obfolete, formerly ufed to
denote a fairy or hobgoblin 5 an imaginary being,
the creature of ignorance, fuperftition, and craft. Se*
Fairy.
E LF-Arrows, in Natural Hijhory, a name given to
the flints anciently fafhioned into arrow-heads, and Hill
found foflil in Scotland, America, and feveiai other
parts of the world : they are believed by the vulgar t@
be (hot by fairies, and that cattle are fometimes killed by
them.
ELGIN, the capital of the county of Moray in
Scotland, and formerly a bifttop’s fee, is fituated on
the river Lofiie, about fix miles north from the Spey,
in W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. '57. 40. Mr Pennant
fays, it is a good town, and has many of the houfes
built over piazzas 5 but, excepting its great cattle-
fairs, has little trade. It is principally remarkable
for its ecclefiaftical antiquities. The cathedral, now
in ruins, has been formerly a very magnificent pile.
The Aveft door is very elegant and richly ornamented.
The choir is very beautiful, and has a fine and light
gallery running round it ; and at the eaft end are
two roAvs of natTow AvindoAvs in an excellent Go¬
thic tafte. The chapter-houfe is an oft agon 5 the
roof fupported by a fine fingle column with neat car¬
vings of coats of amts round the capital. There is
ft ill a great toAver on each fide of this cathedral ; but
that in the centre, with the fpire and whole roof, are
fallen in 5 and form moft aAvful fragments, mixed
with the battered monuments of knights and prelates.
Boethius fays, that Duncan, Avho Avas killed by Mac¬
beth at Invernefs, lies buried here. The place is alfe
eroAvded Avitli a number of modern tomb-ftones.—-
The cathedral was founded by Andreav de Mora}, in
1224, on apiece of land granted by Alexander II. j
and his remains Avere depofited in the choir, under a
tomb of blue marble, in 1244. The great tower Avas
built principally by John Innes bifhop of this fee, as
appears by the infeription cut on one of the great pil¬
lars : 44 Hie Jacet in Xto, pater et dommus, Dominus
Johannes de Innes, hujus ecclefiae Epifcopus;—qui hoc
notabile opus incepit et per feptennium mdificavit.”
Elgin is a royal borough; and gives title of earl to the
family of Bruce.
_ ELGINSHIRE, is the middle diftrifl of the an¬
cient county of Moray. It is bounded on the north by
that branch of the German ocean called the Moray
Frith ; on the eaft and fouth-eaft by Banff-fhire 5 on
the fouth-weft, by Invernefs-lhire ; and on the weft by
the counties of Invernefs and Nairn. It extends about
42 miles in length, and its average breadtli is about 20.
The fouthern part is rocky and mountainous, called
the diftrift of Braemoray, Avhich is occupied with ex-
tenfive forefts. The lower parts, toAvards the nortlg
are rich and fertile j but might eafily be rendered more
C produftive.
ELI [ i
Elgmfliire, produclivc. The principal rivers arc, the Spey, Find-
, r,‘i~ home, and Lojjle; all of which abound with falmon.
It contains two royal boroughs, viz. Elgin, the county
town, and Forres; and feveral confiderable towns, as
Grantown, Garmouth, LoJJiemouth, &c. The principal
feats are Gordon-cajlle, the feat of the duke of Gordon j
Cajlle Grant, the feat of Sir James Grant; Altyre, the
feat of Colonel Gumming, &c. Morayihire abounds
with many remains of antiquity j the principal of which
are the magnificent cathedral of Elgin, the priory of
Plufcardine near the town of Elgin, the bimop’s palace
at Spynie, the caftles of Lochindorb, Dunpkail, and the
dun of Relugas, in the parifh of Edenkeillie. The
ancient Scottilh hiftorians, particularly Fordun and
Buchanan, give accounts of the Danes landing in
Moray, about 1008, when Malcolm II. marched againft
them, and wTas defeated near Forres : after this they
brought over their Avives and children, and Avere in
poifciTion of the country for fome time ) until they Avere
finally expelled by that monarch, after the viclories
gained over them at Luncarty near Perth, at Barrie in
the county of Angus, and at Mortl'aeh in the county
of Banff. There are jnany monuments of that nation ;
the moil remarkable of which is Sweno's Jlone or pillar,
on the road from Nairn and Forres, in the parilh of
Rafford. Except freeftone, limeftone, and marl, no
mineral fubflance of value has been difcovered.
Purifies.
I Alves
Birnie
Dallas
Drainy
5 Duffus
Duthil
Dyke and Moy
Edenkeillie
Elgin
10 Forres
Kinlofs
KnockandoAV
Rafford
Rothes
*5 St AndreAVS
Speymouth
Spynie
t8 Urquhart
Population
“ D5S-
1691
525
700
1174
1679
I785
1826
I443
6306
J993
1191
1267
W3
1940
1132
994
865
1110
28,934
26,080
Population in
1790—1798.
402
888
1040
1800
mo
I529
1800
4534
2987
1031
1500
1072
I coo
777
I347
602
1050
26,080
Decreafe, 28 54
ELI, high pried of the Ifraelites, and judge over
them for forty years, Avas defcended from Ithamar, a
junior branch of the houfe of Aaron, and feems to have
blended the prieftly Avith the judicial character in the
year 1156 before the commencement of the Chriftian
sera. It appears that the JeAvs were in a date of fub-
jeftion or vaifalage to the Philiftines during the greater
part of Eli’s adminiftration, and, Avhat may at firft ap¬
pear lingular, he contributed to the degeneracy of his
countrymen, although his OAYn piety and goodnefs Avere
8 ] ELI
unqueftionably great. He did not exert his magiflerial
authority in the exemplary punifhment of vice, and
even permitted his orvn fons Avith impunity to perpe¬
trate the molt atrocious adds of impiety and debauchery.
This Avant of firmnefs, to give it no worfe a name, Avas
very reprehenfible in one Avho filled fuch an important
office, and peculiarly fo in a man who Avas himfelf a
faint.
The celebrated Samfon made his appearance during
the adminiftration of Eli, taking part in the manage¬
ment of public affairs for about tAventy years, by Avhufe
aftonifhing deeds the independent fpirit of that people
was in fome meafure revived. Ihe circumftances at¬
tending the death of Samfon, which proved fo calami¬
tous to the nobility of the Philiftines, might have in¬
duced the Jews to throAv off the yoke } but they did
not polfefs a fuflicient degree of virtue and public fpirit
for fuch an exertion. Eli at this period was Arery far
advanced in years, and, if poflible, ftill more negligent
in the difeharge of his duty as a chief magiftrate, al~
loAving his tAvo fons, Hophni and Phineas, to proceed
to the moft extravagant height of impiety and debauch¬
ery, whofe example had a moft poAverful influence on
the manners of the people. Fie was far from being un¬
acquainted with their condudf, but he reproved them
Avith fuch gentlenefs as Avas highly reprehenlible, and
but ill calculated to produce any change on the beha¬
viour of his fons.
The deity Avas fo juftly offended with this deportment
of Eli, that a facred feer Avas commiflioned to upbraid
him for his ingratitude and Avant of refolution. Young
Samuel likeAvife Avas favoured Avith a vifion of the ap¬
proaching ruin of Eli’s family, which he related to the
otherAvife venerable old man, on being folemnly ad¬
jured not to conceal a Angle circumltance. When
Eli heard the declaration of the young prophet, being
fully convinced that his conduit had been highly re¬
prehenfible, he exclaimed, “ It is the Lord j let him
do Avhat feemeth him good.” Soon after this the If-
raelites fuftained a confiderable lofs in attempting to
procure their emancipation, carrying the ark of God
into their camp to animate the people, and intimidate
their enemies ; but the ark Avas captured by the Philif¬
tines, and Hophni and Phineas were {lain. This in¬
telligence having been brought to Eli, he no fooner
heard that the ark of God Avas taken, than he fell back¬
wards from his feat, broke his neck, and died in the
98th year of his age.
ELIAS, the prophet, memorable for having efcaped
the common cataftrophe of mankind ; being taken up
alive into heaven, in a fiery chariot, about 895 B. C,
See the Bible.
ELIJAH, Avho is fometimes denominated Elias, avus
one of the moft diftinguifhed of the JeAvifh prophets,
and furnamed the Tifhbite, probably from the diftrict
in Avhich he Avas born. Fie began his prophetic offu e
about 920 years before Chrift, in the reign of Avicked
Ahab, by whom the Sidonian idolatry Avas introduced
among the Ifraelites, The prophet Avas commiflioned
to appear before this impious prince, and threaten the
country Avith a long drought as a punifhment for Ins
crimes. Tire indignation of Ahab Avas fo great againft.
the prophet for this prediction, that lie refolved to
punifh him in a fignal manner ; but Elijah withdrew to
a
6
ELI [ 19 ] ELI
Elijah, a fecret place from his fury, at the divine command,
—v" ' where he was fuftained in a miraculous manner. He
was afterwards ordered to go to Sarepta, in the terri¬
tory of Sidon, where a miraculous interpofition of hea¬
ven, in the houfe of an indigent widow, fuilained him
for fome time, whofe fon the prophet reftored to
life.
When the three years of famine, occalloned by the
drought, were expired, the prophet was ordered to ap¬
pear before the king, and exhort him to that genuine
repentance which an interpofition of the deity fo very
remarkable unqueftionably demanded. He had an in¬
terview with Obadiah, the governor of the king’s houfe,
who was a religious man, and had frequently fcreened
many from the vengeance of Jezebel the queen, at the
hazard of bis own life. Fired with undaunted forti¬
tude, the prophet faid to Obadiah, “ Go, tell thy lord,
behold Elijah is here.” The good man’s regard for
the prophet was fo great, that he was afraid to deliver
this meffage, fmce he knew that Ahab had ufed every
effort to difcover the prophet’s retreat. The king was
informed of his coming ; and the firft interview was dif-
tinguifhed by invectives on the part of the intrepid pro¬
phet and the proud fovereign, the former giving a pro-
mife of rain on the following terms. The priefts of
the Sidonian gods, and an afl’embly of the people of If-
rael, were to meet on Mount Carmel, where the prophet
Elijah intended to give an inconteftable proof of the al¬
mighty power of the God of Ifrael, and the total in-
fignificance of the Sidonian divinities. For a detailed
account of this memorable experiment, we muff refer
our readers to the book of Kings, as an abridgement of
fueh a beautiful narration would do it manifefi: injury.
It produced the fulleft conviction in the minds of the
Ifraelites, that Jehovah alone was entitled to adoration 5
and the priefts of Baal were inftantaneoufly put to
death, as the moll abominable perverters of the divine
law.
This was followed by abundance of rain, in anfwer
to the devout prayers of the prophet 5 but his glorious
triumph over idolatry fo exafperated Jezebel, that fhe
refolved to murder the prophet, to avoid whofe rage he
fled into the wildernefs, till the deity again employed
him in the honourable, but often hazardous, duties of a
prophet. He afterwards foretold that Hazael (hould
be king of Syria, Jehu king over Ifrael •, and he ap¬
pointed Eliflia the fon of Shaphat to be his own fuccef-
ior. He denounced dreadful judgments againfl: Ahab
and his wicked queen Jezebel; but thofe which re-
fpefled the king were not executed during his life, on
account of the genuine repentance which he difeovered.
The fucceflbr of Ahab having been confined to bed in
confequence of an accident, the god of Ekron was con-
fulted relative to his recovery, which induced the pro¬
phet to declare that he {hould afluredly die. The king
being informed that it was Elijah who dared to fend
fuch a meffage, he difpatched a captain and 50 men
to force him into the royal prefence j but they were
deftroyed by fire from heaven, and a fecond company
{hared the fame fate. A third company confeffed the
vifible interference of heaven in the prophet’s behalf,
and the captain throwing himfelf on the mercy of Eli¬
jah, went with him to the king. In the royal prefence
he undauntedly repeated the fame denunciation againft
the idolatrous monarch, which was very foon accom-
p]ilhed ; and not long after this the holy prophet, at
the divine command, divided afunder the waves of Jor¬
dan, dropped his prophetic mantle to the aftonifhed
Elifha, took the darning chariot commiffioned for his
reception, and rode in majefty to heaven.
EL I (JU ATI ON, in ChemiJIry, an operation by
which a more fufible fubftance is feparated from one
that is lefs fo, by means of a heat fufticiently intenfe to
melt the former, but not the latter. Thus an alloy of
copper and lead may be feparated by a heat capable of
melting the latter, but not the former.
ELIS. See Elea.
Elis, in Ancient Geography, the capital of the dii
tridt of that name in Peloponnefus, fituated on the Pe-
neus, which ran through it. It was the country of
Phsedo the philofopher, fcholar of Socrates, and friend
of Plato 5 who inferibes with his name the dialogue 011
the immortality of the foul. Pyrrho alfo was of this
city, at the head of the feel called after him Pyr-
rhonijls.
The city of Elis owed its origin to an union of fmali
towns after the Perfian war. It was not encompaffed
immediately with a wall; for it had the care of the
temple at Olympia, and its territory was folemnly con-
fecrated to Jupiter. To invade or not proteft it was
deemed impiety, and armies, if marching through,
delivered up their weapons, which, on their quitting it,
were reftored. Amid warring ftates the city enjoyed
repofe, was reforted to by ftrangers, and flouriftiedt
The region round about it wras called ccele or hollow, from
the inequalities. The country was reckoned fertile,
and particularly fit for the raifing of flax. This, which
grew nowhere elfe in Greece, equalled the produce of
Judaea in finenefs, but was not fo yellow. Elis was a
fchool, as it were, for Olympia, which was diftant 37
miles. The athletic exercifes were performed there,
before the more folemn trial, in a gymnafium, by
which the Peneus ran. The helanodics or praefedls of
the games paired the rival combatants by lot, in an a-
rea called Plethrum or The Acre. Within the wall grew
lofty plane-trees; and in the court, which was called
the Xyjlus, wrere feparate courfes made for the foot¬
races. A fmaller court was called the Quadrangle. The
praefedls, when cholen, refided for ten months in a
building eredled for their ufe, to be inftrufted in the
duties of their office. They attended before funrife
to prefide at the races ; and again at noon, the time
appointed for the pentathlum or five fports. The horfes
were trained in the agora or market-place, which was
called the Hippodrome. In the gymnafium were altars
and a cenotaph of Achilles. The women, befides other
rites, beat their bofoms in honour of this hero, on a
fixed day toward funfet. There alfo was the town-
hall, in which extemporary harangues were fpoken and
compofitions recited. It was hung round with buck¬
lers for ornaments. A way led from it to the baths
through the Street of Silence ; and another to the mar¬
ket-place, which Avas planned with ftreets between por¬
ticoes of the Doric order adorned with altars and images.
Among the temples, one had a circular periftyle or co¬
lonnade $ but the image had been removed and the roof
Avas fallen in the time of Paufanias. The theatre Avas
ancient as was alfo a temple of Bacchus, one of the
deities principally adored at Elis. Minerva had a temple
in the citadel, with an image of ivory and gold, made
C ® (it
EifiaH
li
Ins.
ELI [ 20 ] ELI
Eli* (it was faid) by Phidias. At the gate leading to Glym-
!l pia was tiie monument of a perfon, who was buried, as
i J ^ an oracle had commanded, neither within nor without
the city. The ftruhtures of Elis, Dr Chandler ob-
ferves, feem to have been raifed with materials far lefs
elegant and durable than the produce of the Ionian and
Attic quarries. The ruins are of brick, and not con-
fiderable, confiding of pieces of ordinary wall, and an
octagon building with niches, which, it is fuppofed, was
the temple with a circular periflyle. Thefe Hand de¬
tached from each other, ranging in a vale fouthward
from the wide bed of the river Peneus ; which, by the
margin, has feveral large (tones, perhaps relicks of the
gymnafium. The citadel was on a hill, which has on
the top fome remnants of a wall.
ELISHA the prophet, famous for the miracles he
performed, died about 830 B. C. See the Bib/e.
ELISION, in Grammar, the cutting off or fup-
preffing a vowel at the end of a word, for the faice
of found or meafure, the next word beginning with a
vowel.
Elifions are pretty frequently met with in Englifh
poetry, but more frequently in the Latin, French,
&c. They chiefly confift in fuppreflions of the a, e,
and i, though an elifion fupprefles any of the other
vowels.
EL IX ATI ON, in Pharmacy, the extracting the
virtues of ingredients by boiling or dewing.
ELIXIR, in Medicine, a compound tin&ure ex¬
tracted from many efficacious ingredients. Hence the
difference between a tmCiure and an elixir feems to be
this, that a tincture is drawn from one ingredient,
fometimes with an addition of another to open it and
to difpofe it to yield to the menitruum ; whereas an
elixir is a tincture extracted from feveral ingredients at
the fame time.
ELIZABETH, queen of England, daughter of
Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, was born at Green¬
wich, September 7. 1533. According to the humour
of the times, fhe was early inflrucled in the learned
languages, firft by Grmdal, who died when die was
about 17, and afterw'ards by the celebrated Roger A-
fcham. She acquired likewife confiderable knowledge
of the Italian, Spaniffi, and French languages. Dr
Grindal was alfo her preceptor in divinity, which fhe is
■ faid to have itudied with uncommon application and
indudry. That Elizabeth became a Protedant, and
her fider Mary a Papiit, wras the effect of that caufe
which determines the religion of all mankind 5 namely,
the opinion of thofe by whom they wrere educated :
and this difference of opinion, in their tutors,, is not at
all furpridng, when we recollect, that their fatner
Harry was of both religions, or of neither.
But the dudies of Elizabeth ’were not confined
merely to languages and theology : die wTas alfo in-
itruffed in the political hidory of the ancients ; and
was fo iveil (killed in mufic., as to ling and play art¬
fully and fweetly.”
After the ffiort reign of her brother Edward, our
heroine being then about 20 years of age, her Jjre-
hrand fifter acceding to the crown, Elizabeth experien¬
ced a confiderable degree of perfecution, fo as to be
not a little apprehenfive of a violent death. She was
accufed of nobody knows what j imprifoned 5 and, we
are told, inhumanly treated. At lad, by the intercef-
fion of King Philip of Spain, die was fet at liberty j Elizabeth,
which die continued to enjoy, till, on the death of her V" *
pious fider, die, on the 17th of November 1558, af-
cended the throne of England. Her political hidory
as a queen, is univerfally known and admired* : but * See (Hi-
her attention to the government of her kingdom did 1'ory )
not totally fufpend her purfuit of learning. Afcham, ^naland'
in his SchoohnaJIer, tells us, that, about the year 1563,
five years after her acceffion, fhe being then at Wind-
for, befides her perfedl readinefs in Latin, Italian,
French, and Spanifh, die read more Greek in one day
than fome prebendaries of that church did read Latin
in a whole ureek, (p. 21.)—She employed Sir John
Fortefcue to read to her Thucydides, Xenophon, Po¬
lybius, Euripides, Atfchines, and Sophocles. {Ballard,
p. 219.). That the Latin language was familiar to her,.
is evident from her fpeech to the univerfity of Oxford,
when die was near fixty •, alfo from her fpirited anfwer
to the Polifh ambaffador in the year 1598. And that
die wras alfo (killed in the art of poetry, appears not only
from the feveral fcraps which have been prefervcd, but
likewife from the teftimony of a contemporary writer,
Puttenham, in his Art of Engl. Poetry (a very fearce
book). Thefe are his words : “ But, lad in recital,
“ and fird in degree, is the queen, Avhofe learned, de-
“ licate, noble mufe, eafily furmounteth all the red,
“ for fenfe, fweetnefs, or fubtility, be it in ode, elegy,
“ epigram, or any other kind of poem,” &.c. In this
author are to be found only a fpecimen of 16 verfes of
her Englifh poetry. “ But,” fays Mr Walpole, “ a
“ greater indance of her genius, and that too in La-
“ tin, was her extempore reply to an infolent prohibi-
“ tion delivered to her from Philip II. by his ambaffa-
“ dor, in this tetradic.
Te veto ne pergas bello defendere Belgas :
Quae Dracus eripuit, nunc redituantur oportet:
Quas pater evertit, jubeo te condere cellas :
Rcligio papae fac redituatur ad unguem.
“ She indantly anfwered him, with as much fpirit
as die ufed to return his invafions j
Ad Graecas, bone rex, fient mandata kalendas.”
Being earnedly preffed by a Romifh pried, during
his perfecution, to declare her opinion concerning the
real prefence of Chrid’s body in the wafer, die an¬
fwered,
Chrid was the word that fpake it;
He took the bread, and brake it :
And what that word did make it,
That I believe, and take it. Fuller'1 s Holy State.
She gave the characters of four knights of Notting-
hamdiire in the following didich :
Gervafe the Gentle, Stanhope the dout,
Markham the lion, and Sutton the lout, Walp. Cat.
Coming into a grammar-fchool, die charadterized
three claffic authors in this hexameter :
Perfius a crab-daff; bawdy Martial j Ovid a fine wag.
Full. Worth, of Warw. 126.
Sk.
I
E L I l 2
Elizabeth. Sir Waiter Raleigh having wrote on a window,
Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall j
She immediately wrote under it,
If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all.
Worth, of Devonjh. 261.
Doubtlefs, flie was a woman of lingular capacity and
extraordinary acquirements: and, if we could forget
the ftory of the Scottish Mary, and of her favourite
Effex, together with the burning of a few Anabaptifts 5
in Short, could we forbear to contemplate her character
through the medium of religion and morality, we might
pronounce her the molt illullrious of illuftrious women.
See further the articles England, Mary, and Scot¬
land. She died in her palace at Richmond, the 24th
, of March 1602, aged 70, having reigned 44 years j
and was interred in the chapel of Henry VII. in
Weilminfter Abbey. Her fucceflbr James erected a’
magnificent monument to her memory.—She wrote,
1. The Mirror, or Glafs of the Sinful Soul. This was
tranllated out of French verfe into Englilh profe,
when fhe was eleven years old. It was dedicated to
Queen Catharine Parr. Probably it was never printed j
but the dedication and preface are preferved in the
Sylloge epjiolarum, in Hearne’s edition of Livii Foro-
Ju/ienfs, p. 161. 2. Prayers and Meditations, &c.
Dedicated to her father, dated at Hatfield, 1545.
Manufcript, in the royal library. 3. A Dialogue out
of Xenophon, in Greek, between Hiero a King, yet
feme time a private perfon, and Simonides a Poet, as
touching the life of the Prince and Private Man. Firft
printed, from a manufcript in her majelly’s own hand¬
writing, in the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1743. 4.
Two Orations of Ifocrates, tranllated into Latin. 5.
Latin Oration at Cambridge. Preferved in the king’s
library: alfo in Hollinihed’s Chron. p. 1206.J and in
Fuller’s Hilt, of Cambr. p. 138. 6. Latin Oration at
Oxford. See Wood’s Hift. and Antiq. of Oxf. lib. i.
p. 289. alfo in Dr Jebb’s Append, to his Life of Mary
Queen of Scots. 7. A comment on Plato. 8. Boethius
de confolatione phiiofophue, tranllated into Englilh'
anno 1593* 9- Sa/lujl de hello Jugurthino, tranllated
into Englilh anno 1590. 10. A play of Euripides,
tranfiated into Latin, (Cat. of Royal Auth.). 11. A
Praver for the ufe of her fleet in the great expedition in
1596. 12. Part of Horace’s Art of Poetry, tranllated
into Englilh anno 1398. 13. Plutarch de curiof tale,
tranllated into Englilh. 14. Letters on various occa-
fions to different perfons: feveral fpeeches to her parlia¬
ment j and a number of other pieces.
i ] ELL
Elizabeth Petrowna, (daughter of Peter the Elizabeth
Great), the lafl: emprefs of Ruffia, diltinguilhed her- ^
felf by her fignal clemency. She made a vow, that no , "ll'° '
perfon Should be put to death in her reign, and Ihe
Strictly obferved it. The example was followed, and
confirmed by law, under the augult fovereigji of Ruflia,
Catharine II. Elizabeth died in 1762, in the 2iit
year of her reign and 5 2d nf her age.
ELK, in Zoology. See Cervus, Mammalia Index.
ELL, {ulna,') a meafure which obtains, under dif¬
ferent denominations, in molt countries, Avhereby cloths,
Stuffs, linens, Silks, &c. are ufually meafured 5 anfwer-
ing nearly to the yard of England, the eanna of Italy,
the vara of Spain, the palm of Sicily, &e.
Servius will have the ell to be the fpace contained
between the two hands when Stretched forth 5 but Sue¬
tonius makes it only the cubit.
The ells molt frequently ufed with us are the Englilh
and Flemilh 5 the former containing three feet nine
inches, or one yard and a quarter ; the latter only
27 inches, or three quarters of a yard 5 fo that the
ell Englilh is to the Fie mi (h ell as five to three. In
Scotland, the ell contains 3 Englifh inches.
M. Ricard, in his Treatife of Commerce, reduces the
ells thus : 100 ells of Amlterdam are equal to 98^ of
Brabant, Antwerp, and Bruffels 5 to 581 of England
and France ; to 120 of Hamburgh, Francfort, Leipfic,
and Cologne j 125 of Breflaw 5 no of Bergen and
Drontheim ; and 117 of Stockholm.
ELLIOT, the Right Honourable George Auguftus,
Lord Heathfield, was the youngeft fon of the late Sir
Gilbert Elliot, Baronet, of Stobbs (a) in Roxburghshire^
and was born about the year 1718. He received the-
firlt rudiments of his education under a private tutor :
and at an early time of life was lent to the univerfity
of Leyden, where he made considerable progrefs in
claflical learning, and fpoke with fluency and elegance
,the German and French languages. Being deligned
for a military life, he was fent from thence to the cele¬
brated Ecole Royale du Genie Militaire, eonducled by
the great Vauban at La Fere in Picardy ; where he laid
the foundation of what he fo conlpicuoully exhibited at
the derence of Gibraltar. He completed his military
courfe on the continent by a tour, for the purpofe of
feeing in practice what he had Studied in theory. Pruffia
was the model for difeipline, and he continued fome
time as a volunteer in that fervice.
_ Mr Elliot returned in the 17th year of his age to
his native country, Scotland 5 and was the fame year,
I735» introduced by his father Sir Gilbert to Lieu¬
tenant-Colonel Peers of the 23d regiment of foot, then,
lying at Edinburgh, as a youth anxious to bear arms
for
. r ie ancient and honourable family of Elliot of Stobbs, as well as the collateral branch of Elliot of Minto
U1nt 1C <f0UntT> anJ °i Elhot of Port-Elliot in Cornwall, are originally from Normandy. Their an-
celtor, Mr Ahott, came over with William the Conqueror, and held a diltinguilhed rank in his army There
is a traditionary anecdote m the family relating to an honourable diitinction in their coat, which as it corre
fponds with hiftory bears the probability of truth. When William fet foot on English land, he flipped and
ie on the earth He fprung up, and exclaimed that it was a happy omen—he had embraced the country of
which he was to become the lord. Upon this Aliott drew his fword, and fwore by the honour of a foldier that
he womd maintain, at the hazard of his blood, the right of his lord to the fovereignty of the earth which he’ had
embraced. On the event of the conqueft, King William added to the arms of Aliott, which was a baton or on
a held a-zure, an arm and fvvord as a creft, with the motto, Per faxu, per ignes, for titer et relit,
5.
E L
Elliot, for Iris king and country.
L [22
o He was accordingly entered
as a volunteer in that regiment, where he continued for
a year or more. From the 23 d regiment he went into
the engineer corps at Woolwich, and made great pro-
grefs in that ftudy, until his uncle Colonel Elliot
brought him in his adjutant of the fecond troop of
horfe grenadiers. With thefe troops he went upon
lervice to Germany, and was with them in a variety of
actions. At the battle of Dettingen he was wounded.
In this regiment he bought the rank of captain and
major, and afterwards purchafed the lieutenant-colonel¬
cy from Colonel Brewerton, who fuccecded to his
uncle. On arriving at this rank, he refigned his com-
miffion as an engineer, which he had enjoyed along
with his other rank, and in which fervice he had been
actively employed very much to the advantage of his
country. He received the inftrudtions of the famous
engineer Bellidor, and made himfelf completely maiter
of the fcience of gunnery. Had he not fo difintereft-
edly refigned his rank in the engineer department, he
would long before his death, by regular progreflion,
have been at the head of that corps. Soon afler this
he was appointed aid-de-camp to George II. and was
diltinguilhed for his military Ikill and difeipline. In
the year 1759, he quitted the fecond troop of horfe
grenadier guards, being feleclcd to raife, form, and
difeipline, the firft regiment of light horfe, called af¬
ter him Elliot's. As foon as they were raifed and
formed, he was appointed to the command of the ca¬
valry in the expedition on the coafts of France, with
the rank of brigadier-general. After this he paffed
into Germany, where he was employed on the flaff,
and greatly diftinguilhed himfelf in a variety of move¬
ments ; where his regiment difplayed a ftriftnefs of dif¬
eipline, an a&ivity and enterprife, which gained them
iignal honour : and indeed they have been the. pattern
regiment both in regard to difeipline and appointment,
to the many light dragoon troops that have been fince
raifed in our fervice. From Germany he was recalled
for the purpofe of being employed as fecond in com¬
mand in the memorable expedition againft the Ha-
vannah •, the circumftances of which conqueft are well
known.
On the peace, his gallant regiment was reviewed by
the king, when they prefented to his majefty the ftand-
ards which they had taken from the enemy. Gratified
with their fine difeipline and high charafter, the king
alked General Elliot what mark of his favour he could
bellow on his regiment equal to their merit ? He. an-
fwered, that his regiment would be proud if his majefty
Ihould think, that, by their fervices, they were entitled
to the diflin&ion of Royals. It was accordingly made
a royal regiment, with this flattering title, “ The 15th,
or King's Royal Regiment of Light Dragoons.” At
the fame time the king exprefled a defire to confer fome
honour on the general himfelf 5 but the latter declared,
that the honour and fatisfaftion of his majefty’s appro¬
bation of his fervices was his bell reward.
During the peace he was not idle. His great ta¬
lents in the various branches of the military art gave
him ample employment. In the year 1775, he was
appointed to fucceed General A’Court as command¬
er in chief of the forces in Ireland *, but did not con¬
tinue long in this ftation, not even long enough to un¬
pack all his trunks; for finding that interferences were
]
ELL
made by petty authority derogatory of his own, he re¬
filled the praftice with becoming Ipirit ; and not choof-
ing to dilturb the government of the filler kingdom
on a matter perfonal to himfelf, he folicited to be re¬
called. He accordingly was fo, and appointed to the
command of Gibraltar in a fortunate hour for the fafety
of that important fortrefs. The fyfiem of his life, a#
well as his education, peculiarly qualified him for this
trull. He was perhaps the moll abftemious man of the
age •, neither indulging himfelf in animal food or wine.
He never flept more than four hours at a time ; fo that
he was up later and earlier than moll other men. He fo
inured himfelf to habits of hardinefs, that the things
which are difficult and painful to other men, were to
him his daily practice, and rendered pleafant by ufe.
It could not be eafy to Itarve fuch a man into a fur-
render, nor poffiblc to furprife him. I he example of
the commander in chief in a befieged garrifon had the
moll perfuafive efficacy in forming the manners of a
foldiery. Like him his brave followers came to regu¬
late their lives by the moll llridl rules of difeipline be¬
fore there arofe a neceflity for fo doing 5 and fevere ex-
ercife, with ftiort diet, became habitual to them by their
own choice. The military fyllem of difeipline which
he introduced, and the preparations which he made for
his defence, were contrived with fo much judgment,
and executed with fo much addrefs, that he was able
with a handful of men to preferve his poll againfl: an
attack, the conllancy of which, even without the vi¬
gour, had been fufficient to exhaull any common fet
of men. Collected within himfelf, he in no inltance
dellroyed, by premature attacks, the labours which
would coll the enemy time, patience, and expence to
complete \ he deliberately obferved their approaches,
and feized on the proper moment, with the keencll
perfpeftion, in which to make his attack with fuc-
cefs. He never fpent his ammunition in ufelefs pa¬
rade or in unimportant attacks. He never relaxed
from his difeipline by the appearance of fecurity, ncr
hazarded the lives of his garrifon by wild experiments.
By a cool and temperate demeanour, he maintained
his llation for three years of conilant inveftment, in
which all the powers of Spain were employed. All
the eyes of Europe were on this garrifon; and his
conduit has jullly exalted him to the moll elevated rank
in the military annals of the day. On his return to
England, the gratitude of the Britilh fenate was. as
forward as the public voice in giving him that diltin-
guilhed mark his merit deferved. Both houfes of par¬
liament voted an unanimous addrefs of thanks to the
general. The king conferred on him the honour of
Knight of the Bath, with a penfion during his own
and a fecond life of his own appointment; and on
June 14. 1787, his majefty advanced him to the peer¬
age, by the title of Lord Heuthjield, Baron Gibraltary
permitting him to take, in addition to his family arms,
the arms of the fortrefs he had fo bravely defended, to
perpetuate to futurity his noble conduft.
His lordfhip died on the 6th of July 1790, at his
chateau at Aix-la-Chapelle, of a fecond ftroke of the
palfy, after having for fome weeks preceding enjoy¬
ed tolerable good health and an unufual flow of fpi-
rits. His death happened two days before he was to
have fet out for Leghorn in his way to Gibraltar ; of
which place he was once more appointed to the de¬
fence,
Elliot.
ELM [ 23 ] E L P
Elliot
, II
Elmaanus.
fence, in tlie view of an approaching war. He mar¬
ried Anne, daughter ot Sir Francis Drake of Devon-
Ihire} and had by her (who died in 1769) Francis-
Auguilus, now Lord Heathiield, lieutenant-colonel of
the 6th regiment of horfe.
ELLiPOMACROS I'YLA, an old term in Natu¬
ral Hijlory, from the Greek, imperfect,
long, and «-yAo? a column y which exprefles an imperfedt
cryttal with a long column, one end of the column be¬
ing affixed to fome folid body, and compofed of thin
and llender hexangular columns, terminated by hexan-
gular pyramids.
ELLIPOPACHYSTYLA, an old term, in Natu¬
ral Hijlory, derived from the Greek, sAA^hj imperfeEl,
vrxyy-i thick, and rvAo? a column, and expreffes a cryltal
of the imperfeit kind with a thick column.
ELLIPSIS, in Geometry, a curve line returning
into itfelf, and produced from the fedtion of a cone by
a plane cutting both its lides, but not parallel to the
bafe. See CONIC Sections.
Ellipsis, in Grammar, a figure of fyntax, where¬
in one or more words areffiot exprefled ; and from this
deficiency it has got the name ellipjis.
ELLIPTIC, or Elliptical, fomething belong¬
ing to an ellipfis.
ELLISlA, a genus of plants belongingto the pent-
andria clafs •, and in the natural method ranking under
the 28th order, Luridce. See Botany Index.
ELLYS, Dr Anthony, who was born in 1693,
and educated at Clarehall, Cambridge, after riling
through many inferior degrees of dignity in the church
of England, was, in 1752, promoted to the fee of St
David’s. ITe died at Gloucelter in 1761, and is men¬
tioned here only for the fake of his works, which are
lefs known than they ffiould in the prefent time of no¬
vel opinions. They are, befides occafional fermons,
I. A Plea for the Sacramental Tell, as a juft fecurity
to the Church eftablilhcd, and very conducive to the
welfare of the State. 2. Remarks on Flume’s Efi'ay
on Miracles. 3. Tracts on the Liberty fpiritual and
temporal of Proteftants in England, addrefled to J. N.
Efq. at Aix-la Chapelle ; the firft part of which was
printed in 1763, the fecond in 1765. In thefe tradts,
as the editors of them truly obferve, he “ difcovers not
only fine parts, extenfive knowledge, and found judge¬
ment, but a heart overflowing with benevolence and can¬
dour, and a moft Chriftian temper: for he always thought
a perfon, though on the right fide of the queftion, with
principles of perfeeution, to be a worfe man than he that
was on the wrong.” This amiable and refpectable wri¬
ter affords in his own conduct a proof that a man may
be fteadily attached to a party, without wiffiing to en¬
croach upon the rights of others.
ELM. See Ulmus, Botany Index.
ELMACINUS, George, author of a Hijlori) of
the Saracens, was born in Egypt towards the middle of
the 13th century. His hiftory comes down from Ma¬
homet to the year-of the Flegira 512, anfwering to
the year of our Lord 11345 in which he fets down
year by year, in a very concife manner, whatever re¬
gards the Saracen empire, intermixed with fome paf-
fages relating to the eaftem Chriftians. His abilities
muft have been confiderable 5 fince, though he profef-
fed Chriftianity, he held an office of truft near the per- ,
Ions of the Mahometan princes. Fie . was fon to Yafer
A1 Amid, fecretary the council of war under the Elmacinus
fultans ol Egypt lor 45 years ; and in 1238, when his ^ ,
father died, lucceeded him in his place. His hiftory ^ Huuto.n
of the Saracens was tranflated from Arabic into Latin
by Erpinius: and printed in thefe two languages in
folio, at Leyden, in 1625. Erpinius died before the
publication ; but Golius took care of it, and added a
preface. It was dedicated by Erpinius’s widow to Dr
Andrews, biihop of W incheiter.
ELOCUTION. See Oratory, Part III.
ELOGY, a praife or panegyric bellowed on any
perfon or thing, in confideration of its merit. The-
beauty of elogy confifts in an expreffive brevity. Eu-
logiums ffiould not have fo much as one epithet, pro¬
perly fo called, nor two words fynonymous : they Ihould
ftridtly adhere to truth: for extravagant and improbable
elogies rather leffen the character of the perfon or thing
they would extol.
ELOHI, Eloi, or Klohim, in feripture, one of the
names of God. But it is to be obferved, that angels,
princes, great men, judges, and even falfe gods, are
fometimes called by this name. The fequel ol the dif-
courfe is what affitts us in judging rightly concerning
the true meaning of this w'ord. It is the fame as E/oha.
One is the lingular, the other the plural. Neverthe-
lefs Elohim is often conftrued in the lingular number,
particularly when the true God is fpoken of: but when
falfe gods are Ipoken of, it is conftrued rather in the
plural.
ELOINED, in Law, fignifies reftrained or hindered
from doing fomething : thus it is faid, that if thofe
within age be eloined, fo that they cannot fue perfon-
ally, their next friend lhall fue for them.
ELONGATION, in Afronomy, the digrellion or
recefs of a planet from the fun, with refpeft to an.
eye placed on our earth. The term is chiefty ufed in
fpeaking of Venus or Mercury, the arch of a great
circle intercepted between either of thefe planets and
the fun being called the elongation of that planet from
the fun.
Elongation, in Surgery, ii an imperfect luxation,
occafioned by the ftretching or lengthening of the liga¬
ments of anv part.
ELOPEMENT , in Law, is where a married woman
departs from her huffiand, and cohabits with an adul¬
terer 5 in Avhich cafe the huffiand is not obliged to al¬
low her any alimony out of her eft ate, nor is he charge¬
able for neceffaries for Irer of any kind. However, the
bare advertifing a wife in the gazette, or other public
paper, is not a legal notice to perfons in general not
to truft her 5 though a perfonal notice given by the
huffiand to particular perfons is faid to be good.—An
action lies, and large damages may be recovered, a-
gainft a perfon for carrying awTay and detaining another
man’s wife.
ELOQUENCE, the art of fpeaking well, fo as to
affe£t and perfuade. S.ee Oratory,
ELPHINST ON, William, a Scotch prelate and
ftatefman of confiderable eminence, who flouriffied in the
end of the 15th and commencement of the i6th cen¬
tury, was born at Glafgow in the year 1431. At the
univerfity of this city he received his education, and in
the learning which diftinguiffied that period he made
extraordinary proficiency. His ftudies being com¬
pleted, he went over to France, to make himfelf mailer
ELS [ 24 ] ELY
Elplimfton 0f the etvil and canon law in the univeruty of Paris,
_r i! where he afterwards became a profelTor, and for the
1 lluJictlo- {v)ace 0f fix years acquired confiderable reputation in the
diicharge of his duty. On his return to Scotland, he
entered into holy orders, was foon appointed official of
Glafgow, and afterwards of St Andrews. He was ad¬
mitted a member of the king’s council 5 and on a mif-
underftanding taking place between James III. of Scot¬
land and Louis XL of France, his powerful mediation
at the latter court, in conjunction with the bifhop of
Dunkeld and the earl of Buchan, eft'ecled an amicable
reconciliation. As Elphinfton on this occaiion dilplay-
ed fuch prudence and eloquence, the king was fo grate¬
ful for his meritorious fervices, that he rewarded him
with the fee of Rofs, from which he wras tranflated to
the diocefe of Aberdeen about the year 1484, and alio
appointed to the high office of chancellor of the king¬
dom, which he managed with fo much moderation and
equity, that ail parties efteemed and admired him.
When the civil wars broke out be ween James and the
difcontented nobility, Biffrop Elphinffon appears to have
declined all interference w ith public affairs of a political
nature, and confined himfelf to the difcharge of his
minifterial duties. But when James IV. afcended the
throne, his abilities as a ffatefman w7ere again called
forth, and he Avas chofen ambaffador to the emperor
Maximilian, in order to bring about a marriage alliance
betAveen his royal mafter and the emperor’s daughter 5
but fhe had been previouily promifed to another. Yet
the biffiop’s miffion Avas not without its falutary effects,
as he Avas the mean of terminating an enmity Avhich
had long exifted betAveen the Dutch and Scots. i his
he conduced in fueh a mailerly manner, that James
never undertook any thing of importance, Avithout firft
procuring the fanftion of his approbation. He Avas
equally the zealous patron of learning j and it is general¬
ly believed that the eftablifhment of a univerfity at
Aberdeen Avas entirely owing to his influence Avith the
Pope, from whom he obtained a bull for that purpofe 5
and by his exertions was King’s college undertaken and
•ompleted. He bequeathed, at the time of his deceafe,
large fums of money for its fupport. He terminated his
mortal career in 1514, about 83 years of age, at Avhich
advanced period his conftitutional vigour was very little
impaired, and all the faculties of his mind Avere in full
force } but the ferious Ioffes at the memorable battle of
Fkmden had broken his heart. He Avrote a hiftory of
his native countrv, A\ffiich is among the manufcripts of
Sir Thomas Fairfax, in the Bodleian library at Ox¬
ford.
EDSHEMIER, Adam, a celebrated painter, born
at Francfort on the Maine, in 1 574. He Avas firft a
difciple of Philip Uffenbach, a German •, but his defire
of improvement carrying him to Borne, he focn became
a moft excellent artift in landfcapes, hiftory, and night-
pieces, Avith fmall figures. His Avorks are but ferv •,
and the great pains he beftoAved in finifhing them rai-
fed their prices fo high, that they are hardly anywhere
to be found but in the cabinets of princes. He Avas
of a melancholy turn, and funk under the embarrafs-
ments of his circumftances in 1610. James Erneft
Thomas of Landau Avas his difciple 5 and imitated his
ftyle fo nicely, that their performances are not eafily
aiftinguiffied.
ELSIMBURG, a port toAvn of Sweden, in the
province of Gothland, and territory of Schonen, feated Elfimburg
on the fide of the Sound, over againft Elfinore. It Avas ^ I!
formerly a fortrefs belonging to the Danes 5 but all the , ^
fortifications Avere demolifhed in 1679, and there is
only one toAver of a caftle which remains undemolilhed.
It noAV belongs to Sweden. E. Long. 13. 20. N. Lat.
56. 2.
ELSINORE, or Elsinoor, a port town of Den¬
mark, fealed on the Sound, in the ifte of Zealand. E.
Long. 13. 23. N. Lat. 36. o.—It Avas a fmall village,
containing a feA\r fithermen’s huts, until 1445? w hen it
Avas made a liaple toAvn by Eric of Pomerania •, ayIiq
conferred upon the nerv fettlers confiderable immuni¬
ties, and built a caftle lor their defence. From that
period it gradually increafed in fize and Aveallh, and
is noAV the moft commercial place in Denmark next t»
Copenhagen. It contains abour 300c inhabitants, a-
mongft whom are a confiderable number of foreign
merchants, and the coniuls of the principal nations
trading to the Baltic. rJ he pafiage of the Sound is
guarded by the fortrefs of Cronbi .g, which is tituated
upon the edge of a peninfular promontory, the m artft
point of land from the oppofite coaft of SAveden. It
is itrongly fortified towards the ftiore by ditches, ba-
ftions, and regular entrenchments j and towards the
fea by feveral batteries, mounted Avith 60 cannon, the
largeft Avhereof are 48 pounders. Every veffel, as it
paifes, loAvers her top-fails, and pays a toll at Elltnore.
It is generally aflerted, that this fortrefs guards the
Sound *, and that all the fliips muft, on account of the
ftioal waters and currents, fleer fo near the batteries
as to be expofed to their fire in cafe of refufal. This,
hoAvever, is a miftaken notion. On account indeed of
the numerous and oppofite currents in the Sound, the
fafeft paffage lies near the fortrefs •, but the Avater in
any part is of fufficient depth for veffels to keep at a
diftance from the batteries, and the largeft flaps can
even fail clofe to the coaft of SAveden. The conftant
difcharge, however, of the toll, is not fo much oAving
to the ftrength of the fortrefs as to a compliance with
the public larv of Europe. Many difput.es have arifen
concerning the right by Avhich the crown of Denmark
impofes fuch a duty. The kings of SAveden, in parti¬
cular, claiming an equal title to the free paffage of
the Strait, Avere for feme time exempted by treaty
from paying it; but in 17 20, Frederic I. agreed that
all SAvedifh veffels fhould for the future be fubjedl t»
the ufual impofts. All veffels, befide a fmall dutA are
rated at 1^ per cent, of their cargoes, except the Irg-
liffi, French, Dutch, and SAvedifh, Avhich pay only
one per cent.-, and in return the crown takes the charge
of conftrudling light houfes, and eroding fignals to
mark the fhoals and rocks, from the Categate to the
entrance into the Baltic. The tolls of the Sound, and
of the tAvo Belts, fupply an annual revenue of above
ioo,oool.
ELVAS, a large toAvn, and one of the beft and
moft important in Portugal, feated in the province of
Alentejo, a feAV miles from the frontiers of Eftrema-
dura in Spain. It is built on a mountain, and is
ftrongly fortified with Avorks of free-ftone. The ftreets
of the toAvn are handfome, and the houfes neat and
there is a cittern fo large, that it Avill hold water
enough to fupply the whole town fix months. The
water is conveyed to it by a magnificent aquedud,
three
E L Y [ ;
Elvas" three miles in length, fuftained in forne places by four
or five high arches, one upon another. It was bom¬
barded by the French and Spaniards in 1706, but
without effect. It has generally a garrifon of 1000
men. The king founded an academy here, in 1733,
W. Long. 7, 28. N.
Lat. 38.
for young gentlemen.
39-
ELUDING, the aft of evading or rendering a
thing vain and of no effect •, a dexterous getting clear,
or eicaping out of an affair, difficulty, embarraffment,
or the like. We fay, to elude a propofition, &c. The
defign of chicanery is, to elude the force of the laws ;
This doftor has not refolved the difficulty, but eluded it.
Alexander, fays the hiftorian, in cutting the Gordian
knot, either eluded the oracle or fulfilled it: 11 le nequic-
quum ludfatus cum latentibus nodis, Nihil, in quit, interejl,
quomodo folvatur; gladioque ruptls omnibus Ions, oracuh
fortem vel eludit, vel implevit.
ELVELA, a genus of plants belonging to the
cryptogamia clafs, and order of fungi. The fungus is
turbinated, or like an inverted cone. See Botany
Index.
ELUL, in ancient chronology, the 12th month of
the Jewiih civil year, and the fixth of the ecclefiaftical:
it confifted of only 29 days, and anfwered pretty nearly
to our Auguft.
EL UT ill AT I ON, in Chemiflry, an operation per¬
formed by walking folid fubftances with water, ftirring
them well together, and haftily pouring off the liquid,
while the lighter part remains fufpended in it, that it
may thereby be feparated from the heavier part. By
this operation metallic ores are feparated from earth,
Hones, and other unmetallic particles adhering to
them.
ELY, a city and biffiop’s fee of Cambridgeffiire,
fituated about 12 miles north of Cambridge. E. Long,
o. 51. N. Lat. 52. 24. It is a county of itfelf, in¬
cluding the territory around ; and has a judge who de¬
termines all caufes civil and criminal within its limits.
The church hath undergone various alterations fince it
was firft eftabliffied by Etheldra, the wife of Egfride,
king of Northumberland, who founded a religious
houfe here, and planted it with virgins, and became
the firft abbefs of it herfelf. The Danes entirely
ruined this eftabliffiment 5 then Ethelwald, the 27th
biftiop of Winchefter, rebuilt the monaftery, and filled
it with monks 5 to whom King Edgar, and many
fucceeding monarchs, beftowed many privileges, and
great grants of land 5 fo that this abbey became in
procefs of time the bell of any in England. Richard,
the 11 th abbot, wiffiitig to free himfelf of the bifliop
of Lincoln, within whofe diocefe his monaftery was
lituated, and not liking fo powerful a fuperior, he made
great intereft with King Henry I. to get Ely erefted
into a biffiopric 5 and fpared neither purfe nor prayers
to bring this about. He even brought the biihop of
Lincoln to confent to it, by giving him and his fuccef-
fors the manors of Bugden, Bigglefwade, and Spald¬
ing, which belonged to the abbey, in lieu of his ju-
rifdi&ion ; but he lived not to tafte the fweets of his
induftry and ambition, he dying before his abbey was
erefled into a fee. His fucceffor was the firft biffiop
of Ely : but the great privileges the biffiop enjoyed
were almoft ■wholly taken away, or much reftrifted, by
the aft of parliament, 27th Henry VIII. regarding;
Vol. VIII. Part I.
5 ] ELY
the reftpring to the crown the ancient royalties : So, Ely
inftcad of being palatine of the iffe of Ely, the biffiop !1
and his temporal fteward were by that act declared to .
be from thenceforth juftices of the peace in the faid
iffand. This diocefe contains all Cambridgeffiire, and
the ifle of Ely, excepting Ifelham, which belongs to
the fee of Rochefter, and 15 other pariffies, that are
in the diocefe of Norwich 5 but it has a parilh in Nor¬
folk, viz. Emneth. The number of pariffies in this
diocefe are 141, whereof 75 are impropriate. It hath
but one archdeacon, viz. of Ely. It is valued in
the king’s books at 2134I. 18s. qd. The clergy’s
tenth amounting to the fum of 384I. 14s. qhd. The
biftiopric is computed to be worth annually 4000I.
The church, is dedicated to St Ethelred. The build¬
ing, as it now appears, has been the work of feveral
of its bilhops. The weft parts were rebuilt by Biffiop
Ridal \ the choir and lanthern were begun by Biffiop
Norwold, and firiiffied by Bifliop Frodfliam. This fee
hath given twm faints and two cardinals to the church
of Rome } and to the Engliffi nation nine lord chan¬
cellors, feven lord treafurers, one lord privy feal, one
chancellor of the exchequer, one chancellor to the uni-
verfity of Oxford, two mailers of the rolls, and three
almoners. To this cathedral belong a bifliop, a dean,
an archdeacon, eight prebendaries, with vicars, lay-
clerks, chorifters, a fehoolmafter, uffier, and 28 king’s
fcholars.
ELYMAIS, the capital city of the land of Elam,
or the ancient Perfia. We are told (1 Mac. vi. 1.)
that Antiochus Epiphanes, having underftood that
there were very great treafures lodged in a temple at
Elymais, determined to go and plunder it: but the
citizens getting intelligence of his defign, made an
infurreftion, forced him out of the city, and obliged him
to fly. The author of the fecond book of Maccabees
(ix. 2.) calls this city Perfepolis, in all probability
becaufe formerly it was the capital of Perfia 5 for it is
known from other accounts, that Perfepolis and
Elymais wrere two very different cities, the latter
fituated upon the Eulaeus, the former upon the
Araxis.
ELYMUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
triandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the fourth order, Gramina. See Botany
Index.
ELYOT, Sir Thomas, a gentleman of eminent
learning in the 16th century, was educated at Oxford,
travelled into foreign countries, and upon his return
was introduced to court. His learning recommended
him to Henry VIII. who conferred the honour of
knighthood on him, and employed him in feveral
embaffies : particularly in 1532, ..to Rome, about the
divorce of Queen Catharine, and afterwards to Charles
V. about 1536. He wrote, The Cajlle of Health, the
Governor, Banquet of Sapience, Of the Education of
Children, De rebus memorabilibus Ang/ice, and other
books; and was highly efteemed by all his learned
contemporaries.
ELYSIUM (jiLXvtrtoi), in the ancient theology, or
rather mythology, a place in the inferi or lower wrorld,
furniffied with fields, meads, agreeable woods, groves,
fliades, rivers, &c. whither the fouls of good people
were fuppofed to go after this life.
Orpheus, Hercules, and zEneas, were fuppofed to
D have
E L 2 [ 26 ] E M B
Elyfium, have defeended into Elyfium in their life time, and to
Elzevirs. ^ ]iave returned again (Virg. lib. vi. ver. 638, &c.) Ti¬
bullus (lib. i. eleg. 3.) gives us fine deferiptions of the
Elyfian fields.
Virgil oppofes Elyfium to Tartarus ; which was
the place where the wicked underwent their punifh-
ment.
Hie locus eft, partes abife via ftn(lit in ambas :
Dextera, quec Ditis magni fub mania tendit:
line iter Elyfium tiobis: at Icevu malorum
Exercet pcenas, et ad impia Tartara mittit.
He affigns Elyfium to thofe who died for their country,
to thofe of pure lives, to truly infpired poets, to the
inventors of arts, and to all who have done good to
mankind.
Some authors take the fable of Elyfium to have been
borrowed from the Phoenicians ; as imagining the name
Ely ftum formed from the Phoenician fry ala%, or yby u-
lats, or oby alas, “ to rejoice,” or “ to be in joythe
letter a being only changed into e, as wre find done in
many other names; as in Enakim for Anahim, &c. On
Tvhich footing, Elyfian fields thould fignify the fame
thing as a place of pleafure ; or,
■ Locos Icetos, et amcena vireta
Fortunatorum nemorum, fedefque beatas. VlRG.
Others derive the wTord from the Greek \vu, folvo, “ I
deliver, I let loofe or difengage becaufe here men’s
fouls are freed or difencumbered from the fetters of
the body. Beroaldus, and Hornius (Hift. Philofoph.
lib. iii. cap. 2.) take the place to have derived its name
from Eliza, one of the firfi perfons who came into
Greece after the deluge, and the author and father of
the /Etolians.
The Elyfian fields wrere, according to fome, in the
Fortunate iflands on the coaft of Africa, in the Atlan¬
tic. Others place them in the ifiand of Leuce ; and, ac¬
cording to the authority of Virgil, they were fituated
in Italy. According to Lucian, they wrere near the
moon ; or in the centre of the earth, if we believe Plu¬
tarch. Olaus Wormius contends that it was in Swe¬
den the Elyfian fields were placed.
ELZEVIRS, celebrated printers at Amfterdam
and Leyden, who greatly adorned the republic of let¬
ters with many beautiful editions of the beft authors of
antiquity. They fell fomewhat below the Stephenfes
in point of learning, as well as in their editions of Greek
and Hebrew authors ; but as to the choice of good
books, they feem to have equalled, and in the neatnels
and elegance of their fmall characters, greatly to have
exceeded them. Their Virgil, Terence, and Greek
Teftament, have been reckoned their mafterpieces; and
are indeed fo ver) fine, that they juftly gained them
the reputation of being the befl: printers in Europe.
There were five of thefe Elzevirs, namely, Lewis, Bo-
naventure, Abraham, Lewis, and Daniel. Lewis began
to be famous at Leyden in 1595, and was remarkable
for being the firft who obferved the diftinCtion between
the v confonant and u vowel, which had been recom¬
mended by Ramus and other waiters long before, but
never regarded. Daniel died in 1680 or 1681 ; and
though he left children who carried on the bufinefs,
pafies neverthelefs for the laft of his family who excel¬
led in it. The Elzevirs have printed feveral catalogues
5
of their editions ; but the lart, publiflied by Daniel, Elzevirs
is confiderably enlarged, and abounds with new books. II
It was printed at Amfterdam, 1674, in 121110, and Ernli::kn-
divided into feven volumes. ,
EMANATION, the act of flowing or proceeding
from fome fource or origin. Such is the emanation of
light from the fun ; or that of effluvia from odorous,
&c. bodies ; of wifdom from God, &c.—The word is
formed of the Latin e “ out of,” and manure “ to
fknv or ftream.”
Emanation is alfo ufed for the thing that pro¬
ceeds, as well as the act of proceeding. The power
given a judge is an emanation from the regal power;
the reafonable foul is an emanation from the Divinity.
EMANCIPATION, in the Roman lawr, the let¬
ting free a fon from the fubjedtion of his father ; fo
that ivhatever moveables he acquires belong in pro¬
perty to him, and not to his father, as before eman¬
cipation.
Emancipation puts the fon in a capacity of mana¬
ging his own affairs, and of marrying without his fa¬
ther’s confent, though a minor. Emancipation differs
from manumiflion, as the latter was the aeft of a mafter
in favour of a Have, whereas the former was that of a
father in favour of his fon.
There were two kinds of emancipation : the one
tacit, which was by the fon’s being promoted to fome
dignity, by his coming of age, or by his marrying ; in
all which cafes he became his oven mafter of courfe.
The other, exprefs; where the father declared before
a judge, that he emancipated his fon. In performing
this, the father vras firft to fell his fon imaginarily to
another, whom they called pater fiduciarius, father in
truft ; of whom being bought back again by the natu¬
ral father, he manumitted him before the judge by a
verbal declaration.
Emancipation formerly obtained in France with re¬
gard to minors or pupils, who w'ere hereby fet at liberty
to manage their own effects, without the advice or di¬
rection of their parents or tutors.
EMARGINATED, among botanifts. Sec Bo¬
tany Index.
EMASCULATION, the a£t of caftrating or de¬
priving a male of thofe parts which characterize his fex.
See Castration and Eunuch.
EMAUS, Emmaus, or Ammaus, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a village, 60 ftadia to the north-weft of Jeru-
falem, or about feven miles : it afterw ards became a
town, and a Roman colony, Nicopolis, (Jerome). Re¬
land has another Emmaus torvards Lydda, 22 miles
from Jerufalem, (Itinerary) ; a third, near Tiberias.
EMBALMING, is the opening a dead body, ta¬
king out the inteftines, and filling the place with odo¬
riferous and deficcative drugs and fpices, to prevent
its putrefying. The Egyptians excelled all other na¬
tions in the art of preferving bodies from corruption ;
for fome that they have embalmed upwards of 2000
years ago, remain whole to this day, and are often
brought into other'countries as great curiofities. Their
manner of embalming was thus : they fcooped the
brains with an iron fcoop out at the noftrils, and threw
in medicaments to fill up the vacuum : they alfo took
out the entrails, and having filled the body with myrrh,
caflia, and other fpices, except frankincenfe, proper to
dry Up the humours, they pickled it in nitre, where it
E M B [ 27 ] E M B
jjvibaiming lay foaking for yo days. The body was then wrapped
Jim Lr-o ui> *n bandages of fine linen and gums, to make it itick
T 'i like glue •, and lb was delivered to the kindred of the
dcceafed, entire in all its features, the very hairs of
the eye-lids being preferved. They ufed to keep the
bodies of their anceltors, thus embalmed, in little houfes
magnificently adorned, and took great pleafure in be¬
holding them, alive as it were, without any change in
their iize, features, or complexion. The Egyptians
alio embalmed birds, &c. The prices for embalming
were different; the highelt was a talent, the next 20
mince, and fo decrealing to a very fmall matter: but
they who had not wherewithal to anfuer this expence,
contented themfelves with infufing, by means of a
fyringe, through the fundament, a certain liquor ex-
tradled from the cedar 5 and, leaving it there, wrap¬
ped up the body in lalt of nitre : the oil thus preyed
upon the inteitines, fo that when they took it out, the
inteflines came away with it, dried, and not in the
lead putrified ; the body being enclofed in nitre, grew
dry, and nothing remained befdes the Ikin glued upon
the bones.
The method of embalming ufed by the modern E-
gyptians, according to Maillet, is to walh the body fe-
yeral times with rofe-water, which, he elfewhere ob-
ferves, is more fragrant in that country than with us 5
they afterwards perfume it with incenfe, aloes, and a
quantity of other odours, of which they are by no
means fparing •, and then they bury the body in a
winding iheet, made partly of filk and partly of cot¬
ton, and moiltened, as is fuppofed, with f/me fweet-
fcented water or liquid perfume, though Maillet ufes
only the term moijiened; this they cover with another
cloth of unmixed cotton, to which they add one of the
richelf fuits of clothes of the deceafed. The expence,
he fays, on thefe occafions, is very great, though no¬
thing like what the genuine embalming coif in former
times.
EMBARCADERO, in commerce, a Spanifh term,
much ufed along the coalts of America, particularly
thole on the fide of the Soutlx fea. It fignifies a place
which ferves fome other confiderable city farther with¬
in land, for a port or place of Ihipping, i. e. of em¬
barking and difembarking commodities. Thus Calao
is the embarcadero of Lima, the capital of Peru; and
Arica the embarcadero of Potofi. There are fome em-
barcaderos 40, 50, and even 60 leagues oft' the city
which they ferve in that capacity.
EMBARGO, in commerce, an arreft on Ihips or
merchandife, by public authority ; or a prohibition of
Rate, commonly on foreign ftnps, in time of war, to
prevent their going out of port, fometimes to prevent
their coming in, and fometimes both, for a limited
time.
The king may lay embargoes on Ihips, or employ
thofe of his fubje&s, in time of danger, for the fervice
and defence of the nation; but they muft not be for
the private advantage of a particular trader or com¬
pany 5 and therefore a warrant to flay a fingle ftiip is
no legal embargo. No inference can be made from
embargoes which are only in war-time 5 and are a pro¬
hibition by advice of council, and not at profecution of
parties. If goods be laden on board, and after an em¬
bargo or reftraint from the prince or ftate comes forth,
and then the mafter of the (hip breaks ground, or en¬
deavours to fail, if any damage accrues, he muft be re- Embargo
fponfible for the fame 5 the reafon is, becaufe his freight , il
is due, and muft be paid, even though the goods be .
feized as contraband. v
EMBARRASS, (Embarrq/Jment), a French term,
though now naturalized ; denoting a difficulty or obfta-
cle which perplexes or confounds a perfon, &c.
EMBASSADOR. See Ambassador.
EMBASSY, the office or funclion of an Ambassa¬
dor.
_ EMBDEN, a port-town and city of Germany, ca¬
pital of a county of the fame name, now in pofieffion of
the king of Pruffia j it is fituated at the mouth of the
river Ens. E. Long. 6. 45. N. Lat. 53. 50.
EMBER-v/eeks, are thofe wherein the ember or
embring days fall.
In the laws of King Alfred, and thofe of Canute,
thofe days are called ymbren, that is, circular days,
from whence the word was probably corrupted into
ember-days : by the canonifts they are called quatuor
anni tempora, the four cardinal feafons, on which the
circle of the year turns : and hence Henfhaw takes the
word to have been formed, viz. by corruption from
temper, of tempora.
The ember-days are, the Wednefday, Friday, and
Saturday, after Quadragefima Sunday, after Whit-
fun day,. after Holy-rood day in September, and after
St Lucia’s day in December : which four times anfwer
well enough to the four quarters of the year, Sprino-,
Summer, Autumn, and Winter.
Mr Sonmer thinks they were originally falls, infti-
tuted to beg God’s bleffing on the fruits of the earth.
Agreeable to which, Skinner fuppofes the wmrd ember
taken from the allies, embers, then ftrewed on the head.
Thefe ember-weeks are now chiefly taken notice of,
on account of the ordination of priefts and deacons ;
becaufe the canon appoints the Sundays next fucceeding
the ember-weeks, for the folemn times of ordination ;
Though the biftiops, if they pleafe, may ordain on any
Sunday or holiday.
EMBERIZA, a genus of birds belonging to the or¬
der of pafleres. See Ornithology Index.
EMBLEM, a kind of painted amigma, which, re-
prefenting fome obvious hiftory, with reflexions under¬
neath, inftruXs us in fome moral truth or other matter
of knowledge. See Devise, ZEnigma, &c.
Such is that very fignificant image of Scaevola hold-
ing his hand in the fire ; with the words, Agere et pad
for titer Romanum efl, “ To do and fuffer courageoully
is Roman.”
The word is pure Greek, formed of the verb ipZctX-
Xttv, “ to call in, to infert.” Suetonius relates, that
Tiberius made the word be erafed out of the decree of
the Roman fenate, becaufe borrowed from another lan¬
guage.
The emblem is fomewhat plainer and more obvious
than the amigma. Gale defines emblem an ingenious
piXure, reprefenting one thing to the eye, and another
to the underftanding.
The Greeks alfo gave the name Emblems, cpQxrtpct%,
to inlayed or mofaic works, and even to all' kinds of
ornaments of vafes, moveables, garments, &c. And
the Latins ufed emblema in the fame fenfe. Accordingly,
Cicero reproaching Verres with the ftatues and fine
Wrought works he had plundered from the Sicilians,
•D % calls
Emblem
Embroi¬
dery.
E M B [ 28 ] E M E
calls the ornaments fixed thereto (and which on occa-
fion might be feparated from them) emblemata. Add,
that Latin authors frequently compare the figures and
ornaments fof cdifcourfe to thefe emblemata. Thus, an
ancient Latin poet praifing an orator, fays, that all his
words were ranged like the pieces in mofaic :
%>uam lepide conipoftce^ ut teJferuLe omnes.
At te pavimentiy atque emblernate vermiculato.
With us emblem ordinarily fignifies no more than a
painting, baffo-relievo, or other reprefentation, intend¬
ed to hold forth fome moral or political inftruflion.
What diftinguilhes an emblem from a devife is, that
the words of an emblem have a full complete fenfe of
themfelves •, nay, all the fenfe and fignification which
they have, together with the figure. But there is a yet
further difference between emblem and devife : for a
devife is a fymbol appropriated to fome perfon, or that
expreffes fomething which concerns him particularly j
whereas an emblem is a fymbol that regards all the
world alike.
Thcfc differences will be more apparent, from com¬
paring the emblem above quoted, with the devife of a
candle lighted, and the words Juvando confumor, “ I
wafte myfelf in doing good.” See Devise.
EMBOLISMUS, EpZoXir!*<><, in Chronologyy,figni-
fies “ intercalation.” The word is formed of iuHxXXuvy
“ to infert.”
As the Greeks made ufe of the lunar year, which is
®nly 354 days j in order to bring it to the folar, which
is 365 years, they had every two or three years an em-
bolifm, i. e. they added a 13th lunar month every two
or three years, which additional month they called em-
bolimceuSy iyJaoXipMtiy becaufe inferted, or intercalated.
EMBOSSING, or ImbossiNG, in Architecture' and
Sculpture, the forming or falhioning works in relievo,
whether cut with a chifel or otherwife.
Emboffing is a kind of fculpture, wherein the figures
Hick out from the plane whereon it is cut : and ac¬
cording as the figures are more or lefs prominent, they
are faid to be in alto, mezzo, or baffo, relievo ; or high,
mean, or low relief. See Enchasing.
EMBOTHRIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the tetrandria clafs. See Botany Index.
EMBRASURE, in ArchiteBure, the enlargement
made of the aperture of a door or window on the infide
of the wall 5 its ufe being to give the greater play for
the opening of the door or cafement, or to admit the
more light.
EMBROCATION, in Surgery and Pharmacy, .an
external kind of remedy, which confifts in an irrigation
of the part affefled, with fome proper, liquor, as oils,
fpirits, &c. by means of a woollen or linen cloth, or a
fponge, dipped in the fame.
EMBROIDERY, a work in gold, or filver, or filk
thread, wrought by the needle upon cloth, fluffs, or
muflin, into various figures. In embroidering fluffs,
the work is performed in a kind of loom 5 becaufe the
more the piece is ftretched, the eafier it is worked.
As to muflin, they fpread it upon a pattern ready de-
figned •, and fometimes, before it is ftretched upon the
pattern, it is ftarched, to make it more eafy to handle.
Embroidery on the loom is lefs tedious than the other,
in which, while they work flowers, all the threads of
the muflin, both length wife and breadth wife, muft be
continually counted 5 but, on the other hand, this laft Embroidery
is much richer in points, and fufceptible of greater va- Emj|ay
riety. Cloths too much milled are fcarce fufceptible t ' ~ " ' 1
of this ornament, and in effect we feldom fee them em¬
broidered. The thinneft muflins are left for this pur-
pofe , and they are embroidered to the greateft per¬
fection in Saxony *, in other parts of Europe, how¬
ever, they embroider very prettily, and efpecially in
France.
There are feveral kinds of embroidery : as, 1. Em¬
broidery on the ftamp 5 where the figures are raifed and
rounded, having cotton or parchment put under them
to fupport.them. 2. Low embroidery ; where the gold
and filver lie low upon the fketch, and are Hitched with
filk of the fame colour. 3. Guirfiped embroidery : this
is performed either in gold or filver ; they firft make
a fketch upon the cloth, then put on cut vellum, and
afterwards few on the gold and filver with filk thread :
in this kind of embroidery they often put gold and fil¬
ver cord, tinfcl, and fpanglcs. 4. Embroidery on both
tides *, that which appears on both fides of the fluff .
5. Plain embroidery where the figures are flat and
even, without cords, fpangles, or other ornaments.
By flat. 22 Geo. II. c. 36. no foreign embroidery,
or gold and filver brocade, fhall be imported, upon
pain of being forfeited and burnt, and penalty of 100I.
for each piece. No perfon fhall fell, or expofe to fale,
any foreign embroidery, gold and filver thread, lace,
fringe, brocade, or make up the fame into any garment,
on pain of having it forfeited and burnt, and penalty
of look All fueh embroidery, &c. may be feized
and burnt; and the mercer, &c. in whofe cuftody it
was found, fliall forfeit 100I.
EMBRUN, or Ambrun, a city of Dauphiny, in
France, near the confines of Piedmont. E. Long. 6. 6.
N. Lat. .44. 35.
EMBRYO, in Phyfiology, the firft rudiments of an
animal in the womb, before the feveral members are
diftinftly formed; after which period it is denominated
a fetus. See Generation and Fetus.
EMERALD, a precious ftone belonging to the
genus of filiceous earth. The word is derived, ac¬
cording to fome, from the French efmaraude, and that
from the Latinfnaragdus, fignifying the fame thing ;
by others it is laid to be derived from the Italian fme-
raldo, or the Arabian nomorrad. According to Cron-
ftedt the emerald is the fofteft of all the precious ft ones,
though other naturalifts place it the next after the dia¬
mond in this refpedl. It is perhaps the moft beautiful
of all the gems, and, according to Wallerius, when
heated in the fife, changes its colour to a deep blue,
and becomes phofphorefcent; but recovers its green
colour when cold. When pulverized it has a white ap¬
pearance, and, with borax, melts to a very thin and
colourlefs glafs. It becomes eledlric by being rubbed,
and fome have the property of the tourmalin, viz. of
being eleftrified by heat, and in that ftate attracting
alhes or other light fubftances; though the emeralds
are lefs powerful tlian the tourmalin, and after having
attracted the allies, they retain them without any figns
of repulfion.
Pliny mentions twelve different kinds of thefe pre¬
cious ftones 5 though it appears, from the vaft fize of
fome of them, that they mult have been only certain
kinds of green fpar, or other green ftone, which at that
time
E M E [ ~ 2 9
Emerald, time went under the name of emerald among the an-
cients. The true emerald is found only in very fmall
ciyllals, from the lize of x^th of an inch in diameter
to that of a walnut. Theophraitus, however, men¬
tions one four cubits long and three broad ; likewife
an obeliik compoled of only four emeralds, the whole
length being 40 cubits, and the breadth from four to two.
Engcltroom informs us, that the emeralds, in their
rough or native ilate, confiit of hexagonal columns
moitly truncated at both ends } and that he had lome
in his poileilion, which in a gentle heat became
colourlefs; but in a itrong heat white and opaque,
without any mark of fuiion. JBrunick diitinguiihes
them into two ciaifes. 1. The pale green emerald,
which comes from the call and from Peru, the ligure
being that of an hexagonal truncated prifm, and the bads
a vein of white quartz. 2. The dark green eme¬
rald, which is alfo columnar, but very dark coloured,
itriped longitudinally, and has little tranlparency. The
points are generally broken off longitudinally, though
JDa/ila mentions one refembling a blunt triangular
pyramid 5 and in the Imperial cabinet at Vienna there
is one with a iive-dded pyramid. Thefe are the emeralds
which become electrical by heat; though all of them
do not; and thole which do fo cannot be kno wn but
by actual experiment. The fried Ipecimen of the
former kind of emeralds is to be If en in the treafury of
the holy chapel of Loretto, containing upwards of
IOO of thefe precious dones great and fmall. A fel¬
low to this was made by art, and both were prefents to
the king of Sicily, defigned to reprefent two Mount
Calvaries.
Emeralds are didinguifhed by the jewellers into two
kinds, the oriental and occidental. The true oriental
emerald is very fcarce, and at prefent only found in the
kingdom of Cambay. So great indeed is the fcareiiy
of them, that an opinion prevailed that there are no
oriental emeralds. This opinion is adopted, among
others, by Mr Bruce; who informs us, that he made an
excurfion to the iiland of emeralds in the Red fea, and
endeavours to ihow that there never were any emeralds
but what came from America, and that thofe faid to
have been found in the Ealt Indies were imported from
that continent. It is probable indeed, that in former
times any ki d of cryftal tinged of a green colour might
be called an emerald,, and hence the green cockle /par
brought from Egypt may have obtained the name of
mother of emeralds; but of late fome emeralds have been
brought from Cambay into Italy which greatly excel¬
led thofe of America. The bed emeralds of the weilem
continent come from Peru, and are called oriental by
the jewellers : fome are found in Europe, principally in .
the duchy of Silelia in Germany.
Rough Emeralds.—Thofe of the fird and coarfed
fort, called p/afmes, lor grinding, are worth 27 ihikings
llerling the marc, or S ounces. The demi-morillons, 81.
fterling per marc. Good morillons, which are only lit¬
tle pieces, but of fine colour, from 13I. to 1 $1. per marc.
Emeralds, larger than morillons, and called of the third
colour or fort, are valued at from 50I. to 60I. the marc.
Emeralds, called of the fecond fort, which are in larger
and finer pieces than the preceding, are worth from
65I. to 75I. per marc. Ladly, thofe of the fird co¬
lour, other wife called negres cartes, axe worth from x 10I.
to 115I.
] E M E
EMERALDS ready cut, orpolijjjed and not cut, being of Emeralds
goodJlone, and a fne colour, are worth-—
Thofe weighing one carat, or four grains
Thofe of two carats    
Thofe o± three carats    
Thofe of four carats —  
Thofe of five carats   ——
Thofe of fix carats       
Thofe of feven carats   
Thofe of eight carats     
Thofe of nine carats    
Thofe of ten carats    
3
4
7
*9
23
33
7
5
10
10
10
o
o
.0
G
To counterfeit EMERALDS: Take of natural crydai,
four ounces; ol red lead, four ounces; verdegris.
r 7 . o # *
iorty-eight grams 5 crocus rnartis, prepared with vi¬
negar, eight grains ; let the whole be finely pulverized
and fitted j put this into a crucible, leaving one inch
empty : lute it well, and put it into a potter’s furnace,
and let it Hand there as long as they do their jiots.
\v hen cold, break the crucible } and you will find a
matter of a fine emerald colour, which, after it is cut
and let in gold, will furpals in beauty an oriental eme¬
rald.
EMERSION, in Phyjics, the riling of any folid
above the furlace of a tiuid Ipecxfically heavier than
itfelf, into which it had been violently immerged or
thrud.
It is one of the known laws of hydrodatics, that a
lighter folid being forced down into a heavier fluid,
immediately endeavours to emerge j and that with a
force or moment equal to the excefs of weight of a
quantity of the fluid above that of an equal bulk of
the folid. Thus, if a folid be immerged. in a fluid of
double its fpccific gravity, it will emerge again till half
its bulk or body be above the furface of the fluid.
Emersion, in Afronomy, is when the fun, moon, or
other planet, begins to re-appear, after its having been
eclipfed, or hid by the interpofition of the moon, earth,
or other body.
The difference of longitude is fometimes found by
obferving the immerfions and emerfions of the fird of
Jupiter’s iatellites. The immerfions are obferved from
the time of Jupiter’s being in conjunction with the fun
to his oppofition 5 arid the emerfions, from the oppofi-
tion to the conjunction 5 which two intervals are ufually
fix months a-piece, and divide the year between them.
But when Jupiter is in conjunction with the fun, and
15 days before and afterwards, there is nothing to be
obferved 5 the planet, with his fatellites, being then loft
in the light of the fun.
Emersion is alfu ufed when a ifar before hid by
the fun, as being too near him, begins to re-appear and
to get out of his rays.
EMERSON, William, an eminent mathemati¬
cian, was born in June 1701, at Hurworth, a village
aoout three miles fouth of Darlington ; at leaf! it is
certain that he refided here from his childhood. .His
rather Dudley E me Ton was a tolerable proficient in
mathematics j and without his books and mftruclions
perhaps his own genius (moft eminently fitted for ma¬
thematical difquilitions) would have never been un¬
folded. He was mdructed in the learned languages
by a young clergyman, then curate of Hurworth, who
was
E M E [ 30 1 E M E
was boarded at his father’s houfe. In the earlier part
of his life he attempted to teach a few fcholars : but
whether from his concife method (for he was not hap¬
py in explaining his ideas), or the warmth of his natu¬
ral temper, he made no progrefs in his fchool: he
therefore foon let it off j and iatisfied with a moderate
competence left him by his parents, he devoted himielf
to a lludious retirement. Towards the clofe of the year
1781 (being fenfible of his approaching diilolution),
he difpofed of the whole of his mathematical library to
a bookfeller at York j and on IMay 20th i'782, he died
of a lingering and painful diforder at his native village,
aged near 81 years.
Mr Emerfon in his perfon was rather (hort, but
ftrong and well made, with an open countenance and
ruddy complexion. He was exceedingly lingular in
his drefs. He had but one coat, which he always
wore open before, except the lower button } no w'aiff-
coat •, his Ihirt quite the reverfe of one in common ufe,
no opening before, but buttoned dole at the collar be¬
hind ; a kind of flaxen wig which had not a crooked
hair in it, and probably had never been tortured with
a comb from the time of its being made. He always
■walked up to London when he had any thing to pub-
lifti, reviling Iheet by Iheet himfelfTrufling no eyes
but his own, was always a favourite maxim w(th him.
He never advanced any mathematical propofition that
he had not firft tried in pradice, conflantly making all
the different parts himfelf on a fmall fcale, fo that his
houfe was filled with all kinds of mechanical inftru-
ments together or disjointed. He would frequently
Hand up to his middle in water while filhing, a diver-
lion he was remarkably fond of. He ufed to ftudy
inceffantly for fome time, and then for relaxation take
a ramble to any pot-alehoule where he could get any
body to drink with and talk to. The duke of Manchei-
ter Avas highly pleafed Avith his company, and ufed of¬
ten to come to him in the fields and accompany him
home, but could never perfuade him to get into a car¬
riage. On thefe occafions he Avould fometimes exclaim,
“ Damn your whim-Avham ! I had rather Avalk. ’ He
was a married man 5 and his Avife ufed to fpin on. an
old-falhioned Airheel, whereof a very accurate drawing
is given in his mechanics^ He was deeply fkilled in the
fcience of mufic, the theory of founds, and the various
fcales both ancient and modern, but was a very poor
performer.
The following is a lift of Mr Emerfon’s Avorks.
I. The Do&rine of Fluxions. 2. The proje&ion of
the Sphere, orthographic, ftereographic, and gnomo-
nieal. 3. The Elements of Trigonometry. 4. The
Principles of Mechanics. 5. A Treatife of Naviga¬
tion on the Sea. 6. A Treatife of _ Algebra, in two
books. 7. The Arithmetic of Infinites, and the diffe¬
rential Method, illuftrated by Examples. 8. Mecha-
nics , or the Do&rine of Motion. 9. The Elements
of Optics, in four books. 10. A Syftem of Aftronomy.
II. The Luavs of Centripetal and Centrifugal Force.
12. The Mathematical Principles of Geography. 13.
Tra&s, 8vo. 14. Cyclomathefis } or an ealy Introduc¬
tion to the feveral branches of the Mathematics. 15.
A Ihort comment on Sir Ifaac NeAvton’s Principia 5 to
which is added, A Defence of Sir Ifaac againft the ob-
icftions that have been made to feveral Parts of his
Works. 16, A Mifcellaneous Treatife, containing Emeribn,
feveral Mathematical Subjects, 8vo, 1776. Emery.
EMERY, in 'Natural tlijlary, a rich iron ore found -y—*
in large mafles of no determinate lhape or fize, extreme¬
ly hard, and very heavy. It is ulually of a duiky
brownilh red on the furface j but when broken, is of a
fine bright iron-gray, but not Avithout fome tinge of
rednefs ; and is fpangled all over with ihining fpecks,
which are fmall flakes of a foliaeeous talc, highly im¬
pregnated with iron. It is alfo fometimes very red, and
then ufually contains veins of gold. It makes no efter-
vefcence Avith any of the acid menftruums 3 and is
found in fome of the Greek iflands, in Tufcany, and
fome parts of Germany.
Dr Lewis is of opinion, that fome kinds of emery
may contain the metal called platina, and on this fub-
ject has the following curious obfervations. “ Alonfo
Barba mentions a fubftance called chumpi; which is a
hard ftone of the emery kind, participating of iron, of
a gray colour fliining a little, A ery hard to Avork, be-
caufe it reflfts the fire much, found in Potofi, Chocaya,
and other places, along Avith blackifh and reddiih ores
that yield gold. If platina is really found in largo
maffes, either generally or only noAV and then, ono
might reafonably expect thofe maffes to be fuch as are
here defcribed.
“ Of the fame kind perhaps alfo is the mineral men¬
tioned by feveral authors under the name of Spanifli
emery, fmiris Hi/pamcus, Avhich fliould feem, from the
accounts given of it, to be no other than platina or its
matrix. The ftniris is laid to be found in the gold
mines, and its exportation prohibited j to contain film*
or veins of native gold j to be in great requeft among
the alchemifts ; to have been fometimes ufed for the
adulteration of gold j to ftand, equally with the noble
metal, cupellation, quartation, antimony, and the regal
cement •, and to be feparable from it by amalgamation
Avith mercury, Avhich throws out the fmiris and retain*
the gold ; properties flrongly charaeferiftic of platina,
and which do not belong to any knoAvn fubftance be-
fides. This debafement of gold per extraSlum fmiridis
Hifpanici is mentioned by Becher in his Minera arena-
ria, and fcveral times hinted at in his F hi ft ca fulterra-
nea. Both Becher and Stahl indeed cali the fubftance
Avhich the gold receives from the emery an earth,
Avhereas platina is undoubtedly a metal j but this does
not at all invalidate our fuppofition, for they give the
name of earth alfo to the fubftance Avhich copper re¬
ceives from calamine in being made into brafs, which
is now knoAvn to be metallic.
“ From thefe obfervations I have been led to fuf-
pecl, that the European emeries likeAvife might pof-
fibly participate of platina. If this Avas certain, it
Avould account falisfaclorily for the ufe Avhich fome of
the alchemifts are faid to have made of emeries and
other ferruginous ores , and Ave fhould no longer
doubt, or Avonder, that by treating gold Avith thefe
kinds of minerals, they obtained a permanent augmen¬
tation ; that this augmentation, though it refifted lead,
antimony, aquafortis, and the regal cement, Avas fepa¬
rable, as Becher OAvns it was, by quickfilver} and that,
when it exceeded certain limits, it rendered the gold
pale and brittle.
** If emery contains platina, I imagined it might
b*
E M 1 [ 31 ]
Emery be difcoverable by boiling the powdered mineral in
EMM
Emir me^ted kad, and afterwards working off the lead upon
  y a teft or cupel. 'I'he experiment was made with eight
ounces of the fineft powder of common emery, and the
lame quantity of lead j which were covered with black
flux to prevent the fcorification of the lead, and urged
with a ftrong fire for two or three hours. The lead
became hard, rigid, of a dark colour, and a granulated
texture, as if it had really imbibed fome platina from
the emery } but in cupellation it worked almoft entirely
off, leaving only a head about the fize of a fmall pin’s
head, which was probably no other than filver contain¬
ed in the lead.
“ I repeated the experiment with fome variation,
thinking to obtain a more perfect refolution of the
emery by vitrifying it with the lead. Two ounces of
fine emery and fix ounces of minium u'ere well mixed
together, and urged with a ftrong fire, in a clofe cru¬
cible, for an hour : they melted into an uniform dark
brownilh glafs. The glafs was powdered, mixed with
four ounces of fixt alkaline fait and fome powdered
charcoal, and put into a frelh crucible, with fome com¬
mon fait on the furface : The fire was pretty ftrongly
excited ; but the fufion was not fo perfect as could %e
wilhed, and only about two ounces of lead were found
revived. This lead had fuffered nearly the fame change
as that in the foregoing experiment; and like it, gave
no appearance of platina on being cupelled.
It feems to follow from thefe experiments, that
the emery employed in them contained no platina; but
as it is not to be fuppofed that all emeries are of one
compofition, other forts may deferve to be fubmitted
to the fame trials. As gold is contained in fome par¬
cels of common minerals, and by no means in all the
individuals of any one fpecies ; platina may poflibly in
like manner be found in fome European ores, though
there is not the leaft footftep of it in other parcels of
the fame kind of ore.”
EMETICS, medicines that induce vomiting. See
Materia Medic a Index.
EMI MS, ancient inhabitants of the land of Canaan
beyond Jordan, who rvere defeated by Chedorlaomer
and his allies, Gen. xiv. 5. Mofes tell us, that they
were beaten in Shaveh Kirjathaim, which was in the
country of Sihon conquered from the Moabites, Jolh.
xm: i9-7-21- The Emims were a warlike people, of
a gigantic ftature, great and many, and tall as the A-
nakims.
EMINENCE, in Geography, a little hillock or af-
cent above the level of the adjoining champaign.
Eminence is alfo a title of honour given to cardi¬
nals. The decree of the Pope, whereby it was appoint¬
ed that the cardinals fhould be addreffed under the qua-
Lty of eminence, bears date the 10th of January 1630.
j hey then laid afide the titles of illujlriflbni and reve-
rendiffimi, which they had borne before.
The grand mafter of Malta is likewife addreffed un¬
der the quality of eminence. The popes John VIII.
mid Gregory VII. gave the fame title to the kings of
nance. The emperors have likewife borne it.
Eminenti/Jimus, the fuperlative of eminent, has of late
been attributed to the cardinals.
EMIR, a title of dignity among the Turks, fiuni¬
fying a prince.
This title was firft given to the caliphs j but when
they affumed the title of Sultans, that of emir remain¬
ed to their children ; as that of Caefar among the Ro¬
mans. At length the title came to be attributed to
all who were judged to defeend from Mahomet by his
daughter I’atimah, and who wear the green turban in-
ftead of the white. The Turks make an obfervation,
that the emirs, before their fortieth year, are men of
the greateft gravity, learning, and v’ifdom ; but after
this, if they are not great fools, they difeover fome
figns of levity and ftupidity. This is interpreted by
the Turks as a fort of divine impulfe in token of their
birth and fan&ity. The Turks alfo call the vizirs, ba-
fhaws, or governors of provinces, by this name.
EMISSARY, in a political fenle, a perfon employ¬
ed by another to found the opinions of people, fpread
c( i tain reports, or act as a fpy over other people’s ac¬
tions.
E MISS AS T VeJJ'els, in Anatomy, the fame with thofe
more commonly called Excretory.
EMISSION, in Medicine, a term ufed chiefly to
denote. the ejaculation of the femen or feed in the act
of coition. See Coition and Generation.
EMMANUEL, or Immanuel, a Hebrew word,
which fignifies ‘ God with us.’ Ifaiah (viii. 14.), in
that celebrated prophecy, wherein he declares to Ahaz
the birth of the Mefhah, who wras to be born of a vir¬
gin, fays, This child ftiall be called, and really be, Em¬
manuel, that is, God with us. The fame prophet (viii,
8.) repeats the fame thing, while he is fpeaking of the
enemy’s army, which, like a torrent, was to overflow
Judea. ‘ The ftretching out of his wings fhall fill the
breadth of. thy land, O Emmanuel.’ The evangelift
Mathew (i. 23.) informs us, that this prophecy was
accompliflied in the birth of Chrift, born of the virgin
Mary, in whom the two natures divine and human
w’ere united, and fo in this fenfe, he was really Emma¬
nuel, or ‘ God with us.’
EMMERICK, a rich fortified town of Germany
in the circle of Weftphalia, and duchy of Cleves. It
carries on a good trade with the Dutch, and both
Proteftants and Catholics have the free exercife of their
religion. The ftreets are neat and regular, and the
houfes tolerably built. It was taken by the French in
1672, and delivered to the eleaor of Brandenburg in
1673, under whofe jurifliftion it now is. It is feated
near the Rhine. E. Long. 5. 29. N. Lat. c2. c.
EMMIUS, Ubbo, born at Gretha in Eaft^Frief-
land m 1547, was a very learned profeffor, and chofen
recLor of the college of Norden in 1579. This femi-
nary flourifhed exceedingly under his care ; and de¬
clined as vifibly after he was ejected, in 1587, for re¬
filling 10 fubferibe the Confeflion of AuglLurg'. The
year after, he was made redtor of the college of Leer ;
and when the city of Groningen confederated with the
United Provinces, the magiftrates appointed him rec¬
tor of that college : which employment he filled with the
higheft repute near 20 years ; until, the college being
erected into an univerfity, he was the firft reftor, and
one .of the . chief ornaments of it by his lectures, till
his infirmities prevented his public appearance. His
vdldom was equal to his learning ; fo that the gover¬
nor of Frielland and Groningen often confulted him,
and feldom failed to follow his advice. He wrote-
Veins
Emouy.
Emmlus Veius Gracia illujlrata, 3 vols j Decades Rerum Frejj-
carum ; and many other valuable works. He died in
1625. . . .
EMMENiVGOGUES, Ef.i^vuyuyct in Medicine,
fuch remedies as promote the menftrual difcharge.
They are thus called from iv “ in,” “ month,” otyv
duco, “ I lead,” becaufe their natural periods of flowing
are once a-month.
EMOLLIENTS, in Medicine and Pharmacy, are
fuch remedies as {heath and {'often the afperity of the
humours, and relax and fupple the folids at the iame
time.
EMOLUMENT, is properly applied to the profits
arifing daily from an office or employ. The word is
formed of the Latin emolumentum, which, according to
fome, primarily fignifies the profits redounding to the
miller from his mill} of rnolo, tnolere, “ to grind.”—-
The patent, or other inftrument, whereby a perfon is
preferred to an office, gives him a right to enjoy all the
duties, honours, profits, and emoluments belonging
thereto.—Emolument is alfo ufed, in a fomewhat greater
latitude, for profit or advantage in the general. _
EMOTION and Passion, in the human mind, are
* Elem. of thus diftinguiffied by a celebrated writer *. An inter-
Criticifm, nal motion or agitation of the mind, when it paffeth
vol. i. p-45-away without defire, is denominated an emotion : when
defire follows, the motion or agitation is denominated
a pajjion. A fine face, for example, raifeth in me a
pleafant feeling : if that feeling vaniffi without produ¬
cing any effeft, it is in proper language an emotion;
but if the feeling, by reiterated views of the objeft, be¬
comes ffifficiently ftrong to occafion defire, it lofes its
name of emotion, and acquires" that of pajjion. The
fame holds in all the other paffions. The painful feel¬
ing raifed in a fpedfator by a flight injury done to a
ftranger, being accompanied with no defire of revenge,
is termed an emotion; but that injury raifeth in the
ftranger a {Longer emotion, which being accompanied
with defire of revenge, is a paffion. External expref-
fions of diftrefs produce in the fpeftator a painful feel¬
ing, which being fometimes fo flight as to pafs an ay
without any effect, is an emotion *, but if the feeling
be fo ftrong as to prompt defire of aftbrding relief, it
is a paflion, and is termed pity. Envy is emulation in
excels : if the exaltation of a competitor be barely
difagreeable, the painful feeling is an emotion ; if it
produce defire to deprefs him, it is a paflion. See
Passion.
EMOUY, or Hia-men, an ifland and port of
China, under the jurifdietion of the province of Fo-
KIEN.
The port is properly but an anchoring-place for
{hips, inclofed on one fide by the ifland from which it
takes its name, and on the other by the main-land :
but it is fo extenfive, that it can contain feveral thou-
fands of veffels 5 and the depth of its water is fo great,
that the largeft (hips may lie clofe to the fhore without
danger.
In the beginning of the prefent century it was
much frequented by European veffels-, but few vifit
it at prefent, as all the trade is carried on at Canton.
The emperor keeps here a garrifon of 6 or 7000 men,
commanded by a Chinefe general. In entering this
road, a large rock muft be doubled which Hands at the
mouth of it, and divides it almoft as the Mingant di¬
vides the harbour of Breft. This rock is vifiblc, and ( Fmcuy.
rifes feveral feet above the furface of the water.
The ifland of Emouy is particularly celebrated on
account of the magnificence of its principal pagod,
confecrated to the deity Fo. This temple is fituated
in a plain, terminated on one fide by the fea, and on
the other by a lofty mountain. Before it the fea,
flowing through different channels, forms a large Iheet
of Avater which is bordered rvith turf of the moil beau¬
tiful verdure. The front of this edifice is 180 feet to
length, and its gate is adorned Avith figures in relief,
Avhich are the ufual ornaments of the Chinefe archi-
tefture. On entering, you find a vaft portico, Avith
an altar in the middle, on which is placed a gigantic
ftatue of gilt brafs, reprefenting the god Fo, fitting
crofs-legged. Four other ftatues are placed at the
corners of this portico, Avhich are 18 feet high, al¬
though they reprefent people fitting. Each of thefe
ftatues is formed from a tingle block of ftone. i hey
bear in their hands different fymbols Avhich mark their
attributes, as formerly in Athens and Rome the trident
and caduceus diftinguiftied Neptune and Mercury.
One holds a ferpent in his arms, which is twilled round
its body in feveral folds j the fecond has a bent borv
and a quiver 5 the tAVo others prefent, one a kind or
battle-axe, and the other a guitar, or feme inftrument of
the fame kind.
After crofling this portico, you enter a fquare
outer court, paved with large gray ftones, the leaft
of Avhich is ten feet in length and four in breadth.
At the four fides of this court arife four pavilions,
Avhich terminate in domes, and have a communica-
tion Avith one another by means of a gallery Avhich runs
quite round it. One of thefe contains a bell ten xeet
in diameter j the AVooden-A\Tork which iupports this
heavy mafs cannot be fufficiently admired. In the other
is kept a drum of an enormous fize, Avhich the bonzes
ufe to proclaim the days of neAv and full moon.. It
muft be obferved, that the clappers of the Chinefe
bells are on the outfide, and made of Avood in. the form
of a mallet. The tAVo other pavilions contain the or¬
naments of the temple, and often ferve to lodge travel¬
lers, Avhom the bonzes are obliged to receive. In the
middle of this court is a large toAver, which Hands by
itfelf, and terminates alfo in a dome, to Avhich you
afeend by a beautiful ftone ftair-cafe that Avinds round
it. This dome contains a temple remarkably neat}
the ceiling is ornamented Avith mofaic Avork, and the
Avails are covered Avith ftone figures in relief, .reprefent¬
ing animals and monfters. The pillars which fupport
the roof of this edifice are of wood varniftied and on
feftivals are ornamented Avith fmall flags of different
colours. The pavement of the temple is formed of little
{hells, and its different compartments prefent birds,
butterflies, flowers, &c.
The bonzes continually burn incenfe upon the altar,
and keep the lamps lighted, which hang from the
ceiling of the temple. At one extremity of the altar
Hands a brazen urn, which when ftruck fenos forth a
mournful found : on the oppofite fide is a IioIIoav ma¬
chine of Avood, of an oval form, ufed for the fame pur-
pofe, which is to accompany Avith its found their voices
Avhen they ling in praife of the tutelary idol of the pagod.
The god Pouffa is placed on the middle, of this altar,
on a floAver of gilt brafs, Avhich ferves as a bafe, and
holds
E M P [
Emouy, holds a young child in his arms ; feveral idols, which
1 are n° doUDt 1'uba^tcrn deities, are ranged around him,
  / and luow by their attitudes their relpecl and venera¬
tion. ,
'Ihe bonzes have traced out on the n ails of this
temple feveral hieroglyphical characters in praife of
PouiTa ; there is alfo to be feen an historical or allegori¬
cal painting in frefco, which represents a burning lake,
in which feveral men appear to be fwimming, feme car¬
ried by monfters, others furrounded bv dragons and
winged ferpents. In the middle of the gulf rifes a
ftcep rock, on the top of which the god is feated, hold¬
ing in his arms a child, who feems to call out to thofe
who are in the flames of the lake ; but an old man,
with hanging ears and horns on his head, prevents them
from climbing to the fummit of the rock, and threatens
to drive them back with a large club. The bonzes are
at a lofs what anfwer to give, when any queftions are
ailced them concerning this painting. Behind the al¬
tar is a kind of library, containing books which treat of
the worfhip of idols.
On defeending from this dome you crofs the court,
awd enter a kind of gallery, the walls of which are
lined v\ ith boards 5 it contains 24 ftatues of gilt brafs,
reprefenting the fame number of philofophers, ancient
difciples of Confucius. At the end of this gallery
you find a large hall, which is the refectory of the
bonzes; and after having traverfed a fpacious apart¬
ment, you at length enter the temple of Fo, to which
there is an afeent by a large done ftaircafe. It is orna¬
mented with vafes full of artificial flowers (a work
in which the Chlnefe excel) •, and here alfo are found
the fame kind of mufical inftruments as thofe mention¬
ed before. The ftatue of the god is not to be feen
but through a piece of black gauze, which forms a
kind of veil or curtain before the altar. The reft of the
pagod con fids of feveral large chambers, exceedingly
neat, but badly difpofed 5 tlie gardens and pleafure
grounds are on the declivity of the mountain 3 and a num¬
ber of delightful grottoes are cut out in the rock, which
afford an agreeable Ihelter from the exceffive heat of the
fun.
1 here are feveral other pagods in the iile of Emouy ;
among which is one called The Pagod of the Ten Thon-
fand Stones, becaufe it is built on the brow of a moun¬
tain where there is a like number of little rocks, under
which the bonzes have formed grottoes and very plea-
iant covered feats. A certain rural fimplicity reigns
here, which captivates and delights.
Strangers are received by thefe bonzes with great
politenefs, and may freely enter their temples; but
they mud not attempt to gratify their curiodty fully,
nor to enter thofe apartments into which they are not
introduced, efpecially if they are not accompanied by fuf-
picious perfons 5 for the bonzes, who are forbid under
pain of fevere punidunent to have any intercourfe with
women, and who often keep them in private, might,
irom fear of being difeovered, revenge themlelves for
too impertinent a curiofity.
EMPALEMENT, an ancient kind of punifliment,
which confided in thruding a dake up the fundament,
’Hie word comes from the French empalcr, or the Ita¬
lian ttnpalare; or rather, they are all alike derived
from the Latin pains, “ a dake,” and the prepofition
vi, “ in or into.” We find mention of,empaling'in Ju-
Vox. VIII. Part I. 1 ^
33 ] K M P
venal. It was frequently pradifed in the time of No Empdc-
ro, and continues to be fo in Turkey. Iri< nt
EMPALEMENT of a foiver, the fame with CALYX. Etu -ror
EMPANELLING. Bee Impanelling.
EMPARLANCE. See Imparlance.
EMPEDOCLES,a celebrated philofopher and poet,
was born at Agrigentum, a city in Sicily. He follow ed
the Pythagorean philofophy, and admitted the metemp-
fychofis. He condantly appeared with a crown of gold
on his head ; to maintain, by this outward pomp, the
reputation he had acquired of being a very extraordi¬
nary man. Yet Aridotle fays, that he was a great lover
of liberty, extremely averfe to date and command, and
that he even refufed a kingdom that was offered him.
His principal Work was a Treatife in verfe on the Na¬
ture and Principles of Things. Aridotle, Lucretius,
and ail the ancients, make the mod magnificent elogi-
ums on his poetry and eloquence.
He taught rhetoric ; and often alleviated the anxie¬
ties of his mind, as wrell as the pains of his body, with
mufic. It is reported, that his curiofity to vilit the
dames of the crater of iEtna proved fatal to him.
Some maintain that he widled it to be believed that he
was a god ; and that his death might be unknown, lie
threw himfelf into the crater and peridied in the flames.
His expectations, however, w ere frudrated 5 and the
volcano, by throwing up one of his fandals, difeovered
to the world that Empedocles had peridied by fire.
Others report that he lived to an extreme old age ; and
that he was drowned in the fea about 440 years before
the Chridian era.
EMPEROR, (Impcrator), among the ancient Ro¬
mans, fignified a general of an army, who, for fome ex¬
traordinary fuecefs, had been complimented with this
appellation. Thus Augudus, having obtained no lefs
than twenty famous viCories, was as often fainted with
the title emperor i and Titus was denominated emperor
by his army after the reduclion of Jerufalem.
Afterwards it came to denominate an abfolute mo¬
narch or fupreme commander of an empire. In this
fenfe Julius Crefar was called emperor : the fame title
defeended with the dignity to Oftavius Augudus,
Tiberius, and Caligula; and afterwards it became
eleftive.
In driftnefs, the title emperor does not, and cannot,
add any thing to the rights of fovereignty : its effect
is only to give precedence and pre-eminence above
other fovereigns ; and as fuch, it raifes thofe inveded
with it to the fummit of all human greatnefs.
It is disputed, whether or not emperors have the
power of difpofing of the regal title. It is true, they
have fometimes taken upon them to eredl kingdoms ;
and thus it is that Bohemia and Poland are faid to
have been raifed to the dignity : thus alfo, the empe¬
ror Charles the Bald, in the year 877, gave Provence
to Bofon, putting the diadem on his head, and decree¬
ing him to be called “ king,” ut more prifcorum impera-
torum regibus videretur dominari. Add, that the em¬
peror Leopold erected the ducal Pruffia into a kingdom
in favour of the elector of Brandenburg ; and though fe¬
veral of the kings of Europe refufed for fome time to
acknowledge him in that capacity, yet by the treaty of
Utrecht in 1712 they all came in.
In the call, the title and quality of emperor are
more frequent than they are among us; thus, the fo-
£ vereig*
E M P
Emperor, vcreign princes of China, Japan, Mogul, Perfia
’~v 1 all emperors of China, Japan, &c. In the year 1723,
the czar of Mufcovy affumed the title of emperor of all
RuJJia, and procured himfelf to be recognized as fueh
bv mod of the princes and dates of Europe.
In the Wed, the title has been a long time redrain¬
ed to the emperors of Germany. The fird who bore
it was Charlemagne, who had the title of emperor con¬
ferred on him by Pope Leo III. though he had all the
power before. The imperial prerogatives were for¬
merly much more extendve than they are at prefent.
At the clofe of the Saxon racev A. 13. 1024, they cx"
ercifed the right of conferring all the ecclefiadical be¬
nefices in Germany ; of receiving the revenues of them
during a vacancy ; of fucceeding to the e deeds of in-
tedate ecclefiadics 5 of confirming or annulling the
elections of the popes; of aflembling councils, and of
appointing them to decide concerning the affairs of
the church } of conferring the title of king on their
vaffals ; of granting vacant fiefs ; of receiving the re¬
venues of the empire 5 of governing Italy as its pro¬
per fovereigns 5 of erecting free cities, and edablifiiing
fairs in them; of affembling the diets of the empire,
and fixing the time of their duration ; of coining mo¬
ney, and conferring the fame privilege on the dates
of the empire j and of adminidering both high and low
judice within the territories of the different dates:
but in the year 1437, they wrere reduced to the right
of conferring all dignities and titles, except the privi¬
lege of being a date of the empire *, of prcces primaries,
or of appointing once during their reign a dignitary
in each chapter or religious houfe ; of granting dif-
penfations with refpeff to the age of majority j of
erefling cities, and conferring the privilege of coining
money 5 of calling the meetings of the diet, and pre~
fiding in them.
To which feme have added, 1. That all the princes
and dates of Germany are obliged to do them homage,
and fwear fidelity to them. 2. That they, or their
generals, have a right to command the forces of all
the princes of the empire when united together. 3.
That they receive a kind of tribute from all the prin¬
ces and dates of the empire, for carrying on a war
which concerns the whole empire, which is called the
Roman month. For the red, there is not a foot of
land or territory annexed to his title : but ever fince
the reign of Charles IV. the emperors have depended
entirely on their hereditary dominions as the only
fource of their power, and even of their fubfidcnce.
See Diet and Electors.
The kings of France were anciently alfo called em¬
perors, at the time when they reigned with their fons,
whom they affociated to the crown. Thus Hugh Ca¬
pet, having affociated his ion Robert, took the title
of emperor, and Robert that of king *, under which
titles they are mentioned in the Hidory of the Coun¬
cil of Rheims, by Gerbert, &c. King Robert is alfo
tailed emperor of the French by Helgau of Fleury.
Louis le Gros, upon affociating his fon, did the fame.
In the Fird Regider of the King’s Charters, fob 166,
are found letters of Louis le Gros, dated in 1116, in
favour of Raymond bifhop of Maguelonne, wherein he
dyles himfelf, Ludovicus, Dei ordinante providentia,
Trancorum unperator auguflus. The kings of England
had likewife anciently the title of emperors, as ap-
t .34 ] E M P
&e. are pears from ?- charter of King Edgar: Ego Edgarus An- Emperor
glorum baftleus, omniumque regum infularum oceani qiuc ^
Britanniam circumjacent, <b’c. imperator ct dominus. 1
EMPETRUM, Berry-bearing Heath-, a genus
of plants belonging to the monoecia clafs. In the na¬
tural method this genus is ranked by Linnaeus under
the 54th order, Mifcellanece. See Botany Index.
EMPHASIS, in Rhetoric, a particular drefs of
the voice and action, laid on fuch parts or words of the
oration as the orator wants to inforce upon his au¬
dience. See Declamation ; Oratory, Part IV. 5
and Reading.
EMPPIYSEMA, in Surgery, a windy tumor, ge¬
nerally occafioned by a fracture of the ribs, and form¬
ed by the air infinuating itfelf, by a fmall wound, be¬
tween the ikin and mufcles, into the fubdance of the
cellular or adipofe membrane, fpreading itfelf after¬
wards up to the neck, head, belly, and other parts,
much after the manner in which butchers blow up their
veal.
EMPIRE (imperium), in political geography, a
large extent of land, under the jurifdiftion or govern¬
ment of an emperor. See Emperor.
In ancient hidory wre read of four great monarchies
or empires, viz. that of the Babylonians, Chaldeans,
and Affyrians j that of the Medes and Perfians; that
of the Greeks : and that of the Romans. The fird
fubfided from the time of Nimrod, who founded it in
the year of the world 1800, according to the compu¬
tation of Uflier, to Sardanapalus their lad king in 3257,
and confequently laded above 1450 years. The empire
of the Modes commenced under Arbaces, in the year of
the world 3257, and was united to that of the Baby¬
lonians and Perfians under Cyrus, in 34^^? an(^ ^
clofed with the death of Darius Codomannus in 3674,
The Grecian empire laded only during the reign of
Alexander the Great, beginning in the year of the world
3674, and terminating with the death of this conque¬
ror in 3681, his conqueds being divided among his
captains. The Roman empire commenced with Julius
Caffar, when he was made perpetual di ft a tor, in the
year of the city 708, and of the world 3956, 48 years
before Chrid. The feat of the empire was removed to
Byzantium by Condantine, in the year of our Lord
334 ; the ead and wed were then united under the title
of the Roman empire, till the Romans proclaimed Char¬
lemagne emperor, A. D. 800. From this epocha the
ead and wed formed two feparate empires that of the
ead, governed by Greek emperors, commenced A. D.
302 : and being gradually weakened, terminated under
’Condantine Pakeologus in 1453. The wedern empire
was afterwards known by the appellation of the empire,
or German empire.
Antiquaries didinguilh between the medals of the
upper, and lower or bus, empire.—The curious only
value thofe of the upper empire, which commences
with Caffar or Augudus, and ends in the year of
Chrid 260. The lower empire comprehends near
1200 years, reckoning down to the dedruftion of Con-
dantinople in 1453.—They ufualiy didinguifh two
ages, or periods, of the lower empire : the fird begin¬
ning where the upper ends, viz. with Aurelian, and
ending with Anadafius, including 200 years 5 the fe-
cond beginning with Anadafius, and ending with the
Fajaeologi, which includes 100c years*
Empire*
»
E M P [ 35 ] ENA
Empire Empire, or The empire, ufed abiblutely and with-
II. oat any addition, figniiics the empire of Germany :
Empormm,, caj|c(} a}f0) ;n juridical acts and lav/s, The holy Roman
empjret ]iad its beginning with the ninth century ;
Charlemagne being created hrft emperor by Pope Leo
III. who put the crown on his head in St Peter’s church
on Chriltmas-day in the year Boo.
Authors are at a lots under what form of govern¬
ment to range the empire. Some of them maintain it
to be a monarchical Hate, becaule all the members
thereof are obliged to alk the inveftiture of their Hates
of the emperor, and to take an oath of fidelity to him.
Others confder it as a republic, or arilfocratic Hate, be-
caufe the emperor cannot refolve or determine any thing
without the concurring fuffrages of the princes. It is
added, that if they require inveftiture from, and fvvear
fealty to him, it is only as head of the republic, and in
the name of the republic, and not in his own 5 juft as at
Venice every thing is tranfadled in name of the doge.
Others will have the empire to be a monarcho-arifto-
cratic ftatc, i. e. a mixture of monarchy and ariftocra-
cy ; becaufe, though the emperor in many cafes feems
to aft fovereignly, yet his decrees and refolves have no
force, in cafe the ftate refufe to confirm them. Laftly,
it has been called an arifto-democratic ftate, becaufe the
diet, wherein the fovereignty is lodged, is compofed of
princes and the deputies of the cities ; and is divided
into three orders or bodies, called colleges, viz. the col¬
lege of eleftors, the college of princes, and the college
of cities.
We fay, diet of the empire, circles of the empire,
fiefs of the empire, princes of the empire, eftates of the
empire, members of the empire, capitulations of the
empire. See Diet, Circle, Prince, Capitula¬
tion, &c.
The ftates or eftates of the empire are of two kinds,
mediate and immediate. The immediate ftates are thofe
who hold immediately of the empire : Whereof, again,
there are two kinds ; the firft, fuch as have feats and
voices in the imperial diet} the fecond, fuch as have
.none. The mediate ftates are thofe who hold of the
immediate.
The ftates which now compofe the empire are, The
princes of the empire, the counts of the empire, the
free barons of the empire, the prelates of the empire,
the princefles or abbefies of the empire, the nobles of
the empire, and the imperial cities.
EMPIRIC, an appellation given to thofe phyficians
who conduft themfelves wholly by their own experience,
without ftudying phyfic in a regular way. Some even
ufe the term, in a ftill worfe fenfe, for a quack who pre-
feribes at random, without being at all acquainted with
the principles of the art.
EM PIS, a genus of infefts belonging to the order
Diptera. See Entomology Index.
EMPLASTER. See Plaster.
EMPORIAt, a double city of the Hither Spain,
near the Pyrenees 5 feparated by a -wall; one part oc¬
cupied by the Greeks of Phocaea, whence originally
are the Mafiilienfes; the other, by native Spaniards, to
whom was added by Auguftus a Roman colony. Now
Ampurias, in Catalonia. E. Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. 42.
15-
EMPORIUM, in Medicine, is often ufed for the
■common fenfory in the brain. See Brain.
EMPORIUM, in Ancient Geography, two cities near Emporium
Placentia 5 one well fortified, and guarded by a ftrong En ^
garrifon, at which Hannibal met a rtpuife : the other, < ,.
Hannibal took and plundered. Now thought to be
Pont-Nura, in the duchy of Placentia.
EMPRESS, the fpoufe of an emperor, or a woman
who governs an empire. See Emperor.
EMPROSTHOTONO8, a fpecies of convulfion,
wherein the head bends forward.
EMPY/LM A, in Medicine, a diforder wherein pu¬
rulent matter is contained in the thorax or breaft, after
an inflammation and fuppuration of the lungs and pleu¬
ra. See Medicine Index,
EMPYREAL AIR. So Dr Higgins denominates
that which Dr Prieftley calls dephlogijlicated air, and
other philofophers vital or pure air.
EMPYREUM, a term ufed by divines for the high-
eft heaven, where the bleffed enjoy the beatific vifion.
The wurd is formed of iy and %ve, fire, becaufe of its
fplendour.
EMPYREUM A, in Chetnijlry, fignifies a very dis¬
agreeable fmell produced from burnt oils. It is of¬
ten perceived in diftillations of animal as w'ell as ve¬
getable fob fiances, when they are expofed to a quick,
fire.
EMRODS. See Hemorrhoids.
EMULATION, a generous ardour kindled by the
praife-worthy examples of others, which impels us to
imitate, to rival, and, if poflible, to excel them. This
paffion involves in it efteem of the perfon vhofe attain¬
ments or conduft wTe emulate, of the qualities and ac¬
tions in which we emulate him, and a deiire of refem-
blance, together with a joy fpringing from the hope of
foccefs. The word comes originally from the Greek
scpiXXx, difpute, contejl; whence the Latin, cenmlus, and
thence our emulation.
Plato obferves of emulation, that it is the daughter
of envy 5 if fo, there is a great difference between the
mother and the offspring j the one is a virtue and the
other a vice. Emulation admires great aftions, and
ftrives to imitate them ; envy refufes them the praifes
that are their due 5 emulation is generous, and only
thinks of forpaffmg a rival; envy is low, and only feeks
to leffen him. Perhaps, therefore, it w'ould be more
juft to fuppofe emulation the daughter of admiration:
admiration, however, is a principal ingredient in the
compofition of it.
EMULGENT, or renal, arteries, thofe which
fopply the kidneys with blood ; being fometimes Angle,
fometimes double, on each fide. See Anatomy Index
EMULSION, a foft liquid remedy, of a colour and
confiftence refembling milk. See Pharmacy.
EMUNCTORY, in Anatomy, a general term for
all thofe parts which fcrve to carry off the excrementi-
tious parts of the blood and other humours of the body.
Such more efpecially are the kidneys, bladder, and
moft of the glands.
ENALLAGE, in Grammar, is when one word is
fubftituted for another of the fame part of fpeech : A
fobftantive for an adjeftive as exercitus vidlor, for
viBoriofus ; fcelus, for fee left us : A primitive for a de¬
rivative as Dardana arma, for Dardania : An aftive
for a pafiive; as nox humida eccio precipitat, for preeci-
pitatur, &c.
ENAMEL, in general, is a vitrified matter betwixt
E 2 the
ENA C 36 ] ENA
Enamel,
Enamel-
' - lins;.
the parts of which is difperfed feme unvitrified matter :
lienee enamel ought to have all the properties oi glafs
except tranfpareney.
Enamels have for their bafis a pure cryltal glafs or
frit, ground up with a fine calx of lead and tin pre¬
pared for the purpofe, with the addition ufually of
white fait of tartar. Thefe ingredients baked toge¬
ther are the matter of all enamels, which are made by-
adding colours of this or that kind in powder to this
matter, and melting or incorporating them together in
a furnace.
For white enamel, Neri (Dc Arte Vitriar.) diredls
only manganefe to be added to the matter which con-
itirutes the balls. For azure, zalrer mixed with calx
of brafs. For green, calx of brafs with feales of iron,
or with crocus martis. For black, zaffer with man¬
ganefe or with crocus rnartis ; or manganefe with tartar.
For red, manganefe, or calx of copper and red tartar.
For purple, manganefe with calx of brafs. for yellow,
tartar and manganefe. And for violet-coloured enamel,
manganefe with thrice-calcined brals.
In making thefe enamels, the following general cau¬
tions are necefiary to be obferved. 1. That the pots
muft be glazed with white glafs, and mult be fuch as
will bear the fire. 2. That the matter of enamels
mult be very nicely mixed with the colours. 3. When
the enamel is good, and the colour well incorporated, it
mult be taken from the fire with a pair of tongs. 4.
The general way of making the coloured enamel is this:
Powder, fift, and grind, all the colours very nicely,
iind firlt mix them with one another, and then with the
common matter of enamels : then fet them in pots in a
furnace j and when they are well mixed and incorpo ¬
rated, cait them into water ; and when dry, fet them
in a furnace again to melt; and when melted, take a
proof of it. If too deep-coloured, add more of the
common matter of enamels y and if too pale, add more
of the colours.
Enamels are ufed either in counterfeiting or imita¬
ting precious Hones, in painting in enamel j or by en-
amellers, jewellers, and goldfmiths, in goldr filver,
and other metals. The two firft kinds are ufually pre¬
pared by the workmen themfelves, who are employed
•in thefe arts. That ufed by jewellers, &c. is brought
to us chiefly from Venice or Holland, in little cakes of
different flzes, commonly about four inches diameter,
having the mark of the maker {truck upon it with a
puncheon. It pays is. the pound on impor¬
tation, and draws back is. 5-^%-d. at the rate of 4s.
per pound.
ENAMELLING, the art of laying enamel upon
metals, as gold, filver, copper, &c. and of melting it at
the fire, or of making divers curious works in it at a
lamp. It fignifies alfo to paint in enamel.
The method of painting in ENAMEL. I his is per¬
formed on plates of geld or filver, and molt commonly
of copper, enamelled with the white enamel} whereon
they paint with colours w'hich are melted in the fire,
where they take a brightnefs and luftre like that of
glafs. This painting is the molt prized of all for its
peculiar brightnefs and vivacity, which is very per¬
manent, the force of its colours not being effaced or
fullied with time as in other painting, and continuing
always as frefli as when it came out of the workmen’
hands. It is ufual in miniature j it being the more
difficult the larger it is, by reafon of certain accidents Enamel-
it is liable to in the operation. Enamelling ihould
only be pradfifed on plates of gold, the other metals ' ’r"™
being lels pare : copper, for initance, leales with the
application, and yields fumes •, and iilver turns the
yellow white. Nor muff the plate be made fiat 5 for
in fuch cafe, the enamel cracks ; to avoid which, they
ufually forge them a little round or oval, and not too
thick. The plate being well and evenly forged, they
ulually begin the operation by laying on a couch of
white enamel (as we oblerved above) on both fides,
which prevents the metal from fwelling and bliftering j
and this firft layer ferves for the ground of all the other
colours. The plate being thus prepared, they begin at
firft by drawing out exactly the lubjecl to be painted
with red vitriol, mixed with oil of fpike, marking all
parts of the aefign very lightly with a fmall pencil.
After this, the colours (which are to be before ground
with water in a mortar of agate extremely fine, and
mixed with oil of ipike fomewhat thick) are to be laid
on, obferving the mixtures and colours that agree to the
different parts of the fubjeft •, for which it is necefiary
to underftand painting in miniature. But here the
workman muff be very cautious of the good or bad
qualities of the oil of fpike he employs to mix his colours
with, for it is very fubjecl to adulterations.
Great care muft like wife be taken, that the leaft dull
imaginable come not to your colours while you are ei¬
ther painting or grinding them 5 for the leaft fpeck,
when it is worked up with it, and when the work comes
to be put into the reverberatory to be made red hot,
will leave a hole, and fo deface the work.
When the colours are ail laid, the painting muft be
gently dried over a flow fire to evaporate the oil, and
the colours afterwards melted to incorporate them with
the enamel, making the plate red hot in a fire like what
the enamellers ufe. . Afterwards that part of the paint¬
ing muft be paffed over again which the fire hail; any
thing effaced, ftrengthening the {hades and colours,
and committing it again to the fire, obferving the fame
method as before, which is to be repeated till the work
be finiihed.
Method of Enamelling by the Lamp. Moft
enamelled works are wrought at the fire of a lamp, in
which, inftead of oil, they put melted horfe-greafe,
which they called caballine oil. The lamp, which is
of copper, or white iron, confifts of two pieces 5 in one
of which is a kind of oval plate, fix inches long, and two
high, in which they put the oil and the cotton. The
other part, called the box, in which the lamp is inclofcd,
ferves only to receive the oil which boils over by the
force of the fire. This lamp, or, where feveral artifts
work together, two or three more lamps are placed on
a table of proper height. Under the table, about the
middle of its height, is a double pair of organ-bellows,
which oiie of the workmen moves up and down with
his foot to quicken the flame of the lamps, which are
by this means excited to an incredible degree of vehe¬
mence. Grooves made with a gauge in the upper part of
the table, and covered with parchment, convey the wind
of the bellows to a pipe of glafs before each lamp 5 and
that the enamellers may not be incommoded vdth the
heat of the lamp, every pipe is covered at fix inches di-
ftanee with a little tin plate, fixed into the table by a
wooden handle. When the works do not require a long
blaft.
Enamel¬
ling
II .
Encauftic
Painting.
E N C [
blaft, they only ufe a glafs pipe, into which they blow
with their mouth.
It is incredible to what a degree of finenefs and de¬
licacy the threads of enamel may be drawn at the
lamp. Thofe which are ufed in making falfe tufts of
feathers are fo fine, that they may be wound on the
reel like lilk or thread. The fictitious jets of all co¬
lours, ufed in embroideries, are alfo made of enamel j
and that with fo much art, that every fmall piece hath
its hole to pafs the thread through wherewith it is
fewed. Thefe holes are made by blousing them in¬
to long pieces } which they afterwards cut with a pro¬
per tool.
It is feldom that the Venetian or Dutch enamels are
ufed alone : they commonly melt them in an iron ladle,
with an equal part of glafs or cryiial j and when the
two matters are in perfect fufion, they draw it out into
threads of different fiz.es, according to the nature of
the work. They take it out of the ladle while liquid,
with two pieces of broken tobacco-pipes, which they
extend from each other at arm’s length. If the thread
is required ft ill longer, then another workman holds
one end, and continues to draw it out, while the firit
holds the enamel to the flame. Thofe threads, when
cold, are cut into what lengths the workman thinks
fit, but commonly from I o to 12 inches : and as they
are all round, if they are required to be flat, they muff
be drawn through a pair of pinchers while yet hot.
They have alfo another iron inftrument in form of
pinchers, to draw out the enamel by the lamp when it
is to be worked and difpofed in figures. Laftly, they
have glafs tubes of various fizes, ferving to blow the
enamel into various figures, and preferve the neceffary
vacancies therein 5 as alfo to fpare the fluff, and form
the contours. When the enameller is at work, he fits
before the lamp with his foot on the ftep that moves on
the bellows ; and holding in his left hand the work to
be enamelled, or the brals or iron wires the figures are
to be formed on, he directs with his right the enamel
thread, which he holds to the flame with a management
•and patience equally furprifing. There are few things
they cannot make or reprefent with enamel : and feme
figures are as well finifhed, as if done by the moft Ikil-
ful carvers.
ENARTHROSIS, in Anatomy, a fpecics of Diar¬
throsis.
ENC/ENIA, the name of three feveral feftivals ce¬
lebrated by the Jews in memory of the dedication, or
rather purification, of the temple, by Judas Maccabae-
us, Solomon, and Zorobbabel. This term is likewife
ufed in church hiftory for the dedication of Chriftian
churches.
K'\rC VMPMENT, the pitching of a Camp.
ENCANTHIS, in S/mgeru, a tubercle arifing either
from the caruncula laehrymalis, or from the* adjacent
red fkin; fometimes fo large, as to obflrufl not only
the puniffa lachrymalia, but alfo part of the fight or pu¬
pil itfelf. See Surgery.
ENCAUSTIC and Encaustum, the fame with
enamelling and enamel. See Enamelling and Ena¬
mel.
ENCAUSTIC Painting, a method of painting made ufe
of by the ancient:., in which wax was employed to give
a glois to their colours, and to preferve them from the
ini •aces of the air.
37 1 eng
This ancient art, after having been long loft, was EncaulHc
reftored by Count Caylus, a member of the Academy Painting,
of Infcriptions in France ; and the method of painting ' v
in wax was announced to the Academy of Painting
and Belles Lettres in the year 1753 5 though M.
Bachelier, the author of a treatife De EHiJloire et du
Secret de la Peinture en Cire, had actually painted a
piddure in wax in 1749 ; and he was the firft who
communicated to the public the method of performing
the operation of inuflion, which is the principal cha-
racderiftic of the encauftic painting. The Count kept
his method a fecret for fome time, contenting himfelf
■with exhibiting a pidiure at the Louvre in 1754, re-
prefenting the head of Minerva, painted in the man¬
ner of the ancients, which excited the curiofity of the
public, and was very much admired. In the interval of
fufpenfe, feveral attempts were made to recover the an¬
cient method of painting. The firft fcheme adopted
■was that of melting wax and oil of turpentine toge¬
ther, and uftng this compolition as a vehicle for mix¬
ing and laying on the colours. But this method did
not explain Pliny’s meaning, as the wax is not burnt in
this -way of managing it. In another attempt, which
was much more agreeable to the hiftorian’s description
of encauftic painting, the wax was melted with ftrong
lixivium of fait of tartar, and with this the colours
■were ground. When the pidture was finiihed, it was
gradually prefented to the fire, fo as to melt the wax j
which was thus diffufed through all the particles of
the colours, fo that they were fixed to the ground,
and fecured from the accefs of air or moifture. But
the method of Count Caylus is much more fimple : the
cloth or wood which he defigned for the baiis of his
picture, is waxed over, by only rubbing it fimply with
a piece of bees-wax ; the wood or cloth, ftretched on
a frame, being held horizontally over, or perpendicu •
larly before a fire, at Inch a diftance, that the wax
_ might gradually melt, whilft it is rubbed on, diffufe
itfelf, penetrate the body, and fill the interftices of the
texture of the cloth, which, when cool, is fit to
paint upon ; but as water colours, or thofe that are
mixed up with common water, will not adhere to the
wax, the whole picture is to be firft rubbed over
with Spanifh chalk or white, and then the colours are
applied to it 5 when the pidture is dry, it is put near
the fire, whereby the wax melts, and abforbs all the
colours.
Mr J. H. Muntz, in a treatife on this iubjedl, has
propofed feveral improvements in the art of encauftic
painting. When the painting is on cloth, he diredts
it to be prepared by ftretching it tm a frame, and rub¬
bing one fide feveral times over with a piece of bees¬
wax, or virgin wax, till it is covered with a coat of
wax of confiderable thicknefs. In fine linen, this is
the only operation neceiTary previous to painting $
but coarfe cloth muft be rubbed gently on the unwax¬
ed fide with a pumice-ftone, to take off all thofe knots
which would prevent the free and accurate -working
of the pencil. Then the fubjedt is to be painted on the
unwaxed fide with colours prepared and tempered with
Avater •, and Avhen the pidture is finiihed, it muft be
brought near the fire, that the Avax may melt and fix
the colours. This method, hoAvever, can only be ap¬
plied to cloth or paper, through the- fubftance of
which the Avax may pafs 5 but in Avood, ft one, metals,
- 6, ©r
E N C [ 38 ] E N C
Jt-Kcauftic or plafler, tire former method of Count Caylus mull be
,Fainting- obferved.
Mr Muntz has alfo difcovered a method of forming
grounds for painting with crayons, and fixing thefe, as
well as water-colours employed with the pencil. On
the unwaxed fide of a linen cloth, ftretched and waxed
as before, lay an even and thick coat of the colour pro¬
per for the ground } having prepared this colour by
mixing fome proper pigment with an equal quantity
of chalk, and tempering them with water. When the
colour is dry, bring the pifture to the fire, that the
wax may melt, pafs through the cloth, and fix the
ground. An additional quantity of wax may be ap¬
plied to the back of the picture, if that which was
firft rubbed on fhould not be fufficient for the body of
colour } but as this muft be laid on without heat, the
Avax fliould be diiTolvcd in oil of turpentine, and ap¬
plied Avith a brufii, and the canvas be again expofed to
the fire, that the frelh fupply of Avax may pafs through
the cloth, and be abforbed by the colour 3 and thus a
firm and good body Avill be formed for AVorking on
with the crayons. If cloth and paper are joined to¬
gether, the cloth muft be firft fixed to the (training
frame, and then the paper muft be pafted to it Avith
a compofition of pafte made Avith Avheaten flour, or
ftarch and Avater, and about a tAvelfth part of its Aveight
of common turpentine. The turpentine muft be add¬
ed to the pafte Avhen it is almoft fufficiently boiled,
and the compofition avcII ftirred, and left to fimmer
over the fire for five or fix minutes : let Avax be diffol-
ved in oil of turpentine to the confidence of a thin
pafte : and Avhen the cloth and paper are dry, let them
be held near a fire j and Avith a brufti lay a coat of the
wax and turpentine on both (ides the joined cloth and
paper, in fuch a degree of thicknefs, that both furfaces
may (bine throughout Avithout any appearance of dull
fpots. Then expofe the cloth to the fire, or to the
fun 3 by Avhich means the oil Avill evaporate, and the
wax become folid, and be fit to receive any com¬
pofition of colour for a ground, Avhich is to be laid
®n as above directed in the cafe of cloth Avithout
paper.
Almoft all the colours that are ufed in oil-painting
may be alfo applied in the eneauftic method. Mr
Muntz objects, indeed, to broAvn, light pink, and un¬
burnt terra di Sienna; becaufe thefe, on account of
their gummy or (tony texture, Avill not admit fuch a
cohefion Avith the Avax as Avill properly fix them 3 but
other colours Avhich cannot be admitted in oil-painting,
as red lead, red orpiment, cryftals of verdegris, and
red precipitate of mercury, may be ufed here. The
crayons ufed in encauftic painting are the fame Avith
thofe ufed in the common Avay of crayon painting, ex¬
cepting thofe that in their compofition are too tena¬
cious 3 and the method of ufing them is the fame in
both cafes.
The encauftic painting has many peculiar advan¬
tages : thought the colours have not the natural varnifti
or (hining Avhich they acquire Avith oil, they have all
the ftrength of paintings in oil, and all the airinefs of EncaufHe
Avater-colours, Avithout partaking of the apparent Painting,
character cr defe£ts of either: they may be looked at "
in any light and in any fituation, Avithout any falfe
glare : the colours are firm, and will bear Avaftiing 3 and
a piclure, after havfing been fmoked, and then expofed
to the dew, becomes as clean as if it had been but juft
painted. It may alfo be retouched at pleafure with¬
out any detriment to the colours 3 for the new colours
will unite with the old ones, without fpots, as is the-
cafe in common fize painting 3 nor is it necebnry to
rub the places to be touched with oil as in oil pictures ;
it is not liable to crack, and eafily repaired, if it (hould
chance to fuffer any injury. The duration of this
painting is alfo a very material advantage 3 the colours
are not liable to fade and change 3 no damp can aft'ett
them, nor any corrofive fubftance injure them 3 nor
can the colour fall off in (hivers from the canvas.
However, nctwithftanding all thefe and other advan¬
tages enumerated by the Abbe Mazeas and Mr Muntz,
this art has not yet been much praftifed. Many of
thefe properties belong to a much higher fpecies of en¬
cauftic painting afterwards dilcovered in England, the
colours of which are fixed by a very intenfe heat 3 nor
are the colours or grounds on which they are laid
liable to be diffolved cr corroded by any chemical men-
ftruum, nor, like the glafiy colours of enamel, to run
out of the drawing cn the fire. What this method
confifts in will appear from the following account com--
municated in a letter from Jofiah Colebrooke to the
earl of Macclesfield, prefident of the Royal Society in
1756.
“ The art of painting with burnt wax (fays he)
has long been loft to the Avorld. The ufe of it to paint¬
ers in the infancy of the art of painting was of the
utmoft confequence. Drying oil being unknown, they
had nothing to preferve their colours entire from the
injury of damps and the heat of the fun : a varnifli of
fome fort was therefore neceffary 3 but they being un¬
acquainted with diftilled fpirits, could not, as we now
do, diffolve gums to make a tranfparent coat for their
pi dimes : this invention therefore of burnt Avax fupplied
that defedf to them 3 and Avith this manner of painting
the chambers and other rooms in their houfes were
furnilhed : this Pliny calls encaujlum, and avc encauJHc
painting.
“ The folloAving experiments Avhich I have the ho¬
nour to lay before your Lordfhip and the Society,
Avere occafioned by the extradl of a letter from the
Abbe Mazeas, tranfiated by Dr Parfons, and publifhed
in the fecond part of the 49th volume of the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadlions, N° 100. concerning the ancient
method of painting Avith burnt Avax, revived by Count
Caylus.
“ The count’s method Avas, 1. To rub the cloth or
board defigned for the pidlure (imply over Avith bees-
Avax. 2. To lay on the colours mixed Avith common
Avater : but as the colours Avill not adhere to the Avax,
the whole pidlure was firft rubbed over Avith (a) Spa-
ni(h
(a) “ Spanilh chalk is called by Dr Parfons, in a note, Spanifh white. This is a better kind of whitening
than the- common, and Avas the only Avhite that had the name of Spanijh annexed to it that I could procure, though
I inquired for it at moft if not all the colour (hops in town. ^ ^ ,
E N C [ 39 ] E N C
Jinfauftic rufh chalk, and then the colours are ufed. 3. When
Painting, the pifture is dry it is put near the nre, whereby the
" "r"v wax melts, and abforbs all the colours.
“ Exp. 1. A piece of oak board was rubbed over
with bees-wax, firif againft the grain of the wood, and
then with the grain, to fill up all the pores that re¬
mained after it had been planed, and afterwards was
rubbed over with as much dry Spanifh white as could
be made to flick on it. This, on being painted (the co¬
lours mixed with water only), fo clogged the pencil,
and mixed fo unequally with the ground, that it was
impoflible to make even an outline, but what was fo
much thicker in one part than another, that it would
not bear fo much as the name of painting 5 neither
had it any appearance of a picture. However, to pur-
fue the experiment, this was put at a dillance from the
fire, on the hearth, and the wax melted by flow de¬
grees : but the Spanilh white (though laid as fmooth
as fo foft a body would admit, before the colour was
laid on), on melting the wax into it, was not fufficient
to hide the grain of the wood, nor fhow the colours by
a proper whitenefs of the ground ; the wax, in rubbing
on the board, was unavoidably thicker in fome parts
than in others, and the Spanifh white the fame: on
this 1 fufpecled there mull be fome miifake in the Spa-
niih white, and made the inquiry mentioned in the
note (a),
“ To obviate the inequality of the ground in the
firft experiment.
^ “ Exp. 2. A piece of old wainfcot (oak-board) -ith
of an inch thick 5 which, having been part of an old
drawer, was not likely to flirink on being brought near
the fire : this was fmoothed with a fifh-fkin ; made quite
warm before the fire ; and then, with a brufli dipped
in white wax, melted in an earthen pipkin, fmeared all
over, and applied to the fire again. That the wax might
be equally thick in all parts of the board, a ground
was laid (on the waxed board) with levigated chalk
mixed with gum-water (viz. gum-arabic diffolved in
water) : When it was dry, I painted it with a kind of
landfcape ; and purfuing the method laid down by Count
Caylus, brought it gradually to the fire. I fixed the
picture on a fire-fcreen, which would preferve the heat
and communicate it to the back part of the board. This
was placed firft at the diftance of three feet from the
fire, and brought forwards by flow degrees, till it came
within one foot of the fire, which made the wax fwell
and bloat up the picture 5 but as the chalk did not ab-
forb the wax, the picture fell from the board and left
it quite bare.
“ Exp. 3. I mixed three parts white wax, and one
part white refim, hoping the tenacity of the relin might
preferve the pi&ure. This was laid on a board heated
witn a brufli as in the former j and the ground was
chalk prepared as before. This was placed horizontal¬
ly on an iron box, charged with a hot heater, fhift-
ing it from time to time, that the wax and refin might
penetrate the chalk ; and hoping from this pofition,
that the ground, bloated by melting the wax, would
fubfide into its proper place ; but this, like the other, Encauftk
came from the' board, and would not at all adhere. Painting.
“ Exp. 4. Prepared chalk four drams, white wax, ' —
white refin, of each a dram, burnt alabafter half a dram,
were all powdered together and fifted, mixed with fpi-
rit of molaffes inflead of water, and put for a ground
on a board fmeared with wax and refin, as in Exp. 3.
rihis was alfo placed horizontally on a box-iron as the
former : the picture bliflered, and was cracked all
over 5 and though removed from the box-iron to an
ojen moderately heated (in the fame horizontal pofi¬
tion), it would not fubfide, nor become fmooth.
When it was cold, I took an iron fpatula made warm,
and moved it gently over the furface of the picture,
as if I were to fpread a plafter. (This thought oc¬
curred, from the board being prepared with wax and
refin, and the ground having the fame materials in its
compofition, the force of the fpatula might make them
unite). This fucceeded fo well, as to reduce the fur-
face to a tolerable degree of fmoothnefsbut as the
ground was broke off in many places, 1 repaired it
witli flake white, mixed up with the yolk of an egg
and milk, and repainted it with molafles fpirit (inflead
of water), and then put it into an oven with a mode¬
rate degree of heat. In this I found the colours fixed,
but darker tnan when it w as at firfl painted ; and it
would bear being wafhed with water, not rubbed with
a w?et cloth.
Exp. 3. A board (that had been riled in a former*
experiment) was fmeared with wax and refin, of each
equal parts 3 was wetted with molaffes fpirit, to make
whitening (or Spanifh white) mixed with gum water
adhere. This, when dry, was fcraped with a knife,
to make it equally thick in all places. It w as put into
a warm o\en, to make the varnifh incorporate partly
with the whitening before it was painted 3 and it had
only a fmall degree of heat 3 water was only ufed to
mix the colours. j his wTas again put into an oven
with a greater degree of heat 3 but it flaked off from
the board: whether it might be owing to the board’s
having had a fecond coat of varnifh (the firll having
been fcraped and melted off), and that the unduous
parts of the wax had fo entered its pores, that it would
not retain a fecond varnifh, I cannot tell.
“ Exp. 6. Having mifcarried in thefe trials, I took
a new board, planed fmooth, but not polifhed either
with a fifh fkin or rufhes : I Warmed it, and fmeared it
wfith ivax only 3 then took cimolia (tobacco-pipe clay)
diverted of its fand, by being diffolved in water and
poured off, leaving the coarfe heavy parts behind. Af¬
ter this was. dried and powdered, I mixed it with a
fmall quantity of the yolk of an egg and coav’s milk
and made a ground Avith this on the Avaxed board : this
I Avas induced to try, by knoAving that the yolk of an
egg will diffolve almoft all urktuous fubrtances, and
make them incorporate Avith ivater 3 and I apprehended
that a ground thus prepared, Avould adhere fo much
the more firmly tp the board than the former had dene,
as to prevent its flaking off. The milk, I thought’
might
itokfro SLnd,£!\da ?,fta {!red r arce i »>* “i^n, ^ uke,
^ cbacco-pipe cla) ) and was the reafon of my ufing that m one of the experiments.
E N C
[ 4= ]
E N C
©ncauftic might anfwer two purpofcs *, firft, by uniting the ground
Painting, (gc wax j and fecondly, by anfwering the end of
mm'11 {xxg or gum-water, and prevent the colours fioiii llim-
ing too deep into the ground, or running one into an¬
other. When the ground was near dry, I fmoothed
it with a pallet knife, and waihed with milk and egg
where I had oceafion to make it fmooth and even :
when dry I painted it, mixing the colours with com¬
mon water •, this, on being placed horizontally in an
oven only warm enough to melt the wax, tlaked from
the board ; but held fo much better together than any
of the former, that I patted part of it on paper.
“ Exp. 7. Flake-white (or the purett fort of white-
lead) mixed with egg and milk, crumbled to pieces in
the oven, put on the waxed board, as in the laft expe¬
riment.
“ The bad fuccefs which had attended all the former
experiments, led me to confider of what ufe the wax w as
in this kind of painting : and it occurred to me, that
it wras only as a varnilh to preferve the colours from
fading.
“ In order to try this :
“ Exp. 8. I took what the brick-layers call fine
fiuJfi or Tmtt!h (B): to this 1 added a fma11 (iuantityof
burnt alabafter, to make it dry : this it foon did in the
open air ; but before I put on any colours, I dried it
gently by the fire, left the colours ftiould run. When
it Avas painted, I warmed it gradually by the fire (to
prevent the ground from cracking) till it vyas very hot.
I then took white Avax three parts, Avhite refin. one
part; melted them in an earthen pipkin, and Avith a
brufh fpread them all over the painted board, and kept
it clofe to the fire in a perpendicular fituation, that
what wax and refin the plafter Avould not abforb might
drop off. When it Avas cold, I found the colours were
not1 altered, either from the heat of the fire, or paffing
the brufh over them. I then rubbed it with a loft li¬
nen cloth, and thereby procured a. kind of glofs, Avhich
I afterwards increafed by rubbing it Avith a. hard
brulh j which AV.as fo far from fcratching or leaving any
marks on the piaure, that it became more fmooth and
polifhed by it. ...
“ After I had made all the foregoing experiments, in
conyerfation with my honoured ana learned friend Dr
Kidby, a fellow of this fociety, I faid I had been try¬
ing to find out Avhat the encauftic painting of the an¬
cients Avas. Upon Avhich he told me, that there Avas a
paffage in Vitruvius de Arclnteciura relative to . that
kind of painting : and Avas fo good as to tranferibe it
for me from the 7th book, chap. 9. De minii tempe-
ratura. Vitruvius’s words are : At fi quis fubtihor
fuerit, et voluent expohtionem tninuiceaTn fuurn coloreni
retinere, cum paries expohtus et andus fuerit, tunc ccravi
Eunicam liquefaclam igni, paulo oleo temperatem^feta vi-
ducat, deinde pofiea carbomkus 111 ferreo vafie compofitis,
earn ceram apprmie cumpariete, calefaciendo fudorecegat,
fiatque ut percequetur, deinde cum candela hnteifique puns
fubigat, utifigna marmorea nuda curantur. El etc auiem
y.uvri', Greece dicitur. It a obfians cerce Eurnece lone a non
patilur, nee lunce fplendorem, nec foils radios lambendo
eripere ex his poliiionibus coloreni.
“ Which I thus tranfiate : ‘ But if any one is more
wary, and Avould have the polifhing [painting] Avith
vermilion hold its colour, Avhen the wall is panned and
dry, let him take Carthaginian [Barbary] Avax, melt¬
ed with a little oil, and rub it on the wall Avith a hair-
pencil ; and afterwards let him put live coals into an
iron vend [chafing-difh], and hold it clefe to the Avax,
when the Avail, by being heated, begins to Iv.eat 5 then
let it be made fmooth : afterwards let him rub it Avith
a (c) candle and (d) clean linen rags, in the fame man¬
ner as they do the naked marble ftatues. ibis the
Greeks call kaskitj?. Ihe coat of Carthaginian Avax
(thus put on) is fo ftrong, that it neither fuffers the
moon by night, nor the fun-beams by day, to deftroy
the colour.’
“ Being fatisfied, from this paffage in Vitruvius, that
the manner of ufing Avax in Exp. 8. Avas right, I Ayas
now to find if the Avax-varnifti, thus burnt into the pic¬
ture, Avould bear Avafning. But here I Avas a little dif-
appointed for rubbing one corner Avith a Avet linen
cloth, fome of the colour came off; but Avafiung it
Avith a foft hair-pencil dipped in Avater, and letting it
dry without Aviping, the colour ftoed very Avell.
“ A board painted, as in Exp. 8. avas 'hung in the
moft fmoky part of a chimney for a day, and expoled
to the open air in a very foggy night. In the morning
the board Avas feemingly Avet through, and the water
ran off the pifture. This was fuffered to dry Avithout
wiping : and the piClure had not fuffeied at all from
the fmoke or the dew, either in the ground or the co¬
lours ; but Avhen dry, by rubbing it, firft Avith a foit
cloth, and aftenvards Avith a brufh, it recovered its for¬
mer glofs.
“ Sufpe&ing that fome talloAv might have been mix¬
ed Avith the Avhite Avax I had ufed, which might caufe
the colours to come off on being rubbed Avith a A\et
cloth, I took yelloAV Avax Avhich had been melted from
the honeycomb in a private family, and confequently
not at all adulterated : to three parts of this I added
one part refin, and melted them together.
“ Exp. 9. Spanifh-white, mixed with filh-glue, Avas
put for a ground on a board, and painted Avith Avater-
colours only. The board was made Avarm ; and then
the Avax and refin were put on Avith a brufh, and kept
clofe to the fire till the pidure had imbibed all the
varnifh.
Encauftic
Painting.
t f>'\ “ Putty is lime flaked, and Avhile warm, diffolved in Avatcr, and ftraine.d through, a fieve,
(C) “ The account of the method of polifhing [painting] walls coloured with, vermilion gave me great fatis-
fadion as it proved the method I had taken in experiment 8. (which I had tried before I faw or knerv of this
’ in Vitruvius) was right. The ufe of the candle, as I apprehend, was to melt the wax on the walls where
by accident the brufh had put on too much, or afford wax where the brufh had not put on enough, or had left
“fDV* The rubbing tlie waU w;th a linen cloth, while warm, will do very well where there is only one colour
to be preferved ; but where there are many, as in a landfcape, it will be apt to take off feme, or renaer the colour-
ing rather faint; Avhich I found by wiping the Avax oft from a painting Avhile it Avas hot.
E N C
Encauftic. vamxfJi, and looked dry. When it was cold,
bed it firft with a linen cloth, and then poliflied it with
a hard brufli.
“ In thefe experiments I found great difficulties with
regard to colours. Many water colours being made
from the juices of plants, have fome degree of an acid
in them ; and thefe, when painted on an alkaline
ground, as chalk, whitening, cimolia, and plafter, are
totally changed in their colours, and from green be¬
come brown j which contributes much to make the
experiments tedious. I would therefore advife the ufe
of mineral or metallic colours for this fort of painting,
as mo ft likely to preferve their colour : for although I
neutralized Spanith white, by fermenting it with vine¬
gar, and afterwards waftied it very well with water, it
did not fucceed to my with.
. “ Thefe experiments, and this paffiage from Vitru¬
vius, will in fome meafure explain the obfeurity of part
of that paffiage in Pliny which Dr Parfons, in his learn¬
ed comment on the encauftic painting with wax, feems
to defpair of.
“ Ceris ping ere, was one fpecies of encauftic paint¬
ing. Es/jMct/s-av, inujiwm, may be tranflated, “ forced in
”by the means of fire j burnt in :” for whatever is forced
in by the help of fire can be rendered into Latin by no
other fignificant word that I know of but inujlum. . If
this is allowed me, and I think I have the authority of
Vitruvius (a writer in the Auguftan age) for it, who
feems to have wrote from his own knowledge, and not
like Pliny, who copied from others much more than he
knew himfelf, the difficulty with regard to this kind of
painting, is folved, and the encauftic with burnt wax
recovered to the public.
V hat he means by the next kind he mentions,
m chore cejiro id ejl viriculo, I will not attempt to ex¬
plain at prefent.
“ The ftiip-painting is more eafily accounted for, the
praflice being in part continued to this time ; and is
what is corruptly called breaming, for brenning or
burning.
“ 1 his is done by reeds fet on fire, and held under
the fide of a (hip till it is quite hot j then refin, tallow,
tar, and brimftone, melted together, and put on with
a hair brufli while the planks remain hot, make fuch
a kind of paint as Pliny deferibes : which, he fays, nec
foie, nec fide ventifque corrumpitur. As they were ig¬
norant of the ufe of oil-painting, they mixed that co¬
lour with the wax, &e. which they intended for each
particulai part of the flup, and put it on in the manner
above deferibed.
“ ^ the pictures painted for thefe experiments, and
now laid before your lordftiip and the fociety, I hope
neither the defign of the landfcape, nor the execution
of it, will be fo much taken into confideration as the
varnifli (which was the thing wanted in this inquiry) :
and I think that will evince, that the encauftic paint¬
ing with burnt wax is fully reftored by thefe experi¬
ments 5 and though not a new invention, yet having
been loft for fo many ages, and now applied further,
and to other purpofes, than it was by Vitruvius (who
confined it to vermilion only), may alfo amount to a new
difeovery, the ufe of which may be a means of pre-
ferving many curious drawings to pofterity; for this
[ 41 1 E N C
I rub- procefs is very Ample, and is not attended with the dif- Encauftic.
agreeable fmell unavoidable in oil-painting, nor with
fome inconveniences infeparable from that art; and as
there is no fubftance we know more durable than wrax,
it hath the greateft probability of being lafting.”
Still, however, there feem to have been fome defers
or inconveniences attending thefe and other fubfequent
attempts ; for we find the ancient or fome fimilar me*-
thod of painting in vrax remaining a defideratum up¬
wards of 25 years after the publication of the preceding
experiments •, when in 1787 a method wras communi¬
cated to the Society of Arts by Mifs Greenland, for
which (lie was rewarded with a prize. The ground
of her information Ihe received at Florence, through
the acquaintance -of an amateur of painting, who pro¬
cured her the fatisfaftion of feeing fome paintings in
the ancient Grecian ftyle, executed by Signora Pa-
renti, a profeflor at that place, who had been inftrueted
by a Jefuit at Pavia, the perfon who made the farthert
difeoveries in that art. Mifs Greenland’s friend know¬
ing Are was fond of painting, informed her what were
the materials the paintrefs ufed, but could not tell her
the proportions of the compofition j however, from her
anxiety to fucceed in fuch an acquifition, ftie made va¬
rious experiments, and at laft obtained fuch a fufficient
knowledge of the quantities of the different ingredients
as to begin and finifli a picture, which flie afterwards
prefented to the Society for their infpeciion.
Her method is as follows : “ Take an ounce of white
wax, and the fame weight of gum maftich powdered-.
Put the wax in a glazed earthen veffel over a very flow
fire 5 and when it is quite diffolved, ftrew in the maftich,
a little at a time, ftirring the wax continually until the
whole quantity of gum is perfectly melted and incor¬
porated : then throrv the pafte into cold water 5 and
when it is hard, take it out of the water, wipe it dry,
and beat it in one of Mr Wedgwood’s mortars, obfer-
ving to pound it at firft in a linen cloth to abforb fome
drops of water that will remain in the pafte, and would
prevent the poffibility of reducing it to a powder, which
muft be fo fine as to pafs through a thick gauze. It
ffiould be pounded in a cold place and but a little while
at a time, as after long beating the friftion will in a de¬
gree^ foften the wax and gum, and inftead of their be¬
coming a powder they will return to a pafte.
“ Make fome ftrong gum-arabic water j and when
you paint, take a little of the powder, fome colour, and
mix them together with the gum-water. Light colours
require but a fmall quantity of the powder, but more of
it muft be put in proportion to the body and darknefs of
the colours 5 and to black there fliould be almoft as
much of the powder as colour.
“ Having mixed the colours, and no more than can
be ufed. before they grow dry, paint with fair water, as
is pra&ifed in painting with water-colours, a ground on
the wood being firft painted of fome proper colour pre¬
pared in the fame manner as is deferibed for the pic¬
ture ; Walnut-tree and oak are the forts of wood com¬
monly made ufe of in Italy for this purpofe. The paint¬
ing ffiould be very highly finiffied 5 otherwife, when
varniftied, the tints will not appear united.
“ When the painting is quite dry, with rather a
e; 1 1 —" r-" j > ^ hai'd brufli, palling it oneway, varniffi it with white
.-in" F“n may .° on PaPe^ cloth, or any other * wax, which is put into an earthen veffel, and kept melt-
Vol VIII ^Part^11 a gr0Und t0 bc laid °n it;* The ed over a very flow fire till the pi&ure is varnilhed, ta-
F king
animals, hi- Enchafing
E N C [ 42 ] END
Encauftlc king great care the wax does not boil. Afterwards kind will reprefent foliages, grotefques,
II hold the picture before a fire, near enough to melt the itones, &c. _ . Endvmion.
‘^'1 C ^ ln;'~' wax, but not make it run } and Avhen the varnifh is en- ENGLI 1 ICA, in Grammar, particles which are fo 1 ..,_v _ >
tirely cold and hard, rub it gently with a linen cloth, clofely united with other words as to feem part of them,
Should the varnifh blifter, warm the picture again very as in virumque, &c.— there are three enclitic particles
4-1-4.. i-v 1 t 1 ■fiT r-\ it n \ /V/ ri t" 11 r r* r*
(lowly, and .the bubbles will fubfide. When the picture
is dirty, it need only be wafhed with cold water.
The opinion given by the Society upon the above is:
The method made ufe of by Mils Greenland provides
againft all inconveniences ; and the brilliancy of the
colours in the picture painted by her, and exhibited to
the Society, fully juftifies the opinion, that the art of
painting in wax, as above deferibed, highly merited
the reward of a gold pallet voted to her on this occa-
fibn.
ENCEINTE, in Fortification, is the wall or ram¬
part which furrounds a place, fometimes compofed of
baftions or curtains, either faced or lined with brick or
(lone, or only made of earth. The enceinte is fome¬
times only flanked by round or fquare towers, which
is called a Roman wall.
ENCEPHALI, in Medicine, worms generated in
the head, where they caufe fo great a pain as fome¬
times to occafion diJlraftion.
The encephali are very rare •, but there are fome dif-
eafes wherein they fwarm : from whence we are told
peftilential fevers have wholly arifen. Upon the dif-
feclion of one who died of this fever, a little, fhort,
red worm w as found in the head, which malmfey wine,
wherein horfe-raddifh had been boiled, could alone de-
(troy. This medicine rvas aftenvards tried on the Tick,
moft of whom it cured.
The like Avorms haA'e alfo been taken out by tre¬
panning, and the patient cured. Thofe Avorms that
generate in the nofe, ears, and teeth, are alfo called en-
cephah. ,
'ENCHANTER, a perfon fuppofed to praftife en¬
chantment or fafeination. See Fascination, Witch¬
craft, &c.
Enchanter's Nightjhade. See Circa.a, Botant
Index.
ENCHASING, Inphasing, or Chafing, the art
of enriching and beautifying gold, filver, and other
metal-Avork, by fome defign or figures reprefented
thereon in low relievo.
Enchafing is praftifed only on holloAV thin Avqrks,
as watch-cafes, cane-heads, tAveezer-eafes, or the like.
It is performed by punching or driving out the metal,
to form a figure, from withinfide, fo as to (land out
prominent from the plane or furface of the metal. In
order to this, they provide a number of fine Heel blocks
or puncheons of divers fizes 5 and the defign being
drawn on the furface of the metal, they apply the in-
fide upon the heads or tops of thefe blocks, directly
under the lines or parts of the figures *, then, Avith a
fine hammer, ftriking on the metal, fuftained by the
block, the metal yields, and the block makes an in¬
denture or cavity on the infide, correfponding to which
there is a prominence on the outfide, Avhieh is to Hand
for that part of the figure.
Thus the Avorkman proceeds to chafe and finilh all
the parts by the fucceffive application of the block and
hammer to the feveral parts of the defign. And it is
wonderful to confider with what beauty and juftnefs,
by this Ample piece of mechanifm, the artiils in this
in Latin, viz. que, ne, ve.
ENCRAITTES, in church-hiftory, heretics Avho
appeared toAvards the end of the fecond century : they
Avere called Encratites, or Continentcs, becaufe they glo¬
ried in abftaining from marriage and the ufe of .Avine
and animal food.
ENCURECK, in Natural Hifonj, a venomous in-
fed! found in Perfia, and faid to be a kind of tarantu¬
la. According to Olearius, as quoted by Mr Boyle, it
neither flings nor bites ; but lets fall its Arenom like a
drop of Avater, Avhich caufes infufferable pain in the
part for a time, and aftenvards fo profound a deep,
that, as report fays, nothing can aAvake the patient ex¬
cept crufhing one of the creatures on the part affedled.
It is neverthelefs faid, that the (heep eat thefe infects
Avithout damage.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA, a term nearly fynonymous
Avith Cyc LOP/El) 1 a *, but adopted in preference to it in
denominating the prefent work, as being more definite
and of better authority. According to an obfervation
of -the late learned printer Mr Bower, the prepofition
EN makes the meaning of the Avord more precife.
For Cyclopaedia may denote 44 the inftruaion OF a
circle,” as Cyropadia is “ the inftruction of Cyrus,”
whereas in ENcyclopcedia, the prepofition determines the
Avord to be from the dative of cyclus, “ inftrudtion IN
a circle.” And Voflius, in his book De vitiis fermonisy
has obferved, ii That Cyclopaedia is ufed by (ome au¬
thors, but Encyclopedia by the belt.”
ENDEMIC, or Endemical, Diseases, thofe to
which the inhabitants of particular countries^ are fub-
jcct more than others, on account of the air, water,
fituation, and manner of living.
ENDIVE. See Cichorium, Botany and Gar¬
dening Index.
ENDLESS, fome thing Avithout an end : thus au¬
thors mention endlefs rolls, the endlefs fcrcAV, &c.
ENDOR, in Ancient Geography, a tOAyn of Galilee,
four miles to the fouth of Mount I abor, in the tribe of
Manaffeh, Avhere the Pythonefs Avas confulted by Saul :
at this day, fays Jerome, a large village.
ENDORSE, in Heraldry, an ordinary, containing
the eighth part of a pale, which Leigh fays is only
ufed Avhen a pale is betAveen tAVo of them,
ENDORSED, in Heraldry, is faid of things borne
back to back, more ufually called Adosse.
ENDORSEMENT, in Law and Commerce. See
Indorsement.
ENDOWMENT, in Law, denotes the fettling a
do Aver on a woman *, though fometimes it is ufed figu¬
ratively, for fettling a provifion upon a parfon, on the
building of a church 5 or the fevering a fufficient por¬
tion of tithes for a vicar, when the benefice is appro¬
priated.
ENDYMION, in fabulous hiftory, a (hepherd, fon of
AEthlius and Calyce. It is faid that he required of
Jupiter to grant to him to be ahvays young, and to
deep as much as he would •, Avhence came the proverb
of Endymionis fomnum dormice, to exprefs a long deep.
Diana faAV him naked as he flept on Mount Latmosq
and
E N F [ 43 ] £ N F
Endymion and was fo ftruck with his beauty, that {lie came down
* II from heaven every night to enjoy his company. En-
, r.. t (. dymion married Chromia daughter of I tonus '7 by whom
he had three ion's Paeon, Epeus, and /Eolus, and a
daughter called Euri/dice. I he fable of Endymion’s
amours with Diana, or the moon, arofe from his know¬
ledge of aftronomy •, and as he paffed the night on fome
liigh mountain to obferve the heavenly bodies, it came
to be reported that he was courted by the moon. Some
fuppofe that there were two of that name ; the Ion
of a king of Elis, and the Ihepberd or aftronomer
of Caria. The people of Heraclea maintained that
Endymion died on Mount Eatmos j and the Ekans
pretended to {how his tomb at Olympia in Pelopon-
nefus.
ENEMY, in Law, an alien or foreigner, who pub¬
licly invades the kingdom.
ENERGUMENS, in ehurch-hiftory, perfons fup-
pofed to be polTefled by the devil, concerning whom
tiiere were many regulations among the primitive Chrif-
tians. They were denied haptifm and the eucharift 5
at lead, this was the practice of fome churches ; and
though they were under the care of exorcifts, yet it was
thought a becoming act of charity to let them have
the public prayers of the church, at which they were
permitted to be prefent. See Exorcism.
ENERGY, a term of Greek origin, fignifying the
power, virtue, or efficacy of a thing. It is alfo ufed,
figuratively, to denote emphafis of fpeech.
ENERVATING, tire aft of deftroying the force,
ufe, or office, of the nerves, either by cutting them,
by weakening them with debauchery, or by fome other
violence.
Excefs of wine, and other ftrong, hot, fpirituous
liquors, enervate or weaken the nerves. When they
would render a horfe ufelefs, they enervate him, or cut
his nerves.
EbJFANS perdus, the fame with forlorn hope.
See Forlorn.
ENFIELD, William, LL. D. an elegant and
very juftly admired writer, was born in the year 1741,
at Sudbury. His original deftination was for the faered
office of the mimifry, and he was educated among the
protefhmt diflenters at Daventry, where the high poliffi
which he gave to his compofitions, diftinguiffied him
from many of his contemporaries. The congregation
of Benn’s-garden of Liverpool made choice of him for
their minifter in the year 1763, when he was not more
than 22 years of age j and in this fituation he was
foon taken notice of as an amiable member of fociety,
and an engaging preacher. While he redded in Liver¬
pool, he publiffied two volumes of fermons, 1 2mo, as
well as a colleftion of hymns and family prayers, which
met with a very favourable reception. In the year
1770, lie was appointed tutor and lefturer in the belles
lettres at Warrington academy, which he filled for
feme years with general approbation and unwearied
diligence. He was the compiler of many ufeful books,
among the moil popular of which we may rank his
Speaker,” compofed of pieces of recitation from the
bdf and moll approved Engliffi authors. At the be¬
ginning of this colleftion there is an excellent eflay on
elocution. The Preacher’s Direftory; the Englifh
Preacher, a colleftion of fermons in 9 vols 121110, from
the mofi celebrated authors j Biographical Sermons on
the principal charafters in the Old and New TefUment, Enfield
with a number of fingle fermons on particular occa- j
fions, were alfo the productions of his pen. The con- ,
troverfy relative to literary property alfo engaged his
attention, and on this he wrote a quarto pamphlet. He
likewife puhliffied in one volume 410, Inilitutes of
Natural Philofophy, theoretical and experimental 5 and
1 during the time of bis relidence at Warrington, as
teacher in the academy, the univerfity of Edinburgh
conferred on him the degree of LL. D. When that
academy was diffolved in 1783, Dr Enfield continued
for two years at Warrington in the capacity of a private
tutor, after which he was chofen pallor of the Oftagon
meeting-houfe at Norwich, in the year 1785. He at
length gave up his private tuition, and entirely devoted
his time to literary labours, and the peculiar duties of
bis paftoral charge. About this time he loft his eldeft
fon, who had been appointed to the office of town-clerk
of Nottingham. This event would have been produftive
of very ferious effefts on his health and fpirits, had it
not been for the confolation of religion and philofophy,
which are fufficient to fupport the human mind under
the preflure of the fevereft calamities. Fie undertook
and executed the laborious talk of abridging Brucker’s
Hiftory of Philofophy, which in 1791 he publilhed in
2 vols 4to. It has been allowed that the tenets of the
different fefts of philofophers wrere never before exhi¬
bited to the world with fuch perfpicuity and elegance ;
qualifications for which Dr Enfield was undoubtedly
eminent.' He contributed largely to the Biographical
Diftionary, publilhed under the infpeftion of Dr Aiken
and others.
An unfufpefted diftemper haftened the termination
of his ufeful life, and on the 3d of November 1797, he
expired in the 57th year of his age. The general love
of mankind which Dr Enfield poffeffed, falls to the lot
of few •, nor does it often happen that an individual dies
fo univerfally lamented. It was cffential to him to be
amiable in every ftation and condition of life. His
pofthumous fermons, in 3 vols 8vo, had a very numer¬
ous lift of fubferibers, a ftrong'proof of the eftimation
in which he was held by all who knew him, either per-
fonally or by report. In thefe difeourfes he treats
chiefly on moral topics, which he difeuffes with th®
niceft diferimination, and in a train of the moll pleafing
and manly eloquence.
ENFILADE, in the art of war, is ufed in fpeak-
ing of trenches, or other places, which may be fcoured
by the enemy’s (hot along their whole length. In ccn-
dufting the approaches at a fiege, care mull be taken
that the trenches be not enfiladed from any work of
the place.
ENFINE', formerly Antinoe, a city of Egypt,
built by Adrian in honour of his favourite Antinous.
It is fituated towards the middle of the Said, or Upper
Egypt, and ftill contains feveral ftately monuments of
antiquity. In ancient times this city wras very magni¬
ficent. It was about half a league in circumference,
having two principal ftreets 45 feet wide, interfefting-
each other at right angles, and running through its
whole length. The others were more narrow, but
equally ftraight; the two largeft having gates at each
end, part of wdnch ftill remain. According to the
Nubian geographer, it was called the city of tiie Magi,
becaufe Lharaoh is faid to have caulcd the magicians
E 2 come
ENG [ 44 ] ENG
inline come from thence to his court. Near it were the ruins
i! of Abydus, where there was an oracle of the god Befa,
ngen- one 0f mo^. anclent in Egypt, and which was ftill
! ■ ■ famous in tlie time of Conftantius *, and hence fome
have derived the appellation juft mentioned, the neigh¬
bouring people coming in crowds to confult the oracle.
The ruins of the gates are the moft beautiful pieces
of architecture to be met with in this place. The
handfomeft has three vaulted entries ; the middle one
being 40 feet in height, 22 wide, and 20 thick ; the
other two fmaller. Each of the facades of this edifice
is ornamented with four pilafters in bas relief, with
Corinthian capitals, the acanthus leaves of which have
a confiderable projection. It was furrounded by eight
Corinthian columns, of which only one now remains,
but the pedeftals of the reft are ftill entire. Befides
thefe, there are heaps of rubbifii in different parts of
the town, apparently the remains of ancient temples
or palaces. All thefe feem to have been bordered by
a colonnade, forming a portico on each fide, where the
inhabitants might walk fecure from the heat of the
fun. One of the iquarcs was ornamented with four
large Corinthian pillars, three of which are deftroyed
all but the bafes. The fourth is quite entire, about
i;o feet high, and the fnaft compofed of feveral ftones.
The pedeftal has a Greek infeription, pretty much de-
faced, dedicating it to the emperor Alexander Severus,
to whom the fenate of Alexandria had already dedi¬
cated the famous column mentioned under that article.
Thefe four other columns were therefore probably rai-
fed in honour of that emperor after his victories over
the Perfians 5 for the foliage of the oak, with which
the firft ft one of the ftiaft is decorated, was a fign of
riftory among the Romans. Towards the end of the
fourth century the city was peopled by Chriftians; and
Palladius affures us, that there were at that place 12
convents of virgins, and feveral others inhabited by
monks. In the convents there are ftill feveral Coptic
monafteries poffeffed by monks equally miferable and
ignorant. The Nubian geographer informs us, that
the city was furrounded by a well cultivated country,
abounding in fruits and harvefts 5 but thefe have now
given place to fands and barren deferts. The ruins of
Abydus above mentioned are ftill to be feen near this
place.
ENFRANCHISEMENT, in Zaw, the incorpora¬
ting a perfon into any fociety or body-politic.
ENGASTRIMYTHI, in Pagan theology, the
Pythians, or priefteffes of Apollo, who delivered ora¬
cles from within, without any aCtion of the mouth or
lips.
The ancient philofophers, &c. are divided upon the
fubjeCt of the engaftrimythi. Hippocrates mentions
it as a difeafe. Others will have it a kind of divina¬
tion. Others attribute it to the operation or poffeftion
of an evil fpirit. And others to art and mechanifm.
M. Scottus maintains that the engaftrimythi of the
ancients were poets, who, when the priefts could not
fpeak, fupplied the defect by explaining in verfe what
Apollo dictated in the cavity of the bafon on the facred
tripod.
ENGENDERING, a term fometimes ufed for the
aft of producing or forming any thing: thus meteors
are faid to be engendered in the middle region of the
atmofphere, and worms in the belly.
ENGINE, in Mechanics, is a compound machine, Engine
made of one or more mechanical powers, as levers, II
pulleys, ferews, &c. in order to raife, caft, or fuftain , fe
any weight, or produce any effeft which could not be
eafily effefted otherwife. The wTord is formed of the
French engitt, from the Latin ingenium, “ wit}” by rea-
fon of the ingenuity required in the contrivance of en¬
gines to augment the effeft of moving powers.
Engine for Extinguijhing Fires. See Hydro¬
dynamics Index.
PUc-Engine, one contrived for driving piles. Sec
PiLE-Engine,
Steam-ENGiNE, a machine to raife rvater by fire, or
rather by the force of Avater turned into fteam. See
SrKAM-Engig0.
ENGINEER, in the military art, an able expert
man, Avho, by a perfeft knoAvledge in mathematics,
delineates upon paper, or marks upon the ground, all
forts of forts, and other Avorks proper for offence and
defence. He ftiould underftand the art of fortifica¬
tion, lb as to be able, not only to difeover the defefts
of a place, but to find a remedy proper for them; as
alfo hoAV to make an attack upon, as Avell as to defend,
the place. Engineers are extremely neceffary for thefe
purpofes: Avhcrefore it is requifite, that befides being
ingenious, they Ihould be brave in proportion. When,
at a liege, the engineers have narroAvly furveyed the
place, they are to make their report to the general, by
acquainting him Avhich part they judge the weakeft,
and Avhere approaches may be made Avith moft fuccefs.
Their bufinefs is alfo to delineate the lines of circum-
vallation and contravallation, taking all the advantages
of the ground } to mark out the trenches, places of
arms, batteries, and lodgments, taking care that none
of their Avorks be flanked or difeovered from the place.
After making a. faithful report to the general of what
is a-doing, the engineers are to demand a fufficient
number of workmen and utenfils, and Avhatever elfe is
neceffary.
ENGLAND, the fbuthern divifion of the ifland of
Great Britain. Including Wales, it is of a triangular
form, and lies betAveen the 50th and 55th degrees of
north latitude, extending about 400 miles in length
from fouth to north, and in fome places it is 300
miles in breadth. It is bounded by Scotland on the
north } by the Englilh channel on the fouth, di ¬
viding it from France; by the German fea on the
ealt }' and on the weft by St George’s, or the Irilh
channel. _ t
At Avhat time the ifland of Britain Avas peopled is whence
uncertain } nor do av e know Avhether the fouthern or peopled,
northern parts Avere firft inhabited. We have no ac¬
counts that can be depended upon before the arrival of
Julius Caefar, and it is certain he found the fouthern
parts full of people of a very Avarlike difpofition.
Thefe people, according to Cadar, Avere a colony of
the Gauls-, and this opinion is embraced by moft of
the ancient as Avell as modern Avriters. It is chiefly
founded on the agreement obferved by the Romans
betAveen the Iavo nations in their cuftoms, manners,
language, religion, government, Avay of fighting, &c.
The more northern inhabitants, according to Taci¬
tus, came from Germany. This he infers from the
make of their limbs} but Cgefar Amply calls them A-
barigenes,
England^,
E- N G
England. England, including the principality of Wales, when
“ ' fir ft invaded by the Romans, was divided into 17 petty
Inhabited hates, x. The Danmonii, called alfo Dunmonii and
by 17 dif- Donmonii, inhabiting the counties of Cornwall and De¬
ferent na- vonfhire. 2. The Durotriges, who inhabited the tracl
lions. now called Dorfetjhire. 3. The Belgaj pofleffed
Somerfetlhire, Wiltftiire, and Hamplhire. 4. The
Attrebatii, or inhabitants of Berklhire. 5. The Regni,
whofe country bordered on that of the Attrebatii, and
comprehended Surrey, Suflex, and part of the fea-coaft
of Hampfhire. 6. The Cantii, inhabiting the county
now called Kent. 7. The Dobuni are placed by Pto¬
lemy on the north fide of the Thames, near its head,
in the counties of Gloucelterfhire and Oxfordfhire.
8. The Cattieuchlani, Calyeuchlani, Cattidudnni, or Ca-
thicludaniy inhabited Buckinghamlhire, Bedfordfhire,
and Hertfordlhire. 9. The Trinobantes, who poflef¬
fed the counties of Eflex and Middlefex. 10. The
Iceni, whofe country comprehended Suffolk, Norfolk,
^ Cambridge, and Huntingdonlhire. Thefe are by
Ptolemy called Simcni, and by others Tigeni. Camden
is of opinion, that they were the fame whom Ceefar
calls Cenomagni. 11. The Coritani, whofe country
comprehended Northamptonfhire, Leicefterfhire, Rut¬
landshire, Lincolnfhire, Nottingham {hire, and Derby-
ftiire. 12. The Cornavii poflefled Warwickfhire,
Worcefterfhire, Staffordfliire, Shroplhire, and Chefhire.
13. The Silures inhabited the counties of Radnorfhire,
Brecknockfliire, Glamorganihire, with Herefordlhire
and Monmouthlhire. 14. The Demetae inhabited
part of Caermarthenlhire, Pembrokelhire, and Cardigan-
Ihire. 15. Tlie country of the Ordovices comprehend¬
ed Montgomcryfiiire, Merionethfhire, Caernarvonfliire,
Denbighthire, and Flintlhire. 16. The -Brigantes
poflefled tlie counties of Yorkfhire, the bifliopric of
Durham, Lancafliire, Weftmorland, and Cumberland.
17. The county of Northumberland was held by the
Ottadini, Ottadeni, or Ottalini. Their country,
according to fome, reached from the Tyne to the river
Forth •, though the moft common opinion is, that it
reached only to the Tweed.
The above-mentioned names of thefe nations are
plainly Roman, but the etymology of them is not ea-
fily afeertained. Some attempt to derive them from
words in the old Britifh language ; but as this fubjeft
at belt muft be very obfeure and uncertain, we fliall
not enter into it.
Julius Cse- Before the time of Julius Ccefar, the Romans had
far under- fcareely any knowledge of Britain 5 but that conqueror
pedition in- ^av‘n.? ^bdued moft of the Gallic nations on the oppo-
to Britain. ^te ^e channel, began to think of extending
his conquefts by the reduction of Britain. The motive
for this expedition, aferibed to him by Suetonius, was
a defire of enriching himfelf with the Britifh pearls,
which ivere then very much efteemed. The pretence,
however, Avhich he made ufe of in order to jollify his
invafion rvas, that the Britons had fent afliftance to the
Gauls during his wars with them.
Crnfar undertook his firft expedition againft Britain
when the fummer Avas already far fpent, and therefore
he did not expedl to finilh the conqueft of the country
that campaign. He thought, hoAvever, that it avouIcI
be a confiderable adr'antage to vieAV the ifland, and
learn fomething of the manners and cuftoms of the na¬
tives 5 after ivhich he could more eafily take fuch mea-
E N G
fures as Avould enfure a permanent conquefi: on his re- Enghna,
turn. Having marched all his forces into the country ' 
of the Morini, noAV the province of Picardy, from
Avhence Avas the Ihorteft paflage into Britain j he or¬
dered at the fame time all the veflels that lay in the
neighbouring ports, and a fleet which lie had built the
year before for an expedition againft the Morini, to
attend him. The Britons, alarmed at his preparations,
fent ambafladors Avith offers of fubmiflion j but Ccefar,
though he received them Avith great kindnefs, did not
abandon his intended fcheme of an invafion. He
Avaited till the arrival of C. Volufenus, Avhom he had
fent out Avith a fingle galley to make difeoveries on
the coaft. Volufenus did not think proper to land ;
but, having made AA'hat obfervations lie could, returned
after five days abfence, and Csefar immediately fet fail
for Britain. His force confifted of tAVo legions, em¬
barked on board 80 tranfports ; and he appointed 18
more Avhich lay Avind-bound about eight miles off, to
convey over the cavalry •, but thefe laft orders Avere too
floAvly executed, Avhich occafioned fome difficulty in his
landing. 4
The Britons at this time, according to Cix-far and Manners,
other Roman hiftorians, Avere very numerous, and had cuftony,
their country A\rell ftocked A\7ith cattle. Their houfes^j.^1 e
refembled thofe of the Gauls 5 and they ufed copper
or iron plates Aveighed by a certain ftandard inftead of
money. Their toAATns were a confufed parcel of huts
placed at a fmall diftance from one another, generally
in the middle of a Avood, to Avhich all the avenues Avere
flightly guarded Avith ramparts of earth, or Avith trees.
All the nations Avere in a ftate of the moft wretched
barbarifm, even when compared Avith the barbarous
Gauls on the continent. The ufe of clothes xvas fcarce-
ly knoAvn in the ifland. Only the inhabitants of the
fouthern coaft covered their nakednefs Avith the fkins
of Avild bcafts 5 and this rather to avoid giving offence
to the ttrangers Avho came to trade Avith them, than
out ox any principle of decency. It was a general
cuftqm among the Britons to paint their bodies Avith
the juice of Avoad : but Avhether this Avas defigned as
ornament, or for any other purpofe, is not knoA\m.
They ihavccl their beards all except their upper lip,
and Avore long hair. They alfo had their Avives in
common, a cuftom Avhich made them deteftable to all
other nations.
The arms of the Britons Avere a fword, a flrort
lance, and a Afield. Breaft-plates and helmets they
looked upon rather to be incumbrances, and therefore
made no ufe of them. They ufually fought in chariots,
fome of Avhich Arere armed Avith feythes at the avheels j
they Avere fierce and cruel, and exceedingly blood-
thirfty. When driven to diftrefs, they could fubfift
themfelves even on the bark and roots of trees 5 and
Dio Caflius tells us, that they had-ready, on all occa-
fions, a certain kind of food, of Avhichftf they took
but the quantity of a bean, they Avere not troubled Avith
hunger or third: for a confiderable time after. The
fouthern nations, hoAvever, AVere fomeAvhat more civili¬
zed 5 and the Cantii, or inhabitants of Kent, more fo
than any of the reft.
All the Britilh nations at this time xvere very brave
and refolute, oAving to the continual diffenfions among
themfelves. They proved therefore very formidable
enemies to the Romans 5 but the fame diflenfions Avhieh
had
[ 45 1
6
They are
defeated
and fue for
peace.
ENG [46
England, had taught them the art of war, alfo prevented them
v from uniting in the defence of their country. As foon
They op- as they perceived Ca^far’s fleet approaching, a number
pofe G:c- of cavalry and chariots were difpatched to oppofe his
far’s land- landing, while a confiderable body of infantry haften-
11)S- ed after. What chiefly embarralfed the Romans in
their attempt to land, was the largenefs of their flops,
which required a conflderable depth of water. The
foldiers, therefore, were obliged to leap into the f°a
while loaded with their armour ; and at the iaitie time
to encounter the enemy, who were quite difen gaged,
as they either Rood on dry ground, or waded but
a little way into the water. Csefar perceiving this
difadvantage, ordered his galleys to advance, with their
broadfides towards the ftiore, in order to drive the
Britons from the water-lide with their flings and ar¬
rows. On this the Britons, furprifed at the galleys, a
fort of {hipping they had never beiTre feen, began to
give ground. The fight, however, continued for fome
time, greatly to the difadvantage of the Romans j till
at laid Ctefar,• obfcrving the diftrcfs ef his men, caufed
feveral boats to be manned, and fent them to the af-
fiftance of thofe who were moft expofed to the enemy’s
affault. The Romans then foon got the better of the
undifciplined barbarians, however brave, and made
good their landing; but they were unable to purfue
the enemy for want of cavalry, which had not yet ar¬
rived.
The Britons were fo difheartened with this bad fuc-
cefs, that they immediately fent ambaffadors to fue for
peace j which was granted, on condition of their deli¬
vering a cettain number of hoftages for. their fidelity.
Part of thefe they brought immediately } and promifed
to return in a few days with the reft, who, they faid,
lived at fome diftance. But, in the mean time, the
18 tranfports which carried Caefar’s cavalry, being
driven back by a violent ftorm, and the fleet which
lay in the road being greatly damaged by the fame,
the Britons thought proper to break their engage¬
ments. ' Having therefore privately aflemblefl their
forces, they fell unexpectedly on the feventh legion
while at a diftance from the reft and bufied in fora¬
ging. Caefar being apprifed of their danger, haften-
ed to their afliftance with two cohorts, and at laft re-
pulfed the enemy. This, however, proved only a
temporary deliverance •, for the Britons, thinking it
would be poflible for them to cut off all the Romans
at once, difpatched meffengers to inform feveral of the
neighbouring nations of the weaknefs of the enemy’s
forces, and the happy opportunity that offered itfelf
of deftroying all thefe invaders at one blow. On this,
they drew together a great body of horfe and foot,
which boldly advanced to the Roman entrenchments.
But Csefar came out to meet them ; and the undifei-
piined Britons being by no means able to cope with
the Romani, were put to flight with great {laughter.
Having burnt feveral towns and villages, the victors
returned to their camp, where they were foon follow¬
ed, by new deputies from the Britons, Ceefar being
in want of horfe, and afraid left another ftorm fhould
deftroy the remainder of his fleet, granted them peace
on condition of their fending him double the number
of hoftages into Gaul which they had before promifed.
The fame night he fet fail, and foon arrived fafe in
Gaul.
5
T
Their
treachery.
] ENG
The Britons no fooner perceived the Romans gone, Englanfl.
than, as before, they broke through their engage-1 1 v
ments. Of all the ftates who had promifed to fend
hoftages, only two performed their promxfes j and this
negleCt fo provoked Csefar, thafhe determined to re- g
turn the year following with a far greater force. Ha-Cjefur re-
ving, therefore, caufed his old veffels to be refitted, turns,
and a great many new ones to be built, he arrived off
the coaft of Britain with a fleet of 600 {hips and 28
galleys. The Britons made no oppofition to his land¬
ing , but Caefar, getting intelligence that an army was
affembled at no great diftance, marched in queft of
them. He found them encamped on the banks of a
river, fuppefed to be the Slour, about 12 miles diftant
from the place where he had landed. They attempted
to oppofe his paftage ; but being briikly attacked by the
Roman cavalry, they were obliged to retire into a wood,
all the avenues of which were blocked up by trees cut
down for that purpofe. This fortification, however, ^
proved infufficient to protect them. The feventh le- Defeats the
gion having caft themfelves into a teftudo, and thrown Britons,
up a mount againft their ivories, drove them from their
afylum ; but as the day was far fpent, a purfuit was not
thought advifable.
Next morning CaTar, with the greateft part of his
army, which he divided into three bodies, marched
out in queft of the enemy. But when he was already
come in fight of their rear, he was overtaken by mef¬
fengers, who informed him, that his fleet was greatly •
damaged by a violent ftorm which had happened the
preceding night. This put an end to the purfuit for
that time j but Caefar having employed all the carpen¬
ters he had with him, and fent for others from Gaul, in
order to repair the damage, refolved to prevent misfor¬
tunes of this kind for the future. He therefore drew
all his {hips aflaore, and enclofed them within the forti¬
fications of his camp. This arduous undertaking em¬
ployed his whole army for 10 days j after which he
again fet out in queft of the enemy.
The Britons had made the belt ufe they could of
the refpite afforded them by the ftorm. They were
headed by Caflibelaunus king of the Trinobantes. He
had formerly made war upon his neighbours } and ha¬
ving rendered himfelf terrible to them, was looked up¬
on to be the moft proper perfon for leading them on
againft the common enemy *, and as feveral ftates had
now joined their forces, the Britiih army was very nu¬
merous. Their cavalry and chariots attacked the Ro¬
man army while on their march j but were repulfed with
lofs, and driven into the woods. The Romans purfued
them too eagerly, and thus loft fome of their own men ;
which encouraged the Britons to make another fierce
attack j but in this alfo they were finally unfuccefsful,
and obliged to retire, though their lofs feems not to
have been great.
Next day the Britons fuddenly attacked the Roman
legions as they were foraging ; but meeting with a vi¬
gorous refiftance, they foon betook themfelves to flight.
The Romans purfued them fo clofely, that having nei¬
ther time to rally nor get down from their chariots ac¬
cording to cuftom, great numbers of them were cut in
pieces : and this overthrow had fueh an effeft upon the
auxiliaries of Caflibelaunus, that all of them abandon¬
ed him •, nor did the Britons ever afterwards engage
Ceefar with united forces. Caefar, purfuing his victory,
marched
/
ENG
fcs the
Thames.
II
Gives the
England, marched towards the Thames, with a defigri to crofs
" ^ that river, and enter the territories of the Trinobantes.
Csefar crof- -, he rlver was fordable only at one place, and that not
without great difficulty ; but when he came to it, he
found the enemy’s forces drawn up in a confiderable
body on the oppofite bank, which was fortified with
fharp flakes, ihey had likewife driven many flakes
of the fame kind into the bottom of the river, the tops
of which were covered with water. Thefe flakes are
vifible to this day at a place called Walton in Surry.
J hey are made of oak j and though they have been *fo
long in the water, are as hard as Brazil, and as black
as jet j and have fometimes oeen pulled out in order to
make knife handles of them.
Caefar was not at all difinayed at thefe difficulties,
(luent'over'^ ^nteBigence of by prifoners and defert-
throws. "ers He ordered the cavalry to enter firfl, and the
foot to follow. His orders were obeyed, and the fol-
diers advanced with fuch refolution, that though the
infantry were up to the chin in water, the enemy, un¬
able to fuflain their aifault, abandoned the bank and
fled. After this defeat, Caffibelaunus himfelf defpair-
ed of fuccefs, and therefore difmified all his forces ex¬
cept about 4000 chariots, with which he obferved the
motions of the Romans, harafling them by cutting off
draggling parties, &c. This, however, was not fuffi-
cient to keep up the fpirits of his countrymen. On
the contrary, they depofed him from the kingdom, and
chofe Mandubratius, whofe father had been murdered
by Caffibelaunus, who thereupon ufurped the kingdom.
The young prince liad fled to Csefar, who gave him
protection ; and the i rinobantes now offered to fubmit
to the conqueror, provided he would give them Man¬
dubratius for their king.
Caefar readily complied with the requefl of the Tri¬
nobantes upon their fending him 40 hoftages ; and the
fubmifiion of the Trinobantes was foon followed by
that of other Hates and tribes 5 for each of the 17 na¬
tions already mentioned were compofed of feveral differ¬
ent tribes, of which no particular account can be given.
Caefar next marched to Verulamium, or Canterbury,
which was Caffibelaunus’s capital, and which he dill
kept; poffeffion of j but though the place was ftrongly
fortified both by nature and art, the Britons were un¬
able to bear the aflault of the Romans, and therefore
foon fled out at one of the avenues. Many were taken
as they attempted to make their efcape, and many more
cut in pieces.
After this lofs, Caffibelaunus, as his lad refource,
found means to draw irito confederacy with him four
kings of the Cantii. But though Csefar gives them
the title of kings, it is probable that they were only
petty princes, tributaiy to the king of that nation.
J heir names were Cingetorix, Corvilius, Taximagu-
lus, and Segonax. Thefe, having raifed what forces
they could, attacked the camp where the fhips were
laid up : but the Romans having made a fally,1 repul¬
ed them with great daughter, and then returned to
their trenches without any lofs ; after which, Caffibe¬
launus thought proper to fubmit to the conqueror. As
the fummer was already far fpent, Csefar hearkened to
ms propofals. A peace wras concluded on the folloiv-
mg terms, viz. that the Britons diould pay an annual
tribute to the Romans, that Caflibelaunus fhould leave
[ 47 1
ENG
Mandubratius in peaceable poffelfion of his dominions, England,
that he fhould not moled the Trinobantes, and that he
fhould deliver a certain number of hodages. Thefe Tt ,12
terms being agreed to, Caefar fet fail with his whole-ifland
fieet from Britain, to which he never returned. altogether.
Such is the account given by Caefar himfelf of his
two expeditions into Britain 5 but other authors have
fpoken very doubtfully of his victories in this ifland.
l)io Catfius tells us, that the Britons utterly defeated
the Roman infantry, but were at lad put in diforder by
their cavalry. Horace and Tibullus, in many parts of
their works, fpeak of the Britons as a people not yet
conquered. ^ i acitus fays, that Caefar rathes fliowed
the Romans the vray to Britain, than put them in pof-
feffion of it} and Lucan tells us plainly, that Caefar
turned his back to the Britons and fied. This lad
however, confidering the confummate military genius
of . Caefar, is by no means probable. That he left,
Britain, during the winter, was, in all probability, to
prevent mfurredions among the Gauls, which might
very readily have happened : and that he did not return
to finifh his conqued can be no wonder, feeing his am¬
bition would certainly be more gratified by being call¬
ed emperor of Rome, than conqueror of Britain. °
1 he departure ot Julius Caefar, wdiich happened
about 53 years before Chrid, left the Britons without
any fear of a foreign enemy. We are not, therefore,
to imagine, that they would regard their promifes of
paying tribute ; nor was it probably demanded for a
good number of years afterwards. Augudus, however,
when he had got himfelf fully edablidied on the throne,
hed tv ice a defign of invading Britain and forcinn the
inhabitants to pay the tribute promifed to Julius Cadar.
Both times, however, he was prevented by revolts in
different provinces in the empire, fo that the Britons
dill continued to enjoy their liberty. They thought
proper, however, to court the favour of the Romans’as
much as tney could by pretended fubmidions4 but, in
the reign of Claudius, the Romans let about reducing
them to mbjeclion in good earned. The occafion of
this war is related by Dio Caifius as follows. “ Cu- Whv\L
nobehnus, the third in fuccedion from Cadibelaunus,.war with
being dead, his two fons, Togodumnus and Carac- d)0 Romans
tacus, fueceeded to the throne ; but whether theywas renew~
reigned jointly ot feparately, is not known. In their
leign one Bercius, of whom we alfo know very little,
being driven out of the idand for attempting to raife a
{edition, hed with fome of his partifans to Rome, and
perfuaded Claudius to make war on his countrymen.
I he Britons, on the other hand, refented the beha¬
viour of Claudius in receiving thefe vagabonds, and
therefore prohibited all intercourfe with the Romans..
A much fmaller offence than this would have been fiif-
ficient at anytime to provoke that haughty nation to
declare wrar. . An army was therefore immediately or¬
dered into Britain, under the command of Plautius prse-
tor m Gaul. The fddiers at firff refufed to embark,
from a fuperditious notion, that they were going to be
fent without the compafs of the world ; and this mu¬
tiny being related to the Britons, they did not make
the neceffary preparations for their own defence. The
Roman foldiers.were foon brought to a fenfe of their
duty j and fet out from three different ports, in order
to land in thiee different places of Britain at once*
Being
ENG
driven back by contrary winds,
I4
The Bri¬
tons defeat¬
ed.
England. Being driven back by contrary winds, tkeir
began to return ; but they refumed their courage on
the appearance of a meteor {booting from the eaft,
which they imagined was fent from heaven, to direct
their courfe. They tended without oppofition; and
the Britons, not having drawn together a fufficient
army, kept in fmall bodies behind their marfhes, and
in woods, in order to fpin out the war till winter 3
■which they thought Plautius, as Caefar had done, would
pafs in Gaul. . _ r .
The Roman general marched firft m queft ^01 the
two kings Togodumnus and Caractacus •, both or whom
he found out, and defeated one after another.. He then
reduced part of the Dobuni, at that time fuDjcct to the
Cattieuchlani 3 and leaving a garrifon to keep them
in awe, he advanced to a river where the Britons lay
carelefsly encamped, fuppohng that the Romans couid
not pafs it without a bridge. But the Germans in the
Roman army had been accudomed to fwim acrois the
ftrongeft currents with their heavy armour. They there¬
fore paffed the river firft 3 and having, according, to
their orders, fallen only upon the enemy’s horfes which
drew their chariots, thefe formidable machines were
rendered entirely ufelefs 3 and the Britans wrere put to
flio-ht as foon as another part of the forces could pais
river*
The Britons were not dilheartened with this defeat,
but engaged the Romans next day with great bravery.
Victory continued long doubtful 3 but at length the
Romans prevailed, and the Britons were forced to be¬
take themfelves to flight. This battle is thought to
have been fought on the banks of the Severn. From
thence the Britons fled to the mouth of the Thames.
They wrere clofely purfued by the Romans 3 but the
latter being unacquainted with the flats and fliahows
of the river, were often in great danger. The Ger¬
mans, however, crofl'ed by fwimming as before, and
the reft on a bridge fomewdiat farther up the river 3 fo
that the Britons were in a ihort time furrounded on all
fides, and great numbers of them cut in .pieces. Many
of the Romans, alfo, purfuing the fugitives with too
great eagernefs, were loft in the marfties.—In one ot
thefe battles Togodumnus wras killed 3 but the Britons
were fo far from being diftieartened, that they fliowed
more eagernefs than ever to oppofe the Romans, in
order to revenge his death. Plautius, therefore, did not
think proper to penetrate farther into the country, but
contented himfelf with putting garrifons in the. places
he had already conquered. He then wrote to tne em¬
peror himfelf 3 who no fooner received an account, ot
his fuccefs, than he fet out for Britain 3 where, having
landed after a ftiort voyage, he joined Plautius on the
banks of the Thames. . T,
Soon after the arrival of Claudius, the Romans
naffed the Thames, attacked the Britilh army, and to¬
tally defeated it. The confequence of this was the
taking of Cunobelinus’s capital, and the fubmiflion ot
feveral of the neighbouring ftates. . The. emperor,
however, did not make a long flay m the ifland, but
left Plautius to purfue his conquefts. Ihis he did with
fuch fuccefs, that on his return to.Rome, he was met
without the gates by the emperor himfelf, who, at Ins
folemn entry, gave him the right hand.—The Bri¬
tons feem to have made a very obftmate refiftance to
the Roman arms about this time. Vefpafian, who was
[ 48 ] ENG'
fears afterwards emperor, is faid to have fought 30 battles ^ England.
with them 3 and the exploits of 1 itus his fon are alto
much celebrated by the Roman hiftorians.
In the ninth year of Claudius, P. Oftorius Scapula
was font into Britain. By far the greater part of the
17 nations formerly mentioned were at this time un¬
conquered. Some of thefe had broken into the Ro¬
man territories 3 but Oftorius falling unexpecledly up¬
on them, put great numbers to the iword, and difperfed
the reft. To prevent them for the future from making
inroads into the territories of the Romans or their al¬
lies, he built feveral forts on the Severn, the Avon,
and the Nen, reducing the country fouth of thefe ri¬
vers to a Roman province. This fo highly offended
the Iceni, that, being joined by the neighbouring na¬
tions, they railed a confiderable army, and encamped
IS
'Claudius
.arrives in
Britain.
16
... .... advantageous fituation, in order to prevent the
Romans from penetrating farther into the ifland. ^ O-
ftorius, however, foon advanced againft them. The
Romans, as ufual, got the victory, and the enemy were
purfued with great {laughter. The Roman general
then having quelled an infurreftion among the Bri-
gantes, led his army againft the Silures. They were Caradtacu*
headed by their king Caradlacus, a moft renowned and takea
warrior. He fhowTed his military talents by choofing prifonejf„
a very advantageous place for engaging the enemy. Ta¬
citus tells us, “ it was on tiie lidge of an exceeding fteep
mountain 3 and where the fides of it 'were inclining
and acceflible, he reared walls of ftone for a rampart.
At the foot of the mountain flow'ed a river dangerous
to be forded, and an army of men guarded his en¬
trenchments.” ihis hill is thought to be one called
Cacr-Caradoc in Shropftiire,- fituated near the conflux
of the rivers Coiun and Teme, and where the remains
of ancient entrenchments are ftill vifible.—On the ap¬
proach of the enemy, Caradacus drew up his troops in
order of battle, animating them with the following
fpeech, according to Tacitus. “ That from this day*
and this battle,"they muft date their liberty refeued,
or their flavery for ever eftabliflred. He then invoked
the {hades of thole heroes who had expelled Caefar the
dictator 3 thofe brave men by whofe valour they ftill
enjoyed freedom from Roman tribute and taxes, ana
by which their wives and children were as yet pre-
ferved from proftitution.” The whole army then took
a folemn oath either to conquer or die, and prepared
for the charge with the moft terrible fhouts. Oftorms
was fomewhat difmayed when he confidered the un¬
common fiercenefs of the enemy, and the other diffi¬
culties which he had to encounter. He led on his
men, however, to the charge 3 and the Romans were
attended with their ufual good fortune. The Britons
were put to flight. Vaft numbers fell on the field of
battle and in the purfuit, and many more were taken
prifoners. Among the latter were the wife, the daugh¬
ter, and the brothers of Caraclacus. The unfortunate
prince himfelf fled to Cartifmundua queen of the Bri¬
o-antes, by whom he was delivered up to the Roman
general, wffio fent him in chains to. Rome. Caraftacus
bore his misfortunes with magnanimity 3 and when he
came before the emperor, addreffed him in the follow- _ i7
ing terms. “ If my moderation in profpenty, OH^pea*
Claudius ! had been as confpicuous .as my birth, and man emp<i
fortune, I ftrould now have entered this city as a friend, ror>
and not as a prifoner 3 nor would you have difdained
the
ENG t 49 ] ENG
England, tlie frlendfhip of a prince defeended from fucli illuftrious
1 'T—J anceftors, and governing fo many nations. My prefent
condition, I own, is to you honourable, to me humili¬
ating. I was lately poffeffed of fubjeccs, horfes, arms,
and riches. Can you be furprifed that I endeavoured
to preferve them ? If you Romans have a defire to
arrive at univerlal monarchy, mult all nations, to gratify
you, tamely fubmit to fervitude ? If I had fubmitted
without a druggie, how much would it have diminifhed
the luftre of my fall, and of your viclory ? And now,
if you refolve to put me to death, my dory will foon
be buried in oblivion ; but if you think proper to pre¬
ferve my life, I (hall remain a lading monument of
your clemency.”—This fpeech had fuch an effect upon
Claudius, that he immediately pardoned Caraftacus and
his whole family, and commanded them to be fet at
liberty.
The Silures, notwithdanding this terrible blow, con¬
tinued the war with great vigour, and gained confi-
derable advantages over the Romans; which fd mucli
affefled Odorius, that he died of grief. He was fuc-
ceeded by A. Didius, who redrained the incurfions of
the Silures, but was not able to redore Cartifmundua
queen of the Brigantes, who had been depofed by her
fubjefts. Didius was fucceeded by Vcranius, and he by
xS Suetonius Paulinus, who reduced the ifiand of Angle-
Gcneral re-sEY, as related under that article. But while Paulinus
volt ©t the was employed in the conqued of this illand, he was
ons' alarmed by the news of an aimed univerfal revolt among
thofe- nations which had fubmitted to the Romans.
The Britons, though conquered, had dill a defire of
returning to their former date of independence ; and
the Roman yoke became every day more unfupportable
to them, through the infolence and oppreflions of the
Roman foldiers. The Britons had been long difeon-
tented, and were already in a very proper difpofition
for a revolt, when an event happened which kindled
thefe difeontents into an open flame. Prafutagus king
of the Iceni, a prince renowned for opulence and gran¬
deur, had by his lad will, left the Roman emperor,
joint-heir with his two daughters, in hopes of obtain¬
ing his favour and protection by fo great an obligation.
But the event turned out very different. No fooner
was he dead, than his houfes and poffeflions were all
plundered by the Roman foldiers. The queen Boadicea
remonflrated againd this injudiee j but, indead of
obtaining any redrefs, die herlelf was publicly whipped,
her daughters ravifhed, and all the relations of the late
king reduced to flavery. The whole country alfo was
plundered, and all the chiefs of the Iceni deprived of
their poffeflions.
Boadicea was a woman of too haughty a fpirit tamely
to bear fuch indignities. She therefore perfuaded the
Iceni to take up arms, which they very readily did.
Then, being joined by the Trinobantes, and fome other
nations, they poured like a torrent on the Roman co¬
lonies. Every thing was dedroyed with fire and fword.
The ninth legion, which had been left for the defence
of the country under Petilius Cerealis, was defeated,
the infantry totally cut in pieces, and the commander
himfelf with the cavalry efcapcd with the utmod diffi¬
culty. Suetonius, alarmed at this news, immediately
left Anglefey, and marched with the greated expedi¬
tion to London. The inhabitants were overjoyed at
his arrival, and ufed their utmod endeavours to detain
Vol. VIII. Part I.
him for their defence. But he refufed to day, and in SnglamL
a fliort time left the place, notwithdanding the intrea-
ties of the inhabitants. The whole city lamented his U)
departure j and they had reafon. Suetonius was fcarceThey dr-
gone, when Boadicea with her Britons entered, anditroy
put all they found in it to the fword. None were taken 7°»cco
prifoners, nor was any fex or age Ipared, and many were1
tortured in the mod cruel manner. Seventy thoufand
perfons are laid to have perilhed on this occafion at
London and other Roman colonies.
The Britons, now elated with fuccefs, affembled 20
from all quarters in great numbers, fo that Boadicea’s They are
army foon amounted to 230,000 men. They delpifedutteT,y de
the Romans ; and became fo confident of victory, thatleatec*°
they brought their wives and children along with them
in waggons to be fpeclators of the dedrudion of their
enemies. The event was what might naturally have
been expefted from fuch ill-judged confidence. The
Britons were overthrown with mod terrible daughter,
no fewer than 80,000 being killed in the battle and
purfuit} w hile the Romans had not above 400 killed,
and not many more wounded. Boadicea, not able to
furvive fo great a calamity, put an end to her life by
poifon. .
By this overthrow the Britons, who had once been
fubdued, were thoroughly prevented from railing any
more infurre&ions, and even thofe who had not yet
fubmitted to the Roman yoke feemed to be intimida¬
ted from making incurfions into their dominions. No¬
thing remarkable therefore happened for fome time.
In the time of Vefpafian, Petilius Cerealis being ap¬
pointed governor of Britain,1 attacked the Brigantes,
defeated them in feveral battles, and reduced great part
of their country. He was fucceedcd by Julius Fronti-
nus who not only maintained the conquelts of his pre-
deceffor, but reduced entirely the warlike nation of
the Silures. Frontinus was fucceeded by the celebrated
Cneius Julius Agricola, who completed the conquelt of
all the fouthern Britons. 2r
Juft before the arrival of Agricola, the Ordovices Britain con-
had cut in pieces a band of horfe ftationed on their quered by
confines, after which the w hole nation had taken arms. ASricola-
The fummer was pretty far fpent, and the Roman
army was quite feparated and difperfed, the foldiers
having affured themfelves of reft for the remaining part
of the year. Agricola, however, was no fooner landed,
than, having drawn together his legions, he marched
againft the enemy without delay. The Britons kept
upon the ridges of the mountains ; but Agricola led
them in perfon up the afeents. The Romans were
victorious ; and fuch a terrible flaughter was made of
the Britons, that alrnoft the whole nation of Ordo¬
vices wras cut off. Without giving the enemy time to
recover from the terror which this overthrow had oc-
cafioned, Agricola refolved upon the immediate reduc¬
tion of Anglefey, which had been loft by the revolt of
Boadicea. Being deftitute of (hips, he detached a
chofen body of auxiliaries who knew the fords, and
■were accuftomed to manage their arms and horfes in
the water. The Britons, who had expefted a fleet and
tranfports, were fo terrified by the appearance of the
Roman forces on their ifland, that they immediately
fubmitted, and Anglefey wras once more reftored to the
Romans.
With the conqueft of Anglefey ended the firft cam-
G paif11
ENG
[ 5° ]
ENG
Eng-land,
paign of Agricola ; and he employed the winter in re¬
conciling the Britons to the Roman yoke. In this he
met with fueh fuceefs, through his wife and equitable
conduct, that the Britons, barbarous as they were, be¬
gan to prefer a life of fccurity and peace, to that inde¬
pendency which they had formerly enjoyed, and which
continually expofed them to the tumults and calamities
of war. The fuccecding campaigns of Agricola were
attended with equal fuccefs } he not only fubdued the
17 nations inhabiting England, but carried the Roman
arms almolt to the extremity of Scotland. He alfo
caufed his fleet to fail round the ifland, and difcovered
the Orcades, or Orkney iflands, which had before been
unknown to the reft of the world. His expedition took
him up about fix years, and was completed in the year
of Chrift 84.
Had this commander been continued in Britain, it
is probable that both Scotland and England Would
have been permanently fubdued j but he Avas recalled
by Domitian in the year 85, and Ave are then almoft
totally in the dark about the Britifh affairs till the
reign of the emperor Adrian. During this interval
the Caledonians had taken arms, and not only refu-
fed Objection to the Roman poAver themfelves, but
ravaged the territories of the Britons Avho continued
faithful to them. Adrian, for Avhat reafon is not
well known, abandoned to them the Avhole tract lying
between the Tyne and the Forth. At the fame time,
in order to reftrain them from making incurfions into
the Roman territories, he built a Avail 80 miles in
length from the river Eden in Cumberland to the
Tyne in Northumberland *. He Avas fucceeded by
Antoninus Pius, in Avhofe reign the Brigantes re¬
volted *, and the Caledonians, having in feveral places
broken doAvn the Avail built by Adrian, began anew
to ravage the Roman territories. Againft them the
emperor fent Lollius Urbicus, who reduced the Bri¬
gantes •, and having defeated the northern nations,
confined them within narrower bounds by a nesv
£ See Anto- Wall -f, extending probably between the friths of
nima’s Forth and Clyde. From the time of Antoninus to
that of Severus, the Roman dominions in Britain
continued to be much infefted by the inroads of the
northern nations. That emperor divided Britain into
tAvo governments, the fouthern and northern} but
the governor of the northern divifion Avas fo haraffed
by continual incurfions of the Caledonians, that he Avas
at length obliged to purchafe a peace with money.
The Caledonians kept the treaty for 15 years j after
which, breaking into the Roman territories anew, they
committed terrible ravages. Virius Lupus the gover¬
nor, not being in a condition to Avithftand them, ac¬
quainted the emperor Avith his diftrefs, intreating him
to fend poAverful and fpeedy fupplies. Upon, this Se-
Expcdition verus refolved to put an end* to the perpetual incurfions
•f Severus of the enemy, bv making a. complete conqueft of their
ccuntry •, for which purpofe he fet out for Britain, to¬
gether with his tAvo fons Caraealla and Geta, at the
head of a numerous army. The Caledonians no fooner
heard of his arrival, than they fent ambaffadors offer¬
ing to conclude a peace upon honourable terms. But
thefe the emperor detained till he Avas ready to take the
field, and then difmiffed them without granting their
requeft.
As feon as the feafon was fit for aflion, Severus
¥ See A-
drian.
into Bri¬
tain.
marched into the territories of the Caledonians, where England,
he put all to fire and fword. He advanced even to the '" —N "11 1
molt northerly parts of the ifland 5 and though no
battle Avas fought in this expedition, yet through the
continual ambufeades of the enemy, and the inhofpi-
table nature of the country, he is faid to have loft
50,000 men. At laft the Caledonians Avere obliged to
fue for peace 5 which Avas granted them on condition
of their yielding part of their country, and delivering
up their arms. After this the emperor returned to
York, learfing his fon Caracalla to command the army,
and finifli the new Avail which had been begun between .
the friths of Forth and Clyde. But the emperor be¬
ing taken ill at York, the Caledonians no fooner heard
of his indifpofition, than they again took up arms. This
provoked Severus to fuch a degree, that he commanded
his fon Caracalla to enter their country anew with the
whole army, and to put all he met to the fword without
diftinciion of fex or age. Before thefe orders, hoAvever,
could be put in execution, his two fons, having conclud¬
ed a ftiameful peace with the Caledonians, returned to
Rome.
A long chafm now takes place in the hiftory of the
Roman dominions in Britain. In the beginning of
Dioclefian’s reign, Caraufius a native of Gaul, palling
over into Britain, took upon him the title of emperor,
and Avas acknoAvledged by all the troops quartered here.
He Avas, hoAvever, killed in a battle Avith one of Con-
ftantius’s officers, after he had enjoyed the fovereignty
for fix or feven years. Conftantine the Great began
his reign in this ifland 5 and returned foon after he had
left, it, probably Avith a defign to put a flop to the daily
incurfions of the Caledonians. He altered the divifion
of that part of Britain fubjedl to the Romans. Severus
had divided it only into ttvo provinces *, but Conftan <
tine increafed the number to three, viz. Britannia Pri-
ma, Britannia Secunda, and Maxima Csefarienfis 5 and
this laft Avas aftenvards divided into tAvo, viz. Maxima
Csefarienfis and FI avia Caefarienfis. The removal of the-
imperial feat from Rome to Conftantinople, which hap¬
pened in the reign of Conftantine, gave the northern
nations an opportunity of making frequent incurfions
into the Roman provinces 5 the emperor having carried
with him, firft into Gaul, and then into the Eaft, not
only moft of the Roman troops, but likewife the floAver
of the Britifh youth.
About the latter end of the reign of Conftantius fon
to Conftantine the Great, the government of the pro¬
vince of Britain, and other weftern parts of the em¬
pire, Avas committed to Julian, afterwards called the
apojiate. While he Avas in winter quarters at Pans,,
he Avas informed that the Scots and Pidts, about this
time firft diftinguifhed by thefe names, had broken in¬
to the Roman territories and committed everywhere
dreadful ravages. Againft them Julian difpatcheo a
body of troops under the command of Lupicinius. He
embarked from Boulogne in the depth oi Avinter, but v as
no fooner arrb/ed at London than he Avas recalled 5
the enemy having probably found means to appeafe-
Julian by their fubmiffions. Till the reign of VaVn-
tinian I. thefe nations ftill continued to infeft the Ro¬
man territories in Britain, and had new reduced the
country to a moft deplorable condition by their conti¬
nual yavages. Valentinian fent againft them Theodo-
fius, father to the emperor of that name. That gene ¬
ral
ENG [ 5i ] ENG
England.
23
The Bri¬
tons choofe
an emperor
of their
own.
ral having divided his forces into feveral bodies, advan¬
ced againit the enemy, who were roving up and down
the country. The Scots and Pidls were obliged to
yield to the fuperior valour and difcipline of the Ro¬
mans. Great numbers were cut in pieces j they Avert;
forced to abandon all the booty and prifoners they had
taken, and to retire beyond the friths of Forth and
Clyde. Theodofius then entered London in triumph,
and reftored that city to its former fplendor, which
had fulfered greatly by the former incurfions of the
northern Britons. To reltrain them from breaking
anew into the provinces, Theodofius built feveral forts
or caftles between the ttvo friths j and having thus re¬
covered all the country between Adrian’s wall and the
friths of Forth and Clyde, he formed of it a fifth pro¬
vince, which he called Valentia.
Though Britain was now reduced to a Hate of tem¬
porary tranquillity, yet as the Roman empire Avas daily
declining, it is not to be fuppofed that fufficient care
could be taken to fecure fuch a dill ant province. In
the reign of the emperor Honorius, the provincial
Britons found themfelves annoyed not only by the
Scots and Pibts, but alfo by the depredations of the
Saxons, Avho began to commit ravages on the fea-coafts.
By the care, hoAvever, of Stilieho, prime minifter to
Honorius, matters were once more fettled, and a par¬
ticular officer Avas appointed to guard the coaft againfl:
the attempts of the Saxons, Avith the title of Comes li-
mitis Saxonici. But, not long after, the empire being
overrun by barbarians, moil of the Roman troops
quartered in Britain were recalled, and the country
left quite open to the attacks of the Scots and Picbs.
Upon this the provincials expecting no more affillance
from Honorius, refolved to fet up an emperor of their
own. Accordingly they inverted Avith the imperial
dignity one Mark, an officer of great credit among
them. Him they murdered in a ferv days, and placed
on the throne one Gratian a native of Britain. After
a reign of four months, Gratian underAvent the fate
of his predecefibrj and Avas fucceeded by Conjlan-
tinc, a common foldier, Avho Avas chofen merely for the
fake of his name. He feems, however, to have been
a man of fome knoAvledge and experience in Avar. He
drove the Scots and Pidls beyond the limits of the
Roman territories ; but being elated with this fuccefs,
he would noAV be fatisfied Avith nothing lefs than the
conqueft of the Avhole Roman empire. He therefore
parted over into Gaul 5 and took Avith him not only
the feAV Roman forces that had been left, but fuch of
the provincial Britons as were moft accuftomed to
arms. That unhappy people, being norv left entirely
defencelefs, Avere harafled in the moft cruel manner by
their enemies', Avho broke into the country, and de-
ftroyed all Avith fire and fAVord. In this miferable fitu-
ation they continued from the year 407, when the
ufurper Conftantine parted over into Gaul, till the year
410. Having during the lart three years frequently
implored afliftance from Rome Avith out receiving any,
they noAV refolved to AvifhdraAV their allegiance from
an empire which Avas no longer able to protect them.
Honorius himfelf applauded their conduct •, and ad-
vifed them by letters to provide for their own fafety,
which Avas in effect an implicit refignation of the fo-
vereignty of the ifland.
The provincial Britons noAV regained their liberty ;
but they had loft the martial fpirit which had at firft England,
rendered them fo formidable to the Romans. They '
feem, however, to have met Avith fome fuccefs in their
firft enterprifes 5 for Zofimus tells us, that they deli¬
vered their cities from the infult of an haughty ene- 2a.
my. But being at laft overpowered, they Avere again Implore the
obliged io have recourfe to the Roman emperor, toafliftance
whom they promifed a moft perfect fubmiffion, pro-of tiic R,0w
vided they Avere delivered from the hands of their
mercilefs and implacable enemies. Honorius, touched
Avith compaffion, fent a legion to their relief. The
Roman forces landed in Britain unexpectedly j and ha¬
ving deftroyed great numbers of the Scots and Pi£ts,
they drove them beyond the friths of Forth and Dun-
britton. After,-this they advifed the natives to build
a Avail on the ifthmus from fea to fea, and to reaffume
their courage, and defend themfelves from their ene¬
mies by their oAvn valour. The Romans then quitted
the country j being obliged to return, in order to re-
pulfe thofe barbarians who had broken into the empir®
from all quarters.
The Britons immediately fet about building the Avallr
as they had been defired, with great alacrity. But as
it Avas conftructed only of turf, the Scots and Pidts
foon broke it doAvn in feveral places ; and, pouring in
upon the defencelefs and effeminate provincials, com- 35
mitted more cruel ravages than ever. At laft, after Send am-
very many and grievous calamities, the latter fent am-baflador? a
balfadors once more to Rome. Thefe appeared Avith
their garments rent and dull on their heads ; and at
laft preA-ailed on the emperor, by their earneft intrea¬
ties, to fend another legion to their relief. The troops
arrived in Britain before the enemy had the leaft knoAV-
ledge of their having fet fail. They Avere therefore
quite unprepared for an attack, and roving up and
down the country in the utxnoft diforder. The Ro¬
mans made a terrible havock among them, and drove
the remainder into their own country. As Honorius
had fent them not Avith any ambitious vieAv of retain¬
ing the ifland in fubjedlion, but merely out of eom-
paflion to the unhappy provincials, the Romans told
them, they had noAV no farther afliftance to expect
from them. They informed them, that the legion
muft immediately return to the continent, to protect
the empire from the barbarians, Avho had extended
their ravages almoft to every part of it; and therefore,
that they muft uoav take their laft fareAvel of Britain,
and totally abandon the ifland. After this declaration
Gallio, the commander of the Roman troops, exhort¬
ed the provincials to defend themfelves, by fighting
bravely for their country, Avives, and children, and
what ought to be dearer than life itfelf, their liberty j
telling them, at the fame time, that their enemies Avere
no ftronger than themfelves, provided they would but
lay afide their fears, and exert their ancient courage
and refolutiom That they might the better Avithftand
the attacks of the enemy, he advifed them to build a
Avail, not of turf, but of ftone ; offering to aflift them
Avith his foldiers, and to diredl them himfelf in the
execution. Upon this the Britons immediately fell to
work ; and with the afliftance of the Romans, finilhed
it in a fhort time, though it Avas no lefs than eight
feet thick, and tAvelve feet in height. It is thought
to have been built on the fame place Avhere Severus’s
wall formerly ftood. ToAvers were alfo built at con-
G 2 venient
the Ro
vans.
-7
raffed by
the Scots
and Piets.
ENG [52
England, venient diftances on the call coait, to prevent the de-
'——v'—i'cants of the Saxons and other barbarians that came
26 from Germany. Gallio employed the reft of his time
Britain fi- in teaching the provincials the art of war. He left
iially aban- them patterns of the Roman weapons, tv Inch he alio
doned by taught them to make ; and after many encouraging
exhortations, he took his laft farewel of Britain, to
which the Romans never returned. There is a great
difagreement among chronologers as to the year in
which the Romans finally abandoned Britain j fome
placing it in 422 ; others in 423, or 426 ; and fome in
43G 435, or 437-
The final departure of the Romans was no looner
known to the Scots and Piets, than they poured in
upon the provincial Britons from all quarters, like hun¬
gry wolves breaking into a fheep-fold. When the Scots
approached the new-built wall, they found it complete¬
ly linilhed, and guarded by great numbers of armed
men. But fo little had the provincial Britons profited
by the military inftruftions of the Romans, that,in-
ftead of placing proper guards and centinels, and re¬
lieving one another by turns, their whole number had
ftaid feveral days and nights upon the ramparts without
intefmiffion. Being therefore quite benumbed and
wearied out, they were able to make but very little re-
Britons mi - fiftance. Many were pulled down with hooks from
ferably ha- tge battlements, and dallied in pieces. The reft were
driven from their ftations with Ihowers of darts and
arrowy. They betook themfelves to flight •, but that
could not fave them. The Scots and Piets purfued
them clofe, made a dreadful havock among the fugi¬
tives, and took pofleffion of the frontier towns, which
they found deferted by the inhabitants. As they now
met with no more oppofition, they overran the whole
country, putting every thing to fire and fword. Their
ravages foon occafioned a famine •, and this was follow¬
ed by a kind of civil war. The provincials, unable to
fupport themfelves, were obliged to plunder each other
of the little the common enemy had left them. 'I he
whole country at laft became fo incapable of fupport-
ing thofe who were left in it, that many fled into the
,2 woods, in order to fubfift themfelves there by hunting.
Implore the In this extremity of diftrefs they had once more re-
affiftance ofcourfe to the Romans ; and wrote in the moft mourn-
the Ro- fui ftyle that can poflibly be imagined to Aetius, who
mans. was tben conful the third time. Their letter they di-
recled thus : “ The groans of the Britons to the con¬
ful Aetius.” The contents of this letter Avere anfwer-
able to the direiftion. “ The barbarians (fay they)
drive us to the fea 5 the fea drives us back to the bar¬
barians 5 between which we have only the choice of
two deaths, either to be fwallowed up by the Avaves, or
to be cruelly maflacred by the enemy.”
To this letter the Roman general gave no fatisfac-
tory anfwer, and the provincials Avere thereupon reduced
to defpair. Great numbers of them fled over to Ar¬
morica, Avhere they fettled along Avith others vvho had
formerly gone over Avith an ufurper called Maximus ;
Avhile others liibrnitted to the Scots and Pi6ts. Some,
however, more refolute than the reft, had once more
recourfe to arms. They fallied out in parties from the
They at laft woods and caves Avhere they had been obliged to hide
repivffe themfelves, and, falling unexpe&edly on the enemy,
their enc- ^ great numbers of them in pieces, and obliged the
reft to retire. Having thus obtained fome refpite,
]
ENG
they began again to cultivate their lands ; which, ha- England,
ving lain falloAV for a long time, noAV produced all1 1 r"v'
forts of corn in the greateft plenty. This plenty, ac¬
cording to the hiftorian Giidas, occafioned the moft
confummate Avickednefs and corruption of manners
among all ranks of men. The clergy, fays he, Avho
fliould haAre reclaimed the laity by their example,
proved the ringleaders in every vice , being addicted to
drunkennefs, contention, envy, &c.—It is poflible,
however, that this defeription might be exaggerated by
Giidas, Avho Avas himfelf a monk. But, hoAvever, this
Avas, the Britons had not long enjoyed peace, when
they AArere alarmed by a report, that the Scots and
Piets Avere about to return Avith a far greater force
than before, utterly to extirpate the name of their ,0
fouthern neighbours, and feize upon the country for A re again
themfelves. This report threAV them into a terrible tlircatcned
con ft er nation ; and to add to the reft of their misfor- in"
tunes, they were iioav vifited by a dreadful plague,
Avhich raged Avith fuch violenee, that the living Avere
fcarce fuflicient to bury the dead. The contagion no
fooner ceafed, than they found their country invaded
by the Scots and Pi£ts, Avho deftroyed every thing Avith
fire and fword } fo that the provincials Avere foon re¬
duced to the fame miferable ftate they had formerly-
been in.
At this time the chief,, if not the only, king of the
fouthern divifion of Britain, Avas one Vortigern. Pie
is faid to have been a cruel, debauched tyrant, regard-
lefs of the public Avelfare, and totally incapable of pro¬
moting it. Being noAV roufed from his infenfibility,
however, by a fenfe of his oAvn danger, he fummoned
a council of the chief men of the nation, in order to
deliberate about the proper means for delivering the
country from thofe calamities under Avhich it groaned.
In this council the moft pernicious meafure Avas adopt-
ed that could poflibly have been refolved on ; namely, They re-
to invite to their afliftance the Saxons, a people famous foBe to call
for their piracies and cruelty, and juftiy dreaded byin ti‘e Sax'
the Britons themfelves *. This fatal expedient be- * s‘ec Sax_
ing agreed upon, ambaffadors Avere immediately dif- onu
patched into Germany with advantageous propofals to
the Saxons in cafe they Avould come over to their af-
fiftance.
The Britifh ambafladors foon arrived in Germany,
and, according to Witichind, a Saxon hiftorian of the
ninth century, made the folloAving fpeech before an af~
fembly of the Saxons.—“ Illuftrious Saxons, the fame
of your viflories having reached our ears, the diftref-
fed Britons, haraffed by the continual inroads of a
neighbouring enemy, fend us to implore your affift-
ance. We have a fertile and fpacious country, Avhich
Ave are commanded to fubmit to you. We have hi¬
therto lived under the protection of the Roman em¬
pire 5 but our ancient mailers having abandoned us,
Ave knoAV no nation more powerful than you, and bet¬
ter able to proteft us. We therefore recur to your
valour. Forfake us not in our diftrefs, and Ave fhall
readily fubmit to Avhat terms you yourfelves (ball think
fit to preferibe to us.”—If this abieCt and thameful
fpeech Avas really made, it muft give us a very ftrange
idea of the national fpirit of the provincial Britons at
that time. It is, hoAvever, probable that the whole is
a fiCtion, defigned only to excufe the perfidious treat¬
ment Avhich thefe Britons aftenvards received from the
\     Saxons*
Picb.
■ENG [53
England. Savons. T lie moft rcfpeclable even of the Saxon hi- for
' * 1 ftorians make no mention of fach a fpeech j and it is
certain, tnat when the Saxons themfelves wanted to
quarrel with the Britons, they never infilled upon the
promife made by the Britilh ambalfadors 5 which they
moll certainly would have done, had any fuch promife'
ever been made.
The Britilh ambalfadors were very favourably recei¬
ved by the Saxons. The latter embraced their propo¬
fol with joy ; and the rather, becaufe their foothfaycrs
foretold that they Ihould plunder their Britilh allies for
150 years, and reign over them for twice that time.
Three long Huns, in the Saxon language called chiu/es,
were therefore tilted out, under the conduct of Hen-
gill and Horfa. Thefe wTere two brothers much cele¬
brated both for their valour and nobility. They were
fons of Witigifil, faid to be great-grandfon to the
Saxon god Woden ; a circumllance which added much
to their authority. Having embarked about 1600
32 raen on board their three veffels, the two brothers ar-
The Saxons rived in the ille of Thanet, in the year 449 or 450.
BritTirTanH They Werc rcceJvcd by the inhabitants with the great-
defcat thc' eft demonftrations of joy : tlie ille in which they had
Scots and Ianded was immediately appointed for their habitation ;
and a league was concluded, in virtue of which the
Saxons were to defend the provincial Britons again!!
all foreign enemies ; and the provincials were to allow
the Saxons pay and maintenance, bolides the place al¬
lotted them for their abode. Soon after their arrival,
King Vortigern led them again It the northern nations,
who had lately broke into the kingdom, and advanced
as far as Stanford in the county of Lincolnlhire. Here
a battle was fought, in which the Scots and Pi£ts
were utterly defeated, and obliged to relinquilh their
booty.
Vortigern was fo highly pleafed with the behaviour
of his new allies, that he bellowed large polfeliions ih
the country they had newly delivered, upon the two
commanders Hengilt and Horfo. It is faid, that, even
at this time, Hengilt was taken with the wealth and
fertility of the country 5 and at the fame time obfer-
ving the inhabitants to be quite enervated with luxury,
began to entertain hopes of conquering part of it. He
therefore, with Vortigern’s confent, invited over fome
more of his countrymen 5 giving them notice at the
fome time of the fruitfulnefs of the country, the effemi¬
nacy of the inhabitants, and how ealily a conqueft inbdxt
be effected. b
The Saxons readily complied with the invitation ;
and, in 452, as many more arrived in 17 veffels, as,
with thofe already, in Britain, made up an army of
5000 men. Along with thefe, according to Nennius,
came over Rowena the daughter of Hengill. Vorti¬
gern fell in love with this lady 5 and in order to obtain
her in marriage, divorced his lawful wife. Hengill
pretended to be averfe to the match 5 but Vortigern
obtained his confent by inveiling him with the fove-
reignty of Kent. 1 he Saxon hillonans, indeed, make
no mention of Rowena*, but rather inlinuate, that
their countrymen made themfelves mailers of Kent by
force of arms. It feems moll probable, however, that
Vortigern had as yet continued in friendlhip with the
Saxons, and even put more confidence in them than in
his own fubjedts. For, not long after the arrival of
ihis fir 11 reinforcement, Hengilt obtained leave to fend
6
] ENG
a fecond, in order, as was pretended, to defend England.
the king from the attempts of his rebellious fubje&s, as '—  '
well as of the Scots and Pitts. Thefe embarked in 40
Ihips, under the command of Octa and Ebufo, the fon
and nephew, or, according to fome, the brother and
nephew of Hengill. They landed at the Orkney
illands; and having ravaged them, as well as all the
northern coalls of Scotland, they conquered feveral
places beyond the Frith, and at lalt obtained leave to
fettle in Northumberland.
The pretence made for this fettlement was, that the
Saxons under OcTa and Ebufa might defend the nor¬
thern frontiers of the kingdom, as thofe under Hengill
and Horfa did the fouthern parts. Many more Saxons
were, under various pretences, invited over ; till at foil
the countries from which they came were in a manner
depopulated. And now their numbers being greatly
increafed, the Saxons began to quarrel with the natives.
T hey demanded larger allowances of corn, and other They tmar-
provifions 5 threatening to lay walte the w hole country rel with the
if their demands w ere not complied with. The Eri- Britons,
tons, inltead of complying with thefe demands, defired
them to return home, fince their numbers exceeded
what they were able to maintain. Upon this the Sax¬
ons concluded a peace with the Scots and Piets 5 and,
turning their arms againll the unhappy provincials,
overran the whole country. The Saxons committed
everyw'here the greatelt cruelties. All buildings, whe¬
ther public or private, they levelled with the ground.
I he cities were pillaged and burnt 5 and the people
malTamed without diltin£tion of fex or age, and that
in fuch numbers, that the living fcarce fufficed to bury
the dead. Some of thofe who efcaped the general
daughter, took refuge among inacceiTible rocks and
mountains; but there great numbers perilhed with
hunger, or were forced to furrender themfelves as Haves
to their enemies. Some croffed the fea and fettled ei¬
ther in Holland or in Armorica, now the province of
Britanny in France.
Vortigern, we are told by Nennius, was fo far from
being reclaimed by thefe calamities, that he added in¬
cell to his other crimes, and married his own daugh¬
ter. At laft, his own fubjedts, provoked at his enor-
33
New iup-
plies of
Sxxons ar¬
rive.
ter.
mous wickednefs, and the partiality he Ihowed to the
Saxons, depofed him, and raifed his fon Vortimer to
the throne. He was a young man of great valour, Th yL
and willingly undertook the defence of his dillreffed J-f Ld
country. He firii fell upon the Saxons with whatan^ ^rlven
troops he could aflemble, and drove them into the ille0.ut byVor
of Thanet. Here they were befieged, till, being rein-timCr'
forcec by frelh fupplies from Germany, thev opened
themfelves a way through the Britilh troops/ Vorti¬
mer, however, was not yet dilheartened. He enga¬
ged the Saxons on the banks of the Derwent in Kent
where he obtained a complete vicTory, and cut in pie¬
ces great numbers of. the enemy. Another battle was
iougnt at Aylesford in Kent. Some aferibe the victo¬
ry at this time to the Saxons, and fome to the Bri-
tf’nS‘ It. is certain> however, that Horfo the brother
ol Hengilt was killed in this engagement. Fie is faid
to have been buried at a place in the neighbourhood,
which from him obtained the name of Horjled. A
third battle was fought, in which the vicTory was un¬
certain, as is alfo the place where it happened. The
fourth battle, however, according to Nennius proved
deeifiv«>
ENG
[ 5+ ]
They re¬
turn and
defeat the
Britons,
England, decifive in favour of the Britons. Vortimer engaged
"" v ‘ his enemies, according to fome, at t olkilone j accoi d-^
ing to others, at a place called Stonar, in the ille of
Thanet. The Saxons were defeated with great daugh¬
ter, and driven back to their drips. So complete is
the victory faid to have been, that the Saxons quitted
the idand, without making any attempt upon it for
five years afterwards. JL hefe battles, however, reft
entirely upon the crejjit of Nennius, and the hiftorians
who have followed him. They are taken notice of
neither by Gildas nor Bede. The former only ac¬
quaints us, that the Saxons retired. This, by mod;
hiftorians, is underftood of their returning home j
though it is poilible he might mean no more, than that,
after they had laid wafte the country, they retired into
the territories allotted them by Vortigern, in Kent and
Northumberland.
Vortimer is faid to have died after a reign of fix
years. On his death-bed, he defired his fervants to
bury him near the place where the Saxons ufed to
land ; being perfuaded, that the virtue of his bones
would effectually prevent them from ever touching the
Britiih diore. This command, however, was neglect¬
ed •, and Vortimer was buried at Lincoln, according
to fome, or London, according to others. Hengift
was no fooner informed of his death, than he invaded
Britain anew with a numerous body of Saxons. He
was oppofed by Vortigern, who had been reftored to
and erc-a a ^ t}wme after tLe death of his fon Vortimer. Seve-
fii^KenT ral battles were fought on this occafion 5 but at laft the
m U1' provincials being overthrown at a place called Crecan-
ford, with the lofs of 4000 men, were obliged to aban¬
don Kent to their enemies, and retire to London. T his
happened about the year 458 or 459 •, and from this
time moft hiftorians date the ereftion of the firft Saxon
kingdom in Britain, viz. that of Kent. Hengift af¬
firmed the title of king, and chofe Elk his fon for his
colleague.
The Britons under Vortigern ftill continued the war.
Hengift finding himfelf unable to gain a decifive ad¬
vantage over them in the field, had recourfe to treach-
Tr Ter ery. He pretended, to be defirous of concluding a
-ofthe Sax- peace with the Britiih monarch, and of renewing his
®n5. ancient friendfhip with him ; and therefore required an
interview. To this Vortigern readily confented, and
accepted of an entertainment prepared for him by Lien-
gift. The king was attended by 300 nobility all un¬
armed ; but the Saxons had concealed daggers below
their garments. The Britiih nobility were all treach-
eroully maffacred in the height of their mirth ; Vorti¬
gern himfelf was taken and put in fetters 5 nor could
his liberty be procured, but by ceding to the Saxons
thofe provinces now called Kffex, Sujfex, and Middlefex.
Thus the Saxons got fuch a footing in Britain, that
they could never afterwards be expelled. Vortigern,
after being fet at liberty, is faid to have retired to a
vaft wildernefs near the fall of the Wye in Radnorfliire,
where he was fome time after confumed by lightning,
together with a city called Kaer Gourtigern which he
had built in that place.
On the retreat of Vortigern, the command of the
Britifti forces devolved upon Aurelius Ambrofius, or
as Gildas calls him, Ambrofius Aurefianus. He.was a
Roman, and perhaps the laft that remained m the ifiand.
He is faid to have gained feveral vi&ories over the
5
ENG
Saxons. Notwithftanding this, however, they ftill con-1 England. ^
tinned to gain ground ; and in the year 491, the foun- ' f
dation of a fecond Saxon kingdom was laid in Britain. gecon(j
This at firft comprehended only the county of Suffex, on kir.g-
but foon after extended over moft of the counties lying dom.
fouth of the Humber. It was called the kingdom of the
South Saxons.
The German nations being now informed of the
good fuccefs which had attended the Saxons in Bri¬
tain, new adventurers daily flocked over to (hare the
good fortune of the others. They were chiefly cem-
pofed of three nations, the Saxons, Angles, and jutes.
All thefe paffed under the common appellation fome-
times of Saxons, fometimes of Angles. They fpoke the
fame language, and agreed very much in their cuftoms
and inftitutions, fo that all of them were naturally led
to combine againft the natives. I he moft active of
thefe adventurers was Cerdic a Saxon, find to be the
tenth in defeent from Woden. He landed with his
fon Cenric, and as many men as he could convey
in five (hips, at Yarmouth in Norfolk. 1 he pro¬
vincials immediately attacked him with great vigour
but after a {hurt engagement, they were totally de¬
feated. Many other battles were fought, the event of
which was always favourable to the Saxons, fo that
the Britons were forced to abandon their fea-coafts to
them.
In 497, Porta, another Saxon, with his two fons
B/eda and Magla, arrived at Portfmouth, fo called, as
fome imagine, from this chieftain. The provincials,
under the command of a young prince a native of the
country, attempted to oppofe the landing of the Saxons :
but his army was defeated with great daughter, and
he himfelf killed in the engagement; after which Porta
made himfelf mafter of all the neighbouring country.
The progrefs of Cerdic, however, alarmed the Britons
more than that of all the other Saxon princes. About Nazaleod
the year 508, therefore, Nas&aleod, ftyled, by Henry °f
Huntingdon, the great eft of all the Bntifh kings, affem- feate(j an(j
bled almoft the whole ftrength of the provincial Britons klllt<p
in order to drive him out of the ifland. Cerdic, on the
other hand, took care to ftrengthen himfelf by procu¬
ring afliftance from all the Saxons already in the ifland.
He then advanced againft the Britons, commanding
the right wing himfelf, and his fon Cenric the left.
As the two armies drew near each other, Nazaleod
perceived the enemy’s right wing to be much ftrong-
er than the left. He therefore attacked it with the
flower of his army ; and after an obftinate refiftance,
obliged Cerdic to fave himfelf by flight. Being too
eager in the purfuit, however, Cenric fell upon his rear,
and the battle was renewed with great vigour. The
Britifti army was at laft: entirely defeated •, and 5000
men, among whom was Nazaleod himfelf, were left
dead on the fpot.
Who fucceedcd Nazaleod in the kingdom of Britain,
is not known. The Welfti annals leave an interreg¬
num of about fix years, after which they place the be¬
ginning of the reign of Arthur, the moft renowned
Britifti prince mentioned in hiftory. The hiftory of Whether
King Arthur is fo much obfeured by fables, and many Inch a per-
■ abfurd, romantic, and ridiculous ftories, that fome have ^
fuppofed that no fuch perfon ever exifted. On this fub- exifted>
jeft Milton gives the following reafons againft the ex-
iftence of King Arthur : 1. He is not mentioned by
Gildas,
I
ENG
'England.
[ 55
Gildas, or any Britifh hiftorian except Nennius, who
J is allowed on all hands to have been a very credulous
writer, and to have publilhed a great many fables.
2. Though William of Mai me (bury and Henry of
Huntingdon have both related his exploits, yet the lat¬
ter took all he wrote from Nennius ; and the former,
either from the fame fabulous writer, or fome monkiih
legends in the abbey of Glaftenbury 5 for both thefe
writers flourilhed feveral centuries after King Arthur.
3. In the pretended hiftory of Geoffroy of Monmouth,
fuch contradictions occur concerning this monarch’s
victories in France, Scotland, Ireland, Norway, Italy,
&.c. as mult caufe us to look upon him as a hero alto¬
gether fabulous and romantic.
In anfwer to this it has been faid, I. That his not
being mentioned by Gildas cannot feem Itrange to us,
feeing it was not that author’s delign to write an exa6t
hi (lory of his country, but only to give a Ihort account
of the caufes of its ruin by the Scots, Pi£is, and Saxons.
He had alfo a particular fyltem to fupport, namely,
That the ruin of the Britons was owing to the judge¬
ments of God upon them for their wickednefs. He
lies therefore under a great temptation to conceal the
fuccefles of the Britons, and to relate only their mif-
fortunes. 2. Though Nennius was a credulous writer,
it is unreafonable to think that the whole hiftory of
King Arthur was an invention of his. It is more pro¬
bable that he copied it from other more ancient au¬
thors, or took it from the common tradition of his
countrymen. That the Saxon annals make no mention
of tliis king is not to be wondered at, feeing it is natural
to think that they would wilh to conceal the many de¬
feats he gave their nation. 3. The moll convincing
proof of the exiftence of King Arthur is, that his tomb
was difeovered at Glaftenbury in Somerfetlhire, and
his coffin dug up in the reign of Henry II. with the
following infeription upon it in Gothic characters:
“ Hie jacet fepultus inclytus rex Arturius in infula
Avalonia.” We are told that on his body were plain¬
ly to be feen the marks of 10 wounds, only one of which
feemed to be mortal.
This renowned prince is faid to have defeated the
Saxons under Cerdic in 12 pitched battles. The laft
of thefe was fought on Badon-hill, fuppofed to be
Banfdown near Bath j in which the Saxons received
fuch a terrible overthrow, that for many years they
gave the Britons no further moleftation. As new fun-
plies of Saxons, however, were continually flocking
over, a third and fourth kingdom of them were foon
formed. The third kingdom comprehended the coun-
_    ties °f Devon, Dorfet, Somerfet, Wiltfliire, Hampffiire,
Saxon king- and Berkfliire 5 to which was afterwards added Corn-
iloms crec- wall. This ivas called the kingdom of the Wef Saxons.
The other kingdom, which was called the kingdom of
the Eaji Saxons, comprehended Eflex, Middlefex, and
part of Hertfordffiire.
In the year 542, happened the death of the great
King Arthur, faid to have been killed in battle with a
treacherous kinfman of his own. Five years after¬
wards was erected the Saxon kingdom of Northum¬
berland. B extended, however, much farther than the
prefent bounds of that county 5 for it comprehended
all \ orkfhire, Lancafliire, Durham, Cumberland, Weft-
morland, and Northumberland, with part of Scotland,
as far as the frith of Forth. Between the Saxon
]
E N
. 4*
His ex¬
ploits.
~ 42
Two other
Ud.
G
kings frequent contentions now arofe 5 by which England,
means the Britons enjoyed an uninterrupted tranquil- ' * 1 '
lity for at leaft 44 years. This interval, however, ac¬
cording to Gildas, they employed only in corrupting
their manners more and more, till at laft they were
rouled from their fecurity by the fetting up of a lixth
Saxon kingdom, called the kingdom of the Eaf Angles.
It was founded in 575, and comprehended the coun¬
ties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeihire, and the Ifle
of Ely. The Saxons once more attacked the Britons,
and overthrew them in many battles. The war was
continued for ten years j after which, another Saxon
kingdom called Mercia was fet up. It comprehended
17 counties 5 viz. Gloucefter, Hereford, Worcefter,
Warwick, Leicefter, Rutland, Northampton, Lincoln,
Huntingdon, Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Stafford,
Nottingham, Derby, Shropftiire, Cheftiire, and part of
Hertfordftiire.
The provincial Britons were now confined within very The Britons
narrow' bounds. However, before they entirely gave up defeat the
       ~   J V,  
the beft part of their country to their enemies, they once Saxons, but
more refolved to trv the event of a battle. At thisare
more refolved to try —   ^ ^ .
time they were affifted by the Angles, who were jea-10 Wales,
lous of the overgrown power of the Weft Saxons.
The battle tv as fought in Wiltlhire, at Woden’s Bearth,
a place near the ditch called Wanfdike or Wodenfdike;
which runs through the middle of the county. The
battle was very obftinate and bloody 5 but at laft the
Saxons tvere entirely defeated, and almoft their whole
army cut off. The victory, hoAvever, proved of little
fervice to the Britons : for being greatly inferior in
number to the Saxons, and haraffed by them on the
one fide, and by the Scots and Pitts on the other, they
were daily more and more confined ; and at laft obliged
to take refuge among the craggy and mountainous
places in the weft of the ifland, Avhere their ene¬
mies could not purfue them. At firft they poffeffed all'
that country beyond the rivers Dee and Severn, Avhich
anciently divided Cambria, or Wales, from England j
the toAvns which Hand on the eaftern banks of thefe.
rivers having moftly been built in order to reftrain the
incurfions of the Welih. But the Engliffi, having
paffed the Severn, by degrees feized on the country
lying between that river and the Wye. Nay, in for¬
mer times, fome parts of Flintffiire and Denbighlhire
were fubjett to the kings of Mercia : for Uffa, the
moft poAverful king of that country, caufed a deep
ditch to be drarvn, and a high Avail built, as a barrier
betAveen his dominions and the territories of the Welffi,
from the mouth of the Dee, a little above Flint-caftle,
to the mouth of the Wye. This ditch is ftill to
be feen in feveral places 5 and is called by the Welfti
Claudh Ufa, or the Ditch of Uffa. The inhabi¬
tants of the toAvns on the eaft fide of this ditch are
called by the fame people Gwjr y Mers ; that is, the
men of Mercia.
Thus, after a violent conteft of near 150 years, the . 44 .
Saxons entirely fubdued the Britons Avhom ‘ they had tteTema^
come to defend, and had eretted feven independent chy.
kingdoms in England, noAV commonly denominated the
Saxon Heptarchy. By thefe conquerors the country
Avas now reduced to a degree of barbarity almoft as
great as it had been in Avhen firft invaded by the Ro¬
mans. The provincial Britons, during their fubjettion
to that people, had made confiderable advances' in ci»
vijisatiom-
England.
\
ENG [ 5<S ] ENG
vilization. They had built 28 conliderable cities, be-
fides a number of villages and country-feats 5 but now
thefe were all levelled with the ground, the native inha¬
bitants who remained in England were reduced to the
moft abjett fiavery, and every art and feience totally
extinguiihed among them.
Before thefe fierce conquerors could be civilized in
any degree, it was neceffary that all the feven king¬
doms fhould be reduced under one head ; for as long
as they remained independent, their continual wars with
each other ftill kept them in the fame hate of barbarity
and ignorance. *
The hiihory of thefe feven kingdoms affords no event
that can be in the leatt interefting. It confifts only
of a detail of their quarrels for the fovereignty. This
was at laft obtained by Egbert king of the Weft
Saxons, or Weflhx, in 827. Befioie this time, Chri-
ftianity had been introduced into almoft all the king¬
doms of the heptarchy j and however much corrupted
it might be by coming through the impure channel of
the church of Rome, and mifunderftood through the
ignorance of thofe Avho received it, it had confider-
ably foftened the barbarous manners of the Saxons.
It had alfo opened a communication between Bri¬
tain and the more polite parts of Europe, fo that
there was now fome hope ot the introduction of arts
and feiences into this country. Another effeft was,
that, by the ridiculous notions of preferving inviolable
chaftity even between married people, the royal fami¬
lies of moft of the kingdoms were totally extinft 5
and the people, being in a ftate of anarchy, were ready
to fubmit to the firft who affumcd any authority over
them.
All thefe things contributed to the fuccefs of Eg¬
bert in uniting the heptarchy under his own dominion.
He was one of the royal family of We flex; and a nearer
heir than Brithrie, who had been raifed to the king¬
dom in 784. As Egbert was a prince of great ac-
complilhments, Brithric, knowing that he had a better
title to the crown than himfelf, began to look upon
him with a very jealous eye. Young Egbert, fenfible
of his danger, privately withdrew to France 5 where he
was well received by Charlemagne, the reigning mo¬
narch. The French were reckoned at this period the
moft valiant and polite people in Europe j fo that this
exile proved of great fervice to Egbert.
He continued at the court of France till he was re¬
called by the nobility to take poffeflion of the king¬
dom of Weffex. This recal was occafioned by the
following accident. Brithric the king of Weffex had
married Eadburga, natural daughter of Offa king of
Mercia 5 a Avoman infamous for cruelty and inconti¬
nence. Having great influence over her hulband, (lie
often perfuaded him to deftroy fuch of the nobility as
were onnoxious to her-, and Avhere this expedient failed,
(he herfelf had not fcrupled to become their execu¬
tioner. She had mixed a cup of poifon for a young
nobleman, Avho had acquired a great ftiare of her huf-
band’s friendfhip : but, unfortunately, the king drank
of the fatal potion along Avith his favourite, and foon
after expired. By this and other crimes Eadburga
became fo odious to the people, that fhe was forced to
fly into France, Avhile Egbert A\Tas at the fame time re-
^called, as above mentioned.
Egbert afcended the throne of Weffex in the year
799. He Avas the foie defcendant of thofe conquerors England.
Avho firft invaded Britain,and who derived their pedigree '
from the god Woden. But though this circumftarce
might have given him great advantages in attempting
to fubdue the neighbouring kingdoms, Egbert for
fome time gave them no difturbance 5 but turned his
arms againft the Britons, ay ho had retired into Corn¬
wall, whom he defeated in federal battles. Fie Avas
recalled from his conquefts in that country, by hearing
that Bernulf king of Mercia had invaded his domi¬
nions. Egbert quickly led his army againft the inva¬
ders, Avhom he totally defeated at Ellendun in Wilt-
ftiire. He then entered their kingdom on the fide of
Oxfordlhire Avith an army, and at the fame time fent
his eldeft fon EthelAvolf Avith another into Kent. The
young prince expelled Baldred the tributary king of
Kent, and foon made himfelf mailer of the country.
The kingdom of Effex Avas conquered Avith equal eafe ;
and the Eaft Angles, Avho had been reduced under
fubjection by the Mercians, joyfully put themfelves
under the protection of Egbert. Bernulf himfelf
marched againft them, but Avas defeated and killed •,
and Ludecan his fuccefl'or met Avith the fame fate tAvo
years after.
Thefe misfortunes greatly facilitated the reduction
of Mercia. Egbert foon penetrated into the very heart
of the Mercian territories, and gained an eafy victory
over a difpirited and divided people ; but in order to
engage them to fubmit Avith the lefs reluCtance, he ai-
loAved Wiglef, their countryman, to retain the title of
king, Avhilft he himfelf exercifed the real poAver of a
fovereign. Northumberland Avas at prefent in a ftate
of anarchy : and this tempted Egbert to carry his vic¬
torious arms into that kingdom alfo. The inhabi¬
tants, being defirous of living under a fettled form of
government, readily fubmitted, and OAvned him for
their fo\rereign. To them, hoAvever, he' likeAvife al-
loAved the poAver of eleCling a king } who paid him a
tribute, and Avas dependent on him. 4-
Egbert became foie mafter of England about the Egbert the
year 8 27. A favourite opportunity Avas now offeredtir^ k*nR of
to the Anglo-Saxons of becoming a civilized people, an '
as they Avere at peace among themfelves, and feemed
free from any danger of a foreign invafion. But this
flattering profpeCI Avas foon overcaft. Five years after
Egbert had eftabliftied his neAV monarchy, the Danes
landed in the ifle of Shepey, plundered it, and then
made their efcape Avith fafety. Encouraged by this
fuccefs, next year they landed from a fleet of 35 fhips. y^fion.
They Av&re encountered by Egbert at Charmouth in
Dorfetfliire. The battle Avas obftinate and bloody.
Great numbers of the Danes Avere killed, but the reft
made good their retreat to their {hips. They next en¬
tered into an alliance Avith the Britons of Cormvall 5 and
landing tAvo years after in that country, they made an
irruption into DeAronftiire. Egbert met them at Hen-
gefdoAvn, and totally defeated them 5 but before he
had time to form any regular plan for the defence of the
kingdom, he died, and left the government to his fon
Ethelwolf. 47
The new king was Aveak and fuperftitious. He be- Ethelwolf.
gan with dividing the kingdom, Avhich had fo lately
been ur ited, Avith his fon Athelftan. To the young
prince he gave the counties of Effex, Kent, and Suffex.
But though this divifion might have been produClive
of
E NG [ 57 ] ENG
Kn^bncl, bad confequenc.es at another time, the fear of the
DznoS' kept every thing quiet for the prefent. Thefe
^ ‘ ' barbarians had fume how or other conceived fuch hojjes
of enriching themielves by the plunder of England,
that they fearce ever failed of paying it an annual vifit.
The Englith hiftorians tell us, that they met with
many fevere repulfes and defeats j but on the whole it
uppe-ars that they had gained ground: for in 851 a
body of them took up their winter-quarters in Eng¬
land. Next year they received a ilrong reinforcement
of t heir countrymen in 350 veffels 5 and advancing from
the iih- of Thanet, v/here they had ftationed them-
felves, they burnt the cities of London and Canter¬
bury. Having next nut to flight Briehtric the go¬
vernor of ATercia, they marched into the heart of Surry,
htynng waft' the whole country through which they
piaffed.
Ethel wolf, though naturally little fitted for military
enterprig-.s, was now obliged to take the field. He
marched again ft the Hanes at the head of the Weft
Saxons, and gamed,an indeexfive and bloody victory
over lib enemies. i he Danes ftiii maintained their
< uHment in the ifle of Thanet. They syere attacked
by Ealher and Huda, governors of Kent and Surry ;
both of whom tiiey defeated and killed. Afterwards
they removed to the ille of Shepey, where they took
up their winter-quarters, with a defign to extend their
ravages the next year.
i he deplorable Hate of the kingdom did not hinder
Ethel wolf from making a pilgrimage to Rome, whither
he carried his fourth and favourite fon Alfred, then
only fix years of age. He pafiTed a twelvemonth in that
city \ made prefents to the principal eccleliaftics there j
and made a grant of 300 mancufes (a filver coin about
the weight of our half-crown) annually to the fee of
Rome. One-third of tins was to fupport the lamps of
St Peter’s, another thofe of St Paul’s, and the third
was for the Pope iftnifelf. In his return to England,
Ethel wolf manned Judith, daughter of the emperor
Charles the Bald 5 but when he landed, he found him-
folf deprived of his kingdom by his fon Ethelbald.
1 bat prince aflumed the government of Athenian’s
dominions, who was lately dead; and, with many of
Ethelwolf’s nobles, formed a defign of excluding him
from the throne altogether, on account of his weakneftes
and fuperftitions. Ethelwoif, however, delivered the
people from the calamities of a civil war, by dividing
the kingdom with his fon. He gave to Ethelbald the
government of the weftern, and referred to himfelf that
H tlie eaftern, part of the kingdom. Immediately after
this, he fummoned the ftates of the whole kingdom,
and conferred cm the clergy a perpetual donation of
tithes, for which they had long contended, and which
had been the fubjea; of their fermons for feveral
centuries.
This concefiion was deemed fo meritorious, by the
Englifh, that they now thought them {'elves fare of the
favour of heaven ; and therefore neglefted to ufe the
natural nreans for their fafety which they might have
done. 'They even agreed, that, notwithftanding the
defperate fituatjon of affairs at prefent, the revenues
of the church ihould be exempted from all burdens
though impofed for the immediate fecurity and defence
; EtHelwolf di^d two years after he
itad made the above-mentioned grant, and left the
Vol. VIn. Part 1.
kingdom to hxs two eldelt funs Ethelbald and Ethel- Englacti.
bert. Both thefe princes died in a few years, and left ' T
the Kingdom to Ethered their brother, in the year -A t-E JS66.
866. ^ 4s
1 he whole courfe of Ethcred’s reign was difturbed Ethcred,
by the irruptions of the Danes. The king defended
himfelf againft them with great bravery, being feconded
in ail his military enterprifes by his younger brother
Alfred, who afterwards afeended the throne. In this
reign, the Hanes firft landed among the Eaft Angles.
That people treacheroufly entered into an alliance
with’,the common enemy; and furniftxed them with
horfes, which enabled them to make an irruption into
Northumberland. There they feized upon the city of
V ork. Ofbricht and riEila, two Northumbrian princes
uo attempted to refeue the city, were defeated and
killed. Encouraged by this fuccefs, the Hanes pe¬
rn txated into the kingdom of IVIercia, took up their
winter-quarters at Nottingham, and thus threatened
the kingdom with a final iubje&ion. From this poll,
however, they were diilodged by Ethered and Alfred’
who forced them to retire into Northumberland. Their
reftlefs and favage difpofition, however, did not fuffer
them to continue long in one place. They broke into
EHt Anglia; defeated and took prifoner Edmund the
cributary king of that country, whom they afterwards
murdered ; and committed everywhere the moft bar¬
barous ravages. In 871, they advanced to Reading;
from whence they infefted the neighbouring country
by their incurfions. The Mercians, defirous of reco¬
vering their independency, refufed to join Ethered with
their fotces ; fo that he was obliged to march anainit
the Hanes, attended only by the Weft Saxons,° who
were his hereditary fubjecls. Several actions enfued,
in which the Hanes are laid to have been unluccefiful;
but being continually reinforced from their own coun¬
try, they became every day more and more formidable
to the Englifh. Huring the confufion and diftrefs in
which the nation was now neceffarily involved, King
Ethered died of a wound lie had received in an aflion
wilh the Hanes; and left to his brother Alfred the
kingdom almoft totally fubdued by a foreign power. ^r,
Alfred^ who may properly be called the founder of Alfred the
t ie Englilh monarchy, afeended the tlxrone in the year Great.
Sy i, being then only 22 years of age. His great vir¬
tues and filming talents laved his country from ruin,
v alt li leemed almoft unavoidable. His exploits an‘ainft
the Danes, his clangers and diftreffes, are related under
the article Alfred. Having fettled the nation in a
much better manner than could have been expedited, he
died in 901, leaving the kingdom to his fecond’fon
Edward the Elder.
The beginning of this monarch’s reign was difturbed Edwinithe
by thofe mteftine commotions from which the wife and Elder,
politic Alfred had taken fo much pains to free the na¬
tion. Ethelwald, fon to King Ethelbert, Alfred’s
elder brother, claimed a right to the throne. Having
armed his partifans, he took poffeffion of Winburne,
where he feemed determined to hold out to the laft
extremity. On the approach of Edward, however
with a powerful army, he firft fled into Normandy, and
afterwards into Northumberland. He hoped to find
the Northumbrians ready to join him, as moft of them
Wcve Hanes, lately fubdued by Alfred, and very im¬
patient of peace. The event did not difappoint his ex*
H pe (Rations.
ENG [ 58 ] ENG
England, pe&atkms. The Northumbrians declared for him ; and
^ v 1 Ethelwald having thus connected liimfelf with the Da-
■ 5>CI* „•{}, trJ’DeSj went beyond fea, whence he returned with
a great body of thefe banditti. On his return, he was
ioined by the Danes of Eaft Anglia and Mercia. E-
thelwald, at the head of the rebels, made an irruption
into the counties of Gloucefter, Oxford, and Wilts *,
and having ravaged the country, retired with his booty
before the king could approach him. Edward, how¬
ever, took care to revenge himfelf, by conducting his
forces into Eaft Anglia, and ravaging it in like man¬
ner. He then gave orders to retire ; but the Kent-
ilh men, greedy of more plunder, ftaid behind, and
took up their quarters at Bury. Here they Avere af-
faulted by the Danes j but the Kentiflimen made fucli
an obftinate defence, that though their enemies gained
the victory, it was bought by the lofs of their bra\Teft
men, and, among the reft, of the ufurper Ethehvald
himfelf.
The king, noAV freed from the attempts of fc dan¬
gerous a rival, concluded an advantageous peace Avith
the Eaft Angles. He next fet about reducing the
Northumbrians ; and for this purpofe equipped a fleet,
hoping that thus they Avould be induced to remain at
home to defend their oAvn country, Avithout attempting
to invade his territories. He Avas difappointed in his
expectations. The Northumbrians Avere more eager
to plunder their neighbours than to fecure themfelves.
Imagining that the Avhole of Edward’s forces AArere em¬
barked on board his fleet, they entered his territories
Avith all the troops they could raife. The king, hoAV-
ever, Avas better prepared for them than they had ex-
pefted. He attacked them on their return at Tetenhall
in the county of Stafford, put them to flight, recovered
^ all the booty, and purfued them Avith great flaughter
into their OAvn country.
The reft of EdAvard’s reign was a feene of continued
and fuccefsful aftion againft the Northumbrians, Eaft
Angles, the Danes of Mercia, and thofe Avho came
from their native country in order to iwvade England.
He put his kingdom in a good pofture of defence, by
fortifying the towns of Chefter, Eddefhury, Warwick,
Cherbury, Buckingham, ToAvcefter, Pvlaldon, Hun¬
tingdon, and Colchefter. He vanquiflied Thurketill
a Danifti chieftain, and obliged him to retire Avith his
followers into France. He fubdued the Eaft Angli-
ans, Northumbrians, and feArcral tribes of the Britons 5
and even obliged the Scots to make fubmiflions. He
died in 925, and Avas fucceeded by Athelftan his natural
5* fon.
Athelftan. This prince, notAvithftanding his illegitimate birth,
afeended the throne without much oppofition, as the
legitimate children of EdAvard Avere too young to rule
a nation fd much liable both to foreign nwafions and
domeftic troubles as England at prefent Avas. One Al¬
fred, hoAvever, a nobleman of confiderable poAver, en¬
tered into a confpiracy againft him. It is faid, that this
nobleman Avas feized upon ftrong fufpicions, but Avith¬
out any certain proof. He offered to fwear to bis
innocence before the pope , and in thofe ages it was
fuppofed that none could take a falfe oath in prefence
of fuch a facred perfon, Avithout being vifited by an
immediate judgment from God. Alfred Avas accord¬
ingly conducted to Rome, and took the oath required
*£ hi© before Pope John, The words were no fooner
pronounced, than he fell into convulfions, of Avhich he England,
expired in three days. The king, fully convinced of
his guilt, confifcated his eftate, and made a prefent of ' ’
it to the monaftery of Malmefbury.
This accident proved the means of eftablilhing the
authority of Athelftan in England. But finding the
Northumbrians bore the Englifli yoke Avith impatience,
he gave Sitbric, a Danilh nobleman, the title of king
of Northumberland; and in order to fecure his fritnd-
fhip, gave him his own fifter Editha in marriage. This
Avas productive of bad confequences. Sithric died the
year after his marriage Avith Editha; upon which An-
laf and Godfrid, Sithric’s fons by a former marriage,
affumed the fovereignty Avithout Availing for Athcl-
ftan’s confent. They were, however, foon obliged to
yield to the fuperior poAver of that monarch. The
former fled to Ireland ; and the latter to Scotland,
Avhere he Avas protected by Conftantine king of that
country. The Scottish monarch Avas continually im¬
portuned by Atbelftan to deliver up bis gueft, and even
threatened Avith an invafion in cafe he did not comply.
Conftantine, detefting this treachery, advifed Godfrid
to make his efcape. He did fo, turned pirate, and
died foon after. Athelftan, however, refenting this
conduct of Conftantine, invaded his kingdom, and re¬
duced him, it is faid, fo Ioav, that he Avas obliged to
make the moft bumble fubmiflions. This, hoAvever, is
denied by all the Scottifti hiftorians.
Conftantine, after the departure of Athelftan enter¬
ed into a confederacy Avith Anlaf, Avho fubfifted by his
piracies, and Avith fome of the Wellh princes who Avere.
alarmed at the increafe of Athelftan’s poAver. All thefe
confederates made an irruption into England at once ; 5 z
but Athelftan meeting them at Brumfbury in Nor- Defeats ha
thumberland, gave them a total overthroAV. Anlaf enemies,
and Conftantine made their efcape Avith difficulty, lea¬
ving the greateft part of their men dead on the field
of battle. After this period, Atbelftan enjoyed his
croAvn Avith tranquillity. He died in 941, after a reign
of 16 years. He paffed a remarkable laAv, for the en¬
couragement of commerce : viz. that a merchant, Avho
had made three long fca voyages on his OAvn account,
fhould be admitted to the rank of a thane or gentle¬
man. _ S3
Athelffian Avas fucceeded by his brother Edmund. Edmund.
On his acceflion, he found the kingdom difturbed by
the reftlefs Northumbrians, Avho Avatched for every op¬
portunity of riling in rebellion. They Avere, hoAvever,
loon reduced ; and Edmund took care to enfure the
peace of the kingdom, by removing the Danes from
the toAvns of Mercia where they had been alloAved to
fettle, becaufc it Avas found that they took every op¬
portunity to introduce foreign Danes into the kingdom.
He alfo conquered Cumberland from the Britons. This
country, hoAvever, he beftoAved upon Malcolm king of
Scotland, upon condition that he fhould do homage for
it, and proteft the north of England from all future
ineurfions of tlie Danes. 5^
Edmund Avas unfortunately murdered in Gloucefter, Murdered
by one Leolf a notorious robber. This man had been by Leolf.
formerly fentenced to banilhment; yet had the bold-
nefs to enter the hall Avhere the king himfelf dined, and
to fit at table Avith his attendants. Edmund imme¬
diately ordered him to leave the room. The villain
refufed to obey ; upon which the king leaped upon
him, ..
ENG. [
England, lum, and feized him by the hair. Leolf tlien dreav
'E"dV ~6 a c"aoSer> anc^ Save t^ie king a wound, of which he
' ‘ inftantly died, A. D. 946, being tiie iixth year of his
i'acn
Edred.
reign.
As the children of Edmund rvere too young at the
time of his deceafe, his brother Edred fueceeded to tiie
throne. The beginning of his reign, as well as thofe
of his predeceffors, was difturbed by the rebellions and
incurfums of the Northumbrian Danes, who looked
upon the fucceflion of every new king to be a favour¬
able opportunity for fhaking oft' the Englilh yoke. On
the appearance of Edred with an army, however, they
immediately fubmitted : but before the king withdrew
his forces, he laid wafte their territories as a punilh-
ment for their offence. He was no iboner gone, than
Subdues the they rofe in rebellion a fecond time. They were again
Northum- fubdued ; and the king took effectual precautions
bnans. againft their future revolts, by placing Englilh garri-
fons in all their towns, and appointing an Englilh go-
vernor to watch their motions, and fupprefs their in-
Celibacy of furrections on the firft appearance. In the reign of
the clergy Edred, celibacy of the clergy began to be preached
introduced. Up unjer the patronage of St Dunstan. This man
had obtained fuch an afeendant over Edred, who was
naturally fuperftitious, that he not only directed him
in affairs of confcience, but in the moll important mat¬
ters of Hate. He was placed at the head of the trea-
fury ; and being thus poffeffed of great power at court,
be Avas enabled to accomplilh the moll arduous under¬
takings. He profeffed himfelf 'a partifan of the rigid
monallic rules ; and having introduced celibacy among
the monks of Glaftenbury and Abingdon, he endea¬
voured to render it univerfal among the clergy through¬
out the kingdom. The monks in a Ihort time gene¬
rally embraced the pretended reformation ; after which
they inveighed bitterly againlt the vices and luxury of
the age. When other topics of defamation Avere Avant-
ing, the marriages of clergymen became a fure object
of inveftive. Their Avives received the appellation of
concubines or fome other more opprobrious name. The
feeular clergy, on the other hand, avIio Avere nume¬
rous and rich, defended themfelves Avith vigour, and
endeavoured to retaliate upon their adverfaries. The
people Avere thrown into the moll violent ferments }
but the monks, being patronifed by King Edred, gain¬
ed ground greatly upon their opponents. Their pro-
grefs, however, Avas fomeAvhat retarded by the king’s
death, Avhich happened in 955, after a reign of nine
years. He left children ; but as they Avere infants,
Ins nepheAV Edwy, fon to Edmund, Avas placed on the
throne.
The iacav king Avas not above 16 or 17 years of age
at the time of his acceffion. His reign is only re¬
markable for the tragical llory of bis queen Elgiva.
She avrs a princefs of the royal blood, Avith Avhom
Edwy Avas deeply enamoured. Slie Avas his fecond or
third coufin, and therefore Avithin the degrees of affinity
prohibited by the canon laAv. EdAvy, however, heark¬
ening only to the dictates of his paffion, married her,
contrary to the advice of the more dignified ecclefiallics.
'Jdie monks on this occafton were particularly violent;
and therefore Edwy determined not to fecond their
ambitious projects. He foon found reafon to repent
his having provoked fuch dangerous enemies. On his
coronation day, Avhile his nobility Avere indulging them-
SS
Edwy.
59 ] ENG
felves in riotous mirth in a great hall Avhere they had En:>kn«l
affembled, Edwy Avithdrew to another apartment to'
enjoy the company cf his beloved queen and her mo- J
ther. Dunftan guelled the reafon of his abfence. With
unparalleled impudence, lie bunt into the queen’s apart¬
ment j and upbraiding Edwy Avith his lafcivioufnels, as
he termed it, pulhed him back to the hall Avhere the
nobles Avere affembled. The king determined to re-
fent fuch a daring infult. He required from Dunilan
an account of his adminiftration of the treafury during
the late reign, 'fhe monk, probably unable to give a
juft account, refufed to give any ; upon Avhich EdAvy
accufed him of malverfation in his office, and baniftied
him the kingdom.
This proved the worft ftep that could poffibly have
been taken. Dunftan Avas no fooner gone than the
av hole nation Avas in an uproar about his fan£lity and
the king’s impiety. Thefe clamours, as they had been
begun by the clergy, fo they were kept up and in-
creafed by them, till at laft they proceeded to the moft
outrageous violence. Archbiihop Odo fent a party of ^
foldiers to the palace. They leized the queen, and Tragical
burned her face Avith a red-hot iron, in order to de-deatl! of tI:«
ftroy her beauty by which fhe had enticed her hufband j I116011-
after Avhich they carried her by force into Ireland,
there to remain in perpetual exile. The king, finding
it in vain to renft, Avas obliged to c-onfent to a divorce
from her, Avhich was pronounced by Archbiihop Odo.
A cataftrophe ftiil more difmal aAvaited Elgiva. She
had been cured of her Avounds, and had even found
means to efface the fears Avith Avhich her perfecutors
had hoped to deftroy her beauty. She then came to
England, Avith a defign to return to the king, whom
flic ftiil conftdered as her hufband. Unfortunately,
hoAvever, fhe Avas intercepted by a party of foldiers
feat for that purpofe by the primate. Nothing hj.it
her moft cruel death could uoav fatisfy that Avretch and
his accomplices. She Avas hamftringed at Gloucefter,
and expired in a few days.
The minds of the Englifh Avere at tliis time fo much
funk in fuperftition, that the monftrous inhumanity
above mentioned Avas called a judgment from God
upon Edwy and his fpoufe for their diffolute life, i. e.
their love to each other. They even proceeded to re¬
bellion againft their fovereign 5 and having raifed to the
throne Edgar, the younger brother of Edrvy, at that
time only 13 years of age, they foon put him in pof-
feffion of Mercia, Northumberland, and Eaft Anglia.
EdAvy being thus confined to the fouthern counties,
Dunftan returned, and took upon him the government
of Edgar and his party; but the death of Edwy foon
removed all difficulties, and gave Edgar peaceable pof-
feffion of the government. ^
The reign of Edgar proved one of the moft fortu-Edgar?
nate mentioned in the ancient Englifh hiftory. He
too- 1 he 0left eftc6lual methods both for prevTentmg
tumults at home and invafions from abroad. He
quartered a body of difeiplined troops in the north,
in order to repel the incurfions of the Scots, and to
keep the Northumbrians in arve. He built a poAVer-
fm naAry 5 and that he might keep the feamen in tin*
practice of their duty, as Avell as prefent a formi¬
dable armament to his enemies, he commanded the
fleet, from time to time to make the circuit of his
dominions*
H a Tim
6i
His licenti¬
ous amours.
62
His mar* *.
riage with
Eifrida.
ENG [ 60
The greatnefs of King Edgar, which is very much
celebrated by the English hiftorians, was owing to the
harmony which reigned between him and his fubjedts 5
and the reafon of this good agreement was, that the
king tided with Dunftan and the monks, who had ac¬
quired a great afeendant over the people. He enabled
them to accomplish their favourite fcheme of difpoffef-
fing the fecular canons of all the monafteries *, and he
confulted them not only in ecclefiaftical but alio in
civil affairs. On tliefe accounts, he is celebrated by
the monkiih writers with the higheff praifes 5 though
it is plain, from fome of his actions, that he was a
man who could be bound neither by the ties of re¬
ligion nor humanity. He broke into a eohvent, and
carried off by force, and ravilhed, a nun called Ecli-
t/ia. His fpiritual inftruftor, idunitan, for this of¬
fence, obliged the king, not to feparate from his mif-
trefs, but to abftain from wearing his crown for feven
years !
Edgar, however, was not to be fatisned with one
miftrefs. He happened once to lodge at the houfe of
a nobleman who had a very beautiful daughter. Ed¬
gar inflamed with defire at the fight of the young la¬
dy, without ceremony afked her mother to allow her
to pals a night with him. She promifed compliance ;
but fecretly ordered a waiting-maid, named E/Jleda, to
Ideal into the king’s bed when the company were gone,
and to retire before day-break. Edgar, however, de¬
tained her by force, till day-light difeovered the de¬
ceit. His love was now transferred to the waiting-
maid 5 who became his favourite miftrefs, and main¬
tained a great afeendant over him till his marriage with
Eifrida.
The circumftances of this marriage were ftill more
lingular and criminal than thofe above mentioned. Ei¬
frida was daughter and heirefs to Olgar earl of De-
vonlhire. She was a perfon of fuch exquifite beauty,
that her fame was fpread all over England, though flie
had never been at court. Edgar’s euriofity was ex¬
cited by the accounts he had heard of her, and there¬
fore formed a defign of marrying her. He communi¬
cated his intention to Earl Athelwold his favourite 5
and ordered him, on fome pretence or other, to vifit
the carl of Devonlhire, and bring him a certain ac¬
count concerning Eifrida. Athelwold went as he was
defired ; but fell fo deeply in love with the lady bim-
feff, that he refolved to faerifice his fidelity to his paf-
fion. He returned to Edgar, and told him, that El-
frida’s charms were by no means extraordinary, and
Would have been totally overlooked in a woman of in¬
ferior ftation. After fome time, however, turning the
converfation again upon Eifrida, he told the king that
he thought her parentage and fortune made her a very
advantageous match ; and therefore, if the king gave
his co'nfent, he would make propofals to the earl of
Devonihire on his own behalf. Edgar confented, and
Athelwold was. married to Eifrida. After his mar¬
riage, he ufed bris utmoft endeavours to keep his wife
from court, that Edgar, miglit have no opportunity of
obferving her beauty. Thb* king, however, was foon
informed of the truth •, and told Athelwold, that he in¬
tended to pay him a vifit in his caftle, and be made
acquainted wltkjrlu^ new-married wife. The earl could
make no objection's u only he defired a few hours to
for the vint. Kg then confeffed the whole
u
■He Edward the
prepare
] ENG
to Eifrida, and begged of her to appear before the
king as much to the difad vantage as poffible. In
ftead of this, Ihe dreffed herfelf to the greateft ad¬
vantage. Edgar immediately conceived a violent paflion
for her ; and, in order to gratify it, feduced Athelwold
into a wood under pretence of hunting, where he {tab¬
bed him with his own hand, and afterwards married his
widow.
The reiern of Ednar is remarkable among hiftorians
for the encouragement he gave to foreigners to reiide
at his court and throughout the kingdom. Thefe fo¬
reigners, it is faid, corrupted the former fimple man¬
ners of the nation. Of this fimplieity, however, there
feems to be no great reafon to boaft 5 feeing it could
not preferve them from treachery and cruelty, the
greateft of all vices : fo that' their acquaintance with
foreigners was .certainly an advantage to the people, as
it tended to enlarge their views, and cure them of
thofe illiberal prejudices and ruftic manners to w hich
iilandcrs are often fubjeft. Another remarkable inci- 6*
dent, is the extirpation of wolves from England. The Wolves ex-
king took great pleafure in hunting and deftroying tirpated
thefe animals himfelf. At laft he found that they had E|1S~
all taken ftielter in the mountains and forefts of Wales.
Upon this he changed the tribute impofed upon the
Welfh princes by Athelftan, into an annual tribute of
300 wolves heads 5 and thus produced fuch diligence in
hunting them, that the animal has never fmee appeared
in England.
Edgar died in 957, after a reign of 16 yei
left a fon named Edward, whom he had by his fir ft martyr,
wife the daughter'of Earl Ordmer 5 and another, na¬
med Ethelred, by Eifrida. The mental qualifications of
this lady were by no means anfwerable to the beauty
of her perfon. She was ambitious, haughty, treache¬
rous, and cruel. The principal nobility, therefore,
were greatly averfe from the fucceffion of her fon E-
thelred, which would unavoidably throw too much
power into the hands of his mother, as he himfelf was
only feven years of age. Edward, afterwards furnamed
the Martyr, wqs therefore pitched upon : and was cer¬
tainly the moft proper perfon, as he was 15 years of age,
and might foon be able to take the government into his
own hands. Eifrida oppofed his advancement with all
her might : but Dunftan overcame every obftacle, by
anointing and crowning the young prince at Kingfton ;
upon which the whole kingdom fubmitted without far¬
ther oppofition.
The only remarkable occurrence in this reign was
the complete victory gained by the monks over the fe¬
cular clergy, who were now totally expelled from the
convents. Though this had been pretty nearly ac-
complifhed by Edgar, the fecular clergy ftill had par-
tifans in England who made confiderable oppofition :
but thefe were all filenced by the following miracles.
In one fynod, Dunftan, finding the majority of votes Miratfcs 0f
againft him, rofe up, and declared that he had that st Dunftan.
inftant received from heaven a revelation in favour of
the monks; The' whole affembly was fo much overaw¬
ed by this intelligence, that they proceeded no farther
in their deliberations. In another fynod, a voice iffued
from the crucifix, acquainting the members, that the
eftablifiiment of the monks was founded on the will of
heaven, and could not be oppofed without impiety.
But the third miracle was ftill more alarming. In an¬
other
ENG [ 61 ] ENG
En^.anl. other Tynod the floor of the hall funk, and great nura-
bers of the members were killed or bruifed by their fall.
' J 'ft was remarked that Dual! an had that day prevented
the king from attending the fynod, and that the beam
on which his own chair flood was the only one which
did not fink. Thefe circumftances, inftead of making
him fufpeffed as the author of the miracle, were regard¬
ed as proofs of the interpofition of Providence in his
favour.
lid ward lived four years after he was raifed to the
throne, in perfect innocence and fimplicity. Being in¬
capable of any treacherous intention himfelf, he fuf-
pefted none in others. Though his flepmother had
oppofed his fucceflion, he had always behaved towards
her .with the greateft refpect ; and expreiTed on all
occafions the mofl tender affeftion for his brother
Ethelred. Being one day hunting in the neighbour¬
hood of the cattle where Elfrida relided, he paid her a
viiit unattended by any of his retinue. After mounting
^ his horfe with a deiign to return, he defired forne liquor
•Thu king to brought him. But while he was holding the cup
murdered. t° head, a fervant of Elfrida flabbed him behind.
The king, finding himfelf wounded, clapped fpurs to
his horfe \ but foon becoming faint by the lofs of
blood, he fell from the faddle, and his foot being en¬
tangled in the flirrup, he was dragged along till he
expired. His body was found and privately interred
at Wereham by his fervants. The Englifh had fuch
compafiion for this amiable prince, that they bellow¬
ed on him the appellation of Martyr, and even fan¬
cied that miracles were wrought at his tomb. Elfrida
built monafteries, and fubmitted to many penances, in
order to atone for her guilt; but, even in that barba¬
rous age, fhe could never regain the good opinion of the
<j7 public.
Etheircd. After the murder of Edward, his brother Ethelred
fucceeded to the throne without oppofition. As he
was a minor when he was raifed to the throne, and,
< even when he came to man’s eflate, never difeovered
any vigour or capacity of defending the kingdom againil
invaders, the Danes began to renew their incurfions.
Before they durft attempt any thing of importance,
68 however, they firft made a fmall incurfion by way of
England trial. In the year 981, they landed in Southampton
invaded and from feven vefiels : and having- ravaged the country,
the Danes. t ie^ retirecl witl1 impunity, carrying a great booty
along with them. In 987, they made a fimilar at¬
tempt on the weft coaft, and were attended with the
like fuccefs. Finding that matters were now in a fa¬
vourable fituation for their enterprifes, they landed in
Eflex under the command of two chieftains; and, ha¬
ving defeated and killed Brithnot duke of that coun¬
ty, laid wafte all the neighbouring provinces. In this
extremity, Ethelred, furnamed, on account of his pre-
pofterous conduct, the Unready, bribed the enemy with
io,oool. to depart the kingdom. This advice was
given by Siricius arehbifhop of Canterbury, and fome
of the degenerate nobility •, and was attended with the
fuccefs that might have been expecled. The Danes
appeared next year off the eaftern coaft. But, in the
mean time, the Engliih had determined to affemble at
London a fleet capable of repulfing the enemy. This
failed of fuccefs through the treachery of Alfric duke
of Mercia. Having been formerly banifhed the king¬
dom, and found great difficulty in getting himfelf re-
ftored to his former dignity, he trufted thenceforth,
not to his fervices or the affeclions of his countrymen, England,
but to the influence he had over his vaffals, and to the '~TV
public calamities. Thefe laft he determined always
to promote as far as he could : becaufe in every revolu¬
tion his afllftance would be neceffary, and confequently
he muft have received a continual acceflion of power.
The Englifh had formed a plan for furrounding and
deftroying the Danifh fleet in the harbour 5 but Alfric
not only gave the enemy notice of this defign, but alfo
deferted with his fquadron the night before the en¬
gagement. The Englifh by this means proved un-
luccefsful j and Ethelred, in revenge, took Alfgar,
Alfric’s fon, and ordered his eyes to be put out. This
piece of cruelty could be productive of no good effedt.
Alfric had become fo powerful, that, notwithftanding
his treachery, it was found impoflible to deprive him of
the government of Mercia. '
In 993, the Danes under the command of Sweyn
their king, and the Norwegians conducted by Clave
king of that country, failed up the Humber, and de-
ftroyed all around them. A powerful army was ailem-
blcd to oppofe thefe invaders ; but through the treaeh
ery of the three leaders, all men of Danilh extraction,
the Englifh were totally defeated. Encouraged by
this fuccefs, the Danes entered the Thames in 94 vef-
fels, and laid fiege to London. The inhabitants,
however, made fnch a brave defence, that the befie-
gers were finally obliged to give over the attempt.
Cut of revenge for this difappointment, they laid wafte
Eiiex, Suffex, and Hampfhire. In thefe counties they
procured horfes; by which fheans they were enabled
to penetrate into the more inland parts, and threaten¬
ed the kingdom with total fubjeftion. Ethelred and
his nobles bad now recourfe to their former expedient.
They font ambaffadors to the two northern kings, to
whom they promifed fuhfiftence and tribute, provided
they would, for the prefent, put an end to their ravages,
and foon after depart the kingdom. They agreed to
the terms, and peaceably took up their quarters at
Southampton. Clave even paid a vifit to Ethelred,
and received the rite of confirmation from the Englifti
bifhops. The king alfo made him many prefents ; and
Clave promifed never more to infeft the Englifti terri¬
tories ; which promife it is faid he afterwards relig-i-
oufly obferved.
After the departure of Clave with his Norwegians;
Sweyn, though lefs fcrupulous than the king of Nor¬
way, was obliged to leave the kingdom alfo. But this
ftiameful coir-pofition procured only a fhort relief to the
nation. The Danes foon after appeared in the Severn ;
and having ravaged Wales as well as Cornwall and De¬
von, they failed round, and, entering the mouth of
the Tamar, completed the ruin of thefe two counties.
Then, returning to the Briftol channel, and penetra¬
ting into the country by the Avon, they overran all
that country, and carried fire and fword even into
Dorfetftiire. In 998, they changed the feat of war ^
and, after ravaging the ille of Wight, they entered the
Thames and Medway, where they laid fiege to Ro-
chefter, and defeated the Kentifh men in a great battle.
After this victory, the whole province of Kent was
made a feene of daughter and \levaftation. The ex¬
tremity of thefe miferies forced the Engliih into coun-
fels for common defence both by fea and land : but the
weaknefs of the king, the divifions among the nobi¬
lity, the treachery of fume, the cowardice of others,
ENG [ 62 ] ENG
England, the want of concert in all, fruftrated every endeavour 5
' v" 11 and their fleets and armies either came too late to at-
A. D. rooi. tack |]|e enemy? or were repulfed with diflionour. The
Englifh, therefore, devoid both of prudence and una¬
nimity in council, had recourfe to the expedient which
by experience they had found to be ineffectual. They
offered the Danes a large fum if they would conclude
a peace and depart the kingdom. Thefe ravagers con¬
tinually rofe in their demands •, and now required the
payment of 24,000!. which the Englifh fubmitted to
give. The departure of the Danes procured them
a temporary relief •, which they enjoyed as if it was to
be perpetual, without making any effectual prepara¬
tions for giving them a more vigorous reception upon
their next return.
Befides the receiving this fum, the Danes wTere at
prefent engaged by another motive to depart from
England. They were invited over by their country¬
men in Normandy, who at that time were hard prelfed
by Robert king of France, and who found it difficult
to defend their fettlements againft him. It is probable
alfo, that Ethelred, obferving the clofe connection of
all the Danes with one another, however they might
69 be divided in government or fituation, was defirous of
Marriage procuring an alliance with that formidable people. For
ot the king purpofe, being at prefent a widower, he made his
ndncefTof addreffes to Emma, filter to Richard II. duke of Nor-
Xormandv. mandy. He foon fucceeded in his negotiations ; the
princefs came over to England, and was married to the
king in the year 1001.
Though the Danes had been for a long time efta-
bliffied in England, and though the fimilarity of their
language with the Saxon had invited them to an early
coalition with the natives ; they had as yet found fb
little example of civilized manners among the Engliffi,
that they retained all their ancient ferocity, and valued
themfelves only on their national character of military
bravery. The Engliffi princes had been fo w-ell ac¬
quainted with their fuperiority in this refpeCt, that A-
thelftan and Edgar had been accultomed to keep in
pay large bodies of Daniffi troops, who wrere quarter¬
ed about the country, and committed many violences
upon the inhabitants. Thefe mercenaries had attained
to fuch a height in luxury, according to the old Eng¬
liffi writers, that they combed their hair once a-day,
bathed themfelves once a-wreek, changed their clothes
frequently 5 and by all thefe arts of effeminacy, as well
as by their military charaCter, had rendered them¬
felves fo agreeable to the fair fex, that they debauched
the wives and daughters of the Engliffi, and had dif-
honoured many families. But what moft provoked
the inhabitants wras, that, inftcad of defending them
againft invaders, they were always ready to betray
them to the foreign Danes, and to affociate themfelves England.
vTith every ftraggling party which came from that na- ' v *
lion. ^ _ A.D.xoo7.
The animofities between the native Engliffi and the Bar.cs°maf-
Danes, who inhabited among them, had from thefe facred.
caufes rifen to a great height 5 when Ethelred, from
a policy commonly adopted by weak princes, took the
cruel refolution of maffacring the Danes throughout
the kingdom. On the 13th of November 1002, fecret
orders were difpatched to commence the execution
everywhere on the fame day 5 and the feftival of St
Brice, which fell on a Sunday, the day on which the
Danes ufually bathed themfelves, was chofen for this
purpofe. Thefe cruel orders were executed with the
utmoft exaftnefs. No diftimftion was made betwixt the
innocent and the guilty } neither fex nor age was fpa-
red j nor were the cruel executioners latisfied without
the tortures, as well as death, of the unhappy vidlims.
Even Gunilda, lifter to the king of Denmark, who had
married Earl Paling, and had embraced Chriftianity,
wras, by the advice of Edric earl of Wilts, feized and
condemned to death by Ethelred, after feeing her huf-
band and children butchered before her face. This
unhappy princefs foretold, in the agonies of defpair,
that her murder mould foon be avenged by the total
ruin of the Englifh nation (a).
The prophecy of Gunilda was exaftly fulfilled. In New mva-
1003, Sweyn and his Danes, who wanted only a pre-fion by
tence to renew their invafions, appeared off the weftern Sweyn.
coaft, and threatened revenge for the {laughter of their
countrymen. The Englifh took meafures for repulling
the enemy ; but thefe were defeated through the treach¬
ery lirft of Alfric, and then of Edric, a ftill greater
traitor, who had married the king’s daughter, and fuc¬
ceeded Alfric in the command of the Britiffi armies.
The Danes therefore ravaged the 'whole country. A-
griculture was neglected, a famine enfued, and the king¬
dom was reduced to the utmoft degree of mifery. At
laft the infamous expedient of buying a peace was re¬
curred to ; and the departure of the Danes was pur-
chafed, in 1007, at the expence of 30,000!.
The Englilh endeavoured to employ this interval in
making preparations againft the return of the Danes,
which they had reafon foon to expert. A law was
made, ordering the proprietors of eight hides of land
to provide themfelves of a horfeman and a complete
fuit of armour ; and thofe of 310 hides to equip a Ihip
for the defence of the kingdom. By this means a
formidable armament Avas raifed. There Avere 243,600
hides in England 5 confequently the ffiips equipped
mull be 785. The cavalry Avas 30,450 men. All
hopes of fuccefs from this equipment, hoAvever, Avere
difappointed by the factions, animofities, and diffen-
fion
(a) On the fubjeCt of this maffacre, Mr Hume lias the folloAving obfervations: “ Ahnoft all the ancient
hiftorians fpeak of this maffacre of the Danes as if it had been univerfal, and as if every individual of that na¬
tion throughout England had been put to death. But the Danes Avere almoft the foie inhabitants in the king¬
doms of Northumberland and Eaft Anglia, and were \rery numerous in Mercia. This reprefentation of the
matter was abfolutely impoffible. Great refiftance muft have been made, and violent Avars enfued : Avhich Avas
not the cafe. This account given by Wallingford, though he Hands fingle, muft be admitted as the only true
one. We are told that the name of lurdane, lord Dane, for an idle lazy felloAV Avho lives at other people’s ex¬
pence, came from the conduct of the Danes Avho Avere put to death. But the Englilh princes had been entire¬
ly mailers for feveral generations ; and only fupported a military corps of that nation. It feems probable,
therefore, that thefe Danes only Avere put to death.”
ENG [ 63 ] ENG
jJngland. {Ions 'of tlic nobility. Edric had caufed his brother
‘ v ' Brightric to advance an accufation of treafon againlt
A. D. 10x3. ’W0}fnot}1 governor of Suffex, the father of the famous
Earl Godwin ; and that nobleman, knowing the power
and malice of his enemy, cpnfulted his own fafety by
deferiing with 20 thips to the Danes. Brightric pur-
fued him with a fleet of 80 fail -7 but his {hips being
{battered in a tempeft, and Itranded on the eoaft, he
was fuddenly attacked by Wolfnoth, and all his veffels
were burnt or other wife dcftroyed. The treachery of
Edric fruitrated every plan of future defence ; and the
whole navy was atlaft fcattered into the feveral harbours.
By thefe fatal mifcarriages, the enemy had leifure
to overrun the whole kingdom. They had now got
fuch a footing, indeed, that they could hardly have
bet m expelled though the nation had been ever fo una¬
nimous. But fo far did mutual diffidence and diffen-
fion prevail, that the governors of one province refu-
fcd to march to the affiftance of another ; and were at
lail terrified from affembling their forces for the defence
of their own. At laid the ufual expedient was tried.
A peace was bought with 48,000b 5 but this did not
procure even the ufual temporary relief. The Danes,
knowing that they wTere now mailers of the kingdom,
took the money, and continued their devaftations.
They levied a new contribution of 8000I. on the
county of Kent alone-, murdered the archbilhop of
Canterbury, who had refufed to countenance this exac¬
tion and the Engliffi nobility fubmitted everywhere
to the Daniffi monarch, fwearing allegiance to him, and
Ethclred giving hoftages for their good behaviour. At lail, E-
Bian [0,^°r"thclred himfclf, dreading equally the violence of the
«unc). enemy and the treachery of his own fubjeds, fled into
Normandy, whither he had already fent Queen Emma
and her two fons Alfred and Edward. The duke re¬
ceived his unhappy guells with a generofity which does
honour to his memory.
The flight of King Ethelred happened in the end of
the year 1013. He had not been above fix vreeks in
Normandy, when he heard of the death of Sweyn,
which happened at Gainfborough before he had time
to cftablitli himfelf in his new dominions. At the fame
time he received an invitation from the prelates and
nobility to refume the kingdom , exprefling alfo their
hopes, that, being now better taught by experience,
he would avoid thofe errors which had been fo fatal to
himfelf and his people. But the mifconducl of Ethel-
„ 73
Returns
but behaves red was incurable j and, on his refuming the govem-
as ill as
ever.
ment, he behaved in the very lame manner that he had
done before. His fon-in-law Edric, notwithftanding
his repeated treafons, retained fuch influence at court,
that he intlilled into the king jealoufies of Sigefert and
Morcar, two of the chief nobles of Mercia. Edric en¬
ticed them into his houfe, where he murdered them ;
while Ethelred partook of the infamy of this aftion, by
confifcating their eftates, and confining the widow of
Sigefert in a convent. She was a woman of lingular
beauty and merit *, and in a vifit which' was paid her,
during her confinement, by Prince Edmund the king’s
eldeft fon, the infpired him with fo violent an affection,
that he releafed her from the convent, and foon after
married her without his father’s confent.
In the mean time, Canute, the fon and fucceffor of
Sweyn, proved an enemy no lefs terrible to the Englifix
than his father had been. He ravaged the eaftern coait England.
with mercilefs fury 5 and put afliore all the Engliffi' v '
hoilages at Sandwich, after having cut off their hands ^ 101
and nofes. He was at latl obliged, by the neceffity of
his affairs, to return to Denmark. In a thort time,
however, he returned, and continued his depredations
along the fouthern coaft. He then broke into the
counties of Dorfet, Wilts, and Somerfet} where an
army was affembled againil him under the command of
Prince Edmund and Duke Edric. The latter ftill con¬
tinued his perfidious machinations 5 and after endea¬
vouring in vain to get the prince into his power, found
means to diffipate the army, and then deferted to Ca¬
nute with 40 veffels.
Edmund was not diflieartened by this treachery. He
again affembled his forces, and was in a condition to
give the enemy battle. Ethelred, however, had. now
Inch frequent experience of the treachery of his fub-
jefts, that he had loti all confidence in them. He re¬
mained in London, pretending licknefs, but in reality
from an apprehenfion that they intended to buy their
peace by delivering him into the hands of his enemies.
The army called aloud for their fovereign to march at
their head againft the Danes ; and on his refufal to
fake the field, they were fo difeouraged, that all the,
preparations which had been made became ineffeftual
for the defence of the kingdom. Edmund, deprived
of all regular refources for the maintenance of the fol-
diers, was obliged to commit fimilar ravages to thofe
praflifed by the Danes ; and after making feme fruit-
lefs expeditions into the north, which had fubmitted
entirely to Canute’s power, he returned to London,
where he found every thing in confufion by the death
of the king-. ,
& * m ' " Ha
Ethelred died m 1016, after an unhappy reign of Edmund
3 5 years 5 and was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Ed- Ironfide di-
mund, furnamed Ironjide on account of his great ftrength vi^es the
and valour. He poffeffed abilities fufficient to have ^
faved his country from ruin, had he come fooner to the £vuus.
throne; but it was now too late. . He bravely oppofed
the Danes, however, notwithftanding every difadvan-
tage ; till at laft the nobility of both nations obliged
their kings to come to a compromife, and divide the
kingdom between them by treaty. Canute referved to
himfelf Mercia, Eaft Anglia, and Northumberland,
which he had entirely fubdued. The fouthern parts
were left to Edmund. . This prince furvived the treaty
only about a month 5 being murdered at Oxford by two
of bis chamberlains, accomplices of Edric.
After the death of Edmund, nothing was left for Canute,
the Englilh but fubmiffion to Canute. The leaft feru-
pulous of mankind, however, dare not at all times
openly commit injuftice. Canute therefore, before he
ftized the dominions of Edwin and Edward, the two
fons of Edmund, fuborned fome of the nobility to de-
pofe, that, in the laft treaty with Edmund, it had
been verbally agreed, that, in cafe of Edmund’s death,
Canute fliould either be fucceflbr to his dominions, or
tutor to his children; for hiftorians differ with regard
to this particular. This evidence, fupported by the
great power of Canute, was fufficient to get him defi¬
ed king of England. Immediately after his acceffion
to the throne, he fent the two fons of Edmund to the
court of Sweden, on pretence of being there educated j
but
I6
Marries
Ethelred’s
widow.
77
Harold.
E N G [
but charged the king to put them to death as foon as
they arrived. The Swediih monarch did not. comply
with this requeft ; but font them to Solomon king of
Hungary, to be educated in his court. The elder,
Edwin, vras afterwards married to Solomon’s filler :
but he dying without ifiue, that prince gave his filler-
in-law, Agatha, daughter of the emperor Henry II.
in marriage to Edward, the younger brother 5 and
Ihe bore him Edgar Atheling ; Margaret, afterwards
queen of Scotland) and Chriitina, who retired into a
convent.
Canute wras obliged at firll to make great conceffions
to the nobility : but he afterwards put to death many
of thofe in whom he could not put confidence ; and,
among the re It, the traitor Edric himfelf, who was pub¬
licly executed, and his body thrown into the Thames.
In order to prevent any danger from the Normans,
who had threatened him with an invafion, he married
Emma the widow of Ethelred, and wl^> now came
over from Normandy 5 promiling that he would leave
the children he Ihould have by that marriage heirs to
the crown after his deceafe. The Englilh were at firlt
dilpleafed with Emma for marrying the mortal enemy
of her former hulband; but at the fame time were glad
to find at court a fovereign to whom they were accuf-
tomed, and who had already formed connexions with
them : and thus Canute, befides fecuring by his mar¬
riage the alliance with Normandy, gradually acqui¬
red by the fame means the confidence of his own
people.
The moll remarkable tranfaclioh in this prince’s
reign, befides thofe mentioned under the article Ca¬
nute, is his expedition to Scotland againll Malcolm
78
Mis treach¬
ery and
cruelty.
king of that country, whom he forced to do homage
for the county of Cumberland, tvhich the Scots at that
time pofieffed. After this enterprife, Canute paffed
four years in peace, and died at Shaftlbury 5 leaving
three fons, Sweyn, Harold, and Hardicanute. Sweyn,
whom he had by his firfl: marriage rvith Alfwen,
daughter of the earl of Hampfhire, was crowned in
Norway; Hardicanute, whom Emma had born, was
in poffeffion of Denmark 5 and Harold, who was of
the fame marriage with Sweyn, wras at that time in
England.
Harold fucceeded to the crown of England 5 though
it had been ftipulated that Emma’s fon, Hardicanute,
Ihould be heir to that kingdom. This advantage Ha¬
rold obtained by being on the fpot, and getting pof-
feflion of his father’s treafures, while Hardicanute was
at a diftance. As Hardicanute, however, was fup-
ported by Earl Godwin, a civil war was likely to en-
fue, when a compromife was made, ; by which it was
agreed, that Harold fliould enjoy London, and all the
provinces north of the Thames, while the poffeffion of
the fouth Ihould remain to Hardicanute : and till that
prince fliould appear and take pofleffion of his domi¬
nions, Emma fixed her refidence at Winchefter, and
ruled her foil’s part. Harold reigned four years $ du¬
ring which time, the only memorable aXion he per¬
formed wgs a moll infamous piece of treachery.—Al¬
fred and Edward, the two fons of Emma by Ethelred,
paid a vifit to their mother in England. But, in the
mean time, Earl Godwin being gained over by Harold,
a plan Was laid for the deltruXion of the two princes.
Alfred was accordingly invited to London by Harold,
5
64 ] E N G
ivith many profeflions of friendfnip j but when he had England,
reached Guildford, he Avas fet upon by GodAvin’s vaf-
fals : about 600 of his train Avere murdered in the mollJ
cruel manner) he himi’elf was taken prifoner, his eyes
Avere put out, and he Avas conduXed to the monaftery
of Ely, Avhere he died foon after. Edward and Em¬
ma, apprifed of the fate Avhich aAvaited them, fled be¬
yond fea, the former into Normandy, the latter into
Inlanders ; Awhile Harold took pofleflion of all Ins bro¬
ther’s dominions Avithout oppofitxon. He died in Apiil
I039-
Hardicanute fucceeded his brother Harold without
oppofition. His government Avas extremely violent
and tyrannical. IIoweA'er, it AAras but of fliort dura¬
tion/ Ho died, in 1041, of a debauch at the mar¬
riage of a Danifli lord. After his death, a favourable,
opportunity Avas offered to the Englilh for {baking off
the Daniih yoke. Swreyn, king of NorAvay, the el-
dell fon of Canute, was abfent $ and as the two lull
kings had died Avithout iffue, there appeared none of
that race Avhom the Danes could fupport as fucceffor
to the throne. For this reafon, the eyes of the nation
were naturally draAvn toAvards Prince Edward, who
happened to be at court Avhtm the king died. I here
were fome reafons, howeArer, to fear, that EdAvard’s fuc-
ceflion Avould be oppofed by Earl GocAvin, avIio Avas by
far the molt powerful nobleman in the kingdom. A
declared animofity fubfilted between EdAvard and God-
Avin, on account of the hand Avhich the latter had in
the murder of his brother Alfred j and this Avas thought
to be an offence of fo grievous a nature, that EdAvard
could never forgive it. But here their common friends
interpofed ; and reprefenting the necelfity of their good
correfpondence, obliged them to lay afide their ammo-
fities, and to concur in reftoring liberty to their native
country. GodAvin only llipulated, that EdAvard, as a
pledge of his flneere reconciliation, fliould promife to
marry his daughter Editha. This propofal Avas agreed Edward the
to; EdAvard was croAvned king of England, and married t-oufeliui.
Editha as he had promifed. The marriage, hoAvever,
proved rather a fource of difeord than otherwife be¬
tween the king and GodAvin. Editha, though a very
amiable Avoman, could never obtain the confidence and
affeXion of her hulband. It is even faid that during the
Avhofe courfe of her life he abllained from all matrimonial
converfe Avith her ; and this ridiculous beha\dour Avas
highly celebrated by the monkifti Avriters of the age, and
contributed to the king’s acquiring the title of Saint and
Confeffor.
Though the negleX of his daughter could not fail
to aAvaken GodAvin’s former enmity againll King Ed¬
Avard, it Avas neceffary to choofe a more popular ground
before he could vent his complaints againll the king g0
in a public manner. He therefore chofe for Ids theme Variance of
the influence which the Normans had on the affairs ofTe king
government; and declared oppofition took place be-
tAveen him and thefe favourites. In a ihort time, this
animofity openly broke out Avith great violence, Fu¬
ll ace count of Boulogne having paid a vifit to the king,
paffed by Dover on his return. One of his train be¬
ing refufed accefs to a lodging which had been ap¬
pointed for him, attempted to make his Avay by force,
and wounded the matter of the houfe in the cent eft,
The toAvnfmen revenged this infult by the death of
the ilranger 5 the count and bis train took arms, and
murdered
Godwin
ENG [
England, murdered the toivnfman in his ov/n houfe. A tumult
” enfued ; near 20 perfons were killed on each fide 5 and
A. D. 1^41. j7ufl.ace being overpowered with numbers, Avas at laft
obliged to fly. He complained to the king ; who gave
orders to Earl Godwin, in whofe government Hover
lay, to punifli the inhabitants. But this nobleman re-
fufed to obey the command, and endeavoured to throw
the whole blame on Count Euftace and his followers.
The king was difpleafed 5 and threatened to make him
feel the utmofl: effects of his refentment, in cafe he
finally refufed to comply. Upon this, Godwin af-
fembled a powerful army, on pretence of reprefling
fome diforders on the frontiers of Wales; but, inftead
of this marched direftly to Gloucefter, where the king
at that time was without any military force, as fiifpect-
ing no danger.
Edward, perceiving his danger, applied to Si ward
duke of Northumberland, and Leofric duke of Mercia,
two very powerful noblemen. They haftened to him
with fueh followers as they could affemble, iffuing or¬
ders at the fame time for all the forces under their refpec-
tive governments to march without delay to the defence
of the king. Godwin, in the mean time, fuffered him-
fclf to be deceived by negociations, till the king’s army
became fo powerful, that he was not able to cope with
it. Ele was therefore obliged to fly with his family
ders*'0 ^an~ t° Flanders. Here he was protected by Baldwin earl
of that country, together with his three fons, Gurth,
Sweyn, and Tofti 5 the laft of whom had married Bald¬
win’s daughter. Harold and Leofwin, two other fons
of Godwin, took flielter in Ireland.
After the flight of Earl Godwin, he was proceeded
, againft as a traitor by King Edward. His eftates,
and thofe of his fons, were confifcated 5 his govern¬
ments given to others ; Queen Ed it ha was confined in
a monaflery; and the great power of this family,
which had become formidable to the crown itfelf, feem-
ed to be totally overthrown. Godwin, however, foon
found means to retrieve his affairs. Having hired
fome fliips, and manned them with his followers, he
attempted to make a defeent at Sandwich. The king,
informed of his preparations, equipped a fleet which
' Godwin could not refift, and he therefore retreated into
the Flemifli harbours. On his departure, the Englilh
difmiffcd their armament. This Godwin had expected,
and therefore kept himfclf in readinefs for the favour¬
able opportunity. He immediately put to fea, and
failed to the ifle of Wight, where he was joined by
Harold with a fquadron which he had collefted in Ire¬
land. . Being thus mafter of the fea, Godwin entered
the harbours on the fouthern coaft; feized all the fhips $
and being joined by great numbers of his former vaf-
fals, he failed up the Thames, and appeared before
London.
The approach of fuch a formidable enemy threw
every thing into confufion. The king alone feemed re-
folute to defend himfelf to the iaft extremity ; but the
interpofition of many of the nobility, together with the
fubmiflions of Godwin himfelf, at lart produced an ac¬
commodation. It was ftipulated, that Godwin Ihould
give hoftages for his good behaviour, and that all the
foreigners fhould be banifhed the kingdom ; after
which, Edward, fenfible that he had not power fuf-
fieient fo detain the earl’s hoftages in England, fent
Vox.. VIII. Part I.
duke of Nor- England.
82
Returns,
and js re¬
conciled
with the
king;.
65 •] ENG
them over to his kinfman the young
mandy.
Soon after this reconciliation, Godwin died as he
was fitting at table with the king. Fie was fucceed-
ed in the government of Weffex, Suffex, Kent, and
Effex, and the office of Howard of the houfehold, a
place of great power, by his fon Harold. The fon
was no ieis ambitious than his father had been j and as
he was a man of much greater abilities, he became a
more dangerous enemy to Edward than even Godwin
had been. Edward knew no better expedient to pre¬
vent the increafe of Harold’s power, than by giving
him a rival. This was Algar fon of Leofric duke of
Mercia, whom he inverted with the government of Eaft
Anglia, which had formerly belonged to Harold. The
latter however, after fome broils, finally got the bet¬
ter of his rival, and baniffied him the kingdom. Al¬
gar returned foon after with an army of Norwegians,
with whom he invaded Eaft Anglia 5 but his death in a
ffiort time freed Harold from all further apprehenfions
from that quarter. His power was ftill further increafed
in a fliort time after by the acceffion of his brother Tofti
to the government of Northumberland ; and Edward
now declining in years, and apprehenfive that Harold
would attempt to ufurp the crown after his death, re-
folved to appoint a fuceeffor. He therefore fent a de¬
putation into Hungary, to invite over his nephew,
Edward, fon to his elder brother, who was the only
remaining heir of the Saxon line. That prince ac¬
cordingly came over with his children, Edgar Athe-
ling, Margaret, and Chriftina; but died a few days
after his arrival. His death threw the king into greater
perplexity than ever. Being refolved to exclude
Harold if poffible, he fecretly caft his eye on his kinf¬
man William duke of Normandy ; a perfon of whofe
power, character, and capacity, he had juftly a very
high opinion. This advice had formerly been given
him by Robert archbifhop of Canterbury, who was
himfelf a Norman, and had been baniflied along with
the reft upon the return of Earl Godwin. But Edward
finding that the Englifti would more eafily acquiefce in
the reftoration of the Saxon line, had in the mean
time invited his brother’s defeendants from Hungary,
as already mentioned. The death of his nephew, and
the inexperience and unpromifing qualities of young
Edgar, made him refume his former intentions in fa¬
vour of the duke of Normandy, though his averfion to
hazardous enterprifes engaged him to poftpone the
execution, and even to keep his purpofe concealed
from all his minifters.
Harold in the mean time increafed his popularity
by all poflible means, in order to prepare his way for
being advanced to the throne after the death of ’Ed¬
ward, which now feemed to be faft approaching. He
fad no fufpicion of the duke of Norm any as a rival;
but as he knew that a fon and grandfon of the Earl
Godwin were in the hands of that prince as hoftages,
he feared that they might be made ufe of as checks
upon his ambition, in cafe he attempted afterwards
to afeend the throne. He therefore prevailed upon
Edward to releafc thefe hoftages unconditionally ; and
having obtained his confent, he fet out for Norman¬
dy himfelf, attended by a numerous retinue. He was
driven by a tempeft on the territory of Guy count of
I Ponthieu,
ENG r 66 ] E N G
'England. Pont nicu, rrao detained him prifoner, and demanded
^ an exorbitant fum for his ranfom. Harold found means
A. D. 1041. acquaint William with his fituation. The duke of
Normandy, defirous of gaining Harold over to his
party, commanded Guy to reilore his prifoner to his
liberty. Upon this Harold was. immediately put into
the hands of the Norman ambaiTador, who conducled
him to Rouen. William received him with great de-
monftrationy of refpecl and friendlhip j but foon took
an opportunity of acquainting him with his pretenhons
to the crown of England, and afkcd his atlillance in
the execution of his fcheme. -Harold was furprifed with
this declaration of the duke ; but being entirely in Ins
power, he feigned a compliance with his defires, and
promifed to fccond to the utmoll of his ability the will
of King Edward. William, to fecure him as much as
poffible to his intereft, promifed him his daughter in
marriage, and required him to take an oath that he
would fulfil his promifes. Harold readily complied ;
but to make the oath more binding, William privately
conveyed under the altar where the oatli was taken re¬
licks of fome of the moll revered martyrs ; and when
Harold had taken the oath, he fliowed him the relicks,
and admonilhed him to obferve religioufly fuch a folemn
engagement.
Harold was no fooner fet at liberty, than he found
himfelf mailer of cafuiltry fufficient to exeufe the
breaking of his oath, which had been extorted from
him, and which, if kept, might be attended with
the fubjedtion of his country to a foreign power.
He continued to praclife every art to increafe his po¬
pularity ; and about this time, two accidents enabled
him to add much to that character which he had al¬
ready fo well e 11 abliHied. The Welfii had for fome
time made incurfions into the Englilh territories, and
had lately become fo troublefome, that Harold thought
he could not do a more acceptable piece of fervice to
the public, than undertake an expedition againll thefe
invaders. Having therefore prepared fome light-armed
foot to purfue the natives into their fortreifes, lome
cavalry to fcour the open country, and a fquadron of
fliips to attack the fea-coalls, he employed all thefe
forces againll the enemy at once ; and thus reduced
them to fuch diftrefs, that they were obliged to pur-
chafe peace by fending their prince’s head to Harold,
and fubmitting to the government of two Welfli noble¬
men appointed by Edward.
The other incident was no lefs honourable to Harold.
Tolli his brother had been created duke of Northum¬
berland 5 but being of a violent tyrannical temper,
l-ad treated the inhabitants with fuch cruelty, that
they rofe in rebellion againll him, and drove him from
his government. Morcar and Edwin, two brothers,
grandfons of the great Duke Leofric, joined in the
infurreclion •, and the former being elefted duke, ad¬
vanced with an army to pppofe Harold, who had
been commifiioned by the king to reduce and punilh
the Northumbrians. Before the armies engaged,
Morcar endeavoured to jultify his conduct, and repre-
iented to Harold, that Tofti had behaved' in fuch a
manner, that no one, not even a brother, could defend
him without participating of the infamy of his con-
ducl : that the Northumbrians wrere willing to fubmit
to the king, but required a governor that would pay
fome attention to their privileges ; and they trufted England,
that Harold would not defend in another that violent
conduit! from which his own government had always A‘ ’Io65,
kept at fo great a dillance. This fpeech was accom¬
panied by fuch a detail of well fupported fads, that
Harold abandoned his brother’s caufe ; and returning to
Edward, perfuaded him to pardon the Northumbrians,
and confirm Morcar in his governme*nt. He even
married the filler of that nobleman j and by his interelf
procured Edwin the younger brother to be chofen
governor of Mercia. Toili, in a rage, departed the
kingdom, and took Iheltcr in Flanders with Baldwin
his father-in-law *, while William of Normandy faw
that now' he had nothing to expect from Harold, who
plainly intended to fecure the crown for himfelf. 84
Edward died in 1066, and was fuceeeded by Harold Harold fuc-
with as little oppofition as though he had been thect'c^J
lawful heir. The very day after Edward’s death, he
was anointed and crowned by the archbilhop of York.
The whole nation feemed joyfully to fwear allegiance to
him. But lie did not long enjoy the crown, to obtain
which he had taken fo much pains, and which he feemed
to have fach capacity for wearing. His brother Toiti,
provoked at his fuccefs, ifirred up againlt him every
enemy he could have any influence with. The duke
of Normandy alfo was enraged to the lalt degree at the
perfidy of Harold ; but before he commenced holf ilities,
he fent an embafiy to England, upbraiding the king
with his breach of faith, and fummoning him to refign
the kingdom immediately. Harold replied, that the
oath, with which he was reproached, had been extorted
by the well grounded fear of violence, and for that
reafon could never be regarded as obligatory : that he
never had any commiflion either from the late king or
the Hates of England, who alone could difpofe of the
crown, to make any tender of the fuccefiion to the
duke of Normandy ; and if he, a private perfon, had
affumed fo much authority, and had even voluntarily
fworn to fupport the duke’s pretenfions, the oath was
unlawful, and it was his duty to take the firft opportu¬
nity of breaking it^: that he had obtained the crown by
the unanimous fuffrages of the people ; and fliould ftiow
himfelf totally unworthy of their favour, did he not
ftrenuoufly maintain thofe liberties with which they
had entrufted him ; and that the duke, if he made any
atteflipt by force of arms, fiiould experience the power
of an united nation, condu&ed by a prince, who, fen-
fible of the obligations impofed on him by his royal
dignity, was determined, that the fame moment fliould
put a period to his life and to his government.
This anfwer was according to William’s expefta-
tions 5 and therefore he had already made preparations
for invading England. He was encouraged and a {lift¬
ed in this enterprife by How el count of Britanny, Bald¬
win carl of Flanders, the emperor Henry IV. and Pope
Alexander II. The latter declared Harold a perjured
ufurper; denounced excommunication againft him and
his adherents; and the more to encourage William in
his enterprifes, fent him a eonfecrated banner, and a
ring with one of St Peter’s hairs in it. Thus he was
enabled to affemble a fleet of 3000 veffels, on board of
which were embarked 60,000 men, chcfenfrom among
thofe numerous fupplies which were fent him from all
quarters. Many eminent perfonages were enlifted un-
■Danes
ENG
England. d(*r Ins banners. The molt celebrated
' y-——' cuunt 0f Boulogne, Aimeri de Thouars, Hugh d’E-
A. D. 1066. ftajdes, William d’Evreux, Geoftroy de llotrou, Ro¬
ger de Beaumont, William de Warenne, Roger de
Montgomeri, Hugh de Grantmefnil, Charles Martel,
and Geoffrey Gifford.
In order to embarrafs the aff.'rs of Harold the more
effecluallv, William alfo excited Toffi, in concert with
Halfager king of Norway to infeft the Englilh coafts.
Thefe two having collected a fleet of 350 ihips, failed up
tlie Humber, and dilembarked their troops, wiio began
to commit great depredations. They were oppofed by
Morcar earl or duke (b) of Northumberland, and Ed-
Defeats the win earl of Mercia, who were defeated. Harold, on
the news of this invaiion, affembled a confiderable ar¬
my, engaged the enemy at Standford, and after a
bloody battle entirely defeated them. Tofti and Hal¬
fager were killed in the action, and all the deet fell into
the hands of the victors •, but Harold generoully allowed
Oiave the fon of Halfager to depart with 20 veffels.
The king of England had fcarce time to rejoice on
account of Ins victory, when news were, brought him
that the Normans were landed in Suffex. Harold’s
victory had confiderably weakened his army. He loft
many of his braveft officers and foldiers in the adtion j
and he difgufted the reft, by refufing to diftribute the
Danxfh fpoils among them. Ele haftened, however^
by quick marches, to repel this newr invader 5 but
though he was reinforced at London and other places
with fredi troops, he found himfelf weakened by the
defertion of his old foldiers, who, from fatigue and dif-
eontent,ffeeretly withdrew from their colours. Gurtli,
the brother of Harold, a man of great conduct as well
as bravery, became apprehenftve of the event; and en¬
treated the king to avoid a general engagement for
fume time, or at leaft not to hazard his perfon. But
though this advice was in itfelf evidently proper, and
enforced by all the arguments which Gurth could fug-
geft, Harold continued deaf to every thing that could
Is defeated belaid. Accordingly, on the 14th of October 1066,
p.nd killed the two armies engaged near Haftings, a town of Suf-
'^'-Mex. After a moft obftinate and bloody battle f, the
d>% °rman Englilh were entirely defeated, Harold and his two
f See Ha- brothers killed, and William left mafter of the kingdom
/tings. of England.
Nothing could exceed the terror of the Englilh up¬
on the news of the defeat and death of Harold. As
foon as William paffed the Thames at Wallingford,
Stigand, the primate, made fubmiffions to him in the
name of the clergy ; and before he came within fight
of London, all the chief nobility, and even Edgar A-
theling himfelf, who, being the rightful heir to the
S7 throne, had juft before been declared king, came and
William the fubmitted to the conqueror. William very readily ac-
Cenqueroi. cepted of the crown upon the terms that were offered
him 'y which were, that he fhculd govern according to
the eftablifhed cuftoms of the country. He could in¬
deed have made what terms he pleafed; but, though
really a conqueror, he chofe rather to be thought an
defied king. For tins reafon he was crowned at Weft-
minfter by the arehbilhop of York, and took the oath
adminiftered to the former kings of England j namely,
S6
f 67 ] ENG
were Euftace that he would protefl and defend the church, obferve ^ England.^
the laws of the realm, and govern the kingdom with A e/icSu.
impartiality. # g 3
The Englifti hiftorians complain of the moft grie-The Englifli
vous oppreftion by William and his Normans. Whe- grievouflj
ther by his con duff the conqueror willingly gave the oppreffed.
Englith opportunities of rebelling again!! him, in or¬
der to have a pretence for opprefling them afterwards,
is not eafy to fay ; but it is certain that the beginning
of his reign cannot juftly be blamed. The firft difguft
again!! his government was excited among the clergy.
William could not avoid the rewarding of thofe nume¬
rous adventurers who had accompanied him in his ex¬
pedition. He firft divided the lands of the Englilh,
bs-rons ’who had oppofed him, among his Norman ba¬
rons ; but as thefe were found inlufhcient, he quarter¬
ed the reft on the rich abbeys, of which there were
many in the kingdom, until !ome other opportunity of
providing for them offered itfelf.
Though this laft ftep was highly refented by the
clergy, it gave very little offence to the laity. The
whole nation, however, was foon after difgufted, by
feeing all the real power of the kingdom placed in the
hands of the Normans. He difarmed the city of Lon¬
don, and other places which appeared moft warlike and
populous, and quartered Norman foldiers wherever he
dreaded an infurreftion. This was indeed acting as a
conqueror, and not as an elected king 5 but the event
fliowed the neccflity of fuch precautions. The king ha¬
ving thus fecured, as he imagined, England from any
danger of a revolt, determined to pay a vifit to his
Norman dominions. He appointed his brother Odo,
bifhop of Bayeux, and William Fitz-Ofborne, regents
in his abfence : and to fecure himfelf yet farther, he
refolved to carry along with him fuch of the Englifti
nobility as he put the leaft confidence in.
Having taken all thefe methods to enfure the tran¬
quillity of his new kingdom, William fet fail for Nor¬
mandy in March 1067 ; but his abfence produced the
moft fatal confequences. Difcontents and murmuring*
were multiplied everywhere •, fecret confpiracies were
entered into again!! the government •, hoftilities Averc
commenced in many places; and every tiring feemed
to threaten a fpcedy revolution. William of Poifliers,
a Norman hiftorian, throws the blame entirely on the
Englifh. He calls them a fickle and mutinous race,
while he celebrates with the higheft encomiums the
juftice and lenity of Odo’s and Fitz-Ofborne’s admini-
ftration. On the other hand, the Englith hiftorians
tell us, that thefe governors took ail opportunities of
opprefling the people, cither with a view to provoke
them to rebellion, or in cafe they tamely fubmitted to
their impofitions, to. grow rich by plundering them.
Be this as it will, however, a fecret confpiracy was
formed among the Englifli for a general mafiacre of
the Normans, like what had formerly been made of the
Danes. This was profecufccd w ith fo much animofity,
that the vaffals of the earl Coxo put him to death
becaufe lie refuted to head them in the enterprife. The
confpirators had already taken the refolution, and fix¬
ed the day for their intended mafiacre, which was to
be o4i Afh-Wednefday, during the time of divine fer-
I 2 vice.
(b) Anciently thefe two titles were fynonymous.
ENG [ 68 ] ENG
England, vice, 'when all the Normans would be unarmed as pe-
^ ^ nitents, according to the difciplinc of the times. But
. D. I^- 7-i:]ie prefence of William difconcerted all their fchemes.
Having got intelligence of their bloody purpofe, he
haltcned over to England. Such of the confpirators as
liad been more open in their rebellion, conlulted their
fafety by flight \ and this ferved to confirm the proofs
of an accufation againit thofe who remained. From
this time the king not only loft all confidence in his
Enp-lilh fubiedts, but regarded them as inveterate and
irreconcileable. enemies. He had already railed Inch a
number of fortreiles in the country, that he no long¬
er dreaded the tumultuous or tranlient eftorts of a
difeontented multitude. He determined therefore to
treat them as a conquered nation. The firit inftaixe
of this treatment was his revival of the tax of Dane-
gelt, which had been impofed by the Danifii con¬
querors, and was very odious to the people. This
produced great difeontents, and even infurredlions.
The inhabitants of Exeter and Cornwall revolted j but
were foon reduced, and obliged to implore the mercy
of the conqueror. A more dangerous rebellion hap¬
pened in the north 3 but this was alfo foon qualhed,
and the Englilh became fenfible that their deltrublion
was intended. Their eafy fubmiflion after the battle
of Haftings had infpired the Normans with contempt;
their commotions afterwards had rendered them ob¬
jects of hatred j and they were now deprived of every
expedient which could make them either regarded or
beloved by their fovereign. Many fled into foreign
countries j and among the reft Edgar Atheling him-
felf, who made his efcape to Scotland, and carried
thither his two fillers Margaret and Chriilina. They
were well received by Malcolm, who foon after mar¬
ried Margaret the elder filler, and alfo received great
numbers of other exiles with the utmoil kindnefs.
The Englilh, though unable to make any refiilance
openly, did not fail to gratify their refentment againft
the Normans in a private manner. Seldom a day paf-
fed, but the bodies of afl'affinated Normans were found
in'the woods and highways, -without any poffibility of
bringing the perpetrators to jultice. Thus, at length,
the conquerors themfelves began again to wilh for tran¬
quillity and fecurity; and feveral of them, though
entrulled with great commands, defired to be difmif-
fed the fervice. In order to prevent thefe defertions,
which William highly refented, he was obliged to
allure others to Hay by the largenefs of his bounties.
The confequences were, frelh exactions from the
Englilh, and new infurreblions on their part againit
their cruel mailers. The Norman power, however,
was too well founded to be now removed, and every
attempt of the Englilh to regain their liberty ferved
only to rivet their chains the more firmly, idle county
of Northumberland, which had been moll active in thefe
infurre£lions, now fullered molt feverely. The whole
of it was laid walte, the houfes were burned, the in-
llruments of agriculture deltroyed, and the inhabitants
forced to feek new places of abode. On this oceafion
it is faid that above 100,000 perfons perilhed either by
the fword or famine ; and the country is fuppofed, even
to this day, to retain the marks of its ancient depopu¬
lation. The eftates of all the Englilh gentry were next
confifcated, and bellowed on the Normans. By this
menus all the ancient and honourable families were re¬
duced to beggary \ and the Englilh found themfelves England,
totally excluded from every road that led cither to ho- '—- v-—J
nour or preferment. A' I07°<
By proceeding in this manner, William at lall broke
the Ipint of the Englilh nation, and received no far-
ther trouble from them. In 1076, however, he found Difienfions
that the latter part ox /is lire was likely to be unhap-in William’s
py through difl'enfions 111 his own family. He had four
Ions, Robert, Richard, William, and Henry, bolides
feveral daughters. Robert, his eldelt Ion, furnamed
Cur thofe, irom the Ihortnels of his legs, was a prince
who inherited all the bravery and ambition of his fa¬
mily. He had formerly been proiniied by his father
the government of the province of Maine in France,
and was alfo declared iuccelior to the dukedom of Nor¬
mandy. He demanded from his father the fulfilment
of thefe promifes j but William gave him a flat denial,
obferving, that “ it was not his cuftorn to throw off
his clothes till he went to bed.” Robert declared his
.refentment j and openly expreffed his jealoufy of his
twro brothers William and Henry, (for Richard was
killed, in hunting, by a llag). An open rupture was
foon commenced. The two young princes one day
took it into their heads to throw water on their elder
brother as he palled through the court after leaving
their apartment. Robert conllrued this frolic into a
itudied indignity ; and having thefe jealoufies ftill far¬
ther inflamed by one of his favourites, he drew Iris
fword, and ran up Hairs with an intent to take re¬
venge. The whole caille was quickly filled with tu¬
mult, and it was not without feme difficulty that the
king himfelf was able to appeafe it. But he could not
allay the annimofity which from that moment prevail¬
ed in his family. Robert, attended by fcveral of his
confederates, withdrew to Rouen that very night, ho¬
ping to furprife the caftle ; but his defign w as defeat¬
ed by the governor. The popular character of the
prince, however, engaged all the young nobility of
Normandy, as well as of Anjou and Britanny, to efpoufe
his quarrel j even his mother is fuppofed to have fup-
po'rted him in his rebellion by iecret remittances.
The unnatural conteft continued for feveral years 5 and
William v/as at lall obliged to have recourfe to Eng¬
land for fupport againll his owrn fon. Accordingly,
he drew an army of Englilhmen together j he led them
over to Normandy, where he foon compelled Robert
and his adherents to quit the field, and wTas quickly re-
inllated in all his dominions. Robert then took ftiel-
ter in the caftle of Gerberoy, which the king of France
had provided for him, wfliere he w-as fliortly after be-
fieged by his father. As the garrifon was ftrong, and
confcious of their treafon, they made a gallant defence 5
and many fldrmilhes and duels were fought under its
vralls. In one of thefe the king and his fon happen¬
ed to meet ; but being both concealed by their hel¬
mets, they attacked each other with mutual fury. The
young prince wounded his father in the arm, and threw
him from his herfe. The next blow would probably
have put an end to his life, had he not called for af-
Tiftance. Robert inftantly recollected his father’s voice,
leaped from his horfe, and raifed him from the ground.
He proftrated himfelf in his prefence, a flee d pardon for
his offences, and promifed for the future a Uriel ad¬
herence to his duty. The king vTas not fo eafily ap-
peafed j and perhaps his refentment was heightened
ENG [69] ENG
England, by the difgrace of being overcome. He therefore gave
^ v his malediction to his ton 5 and returned to his own
A. D. 10S1. camp on Robert’s horfe, winch he had aflifted him to
mount. After feme recollection, however, he was re¬
conciled to Robert, and carried him with him into
England.
William returned in 1081 ; and being now freed
from his enemies both at home and abroad, began to
have more leilure to attend to his own domeitic aifairs.
For this purpofe the DOOMSDA T-B 00K was competed
by his order, of which an account is given under that
anicle. He referved a very ample revenue for the
crown and in the general diltribution of land, among
his followers, kept poffeilion of no fewer than 1400
manors in different parts of the country. No king of
England was ever fo opulent $ none was able to i'up-
pon the fplendor and magnificence of a court to fuch a
degree ; none had fo many places of trull and profit to
bellow j and confequently none ever had fuch implicit
obedience paid to his commands. He delighted greatly
in hunting ; and to indulge himlolf in this with the
greater freedom, he depopulated the county of Hamp-
fhire for 30 miles, turning out the inhabitants, deftroy-
ing ail the villages, and making the wretched outcalls
no compenfation for fuch an injury. Lathe time of the
Saxon kings, all noblemen without diftinciion had a
right to hunt- in the royal forelts ; but William appro¬
priated all thefe to himfelf, and pubiilhed very fevere ‘
laws to prohibit his fubjeets from encroaching on this
part of his prerogative. The killing of a boar, a deer,
or even a hare, was punifhed with the lofs of the de¬
linquent’s eyes 5 at the time when the killing of a man
might be atoned for by paying a moderate fine or com-
pofition.
As the king’s wealth and power were fo great, it
may reafonably be fuppofed that the riches of his rni-
nifters were in proportion. Odo, bilhop of Bayeux,
William’s brother, was become fo rich, that he refol-
ved to purchafe the papacy. For this purpofe, taking
the opportunity of the king’s ablence, he equipped a
veifel in the ifle of Wight, on board of which he font
immenie treafures, and prepared for his embarkation.
He was detained, however, by contrary winds; and,
in the mean time, William, being informed of his de-
hgns, relolved to prevent the exportation of fo much
wealth from his dominions. Returning therefore from
Normandy, where he was at that time, he came to
England the very inftant his brother was ftepping on
board. He immediately ordered him to be made pri-
foncr: but his attendants, refpedfing the biihop’s
ecclefialtical eharacler, fcrupled to execute his com¬
mands •, fo that the king was obliged to feize him with
his own hand. Odo appealed to the Pope : but the
king replied, that he did not feize him as bilhop of
Bayeux, but as earl of Kent 5 and, in that capacity, he
expedit'd, and would have, an account _pf his adminiltra-
tion. He was therefore fent prifoner to Normandy ;
and, not with Handing all the remonftrances and threats
of Pope Gregory, vras detained in cuftody during the
remainder of William’s reign.
Soon atter this, William felt a fevere blow in the
death of Matilda his queen; and, almoft at the fame
time, received information of a general infurreclion in
Maine, the nobility of which had always been averfe to
his government. Upon his arrival on the continent, he
90
B.-ach of
tbc queen
found that the infurgents had been fecretly afilitcd and England,
excited by the king of France, who took all opportu- —y-1
nities of lefl'ening the Norman power, by creating dif- A' IcS7*
fenlions among the nobles. His difpleafure on this
account was very much increaled, by notice he re¬
ceived of fome railleries thrown out againft him by
the French monarch. It feems that William, who
was become corpulent, had been detained in bed fom;
time by licknefs; and Philip was heard to fay, that
lie only lay in of a big belly, "i bis fo provoked the
Engliih monarch, that he fent him word, he would
loon be up, and would, at his churching, prefent fuch
a number of tapers as would fet the kingdom of France
in a Hame.
To perform this promife, he levied a powerful army ;
and, entering the Pile-of France, deitroyed every thing
with tire and fword. He took the town of Mante, and
reduced it to allies. But a period w as foon put to the
conqueits and to the life of this great warrior by an 91
accident. His horfe happening to put his fore feetanc' °f the
on fome hot allies, plunged fo violently, that the rider tln^‘
was thrown forward, and bruifed his belly on the pom¬
mel of the laddie. Being now in a bad habit of body,
as wrell as fomewhat advanced in years, he began to be
appreheniive of the confequences, and ordered himfelf
to be carried in a litter to the monaftery of St Ger-
vaife. Finding his illnefs increafe, and being fenlible
of the approach of death, he difeovered at ialt the va¬
nity of all human grandeur ; and was ftruck w ith re-
morfe for thofe many cruelties and violences of which
he had been guilty. He endeavoured to make com¬
penfation by prefents to churches and monalleries, and
gave orders for the liberation of feveral Englifh noble¬
men. Fie was even prevailed upon, though not with¬
out reluctance, to releafe his brother Odo, againft
whom he was very much incenfed. He left Norman¬
dy and Maine to his eldelt fon Robert. He wrote
to Lanfranc the primate of England, defiring him to
crown William king of England. To Henry he be¬
queathed nothing but the pofieflions of his mother Ma¬
tilda ; but foretold, that one day he would furpafs both
his brothers in poAver and opulence. Fie expired on
the 9th September 1087, in the 63d year of his age,
in the 21 If of his reign over England, and 54111 of that
over Normandy.
William, fumamed Rufus, from his red hair, was in willfaui
Normandy at the time of his father’s illnefs. He no Rufus,
fconer received the letter for Lanfranc, than, leaving
his father in the agonies of death, he fet out for Eng¬
land ; where he arrived before intelligence of the de-
ceafc of the Conqueror had reached that kingdom.
Being fenlible that his brother Robert, as being the
eldelt fon, had a preferable title to himfelf, he ufed the
utmoft difpatch in getting himfelf firmly eftablifhed on
the throne. The Englilh were fo effectually-fubdued,
that they made no oppofition ; but the Norman barons
ivere attached to Robert. This prince was brave,
open, iineere, and generous } arid even his predominant
fault of indolence was not difagreeable to thofe haughty
barons, who affected an almoft total independence of
their fovereign. The king, on the other hand, was
violent, haughty, and tyrannical. A powerful con-
fpiraey was therefore carried on againft William 5 and
Odo, bilhep of Bayeux, undertook to conduct it. Ma¬
ny of the moft powerful nobility were concerned 5 and
as
E N c;
England, as the confpirators expefled to be in a fliort time fup-
1 v' 1 ported by powerful fuccours from Normandy, they re-
" 1 tired to their caftles, and put themfelves in an offenfive
pofture.
William, fcnfible of his danger, engaged the Englifh
on Ids fide, by promidng fome mitigation of their hard-
11 lips, and liberty to hunt in the royal foreits. Robert,
dn the mean time, through his natural indolence, ne-
glected to give his allies proper aflxftance. The con¬
fpirators were obliged to fubmit. Some of them were
pardoned •, but moll of them confifcated, and their
eftates bellowed on the barons who had continuedfaith-
(,3 ful to the king.
Proves a William, freed from this danger, thought no more of
tyrant. his promifes to the Engliih. He proved a greater ty¬
rant than his father 5 and, after the death of Lanfranc,
who had been his preceptor, and kept him within fome
bounds, he gave full fcope to his violent and rapacious
difpolition. Not content with oppreffing the laity, he
invaded the privileges of the church ; which, in thofe
days, were held molt facred. He feized the tempora¬
lities of all the vacant bilhoprics and abbeys, and open¬
ly put to fale thofe fees and abbeys which he thought
^ proper to difpofe of.
Attempts Thefe proceedings occafioned great murmurs among
the con- the eccleliafties, which were quickly fpread through the
queft of nation, but the terror of William’s authority preferved
•Normandy. t]ie pUpgc tranquillity. In 1090, the king thought
himfelf Itrong enough to attempt the conqueft of Nor¬
mandy, which at that time was in the greateft confufion
through the indolent and negligent adminiftration of
Robert. Several of the barons had revolted, and thefe
revolts were encouraged by the king of France. Ro¬
bert alfo imagined he had reafon to fear the intrigues of
his other brother Henry, whom for 3000 merks he had
put in poffedion of Cot tent in, near a third part of the
duchy of Normaudy. He therefore threw him into pri-
fon 5 but finding himfelf threatened with an invafion
from the king of England, he gave Henry his liberty,
and even made ufe of his afliftance in fupprefling the in-
furrections of his rebellious fubjecls. William, however,
was no fooner landed in Normandy, than the nobility
on both lides interpofed, and a treaty of peace was con¬
cluded. In this treaty Henry finding his interefts en¬
tirely neglefted, retired to St Michael’s Mount, a ftrong
fortrefs on the coalt of Normandy, and infefted the
neighbourhood with his incurfions. He was befieged
by his two brothers, and obliged to capitulate in a fhort
time*, after which, being deprived of all his dominions,
he -wandered about for fome time with very few attend¬
ants, and often in great poverty.
The peace with Robert was of no long duration. In
the interval fome hoflilities with Scotland fucceeded,
and thefe terminated in the death of Malcolm king of
that country } after which new broils enfued with Nor¬
mandy. The rapacious temper of William prompted him
-to encroach upon his brother’s territories, and the fame
rapacity prompted him to ufe a very extraordinary ex¬
pedient in order to accomplilh his defigns. Having-
gone over to Normandy to fupport his partifans, he or¬
dered an army of 20,000 men to be raifed in England,
"and conducted to the fea-coaft as if they were to be im¬
mediately embarked: but when they came there, inlfead
of embarking, they were forced to pay the king ten ihil-
Jings a man; after which they were difmiiled to their
£ N G
feveral counties. With this money William engaged England,
the king of France to depart from the protection of
Robert 5 and alfo bribed many of the Norman barons to ’ ’I0^
revolt. He was called from Normandy, however, by
an irruption of the Welfh 5 and having repulfed them,
be was prevented from attempting other enterprifes by
a confpiracy of his barons.
In 1096, however, the fuperftition of Robert put Purchafes
the king of England in poffeflion of thofe dominions the duchy
which he had not been able to conquer by force °f ^y.0’000
arms. The crufades were now commenced, and Ro-mtr‘vS'
bert was defirous of undertaking an expedition into the
Holy Land. As money for this purpofe was wanting,
he mortgaged his dominions to Ins brother for 10,coo
merks. ' The king raifed the money by violent extor¬
tions on his fubjects; forcing even the convents to melt
their plate, in order to furnilh the quota demanded of
them. He was then put in pofieffion of Normandy and
Maine ; and Robert with a magnificent train fet out for
the Holy Land.
After the death of Lanfranc, the king had retained
in his own hands the revenues of Canterbury, as he had
done thofe of many other bilhoprics; but falling into
a dangerous illnefs, he was feized with remorie ; and
the clergy reprefented to him that he was in danger of
eternal perdition if he did not make atonement for thofe
impieties and facrileges of which he had been guilty.
He therefore inftantly refolved to fupply the vacancy
of Canterbury ; he fent for Anfelm, a Piedmontefe by
birth, abbot of Beg in Normandy, who was much cele¬
brated for his piety and devotion. The abbot refufed
the dignity with great earneftnefs} fell on his knees,
wept, and intreated the king to change his purpofe 5
and when he found him obftinate in forcing the paito-
ral ftaff upon him, he kept his fill fo hard clenched,
that it required the utmoft violence of the byftanders
to open it, and force him to receive that enfign of his
fpiritual dignity. William foon after recovered his
health, and with it his violence and rapacity. As he His quarrel
now fpared the church no more than before, a quarrel with the
with Anfelm foon enfued $ and this was the more dan- Fimate. .
gerous to the king, on account of the great character
for piety which the primate had acquired by his zeal
againit abufes of all kinds, particularly thofe of drefs
and ornament.
At this time there was a mode which prevailed not
only in England, but throughout Europe, both among
men and women, of giving an enormous length to their
fhoes, drawing the toe to a lharp point, and affixing
to it the figure of a bird’s bill, or fome fuch ornament,
which was turned upwards, and which was often iuf-
tained bv gold or filver chains tied to the knee. The
ecclefialiics took exception at this ornament, which
they faid was an attempt to belie the Scripture, where
it is affirmed, that no man can add a cubit to his ita-
ture 5 and they not only declaimed againil it with ve¬
hemence, but aflembled fome fynods, in which the fa-
fhion was abfolutely condemned. Such, however, are
the contradiftions in human nature, that all the influ¬
ence of the clergy, which at that time was fufficient
to fend vafl multitudes of people into Afia to butcher
one another, was not able to prevail again ft thofe long-
pointed (hoes. The fafhion, contrary to what hath
happened to almoft all others, maintained its ground
for feveral centuries; and even Anfelm found his .en¬
deavours
C 70 1
»
E' N G
C
* See An-
/elm.
England, deavours againil it ineffe&ual. Ha was more Taccefs-
' ^ ful in decrying the long hair and curled locks then
A.D. uoo. worn by the courtiers. He refufed the allies on Aih-
Wednefday to fueh as were fo accoutred; and his au¬
thority and eloquence had fuch influence, that the
young men univerfally abandoned that ornament, and
appeared in the cropt hair recommended to them by the
fermons of the primate. For this reformation Anfelm
is highly celebrated by his hiftorian Eadmer, who was
aifo his companion and fecretary.
W hen William’s profanenefs returned with his health,
he Avas engaged in alraoft perpetual conteils Avith this
auftere prelate *. Thefe were pretty Avell fettled,
Avhen the king, who had undertaken an expedition into
Wales, required Anfelm to furnilh him Avith a certain
number of foldiers. The primate regarded this as an in-
vafion of the rights of the church 5 and therefore, though
he durft not refufe compliance, fent the men fo mife-
rably accoutred, that the king Avas exceedingly difplea-
fed, and threatened him with a profecution. Anfelm
demanded reftitution of all his revenues Avhich the
king had feized, and appealed to the pope. The quar-
97 r(d> however, ran fo high, that the primate found it
Who leaves dangerous to remain in England. He defired and ob-
doin^115" tained t,ie. king’s permiflion to retire beyond fea. His
temporalities Arc re confifcated immediately on his de¬
parture but Pope Urban received him as a martyr in
the caufe of religion, and even threatened the king
Avith fentence of excommunication. William, hoAveveiq
proceeded in his projects of ambition and violence,
without regarding.the threats of the pope; Avho he
kneAV Avas at that time too much engaged Avith the cru-
fades to mind any other buflnels. Though his ac-
quilition of iVIaine and Normandy had brought him in-
to perpetual contefts Avith the haughty and turbulent
barons Avho inhabited thofe countries, and raifed end-
lefs tumults and infurre&ions; yet William feemed ft ill
intent on extending his dominions either by purchafe or
conqueft. William earl of Boicliers and duke of Gui-
enne had refolved upon an expedition to the Holy Land;
and, for this purpofe, had put himfelf at the head of a.
vaft multitude, confilting, according to fome hiftorians,
of 60,000 horfe, and a much greater number of foot.
Like Robert of Normandy, he offered to mortgage
his dominions for money fufficient to conduct this mul¬
titude into Afia. The king accepted his offer ; and
had prepared a fleet and army to take poffeflion of
thefe dominions, Allien an unfortunate accident put an
mid to his projects and his life. He Avas engaged in
hunting, the foie amufement, and indeed the principal
occupation, of princes in thofe rude times. Walter
Tyrrel, a French gentleman remarkable for his Ikiil in
archery, attended him in this recreation, of which
the Ncav Foreft Avas the feene. William had difmount-
ed after a chace ; and Tyrrel, impatient to flio w his
dexterity, let flv an arroAv at a ftag Avhich fuddenly
ftarted before him. The arroAv glanced from a tree,
and ftruck the kyig to the heart. He inftantly fell
down dead; and Tyrrel, terrified at the accident,
clapt fpurs to h^s horfe, haftened to the fea-ftiore, and
embarked for France, Avhcre he joined the crufade that
was fetting out from that country. This happened on
the 2d of Auguft 1100, after the king had reigned
13 years, and lived about 40. His body Avas foundin
71
93
Death of
the king.
1 ENG
the Avoods by the country-people, and buried without England,
ceremony at Winchefter. 1—--v~—’
After the death of William, the croAvn of right dc- A‘ D-IIC3-
voiced to Robert his eldeft brother ; for William had
no legitimate children. Biit Avhat Robert had for¬
merly loir by his indolence, he Avas again deprived of
by Ins abfence at the holy Avar. Prince Henry was in
the foreft Avith William Rufus at the time the latter p, ; ^
was killed. . He no fooner heard the important neAvs, Henry u-
than he hurried to Winchefter, and fecured the royal furps the
treafure. William de Breteuil keeper of the treafure, crown,
arrived almoft the fame inftant, and oppofed his pre-
tenfions ; telling him, that the treafure belonged to his
elder brother, Avho AA'as now his fovereign, and lor w hom
he Avas determined to keep it. But Henry, draAving
his fword, threatened him with inftant death if he da¬
red to difobey him; and others of the late king’s re¬
tinue, who came every moment to Winchefter, joining
the prince’s party, he was obliged to defift. Henry
loft no time in fully accomplifhing his purpofe. In lefs
than three days he got himfelf croAvned king of Eng¬
land by Maurice bilhop of London. Aclual poffeflion
fupplied every deficiency of title, and no one dared to
appear in defence of the abfent prince.
The beginning of King Henry’s reign promifed to „• IC}°
be favourable to the Englilh liberty ; owing chiefly to “‘favour 0£
his fear of his brother. To conciliate the affbaions of the people,
his fubjeds, he paffed a charter calculated to rennwe
many of the grievous oppreflions which had been com¬
plained of during the reign of his father and brother.
He promifed, that at the death of any abbot or bi¬
lhop, he never would feize the revenues of the fee or
abbey during the vacancy, but would leave the Avhole
to be reaped by the fucceffor ; and that he Avould ne¬
ver let to farm any eccleftaftical benefice, or difpofe of
it for money. To the laity he promifed, that, upon
the death of any earl, baron, or military tenant, his
neir ffiould be admitted to the poffeflion of his eftate,
on paying a juft and lawful relief; without being ex-
pofed to thofe enormous exactions Avhich had been for¬
merly required. He remitted the wardfliip of mi¬
nors ; and alloAved guardians to be appointed, Avho
ffiould t>e anhverable for the truft. Fie promifed not
to difpofe of any heirefs in marriage but by advice of
all the barons ; and if any baron intended to give his-
daughter, lifter, niece, or kinfwoman in marriao-e, it
Ihould only be neceffary for him to confult the king,
who promifed to take no money for his confent, nor
even to refufe permiflion, unleft the perfon to whom it
Aims propofed to marry her Ihould happen to be his
enemy. Fie granted his barons and military tenants
the power, of bequeathing by will their money or per- '
fonal eftates ; and if they negle&ed to make a Avill
he promifed that their heirs Ihould fucceed to them!
Fie renounced the right of impoling moneyage, and
of levying taxes at pleafure, on the farms Avlnch the
barons kept in their oAvn hands. He made fome ge¬
neral profelfions of moderating fines ; he offered a par ¬
don for all offences ; and remitted all debts due to the
crown. He alfo required, that the vaffals of the ba¬
rons Ihould enjoy the fame privileges which he granted
to his own barons ; and lie promifed a general con- '
firmation and obfervance of the /envs of King Edward*. *cecF/,„, .
1 o gnre greater authenticity to thefe conceflions, a Syjlem.
copy
ENG [72
England, copy of the charter was lodged in fome abbey of each
' V~~J county.
A. D. 1100. King Henry, farther to increafe his popularity, de¬
graded and committed to prifon Ralph Flambard bi-
fliop of Durham, v/ho had been the chief inftrument
of opprefiion under his brother. He fent for Anfelm
Quarrels who was then at Lyons, inviting him to return and
with the take poffeffion of his dignities. Anfelm returned ; but
primate. when Henry propofed to him to do the fame homage
to him which he had done to his brother, the king met
-with an abfolute refufal. During his exile, Anfelm
had alTiiled at the council of Bari) where, befides fix¬
ing the controverfy between the Greek 'and Latin
churches concerning the procefhon of the Holy Ghoil,
the right of election to church-preferments was decla¬
red to belong to the clergy alone, and fpiritual cen-
fures were denounced againlt all ecclefiaftics who did
homage to laymen for their fees and benefices, and on
I See Feo- laymen ""’ho exaclcd it. 1 he rite of homage f Dy
dal Tenure, the feudal cuftoms was, that the vaffal fliould throw
himfelf on his knees, put his joined hands between
thofe of his fuperior, and fhould in that pofture fwear
fealty to him. But the council declared it execrable,
that pure hands, which could create God, and offer
him up for the falvation of mankind, fhould be put, af¬
ter this humiliating manner, between profane hands,
which, befides being inured to rapine and bloodfhed,
were employed day and night in impure purpofes and
obfeene cpnta&s. To this decree therefore Anfelm
appealed •, and declared, that fo far from doing ho¬
mage for his fpiritual dignity, he would not even com¬
municate with any ecclefiaffic who paid that fubmif-
fion, or who accepted of inveffitures from laymen. Hen¬
ry durft not infill 5 and therefore defired that the con¬
troverfy might be fufpended, and that meffengers
might be fent to Rome to accommodate matters with
the Pope, and to obtain his confirmation of the laws
and cuftoms of England.
Henry now took another ftep which feemed capable
of confirming his claims to the crorvn without any dan¬
ger of a rival. The Engliih remembered with regret
their Saxon monarchs, when they compared the liber¬
ty they enjoyed under them with the tyranny of the
Normans. " Some defeendants of that favourite line
ftill remained ; and among the reft, Matilda, the niece
of Edgar Atheling. Upon her the king fixed his eyes
as a proper confort, by whofe means the breach be¬
tween the Saxons and Normans might be cemented.
A difficulty, however, occurred, becaufe fhe had been
educated in a nunnery The affair was examined by
Anfelm in a council of prelates and nobles fummoned
at Lambeth. Matilda there proved, that fhe had put
on the veil, not with a defign of entering into a reli-
ffious life, but merely in imitation of a cuftom familiar
to the Englifh ladies, who protected their chaftity from
the brutal violence of the Normans by taking fhelter
under that habit, which, amid the horrid licentioufnefs
of the times, was yet generally revered. The council,
He marries fcnfible that even a princcfs had otherwife no fecurity
Matilda, for her honour, admitted this reafon as valid. They
pronounced that Matilda was ftill free to marry *, and
her nuptials with Henry were celebrated by Anfelm
-with great folemnity and pomp.
While Henry was thus rendering himfelf popular at
home, his brother Robert, who had loitered away a
6
] ENG
twelvemonth in Italy, where he married Sibylla daugh- England,
ter of the count of Converfana, arrived in England, in
ix 01, in order to put in his late and ineffectual claim I0^
to the crown. His fame, however, on account of the Crown of
exploits he had performed in Paleftine, was fo great, England
that even yet he was joined by many noblemen of the by
firft rank, and the whole nation feemed prepofieffed in 10 e '
his favour. But Henry, having paid his court to An¬
felm, by his means retained the army in his interefts,
and marched with them to Portfmouth, where Robert
had landed his forces a few days before. The armies
lay for fome time in fight of each other •, when an ac¬
commodation was effeCted through the mediation of
Anfelm and other great men. By this treaty it wras
agreed, that Robert ftiould refign his pretenfions to
England, and receive in lieu of them an annual pen-
fron’of 3000 marks j and if either of the princes died
without iffue, the other fhould fucceed to his domi¬
nions 5 that the adherents of eaclr fhould be pardoned,
and reftored to all their poffeffions either in Normandy
or England ; and that neither Robert ncr Henry
fliould thenceforth encourage, receive, or protect the
enemies of each other.
The two princes feparated with mutual marks of
friendfhip •, but next year, Henry, under various pre¬
tences, eonfifeated the eftatos of almoft all the noble¬
men who had favoured his brother’s pretenfions. Ro¬
bert, enraged at the fate of Iris friends, ventured to
come to England in order to remonftrate with Ins
brother in perfon. But he met v ith fuch a H-d re¬
ception, that, apprehending his liberty to be in dan¬
ger, he w as glad to make his efcape by refigning his
penfion. i°4
This infringement of the treaty w-as followed theNormandy
enruing year by an invafion of Normandy, at the defrre^ded by
of Robert’s own fubjefis, whom he was totally inca- CI’ry-
pable of governing *. rIhe event or this wrar was the* gee yer.
defeat and captivity of Robert, who was henceforthmandy.
deprived not only of all his dominions, but of his per-
fonal liberty. He lived 28 years a prifoner, and died
in the caftle of Cardiff in Glamorganftrire. It is even
faid by fome, that he was deprived of his, fight by a
rbrl-hot copper bafon applied to Ins eyes, and that King
Henry appeafed his confcience by founding the mona-
ftery of Reading.
The conqueft of Normandy wTas completed m 1106^
and next year the controverfy between the king and pri¬
mate, concerning the inveftitures of clergymen and
their doing.homage to princes, was refumed. 1 he king
was very lenfible that it wras not his intereft to quarrel
with fuch a powerful body as the clergy were at that
time •, and on tire other band, be fully underftood the
neceffity of guarding the prerogatives of the crown rot,
from their encroachments. While, therefore, he avoid- Quarrels
ed an open rupture with Anfelm, he odft:iirately refu-wqtn the,
fed to give up the privileges which had bee n enjoyed PHnute.
by bis predeceffors. On the firft arrival of Anfelm,
the king had avoided the difpuie in the manner already
mentioned. A meffenger wras difpatched to Rome, in
order to compromife matters with the Pope. The raef-
fenger returned with an abfolute refufal to the king’s
demands. One of the realcns given by tire pope on
this occafion was expreffed in the following words :
“ It is monftrous that a fon fhould pretend to beget
his father, or a man to create his God: priefts are
called
ENG [ 73 ] ENG
England, called gods in fcripture, as being the vicars of God :
’—~v—and will you, by your abominable pretenfions to gmnt
A. D. 1107. them their inveiliture, affume the right of creating
tiiem V Henry was not yet convinced j but as he was
determined to avoid, or at lead to delay, the coming
to any dangerous extremity with the church, he per-
fuadcd Anielm, that by farther negotiation he Ihould
be able to compound matters with the pope. Mef-
lengers were therefore difpatched to Rome a fecond
time from the king; and alio from Anfelm, who avant¬
ed to be fully allured of the pope’s intentions. They
1 returned with letters wrote in the moll arrogant and
polidve manner, bolii to the king and primate. The
king fuppreifed the letter lent to hhnfelx; and perfua-
ded the three Lilhops, by Avhom it was font, to affert,
Uj>on tlieir epifcopal faith, that the pope had allured
them of his private good intentions towards King
Henry, and of his refutation not to refent any future
exertion of his prerogative in granting invellitures;
though he himfelf ferujded to give this alTurance under
his hand, left other princes Ihould copy the example
and aifume a like privilege. Anfclm’s two melfen-
gers, who were monks, affirmed that it was impoffible
this ftory could have any foundation j but their word
was not deemed equivalent to that of three biihops}
and tlie king, as if he had finally gained his caufc, pro¬
ceeded to fill the fees of Hereford and Salilbury, and
to inveft the new biihops in the ufual manner. Anielm,
however, gave no credit to the afl'ertions of the king’s
meflengers 5 and therefore refufed not only to confc-
crate them, but even to communicate with them ; and
the biihops themfelves, finding they Avere become uni-
verfally odious, returned the eniigns of their fpiritual
dignity.
The quarrel continued betAveen the king and primate,
till the latter, fcnfible of lus dangerous fituation, defired
leave to make a journey to Rome, in order to lay the
cafe before the pope. This permiffion Avas eafily
obtained ; but no fooner Avas the primate gone, than
Henry confifcated all his revenues, and font another
meflenger to negociate Avith the pope. The new mef-
i’enger told his holinefs, that his mailer Avould fooner
part with his crown than the right of granting hwefti-
tures. “ And I (replied the pope) Avould rather lofe
my head than alloAv him to retain it.” This quarrel
now became very dangerous to the king; as he Avas
threatened by the pope with excommunication, Avhich
would have been attended with terrible cdnfequences.
At laft, hoAvever, a compromife Avas made in the fol-
lowing manner. Before biihops took poffeffion of their
dignities, they had formerly been aecuftomed to pafs
through two ceremonials: They received, from the
hands of the fovereign, a ring and crofier as the fymbols
of their office, and this was called their invejliture;
they alfo made thofe fubmiflions to the prince, Avhich
Avere required of the vafials by the rites of the feudal
law, and Avhich received the name of homage. The
pope, therefore, was for the p.refcnt contented with
Hi nry’s roligning his right of granting inveftitures, by
which the fpiritual dignity Avas fuppofed to be con-
ferred; and he allowed the biihops to do homage for
their temporal properties and privileges. After this,
the pope allowed Anfelm to communicate with the
prelates Avho had already received inveftitures from the
crown \ and he only required of them fome fubmiflions
Vox. VH1. Part I,
for their pall condudl. He alfo granted to Anfelm a England,
plenary poAver of remedying every dilorder, Avhich he ^ V^T 1
faid might arife from the barbaroufnefs of the country.A' IJdS
About the fame time the marriage of priefts was pro¬
hibited 5 and even laymen Avere not alloAved to marry
Avithin the feyenth degree of affinity. By this con¬
trivance the pope augmented the profits which he
reaped from granting difpenfations, and likewife thofe
from divorces. For as the art-of Avriting Avas then rare,
and parilh-regifters were not regularly kept, it Avas not
eafy to afeertain the degrees of affinity even among
people of rank j and any man Avho had money to pay for
it, might obtain a divorce, on pretence that his wife
Avas more nearly related to him than Avas permitted by
the canons. A decree Avas aifo publilhed, prohibiting
the clergy to wear long hair 5 and the king, though lie
Avould not refign his prerogatives to the church, very
w illingly cut his hair in the form Avhich was required
of him, obliging all the courtiers at the fame time t<*
folioav his example.
From the time of this ccmpromife, which happened
in 1107, to the year 1120, nothing remarkable hap¬
pened except fome flight commotions in Normandy :
but tins year, Prince William, the king’s only fon, ^
w as unfortunately drowned off the coaft of Normandy }pr;nce
and Henry Avas fo much aftecled, that he is faid never William
aft or Avar ds to have fmiled or recovered his Avonted drowreefi
eheerfulnefs. It is very doubtful, hoAvever, Avhether
the death of this prince Avas not an advantage to the
Britifli nation, fmee he Avas often heard to cxpr.ds
the utmoft hatred to the natives 5 infomuch that he had
threatened, that when he came to the throne, he
Avould make them draw the plough, and would turn
them into beafts of burden. Thefe prepofleflions he
inherited from his father 5 Avho, though he was wont,
when it might ferve his purpofes, to value himfelf on
his birth as a native of England, fljewed, in the courfe
of 'his government, an extreme prejudice againft that
people. All hopes of preferment to'ecclefiaftieal as
well as civil dignities were denied to the Englifh during
this whole reign ; and any foreigner, however igno¬
rant or worthlefs, Avas fure to have the preference in
every competition. The charter formerly mentioned,
which the king granted at the beginning of his reign,
was no more thought of; and the whole fell fo much
into negleft and oblivion, that in the following' cen¬
tury, when the barons, Avho had heard an obfeure tra¬
dition of it, defired to make it the model of the great
charter Avhieh they exacted from King John, they could
only find one copy of it in the whole kingdom 5 Avhile
the grievances, propofed to be redrefied by it, continued
ftill in their full extent.
As Flenry had now no legitimate children except
Matilda, whom in mo he had betrothed, though
only eight years of age, to the emperor of Germany,
he Avas induced to marry a fecond time in hopes of
having Tons. He made his addrefles accordingly to
Adelais the daughter of Godfrey duke of Lovaine, and
niece to Pope Calixtus j a young princefs of an amiable
perfon. But Adelais brought him -no children : and
in 1135, the king died in Normandy, from eating Oeathof
too plentifully of lampreys ; having lived 67 years, and King Q
reigned 35. Henry.
By the Avill of King Henry, Ids daughter Matilda
became heirefs of all his dominions. She had been
K married.
ENG [ 74 1 ENG
England, married, after her firfl hufband’s death, to Geoffrey
‘ v ' Plantagenet, eldeft fon of the count of Anjou, by whom
A. D.113S- {}lc jiati a fon named Henry ; but as Geoffrey had given
umbrage to the king of England in feveral inftances,
no notice was taken of him in the will. The nobility
had already fvvorn fealty to her j and the foremoft to
{how this mark of fubmiifion to the king’s will had been
Stephen, Ion of the count of Elois (who had married
Adela the daughter of William the Conqueror). He
had been married to Matilda, daughter and heirefs of
Eultace count of Boulogne ; who brought him, bolides
that feudal fovereignty of France, a vail property in
England, which in the dillribution of lands had been
conferred by the Conqueror on the family of Boulogne.
By this marriage Stephen acquired a new connection
with the royal family of England : for Mary, his wife’s
mother, was filler to David the prefent king of Scot¬
land, and to Matilda the firil wife of Henry and mother
of the emprefs. The king alfo, imagining that by the
aggrandizement of Stephen he ilrengthened the interell
of his own family, had enriched him -with many pof-
fefiions; but inllead of this, it appeared by the event
that he had only put it more and more in his power
10S to ufurp the throne.
Stephen No fooner was Henry dead, than Stephen haftened
uturps tne from Normandy into England. The citizens of Dover
and Canterbury, apprifed of his purpofe, Ihut their
gates againll him ; but when he arrived at London,
fome of the lower clafs of people, inftigated by his
emilTaries, immediately proclaimed him king. The
archbiihop of Canterbury refufed to give him the royal
unction 5 but this difficulty was got over by Stephen’s
brother, the biffiop of Winchefter. Hugh Bigod, lie-w¬
ard of the houfehold, made oath before the primate,
that the late king, on his death-bed, had dilcovered a
diffatisfaclion with his daughter Matilda, and had ex-
prefled his intention of leaving the count of Boulogne
heir to all his dominions j and the biffiop either belie¬
ving, or pretending to believe, this tellimony, gave
Stephen the royal unci ion. Very few of the nobility
attended his coronation •, but none oppofed his ufurpa-
feion, however unjuff or flagrant.
Stephen, in order to eilablifh himfelf on the throne
43 firmly as poffible, pafled a charter, in which he
made liberal promifes to all ranks of men. To the
clergy he promifed, that he would fpeedily fill all the
vacant benefices, and never would levy any of the rents
during the vacancy. To the nobility he gave liberty
to hunt in their own forefts •, and to the people he pro¬
mifed to remit the tax of danegelt, and to reftore the
laws of Edward the Confefibr. He feized the king’s
treafure at Winchefter, amounting to ioo,oocl. •, with
part of which money he hired mercenary foldiers
from the continent; and with another part procured a
bull from the pope, confirming his title to the Englilh
throne.
Matilda, in the mean time, endeavoured to recover
her juft rights, of which Stephen had deprived her 5 but
for fome time ffie met with no fuccefs either in England
«r Normandy. Her hufband Geoffrey himfelf was
wblip-ed to conclude a peace with Stephen, on condition
the king’s paying him during that time an annual
penfion of 5000I.
Robert earl of Gloucefter v!as the firft who ffiook the
^owes of Stephen. He was natural fon to the late
6
king ; a man of great honour and ability, and was very England;
much attached to the mtereits of Matilda. When
Stephen uliirped the throne, he offered to do him ho- ' II-iy>'
mage, and take the oath of fealty ; but with an ex^
preis condition, that the king Ihouid maintain all his
ftipulations, and never invade any of Robert’s rights
or dignities. With this condition Stephen was obliged
to comply, on account of the great power of that
nobleman, though he knew that it was meant only to
afford him a favourable opportunity of revolting when
occafion ferved. The eiergy imitated Robert’s ex¬
ample 5 and annexed to their oath of allegiance the
following condition, namely} that they were only
bound as long as the king defended the ecclefiaftical
liberties, and fupported the difeipline of the church. 109
The barons, in return for their lubmiflion, exafted Biftrade«i
terms of ftill more pernicious tendency. Many of them^at^ of ^
required to have the right of fortifying their caftles, ’ms 'om‘
and putting themfelves in a poiture of defence 5 and
with this exorbitant demand the king was forced to
comply. All England was immediately filled with
thefe fortreffes ; which the noblemen garrifoned either
with their vaffals, or with licentious foldiers, who
flocked to them from all quarters. The whole king¬
dom now became a feene of rapine and devaftation.
Wars- were carried on by the nobles in every quar¬
ter ; the barons even affirmed the right of coining mo¬
ney, and of exercifing, without appeal, every aft of
jurifdiftion ; and the inferior gentry, as well as the
people, finding no defence from the laws, during this
total diffolution of fovereign authority, were obliged,
for their immediate fafety, to pay court to fome neigh¬
bouring chieftain, and to purchafe his proteftiem, both
by fubmitting to his exaftions, and by aflifting him in
his rapine upon others.
In 1137, the earl of Gloucefter having projefted an
infurreftion, retired beyond fea, lent the king a de¬
fiance, and folemnly renounced his allegiance. 1 he next
year David king of Scotland appeared with an army
in defence of his niece’s title j and penetrating into
Yorklhire, committed the greateft devaftations. He
was defeated, however, with great {laughter, at North¬
allerton, by fome of the northern barons, who had rai-
fed a powerful army •, and this fuccefs lo much over¬
awed the malecontents in England, that Stephen’s
power might have received fome liability, had he not
unfortunately engaged himfelf in a conteft with the
clergy. He had already feen the mifehief arifing from
the liberty he had granted of fortifying fo many
caftles in different parts of the kingdom. He there¬
fore determined to abridge this liberty as much as pcf-
fible) and for that purpofe he began with the caftles
erefted by the clergy, who feemed to have lefs right
to thefe military fecurities than the barons. Taking
advantage therefore of a fray which had arifen at court
between the retinue of the biftiop of Salifbury and the
earl of Britanny, he feized the bilhops both of Salif ¬
bury and Lincoln, threw them into prifen, and obli¬
ged them to deliver up the caftles which they had lately
erefted. This produced fuch a violent commotion,
that the opportunity feemed favourable to the preten- ^
lions of Matilda. On the 22d of September 1139, ^ieMatilda
landed in England with Robert earl of Gloucefter, at-lands in
tended only by 140 knights j but her partizans daily England*
increafed,. and lire was foon ip. a condition to face
Stephen
ENG [
England. Stephen 'witli equal forces in the field. Nurnberlefs
1  1 encounters happened, the detail of which could afford
A- D. 1139. very little entertainment to the reader. War was
fpread through every quarter ", and the turbulent ba¬
rons having, in a great meafure, fliaken off all reftramt
of government, and now obtained the (auction of
fighting in the caufe of their country, redoubled their
oopreiTions, tyrannies, and devaftatjons. The caftles
of the nobility became receptacles of licenfed robbers ",
who, fallying forth day and night, fpoiled the open
country, plundered the villages, and even cities. They
tortured the captives to make them reveal their trea-
fures, fold their perfons to flavery ", and fet fire to the
houfes, after they had pillaged them of every thing
valuable. In confequence of this deftruftion, the land
was left untilled ", the inflruments of huibandry were
abandoned •, and a grievous famine reduced the nation
in to the molf deplorable date that can be imagined.
Stephen dc- After a multitude of indecinve conflict', a battle
feated and enfuec} which feemed likely to enfure the public peace
{>'■1 ^ri" for fome time. Stephen had marched his forces to re¬
lieve the city of Lincoln 5 the earl of Glouceder led a
body of troops to affift thofe of Matilda’s party, who
were befieging that place. The two armies engaged
on the 2d of February within fight of the city, and a
defperate battle enfued. At lad Stephen’s army was
defeated. He himfelf was for fome time left without
attendants; and fought on foot in the midd of his
enemies, afiaulted by multitudes, and refiding all their
efforts with adonithing intrepidity. Being hemmed in
on every fide, he forced a way for fome time with Ins
battle-axe ; but that breaking, he drew his fword, and
with it furioufly affailed his antagonilts for fome time
longer. But at length the fword alfo flying in pieces,
he was obliged to furrender himfelf a prxfoner. He was
conduced to Gloucefler; and though at fird treated
with refpeft, he was in a diort time, upon fome fufpi-
II2 cions, thrown into irons.
Matilda About a month after, Matilda was crowned at Win-
cjwned. cheder with great folemnity •, but foon diowed herfeif
totally incapable of governing fuch a turbulent nation.
She determined to reprefs the power of the nobles, who
had now left only the fhadow of authority to their fo-
vereign. But being deditute of policy or prudence
fufficient to accomplidt fo difficult an undertaking, a
confpiracy was foon formed againd her, and the bifhop
of Wincheder detached a party of his friends and vaffals
to block up the city of London where the queen re¬
dded. At the fame time meafures were taken to indi¬
gate the Londoners to a revolt, and to feize the queen’s
icrfon. Matilda, having timely notice of this con-
piracy, fled to Wincheder. Here fixe was foon after
befieged by the bifhop : but the town being didrefs-
ed by famine, die with difficulty made her efcape }
while her brother the earl of Glouceder, endeavour¬
ing to follow, was taken prifoncr, and exchanged for
Stephen.
Stephen Matilda was now obliged to take fhelter in Oxford,
reftored. while Stephen reafeended the throne. The civil war
broke out with redoubled fury. Many battles were
fought, and both parties were involved in many di-
ftreffes. Matilda efcaped from Oxford at a time when
the fields wrere covered with fnow, by being drefied all
in white, with four knights her attendants dreffed in
the fame colour. Another time Stephen was furprifed
75 1 - E N _
by the earl of Gloucefler at Wilton, and made Ins' Lngfi'iiw.,
cfcape with the utmoft difficulty. At lafl Matilda was ' "v'
obliged to quit the kingdom ; and the death of the carlA- D- 1 rM
of Gloucefter foon after feemed to give a fatal blow to
her interefts. In 1153, however, Prince Henry, Ma¬
tilda’s fon by her fecond hufhand Geoffrey, came
over to England, in order once more to difpute Ste¬
phen’s pretenfions to the crown. After fome fuccefs
on his firft landing, he was oppofed by Stephen with
a powerful army, and matters feemed likely to come
to the decifion of a general engagement. But while
the two armies continued within a quarter of a mile of
each other, a treaty was fet on foot by the interpofition
of William earl of Arundel, for terminating the difpute
in an amicable manner. The death of Euftace, Ste- .
phen’s fon, whom he had defigned for the throne, which
happened during the courfe of the treaty, facilitated
its conclufion. It was agreed, that Stephen fliould
reign during his life, and that juttice fliould be admi-
niftered in his name ; that Henry, on Stephen’s death,
fliould fuccced to the kingdom j and that W illiam,
Stephen’s fon, fliould inherit Boulogne and his pa¬
trimonial eftate. This treaty filled all Europe with
]oy •, and after the barons had fworn to it, Henry left
England, and Stephen returned to the peaceable enjoy¬
ment of his throne. His reign, however, was but n4
of fliort continuance 5 his death happening on the 25th His dt-atlu.
of Oftober 1154.
Henry was on the continent befieging a caftlc of one
of the mutinous barons, when news was brought him
of Stephen’s death. But, as he was fenfible of the
goodnefs of his title, he did not abandon his enterprife
till the place was reduced. He then fet out on his
journey, and was received in England with the utmoft ir(.
joy. The firft a61s of his reign feemed to promife a Henry it.
happy and profperous adminiftration. He inftantly
difmifled the mercenary foldiers who had committed
the greateft diforders throughout the nation. He or¬
dered all the caftles which had been erefted fince the -
death of Henry I. to be demoliftied, except a few'
which he retained in his own hands for the proteftion
of the kingdom. The adulterated coin which had been
ftruck during the reign of Stephen was cried down,
and new money ftruck of the right value and ftandard.
He refumed many of thofe benefactions which had
been made to churches and monafteries in the for¬
mer reigns. He gave charters to feveral towns,
by which the citizens claimed their freedom and
privileges independent of any fuperior but himfclf.
Thefe charters were the ground-work of the Englifli
liberty ; for thus a new order, namely, the more opu¬
lent of the people, began to claim a {hare in the ad~
miniftration, as w'ell as the nobility and clergy. Thus
the feudal government was at firft impaired ; and liber¬
ty began to be more equally diffufed throughout the
nation.
Henry II. on his acceflion to the Englifli throne,
found himfelf poffeffed of very extenfive dominions on
the continent. In the right of his father, he pofiefled
Anjou, Touraine, and Maine ; in that of his mother,
Normandy •, in that of his wife, Guienne, Poictou,
Xaintonge, Auvergne, Perigord, Angoumois, and
the Limoufin. Soon after, he annexed Britanny to
his other ftates, by marrying his fon, who was yet
a child, to the heirefs of Britanny, who was a child
K 2 alfo,
E N G [ 76
l!ng!and. alfo, and was already in poffeffion of the fuperiority
^ "v—— over that province. Thefe territories compofed above
■ D. 1162. & 0£ |_Jie French monarchy, and were by far the
molt opulent part of it j fo that Henry, though vaf-
fal to the king of France, was greatly fuperior to him
in power ; and when England was added to all thefe,
the French king had great reafon to apprehend fome
difafter to himfelf and family. The king of England,
however, relidcd at too great a diftance to be able to
employ this formidable power with luccefs againft the
French monarch. He loon became a kind of Hr anger
in his continental dominions 5 and his fubjects there
conlidered their allegiance as more naturally due to
their fuperior lord, who lived in their neighbourhood,
and who was acknowledged to be the fupreme head of
their nation. Their immediate lord was often at too
great a didance to protect them ■, and a commotion in
any part of Henry’s extenlive dominions gave great
advantages again it him. The wife and vigorous adrni-
niltration of Henry, however, counterbalanced in a
great meafure thefe difadvantages 3 and he maintained a
lurpriling tranquillity throughout his extenlive domi¬
nions during the grcatelt part of his reign.
Henry found no great difficulty in circumfcribing
the power of the barons 3 but when he attempted to do
the fame thing with the clergy, he met with the moll
violent oppolition. That body had carried their inde¬
pendence on the civil power fo far, that now they
i’eemed to aim at nothing lefs than a liberty to commit
all manner of crimes with impunity. During the
reign of Stephen, they had extorted an immunity from
* See (Ee- but ecclefialtical penalties * 3 and that grant they
refit ot) were refolved to maintain for the future. It may ea-
C.lerxy. fily be luppofed, that a law which thus fereened their
t'onitn 1 wickednefs, contributed to increafe it 3 and we accord-
v. ickednet's upon record, not lefs than 100 murders com-
@f the mitted by men in holy orders, in the Ihort period lince
clergy. the king’s acceffion, not one of which was punilhed
even v/ith degradation, while the bilhops themfelves
feemed to glory in this horrid indulgence. The king
did not make any attempts againll them during the life
of Theobald archbilhop of Canterbury, who tv as a man
of a mild character, and betides had great merit 3 be-,
caufe, during the former reign, he had refufed to put
the crown on the head of Euilace, Stephen’s fon. He
died in 11623 an^ the king, after his death, advanced
to the fee of Canterbury Thomas a Eecket, his chan¬
cellor, on whofe compliance he thought he might en-
117 tirely depend.
Contefts The new archbilhoo was the firit man of Enulilh
'th"'11^ pedigree, who, lince the Norman conqueil, had rifen
rr s k lice to any conliderable ftation. Before his inllalment in
iet. the fee of Canterbury, Becket had been exceedingly
complaifant, good-humoured, and agreeable to his
mailer; and had alfo been accullomed to live very
freely. But no fooner was he invelled with this high
dignity, than he totally altered his conduct, and put
on all thofe airs of affected and oftentatious humility
which could recommend him to the fuperllitious and
ignorant multitude in that age. The frit llcp taken
by this hypocrite after his advancement, was to refign
the office of chancellor. This he did without con-
lulting the king : the reafon he gave was, that hence¬
forth he mull detach himfelf from fecular affairs, and
be folcly employed in the duties of his facred funflion 3
] ENG
but in reality, that he might break off all connection Engla
with Henry. As he knew that the king intended to v
abridge the ecclelialtical power, he thought the bell A‘ 1
method would be to become himfelf the aggreffor.
He therefore fummoned the earl of Clare to lurrendcr
the barony of Tunbridge 3 which, ever lince the Con¬
queil, had remained in the family of that nobleman 3
but which, as it had formerly belonged to the fee of
Canterbury, the primate pretended that his prcdecef-
fors were prohibited by the canons from alienating-—
William de Eynsford, a military tenant of the crown,
was patron of a living which belonged to a manor that
held of the archbilhop of Canterbury 3 and Becket,
without regard to William’s- right, prefented, on a
new and illegal pretence, one Laurence to that living,
■who rvas violently expelled by Eynsford. Upon this
Eynsford was excommunicated. He complained to
tjie king, that he, who held in ccipite of the crown,
Ihould, contrary to the practice ellabliihed by the Con¬
queror and maintained ever liuce by his fueceffors, be
fubjedled to that terrible fentence, without the previ¬
ous confent of the fovereign. Henry, by a meffenger,
commanded Becket to abfolve Eynsford. The haughty
primate anfwered, that it belonged not to the king to
inform him whom he Ihould abfolve, and whom ex¬
communicate 3 but, after all, he was obliged to com¬
ply with the king’s orders, though with the world
grace imaginable.
As Henry perceived that the crown was now in dan¬
ger, through the fuperllition of the people, of falling
totally under the power of the clergy, he refolved to
exert himfelf to the utmoft againft their feandalous
ufurpations. Among their other inventions to obtain
money, they had now inculcated the neeeffity of pe¬
nance as an atonement for fin 3 and having again in¬
troduced the praflice of paying them large fums as an
equivalent for thefe penances, the fins of the people had
thus become a revenue to the priefts 3 and the king
computed, that, by this invention alone, they levied
more money from his fubjefls than what llowcd by all
the funds and taxes into the royal exchequer. To eafe
the people of fo heavy and arbitrary an impofition, the
king required, that a civil officer of his appointment
fhould be prefent in all eeelefiallieal courts, and fhould
for the future give his confcnt to every compofition
made for fpiritual offences. About this time alfo the
king had an opportunity of proceeding againll the
clergy 071 another footing. A clerk in Worceftcr-
Ihire, having debauched a gentleman’s daughter, mur¬
dered her father. The king required that the clerk '
fhould be delivered up to the magillrate. Becket
pleaded the privilege of the church 3 confined the cri¬
minal in the biffiop’s prifon, left lie fhould be feized by
the king’s officers ; and maintained that no greater
punifhment could be inflifted on him than degradation.
The king then required, that, immediately after he
was degraded, he Ihould be tried by the civil powers 3
but the primate afferted, that it wras iniquitous to try
a rna’i twice upon the fame accufation, and for the fame
crime. Upon this, Henry fummoned an affembly of
all the prelates in England 5 and put to them this de-
cifive queftion, Whether or not they were willing to
fubmit to the ancient laws and cuftoms of the king¬
dom ? The bilhops unanimoufly replied, that they
were willing, favtng their oix'n order. The king was
provoked
ENG C 77 ] ENG
England, provoked to the laft degree at this equivocal anfwe'r.
1 v He left the affembly with evident marks of difpleafure
A. D. i k52. aQC| required the primate inilantly to furrender the
caftles of Eye and Berkham. The other prelates were
terrified; but Becket continued indexible : however,
he was at laft prevailed upon, by the interpofitjon of
Philip the pope’s legate and almoner, to retract the
faving claufe, and promife without any referve to ob~
ferve the ancient cuftoms.
The king was not now to be fatisfied with general
promifes from the clergy : he was determined that
the ancient laws and cuftoms ftiould be defined, as
well as the privileges of the clergy. He therefore
fummoned another great council of the clergy and no¬
bility at Clarendon, to whom he fubmitted this im¬
portant affair. A number of regulations was there
drawn up, which were afterwards well known by the
title of the Conjlitutions of Clarendon. By thefe it was'
enadted, that clergymen accufed of any crime ftrould
be tried in the civil courts ; that laymen ftrould not be
tried in fpiritual courts, except by legal and reputable
witneffes j that the king firould ultimately judge in ec-
clefiaftical and fpiritual appeals; that the archbifhops
and bithops thould be regarded as barons, and obliged
to contribute to the public expences like other perfons
of their rank } that the goods forfeited to the king
ftrould not be protefted in churches or church-yards by
the clergy •, and that the fons of villeins ftrould not take
orders without the confent of their lord. Thefe, with
fome others of lefs confequence, to the number of 16,
were fubfcribed by all tire biftrops prefent, and even by
Becket himfelf \ who, however, at firft, flrowed fome
reludtance.
Nothing now remained but to get the conftitutions
ratified by the pope ; but in this the king was difap-
pointed. The pope rejefted them with the utmoft in¬
dignation ; and, out of 16, admitted only fix, which
he thought were not important enough to deferve cen-
fure.—Becket was now mortified to the higheft de¬
gree. He retrafted his confent to the conftitutions,
redoubled his aufterities, and even refufed to execute
any part of Iris facerdotal funftion till he had obtained
abfolution from his holinefs. Henry, eonfidering thefe
humilities as infults offered to himfelf, defired the pope
to fend him a legate. He did fo j but annexed a claufe
to lus commiftion, by which he was prohibited from
afting againft the archbiftrop of Canterbury. The king
font back the commiflion to the pope ; and being now
exafperated beyond all patience, commenced furious
profecutions againft Becket. He firft fued him for
fome lands belonging to his primacy ; and Becket be¬
ing detained by ficknefs from coming into court, his
non-attendance was conftrued into difrefpeft. The
primate afterwards defended his caufe in perfon ; but
all his goods and chattels were confifeated, and the bi-
flrop of Winchefter was obliged to pronounce the fen-
tence. Another fuit was commenced againft him
for 300I. which he had levied on the honours of
Eye and Berkham, and the primate agreed to give fe-
curities for the payment of the firm. The rrext day a
third fuit was commenced againft him for 1000 marks,
which tire king had lent him upon fome former oc-
cafion : and immediately following thefe, a ftill greater
demand was made } namely, that Becket ftrould
give an account of the money he had received and
5
expended during the time he was chancellor. The England,
money was computed at no lefs than 40,000 marks } ^ 13^162'
and the primate, unable either to give an account, or ' 1J ’
find fecurities, took the following extraordinary me¬
thod of evading the king’s defigns. He arrayed him¬
felf in his epifcopal veftments; and with the crofs in
his hand, event forward to the palace. Having en¬
tered the royal apartments, he fat down, holding up
the croft as his banner and proteftion. The king,
who fat in an inner apartment, ordered by proclaim -
tion all the prelates and nobility to attend him \ to
whom he loudly complained of Becket’s infolence.
The whole council joined in condemning this inftance
of his unaccountable pride ■, and determined to expo-
ftulate with him about his inconfiftency concerning
the conftitutions of Clarendon. But all their mef-
fages, threats, and arguments, were in vain. Becket
put himfelf, in the rnoft folemn manner, under the
proteftion of the fupreme pontiff, and appealed to
him againft any penalty which his iniquitous judges rig
might think proper to infiift. Then leaving the pa- Becket flics-
lace, he afked the king’s immediate permiflion to quit tp t^u con-
Northampton ; but being refufed, he fecrctly withdrewtincnt'
in difguife, and at laft found means to crofs over to the
continent.
Becket was received with the greateft marks of e-
fteern, firft by the king of France (who hated Henry
on account of his great power), and then by the pope,
whole caufe he had fo ftrenuoufty defended in England.
Henry at the fame time fent ambaffadors to the pope,
who mere treated with coolnefs and contempt, 1111110
Becket was honoured with the greateft marks of di-
ftinftion. Thefe favours bellowed upon an exile and
a perjured traitor (for fuch had been Becket’s fen-
tence of condemnation in England), irritated the king
to fuch a degree, that he refolved to throw off at once
all dependence upon the pope. He accordingly iffued
out orders to his jufticiaries ; inhibiting, under fevere
penalties, all appeals to the pope or the archbiflrop ;
and forbidding any of them to receive mandates from
them, or to apply to their authority. He declared it
treafonable to bring over from either of them any in-
terdift upon the kingdom. This he made puniftrable
in feeular clergymen by the loft of their livings, and
by caftration } in regulars, by the amputation of their .
feet } and in- laymen, by death. On the other hand,
the pope and the arclrblftrop did not fail to ,iffue forth
their fulminations in fuch a manner as to ftrake the
very foundation of the king’s authority. Becket ex¬
communicated by name all the king’s chief minifters
who had been concerned in fequeftraling the revenues
of his fee, and all who obeyed or favoured the confti¬
tutions of Clarendon, tie even threatened to excom¬
municate the king if he did not foeedily repent; and
had not the pope hirftfelf been threatened every day
with the machinations of an antipope, whole pretenfions
he Avas afraid the king of England might fupport, tire
fentence of excommunication would certainly have been
denounced.
At firft, Henry paid little regard to thefe fulmina¬
tions ; but afterwards, when he found that his autho¬
rity over his fabjefts began to decline on that account,
and that his rivals on the Continent Avere endeavouring x
to difturb the tranquillity of his dominions, Ire began
fincerely to defire a reconciliation. This the pope and
Becket
ENG [ 78 ] ENG
with his
former in-
folence.
England. Becket alfo became defirovis of, bccaufe tbey faw that
' ' v their utmoft endeavours were infufficient to draw Hen-
'11 2‘ ry’s fubje&s into a revolt agamft him. ’I he treaty of
accommodation, however, wras often broken off, through
the extreme jealoufy of each of the parties } but at
length, by the mediation of the pope’s legate, all dif¬
ferences were adjufted, and Becket was reinltated in
IX the fee of Canterbury.
Is reftored, On the recovery of his dignity, the primate behaved
and behaves with all his ufual arrogance. Inflead of retiring
quietly to his diocefe when he landed in England, he
made a progrefs through Kent with all the fplendor
and magnificence of a fovereign pontiff. As he ap-
proached Southwark, the clergy, the laity, and all
ranks of people, came forth to meet him, and celebra¬
ted his triumphal entry with hymns of joy. Being
thus confident of the fupport of the people, he refol-
ved to make his enemies feel the fevereft effefts of his
vengeance. He fufpended the archbifhop of York,
who had crowned Henry’s eldeft fon in his abfence.
He excommunicated the bifhops of London and Salif-
cury, with fome of the principal nobility and pre¬
lates who had affifted at the coronation. One man
he excommunicated for having fpoken againft him, and
another for having cut off the tail of one of his horfes.
The excommunicated and degraded prelates immedi¬
ately made their complaints to the king •, and he ha¬
ving dropped fome paffionate expreffions, intimating a
defire to have Becket’s life taken awray, the fuppofed
will of the king was inftantly accomplilhed } nor could
the king’s exprefs orders to the contrary arrive time
enough to hinder the execution of this fatal purpofe.
IZO See Becket.
Grief of the The king was thrown into the utmoft conftemation
king for his on hearing of Becket’s murder. He knew that the
death. primate’s death would accomplifh what his moft vio¬
lent oppofttion during his life could never have done,
and therefore he gave kimfelf up to forrow : for three
days he even refufed all nouriftiment; till at laft his
courtiers were obliged to break in upon his folitude,
and induce him to acquiefce in an event which could
not poflibly be recalled. The pope was with fome
difficulty made fenfible of the king’s innocence ; but
refufed to grant him a pardon, except on condition
that he Ihould make every future fubmiffion and per¬
form every injunction the holy fee thought proper to
demand. When things were thus adjufted, the affaf-
fins who had murdered Becket wrere allowed to retire
in fafety to the enjoyment of their former dignities ;
and the king, with a view to divert the minds of the
people to a different object, undertook an expedition
into Ireland, and totally reduced that ifiand. See Ire¬
land.
The king was fcarcely freed from the war with Ire¬
land, and the dangerous controverfy in which he had
engaged with the church of Rome, when he found
himfelf involved in the moft unnatural contefts with his
children, to whom he had always behaved in the moft
tender and affectionate manner. He had ordered
Henry his eldeft fon to be anointed king *, and had
deftined him for his fucceffor in the kingdom of Eng¬
land, the duchy of Normandy, and the counties of
Anjou, Maine, and Touraine 5 territories which lay
contiguous, and which might thus eafily lend their
affiftance to one another. Richard lus fecend fon
121
Diffenfions
in Henry’s
family
was invefted in the duchy of Guienne and county of England.
Poiftou: Geoffrey, his third fon, inherited, in right ^1 ^^ '
of his wife, the duchy of Britanny : and the new con-r"' ’ W3
quell of Ireland was deftined for the appendage of
John his fourth fon, for whom he had negociated a
marriage with Adelais the only daughter of Humbert
count of Savoy and Maurienne *, and with whom he
was to receive as a dowry very conftderable demefnes
in Piedmont, Savoy, Breffe, and Dauphiny. This
greatnefs of Henry’s family alarmed the king of
France *, and he therefore excited young Prince Henry
to demand of his father, either the immediate refigna-
tion of the crown of England, or the duchy of Nor¬
mandy. The king refufed to comply with fuch an ex¬
travagant demand 5 upon which the prince made his
efcape to Paris, where he was protecled by the French
king. This happened in 1173 5 and the fame year,
Queen. Eleanor, finding that ftie was now grown very
difagreeable to the king, communicated her difeontent
to her twro younger children Geoffrey and Richard,
whom ftie engaged alfo to demand the territories af-
figned them, and then fly to the court of France. The I22
queen herfelf was meditating an efcape to the fame Queen E-
court, and had put on man’s apparel for that purpofe, leaner con-
when ftie was feized and confined by Henry’s order.fine^
The licentious barons in the mean time wiftied for a
change of government hoping to have liberty, under
young and inexperienced princes, to commit thofe ra¬
pines and violences 11111011 they could not do with fafety
when governed by fuch a prudent and vigilant king
as Henry. In the midft cf this univerfal defection,
however, the Englifli monarch ftill retained his ufual
intrepidity, and prepared with as much vigour as pof-
fible for the conteft. As he could depend on the fi¬
delity of very few of his nobility, he was obliged to
enlift in his fervice a number of defperate ruffians call¬
ed Brabctifons, and fometimes Routiers or Cottereaux^
though for what reafon is not mentioned in hiftory.
Thefe banditti were very numerous during the times
of the feudal government, when many private wars
ivere carried on between the nobles 5 and 20,000 of
thefe, with a few forces furniflied by his faithful ba¬
rons, compofed the whole of Henry’s army on this oc-
cafion.
With this force the king of England totally over¬
threw7 the fchemes of his enemies on the continent ;
but being very defirous of putting an end to the w ar,
he this very year (1173) agreed to a conference with
the king of France. At this interview, Henry offer¬
ed his children the moft advantageous terms. He in¬
filled only on retaining the fovereign authority in all
his dominions. To Henry he offered half the revenues
of the crown of England, with feme places of furety
in that kingdom 5 or if he chofe rather to refide in Nor¬
mandy, half the revenues of that duchy, with all thofe
of Anjou. He made a like offer to Richard in Gui¬
enne •, he promifed to refign all Britanny to Geoffrey 5
and if thefe coneeffions were not deemed fuffieient, he
agreed to add to them whatever the pope’s legates, who
were prefent, ftiould require of him. The conference,
however, wras broken off by the violence of the earl of
Leicefter 5 wTho not only reproached Henry in the moft
indecent manner, but even put his band to his fword,
as if he- intended to attempt fome violence againft
him.
In
ENG [ 79 ] ENG
England. In the mean time, the moft of the Englifli nobility
' -v 1 united in oppolition again ft their fovereign j and an ir-
A. D. ni j. rup^ion at this time by the king of Scotland afliided
their rebellious fchemes. The earl of Leiceiter foon
after invaded Sulfoik at the head of a body of Fle¬
mings •, but they were repulfed with great (laughter
and the carl himfelf was taken prifoner. Soon after,
William king of Scotland, who had been repulfed,
and agreed to a ceifation of arms, broke the truce,
and invaded England with an army of 80,000 ijien,
committing the moft terrible devaftations. Henry in
the mean time, to reconcile himfelf thoroughly to the
church, performed the penances at the tomb of Tho¬
mas h Becket which he had formerly promifed to do.
' As foon as he came within fight of the church of Can¬
terbury, he alighted from his horfe, walked barefoot
towards the town, and proftrated himfelf before the
(brine of the faint. He remained a whole day in prayer
and fading, watched the holy relics all night, made a
grant of 50I. a year to the convent for a conftant fup-
ply of tapers to illuminate the (brine; and not fatis-
fied with thefe fubmiftions, he aftembled a chapter of
monks, difrobed himfelf before them, put a fcourge
123 into each of their hands, and prefented. his bare (houl-
King of ders to their itrokes. Next day he received abfolu-
Seotknd tion •, and, departing for London, had the agreeable
and taken news the defeat and captivity of William king of
priibner. Scotland, which happened on the very day of his ab-
folution.
This victory proved decifive in Henry’s favour. The
Englilh barons who had revolted, or were preparing
for a revolt, inftantly delivered up their caftles to the
victor, and the kingdom wras in a few weeks reftored
to per fed tranquillity. Prince Henry, who was ready
to embark with a great army to join the Englifh rebels,
abandoned all thoughts of the enterprife. Soon after
a treaty was concluded with the king of France; in
which Henry granted his children much lefs advan¬
tageous terms than he had offered them before. The
principal were, fome penfions for their fupport, caftles
for their refidence, and an indemnity to all their ad-
T „ ^ herents. The greateft fufferer by this war was Wil-
Owns him- Ham king of Scotland. He was compelled to fign a
felf Henry’s treaty, by which he obliged himfelf to do homage to
vaiial. Henry for the kingdom of Scotland. It was agreed,
that Iris barons and bilhops (hould do the fame 5 and
that the fortreffes of Edinburgh, Stirling, Berwick,
Roxburgh, and Jedburgh, (hould be delivered into
the hands of the conqueror till the articles were per¬
formed. This treaty was executed moft punctually
and rigoroul'iy on the loth of Auguft 1175. The
king, barons, and prelates of Scotland, did homage
to Henry in the cathedral of York; the greateft hu¬
miliation to which the Scottifh nation had ever been
I3!t. fubjedled.
Newdilfen- Henry was now freed from all troubles, either at
(ions in home or abroad, for five years j during which time he
Henry’s fa- matJc feveral falutary laws for the good of his king¬
dom. But, in 1180, the ambitious fpirits of his chil¬
dren involved him in freih calamities. Richard, who
had been inverted by his father in the fovereignty of
Guienne, refund to do homage to his elder brother,
as King Henry had required him to do. Young Henry
and Geoffrey, uniting their arms, invaded their bro¬
ther’s dominions j and while the king was endeavour--
ing to compofc their differences, lie found himfelf con- England,
fpired againft by them all. The confpiracy, however, ^ dViS-
was defeated by the death of Prince Henry in 1183." ’ ’
He had retired to Martel, a caftle near Turenne, where
he was feized with a fever } and perceiving the ap¬
proaches of death, he was at laft ftruck with remorfe
for his undutiful behaviour towards his father. He
fent a meffenger to the king, who was not far diftantj
expreffed his contrition for his faults ; and intreated
the favour of a vifit, that he might at leaft die with the
fatisfaclion of having received his forgivenefs. The
king, who had fo often experienced his fon’s ingrati¬
tude and violence, apprehended that his ficknels was
entirely a feint, and dared not truft himfelf in the
prince’s hands. But foon after, receiving certain in¬
telligence of his death, and proofs of his fincere re¬
pentance, the good old king was affedled with the
deeped forrow. He thrice fainted away j he accufed
his own hard-heartednefs in refufing the dying requeft
of his fon 5 and he lamented that he had deprived the
prince of the laft opportunity of making atonement for
his offences.
Prince Henry, who died in the 28th year of his age,
left no pofterity. Kis brother Richard fucceeded to
his dominions, and foon diicovered as turbulent a fpirit
as that which had actuated his brother. He refu fed
to give up Guienne, which Henry had defigned for his
fourth fon John ; and even made preparations for car¬
rying on war againft his father, and brother Geoffrey.
Henry fent for Eleanor his queen, the heirefs of Gui¬
enne ; to whom Richard, either dreading an infurrec-
tion in her favour, or out of a fenfe of duty, willingly
yielded up the territory, and retired peaceably to his
father’s court. This breach, however, was ho feonor
made up, than Geo Urey demanded Anjou to be added
to his dominions in Britanny. This the king refufed ;
upon which lie fled to the court of France, and pre¬
pared to levy an army againft his father. Henry, how¬
ever, was freed from the danger which threatened him
from that quarter, by his fon’s death, who was killed
in a tournament at Paris. The lofs of this prince gave
few, except the king himfelf, any uneafinefs 5 for he
was univerfally hated, and went among the people by -
the" name of the C/ii/d of Perdition. The widow of
Geoffrey, foon after his deceafe, was delivered of a
fon, who received the name of Arthur, and was invert.
cd in the duchy of Britanny, under the guardianftiip of
his grandfather, who, as duke of-Normandy, was alfo
fuperior lord of that.territory. Philip, as lord para¬
mount, difputed for fome time his title to this ward-
fhip \ but was obliged to yield to the inclinations of
the Bretons, who preferred the government of Henry.
Some other caufes inflamed the diflenfion between thefe
two monarchs, and Philip once more feduced.Richard
from his duty. He infifred, that his marriage with
Adelais, Philip’s fitter, (hould be immediately com¬
pleted, and threatened to enforce his pretentions with
a formidable, army. This oecaiioned another confe¬
rence between Gifors and Trie, the ufual place of
meeting, under a vaft elm that is faid to have (haded
more than an acre. In the mid ft of this conference
the archbiftiop of Tyre appeared before the affembly
in the moft miferable habit, and begged aftiflance a-
gainft the infidels, who, under Saladin, had almoft to¬
tally expelled the Chriftians from Afia. His intelli¬
gence
ENG [ ' 8
England, gene ft appeared fo very difmal, that the kings of France
'' ^ ; and England laid alide their aniinoiily. Both of them
A. JJ. 1189. immediately took the cfofs 5 but Richard, who had
long wilhed to have all the glory of fueh an expedition
to himfelf, could not bear to have evep his father for
a partner in his victories. He therefore entered into
a confederacy with the king of France ; fo that Henry
found himfelf at lail obliged to give up all thoughts of
the crufadc, in order to defend himfelf againft this un¬
natural combination. The event of the war proved
very unfortunate for Henry, who loft feyeral towns, and
narrowly efcaped falling into the hands of the enemy
himfelf. At laft a treaty was concluded at the inter-
ceflion of the duke of Burgundy, the count of Flan¬
ders, and the archbithop of Rheims 5 but upon terms
very humiliating to the king of England. It was
agreed that Richard Ihould marry the princefs Adelais,
and be crowned king of England during the lifetime
of his father •, that Henry, fhould pay 20,000 marks to
the king of France, as a compenfation for the charges
of the war ; that his own barons fhould engage to
make him obferve this treaty, and in cafe of violating
it, to join Philip and Richard againft him ; and that
all his vaflals who had efpoufed the caufe of Richard
126 fhould receive an indemnity'for their offence. Thefe
His ex- terms, mortifying as they were, Henry bore with pa-
and denhf ‘^'nce J but when, upon receiving a lift of the barons
t“' 1- that were to be pardoned, he found his own fon John,
who was his favourite, among them, he could no longer
fupport his grief. He broke out into the molt la¬
mentable expre(lions of defpair; curfed the day in
■which he received his miferable being ; and beftowed
on his ungrateful children a malediction which he
could never afterwards be prevailed upon to retract.
Soon after, lie fell into a lingering fever oceafioned by
his grief; and of this he died on the 6th of July 1189,
in the 58th year of his age and 35th of his reign. His
natural fon Geoffrey, who alone liad behaved dutifully
towards him, attended his corpfe to the nunnery of
Fontevrault, where it lay in (late in the abbey-church.
Next day Richard, who came to viftt the dead body of
his father, was (truck with horror at the fight. At his
approach, the blood was feen to'gufti out at the mouth
and noftrils of the corpfe ; and this accident was, by
the fuperftition of the times, interpreted as the molt
dreadful rebuke. Richard could not endure the fight.
He exclaimed that he was his father’s murderer ; and
expreffed a ftrong, though too late, fenfe of his unduti-
ful con drift.
■Richard I. Richard fucceeded to the throne without oppofi-
tion immediately after his father’s death ; and, on Ins
acceflion, fet his mother Eleanor (who had been again
confined) at liberty. A romantic defire for ftrange
adventures, and an immoderate zeal for the external
rites of religion, were the ruling paffions of the times.
By the firft of thefe Richard was inflamed to the
higheft degree, and therefore behaved as if the whole
defign of his government had been to attempt the
recovery of the Holy Land from the Infidels. The
fuperftition of the people (bowed itfelf in a moft vio-
12S lent and tragical manner on the very day of the king’s
Maffacre of coronation. The Jews were the objects of univerfal
the Jews, hatred, fo that Richard had iffued out orders forbid¬
ding any of them from appearing at his coronation.
But fome of them bringing him large prefents from
o ] ENG
their nation
ries of the byftanders ; in confequence of which they
fled, and were purfued by the people. A report was
fpread, that the king had given orders to maffacre all
the JeWs. This fuppofed command was executed in
the moil cruel manner. Multitudes were (iaughtered
in the city of London j and this example was followed
in moft of the cities in England. Five hundred Jews
had retired into York caftle for fafety : but finding
themfelves unable to defend the place, they murdered
their wives and children ; threw the dead, bodies over
the wall againft their enemies who attempted to fcale
it; and then, fetting (ire to the houfes, periflred in the .
flames. The gentry in the neighbourhood, who were
all indebted to the Jews, ran to the cathedral where
their bonds were kept, and made a folemn bonfire of
them before the altar. 129
Richard immediately began to take meafures for his Richarii’s
expedition into Paleftine. His father had left him prepara-
100,000 marks; and this fum he augmented by all ex-j^^JyY*
pedients he could think of, however pernicious to the toPaleftine,
public, or dangerous to the royal authority. He fet
up to fale the revenues and manors of the crown, and
feveral offices of the greateft truft and power. Liber¬
ties, charters, cattles, were given to the belt bidders.
His friends warned him of the danger attending this
venality 5 but he told them he would fell the city of
London itfelf, if he could find a purchafer. Nume¬
rous exactions were alfo praftifed upon all ranks and
ftations •, menaces, promifes, and expoftNations, were
ufed to fright the timid, and allure the avaricious. A
zealous preacher of thofe times was emboldened to re-
monftrate againft the king’s conduft ; and advifed him
to part with his three daughters, which were pride,
avarice, and fenfuality. To this Richard readily re-
plied, “ You counfel right, my friend 5 and I have al¬
ready provided hufbands for them all. I will difpofe of
my pride to the templars 5 my avarice to the monks ;
and as for my fenfuality, the clergy dial] (bare that
among them.” At length the king having got toge¬
ther a fufficient fupply for his undertaking, and
even fold his fuperiofity over Scotland for a mode¬
rate firm, fet out for the Holy Land •, whither he
was impelled by repeated meffages from the king of
France, who was ready to embark in the fame enter-
prife.
An account of Richard’s exploits in this expedition
is given under the articles Egypt, Sicily, Cyprus,
&c.—Having at laft concluded a truce with Saladin,
he fet out on his return for England, tie was, how¬
ever, at a lofs how to proceed. He durft not return
by the ■way he came, as this would put him in the
power of the Icing of France, between whom and the
king of England an irreconcileable enmity had taken
place. No way therefore was left but by going more
to the north, j for which reafon he took flapping for
Italy, but Avas wrecked near Aquileia. From thence
he travelled toAvards Ragufa, and refolved to make his ^ Q
Avay through Germany in the habit of a pilgrim. But Taken pn-
his expences and liberalities having betrayed him, not- foner on his
Avithftanding this difguife, he Avas arrefted by Leopold return,
duke of Auftria, avIio commanded him to be loaded
Avith (hackles. This prince had ferved under Richard
at
to approach
difeovered.
, prefumed, notAvithftanding thefe orders, England
the hall in Avhieh the king dined. Being 1
ENG
t Bi ]
£ N G
A. D.
having-
IlS^ thod
England, at the fiege of Acre (tlie ancient Ptolemaic), where
received fome dilguit, he took this bafe me-
f revenging himfelf. lienry VI. emperor of
Germany, was then equally an enemy to Richard on
account of his having married Berengaria the daughter
of Tancred king of Sicily. He therefore required the
royal captive to be delivered up to him, and llipulated
a large fum of money to the duke as a reward for his
fervice*
The kingdom of England in the mean time was in
great confulion. Richard had left it under the direc¬
tion of Hugh bidrop of Durham, and Longehamp bi-
ihop of Ely. The tempers of thefe prelates being
very different, an animodty between them foon took
place. Longchamp at laft arrefted Iris colleague, and
obliged him to refign his power in order to obtain his
liberty. The king, by many letters, commanded
Longchamp to replace his coadjutor, but to no pur-
pofe. When the duration of the king became uncer¬
tain, Longchamp tyrannized to fuch a degree, that
John the king’s brother thought proper to oppofe
him. He then left the kingdom 5 and upon this tire
archbidrop of Rouen was made judiciary in his room.
The king of France being informed of thefe diffendons,
drove to increafe them as much as pofdble 5 and had
even almod prevailed upon John to throw off his allegi¬
ance, by promidng to put him in poffeflion of all
t^I Richard’s continental dominions.
Treachery When the Englidr drff received the news of Ri¬
ot John the chard’s captivity, a general indignation was excited
king’s bro- through the whole nation. The greated, and almod
the only traitor in the kingdom, was the king’s own
brother John. On the very drd invitation from the
court of France, he went abroad and held a confulta-
tion with Philip, the objeft of winch was the perpe¬
tual ruin and captivity of his unhappy brother. He
promifed to deliver into Philip’s hands a. great part of
Normandy; and, in return, he received the invedi-
ture of all Richard’s tranfmarine dominions : it is even
faid, that he did homage to the French king for the
crown of England.
In confequence of this treaty, Philip invaded Nor¬
mandy, and made condderable progrefs in the conqued
of it. He was, howrever, at lad repulfed by the earl
of Leiccder, who was now returned from the Holy
Land ; and a truce was concluded, on condition of pay¬
ing the French king 20,000 merks, and putting four
cadles into his hands By wray of fecurity for the pay¬
ment.—John, who had come over to England, met
with dill lefs fuccefs in his enterprifes. He wras only
able to make himfelf mader of the cadles of Windfor
and Wallingford ; but when he came to London, and
demanded the kingdom as heir to his brother, of whofe
death he pretended to have received certain intelli¬
gence, he was rejected by all the barons, and meafures
were taken to oppofe and fubdue him. The defence
of the kingdom vras fo wrell provided for, that John
after fome fruitlefs efforts, was obliged to conclude a
truce with his opponents ; and, before the expiration of
it, he thought proper to retire to France, where he o-
penly acknowledged his alliance with Philip.
All the efforts of Richard’s enemies proved ineffec¬
tual to detain him in captivity. He was brought be¬
fore the diet of the empire at Worms, where the em¬
peror Henry brought againft him a charge of many
Vol. VIII. Part I.
A. 1>. i C£9,
ranfa
m was moil cheer-
I3*
, , . Richard r<?^»
i he churches and mona- leafed from
plate to the amount of captivity,
abbots, and monks, paid
crimes and mifdemeanours ; but to this the king replied England,
with to much Ipirit and eloquence, that the German
princes exclaimed loudly againft the conduct of the
emperor; the pope threatened him with excommuni¬
cation j and Henry, who had hearkened to the propo-
ials of the king of France and Prince John, found that
it would be impoffible for him to execute his and their
bafe purpotes, and detain the king of England any
longer in captivity. Lie therefore concluded a treaty
with him for his ranforn ; and agreed to reltore him to
his liberty for 150,000 merks, about 100,cool, of
our money, of which 100,000 merks were to be paid
immediately, and 67 holt ages delivered for the re¬
mainder.
The money for the king’s
fully raifed by the Engliftn
fteries melted down their
30,000 merks ; the biffiops,
a fourth part of their yearly rent; the parochial clergy
contributed a tenth part of their tithes } and the requi-
fite fum being thus collected, Queen Eleanor and Wal¬
ter archbilhop of Rouen fet out with it for Germa¬
ny, paid the money to the emperor and duke of Au-
ilria at Mentz, delivered them hoftages for the re¬
mainder, and freed Richard from his captivity. His
efcape was very critical. Henry had been detected in
the affaffination of the bilhop of Liege, and in an at¬
tempt of the like nature on the duke of Louvaine ;
and finding himfelf extremely obnoxious to the Ger¬
man princes on account ol thefe odious practices, he
had determined to feck fupport from an alliance with
the French king, and to detain Richard in perpetual
captivity, notwithftanding the fum he had already re¬
ceived for his ranfom. He therefore gave orders that
Richard ffiould be purfued and arrefted; but the
king making ail imaginable hafte, had already em¬
barked at the mouth of the Scheldt, and was out of
fight ot land when the emperor’s meffengers reached
Antwerp. The king of France no fooner heard of
Richard’s deliverance, than he wrote to John his con¬
federate in thefe terms : “ Take care of yourfelf: the
devil is broke loofe.”
The king of England returned from captivity on Returns tu
the 20th of March 1194, and was received with the England,
utmoft joy by his fubjects. He had been but one day
landed, when his treacherous brother John came to
make his fubmiflion. At the interceflion of Queen E-
leanor he was received into favour. “ I forgive him
(faid the king), and hope I ihall as eafily forget his
offences as he will my pardon.” Richard was impa¬
tient to revenge himfelf on the king of France, and
therefore inftantly made war upon him. But though
both kings were inflamed with the moil violent refent-
ment againft each other, they found it impoftible to
engage their powerful barons heartily in their caufe.
The war, therefore, produced no remarkable event 5
and, in 1195, was concluded by a truce for five years.
On fome flight occafion it was ready to break out a-
new, when the pope’s legate interpofed, and a treaty
was about to be concluded. King Richard in the
mean time was wounded by an arrow at the fiege of
Chains, a caftle of Limoges. The wound was not in His
itfelf dangerous ; but being unfkilfully treated, amor-”1 ta ^
tification enfued, and the king expired on the 6th of
April 1199, in the 10th year of his reign and 4 2d of
K his
133
17,6
His bad
qualities.
E N G [82
England, his age. By his will he left the kingdom to his bro-
' ■/——1 ther John, but diftributed a fourth part of his treaiine
A. D. 1205. i - r ■
rJ among his iervants.
John fuc- John fucceeded to the crown of. England without
cceds to the oppofition, but foon found his affairs embarraffed on
crown. the continent. The king of France, who, during the
life of King Richard, had always fupported the pre¬
tentions of John, nowr gave a like fupport to the claims
of Prince Arthur the fon of Geoffrey, who, though
only 12 years of age, promifed to be deferving of the
kingdom. But in this matter the king of France ihow-
ed fo much regard to his own intereft, that Conftantia,
the mother of the young prince, thinking that her
ally deiigned to keep for himfelf the provinces which
lie pretended to conquer for Arthur, fubmitted herfelf
and her fon to John, w ho detained them in Mans j
and thus became undifputed mafter of the whole em¬
pire.
The new king was weak, tyrannical, cruel, and
treacherous. In ihort, he feemed to be endowed with
almoll every bad quality that can fall to the (hare of
man. His conduct, therefore, foon rendered him uni-
verfally odious. Imagining himfelf now fecure on the
fide of France, he indulged his paffion for Ifabella,
the daughter and heirefs of the count of Angouleme,
with whom he was much enamoured. His queen, the
heirefs of the family of Glouccfter, was ft ill alive 5 and
Ifabella w'as married to the count de la Marche, though,
by reafon of her youth, the marriage had not been con-
fummated. John perfuaded the count de Angouleme
to carry off his daughter from her hufband j at the
fame time that he procured, under fome pretence or
other, a divorce from the queen. Thus he incurred
the difpleafure of the pope, and alfo of the count de la
Marche, and a powerful confederacy was formed againft
him.
As John had neither courage nor policy fufficient to
keep his barons in awe, he took a method for that pur-
pofe equally bafe and cruel. This was by hiring a fet
of ruffians, whom he called his champions, to fight duels
with them, in cafes where they required to clear them-
felves from any charge by fighting a duel, according to
the cuftom of thofe times. Thus he propofed to get rid
of his refractory barons 5 but they, defpifing opponents
■who were fo far below their rank, refufed to fight with
them, and a dangerous combination was formed among
117 the barons againff him.
Murders his The murder of Prince Arthur rendered John ft ill
nephew. more generally detefted. The young prince with his
mother had lied to the court of France, where they were
received with the greateft kindnefs, and found their in¬
tereft more vigoroufly fupported than before. Their
enterprifes were attended with confiderable fuccefs,
when Arthur himfelf had the misfortune to be taken
prifoner. All the other captives were fent to England ;
but the prince wras fnut up in the eaftle of Falaife, and
from that time was never heard of. It was univerfally
believed that John had murdered him with his own
hand } and this inflamed the general refentment againft
him to fuch a degree, that he foon after loft all his
French provinces. In 1205, the duchy of Normandy
itfelf was alfo conquered by Philip, and John was forced
to fly with difgrace to England.
The king was refolved to wreak his vengeance upon
the barons, who, he pretended, had deferted his ftand-
x\. D. 1205.
j ENG
ard in Normandy. For this reafon, he levied large England,
i’ums on their eftates \ in order, as he laid, to undertake
an expedition to the continent. This expedition, how¬
ever, he feveral times caprieiouily deferred j and once hav¬
ing ventured out to fea, returned again without making
the fmalleft attempt. At laft, he landed at Rochelle,
and burnt the city of Anglers; but hearing that the
enemy were preparing to oppofe him, he returned with¬
out attempting any thing elle.
This irrefolute and cowardly behaviour of John made
him contemptible in the eyes of his fubjecls j but the
Norman princes had fo far extended the prerogatives
of the Englilh crown, that the barons, however difeon-
tented, durft not yet attempt to change the form of go- I:5s
vernment. John, by entering into a controverfy with His conteft
the church, completed his ruin. The clergy, who for Wlt^ the
fome time had acted as a community totally indepen- P°PC*
dent of the civil powrer, had their elections of each
other generally confirmed by the pope, to whom alone
they owned fubjeftion. The election of archbiffiops,
however, had been a fubjedt of continual difpute be¬
tween the fuffragan biffiops and the Auguftine monks.
In the mean time the archbifhop of Canterbury died ;
and the Auguftine monks, in a very private manner,
eledted Reginald, their fuperior, in his place. The
biffiops exclaimed againft this eledlion, as a manifeft
innovation of their privileges 5 and a furious theologi¬
cal conteft was likely to enfue. John very imprudently
took a fide in this controverfy, and efpoufed the caufe
of the fuffragan biffiops j in confequence of which,
John de Grey biftiop of Norwich was chofen. The
caufe wras appealed to Rome j and Pope Innocent III.
feizing with avidity an opportunity of extending his
power, commanded the monks to choofe Cardinal
Stephen Langton, an Englifhman, then at the court of
Rome. The power of nominating an arehbiffiop of
Canterbury (a perfon of almoft equal authority with
the king), was an acquifition that would effedlually
give the court of Rome an unlimited authority over
England. John therefore was refolved not to fubmit
to this impofition *, but he had not judgment fuffieient
to condudt him. He violently expelled the monks from
their convent, and feized upon their revenues. The
pope perceiving, from this abfurd condudt, that John
was unequal to the talk he had undertaken, after lome
intreaties, threatened to put the whole kingdom under
an interdidt. The prelates threw themfelves on their
knees before the king, and in the moft earneft manner
intreated him to avoid the refentment of the holy tri¬
bunal, by receiving the primate, and reftoring the
monks to their convent. John, however, broke out
into the moft violent invedlives. He fwore by God's
s teeth (his ufual oath), that if the kingdom was put un¬
der an interdidl, he would banilh the whole body of
the clergy, and confifcate all their poffeflions. The
pope at laft, finding he might do it with fafety, iffued
forth this terrible Tentence, fo much dreaded by the
whole nation. A flop was immediately put to divine
fervice, and the adminiftration of all the facraments 139
except baptifm. The church-doors were ftmt, and’Ehe king-
the images of the faints laid on the ground. The^™Ja“|
dead were refufed Chriftian burial j and were thrown intcr(U(q.
into ditches and on the highways, without any.fune-
ral folemnity. Marriage was celebrated in the church¬
yards, and the people prohibited the ufe of meat as
ENG ' [8
740
The king
excommu¬
nicated, and
the king¬
dom given
to Philip of
Fiance.
in times of public penance. They were debarred from
all pleafure ; even from flfaving their beards, fainting
each other, or paying any regard to their apparel. The
clergy deplored the unhappy date of the nation in the
mott lamentable manner •, while John, in revenge, im-
prifoned all their concubines, and treated the adherents
of Langton with the utmoft rigour.
The furious and imprudent efforts of John proved
totally ineffectual. He had fcarce a friend left in the
whole nation j and therefore, in 1209, the pope de¬
nounced a fentence of excommunication againft him.
This was foon followed by another dill more terrible ;
namely, the abfolving all the tubjects of the king of
England from their allegiance, and declaring every one
to be excommunicated who had any commerce with
him at his table, council, or even, in private converfa-
tion. The king, rendered quite furious by thefe re¬
peated indignities, wreaked his vengeance on his un¬
happy fubje&s, whole affections he ought rather to have
attempted to conciliate. The pope, therefore, pro¬
ceeded to. execute the full meafure of his wrath on this
devoted prince, by giving away his kingdom to Philip
of F ranee. He publilhed a erufade all over Europe
againd King John 3 exhorting-the nobility, the knights
and men of every condition, to take up arms againd
him, and enlift under the French banner. Philip was
not lefs active on his part. He fummoned all the vaf-
fals of the crown to attend him at Rouen ; and having
collected a fleet of 1700 vcffels, was ready, in 1213, to
invade England.
The pope had now overftretched his power ; and
had the Englilh nation been governed by a prince of
any degree of. prudence or refolution, the power of the
clergy would in all probability have been totally bro¬
ken. . T he people, however fuperditious and ready to
obey in matters of religion, could not tamely fubmit
to be given away by the pope as Haves from one mader
to another *, and therefore this confideration, added to
the natural antipathy fubfiding between the French
and Englifh, put John, notwithftanding ail his offences,
at the head of an army of 60,000 men. But the pope
was too great, a politician to differ matters to be car¬
ried to extremities. He promifed himfelf many more
advantages from the fubmidion of John than from an
alliance with Philip j and therefore came over in per-
fon, or, according to fome, fent over his legate, to
England, under pretence of conferring with the ba¬
rons, but in reality to hold a conference with John.
He there reprefented to this forlorn prince, the num¬
bers of the enemv, the hatred of his own fubje&s, and
the feeret confederacy there rvas againd him in Eng¬
land. He intimated, that there was but one way to
fecure him from the impending danger } namely, to put
himfelf under the prote&ion of the pope, who was a
merciful father, and dill willing to receive a repenting
fmner. Theabjeft and irrefolute fpirit of John fub-
mitted to this lad piece of arrogance, and he took an
oath to obey whatever the pope" Ihould command. In
conk quence of this oath, he took another, the mod ex¬
traordinary mentioned in the records of hidory j and
141 which, as it was taken while he commanded an army
John’s fub- pt 60,000 men, difeovers a meannefs of fpirit almod
miffion to incredible. The terms impofed by it were expreffed
the in the following words. “ I John, by the grace of
God, king of England and lord of Ireland, in order to
3 ] ENG
expiate my fins, from my own free will, and the advice
of iny barons, give to the church of Rome, to Pope
Innocent and his fucceffors, the kingdom of England,
and ail other prerogatives of my crown. I will here¬
after hold them as the pope’s vaffal. I will be faithful
to God, to the church of Rome, to the pope my ma fier,
and his fucceffors legitimately defied. I promife to
pay him a tribute of icoo merks ; to wit, 700 for the
kingdom of England, and 300 for the kingdom of
Ireland.”
This oath was taken by the king before all the peo¬
ple, kneeling, and with his hands held up between
thole of the legate. Having then agreed to reinilate
Langton in the primacy, he received the crown which
he had been fuppofed to have forfeited j while the le¬
gate, to add to his former infolence, trampled under
his feet the tribute which John had confented to pay.—
The king of France was enraged at this behaviour of
the pope; and refolved to execute his projefl of con¬
quering England, in fpite of him and all his ccnfures.
His fleet, however, was attacked in their harbours by
the Englifli, who took 300 veffels, and deftroyed about
100 more; while Philip, finding it impoffible to pre¬
vent the reft from falling into the hands of the enemy,
fet fire to them himfelf, and thus was obliged to give
up all hopes of fuccefs.
England.
A. I). 1215-
John being thus freed from all danger, continued toT
follow, the fame cruel and tyrannical meafures which ^temptTo*
had hitherto rendered him odious to his fubjefls. His reduce the
fcandalous fubjecrion to the clergy now gave the ba- preroga-
rons an opportunity of exerting themfelves, in order totives of th<>
reduce the enormous prerogatives of the crown. Their crovvn*
defigns wrere greatly facilitated by the concurrence of
Langton the primate, who on all occafions ftiowed a
fincere regard for the interefts of the kingdom. At a
fynod of his prelates and clergy, convened in St Paul’s,
on pretence of examining into the Ioffes of fome bilhops
who had been exiled by John, he privately conferred
with a number of barons, to whom he expatiated upon
the vices and injuftice of their fovereign." ITe fhowed
them a copy of Henry the firft’s charter; (being the
only one in the kingdom, and which had been buried in
the rubbilh of an obfeure monailery). Langton exhorted
the barons to infift on a renewal of it; and this they
folemnly fwore to perform. The fame agreement was
afterwards renewed at a more numerous meeting of ba¬
rons fummoned by Langton at St Edmonfburyf Here
it was refolved, that at Chriftmas they ftiould prefer
their common petition in a body, and in the mean time
they feparated with a defign to put themfelves in a pof-
ture of defence, enlift men, and fortify their cattles.
In the beginning of January 1215, they repaired to
London, accoutred in their military garb and equi¬
page, and prefented their petition to the king, alleging
that he had promifed to grant a confirmation of the
laws of Edward the Confeffor, at the time he was
abfolved from his excommunication. John refented
their prefumption ; and required a promife under their
hands and feals, that they would never demand, or at¬
tempt to extort, fuch privileges for the future. This
they refufed with fuch unanimity and refolution, that
the king defired time to confider of their demands.
He promifed., that, at the feftival of Eaft er, he would
give a pofitive anfwer to their petition ; and offered
them the archbifhop of Canterbury, the bifhop of
L 2 Ely
A. D 1215.
ENG [84
England. Ely, and the earl raarefchal, as fureties for fulfilling his
engagements.
The barons accepted of his fecurities, and departed
peaceably } but John had no defign of complying v.ith
their defires. He had recourfe to the clergy, whofe
power he had feen and felt in fo many inilances. He
courted their favour, by granting them a charter efta-
bliihing all thofe rights of which they were already in
the polfefiion, and which he now pretended to confirm
when he had not the liberty to refufe. To ingratiate
himfelf ilill farther with this body, he took the crofs,
and appealed to the pope againft the ufurpation of the
barons. The pope wrote letters to England, reproach¬
ing the primate and bilhops with favouring thefe diffen-
fions 5 and commanded them to promote peace between
the two parties. He exhorted the barons to conciliate
the king, not with menaces, but with humble intreaties 5
and promifed, upon their obedience, to interpofe his
own authority in favour of fuch of their petitions as he
ihould find to be juft. At the fame time, he annulled
their afiociation, and forbade them to enter into any
confederacy for the future.
The barons paid no regard to the pope’s remon-
ftrances •, knowing that the fulminations of the court
of Rome would be of little avail, unlefs they were fe-
conded by the clergy of England. After waiting till
Eafter, when the king promifed to return them an
anfwer, they met by agreement at Stamford. There
they affembled a force of above 2000 knights, and a
prodigious number of foot. Thence they marched to
Brackley, about 15 miles from Oxford, the place where
the court then refided. John, hearing of their ap¬
proach, fent the archbifhop of Canterbury, the earl of
Pembroke, and others of his council, to know the par¬
ticulars of their requeft, and what thofe liberties were
which they fo much importuned him to grant. The
barons delivered a fchedule containing the chief articles
of their demands, founded on the charters of Henry and
Edward 5 but which were in the higheft degree difplea-
ling to the king. He burft into a furious paffion, afk-
ed the barons why they did not alfo demand his king¬
dom 5 and fwore that he would never comply with fuch
exorbitant demands. The confederates then chofe Ro¬
bert Fitzwalter for their general •, -whom they dignified
with the title of “ Marefchal of the army of God and
of the holy church.” They laid fiege to Northamp¬
ton, took Bedford, and were joyfully received into
London. They wrote letters to all the nobility and
gentry who had not yet declared in their favour, threat¬
ening their eftates with devaftation in cafe of refufal
or delay.
In the mean time the king was left at a place called
Odiham in Surrey, attended only by feven knights.
He vainly endeavoured to avert the ftorm by the me¬
diation of his bifhops and minifters. He appealed to
Langton againft the barons, not fufpefting that he
was engaged in the confederacy ; and defired him to
fulminate the church cenfures againft thofe who had
made war upon their lawful prince. Langton declared
that he would pafs no cenfure where he found no de¬
linquent 5 but faid, that much might be done if the
king would difmifs fome foreign auxiliaries which he
had lately brought over. Upon this John diibanded
a great body of Germans and Flemings whom he had
hitherto retained in his fervice, and Langton refufed
] ENG
to excommunicate a fingle baron. The king, being < England.
now quite defencelefs, was obliged at laft to comply 'v Dv~2j".'
with the demands of his fubjecb. A conference was
accordingly appointed, and all things were adjufted for
this moft important treaty. 143
The king’s commiflioners met the barons at a place They torce
called Bummede, between Staines and Windfor j and^1
which is yet held in reverence as the fpot where the (.ha°ta>
ftandard of freedom was firft creeled in England. Here
the king figned the charter called Magna C/iarta:
which continues in force to this day, and is Hill re¬
garded as the great bulwark of Britifti liberty. See
Magna Charta. , _ 144
This charter, however, at the time that it was made, Principal
fecured liberty to the clergy, barons, and gentlemen,articles of
much more than to the bulk of the people, who did
not for a long time obtain any privileges of import¬
ance. Freedom of eleftions rvas fecured to the clergy •,
and it was determined, that fines on them for any of¬
fence ftiould be laid on in proportion to their eftates,
and not the value of their benefices. The privileges
fecured to the barons were, either abatements in the
rigour of the feudal laws, or relief from arbitrary and
ambiguous decifions before the courts. It was alfo
decreed, that barons Ihould recover the lands of their
vaffals, even though forfeited by felony, after having
been in the pofiefiion of the crown for a year and a
day •, and no tax was to be impofed without confent
of the great council of the nation, excepting in cafe
of the captivity of the king, the knighting of his el-
deft fon, or marrying his eldeft daughter. No land
belonoinn to any baron was to be feized for a crown
debt,‘"’unlefs the poffeflbr had not perfonal property
enough to pay it \ neither was any vaffal to be allowed
to fell fo much of his land as to incapacitate him from
performing the neceffary fervice to his lord.. It was
alfo determined, that when the great council of the
nation was called, the prelates, earls, and barons, fticuld
be fummened by a particular writ, and the lefier ba¬
rons ihould receive a fummons from the flieriff. In
favour of the people it was ftipulated, that they fhould
have from the barons all the immunities and privileges
granted by the king to the former. Merchants w ere
to be allowed to carry on their bufinefs without any
arbitrary tolls or impofitions, and to go out of the
kingdom and return at pleafure. The goods of every
freeman wrere to be difpofed of according to his will;
or if he died inteftate, the neareft heir ftiould fucceed
him. No carts, horfes, or wood, were to be taken by
the crown officers without the confent of the owner.
The king’s courts rvere to be ftationary, and no delay
to be made in doing juftice to every one; no. freeman
ffiould be taken or imprifoned, difpofifeffed of his free te¬
nement, outlarved or banilhed, unlefs by the legal judg¬
ment of his peers, &c. It was likervife ftipulated, that
London fhould remain in the hands of the barons, and
the toAver be configned to the primate, till the 15th
of Auguft folloAA’ing •, or till the articles of the charter
ftiould be fulfilled. To give the more fecurity for this,
the king alloAved them to choofe 25 of their oavii num¬
ber, to Avhofe authority no limits Avere fet either in
extent or duration. If any complaint Avere made of a
Auolation of the charter, either by the king or his of¬
ficers, any four of the barons might admonifh the king
to redrefs the grievance; and if fatisfadlion Avere not
obtained.
ENG [ 8s ] ENG
MS
The king
raifes an ar.
my againft
Jus barons.
145
liey offer
>e kmg-
anv to
ouis the
rcnch
ing’s fon.
obtained, they might affemble the whole council of 25 5
and they, in conjunftion with the great council, were
'empowered to compel him to fulfil the charter. In
cafe of his refiftance, they had liberty to levy war againft
him, attack his caftles, and ufe every kind of violence,
except againft his perfon, or thofe of the queen or chil¬
dren. All men throughout the kingdom were bound,
under the penalty of confifcation, to fwear obedience to
the 2 5 barons j and the freeholders of each county were
to choofe 1j2 knights, whofe bufinefs it was to report
fuch evil cuftoms as ought to be redreffed in terms of
Magna Charta.
But although John had thus obliged himfelf, by wri¬
ting, to allow liberty to his fubjefds, he had no mind that
they fhould enjoy it in reality. The fenfe of his fubjedlion
to his own vaiTals funk deep in his mind. lie became
fallen, filent, and referved. He ftiunned the fociety of
Ids former friends •, and retired into the ifle of Wight,
as if to hide his difgrace in folitude ; but, in reality, to
meditate revenge againft the barons. He fent to the
■ continent to enlift a large body of mercenary troops, and
made complaints to the pope of the infurredtions of the
barons againft him. The pontiff very warmly efpoufed
his caufe ; a bull was fent over, annulling the whole
charter 5 and at the fame time the foreign troops arriv¬
ing, the king once more found himfelf in a condition to
demand his own terms from his fubjedls.
The barons had made no preparations for war, not
fufpefting the introdudlion of a foreign army. The
king, therefore, was for fome tirhe undifputed mailer
of the field, and the moft horrid cruelties were com¬
mitted by his army. The nobility -who had been moft
active in procuring the great charter fled with their fa¬
milies to Scotland, where they obtained the protedlion
of King Alexander by doing homage to him. The
barons being totally unable to raife an army capable of
contending with that of John, applied to their old ene¬
my Philip of France, offering to acknowledge his eldeft
fon Louis for their fovereign, on condition of his pro-
tecling them from the fury of John and his mercena¬
ries. The French king accepted their propofal with
joy ; and twenty-five hoftages which he demanded be¬
ing fent over, began to make the moft diligent prepa¬
rations for this expedition, regardlefs of the menaces of
the pope, who threatened him with excommunication,
and a finally excommunicated his fon Louis fome time
after.
The firft troops who came to the afliftance of the
barons, were only a body of 7000 men •, but, foon
after, Louis with a powerful army landed at Sand¬
wich. The firft effeft of this invafion was, that moft
of John’s foreign troops deferted, refufing to ferve
againft the heir of their monarchy. Many confiderable
noblemen alfo deferted his caufe, and Louis daily gain¬
ed ground. This prince advanced to London, where
the barons and burghers did him homage, and took
the oath of allegiance, after he had fworn to confirm
the liberties and privileges of the people. His impru¬
dence, however, in preferring on all occafions his Frencli
fubjefls to the Engliih, foon excited a jealoufy againft
him, which proved very preiudicial to his caufe. This
jealoufy was greatly increafed by the death-bed con-
feflion of the Count de Melun, one of his courtiers, who
declared to thofe about him, that it was Louis’s de-
ftgn to exterminate the Englifli barons as traitors,
and to beftow their dignities and eftates upon his England.
French fubjecls, on whofe fidelity he could more fafe- u v
ly rely. This caufed a confiderable defertion among'''" *2*0,
Louis’s party : fo that John once more found himfelf
in a condition to make an effort for his crown. He
refolved to penetrate into the heart of the kingdom ;
and, for this purpofe, he departed from Lynn, and
took the road towards Lincolnfhire at the head of a
great body of troops. His road lay along the fliore,
■which was overflowed at high water j but the king,
not being apprifed of this, or being ignorant of the
tides of the place, loft all his carriages, treafure, and
baggage by their influx. He himfelf efcaped with the
utmoft difficulty, and arrived at the abbey of Swinfteadj
where his grief for the lofs he had fuftained, and the
diftradled ilate of his affairs, threw him into a fever,
which foon appeared to be attended with fatal fymp- „
toms. He died at Newark in the year 1216, the 51ft Death of
of his age, and 18th of his reign. He left two legiti-King John,
mate funs : Henry, wdro fucceeded him on the throne,
and was about nine years of age 5 and Richard, w ho was
about feven. He left alfo three daughters 5 Jane, mar¬
ried to Alexander king of Scotland ; Eleanor, mar¬
ried to the earl of Pembroke j and Ifabella, married to
the emperor Frederic II.
When John died, the earl of Pembroke was mare-'
fchal of England. By this office he was at the head
of the army, and of confequence, in times of fuch tur¬
bulence, at the head of the ftate. He was a noble¬
man of great honour and fidelity, and had continued
faithful to John in his greateft reverfes of fortune. He
now determined to fupport the authority of the infant
Prince Henry ; and therefore carried him immediately
to Gloucefter, where the ceremony of coronation was
performed, in the prefence of Gualo the legate and a
very few noblemen, by the biftiops of Winchefter and x g
Bath. The young prince was obliged to fwear fealty Henry III.
to the pope, and renew the homage which his father
had done for the kingdom ; after which, the earl of
Pembroke was chofen protedlor.
Till the king arrived at the years of maturity, the
tranfadlions of his reign can only be confidered as the
confequences of the difpofition of his tutors. Pern- He grants
broke caufed him grant a new charter of liberties, new char-
confifting of the concefiions extorted from John, withters'
fome alterations 5 and the next year it was renewed,
with the addition of fome other articles. Thus thefe
famous charters were brought very nearly to the fliape
in which they have ever fince flood ; and they were,,
during many generations, efteemed the moft facred
rampart to national liberty and independence. As
they fecured the rights of. all orders of men, they were
anxioufly defended by all, and became in a manner the
bafis of the Englifli monarchy, and a kind of original
contract, which both limited the authority of the king,
and enfured the conditional allegiance of his fubjedls.
Though often violated, they were full claimed and re¬
called by the nobility and people 5 and as no precedents,
were fuppofed valid that infringed them, they rather
acquired, than loft, authority, from the frequent attempts
made againft them, in feveral ages, by regal and arbi¬
trary power.
Thefe charters were made ufe of by Pembroke as ar-.
guments to draw off the malecontent barons from their
allegiance to Louis. He reprefented to them, that,
whatever ..
A.D. izi.6.
IS°
Decline of
Prince
ENG [
England, whatever jealoufy they might have entertained againft
the late king, a young prince, the lineal heir of their
ancient monarchs, had now lucceeded to the throne,
without fucceeding either to the refentments or prin¬
ciples of his predeceffor : That the defperate expedi¬
ent, which they had employed, of calling in a foreign
potentate, had, happily for them, as well as for the na¬
tion, failed of entire fuccefs •, and it was ftill in their
power, by a quick return to their duty, to reftore the
independence of the kingdom, and to fecure that li¬
berty for which they fo zealoufly contended : That, as
all paft oft'ences of the barons were now buried in obli¬
vion, they ought, on their part, to forget their com¬
plaints againft their late fovereign; who, if he had
been anywife blameable in his conduct, had left to his
fon the falutary warning to avoid his paths, which had
led to fuch fatal extremities: And that, having now
obtained a charter for their liberties, it was their in-
tereft to Ihow, by their conduft, that the acquilition
was not incorppatible with their allegiance; and that
the rights of the king and people, fo far from being
hoftile and oppolite, might mutually fupport and fultain
each other.
Thefe confiderations, enforced by Pembroke’s known
charafler of conftancy and fidelity, had a very great
Louis s par-influence on the barons. Moll of them began to ne¬
gotiate with him, and many actually returned to their
duty. At the fame time Louis continued to difguft
thole of Ins orvn party by the preference which he vi-
fibly gave to the French. Though he went over to
France, therefore, and brought frelh fuccours from
thence, he found that his party was greatly -weaker
than before, by the defertion of his Engliih confede¬
rates ; and that the death of King John had, contrary
to his expectations, occafioned the total ruin of his af¬
fairs. In a Ihort time Pembroke was fo much flrength-
ened by deferters from Louis’s party, that he ventu¬
red to invelt Mount Sorel; though upon the approach
of the count de Perche with the French army, he de-
fifted from that enterprife. The French general im¬
mediately marched to Lincoln 5 and, being admitted
into the town, laid liege to the caftle, and foon redu¬
ced it to extremity. Pembroke fummoned his forces
from every quarter, in order to relieve this important
place; and he appeared fo much fuperior to the
French, that they fnut themfelves up within the city,
refolving to take fhelter there. But the garrifon of the
caftle, having received a ftrong reinforcement, made a
vigorous fally upon the beliegers, while the Engliih
army aflfaulted them from without. The French army
was totally routed ; the count de Perche with only
two perfons more were killed *, but many of the chief
commanders, and about 400 knights, rvere made pvi-
foners. On the news of this fatal event, Louis raifed
the fiege of Dover, and retired to London ^ where he
received intelligence of a new difafter, which put an
end to all his hopes. A Frencli fleet, which carried
a ftrong reinforcement, had appeared on the coaft of
Kent •, where they were attacked and repulfed with
confiderable lofs by Philip d’Albiney. He is faid to
have gained the viclory by the following ftratagem.
Having got the wind of the French, he came down
upon them with violence ; and throwing on their faces
a great quantity of quicklime, which he purpolely car¬
ried on board, they were fo blinded that they were
86 ] ENG
difabled from defending themfelves. This misfortune ErgLn*J,
fo difeouraged the barons W'ho yet adhered to Louis,
that they came from every quarter to make their fub-‘"‘ iJ‘ lz^'
miffion to Pembroke: and Louis himfelf, finding his
affairs totally defperate, was glad to make his efcape
from a country where every thing was become hoftile to 1-1
him. He therefore concluded a peace with the pro- He leaves
tecior ; promifed to evacuate the kingdom j and only
ftipulatcd, in return, an indemnity to his adherents, and
a reftitution of their honours and fortunes, together
with the free and equal enjoyments of thofe iibeitics
which had been granted to the reft of the nation.
When the king grew up, he was found to be very
unfit for the government of fuch a turbulent people as
the Engliih at that time were. Though his temper
was mild and humane, he was alfo very weak, fickle,
and irrefolute. He difgufted the people by the caref-
fes he bellowed on foreigners 5 and this difguft role
once to fuch a height, that the barons refuitd to af-
femble in the general council of the nation, or parlia¬
ment, at his defire. When commanded to do fo, they
font a meffage to Henry, defiring him to difmifs his fo¬
reigners j otherwife they would drive both him and
them out of the kingdom, and put the crown on the
head of one who was more worthy to wear it. I ha
facility of Henry’s temper alfo induced him to heap
riches upon his foreign favourites in a manner which
he could by no means afford : this often brought him
into very great ftraits j and to relieve himfelf, he
was obliged to have recourfe to many arbitrary mea-
fures, which he could not otherwile have chofen. No¬
thing, however, of very great moment happened till
the year 1255, when the pope found means to embark The pope
Henry in a fcheme for the eonqueft of Naples, or the con^63
cily on this fide the Faro, as it was called 5 an enterprife
which not only brought much dilhonour to the king, ;qcliy for
but involved him for feme years in very great expenee Henry’s
and trouble. The court of Rome fome time beforelo11,
had reduced the kingdom of Sicily to the fame Hate
of feudal vaffalage which he pretended to exercife
over England ; but Mainfroy, an ufurper, under pre¬
tence of governing the kingdom for the lawful heir,
had feized the crown, and was refolved to rejeft the
pope’s authority. As the pope found that his own
force alone was not fufficient to gain his point, he had
recourfe to Richard the king of England’s brother,
who had been created earl of Cornwall, and had fuch
talents for amafling money, that he was reckoned the
richeft prince in Chriftendom. To him the- pope of¬
fered the kingdom of Sicily, npon the fingle condition
of his conquering it from the ufurper. Richard was too
wife to accept this offer ; upon which the pope applied
to Henry, and offered him the crown of Sicily for his
fecond fon Edmund. Henry, dazzled by this propo-
fal, without refleiffing on the confequences, or with¬
out confolting his brother or the parliament, gave the
pope unlimited credit to expend whatever fums he
thought neceffary for completing the conqueft of Sici- ^
ly. In confequence of this unlimited grant, his holinefs intolerabk
determined to exert his apoftolical authority to the ut-extortions
moft, in extorting money from the Englifh. A cru-jT his
fade was puHiflied, requiring every one who had taken ‘10 ne *•
the crofs againft the infidels, or even vowed to advance
money for that purpofe, to fupport the wTar againft
Mainfroy, whom he accufed as being a more terrible
enemy
ENG [ 87 j ENG
['S3]
Henry fo-
lemnly re¬
news Mag¬
na Charta.
154
He breaks
his engage¬
ments,
which oc-
-c aliens a
devolution.
enemy to the Chriftian faith than any Saraeen. A
tenth on all the eccleliallical benefices in England was
•3* levied for three years j and orders were given to ex¬
communicate the bilhops who did not make punctual
payment. A grant was made to the king of the goods
of inteftate clergymen, as vvell as of the revenues of
vacant benefices and thofe of non-refidents. Thefe
taxations, however grievous, were fubmitted to with
little murmuring ; but another fuggefted by the bifhop
of Hereford excited the moil violent clamours. This
prelate, who at that time rclided at the court of Rome,
drew bills on all the abbots and bilhops of the king¬
dom, to the amount of no lefs than 150,540 marks,
which he granted to Italian merchants in confideration
of the money they had advanced or pretended to ad¬
vance for the fupport of the Sicilian war. As it was
apprehended that the Englilh clergy would not eafily
fubmit to fuch an extraordinary demand, a commiffion
was given to Rutland, the pope’s legate, to ufe his autho¬
rity. An aflembly of the prelates and abbots was accord¬
ingly fummoned j who, on hearing the propofal lancti-
fied with the names both of the pope and king, were
ftruck with the utmoft furprife and indignation. A
violent altercation took place •, during which the legate
told them, that all ecclefiaftical benefices were the pro¬
perty of the pope, and that he might difpofe of them
as he pleafed. The affair ended, however, in the fub-
miffion of the clergy : but the barons ftill continued re-
fractory, and for fome time anfwered the king’s de¬
mands of fupplies with expoftulations j urging the
king’s partiality to foreigners, and the various injuries
the nation had fuftained from the fervants of the crown.
The great council of the nation, which had lately ob¬
tained the name of parliament, was therefore diffolved,
and another called, but with as little fuccefs as before.
The king, however, had involved himfelf in fo much
debt, that a large fupply was become abfolutely necef-
fary ; and as that could by no means be obtained from
parliament, he was now reduced to the humiliating ex¬
pedient of going about among fuch of his fubjefts as he
thought moft attached to him, and begging affiftance
from them at their own houfes. At length his barons,
perceiving the exigencies to which he was reduced,
feemed willing to afford him aid ; and, upon his promi-
fing to grant them a plenary redrefs of grievances, a very
liberal fupply was obtained, for which he renewed their
charter with more than ufual folemnity. All the pre¬
lates and abbots were affembled with burning tapers in
their hands ; the magna charta was read in their pre-
fence \ and they denounced fentence of excommunica¬
tion upon all who fliould infringe upon its decifions.
They then put out their tapers on the ground, and ex¬
claimed, “ May every foul that proves falfe to this a-
greement fo ftink and corrupt in hell.” The king
fubjoined, “ So help me God, I will inviolably keep
all thefe things, as I am a man, as I am a Chriftian,
as I am a knight, and as I am a king crowned and
anointed.”
No fooner had the king received the fupplies of
which he flood fo much in need, than he forgot all his
engagements, put his confidence entirely in foreign
coun fellers, and evaded or broke through in number-
lefs inftanccs the charters he had given. This conduct
rendered him fo obnoxious to the barons, that Simon
Mountfort carl of Lcicefter, a man of a very violent
and ambitious temper, determined to attempt an inno- England.
vation in the government. Pie formed a powerful con-' 
federacy againft the king, and the defigns of the con-A,I>' I2sS*
fpirators were effeftually put in execution in the year
x 258. Henry had fummoned a parliament in expec¬
tation of receiving fupplies for his Sicilian project;
when the barons appeared in the hall, clad in com¬
plete armour, with their fwords by their fides. The
king, ftruck with this unufual appearance, aiked them
what was their purpofe, and whether they pretended
to make him their prifoner ? Roger Bigod, earl ma-
refchal, aniwered in name of the reft, that he was not
their prifoner 5 that they even intended to grant him
large fupplies, in order to fix his fon on the throne of
Sicily j that they only expetfted fome return for this
expence and fervice j and that as the king had fre¬
quently made fubmiflions to the parliament, had ac¬
knowledged his paft errors, and had ftill allowed him¬
felf to be carried into the fame path, which gave them
fuch reafon of complaint, lie muft now yield to more,
ftrid regulations, and confer authority on thofe who
-were able and willing to redrefs the public grievances.
Henry inftantly allured them of his intentions to grant
them all poflible fatisfa&ion 3 and for that purpofe.
fummoned another parliament at Oxford, to digeft the
new plan of government, and to elect proper perfons
who were to be entrufted with the chief authority.
This affembly, afterwards called the triad parliament,
went very expeditioufly to work on the bulinefs of re¬
formation. Twenty-four barons were appointed, with
fupreme authority, to reform the abufes of the ftate 3
and Leicefter was placed at their head. Their firft
ftep was to order four knights to be chofen out of each
county, who fhould examine into the ftate of their
refpedtive conftituents, and Ihould attend at the en-
fuing parliament to give information of their com¬
plaints. They ordained that three feffions of parlia¬
ment ftiould be regularly held every year 3 that a new
high ftieriff ftiould be elected annually 3 that no wards
nor cattles tliould be entrufted to foreigners, no new
forefts made, nor the revenues of any counties let to
farm.
Thefe conftitutions were fo juft, that fome of them Bad con-
remain to this day. But the parliament having once duct of the
obtained the fovereign powrer, took care not to partnew n^crs*
with it again. They not only protra&ed the time of
their fitting under various pretences 3 but at laft had
the effrontery to impofe an oath upon every individual
of the nation, declaring an implicit obedience to all
the ftatutes executed or to be yet executed by the
barons who were thus appointed as rulers. They not
only abridged the authority of the king, but the effi¬
cacy of parliament alfo 3 giving up to 12 perfons the
whole parliamentary power between each feflion. 
Their ufurpations were firft oppofed by the knights of
the fliire, whom they themfelves had appointed. S[ hefe
had for fome time begun to be regularlv.-affembled in
a feparate houfe, to confider of the national grievan¬
ces 3 the firft of which was the conduct of the 24 ru¬
lers. They reprefented, that though the king had
performed all that was required of him, the barons
had hitherto done nothing on their part that fhowed
an equal regard for the people 3 that their own intereft
and power feemed the onlv aim of all their decrees 3
and they even called upon the king’s eldeft fon Prince
5 Edward,
1?.
N G [ 88 ] ENG
England. Edward to interpofe his authority, and fave the finking-
' ' nation.
A. D. 125S. The prjncc was at this time about 22 years of#age,
Opposed by anh by his active and reiolutc conduct had infpired the
Prince Ed- nation with great hopes. He told thofe who made the
ward. application to him, that he had {worn to the late con-
ilitutions ; and, on that account, though they were
Contrary to .his own private opinions, he was refolved
not to infringe them. At the fame time, however, he
fent a meffage to the barons, requiring them to bring
their undertaking to an end, or other wife to expect
the moil vigorous reliftance to their ufurpations. On
this the barons were obliged to publifh a new code ot
laws, which, though it contained fcarce any thing
material, yet, it was fuppofed, would for a while
dazzle the eyes of the people, until they could take
meafures to eftablifh their authority upon hirer foun¬
dations. In this manner, under various pretences,
they continued their power for three years ; while the
whole nation loudly condemned their treachery, and
the pope himfelf at laft abfolved the king and his fub-
jefts from the oath they had taken to obey their in-
junftions. Soon after this, a parliament was called,
and the king rehlltated in his former authority. The
barons -were obliged to hlbmit for a time *, but the earl
of Leicefter having joined the Wellh, -who at this time
made an irruption into England, the kingdom was re¬
duced to the mod deplorable fituation. The pufillani-
mity of the king prevented any proper or judicious
method from being purfued for extricating the people
. from their diftreffes j and at lait a treaty was concluded
with the barons on the mod difadvantageous terms that
can be imagined. They were redored to the fovereign-
ty of the kingdom, took poffeflion of all the royal ca-
dles and fortrefles, and even named the officers of the
king’s houfehold. They fummoned a parliament to
meet at Oxford, in order more fully to fettle the plan
of government •, and by this affembly it was enafted
that the authority of the 24 barons fhould continue not
only during the life of King Henry, but alfo during that
of Prince Edward.
Thefe fcandalous conditions would have been eafily
complied with by King Henry ; but they were utterly
rejefted by Prince Edward, and a civil war immediate¬
ly enfued. The prince was at fird fuccefsful} but,
through his impetuofity, occafioned the lofs of a great
battle, in which his father and uncle were taken pri-
foners, and he himfelf wTas obliged foon after to furren-
der to the earl of Leiceder. The king was now redu¬
ced to the mod deplorable fituation. His partifans
were totally difarmed, while thofe of the earl of
Leiceder dill kept themfelves in an offenfive podure.
Leiceder feized the edates of no fewer than 18 barons *,
engroded to himfelf the ranfom of all the prifoners;
monopolized the fale of wood to foreign markets ; and
at lad ordained that all power diould be exercifed by
nine perfons, who were to be chofen by three others,
or the majority of them ; and thefe three were the earl
of Leiceder himfelf, the earl of Glouceder, and the bi-
fhop of Chicheder.
tuft1 Houle I'116 inferable fituation to which the kingdom was
of Com- now reduced, proved at lad the means of fettling the
government on a more proper foundation. Leiceder,
in order to fecure himfelf, was obliged to have recourfe
to an aid, till now entirely unknown in England,
namely, that of the body of the people. He called a
157 ,
Wno is de¬
feated and
taken pri-
£cLt,h v
and his
brother.
mons.
parliament, where, befides the barons of his own par- England,
ty, and feveral ecclefialtfes who were not proper te- ' v—
nants of the crown, he ordered returns to be made
of two knights from every Afire; and alfo deputies
from the boroughs, which had been hitherto conlider-
ed as too inconfiderable to be allowed any diare in
the legillation. This parliament was called on the
20th of January 1265 : and here we find the fird out¬
line of an Englifh Houfe of Commons ; an inditution
which has ever fince been eonfidered as the bulwark of
Britilh liberty.
The new parliament was far from being fo compliant
to Leiceder as he had defired or expefted. Many of
the barons who had hitherto dedfadly adhered to his
party were difguded with his boundlefs ambition ; and
the people, who found that a change of mailers w-as not
a change from mifery to happinefs, began to wilh for
the re-edablilhment of royal authority. Leiceder at
lad, to make a merit of what he could not prevent,
releafed Prince Edward from his confinement, and had
him introduced at Wederminder-hall, where his free¬
dom was confirmed by the unanimous voice of the ba¬
rons. But though Leiceder had all the popularity of
redoring the prince, he was yet politic enough to
keep him guarded by his emiffaries, who watched all
his a cl ions. At lad, however, he found means to
make his efcape in the following manner. The duke
of Glouceder, being difguded with Leiceder, retired
from court, and went to his edates on the borders of
Wales. Plis antagonid purfued him thither : and to
give the greater authority to his arms, carried the king
and prince of Wales along with him. This lurnifhed
young Edwrard with the opportunity he had fo long
defired. Being furnifhed by the earl of Glouceder
with a horfe of extraordinary fwiftnefs, he took leave
of his attendants, who were in faft his guards, but
were not able to come up with him. They purfued
him, however, for fome time ; but the appearance of a
body of troops belonging to Gloueeder foon put an
end to their purfuit. x ^
The prince no fooner recovered his liberty, than the Prince EL
royalids joined him from all quarters, and an army was ward reco-
foon procured which Leiceder could not withdand. 'ers h"
This nobleman now found himfelf in a remote quarter Dcr
of the kingdom 5 furrounded by his enemies ; and de¬
barred from all communication with his friends by the
river Severn, whofe bridges Edward had broken down.
In this extremity, he wrote to his fon to haden to his
aflidance from London, with a confiderable body which
he had under his command. With this view his fon
advanced to Kenilworth ■, but here he was furprifed,
and his army entirely difperfed by Prince Edward.
The young prince, immediately after this victory, ad¬
vanced againd Leieeder himfelf; who, ignorant of
the fate of his fon’s army, had pafled the Severn in
boats. He was by no means able to cope with the
royalids } his men being inferior both in numbers and
refolution to their antagorfifts. His army was defeat- X(y&
ed with great {laughter. Leiceder himfelf was flain, Earl of Lei-
though he called out for quarter, together with his el- ceifter de-
deb fon Henry, and about 160 knights and other an^
gentlemen. The old king had been purpofely placed
by the rebels in the front of the battle, where he was
wounded, and in great danger of being killed ; but, cry¬
ing out, “ I am Henry of Wincheder your king,” he
was faved and put in a place of fecurity by his fon,
vtV> >
ENG [
England, wlio Kad flown to his affiftance. The body of Leicefter
' vr——; being found among the dead, was barbaroufly mang-
A-.U. 1272. ^d by one Roger Mortimer; and then fent to his wi¬
dow, as a teftimony of the royal party’s barbarity and
fuecefs.
This victory, gained at Evefnam, proved deciflve in
favour of the royal party. Almoft all the callles,
garrifoned by the barons, haftened to make their fub-
miflions, and opened their gates to the king.' The
Ifle of Axholme alone, and that of Ely, trufting to
the ftrength of their fltuation, ventured to make re-
liftance ; but were at laft reduced, as well as the caftle
of Dover, by the valour and activity of Prince Ed¬
ward. Adam de Gourdon, a courageous baron, main¬
tained himfelf fome time in the foreits of Hamplhire,
committing depredations in the neighbourhood j and
obliged the prince to lead a body of troops into that
country againft him. Edward attacked the camp of
the rebels; and being tranfported by the ardour of
aflion, leaped over the trench with a few followers,
and encountered Gourdon himfelf in Angle combat.
The victory was long difputed between thefe two va¬
liant combatants ; but ended at laft in the prince’s fa¬
vour, who wounded his antagonift, threw him from his
horfe, and took him prifoner. He not only granted him
Ids life j but introduced him that very night to the
queen at Guildford, procured his pardon, and was ever
after faithfully ferved by him.
In 1271, Prince Edward, having fettled the affairs
of the kingdom, .undertook an expedition to the Holy
Land, where be fignalized himfelf by many acts of va¬
lour. The king’s health declined vifibly after the de-
If?T parture of his Ton; and at laft, worn out with cares
Death of and the infirmities of age, he expired at St Edmonlbury
Henry III. on the 16th of November X 272, in the 64th year of his
age and the $6th of his reign.
Prince Edward had reached Sicily in his return from
the Holy Land, when he received an account of his
father’s death 5 at which he expreffed much concern.
As he knew that England was at that time in a ftate
of perfect tranquillity, he was in no hafte to return,
xfo but fpentnear a year in France before he made his ap-
Edwardl. pearance in England. Pie vras received by his fub-
je£ts with the utmoft joy, and crowned at Weftmin-
fter by Robert arehbiflxop of Canterbury on the 19th
of Auguft 1 274- Pie immediately applied himfelf to
the corre&ing of thofe diforders which the civil com¬
motions, and weak adminiftration of his father, had
introduced. A fyftem of ftrift juftice, bordering on
feverity, was introduced and kept up through the whole
of this reign. The Jews were the only part of his
fubjefts whom Edward oppreffed. Many arbitrary
taxes were levied upon them •, 280 of them were hang¬
ed at once for adulterating the coin 5 the goods of the
reft were confifcated, and all of them baniflied the king--
,53 d<)1?-
Conquers 1 27^> th® king undertook an expedition againft
Wales. Lewellyn prince of Wales, who had refufed to do ho¬
mage for his crown. The conqueft of that country
was not fully accompliftied till the year 1283; after
which the principality of Wales xvas annexed to the
_ Grown of England, and thenceforth gave a title to the
vie a '’r-kjHgig eldeft ion *.—In 1286, the fettlement of Wales
appeared fo complete, that the king went abroad in
order to make peace between Alfonfo king of Arra-
VgL. VIII. Part I.
89 ] E N G
gon and Philip le Bel king of France, who had a dii- England,
ference about the kingdom of Sicily. He fucceeded
in his negotiations; but, flaying abroad three years,c ' ’
he found that many diforders had been introduced in
his abfence. Many inftances of robbery and violence
had broke out in all parts of England 5 but the cor¬
ruption of the judges, by which the fountains of juftice
were poiibned, was of frill more dangerous confequence*
Edward, in order to remedy this prevailing abufe,
fummoned a parliament, and brought the judges to a
trial; where all of them except two, who were clergy¬
men, were convicted of this flagrant iniquity, 'were
fined, and depofed from their office. The amount of
the fines levied upon them is of itfelf a fufficient proof
of their guilt, being above 100,000 marks 5 an immenle
film in thofe days, fufficient to defray the expences of a
war betwixt two great nations. The king afterwards
made all the new judges fwear that they would take no
bribes ; but the depofing and fining the old ones xvas
the more effedtual remedy. l6^
In 1291, King Edward began to meditate the con-Attempts
queft of Scotland, which employed him during the Ac con-
reft of his life 5 but which, though that kingdom xvas cl'jef| 0 ^
by him reduced to the greateft diftrefs, he xvas never an
able to accompliffi f. At the fame time, he xvas en-1 See Sent*
gaged in expenfive contfefts xvith France ) and thefe land,
multiplied xvars and preparations for xvar, by obliging
him to have frequent recourfe to parliamentary fup>-
plies, became the remote caufes of great and impor- 163
tant changes in the government. The parliament xvas New-mo-
modelled into the form which has continued ever fince. dels the
As a great part of the property of the kingdom, by U '
the introduction of commerce and improvements in
agriculture, xvas transferred from the barons to the
loxver clafs of people, fo their confent was thought
neceffary for railing the fupplies. For this reafon, the
king iffued xvrits to the Iheriffs, enjoining them to fend
to parliament, along with txvo knights of the fliire, txvo
deputies from each borough within their county 5 and
thefe provided xvith fufticient poxvers from their ccn-
ftituents to grant fuch demands as they ftiould think
reafonable for the fafety of the ftate. The charges of
thefe deputies xvere to be borne by the boroughs xvhich
fent them •, and fo far xxTere they from confidering this
deputation as an honour, that nothing could be more
difpleafing to any borough than to be thus obliged to
fend a deputy, or to any individual than to be thus
chofen. The authority of thefe commoners, hoxvever,
increafed through time. Their union gave them weight;
and it became cuftomary among them, in return for
the fupplies which they granted, to prefer petitions to
the crown for the redrefs of thofe grievances under
which the nation xvas fuppofed to labour. The more
the king’s neceffitxes increafed, the moi-e he found it
neceffary to give them an early redrefs ; till, from re-
quefting, the commons proceeded to requiring • and
having all the property of the nation, they by degrees
began alfo to be poffeffed of the power.
Edxvard L died of a dyfentery at Cariifie on the Dies and is
7th of July 1307, as he xvas leading a great army into Succeeded
Scotland, againft the inhabitants of xvhich he hadby ^w. II.
voxved the moft dreadful vengeance. He xvas fucceed¬
ed by his fon Edxvard II. xvhom he had charged xvith
his dying breath to profe.cute the xvar againft Scot¬
land, and never to defift till he had finally fubdued the
M kingdom.
E N G
[ 9° J
E N G
i6y
Difcontents
of his fub-
kingdom. But the new king was of a very differ¬
ent difpofition from his father. The Scots gra¬
dually recovered their power j and in 1314 gave the
Englifh fuch a terrible defeat at Bannockburn, that
for many years no fuperiority of -numbers could en¬
courage them to look the Scots in the face. See
Scotland.
The reign of Edward II. affords no particulars of
great moment. Being a prince of a weak underiland-
ing, though endued with no remarkable bad qualities,
his reign was one continued feries of quarrels with his
turbulent fubjects. 'His favourites were the molt ge¬
neral caufes of difeontent. The firft of thefe was cne
Piers Gavefton, the fon of a Gafcon knight of fome
diftindion, who had honourably ferved the late king,
and who, in reward for his fervices, had obtained an
eftablifhment for his fon in the family of the prince of
Wales.—To be the favourite of any king whatever, is
no doubt in itfelf a fufficient offence to the reft cf the
courtiers. Numberlefs faults were therefore found
with Gavefton by the Englifh barons. When the king
went over to France to efpoufe the princefs Ifabella,
to whom he had been long contraded, Gavefton was
left guardian of the realm, with more ample powers
than had ufually been conferred in fuch a cafe. But
when the queen, who was of an imperious and in¬
triguing fpirit, arrived, Gavefton had the misfortune
to fall under her difpleafure alfo, on account of the
afcendency he had acquired over the king. A con-
fpiracy was therefore foon formed againft the favour¬
ite 5 at the head of which were the queen, and the
earl of Lancafter, coufin-german to the king, and the
moft opulent and powerful nobleman in England. The
king, unable to refill fuch a combination, was at laft
obliged to ban ill 1 Gavefton •, but recalled him fome
time after. This was fufficient to fpread an alarm over
the whole kingdom : a civil war enfued ; and the nobi¬
lity having got Gavefton into their hands, foon freed
themfelves of any farther apprehenfions from him, by
putting him to death.
After the unfortunate defeat at Bannockburn, King
Edward chofe a new favourite named Hugh le Defpenfer.
He was a young man of a noble Englifh family, fome
merit, and very engaging accomplifhments. His fa¬
ther was a perfon of a much more refpedlabie charac¬
ter than the fon *, but the being admitted to a fhare of
King Edward’s favour was a fufficient crime. The king
imprudently difpoflefied fome lords of their eftates, in
order to beftow them upon this favourite ; and this
was a fufficient pretence for openly attacking both the
father and fon. The earls of Lancafter and Here¬
ford flew to arms. Sentence was procured from par¬
liament of perpetual exile againft the two Spenfers,
with a forfeiture of all their eftates. At laft the king
took the field at the head of 30,000 men, and preffecl
the earl of Lancaftcr fo clofely, that he had not time to
collect his forces together •, and, flying from one place
to another, he was at laft flopped in his way towards
Scotland, and made prifoner. He was immediately
condemned by a court-martial ; and executed on an
eminence near Pomfret, with circumftances of the
greateft indignity.
Spenfer now triumphed for fome time over his ene¬
mies ; moil of the forfeitures were feized for his ufe,
was fet on
populace,
ther. He
lowed the
and he is faid to have been guilty of many acts of ra- .England,
pine and injuftice. But he was foon oppofed by a more ' ^ 1
formidable enemy. Queen Ifabella fled to France, and A'
refufed to return to England till Spenfer was removed infurrec-
from the royal prefence, and banifhed the kingdom, non againft
Thus flie made herfelf popular in England, wherehim ^ ll«>
Spenfer was univerfally difliked j and fhe had the plea-
fure of enjoying the company of a young nobleman
named Mortimer, upon whom fhe had lately placed her
affections. The queen’s court, therefore, became a
fanfluary for all the malecontents who were banifhed
their own country, or who chofe to come over. When
flie thought matters -were ripe for her purpofe, fhe fet
fail from Dort harbour, accompanied by 3000 armed
men. She landed without oppofition on the coaft of
Suffolk, on the 24th of September 13265 and flie no
fooner appeared, than there feemed to be a general re¬
volt in her favour. The unfortunate king found the
fpirit of difloyalty fpread oyer the whole kingdom.
Fie had placed fome dependence on the garrifon of
Briftol, which was under the command of the elder
Spenfer 5 but they mutinied againft their governor 5
and that unfortunate favourite was delivered up, and
condemned by the tumultuous barons to the moll igno¬
minious death. He was hanged on a gibbet in his ar¬
mour 5 his body was cut in pieces and thrown to the
dogs 5 and his head was fent to Winchefter, where it
a pole, and expofed to the infults of the
Young Spenfer did not long furvive his fa-
was taken, with fome others who had fol-
fortunes of the wretched king, in an ob-
feure convent in Wales. The queen had not patience
to ivait the formality of a trial 5 but ordered him to
be immediately led forth before the infulting populace,
and feemed to take a favage pleafure in beholding his
diftrefs. He was executed on a gibbet 50 feet high 5 his
head rvas fent to London, where it Avas received by the
citizens with brutal triumph, and fixed on the bridge.
In the mean time the king, Avho hoped to find re¬
fuge in Wales, was quickly difeovered, and delivered
up to his adverfaries, who infulted him in the groffeft
manner. He Avas conducted to the capital amidft the
infults and reproaches of the people, and confined in
the tower. A charge Avas foon exhibited againfl him 5
in Avliich no other crimes but his incapacity to govern,
his indolence, his love of pleafure, and his being
fwayed by evil counfellors, were objected againfl him.
His depofition, however, Avas quickly voted by parlia- Edward de¬
ment 5 he Avas afllgned a penffon for his fupport 5 his poled;
fon Edward, a youth of 14, was chofen to fucceed1
him, and the queen Avas appointed regent during the
minority. The depofed monarch did not long furvive
the lofs of his croAvn. He Avas at firfl configned to the
cuflody of the earl of Laneafter 5 but this nobleman
fhowing fome marks of refpedl and pity, he was taken
out of his hands, and delivered over to the lords Berke¬
ley, Mautravers, and Gournay, Avho AA’erc entrufled
alternately, each for a month, Avith the charge of
guarding him. While he Was in Berkeley’s cuftody,
he Avas ftill ufed with fome degree of humanity 5 but
w hen the turn of Mautravers and Gournay came, every
fpecies of indignity was praftifed upon him, as if they
had defigned to accelerate his death by the bitternefs
of his fufFerings. It is reported, that one day when
EdAvard
ENG [ 91 ]
Edward wa<? to be fhaved, tliey ordered cold and dirty wherein the
170
iml cruel¬
ly murder-
®d.
T?!
Sovereign
power af-
fumed by
the queen
and Morti
*ier.
water to be brought from a ditch for that purpofe ;
^‘and when he defired it to be changed, and was Hill de¬
nied his requeft, he burl! into tears and exclaimed,
That in fpite of their infolence he would be fhaved
with clean and warm water. As his perfecutors, how¬
ever, faw that his death might not arrive, even under
every cruelty they could praftife, and were- daily afraid
of a revolution in his favour, they determined to rid
themlelves of their fears by deftroying him at once.
Mortimer, therefore, fecretly gave orders to the two
keepers, who were at his devotion, inftantly to dif-
patch the king ■, and thefe ruffians contrived to make
the manner of his death as cruel and barbarous as pof-
fible. Taking advantage of Berkeley’s ficknefs, in
whofe cultody he then was, and who was thereby in¬
capacitated from attending his charge, they came to
Berkeley-caftle, and put themfelves in poffeffian of the
king’s perfon. They threw him on a bed, and held
him down with a table which they had placed over
him. They then ran a horn pipe up his body, through
■ which they conveyed a red-hot iron ; and thus burnt
his bowels without disfiguring his body. By this in¬
fernal contrivance they expected to have their crime
concealed: but the horrid fhrieks of the king, which
were heard at a ddtance from the caftle, gave a fufpi-
cion of the murder; and the whole was foon after di¬
vulged by the confeffion of one of the accomplices.
Gournay and Mautravers were held in detefcation by
all mankind; and when the enfuing revolution depri¬
ved their proteftors of power, they found it neceffary
to fly the kingdom. Gournay was afterwards feiztd
at Marfeilles, delivered over to the fenefchal of Guienne,
and put on board a drip with a view of carrying him
over to England ; but he was beheaded at fea, by fe-
cret orders, as was fuppofed, of feme nobles and pre¬
lates in England, anxious to prevent any difeovery
which he might make of his accomplices. Mautra-
vers concealed himfelf for feme years in Germany ;
but having found means of rendering fome fervices to
Edward III. he ventured to approach his perfon,
threw himfelf on his knees before him, and received
a pardon.
By the death of Edward II. the government fell
entirely into tire hands of the queen and her paramour
Mortimer. The parliament, which raifed young Ed-
ward the throne, had indeed appointed 12 perfons
as his privy-council, to direft the operations of govern¬
ment. Mortimer excluded himfelf, under a (how of
moderation ; but at the fame time fecretly influenced
all the meafures that came under their deliberation.
As this influence began very foon to be perceived, and
the queen’s criminal attachment to Mortimer was uni-
verfally known, thefe governors foon became very ob¬
noxious to the people. The firft ftroke given to "Mor¬
timer’s power was during an irruption of the Scots,
when the favourite prevented the young king from at¬
tacking the enemy. Though it is very probable that
the Englifh army would have been deftroyed by ma¬
king an attack on an army fituated in fueh an advan¬
tageous pod as the Scots at that time occupied, Mor-^
timer incurred great blame on that account. He was
accufed of having allowed the Scots to make their
efeape.; and the general difgud on this account was in-
creafed by his concluding a peace with that kingdom,
ENG
Englilh renounced all title to the fove- Erglahd.
reignty of Scotland for the fum of 30,000 marks. Soon "
after Mortimer feized and executed the earl of Kent, ' 1
brother to the late king; who fuppodng Edward II.
to be dill alive, had formed a defign of reindating him
in his kingdom. The execution was fo hidden, that
the young king had not time even to interpofe in his
behalf; and Mortimer foon after feized this nobleman’s
edate for his own ufe, as he did alfo the immenfe for¬
tunes of the Spenfers.
Edward, finding the power of Mortimer a continual
redraint upon himfelf, refolved to drake off an autho¬
rity that was likewife grown odious to the whole na¬
tion. The queen and Mortimer had for fome time
ehofen the cattle of Nottingham for their refidence. It
was drictly guarded, the gates were locked every night,
and the keys carried to the queen. It xvas therefore
agreed between the king and fome of the barons, who
fecretly entered into his dedgns, to feize upon them in
this fortrefs. Sir William Eland the governor was in¬
duced to admit them through a fubterraneous paffage,
which had been formerly contrived for an outlet, but
was now choked up with rubbilh, and known only to
one or two. Through this paffage the noblemen in the
king’s intered entered the callle in the night-time ;
and Mortimer, without having it in his power to make
any reddance, was feized in an apartment adjoining to
that of the queen. The parliament, which was then
fitting, condemned him, without either permitting him
to make his defence, or examining a fingle witnefs I7J
againd him. He was hanged on a gibbet at a place Mortimer
called E/mes, about a mile from London. A fimilar executed,
fentence was paffed againd fome of his adherents, par¬
ticularly Gournay and Mautravers, who found an op¬
portunity of efcaping as above mentioned. The queen,
who was perhaps the mod culpable of the whole, was
fereened by the dignity of her dation. She was, how¬
ever, depofed from all (hare of power ; and confined
for life to the cadle of Rifings, with a penfion of 3000
pounds a-year. From this confinement die was never
fet free, though the king paid her an annual vifit of
ceremony. She lived 25 years after her depofition.
Edward III. proved the greated warrior that ever
fat on the Englilh throne. Lie fird attempted to raife
Edward Baliol to the fovereignty of Scotland ; but this
he found impoffible fully to accomplilh. Edward Edward
next formed a projtft of invading and conquering Evades
France, to the fovereignty of which he pretended aFran“ l'n*
right. His fird expectations were attended with fo U ’
little fuccefs, that on his return to England he found
the nation very much difeontented, and himfelf haraf-
fed by his numerous creditors, without any fufficient
refource for paying them. Being determined, how¬
ever, not to bear any blame himfelf if he could throw
it anywhere elfe, he took the fird opportunity of
wreaking his vengeance upon his fub'efts. Finding His arbi-
therefore the tower of London negligently guarded on '-’’ary beha-
his arrival, he imprifoned the condable and all his in-v^our on
ferior officers, treating them with the greated feverity. return“
He then fell upon the Iheriffs and col left ors of the re¬
venue, whom he difmiffed from their employments, and
appointed an inquiry into their conduft to be made by
perfons who, knowing the king’s humour, were fure to
find every one guilty who came before them. The keeper
of the privy-feal, the chief-judice, the,mayor of London,
M 2 th*
A. D. 1327.
175
Is oppofed
by the
archbifliop
of Canter¬
bury;
E N G [ 93
England, the bifhops of Chicliefter and Litchfield, v;ith the
* chancellor and treafurer, were depofed and imprii'oned.
In this career of refentment and cruelty, however, lie
found himfelf oppofed by the arehbilhop of Canter¬
bury, whom he had appointed to collect the taxes laid
on for the fupport ol the French war. I hat prelate
happening to be abfent at the time of the king’s ar¬
rival, did not immediately feel the effects of his reient-
ment. Being informed, however, of the humour in
which his foyereign was, he iffued a fentence of excom¬
munication againit all who, on any pretence whatever,
fhould exercife violence againft the perfons or eftates
of clergymen, or who infringed thofe privileges fecu-
red by the great charter, or who accufed a prelate of
treafon, or any other crime, in order to bring him
under the king’s difpleafure. A regular combination
was ^formed againit the king by the clergy, with the
primate at their head 5 who, to excite the indigna¬
tion of the people as much as poffible, reported that
the king intended to recal the general pardon and the
remiffion to old debts which had been granted, and to
impofe new and arbitrary taxes without confent of par¬
liament. The archbilhop alfo, in a letter to the king,
informed him, that there were two powers by which
the world was governed, viz. the holy pontifical apo-
ftolical dignity and the regal authority •, of which the
clerical power Avas evidently the fupreme, as the priefts
were to anfwer even for the conduct of kings at the
laid; judgment 5 and Avere befides the fpiritual fathers
of all the faithful, kings and princes not excepted;
having, befides, a heavenly charter, entitling them to
direct their wills and actions, and to cenfure their
tranfgreffions. On this the king refolved to mortify
him, by fending no fummons to him Avhen the parlia¬
ment Avas called : but the prelate, undaunted by this
mark of refentment, appeared before the gates of the
parliament-houfe Avith his crofier in his hand, de¬
manding admittance as the firll peer of the realm.
This application Avas rejected for two days, but at lad
complied Avith *, and the parliament noAV feemed in¬
clined to abridge the king’s authority confiderably.
They began Avith obferving, that as the great charter
had been violated in many points, particularly by the
illegal imprifonment of many freemen and the feizure
of their goods, it was neceffary to confirm it anerv,
and to oblige all the chief officers of the laAV and
others to fwear to the obfervance of it. It Avas alfo
required, that Avhenever any of the great offices be¬
came vacant, the king ffiould fill them up by the ad¬
vice of his council and the confent of fiich barons as
ffiould at the time be found to refide in the neigh¬
bourhood of the court. They enadted alfo, that on
the third day of every feffion the king fhould refume
all fuch offices into his oAvn hand, excepting thofe of
the judices of the two benches and the barons of ex¬
chequer •, that the minifters ffiould for the time be re¬
duced to private perlons} that they ffiould in that
condition apfwer before parliament to any accufation
preferred againft them } and that, if they Avere found
in any refpect guilty, they ffiould be finally deprived
of their offices, and others appointed in their Head.
In return for fuch ample conceffions, the king Avas of¬
fered a grant of 20,000 fades of avooI ; and fuch Avas
his urgent neceffity, that he AAras compelled to accept
cf it even upon thefe terms. Still, however, he deter-
175
and obli¬
ged at laft
to i'ubmit:
] E N G
mined to adhere to his engagements no longer than till England,
this neceffity was removed. Though the agreement,
therefore, Avas ratified in full parliament, he fecretly J/'*
entered a protell, that, as foon as his convenience per¬
mitted, he Avould from his own authority revoke Avhat
had been extorted from him. This protell Avas after-
Avards confirmed by a public edict 5 in Avhich he affert-
ed, that that llatute had been made contrary to laAV •,
that it was prejudicial to the prerogatAes of the croAvn,
Avhich he had only diffembled. Avhen he feemed to ra¬
tify it} and that in his own breait he had never alfent-
ed to it : and declared, that from thenceforth it had
no force or authority. This exertion of arbitrary But regains
poAver, Avhich it might have been imagined Avould have hh power,
occafioned a prodigious clamour, ay as not taken notice
of by any of the fubfequent parliaments j fo that in
the courfe of two years EdAvard had entirely regained
his authority, and obtained a repeal of the obnoxious
ilatute jult mentioned. Having thus fettled matters Performs
to his fatisfadlion, the king relumed his expedition great ex-
agai’nlt France, Avhere he gained great-advantages. Inpkits in
his abfence the Scots invaded England } but were en- lK!1jCe*
tirely defeated at Durham, and their king himfelf taken
prifoner. The Englifh king in the mean time continu¬
ed his victories on the continent; in Avhich he Avas
greatly affilted by Edward furnamed the Black Prince,
the greatell hero recorded in the Englilh annals. But
for the Avars of EdAvard III. and the exploits of this
famous prince, fee the articles Scotland and France.
The Black Prince died on the 8th of June 1376, and
the king furvived only about a year. He expired on
the 21 ft of June 1377, and Avas fucceeded by his fe-Richard II.
cond fon Richard.
As the new king Avas only eleven years old Avhen lie
afeended the throne, the government Avas veiled in the
hands of his three uncles, the dukes of Eaneafter, York,
and Glouceller. The different dilpolitions of thefe no¬
blemen, it Avas thought, Avould eaufe them check the
defigns of each other. Eanealter Ai’as neither popular
nor enterprifing j York Avas indolent and Aveak 5 and
Gloucefter turbulent, popular, and ambitious. Dif-
contents firft arofe among the common people. They
had noAV acquired a ffiare of liberty fufficient'to infpire
them Avith a defire for more, and this defire Avas greatly
increafed by the difeourfes of John Ball a leditious
preacher. He Avent about the country, and inculcated
on his audience, that mankind Avere all derived from
one common ftock ; and that all of them had equal
right to liberty and the goods of nature, of which they
had been deprived by the ambition of a feAV infolent
rulers.
Thefe doflrines tvere greedily fwalloAved by the po¬
pulace, Avho were farther inflamed by a nerv impofition
of three groats a-head upon every perfon in the king¬
dom above 15 years of age. This had been granted
as a fupply by parliament, and Avas no doubt neceffary
on account of the many expenfive Avars in which the
kingdom Avas engaged } but its apparent injuftice, in
laying no more burden upon the rich than the poor,
excited the utmoft refentment of the people. The
manner, too, of collecting this tax, foon furnilhed them
with an oceafion of revolt. It began in Effex, Avhere a
report Avas induftrioufly fpread that the peafants were
to be deftroyed, their houfes burned, and their farms
plundered. A blackfmith, Avell known by the name
of
England.
A. D- 1.377
180
Dangerous
infurrec-
tion by
Wat Ty¬
ler.
He is kill¬
ed.
ENG [93
of Wat Tyler, was the firft that excited them to arms.
The tax-gatherers coming to this man’s houfe while he
was at Avork, demanded payment for his daughter.
This he refufed, alleging that fhe Avas under the age
mentioned in the aft. One of thefe felloAvs offered to
produce a very indecent proof to the contrary, and at
the fame time laid hold of the maid. This the father
refenting, immediately knocked out the ruffian’s brains
Avith his hammer. The by danders applauded the ac¬
tion 3 and exclaimed that it Avas high time for the peo¬
ple to take vengeance on their tyrants, and to vindi¬
cate their native liberty. The Avhole country imme¬
diately took arms, and the infurgents foon amounted
to about 100,000 men. They advanced to Blackheath,
Avhere they font a meffage to the king, Avho had taken
flielter in the toAver, defiring a conference AArith him.
The king Avas defirous of complying Avith their de¬
mands, but Airas intimidated by their fierce behaviour.
In the mean time, they entered the city, burning and
plundering the houfes of fuch as were obnoxious for
their pmver or riches. Their animofity Avas particu¬
larly levelled again:! the laivyers, to whom they IIioav-
ed no mercy. The king, at laft, knowing that the
tower Avas not able to refill their affaults, Avent out
among them, and defired to know their demands. To
this they made a very humble remonftrance 3 requiring
a general pardon, the abolition of flavery, freedom of
commerce in the market-toAvns, and a fixed rent in-
flead of thofe fervices required by the tenure of vil-
lenage. The king granted all thefe requefts 3 and
charters Avere made out by Avhich the grant was rati¬
fied. In the mean time, hoAvever, another body of
thefe infurgents had broke into the torver, and mur¬
dered the chancellor, the primate, and the treafurer,
Avith fome other officers of diftinftion. They then di-
A'ided themfelves into bodies, and took up their quar¬
ters in different parts of the city. At the head of one
of thefe Avas Wat Tyler, Avho led his men into Smith-
field, Avhere he Avas met by the king, Avho invited him
to a conference under pretence of hearing and redrefs-
ing his grievances. Tyler ordered his companions to
retire till he fhould give them a fignal, and boldly ven¬
tured to begin a conference Avith the king in the midll
of his retinue. His demands Avere, That all ilaves
fhould be fet free 3 that all commonages fhould be open
to the poor as Avell as to the rich 3 and that a general
pardon fhould be palled for the late outrages. Whilft
he made thefe demands, he uoav and then lifted up his
fword in a menacing manner : Avhich infolence fo rai-
fed the indignation of William Waftvorth lord mayor
of London, that, without confidering the danger to
Avhieh he expofed his ihajefty, he ilunned Tyler Avith
a bloAV of his mace 3 AA’hile one of the king’s knights
riding up, difpatched him Avith his fword. The mu¬
tineers, feeing their leader fall, prepared themfelves to
take revenge. Their boAVS Avere already bent for exe¬
cution 3 Avhen Richard, though not yet 16 years of
age, rode up to the rebels, and AArith admirable prefence
of mind cried out: “ What, my people, Avill you kill
your king ? Be not concerned for the lofs of your lead¬
er. I myfelf aviII norv be your general. FoIIoav me
into the field, and you fhall have Avhatever you defire.”
The multitude immediately defifted, and folIoAved the
king into the fields, Avhere he granted them the fame
charters that he had before granted to their compa-
] • ENG
nions. Thefe charters, hoAA'ever, Avere foon after revo- England.
ked, and the common people reduced to the fame fitua- ." 7f >r~*"
- -   - f r A. D. 1.37'
tion in Avhich they had formerly been.
The courage, addrefs, and prefence of mind, which
the king had difeovered in quelling fuch a dangerous
tumult, gave great hopes to the nation : but, in pro¬
portion as Richard advanced in year's, thefe hopes Avere
blafted 3 and his Avant of capacity, or at leail of folid
judgment, appeared in every enterprife he attempted..
The king had unluckily loft the favour of the com-. 182
mon people after the infurredlion juft mentioned. He The king
alloAved the parliament to revoke the charters of en- \°^es t^.
franchifement and pardon which had been granted 3
fome of the ringleaders in the late diforders had been
feverely puniftred, and fome even put to death Avith-
out any form or procefs of trial. Thus the popular
leaders Avere greatly exafperated by this cruelty, though
probably the king did not folioav the diftates of his
orvn mind fo much in it as the advice of his counfel-
lors. But having thus loft the favour of one party,
he quickly after fell under the difpleafure of the other
alfo. Suppofing himfelf to be in too great fubjeftion
to his uncles, particularly the duke of Gloucefter, he
attempted to ihake off the yoke, by raifing others
to fuch a degree of poAver as might enable them to l8^
rival them. His firft favourite Avas Robert de Vere His exceK,
earl of Oxford, a young man of an agreeable perfon, five favour
but diffolute in his behaviour, Avho foon acquired an e“r*
abfolute afeendant over him. So much Avas he deter- 11 1 ‘
mined to fttoAV his attachment to this nobleman, that
he firft created him marquis of Dublin, a title ne¬
ver knoAvn in England before 3 then duke of Ireland 3
transferring to him the entire fovereignty of that
ifland by patent for life. He gave him in marriage
his coufin-german, the daughter of the earl of Bed¬
ford 3 but loon after permitted him to divorce her for 1S4
another lady Avith whom he had fallen in love. This A confpira-
nobleman foon became the difpenfer of all the king’s c>' agamft
favours to fuch a degree, that a confpiracy Avas formed l*lc
again!! him 3 at the head of Avhich Avere MoAvbray
earl of Nottingham, Fitz Alan earl of Arundel,
Percy earl of Northumberland, Montacute carl of
Saliibury, and Beauchamp earl of Wanvick. Vere
Avas impeached in parliament 3 and though nothing of
moment Avas even alleged againft him, he Avas con¬
demned and deprived of his office. They next pro¬
ceeded to attack the royal authority itlelf. Under
pretence that the king was yet unable to govern the
kingdom, though at that time 21 years of age, they
appointed a commiffion of 14 perfons to whom the
fovereignty v’as to be transferred for a year. This
meafure Avas driven forward by the duke of Gloucefter,
and none but his oav:i fafticn Avas admitted as mem¬
bers of the committee. The king could not Avithout
regret perceive himfelf thus totally deprived of autho¬
rity. He fin! endeavoured to gain over the parlia¬
ment to his interefts, by influencing the fheriffs of each
county, Avho were then the only returning officers..
This meafure failing, he next applied to the judges.
They declared, that the commiffion Avhich had depri¬
ved the king of his authority Avas unlaAvful, and that
thofe Avho procured or advifed it Avere punifhable Avith
death. Their fentence Avas quickly oppofed by decla¬
rations from the lords. The duke of Gloucefter arm¬
ed his partifans, and appeared at Haringay park near
Highgate,
ENG [ 9+ 1 E N G.
England. HioWte, at the head of a body of men fufficient to earls of Arundel and W arwick were feized at the fame Engknt?.^
* v intimidate the king and all his adherents. 'Iheie in- time; and a new parliament, which tne hmg knew ^ ^ ^
A. D.i309. pen{;^e 0f their own power, began by de- would be perfectly obeoient to his w nl, Avas iummoned
manding of the king the names of thofe who had ad- to Weftminiter. Here the commiiiion of 14, who l.ad
vifed him to his late rath meafures. A few days after- ufurped on the royal authority, was annulled for ever;
wards they appeared armed in his prefence, and accu- all thofe acts which had condemned his former mininers
fed by name the archbithop of York, the duke of were repealed; and the general parden which the king
Ireland, the earl of Suffolk, and Sir Robert Trefrlian, had formerly given when he aiiumed the government l8<^
one of the judges who had declared in his favour, to- into his own hands, was revoked. Seveial ot Gloucef-Duke of
o-ether with Sir Nicholas Bember, as public and dan- tens party were condemned and executed, and at laid G o^citer
gerous enemies to the ftate. The duke of Ireland fled that nobleman himfelf was caLed for to cake his trial
into Cheihire, where he attempted to raife a body of as wrell as the reft ; but he had before been privately
forces ; but v/as quickly obliged to fly into Flanders, difpatched in prifon. .
on the arrival of the duke of Gloucefter with a fuperior After the deftrudion of the duke of Glcucefter and
army. Soon after, the king was obliged t'o fummon the heads of his party, a mifunderftanding arofe among
a parliament, where an accufation was drawn up againft the noblemen who had joined in the prolecuticn. 1 he
five of his counfellors. Of thefe only Sir Nicholas duke of Hereford appeared in parliament, and accuied
Bember was prefent; and he wras quickly found guil- the duke of Norfolk of having fpoken leditious rvoras
ty, condemned, and executed, together with Sir Ro- againft his majefty in a private converfation. Norfolk
bert Trefilian, who had been difeovered and taken du- denied the charge, gave Hereford the lie, and offered
ring the interval. Lord Beauchamp of Holt was foon to prove his innocence by Angle combat._ 1 he chal-
after condemned and executed ; and Sir Simon Bur- lenge w as accepted ; but on the cay appointed for the
ley, who had been appointed the king’s governor, ftia- duel, the king would not fufftr the combatants to en-
red the fame fate, though the queen continued for three gage, but commanded both of them to leave the king- lS7
hours on her knees before the duke of Gloucefter, im- dom. I he duke of Norfolk he banifhed for rife, but Dukes of
ploring his pardon. the duke of Hereford only for ten years. The former Hereford
Such unparalleled mfolence and barbarity in a fub- retired to Venice, where in a ftiort time he died of a folk kaniih-
jeft could not go unpunifhed. In 1389, the king at broken heart. Hereford behaved in * refigned and td>
an extraordinary council of the nobility affembled after fubmiffive manner; which fo pleaied. the king, tnat he
l8e. Eafter, to the aftonifhment of all prefent, defired to confented to fhorten the time of his banifhment four
Tkc king know his age. Being told that lie ivas turned of two years : he alio granted him. letters patent, enfuring
takes the anq twenty, he alleged that it was then time for him him of the enjoyment of any inheritance v hich ftiould
power into t[) ertl without help ; and that there was no reafon fall to him during his abfence ; but upon the death of
J115 fjwn why he fhould be deprived of thofe rights which the his father the. duke of Lancafter, which happened
meaneft of his fubjedfs enjoyed. The lords anfwered fhortly after, tiichard revoked thofe letters, and kept
in fome confufion, that he had certainly an undifputcd the eftate to himfelf. 1S8
right to take upon himfelf the government of the king- This laft injury inflamed the refentment of Here-Hereford
dom. “ Yes (replied the king), 1 have long been ford to fueh a degree, that he formed a ccfign of de- 0f
under the government of tutors; and I will now firft throning the king. He was a great favourite both(jethr0i1ing
{how my right to power by their removal.” He then with the army and people ; lie was immenfely rich, the king,
ordered Thomas Arundel,. whom the commiflioners and connefte^y blood or alliance with all the great
had lately appointed chancellor, to give up the feals ; families of the nation. 1 he king at the fame time, it
which he next day delivered to William Wickham bi- is faid, gave himfelf up to an idle, effeminate life ; and
fhep of Winchefter. Fie next removed the duke of his minifters following his example, the national honour
Gloucefter, the earl of Warwick, and other lords of the was loft. The number of malecontents daily increafed,
oppofition, from the council; and all the great offi- and only waited for the abfence of the king, in order
cers of the houfehold, as well as the judges, were to put their fchemes in execution ; and this opportunity
changed. loon oflfered*
The king being thus left at liberty to govern as he The earl of March, prefumptive heir to the crown,
thought proper, for fome time behaved in fuch a man- having been appointed the king s lieutenant in Ireland,
ner as to gain the affeffions of the people. It does was flam in a fkirmifh with the natives of that country ;
not appear indeed that he ever gave much caufe of which fo incenfed Richard, that, unmindful of his pre¬
complaint; but it was impoflible for any prince in thofe carious fituation at home, he went over to Ireland wnh
days to keep himfelf fecure on the throne but by a very a confiderable army, in order to revenge his death in
fevere and vigorous adminiftraition. The duke of Glou- perfon. The duke of Lancafter (for that was the title
ccfter, perceiving that Richard was not of a Avar like t\rhich Hereford afiumed on the death of his fathtr)
difpofition, frequently fpoke Avith contempt of his per- hearing of the king’s abfence, inftantly embarked at
fun and government, and deliberated concerning the Nantz ; and Avith a retinue only of 60 peifons in three
iawfulnefs of throwing* off all allegiance to him. ' The fmall veffels, landed at Ravenfpur in Yorkftiire. The
king being informed of his conduft by fpies appointed earl of Northumberland, who had long been a male-
for that purpofe, at laft formed a refolution of ridding content, together with Henry Percy his fon, who. from
himfelf of Gloucefter and his faftion at once. He there- his ardent valour was furnamed Hotfpur, immediately
fore ordered that nobleman to be immediately arrefted joined him with their forces; and the people flocked
and fent over to Calais, where there was no danger of to him in fuch numbers, that in a few days his army
his being refeued by his numerous adherents. The amounted to 60,000 men.
’ 5
Bichard,
ENG
[
murdered.
England. Richard, in the mean time, continued in perfect fe-
A l)^ cur*ty in Ireland for fome time. Contrary winds for
• l399- t]iree weeks together prevented his receiving any news
of the rebellion which was begun in his native domi¬
nions. He landed therefore at Milford Haven without
fufpicion, attended by a body of 20,000 men 5 but im-
mediaiely found himfelf oppofed by a power which he
could by no means relift. His army gradually defert-
ed him, till at laft he wTas obliged to acquaint the duke,
189 that he -would fubmit to whatever terms he pleafed to
Bichard de-preferibe. The duke did not think proper to enter
pofed and any treaty with the king; but carried him to
London, where he was confined clofe prifoner in
the tower, formally depofed by parliament, or rather
by the* duke of Lancafter, and at laft put to death.
The manner of his death is varioufly related. Accord¬
ing to fome, eight or nine ruffians were fent to the
cartle of Pomfret, whither the unhappy prince had
been removed, in order to difpatch him. They ruffi-
ed unexpectedly into his apartment; but Richard,
knowing their defign, refolved to fell his life as dear as
poffible. He wrefted a pole-axe from one of the mur¬
derers, with which he killed four of them 5 but was at
length overpowered and killed. Others relate that he
was llarved in prifon j and that, after he was denied all
nourilhment, he prolonged his life 14 days, by feeding
on the flocks of his bed. He died in the year 1399,
in the 34th year of his age, and 23d of his reign.—It
was during the reign of Richard II. that Wickliff, the
noted reformer, publifhed his doftrines in England. See
Wickliff.
t After fentence of depofition had been pronounced
daiirftoftie ^ ^chard b-v ljC)^1 houfes of parliament, the throne
dim ° 1C being then vacant, the duke of Lancafter ftepped
forth ; and having crofted himfelf on the forehead and
on the breaft, and called on the name of Chrift, gave
in liis claim to the throne in the following words,
which we fhall give in the original language. In
the name of Fadher, Son, and Holy Ghoft, I Henry
of Lancafter, challenge this rewme of Ynglonde, and
the croun, with all the membres and the appurtenan¬
ces y als I that am defeendit by right line of the blode,
coming fto the gude King Henry therde, and throge
that right that God of his grace hath fent me, with
help of kyn, and of my frendes to recover it; the which
rewme was in poynt to be ondonc by defaut of govern¬
ance, and ondoying of the gude laws.”
I he right which the duke here claimed by defeent
from Henry III. proceeded on a falfe ftory, that Ed¬
mund earl of Lancafter, fon of Henry IIL was really
the elder brother of Edward I. ; but that, by reafon of
lome deformity in his per fon, he had been poftponed
in the fucceffion, and Edward the younger brother im-
pofed on the nation in his Head. The prefent duke
of Lancafter inherited from Edpiund, by his mother,
the right which he now pretended to the crown; though
the falfehood of the ftory was fo generally known, that
lie thought proper to mention it only in general terms.
—No oppofition, however, was made to the validity
of this title in parliament j and thus commenced the
differences between the houfes of York and Lancafter,
which were not terminated but by many bloody and
ruinous wars.
. The rejgn of Henry IV. was little elfe than a con¬
tinued feries of infur regions. In the very firft parlia-
190
Duke of
crown.
95 ] ENG
ment he called, no fewer than 40 cliallenges were given England,
and accepted by different barons ^ and though Henrv v——1 *
had ability and addrefs enough to prevent thefe duels A* 'D‘I4C'5'
from being fought, it was not in his power to prevent
continual infurreclions and combinations againft him¬
felf. The moft formidable one was conducted by the
earl of Northumberland, and commenced A. D. 1402.
I he oceafion of it was, that Henry denied the earl
liberty to ranfom fome Scots prifoners which had been
taken 111 a fkirmifh with that nation. I lie king wras
defirous of detaining them in order to increafe his de¬
mands upon Scotland in making peace j but as the
ramom of prifoners was in that age looked upon as a
right belonging to Uiofe who had taken them, the earl
thought himfelf grievoufiy injured. The injury appear¬
ed ttill the greater, becaufe Northumberland confider-
ed the king as indebted to him both for his life and l9?i
crown. He reiolved therefore to dethrone Henry 5 Infurrec-
and to raife to the throne young Mortimer, vrho w as ^on t^f!
the true heir to the crown, as being the fon of Rover t"1 f
Mortimer earl of March, whom Rfchard II. had de-^SmT'
dared his fucceffor. For this purpofe, he entered into
an alliance with tne Scots and Welfh, wffio were to
make an irruption into England at the fame time that
lie himfelf wras to raifc w hat forces he could in order to
join them. Lut when all things were prepared for this
infurreOMon, the can found himfelf unable to lead on
the troops, by a Hidden fit of illnefs with which he
wras feized at Berwick. On this, young Percy (fur-
named Hotjpur) took the command ; and marched to¬
wards Shrewsbury, in order to pin the Welffi. But
the king had happily a fmail army with which he in¬
tended to have acted againft the Scots 5 and knowing
the importance of celerity in civil wars, inftantiy hum
ned down, that he might give battle to the rebels. He
approached Shrewibury before a junction writh the
Welfh could be effected 5 and the impatience of Percy
urged him to an engagement, which at that time he
ought to have declined. The evening before the battle,
he fent a manifeito to Henry j in which he renounced
his allegiance, fet the king' at defiance, and enumera-
ted all the grievances of which he imagined t he nation
might juftly complain. He reproached him (and very
juftly) with his perjury 5 for Henry, on his firft land-
ing iii England, had fworn upon the gofpels, before
the earl of Northumberland, that lie had no other in¬
tention but to recover poffeffion of the duchy of Lan¬
cafter, and that he would ever remain a faithful fubject
to King Richard. He aggravated his guilt, in firft
dethroning and then murdering that prince 5 and in
u fur ping on the title of the houfe of Mortimer ; to
whom, both by lineal fucceffion and by declarations of
parliament, the throne, then vacant by Richard’s death,
did of right belong. Several other heavy charges were
brought againft him j which, at that time, could be
productive of no other c fib ft than to irritate the kina-
and his adherents to the utmoft. 0
1 he armies on each fide w^ere in number about His fon de-
12,000 ; fo tnat they wTere not unmanageable by their fested and
commanders ; and as both leaders were men of known kilIed at
191
Henry IV.
bravery, an obftinate engagement w as expefted. The
battle was fought on the 20th of July 1403 5 and we
can fcarce find in tliofe ages any other in w hich the
ftiock Avas fo terrible and conftant. ’ At laft Percy beinu-
killcd by an unknoAvn hand, the victory was decided
Shrews¬
bury.
England. *
A. D. 1405
194
Archbifhop
of York ex¬
ecuted.
i9$ c
Burning of
heretics in¬
troduced.
ENG [ 96 1
in favour of tire royalifts. There are faid to have
fallen on that day near 2300 gentlemen, and 6000
private men, of whom near two-thirds were of Percy s
The earl of Northumberland having recovered from
his ficknefs, and levied an army, was on his march to
loin his fon 5 but being oppofed by the earl of West¬
morland, and hearing of the defeat at Shrewfbury, ne
difmiflfed his forces, and came with a fmall retinue to
the king at York. He pretended that his foie inten¬
tion was to mediate between the contending parties 5
and the king thought proper.to accept of^ his apology,
and grant him a pardon for his offence. 1 he other re¬
bels were treated with equal lenity ^ and none of them,
except the earl of Worcefter and Sir Richard Vernon,
who were regarded as the chief authors of the infurrec-
tion, perilhed by the hands of the executioner. This
lenity, however, was not fufficient to keep tne king¬
dom quiet •, one infurreclion followed another almoit
during the whole of this reign ; but either through
Henry’s vigilance, or the bad management of the con-
fpirators, they never could unite their forces in fuch a
manner ’as was neceffary for bringing their projeds to
t)ear‘ . , .n
This reign is remarkable for the nrft capital punnii-
ment indicted on a clergyman of high rank, i he arch-
bifhop of York having been concerned in an mfurrec-
tion againft the king, and happening_ta be taken pri-
foner, was beheaded without either indictment, trial,
or defence*, nor Was any ditturbance occafioned by
this fummary execution. But the molt remarkable
tr an fa ft ion of this reign was, the introdudion of that
abfurd and cruel pradice of burning people on account
of their religion. Henry, while a fubjed, was thought
to have been very favourable to the dodrines of \Vick-
liff; but when he came to the throne, finding Ids pof-
feflion of it very infecure, he thought fuperftition a
neceffary implement of his authority, and therefore
determined by all means to pay court to the clergy.
There were hitherto no penal laws againft herefy j not
indeed through the toleration of the court of Rome,
but through the ftupidity of the people, who could not
perceive the abfurdities of the eftablilhed religion. But
when the learning and genius of Wickliff had once
broken the fetters of prejudice, the ecclefiaftics called
aloud for the punifhmeiit of his difciples *, and Henry,
who was very little fcrupulous in his condud, refolved
to gratify them. He engaged parliament to pais a
law for this purpofe : it was enaded, that when any
heretic, who relapfed, or refufed to abjure his opinions,
was delivered over to the fecular arm by the biihop or
his commiffaries, he Ihould be committed to the flames
before the whole people. This weapon did not remain
long unemployed in the hands of the clergy. William
Sautre, redor of St Ofithes in London, had been con¬
demned by the convocation of Canterbury *, his fen-
tence was ratified by the houfe of peers *, the king if-
fued his writ for the execution *, and the unhappy man
was burnt alive in the year 1401. The dodrines of
Wickliff, however, feem to have already gained ground
very confiderably in England. In 1405, the commons,
mho had been required to grant fupplies, proposed in
plain terms to the king to feize all the temporalities of
the church, and employ them as a perpetual fund to
ferve the exigencies of the ftate. Ihey infifted that
E N G
king-
Enghnd.
the clergy poffeffed a third of the lands of the ^
dom } and they contributed nothing to the public bur-
dens*, and that their exorbitant riches tended only to' • V1.*-
difqualify them from performing their miniiieiial func¬
tions with proper zeal and attention. When this ad-
drefs was prefented, the archbifhop of Canterbury, who
then attended the king, objected that the clergy, though
they went not in perfon to the wars, lent their vaflals
and tenants in all cafes of neceflity j while at the fame
time, they themfelves who ftaid at home were employ¬
ed night and day in offering up their prayers for the
happinefs and profperity of the ftate. 1 he fpeaker an-
fwered with a imile, that he thought the prayers of the
church but a very flender fupply. T he archbifhop,
however, prevailed in the difpute } the king diicoura-
ged the application of the commons*, and the lords re-
jedted the bill which the lower houfe had framed for
defpoiling the church of her revenues. The commons
’were not difeouraged by this repulfe. In 1410, they
returned to the charge with more zeal than before.
They made a calculation of all the ecclefiaftical reve¬
nues, which, by their account, amounted to 485,000
marks a-year, and included 18,400 ploughs of land.
They propofed to divide this property among 15 new
earls, 1500 knights, 6000 efquires, and 100 hofpitals ;
befides 20,000!. a-year, which the king might keep
for his own ufe : and they infifted that the clerical
functions would be better performed than at pre-
fent, by 15,000 parifti priefts, at the rate of 7 marks
a-piece of yearly ftipend. This application was ac¬
companied with an addrefs for mitigating the ftatutes
enabled againft the Wickliffites or Lollards, fo that the
king knew very rvell from what fource it came. ^ He
gave the commons, however, a fevere reply anu fur¬
ther to fatisfy the church that he was in earneft, or¬
dered a Lollard to be burnt before the diffblution of
parliament. ,
The king had been for feme time fubjebt to fits,
which continued to increafe, and gradually brought
him to his end. He expired at Weftminfter in 1413,
in the 46th year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. 19S
He was fucceeded by his fon Henry V. whofe martial Uenry v.
talents and charabler had at firft occafioned unreafon-
able jealoufies in the mind of his father, fo that he
thought proper to exclude him from all fliarc or public
bufinefs. The active fpirit of Henry being thus re-
ftrained from its proper exercife, broke out in every
kind of extravagance and diffipation. It is even re¬
ported, that, when heated with liquor, he fcrupled not
to accompany his riotous affociates in attacking the
paffengers on the ftreets and highways, and robbing
them of their goods. No fooner, however, did he
afeend the throne, than he called together his former
companions, acquainted them with his intended refor>
mation, exhorted them to imitate his example 5 but
ftribtly prohibited them, till they had given proofs of
their fincerity in this particular, to appear any more in
his prefence : after which, he difmifled them with li¬
beral prefents. His father’s wife minifters, who had
checked his riots, found that they had, unknown to
themfelves, being paying the higheft court to their fo-
vereign j and w7ere received vitb all the marks of fa¬
vour and confidence. The chief juftice, who had for¬
merly imprifoned the prince himfelf, and therefore
trembled to approach the royal prefence, met with
praiies
ENG
A. li. 1414.
197
Enforces
the laws
againft
heretics.
England, praifes inftead of reproaches for his pad conduct, and
was exhorted to perfevere in the fame rigorous and im¬
partial execution of the laws. The king was not only-
anxious ty repair his own mifconducl, but alfo to make
amends for thofe iniquities into -which policy or necef-
lity of affairs had betrayed his father. He expreffed
the deepeft for row for the fate of the unhappy King
liichard, and even performed his funeral obfequies
with pomp and folemnity, and heaped favours upon
all thofe who had fhown tbemfelves attached to him.
He took into favour the young earl of March, though
his competitor for the throne ; and gained fo far on
his gentle and unambitious nature, that he remained
ever after fmccrely attached to him. The family of
Percy was reftoredto its fortune and honours j and the
king feemed delirous to bury all dilbinflions in obli¬
vion. Men of merit rvere preferred, whatever party
they had been of; all men were unanimous in their at¬
tachment to Henry ; and the defeats of his title were
forgotten amidib the perfonal regard which was univer-
fally paid him.
The only party which Henry was not able to over¬
come was the new feet of Lollards, or reformers of re¬
ligion. Thefe were now gaining fueh ground in Eng¬
land, that the Romidi clergy were greatly alarmed, and
Henry was determined to execute the laws upon them.
The head of that party at prefent -was Sir John Old-
caftle, Lord Cobham 5 a nobleman -who had dillin-
guifhed himfelf by his valour and military talents on
many occaixons, and acquired the efteem both of the
late and prefent king. His high character and zeal for
the new left pointed him out to Arundel archbiihop of
Canterbury as a proper obi ebb of ecclefiaftical fury, and
therefore he applied to Henry for permiffion to indicb
him. The king delired him firft to try gentle me¬
thods, and undertook to converfe with Lord Cobham
himfelf upon religious fubjebbs. He did fo, but could
not prevail, and therefore abandoned Cobham to his
enemies. He was immediately condemned to the
blames : but having found means -to make his efcape,
he raifed an infurrection 5 which was foon fuppreffed,
without any other confequence than that of bringing
a ftain on the feft to which he belonged. Cobham
himfelf made his efcape, but four years afterwards
was taken and executed as a traitor. Immediately
after, the moft fevere laws were paffed againft the
Lollards. It was enabled, that whoever was convibled
of Lollardy, befides buffering capital punifhment accord¬
ing to the laws formerly eftablifhed, fhould alfo for¬
feit his lands and goods to the king j and that the
chancellor, treafurer, juftices of the two benches, fhe-
riffs, juftices of the peace, and all the chief magi-
ftrates in every city and borough, bhould take an oath
to ufe their utmoft endeavours for the extirpation of
herefy.
Notwithftanding thefe terrible laws, the very parlia¬
ment which enabled them, namely that of 1414, when
the king demanded a fupply, renewed the offer for¬
merly preffed upon Henry IV. and intreated the king
to feize all the ecclefiajlical revenues, and convert them
to the ufe of the .crown. The clergy were greatly a-
1 armed. They could offer the king nothing of equal
value. They agreed, however, to confer on him all the
priories alien, which depended on capital abbeys in
Normandv, and which had been bequeathed to them
Vol. VIII. Part I.
1 97 T
ENG
when that province was united to England. The Engbaai.
moft effectual method, however, of warding off the l—v~—J
blow at prefent was by perfuading the king to under-A’D- 1455
take a war with France, in order to recover the pro¬
vinces in that kingdom which had formerly belonged
to England. Tins was agreeable to the dying injunc¬
tion of Henry IV. He advifed his fon never to let the
Engliih remain long in peace, which was apt to breed
inteiline commotions ; but to employ them in foreign
expeditions, by which the prince might acquire ho¬
nour, the nobility in bharing his dangers might at¬
tach themfelves to his perfon, and all the relllefs fpi-
rits find occupation for their inquietude. The natural
difpofition of Henry fufficiently inclined him to follow
this advice, and the civil diforders of France gave him
the fairell profpebb of fuccefs. Accordingly, in 1415, France in,-.
the king invaded France at the head of 30,000 men. vadeff
The great progrefs he made there is related at length
under the article France. He had efpoufed the king’s
daughter, and conquered the greateft part of the king¬
dom. His queen was delivered of a fon named Henry^
whofe birth was celebrated by the greateft rejoicings
both at London and Paris } and the infant prince feem¬
ed to be univerfaliy regarded as heir to both monarchies.
But Henry’s glory, when it feemed to be approach¬
ing the fummit, was blafted at once by death, and all
--his mighty projebts vaniftied. He was feized with a
fillula, a diftemper which at that time the phylicians
had not fkiil enough to cure ; and he expired on the Death of
31ft of Auguft 1422, in the 34th .year of his age, and Henr)' v-
the 1 Oth ox his reign.
Henry VI. fucceeded to the throne before he was Henry VE
quite a year old, and his reign affords only the moft
difmal accounts of misfortunes and civil wars. His
relations very foon began to difpute about the admi-
niftration during the minority. The duke of Bed¬
ford, one of the moft accoinpliflied princes of the aye
-was appointed by parliament protector of England,
defender of the church, and firft counfellor to the
king. His brother, the duke of Gloucefter, was fixed
upon to govern in his abfence, while he condu&ed the
war in France 5 and in order to limit the power of both
brothers, a council was named, without whofe advice
and approbation no meafure could be carried into exe¬
cution.
The kingdom of France was now in the moft defpe-
rate fituation. I he Engliili were mafters of almoft.
the whole of it. Henry VI. though but an infant, was
folemnly inverted with regal power by legates from Pa¬
ris 5 fo that Charles VII. of France fucceeded only to
a nominal kingdom. With all thefe great advantages^
however, the Englifh daily loft ground 5 and in "the
year 1450 were totally expelled from France *. It * Sce
may eafily be imagined, that fueh a train of bad fuccefs France.
would produce di(contents among the rulers at home.
The duke of Gloucefter was envied by many on account
of his high ftation. Among thefe was Henry Beaufort,
bithop of Winchefter, great uncle to the king, and the
legitimate fon of John of Gaunt brother to Richard II.
The prelate, to whom the care of the king’s educa¬
tion had been committed, was a man of great capaci¬
ty and experience, but of an intriguing and dangerous
difpofition. He had frequent difputes with the duke
of Gloucefter, over whom he gained feveral advantages
on account of his open temper. The duke of Bed-
N fcrd
ENG [ 98 ] ENG
England*. £0rcl employed both his own authority and that of par-
* liament to reconcile them, but in vain j their mutual
A. D. 1450. animoflties fervecl for feveral years to embarrafs go¬
vernment, and to give its enemies every advantage.
The fentiments of the two leaders were particularly di¬
vided with regard to France. The biihop laid hold of
every profpect of accommodation with that country ;
and the duke of Gloucefter was for maintaining the
honour of the Englilh arms, and regaining whatever
had been loll; by defeats or delay. Both parties call¬
ed in all the auxiliaries they could. The biihop re-
folved to ftrengthen himfelf by procuring a proper
match for Henry, at that time 23 years old } and then
bringing over the queen to his intereils. Accordingly,
the earl of Suffolk, a nobleman whom he knew to be
ftedfalt in his attachments, was fent over to France,
apparently to fettle the terms of a truce which had then
been begun, but in reality to procure a fuitable match
„01 for the king.
Married to The biihop and his friends had call their eyes on
Margaret Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Regnier, titular king
of Anjou. 0f Sicily^ Naples, and Jerufalem j but without either
real power or poffeffions. She wras conlidered as the
moll accomplilhed princefs of the age, both in mind
and perfon 5 and it was thought would, by her own
abilities, be able to fupply the defects of her hufband,
who appeared weak, timid, and fuperltitious. The
treaty was therefore haftened on by Suffolk, and foon
after" ratified in England. The queen came immedi¬
ately into the bilhop’s meafures : Glouceller w as depri¬
ved of all real power, and every method taken to ren¬
der him odious to the public. One ftep taken for this
purpofe was to accufe his duchefs of witchcraft. She
was charged with converling with one Roger Boling-
broke, a priell and reputed necromancer j and alfo with
one Mary Gourdemain, who was faid to be a witch.
It was afferted that thefe three in conjundlion had made
an image of the king in wax, which was placed before
a gentle fire : and as the wax diffolved, the king’s
ffrength was expected to -walte 5 and upon its total dif-
folution, his life was to be at an end. This accufation
was readily believed in that fuperftitious age. I he pri-
foners were pronounced guilty, the duchefs was con¬
demned to do penance and fuffer perpetual imprifon-
ment} Bolingbroke the priell was hanged, and the wo¬
man burnt in Smithfield.
The biihop, called alfo the Cardinal, of Winchefter,
was refolved to carry his refentment againll Glouceller
to the utmoft. He procured a parliament to be fum-
moned, not at London, which was too well affected
to the duke, but at St Edmundlbury, where his adhe-
^ . rents were fufficiently numerous to overawe every op-
Duke of ponent. As foon as Glouceller appeared, he was accu-
Giouccftcr kj 0f treafon and thrown into prifon 5 and on the day
murdered. ^ was to make his defence, he was found
dead in his bed, though without any figns of violence
upon his bodv.
The death of the duke of Gloucefter was univerfally
aferibed to the cardinal of Winchefter, who himfeif
died fix weeks after, teftifying the utmoft remorfe for
the bloodv feene he had acted. What lhare the queen
had in this Iran fa ft ion, is uncertain: but molt people
believed that without her knowledge the duke’s ene¬
mies dor it not have ventured to take away his life.
The king himfelf lhared in the general ill-will, and he
never had the art to remove the fufpicion. His mca- England,
pacity alfo began every day to appear more clearly,
and a pretender to the throne foon made his appear- ‘ ' I^5°’
ance. 20;j
In the year 1450, Richard duke of York began to Duke of
think of preferring his claims to the crown. All the York’s title
males of the houfe of Mortimer were extinct 5 butt0 t!;e
Anne, the fifter of the laft earl of March, having efpou-crov'n'
fed the earl of Cambridge, who had been beheaded for
treafon in the reign of Henry V. had tranfmitted her
latent, but not yet forgotten claim, to her fon Rich¬
ard. This prince, defeended by his mother from Phi¬
lippa, only daughter of the duke of Clarence, fecond
fon of Edward III. flood plainly in order of fucceflion
before the king} who derived his defeent from the
duke of Lancailer, third fon of that monarch. The
duke was a man of valour and abilities, as Avell as of
fome ambition *, and he thought tho weaknefs and un¬
popularity of the prefeut reign afforded a favourable
opportunity to affert his title. The enfign of Richard
was a white rofe, that of Henry a red one ; and this
gave names to the two factions, who were now' about
to drench the kingdom in blood. 2c
After the cardinal of Winchefter’s death, the duke Duke of
of Suffolk, an ho alfo had been concerned in the affafli- Suffolk b*»
nation of Gloucefter, governed every thing Avith uncon- miked,
trollable fway. His condudt foon excited the jealoufy of
the other nobility, and every odious or unfuccefsful mea-
fure Avas attributed to him. The duke, hoAvever, ima¬
gining that his crimes Avere of fuch a nature as could
not be proved, boldly called upon his enemies to IIioav
an inftance of his guilt. The houfe of commons im¬
mediately opened againft him a charge of corruption,
tyranny, and treafon. He AAras acculed of being the
caufe of the lofs of France ; of perfuading the French
king, Avith an armed force, to invade England \ and of
betraying the fecrets of ftate. The popular refentment
againft him AATas fo ftrong, that Henry, in order to fe-
cure him as much as poflible, fentenced him to five
years baniftiment. This Avas confidered by his enemies
as an efcape from juftice. The captain of a flnp Avas 205
therefore employed to intercept him in his paffage to and mur-
France. He Avas feized near Dover, his head itruck eiec*
off on the fide of a long-boat, and his body throAvn into
the fea. 206
The complaints againft Henry’s government AA'ereinfurrcr-
heightened by an infurrection headed by one John tion of John
Cade, a native of Ireland. He had been obliged to fly Lacle-
over into France for his crimes: but, on his return,
feeing the people prepared for violent meafures, he af¬
firmed the name of Mortimer; and, at the head of
20,000 Kentifh men, advanced toAvards Blackheath.
The king fent a meffage to demand the caufe of their
rifing in arms. Cade in the name of the community
anfu'ered, That their only aim Avas to puniftr evil mi-
nifters, and produce a redrefs of grievances for the peo¬
ple. On this a body of 15,000 troops was levied;
and Henry marched Avith them in perfon againft Cade,
Avho retired on his approach, as if he had been afraid
of coming to an engagement. He lay in ambufti, hoAV-
ever, in a wood \ not doubting but he flrould be pur-
fued by the king’s Avhole army : but Henry Avas con¬
tent Avith fending a detachment after the fugitives, and
returned,to London himfelf-, upon Avhich Cade iffued
from his ambufeade, and cut the detachment in pieces,
6 SopB
ENG
c
207
Duke of
York fuf-
pcdled by
the court.
208
Arguments
for and a-
gainft the
fcoufes of
York and
Lancafter.
Soon after, the citizens of London opened their gates
to the victor 5 and Cade, for fume time, maintained
'great order and regularity among his followers. He
always led them out into the fields in the night-time,
and publithed feveral edifts againlt plunder and violence
of any kind. He was not, however, long able to keep
his people in fubjeftion. He beheaded the treafurer
Lord Say, without any trial; and foon after, his troops
committing fome irregularities, the citizens refolved to
fimt their gates againlt him. Cade endeavouring to
force his way, a battle enfued, which lafted all day, and
was ended only by the approach of night. The areh-
bilhop of Canterbury, and the chancellor, who had ta¬
ken refuge in the Tower, being informed of the fitua-
tion of affairs, drew up, during the night, an a£t of
aronefty, which was privately dilperfed among the re¬
bels. This had fuch an eft eft, that in the morning
Cade found himfelf abandoned by his followers j and
retreating to Itochefter, was obliged to fly alone into
the woods. A price being fet on his head by procla¬
mation, he was difeovered and flain by one Alexander
Eden} who, in recompenfe for this fervice, was made
governor of Dover caftle.
The court now began to entertain fufpicions that
the infurreftion of John Cade had not happened mere¬
ly in confequence of his own machinations and ambi¬
tion, but that he had been inftigated thereto by the
duke of York, who, as we have already feen, pretended
a right to the crown. As he was about this time ex-
pefted to return from Ireland, and a report took place
that he was now to affert his fuppofed right by force
of arms, orders were iffued in the king’s name to deny
him entrance into England. This was prevented
by his appearing with no more than his ordinary at¬
tendants ; but though he thus efcaped the danger for
the prefent, he inftantly faw the neceflity of proceed¬
ing in fupport of his claim. His partizans were in-
ftrufted to diftinguilh between his right by fucceflion
and by the laws of the kingdom. The adherents of
Lancaffer maintained, that though the advancement of
Henry IV. might be looked upon as irregular, yet it
was founded upon general confent j or, even allowing
it to have been at firfl: invalid, it had now been for a
long time eftablifhed, and acquired folidity of confe¬
quence ; nor could the right of fucceflion at any rate
be pleaded for the purpofe of overthrowing the gene¬
ral peace and tranquillity of the kingdom. The prin¬
ciples of liberty as well as the maxims of true policy
had been injured by the houfe of York-, while the pub¬
lic were bound to thofe of Lancafter, no lefs by politi¬
cal than moral duty, in confequence of the oaths of
fealty that had been fo often fworn to them 5 the
duke of York himfelf having repeatedly fworn alle¬
giance to them, and thus indireftly renounced thofe
claims which he now brought forward to difturb the
public tranquillity. On the part of the duke of
York, it wa# replied, that the good of the people re¬
quired the maintenance of order in the fucceflion of
princes; that, by adhering conftantly to this rule,
a number of inconveniences would be prevented
which muff; otherwife enfue and though that or¬
der had been broken through in the cafe of Hen¬
ry IV. it was never too late to remedy any pernicious
precedent. It would indeed be a great encourage-
99 ] % N G
ment to ufurpers, if the immediate, pofieffion of power, EnghuM,
or their continuance in it for a few years, could con- '+***y*—*J
vert them into legal princes j and the people muft be^'’
in a very miferable fituation, if all reftraints on vio¬
lence and ambition were taken off, and full liberty
given to every innovator to make what attempts he
pleafed. They did not indeed deny that time might
confer folidity on a government originally founded in
ufurpation ; but a very long courfe of years was not
only required for this purpofe, but a total extinction
of thofe who had any juft title. The depolition of
Richard II. and advancement of Henry IV. were not.
legal afts, but the effefts of mere levity in the people^
in which the houfe of York had acquiefced from ne-
ceflity, and not from any belief of the juftice of their
eaufe -, nor could this be ever interpreted into any re¬
nunciation of their pretenfions ; neither could the re¬
iteration of the true order of fucceflion be confidered
as an encouragement to rebellion and turbulence, bui.
the correftion of a former abufe by which rebellion
had been encouraged. Befides, the original title of
Henry IV. was founded entirely on prefent conveni¬
ence ; and even this vras now entirely Ihifted to the
houfe of York. The prefent prince was evidently in¬
capable of governing the kingdom by reafon of his
imbecility; fo that every thing was governed either
by corrupt minifters or an imperious queen, who en¬
gaged the nation in foreign conneftions entirely con¬
trary to its interefts j while, on the other hand, the true
heir of the crown Avas a prince of approved judgment
and experience, and a native of England, who, by his re-
ftoration, would undoubtedly correft all thofe abufes of
which there Avas noAV fuch juft reafon to complain.
In this difpute it Avas evident that the houfe of
York had the better in point of argument: neverthe-
lefs, as a prince of the houfe of Lancafter Avas in imme¬
diate poffeflion of the throne, and could by no means
be charged Avith any crime, the caufe of the former was
lefs generally interefting; efpecially as it muft ahvays
have been uncertain, a priori, Avhether the duke of York
Avould have governed any better than King Henry.
After his return from Ireland, hoAvever, the former xh^dike
ufed all his poAver and influence to foment the difeon-of York
tents which had for fome time prevailed in the king-foments
dom *, and the conduft of the next parliament mani- diffenfions
fefted the fuccefs of his intrigues. A violent attack
Avas made upon fuch noblemen as Avere known to be and parlia^
moft in favour with the king. The houfe of com-mcnt.
mons prefented a petition againft the duke of Somer-
fet, the duchefs of Suffolk, the bifliop of Chefter,
Lord Dudley, and feveral others of inferior rank j
praying not only that the king would remove them
from his council, but that he Avould prohibit them
from coming Avithin tAvelve miles of the court. Hen¬
ry, not daring to refufe this petition altogether, con-
fented to baniih all thofe of inferior rank, Avhom the
commons had fpecified, but only for a year j and this
too on condition that he had no ufe for their afliftance
in quelling any rebellion. But he rejefted a bill for
attainting the late duke of Suffolk, and propofed fome
other meafures Avhich feemed to militate againft the
court, though it had paffed both the houfe of lords
and the houfe of commons.
Encouraged by this difagreement between Henry
N 2 and
ENG [ ICO ] E N Cx
St; gland.
211
but is obli¬
ged to re¬
tire.
He is ap¬
pointed
protector
iu confe-
quence of
the king’s
illnefs.
2I3_
Is depofed
and levies
an army.
. 2I4
Hiftory of
the civil
war be¬
tween Hen¬
ry and the
duke of
York.. -
and Ins parliament, the duke of York railed an ar¬
my of 10,000 men, with whom he marched towards
London, demanding a reformation in matters of go¬
vernment, and the removal of the duke of Somerlet.
This firft enterprife, however, proved unfuccefsful *,
the gates of the city were fhut againft him, and he was
purfued by the king at the head of a fuperior army.
On this he retired into Kent; and as there was a
number of his own friends in the army of the king, a
conference took place, in which Richard ftill infilled
upon the removal of the duke of Somerfet, and his
fubmitting to be tried in parliament. This requell,
was in appearance complied with, and Somerfet ar¬
retted: the duke of York was then perfuaded to wait
upon the king in his royal pavilion; but, on repeat¬
ing his charge againit the duke, he was furprifed to
fee the latter come out from behind the curtain, and
offer to maintain his innocence. Richard perceiving
that he had not fufficient intereft to ruin his adverfary,
pretended to be fatisfied, and retired to his feat at Wig-
more in Wales ; and during the time he redded there,
a better opportunity was given him of accomplilhing
his defigns than he could have hoped for. 1 he
king fell into a kind of lethargic diforder, which in-
creafed his natural imbecility to fuch a degree, that
he could no longer retain a lhadow of royalty. Rich¬
ard now had intereft enough to get himfelf appointed
protector, with power to hold parliaments at pleafure ;
with which high office he was no fooner invelied, than
he turned out all the Lancaltrian party from their
offices, and fent the duke of Somerfet to the tower ;
but on the recovery of the king, which happened in
no long time after, he himfelf was dxfmiffed from his
employment, the duke of Somerfet releafed, and the
adminiftration once more put into his hands. On
this the duke of York levied an army, merely as he
pretended, to enforce the reformation of government
and the removal of the duke of Somerfet. J bus
Henry, though fore againft his will, was obliged to
face him in the field. A battle enfued at St Al¬
ban’s ; in which the royalifts were defeated, and the
duke of Somerfet, the chief partifan of their caufe,
killed in the action. The king himfelf was wounded,
and took ffielter in a cottage near the field of battle ;
where he was taken prifoner, but was afterwards treat¬
ed with great refpedl and kindnefs by the duke of
York.
Henry, though he was now only a prifoner treated
with the forms of royalty, was neverthelefs pleafed with
his fituation; but his queen, a woman of a bold and
mafeuline fpirit, could not bear to have only the ap¬
pearance of authority, while others enjoyed all the real
power. She therefore excited the king once more to
affert his right by force of arms •, and after feveral ma¬
noeuvres, the duke of York was obliged to retire from
court. A negotiation for peace was at firft fet on foot,
but the mutual diftrufts of both parties foon broke it off.
The armies met at Bloreheath on the borders of Stafford-
fliire, on the 23d of September 14 59 i arit’ the York ills at
firft gained feme advantages. Rut when a more general
engagement was about to enfue, a body of veterans who
ferved under the duke of York deferted to the king $
and this fo intimidated the duke’s party, that they le-
parated the next day without ftriking a blow. The
duke of York tied to Ireland; and the earl of War- Englard,
wick, one of his able ft and beft fupporters, efcaped to V ^
Calais, with the government of which he had been en- " '1 ■'Cj°'
trufted during the late protedorftiip.
The York party, though thus in appearance fup-
preffed, only waited a favourable opportunity of re¬
trieving their affairs. Nor was this opportunity long-
wanting. Warwick having met with feme fucceffes
at fea, landed in Kent ; and being there joined by
other barons, marched up to London amidft the ac¬
clamations of the people. The city immediately open¬
ed its gates to him, and he foon found himfelf in a
condition to face the royal army. An engagement en¬
fued at Northampton on the icth of July 1460; in
which the royalifts were entirely defeated, and the
king again taken prifoner. The duke of York then
openly laid claim to the crown; and on this occa-
fton the firft inftance of a fpirit of national liberty is
faid to have appeared in the heufe of lords. The
caufe of Henry and the duke of York was folemnly
debated; and the latter, though a conqueror, did not
abfolutely gain his eaufe. It was determined that
Henry ffiould poffefs the throne during his life ; and
that the duke of York ftiould be appointed his fuecef-
for, to the utter exclufion of the prince of Wales, who
was then a child.
Though the royal party now feemed deftitute of
every refource, the queen ftill retained her intrepidity.
She fled into Wales, where ftie endeavoured to raife
another army. The northern, barons, provoked at the
fouthern ones for fettling the government and fuccef-
fton to the crown without their confent, foon furniih-
ed her with an army of 20,000 men. Another battle
xvas fought near Wakefield Green, on the 24th of He- ^ _
cember 1460. The Yorkifts xvere defeated, and theDukeof
duke himfelf was killed in the adtion. HisheadxvasYorkkili-
afterwards cut off by the queen’s orders, and fixed on ctl.
one of the gates of York, xvith a paper-crown, in de-
rifion of his pretended title. His fon the earl of Rut¬
land, ayoulh of 17, xvas taken prifoner, and killed in
cold blood by Lord Clifford, in revenge for his father’s
death, who had fallen in the battle of St Alban’s.
After this victory, Margaret marched towards Lon¬
don, in order to fet the king at liberty ; but the earl of
Warwick, who now put himfelf at the head of the York¬
ifts, led about the captive king, in order to give a fanc-
tion to his proceedings. He engaged the queen’s forces
at St Alban’s ; but through the treachery of Lord
Lovelace, who deferted during the heat of the engage¬
ment with a confiderable body of forces, Warxvick xvas
defeated, and the king fell once more into the hands of
his oxxrn party.
The fubmiffion of the city of London fec-med noxv
to be the only thing wanting to complete the queen’s
fuccefs ; but Warwick had fecurtd it in his interefts,
and the citizens refufed to open their gates to the
queen. In the mean time, young Edward, eldeft fon
of the late duke of York, put himfelf at the head of
his father’s party. He xvas noxv in the bloom of youth,
remarkable for the beauty of his perfon and his bra¬
very, and xvas a great favourite of the people. He de¬
feated Jafper Tudor earl of Pembroke, at Mortimer’s
crofs in Herefordlhire. The earl himfclf was taken
prifoRcr, and immediately beheaded by Edxvard’s or¬
ders-.
5
England.
217
Affairs of
the queen
totally
ruined.
ENG - [10
dcrs. After this, he advanced to London •, and being
' joined by the remainder of Warwick’s army, he foon
^ ^216^1 obliged Margaret to retire, entered the city amidft the
EdwaidlV. acclamations of the people, and was crowned king on
the 5th of March 1461.
Nothwithllanding all her misfortunes, however, Mar¬
garet Hill continued undaunted. She retired to the
north, where the was foon joned by fuch numbers,
that her army amounted to 6o,ooq men. She was
oppofed by young Edward and Warwick at the head
of 40,000 ; and both armies met near Teuton in the
county of York, on the 29th of March 1461. A
bloody battle enfued, in which the queen’s army was
totally defeated j and as Edward, prompted by his na¬
tural cruelty, had ordered no quarter to be given,
40,000 of the Lancaitrians wmre flain in the field or in
the purfuit. Edward is laid to have gained this vic¬
tory by means of a violent ftorm of mow, which blew
full in the face of the queen’s army, and fo blinded
them that they could fcarcely make any ufe of their
arms. After this difafter the queen lied to Scotland
with her hufband and fon ; and notwithftanding all the
misfortunes Ihe had already met with, refolved once
more to enter England at the head of 5000 men
granted her by the king of France. But even here fixe
was attended by her ufual bad fortune. Pier little
fleet was difperfed by a tempeft, and fixe herfelf efca-
ped with the utmoft difficulty by entering the mouth
of the Tweed. Soon after, a defeat, which her few
forces fuftained at Hexham, feemed to render her
caufe entirely defperate; and the cruelties practifed
upon all her adherents rendered it very dangerous to
befriend her.
By thefe repeated misfortunes the houfe of Lancaf-
°t kinS ter was fo effectually ruined, that Margaret was obliged
an queen. t() feparate f..om jier j)Uf})anc]5 and both of them to
fiiift for themfelves the belt way they could. The king
was Hill protected by fome of his friends, who convey¬
ed him to Lancalhire, where he remained in fafety for
a twelvemonth ; but being at lalt difeovered, he was
thrown into the Tower and kept clofe prifoner. The
queen tied with her fon to a foreit, where fixe was fet
upon by robbers, who dripped her of her rings and
jewels, treating her otherwife with the utmoll indigni¬
ty. A quarrel which happened among them about the
divifion of the fpoil afforded her an opportunity of efca-
ping from their hands into another part of the foreft,
where fhe wandered for fome time without knowing
what to do. At laft, when quite fpent with hunger and
fatigue, fixe faw a robber coming up to her with a drawn
fword in his hand. Finding it altogether impofiible to
efcape, fixe fuddenly took the refolution of putting her¬
felf under his protection. Advancing towards him,
tin refore, and prefenting the young prince, “ Here
(fays fixe), my friend, I commit to your care the fafety
uf yoxxr king’s fon.” This addrefs fo much furprifed
the robber, that, inltead of offering her any injury, he
profeffed himfelf entirely devoted to her fervice. After
2ll) living for fome time concealed in the foreit, fixe was at
The queen Hit conduCted to the fea-fide, where fixe found a fixip
whiclx conveyed her to Flanders. On her arrival there,
fixe went to her father’s houfe, who, though very poor,
gave her fuch entertainment as he could afford 5 and in
this retreat fixe Itaid fome years in expectation of find¬
ing an. opportunity of retrieving her affairs.
21S
Adventures
retires to
Flanders.
i ] -ENG
Edward, in the mean time, thinking himfelf fe- Ffght-rT
curely fixed on the throne, gave a loofe to his fa-
vourite paflions ; one of which xvas an immoderate love '14 ’ ‘ ’
of women. To divert him from this, the earl of 220
Warwick, to whom he xvas indebted for his eroxvn, ad- Warwick
vifed him to marry. Edward coxxfenied, and fent him Higuftcd by
over to the continent fo negotiate a match xvith the tuwau'
princefs of Savoy. The negotiation proved fuccefsful;
but, in the ixxeaxx time, the king had privately efpoufed
Elizabeth Woodville, daughter to Sir Philip Wood-
ville, xvho had married the ducheis of Bedford after the
death of her firft hufband. Edward had employed his
arts of feduClion againft this lady in vain before he
married her 3 but unfortunately the match xvas conclud¬
ed juft at the time that the earl of Warwick had pro¬
ved fuccefsful iu his negotiation xvith the princels of
Savoy. The minifter therefore returned full of indig¬
nation againft his fovereign : and Edward, forgetting
hoxv great caufe he had to be offended, determined to re¬
move him entirely from his councils. Warwick xvas like-
xvife difgufted by the favour Ihoxvn to the queen’s par¬
ty 5 which, though certainly a piece of very commend ¬
able policy in Edward, xvas entirely difagreeable to the
ambitious difpofition of that nobleman. A plan of re¬
venge xvas therefore thought of 5 and a molt powerful
eoxxxbination xvas formed againft Edxvard : to aceomplilli
xvhich, Warxvick not only employed his oxvn influence,
xvhich xvas very extenfive, but likexvife that of the duke The klLv
of Clarence, Edward’s brother, to xvhorn the earl had al-brother
lied himfelf by gixdng him his daughter in marriage j after joins in the
xvhich he perfuaded him to embrace his caufe. Some cir- confPirac7
cumftances xvhich took place about this time alfo favour- a°amft him*
ed the fcheme. The inhabitants about St Leonard’s in 222
Yorklhire complained, that the duties levied for that in-An infur-
ftitution, and xvhich had been originally appointed for region in
pious purpofes, xvere fecreted by the managers, xvho Yorkflure.
refufed to contribute their part. As the clergy were
concerned in this affair, they attempted to filence their
antagonifts by ecclefiaftical fulminations againft them ;
upon which the latter took up arms, fell upon the offi¬
cers of the hofpital, and having maflaered them, pro¬
ceeded toxvards York, to the number of 15,000. In
the firft fkirmilh, they had the misfortune to lofe
their leader, xvho xvas inftantly executed. The rebels,
however, Hill continued in arms, and in a Ihort time
appeared in fuch numbers as to become formidable
to government. Henry earl of Pembroke xvas fent
againft them with a body of 5000 men 5 and having
taken Sir Henry Nevil, one of the leaders of the infur-
gents, prifoner, inftantly put him to death ; but this
xvas foon revenged by a fimilar execution on himfelf,
xvho happened to be defeated and taken prifoner a fixort
time after. This defeat had been occafioned by a dif-
agreement betwixt the earls of Pembroke and Dtvon-
fliire; in confequence of which the latter had gone off
xvith his troops, leaving Pembroke to fiiift for himfelf
the beft xvay he could. The king, enraged at this,
caufed Devonfiure to be executed in a like fummary
manner: but this xvas of no fervice to bis caufe ; anew
body of infurgents appeared under Sir Robert Welles,
fon to a nobleman of that name. The latter, in order
to fecure himfelf from all fufpicions of difloyalty, fled
to a monaftery ; but he xvas foon enticed from thence
and put to death by the infidious promifes of King Ed¬
ward, xvhofe treachery xvas equal to his cruelty. His
ENG
[ 102 ]
ENG
’England.
A. D. 1461,
223
W arwick
and Cla¬
rence join
the infur-
« gents.
224
fleconcilia-
tion be¬
twixt War¬
wick and
the queen.
225
He lands
in Eng¬
land.
fon foon after {hared the fame fate, being defeated and
taken priloner by Edward, who inftantly ordered him
to be beheaded, along with Sir Thomas Launde and
other perfons of diftintlion.
Notwithftanding fuch an appearance of a general
infurredlion, the king had fo little fufpicion of the loy¬
alty of Warwick and Clarence, that he employed them
in railing troops to quell the infurgents. Inftead of
executing their commilTion with fidelity, however, they
joined the malecontents with all the forces they could
raife ; but being quite difconcerted by the defeat and
death of Sir Robert Welles, they retired to Lancalhire,
in hopes of being joined by Lord Stanley, who had
married the earl of Warwick’s filler. Being difap-
pointed in this, they were obliged to difband their ar¬
my, and fly into Devonlhire, whence they fet fail for
Calais. Upon their arrival on the continent, matters
feemed not to be much mended : the deputy-governor,
whom Warwick had left, refufed him admittance ; nor
would he even allow the duchefs of Clarence to land,
though the had been delivered of a fon on board on¬
ly a very few days before, and was at this time ex¬
tremely-ill. Being well acquainted, however, with the
uncertainty of the affairs of England at that time, he
afterwards made an apology to Warwick for this beha¬
viour. The latter pretended to be eafily reconciled j
but immediately left the place, having feized fome Fle-
milh veffels which he found lying in the neighbourhood.
As a very clofe alliance fubfiiled between Warwick
and the duke of Burgundy, the king of France be¬
came uneafy ; and therefore, as foon as the earl landed
in his dominions, received him with the greateft marks
of elleem. The reconciliation betwixt him and the
unfortunate Oueen Margaret now feemed to be natu¬
ral, though, confidering all circumltances, this mull have
formerly appeared in a manner impoffible. The earl’s
father had been put to death by the orders of Margaret j
and Warwick, in return, had twice taken prifoner
King Henry, banilhed the queen, and put to death
almoll all their faithful adherents. By the mediation
of the French monarch, however, all differences were
accommodated. A fleet was prepared to recondudl
them to England ; and feizing a proper opportunity,
they landed at Dartmouth with a fmall body of troops,
while Edward was in the north fuppreffing an infurrec-
tion which had lately appeared there. Warwick was
attended with aftonilhing fuccefs on his arrival in Eng¬
land, and in lefs than fix days faw himfelf at the head
of 60,000 men. Edward was now obliged in his turn
to fly the kingdom. Flaving narrowly efcaped an at¬
tempt made upon his perfon by the marquis of Mon¬
tague, he embarked on board a fmall fleet which lay
off Lynn in Norfolk. While at fea, he was chafed by
fane fhips belonging to the Hans Towns that were
then at wrar both with France and England 5 but at
length, having efcaped all dangers, Edward landed
fafely in Holland, where he met with but an indifferent
reception from the duke of Burgundy, with whom he
had lately entered into an alliance.
Warwick in the meantime advanced to London, and
once more releafed and placed on the throne the mi-
ferable King Henry VI. A parliament wras called,
which very folemnly confirmed Henry’s title to the
throne, and Warwick himfelf was dignified by the
people with the title of the king-maker. All the at¬
tainders of the Lancaftrians were reverfed; and every England,
one w'as reftored who had loft either honours or for- ^ —■>
tune by his former adherence to Henry’s caufe. All * ’I4<1-
the adherents of Edward fled to the continent, or
took Ihelter in monafteries, where they were pro-
tefted by the ecclefiallical privileges. But Edward’s
party was not yet dellroyed. After an abfence of nine
months, being feconded by a ifnall body of troops
granted him by the duke of Burgundy, he made a de-
feent at Ravenfpur in Yorklhirc. At firft he met with
little fuccefs j but his army increafing on his march, he
was foon in a condition to appear before the capital,
which immediately opened its gates.
The unfortunate Henry was thus again plucked from
the throne ; and the hopes of Warwick were almoll
totally blalted by the deletion of Clarence, Edward’s
brother. Nothing now remained but to come to an
engagement as foon as poflible. Warwick knew his
forces to be inferior to thofe of Edward, but placed
great dependence on his owm generallhip. He there¬
fore advanced to Barnet, within ten miles of London,
where he refolved to wait the coming of Edward. The
latter foon came up with him, and on the 14th of
April 1471 a moll obftinate and bloody battle was
fought. Edward, according to cullom, had ordered no
quarter to be given ; and obtained the viclory through
a millake of a body of Warwick’s forces who fell with
fury on their own party inftead of the enemy. The earl
himfelf wasllain, together with his brother, and 10,000
of his bravell followers.
The queen was juft then returned with her fon from
France, where Ihe had been foliciting fupplies. She
had fcaree time to refrelh herfelf from the fatigues of
the voyage, when Ihe received the fatal news of the
death of Warwick, and the total deftruttion of her
party. All her refolution was not able to fupport her
under fuch a terrible difafter. Her grief now for the
firft time, it is faid, manifefted itfelf by her tears;
and Ihe immediately took fanftuary in the abbey of
Beaulieu in Hamplhire. Here Ihe Hill found fome
friends willing to alfift her, Tudor earl of Pembroke,
Courtney earl of Devonlhire, the lords Wenlock and
St John, with fome other men of rank, encouraged her
yet to hope for fuccefs, and promifed to Hand by her
to the laft. On this affurance, Ihe refumed her courage ;
and advancing through the counties of Devon, Seiner-
fet, and Gloucefter, increafed her army every day. At
laft, however, Ihe was overtaken by Edward with his
vidlorious army at Tewkelhury, on the banks of the
Severn. The queen’s army was totally defeated ; the
earl of Devon {hire and Lord Wenlock were killed in the
field •, the duke of Somerfet, and about 20 other per-
fons of diftinftion, wrho had taken Ihelter in a church,
were furrounded, dragged out and immmediately be¬
headed ; about 3000 of their party fell in battle, and
the army was entirely difperfed. Queen Margaret and ^
her fon were taken prifoners, and brought to the king, Total de-
wrho alked the prince in an infulting manner, how he ft ruction of
> dared to invade his dominions ? The voung- prince re- t*ie q1166115
plied, that he came thither to claim his juft inheritance Q
upon which Edward ftruck him on the face with his
gauntlet. The dukes of Clarence and Gloucefter, Lord
Haftings, and Sir Thomas Gray, taking this blow as
a fignal for farther violence, hurried the prince into
the next apartment, and there difpatched him with
their
ENG [ 103 j ENG
Englaftd. their daggers. Margaret was throw'n Into the Tower
along with her hufhand Henry, who expired in that
‘I4*2’confinement a few days after. It was univerfally be¬
lieved that he was murdered by the duke of Gloucefter,
though of this there was no direct evidence. Marga¬
ret was ranfomed by the king of France for 50,000
crowns, and died a few years alter in a molt milerable
fituation.
Fdward being now freed from all his enemies, began
to inllidt punilhment on thofe who had formerly ap¬
peared againlt him. Among the cruelties he commit¬
ted, that on his brother the duke of Clarence was the
molt remarkable. 1 he king happening to be one day
hunting in the park of Thomas Eurdet, a lervant of
the duke killed a white buck which was a great favou¬
rite of the owner. Burdet, vexed at the lols, broke
out into a paflion, and wifhed the horns of the deer in
the belly of the perfon who advifed the king to that
infult. F or this exclamation Burdet was tried for his
life, and executed at Tyburn. The duke of Clarence
exclaimed againil the iniquity of this fentence ; upon
which he was arraigned before the houfe of peers, found
guilty, and condemned to death. The only favour
granted him was to have the choice of his death 5 and
his choice was a very lingular one, namely, to be drown¬
ed in a butt of Malmfey wine; which was according¬
ly done.—The relt of this reign affords little elfe than
a hiltory of the king's amours. Among his many
miitreffes, Jane Shore was the moil remarkable ; (fee
Shore). The king died on the 9th of April 1482,
in the 42d year of his age and 2ill of his reign, count¬
ing from his firlf affuming the crown. Befides five
daughters, he left two fons } Edward prince of Wales,
his fucceffor, then in his 13th year j and Richard duke
223 of York in his 9th.
Edward V. . On the death of Edward IV. the kingdom was di¬
vided into new factions. The queen’s family, which,
during the laft reign, had come into power, was become
obnoxious to the old nobility, who confidered them as
their inferiors. 1 he king had endeavoured to prevent
thefe animofities from coming to a height, by defiring
on his death-bed that his brother Richard duke of Glou¬
cefter fhould be entrufted with the regency 5 and re¬
commended peace and unanimity during the minority
of his fon. But the king was no fooner dead than the
former refentment between thefe parties broke out with
violence; and the duke of Gloucefter, who was endued
229 with almoft every bad quality, refolved to profit by
Xike of their contentions. His fir ft ftep was to get himfelf de-
idwcd" Clared Pr<.)tea°r o£ thf realm > and having arrefted the
rotedor. Carl o£ l£lvcrs: ^he king’s uncle and guardian, he met
young Edward in his way from Ludlow caftle, where
the late king had refided during the latter part of his
reign, and refpe&fully offered to condua him to Lon¬
don. Having thus fecured the perfon of the king, he
next got poffeftion of his brother’s perfon alfo. The
queen had retired with this child into Weftminrter ab¬
bey ; and it was not without extreme regret that flie
delivered him up at the intercefllon of the primate and
archbifhop of York.
In a few days after Gloucefter had made himfelf ma¬
iler of the per fons of the two princes, he had them
confined in the Tower, under pretence of guarding them
from danger •, and foon after fpread reports of their
illegitimacy, and by - pretended obftaeles put off the
'
young king’s coronation. Lord Stanley firft began to England^
fufpect his defigns 5 and communicated his fufpieions ^^ '
to Lord Haftings, who had long been firmly attached A‘;D-1493*
to the king’s family. Lord Haitings would not at firft
give credit to this furmife ; but he very foon had a fa¬
tal proof of the truth of what had been communicated
to him. On the 13th of June 1483, he was hurried
out of the council-room in the Tower by Gloucelter’s
order, and beheaded on a log of timber. 'I he loldiers
who carried him off made a Duffle as though an attempt
had been maae to refcue him, and one of them dif-
charged a blow at Lord Stanley’s head with a pole¬
axe } Rut he happily efcaped by Ihrinking under the
table. The fame day were executed the Earl Rivers,
and fome others, who had committed no other crime
than being faithful to the young king.
± he protector now thought he might with fafety
lay claim to the throne. He had previoufly gained
over the duke of Buckingham, a nooleman of great
influence among the people. He uled his utmoit en¬
deavours to inipire the people with a notion of the il¬
legitimate birth of the late king, and confequently of
his children. L'r Shaw, a popular preacher,'was alfo
hired to harangue the people to the lame purpofe from
St Paul's crofs. Having expatiated on the inconti¬
nence of the queen, and the illegality of the young
king’s title, he then made a panegyric on the virtues
of the protector. “ It is the protector (continued he)
who carries in his face the image of virtue, and the
marks of a true defeent. He alone can reftore the loft
glory and honour of the nation.” It was hoped that
upon this occafion fome of the populace would have
cried out, “ Long live King Richard !” but the audi¬
ence remaining filent, the duke of Buckingham under¬
took in his turn to perfuade thrtn. Having expatiated
on the calamities of the laft reign and the illegitimacy
of the prefent race, he told the people, that he law only
one method of warding off the miferies which threat¬
ened the ftate, which was by eledling the protedlor j
but he feemed apprehenfive that he would never be pre¬
vailed upon to accept a crown accompanied with fuch '
difficulty and danger. Fie next alked his auditors,
whether they would have the proteaor for their kino- ?
but was mortified to find that a total filence enfued.
The mayor, who w'as in the fecret, willing to relieve
him in this embarraffed fituation, obferved, that the
citizens were not accuftomed to be harangued by a man
of his quality,, and would only give an anfwer to their
recorder. I his officer, therefore, repeated the duke’s
Ipeech 5 but the people continuing ftill filent, “ This
is ftrange obftmacy (cried the duke) : we only require
of. you, in plain terms, to declare, whether or not you
will have the duke of Gloucefter for your king; as the
lords and commons have fufficient power without your
concurrence ? At this, fome of the meaneft appren¬
tices . incited by the fervants of the protedor and
Buckingham, raffed a feeble cry of “ God fave Kino-
Richard !” i he mob at the door repeated the cry : and
throwing up their caps into the air, cried out “ A
Richard! A Richard!” After this farce was ’aded,
Buckingham, on the 24th of June 1483, waited on
-Richard with.offers of the crown: but the protedor
with hypocritical modefty, at firft declined the offer •
till being told, that the people, in cafe of his refufal,
mult look out for one that would be more compliant,
he
ENG [ 104 ] ENG
r.ngland. lie accepted the government of England and France,
v—with a refolution, as he faid, to defend the one and fub-
^ 3 due t^ie ot^er-
Richard III. The fir It flep taken by the new king was to fend or¬
ders to Sir Robert Brackenbury governor of the Tower,
to put the young princes to death. But this he re-
fufed •, and fubmiffively anfwered that he knew not how
to embrute his hands in innocent blood. A fit inftru-
ment for this purpofe, however, was not long wanting.
Sir James Tyrrel readily undertook the office 5 and
Brackenbury was ordered to refign the keys to him for
■ one night, Tyrrel choofing three affociates, Slater,
Deighton, and Foreft, came in the night-time to the
door of the chamber where the princes were lodged j
and fending in the aiTaffins, bid them execute their com-
Edward V. miffion, while he himfelf Raid without. They found
and his the young princes in bed, and fallen into a lound fleep.
brother -phe affaffins fmothered them with the bolfter and pil-
inurdered. jowg . a£ter they ffiowed their naked bodies to
Tyrrel, who ordered them to be buried at the flair-foot
under a heap of ftones (c).
Richard having thus fecured himfelf on the throne
by the moil iniquitous methods, attempted to flrength-
en his intereft by foreign alliances, and procuring the
favour of the clergy at home by great indulgences ;
but he found his power threatened from a quarter where
lie lead expected an attack. The duke of Bucking¬
ham, who had been fo inilrumental in raffing him to the
throne, did not think himfelf properly rewarded. He
made a demand of fome confifcated lands in Hereford,
to which his family had an ancient claim. Richard
either reluftantly complied with his requeft, or only
o-ranted it in part •, fo that a coolnefs foon enfued be¬
tween them, and in a little time Buckingham came to
a refolution of dethroning the monarch whom he had
juft raifed. For fome time he remained in doubt whe-
ther he fhould affume the crown himfelf or fet up ano-
Rticking- ther. At length he determined on the latter ; and
ham deter- refolved to declare for Henry earl of Richmond, who
mines to was at t]iat time an exile in Britanny, and was confi-
fopport the ^ere^ a„ tjie on£y furviving branch of the houfe of
eariTof Lancafter. He was one of thofe who had the good
.Richmond fortune to efcape the numerous maffacres of the for-
to the mer reigns } but as he was a defeendant of John of
throne. Gaunt by the female line, he was for that reafon ob¬
noxious to thofe in power. He had long lived in
exile, and was once delivered over to the ambaffadors
of Edward IV. who were preparing to carry him to
England 5 when the duke of Britanny, who delivered
him, repented of what he had done, and took him from
the ambaffadors juft as they were carrying him on fhip-
board. His right to the crown by fucceffion was very
doubtful : but the cruel behaviour of Richard inclined
•the people in general greatly to favour him •, and, to
give an additional ftrength to his title, a match was
proje&ed betwixt him and the princefs Elizabeth, the
eldeft daughter of Edward IV. which, by uniting the
two rival families, would put an end to thofe diffen*
ftons which had fo long filed the kingdom with blood- England.
flied and confufion. ' Richard, in the mean time,x >
from fome reafons which have not been particulari-A-D- M3!-
zed by hiftorians, began to entertain doubts of the
fidelity of Buckingham, and determined to cut him
off. For this purpofe he font for him to court: but
Buckingham, inftead of obeying the fummons, fled in-
to Wales, where he raifed a confiderable army, and Up arms,hut;
forthwith fet out to tTie eaftward with a defign to in- is abandon,
vade England. Richard haftened to meet him with ed by bis
what forces he could raifo ; but the march of Buck-
ingham being retarded by a moft uncommon inunda-
tionofthe Severn which lafted 10 days, his troops
were fo dilheartened at this event, that they almoft all
deferted him. The duke was therefore obliged to fly
in diftrefs, and Richard inftantly fet a price upon his
head. Buckingham was now obliged to trull his life
in the hands of an old fervant of his own, named Ba-
nifter; but this man, tempted by the greatnefs of
the reivard, betrayed him to the fheriff of Shrop-
fhire, by whom he was feized and conduced to Ri¬
chard at Salilbury, who caufed him to be executed
without delay. The earl of Richmond, in the mean ItichmonA
time, had fet fail from St Maloes with a body of lands in
cooo men : but after his arrival in England, receiving ^gknd,
the difagreeable news of Buckingham’s misfortune, hejF^ ^
fet fail again for Bretagne *, while Richard, embolden- tlfrn.
ed by the bad fuccefs of his enemies, determined to
confirm his title to the throne by calling a parliament,
which till this time he had not ventured to do. At
prefent matters were fo circumftanced, that the par¬
liament had no other refource than to comply with his
defires, and acknowledge his right to the crown. An
aft was paffed confirming the illegitimacy of Edward’s R}cjiar(gs
children j and an attainder w as alfo confirmed againft title COn-
the earl of Richmond ; the duties of tonnage and firmed by
poundage were granted to the king for life; and hisparAment.
only fon Edward, then about 12 years of age, was
created prince of Wales. In return for thefe concef-
fions, Richard paffed fcveral popular law's, particular¬
ly againft the extorting of money by benevolences, and
fome others calculated to gain the good will of the op-
pofite party. He paid his court alfo to the queen-
dowager with fuch affiduity and fuccefs, that fhe left
her fanftuary, and put herfelf and her daughters into
his hands. The ambition and cruelty of this man in¬
deed are faid to have extinguifired every fentiment of
natural affeftion as wHl as humanity. He had married
Anne, the fecond daughter of the carl of Warwick,
and widow of Edw'ard prince of Wales, whom he him¬
felf had murdered ; but having born him but one fon,
who died about this time, he confidered her as an in¬
vincible obftacle to the accomplifhment of his defires ;
for which reafon it wras thought he put an end to her
life by poifon: and as he knew that the prqjeftcd maich
between the earl of Richmond and the princefs Eliza¬
beth could only make the rivallhip of the former any
wTay formidable, he refolved to obtain a diipenla-
(c) Thefe circumftances are faid to have been confeffed in the fucceeding reign, though the perpetrators efoaped
nuniflament. The bodies of the two princes were fought for without any fuccefs under the reign of Henry V11. :
but in the time of Charles II. the bones of two perfons anfwering to their age were found m the fpot where they
were faid to have been buried ; which, being fuppofed to be the remains of thefe two unfortunate youths, they
were buried under a marble monument in Vv eftminfter abbey.
time.
2 37
killed.
ENG [ i<
England, tlon front llie pope for marrying her himfelf. The
“v ~~~> queen-dowager is even faid to have come into this
A- • I4s3-pcjierne> wjth a vietv to recover her power j but the
princefs herfelf always rejected his addreffes with ab¬
horrence. The refufal of the princefs occafioned no
fmall perplexity in Richard ; and before he could de-
termine on any proper method of accompli thing his
Richmond purpofe, he received news of Richmond’s preparations
lands in f0r landing in England. Thefe feeing foon accomplith-
England a- C(^ Henry fet fail from Harlleur in Normandy, and
landed without oppofition, on the 17th of Augull
1485, at Milford haven in Wales. Richard, in the
mean time, not knowing where the invafion was to
take place, had polled himfelf at Nottingham ; which
being almoft in the centre of the kingdom, was there¬
fore proper for relifling any invader. Sir Rice ap
Thomas and Sir Walter Herbert were commiffioncd
by Richard to oppofe his rival in Wales ; but the for¬
mer immediately deferted to him, and the latter made
but a very feeble reliftance. Richard inllantly refolved
to meet his antagonift, and to rifk every thing on the
event of a battle. Richmond, though he had not above
6000 men, and the king near double that number, did
not decline the combat; being chiefly encouraged by the
promifes of Lord Stanley to join him with a body of
7000 men, and with whom he hovered at a little
diftanee from the intended field of battle, feemingly
indetermined to join either fide.
Richard de- The king having commanded his army to form them-
feated and fclves in order of battle, intruded the van to the duke
of Norfolk, while he himfelf, writh the crown on his
head, took the command of the main body. Lord
Stanley in the mean time polled himfelf on one flank
between the two armies, while his brother Sir William
took his Ration direftly oppofite. As his intention of
either joining the enemy or keeping neutral during the
time of the engagement was nowT far from being doubt¬
ful, Richard fent him orders to join the main body ;
which not being complied with, the tyrant determined
to put to death Stanley’s fon, vrho had been left with
him as a pledge of his father’s fidelity. He was per-
fuaded, however, to defer the execution till after the
engagement, that Stanley might thereby be induced to
delay his purpofe in joining the enemy. This, however
did not anfwer the expectation. Soon after the engage¬
ment wras begun, Stanley deferted Richard’s party, and
joining Richmond, entirely decided the fortune of the
day. The tyrant perceiving his fituation to be quite
defperate, and feeing Ins rival at no great diftance from
him, drove up againft him with fury, in hopes that
either Henry’s death or his own would decide the
viCVory between them. He killed Sir William Brandon
the earl’s ftandard-bearer; he difmounted Sir John
Cheyney; and was within reach of Richmond, when
Sir William Stanley breaking in with his troops, Richard
was furrounded and overwhelmed by numbers. His
body was found in tbe field, covered with dead enemies,
and befmeared with blood. It was thrown carelelsly
acrofs a horfe, carried to Leicefter, amidft the ftiouts of
infulting fpeClators, and interred in the Gray-Friars
church of that place.
The ufurper’s crown being found on the field of
battle, was placed on the head of the conqueror, while
the whole army cried out, “ Long live King Henry !”
I wo days after the battle, Henry gave orders to con-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
]
ENG
fine Edward Plantagenet earl of Warwick, and ion fcf
the unfortunate duke of Clarence ; and to releafe the J
princefs Elizabeth, who had been confined in the Tower, ‘ “,J-'
He then advanced by flow and gradual marches to the
city of London, where he was received with the great-
eft demonftratjons of joy. He was crowned king ( f Henry YT'7,
England on the 30th cf OCIober 14855 and to heighten
the iplendor on that occafion, he bellowed the rank of
knights-banneret on 12 perfons, and conferred peerages
on three. Jafper earl of Pembroke, his uncle, he crea¬
ted duke of Bedford 5 Thomas Lord Stanley his father-
in-law, carl of Derby 5 and Edward Courteney, earl
of Devonftiire. At the coronation likewife appeared
a new inftitution, which the king had eftablilhed for
perfonal fecurity as well as pomp 5 a band of 50 archers,
who were denominated Yeomen of the Guard. But
left the people ihould take umbrage at this ftep, as if it
implied a diffidence of his fubjecls, he declared the infti¬
tution to be perpetual. The ceremony of the coronation
was performed by Cardinal Bourchier, archbiihcp of
Canterbury.—On the 18th January i486, he was
married to the princefs Elizabeth 5 and his marriage
was celebrated at London with greater appearance of
joy than either his firft entry or Iris coronation had
been. Henry remarked, with much difpleafure, this
general favour borne to the houfe of York 5 and the
fufpicions arifing from it, not only difturbed his tran¬
quillity during the whole of his reign, but bred difguil
towards his confort herfelf, and poifoned all his domeftic
enjoyments.
The reign of Henry VIE was for feveral years dif-His
’ 33
turbed by plots and infurreclions. The people, by a difturbed
long courfe of civil war, had become fo turbulent and b7 frequent
factious, that no governor could rule, nor could any rcbehi°ns*
king pleafe them. The violent animofity expreffed by
this monarch, however, againft the houfe of York, itiay
juftly be confidered as one of the caufes of the extreme
pronenefs to rebellion manifefted by his fubjefts. In-
ftead of endeavouring to conciliate the a fie £1 ion of the
oppofite party, he always ftrove to quell them by ab-
folute force and violence. For this purpofe he took a
journey, foon after his acceflion, to the north of Eng¬
land, where the \ orkifts were very numerous : hoping
to get the better of them by his prefence. In his
journey thither, he received intelligence of an infurrec-
tion againft him by Vifcount Lov’d, with Sir Henry Lovcdand
Stafford and Thomas his brother, who had raifed an Stafford’s
army, and were marching to befiege the city of Wor- dfurrectioa
ceftcr, while Lovel approached to aflift them with aluPPrtdc<k
body of three or four thoufand men. They were dif-
perfed, however, by the offer of a general pardon 5
which induced Lovel to withdraw from his troops,
who were thereupon obliged to fubmit to tbe king’s
mercy. The Staffords took fancluary in the church of
Colnham near Abingdon 5 but as it was found that this
church had not the privilege of proteding rebels, they
were taken from thence : the elder was executed at
Tyburn 5 but the younger, pleading that he had been
mifled by his brother, received a pardon. j
This fuccefs was foon after followed by the birth of Prince A’r-
a prince 5 whom Henry named in honour of the cele-tbur b(3rsl>
brated King Arthur, who is faid to have been the dired
anceftor of the houfe of Tudor. All this fuccefs,
however, as well as the general fatisfadjon which the
birth of a prince defeended from the houfes both of
O York
land.
Rifcontents
•f the pco-
,1c.
243
mpo fture
of Lambert
Simnel.
ENG [ 106 ]
York and Lancaiier neceflarily occafloned, were not
fufficient to reconcile the hearts of the Englifh to their
fovereign. His extreme feverity towards the houfe
of York Hill continued ; and unfortunately this was
much more beloved by the generality of the nation
than that of Lancafter. Many of the Yrorkifts had
been treated with great cruelty, and deprived of their
fortunes under pretence of treafon j a general refump-
tion had likewxfe been made of the grants made by the
princes of the houfe of Yrork. It was like wife univer-
i'ally believed that the queen herfelf met with harfh
treatment, on account of her being one of that unfor¬
tunate houfe 'f and from all thefe circumftances it was
not unreafonably imagined that his enmity was inve¬
terate and invincible. Hence, notwithflanding his
politic and vigorous adminiftration, people made no
fcruple of openly expreffing their difapprobation of his
condu6l and government j and one rebellion feemed to
be extinguifhed only to give birth to another. I he
king had, at the commencement of his reign, confined
the duke of Clarence’s fon, as has already been men¬
tioned. This unfortunate youth, who had obtained
the title of the earl of Warwick, was, through long con¬
finement, entirely unacquainted with the affairs of
the world. Simple as he was, however, he was now
made ufe of to difturb the public tranquillity. The
queen-dowager was with great reafon fufpe6ted to be
at the bottom of this confpiracy ; but not choofrng to
interfere openly in the matter herfelf, die employed
one Simon a pried; of Oxford to execute her purpofes.
This man caff his eyes upon one Lambert Simnel, a ba¬
ker’s fon in the fame place, a youth of only 15 years
of age ; but who, from his graceful appearance and
accomplifhments, feemed proper for perfonating a man
of quality. A report had been fpread among the people,
thkt Richard duke of YYrk, fecond fon of Edward 1V.
had fecretly made his efcape from the cruelty of his
uncle, and lay fome'where concealed in England. Si¬
mon had at fir ft inftrucled his pupil to affume that
name, which he found to be much the objecl of public
affe&ion 5 but hearing afterwards a new report, that
Warwick had efcaped from the Tower, and obferving
that this news was attended ivith no lefs general fatis-
faefion, he changed the plan of his impofture, and made
Simnel perfonate that unfortunate prince. The pliant
youth was therefore direfted by his inftruftor to talk
upon many occurrences, as happening to him in the
court of Edward. But as the impoftor rvas not cal¬
culated to bear clofe examination, he Avas removed to
Ireland: and fo avcII had he profited by the leffons
given him, that he no fooner prefented himfelf to the
earl of Kildare the deputy, claiming his protettion as
the unfortunate earl of Wanvick, than he began to con-
fult with feveral other noblemen Avith regard to him.
Thefe expreffed eA’en a ftronger belief in Simnel’s ftory
than the deputy himfelf had done •, and in proportion
as the ftory Avas fpread abroad, the more credit it ob¬
tained. The impoftor Avas lodged in the caftle of Dublin;
the inhabitants univerfally took an oath of allegiance to
him, as the true defeendant of the Plantagenets} he Avas
eroAvned with a diadem taken from the ftatue of the
bleffed virgin, and proclaimed king by the title of Ed¬
ward VI. •, and the whole kingdom folloAved the ex¬
ample of the capital.
Such an unexpefted event alarmed Henry fo much,
E N G
that he Avould have gone over to Ireland on purpofe to England,
quell the rebellion in perfon, had he not been atraid of ''“Y/ ^
the machinations of the 'queen-dowager in his abfence." ’ 7’
To prevent any thing of this kind, it Avas refolved to xbe queen,
conhne her for life in a monaftery ; under pretence, Iioav- dowager
ever, that it Avas done on account of her having for- confined,
merly delivered up the princefs her daughter to King
Richard. The queen murmured againtt the feverity
of her treatment •, but the king perfifted in his refolu-
tion, and ihe remained in confinement till the time of
her death, which happened feme years after.
The next meafure Avas to ftioAv WarAvick to the-
people. He Avas taken from the ToAver, and led through
the principal ftreets of London; after which he Avas
conducted in folemn proceftion to St Paul’s, at here
great numbers Avere affembled to fee him. Still, Iioav-
ever, they proceeded in Dublin to honour their pre¬
tended monarch •, and he Avas croAvned Avith great fo-
lemnity in the prefence of the earl of Kildare, the chan¬
cellor, and the other officers of fixate. At laft being
furniftied by the duchefs of Burgundy with a body of
2000 veteran Germans under the command of Martin
Swart, a brave and experienced officer, he refoEed to in¬
vade England. He landed in Lancafhire, from Avhence
he marched to York, expecting that the country people
Avould rife and join him on his march. But in this he
was deceived: the people Avere unAvilling to join a body
of foreigners } and Avere befides kept in aAve by the
great reputation of Henry. Lord Lincoln, therefore,
ay ho commanded the rebel army, determined to bring
the matter to a fpeedy iffue. Accordingly he met the
royal army at Stoke in the county of Nottingham.
An obftinate engagement enfued, but at length King
Henry obtained a complete A'icfory. Lord Lincoln,
A\Tith 4000 private men, perifhed in the battle ; and
Simnel Avith his tutor Simon Avere taken prifoners.
Simon being a prieft, could not be tried by the civil
power, and Avas only committed to clofe confinement.
Simnel Avas pardoned, and made a feuliion in the king’s
kitchen, Avhence he Avas aftenvards advanced to the rank
of falconer, in Avhich employment he died. 245
Henry being noAV freed from all danger from that Henry pu-
quarter, determined to take ample vengeance on his^Y^15
enemies. For this purpofe he took a journey into the
north; but though he found many delinquents, his
natural avarice prompted him to exaft heavy fines from
them rather than to put them to death. His proceed¬
ings, hoAvever, Avere extremely arbitrary ; the crimi¬
nals being tried, not by the ordinary judges, but ei¬
ther by commiflioners appointed for the occafion, or
fuffering punifhment by ientence of a court-martial.
Having thus fully eftablifhed his authority as far as it
could be done by fuppreffing and puniihing domeftic
enemies, he next determined to recomn end himfelf to
his fubjefts by a report of his military difpofition 5 ho- Pretends a
ping, that by undertaking, or pretending to undertake,‘hfire of a-
fome martial enterprifes, he Avould thus gain the favour ^
of a people naturally turbulent, and unaecuftomed to pi0;ts>
live long at peace Avith their neighbours. He certainly
had not, however, the leaft intention of profecuting
foreign conquefts •, though, to pleafe the people, he
frequently gave out that, he defigned to invade h ranee,
and lay Avafte the Avhole country, ratfier than not re¬
cover his continental poffeffions. Under thefe preten¬
ces, particularly that of affifting the Bretons, Avhom the
5 'Rin2
ENG
f
248
An infur-
reftion
fupprefled
Ergland. king of France had lately fubdued, and who had ap-
1   ' plied to him for relief, he perfuaded his parliament to
A. l '-_£4!:'7-gTant; him a confiderable fupply 5 but this involved him
Obtains a £ri f°rae difficulties, h he counties of Durham and
fubfidy on York, who had always been difoontented with Henry’s
pretence ' f g-ovemment, and Hill farther provoked by the oppref-
a'eiHnjr the under which theyhadlabouredaftertheextinc-
ui brcta-T.t ^i‘'n °f Simncl’s rebellion, onpofed tlie commifficners
& font by the king to levy the tax. The latter applied
to the earl of Northumberland, requefting his advice
and affiftance in the execution of their office ; but in-
ftead of being able to enforce the levying of the tax,
he himfelf was attacked and put to death by the infur-
gents. This act of violence committed by themfelves,
feemed to render the infurgents defperate, fo that with¬
out more ado they prepared to reiilt the royal power,
under the conduct of one Sir John Egremond •, but in
this ill-conducted and precipitate fcheme they met with
no fuccefs. Henry inftantly levied a conliderable force,
w’hich he committed to the charge of the earl of Sur¬
rey ; by whom the rebels wrere quickly defeated, and
one of their leaders taken prifoner. Sir John Egre¬
mond tied to the duchefs of Burgundy, who afforded
him protection.
Thus Henry obtained the fubfidy which he had fo-
licited. under pretence of invading France, though
he would willingly have avoided any expence in pre¬
parations for that purpofe in order to keep the mo-
nev in his poffeffion 5 but as the Bretons had applied
to him for affifiance, and their diftreffes became every
day more urgent, he found himfelf obliged to attempt
fomething. With this view he fet fail for Calais with an
army of 2 >,000 foot and 1600 liorfe, of which he gave
feigned in- p]ie command to the duke of Bedford and the earl of
Oxford : but notwithftanding this apparently holtile
difpofition, negotiations for peace had been fecretly be¬
gun, and commiffioners even appointed to confider of
the terms, three months before King Henry fet out for
the continent. As the love of money was the prevail¬
ing paffion of the Englifh monarch, and the poffeffion
of Bretagne was a great object to France, an aecom-
modation foon took -place betwixt the contending par-
Obtains a ties. The king of France engaged to pay Henry near
fum of mo- 200,0001. as u reimburfement for the expences of
m-y and n-},^ expedition, and ftipulated at the fame time to pay
him and his heirs an annual penfion of 25,000 crowns
more.
Thus the authority of Henry feemed to be fo firm¬
ly eftabliffied, as to leave no reafon to dread any rival
2.t in time to come ; but Itill he found himfelf miftaken.
Imp . tore The duchefs of Burgundy, refenting the depreffion
of Perkin of her family, and exafperated by her frequent mif-
carriages in the attempts already made, refolved to
make a final effort againft Henry, whom ffie greatly
hated. For this purpofe ffie propagated a report that
her nephew Richard Plantagenet, duke of York, had
cfeaped from the tower where his elder brother was
murdered, and that he {till lav fbmewhere concealed.
Finding this report eagerly received, (lie foon found a
young man who affumed both his name and character.
R he perfon chofen to act this part was the fon of one
Olhcck, or Warbeck, a converted Jew, who had been
in England during the reign of Edward IV. His name
was Peter; but it had been corrupted after the Fle-
iniili manner into Peter kin, or Perkin. It was by fome
149
Henry
makes a
vafion of
France.
mial pen-
fion.
Warbeck.
07 1 ENG
believed, that Edward, among his other amorous ad- England,
ventures, had a fecret correfpondence with War beck’s 3^
-wife, which might account for the great fimilarity oi ’ ' * ‘
features between Perkin and that monarch. The
duchefs of Burgundy found this youth entirely fuited
to her purpofes. The leffons ffie gave him were eafily
learned and Itrongly retained. His graceful air, his
courtly addrefs, his eafy manners, and elegant ccnver-
fation, were capable of impofing upon all but thofe
who were privy to the impoiture. The kingdom
of Ireland was pitched upon for Perkin’s firft appear¬
ance, as it had been before for that of Simnel. He
landed at Cork ; and immediately affuming the name
of Richard Plantagenet, was followed by great num¬
bers of credulous people. He wrote letters to the
earls of Defmond and Kildare, inviting them to join
his parly •, he difperfed everywhere the ftrange intel¬
ligence of his efcape from his uncle Richard’s cruelty j
and his Itory meeting with general credit, he foon be¬
came an object of the public favour. All thofe who
were difgulted with the king, prepared to join Perkin j
but particularly thofe who formerly -were Henry’s fa¬
vourites, and had contributed to place him on thw
throne. Thrie, thinking their fcrvices had not been
fufficiently repaid, now became heads of the confpiracy.
Their attempts, however, were all fruftrated by the vi¬
gilance of the king, and molt of the confpirators of any
note were publicly executed.
Perkin finding it w as in vain to attempt any thing
in England, went to the court of James IV. of Scot¬
land. Here he was received with great cordiality} and
James carried his confidence in him fo far, that he even
gave him in marriage Lady Catherine Gordon, daugh¬
ter to the earl of Huntley, and a near kinftvoman of
his owrn. But when he attempted to fet him on the
tlirone of England, he found himfelf totally difappoint-
ed ; and on the conclufion of peace between the two
kingdoms, Perkin was obliged to leave Scotland. From
thence he went to Flanders; and meeting with but a
cool reception there, he refolved to try the affedtions
of the people of Cornwall, who had lately rifen again ft
the king on account of a new tax which had been le¬
vied upon them. On his firft appearance, Perkin was
joined by about 3000 of thefe people, with which
force he laid fiege to Exeter. Henry, however, having
marched againft him with a confidcrable army, Per¬
kin’s heart failed him, though his followers now a-
mounted to 7000 ; and he took (belter in a monaltery.
Plis w-ife fell into the conqueror’s hands ; Avho placed
her in a refpectable fituation near the queen’s perfon,
with a fuitable penfion, which ffie enjoyed till hef
death. Perkin being perfuaded to deliver himfelf into
the king’s hands, was compelled to fign a confeffion of
his former life and conduct ; but this was fo defedtive-
and contradidtory, that very little regard was paid to
it. His life was granted him , though he was {till de¬
tained in cuftody, and keepers were appointed to watch
his condudt. From thefe, however, he broke loofe; and
flying to the fandtuary of Shyne, put himfelf into the
prior’s hands. He was once more prevailed upon to truft
himfelf in the king’s hands, and was committed to the
Tower ; but having here entered into a correfpondence
with the earl of Warwick in order to make their efcape,
both of them were condemned and executed.
To Henry VII. in a great mcafure, is owing the
O 2 prefent
England-
A, D. 1509.
[2.S1]
Knglifh na¬
tion civi-
Ijzcd by
Henry.
IDeath 01
'Jitjnry VII
*53
"Senry V HI
ENG [ ro8
preient civilized Hate of the Euglifh nation. He had
all along two points principally in view j the one to
deprefs the nobility and clergy, and the other to exalt
and humanize the populace. In the feudal times every
nobleman was polTeffed of a certain number of vailals,
over whom he had, by various methods, acquired an
almoft abfolute power 5 and, therefore, upon every
flight difguft, he was able to influence them to join
him in his revolt or difobedience. Henry confldered,
that the giving of his barons a power to fell their
eftates, which were before unalienable, mull greatly
weaken their intereft. This liberty therefore he gave
them } and it proved highly pleafmg to the commons,
nor was it difagreeable to the nobles themfelves. His
next fcheme was to prevent their giving liveries to many
hundreds of their dependents, who were thus kept like
the foldiers of a Handing army to be ready at the com¬
mand of their lord. By an aft paffed in this reign,
none but menial fervants were allowed to wear a livery }
and this law was enforced under fevere penalties.
With the clergy, Henry was not fo fuceefsful. The
number of criminals of all kinds who found protection
in monafteries and other places appointed lor religious
worftup, feemed to indicate little leis than an abiolute
toleration cf all kinds of vice. Henry ufed all his in-
tereft with the pope to get thefe fan binaries abolilhed,
but to no purpofe. All that he could procure was,
that if thieves, murderers, or robbers, regiftered as
fanbtuary men, Ihould fally out and commit frelh of¬
fences, and retreat again, in fuch cafes they might
be taken out of the fanctuary and delivered up to ju-
Hice.
In I 500, the king’s eldeft fon Arthur was married
to the Infanta Catherine of Spain, which marriage had
been projebted and negotiated feven years. But the
prince dying in a few months after marriage, the prin-
cefs was obliged to marry his younger brother Henry,
who was created prince of Wales in his room. Henry
himfelf made all the oppofltion which a youth of 12
years of age is capable of: but as the king perfifted
m his refolution, the marriage was by the pope’s dif-
penfation fliortly after folemnized.—In the latter part
of this king’s reign, his economy, which had always
been exact, degenerated into avarice, and he oppref-
fed the people in a very arbitrary manner. He had
two minifters, Empfon and Dudley, perfectly quali¬
fied to fecond his avaricious intentions. They were
both lawyers, and ufually committed to prifon by in-
diftment fuch perfons as they intended to opprefs j
from whence they feldom got free but by paying heavy
fines, which were called mitigations and compofitions :
but by degrees the very forms of law were omitted •,
and they determined in a fummary way upon the pro¬
perties of the fubjefts, and confifeated their effebls to
the royal treafury.—Henry VII. died of the gout in his
•ftomach, in the year 1509, having lived 52 years^ and
reigned 23 ; and.was fucceeded by his fon Henry VIII.
In^Henry VII.’s reign was built a large ftiip of war
called the Great Harnj, which cofl: 14,000!. This
was, properly fpeaking, the fir ft fliip in the Englifti
navy. Before this period, when the king wanted a
fleet, he had no other expedient than to hire ftiips from
the merchants.
Henry VIII. afeended the. throne when he was a-
. D. ip4;
j E N G
bout 18 years of age, and had almoft every advantage England,
which a prince can have on his acceflion. He had a ^
well-ftored treafury, and indifputed title, and -was at
peace with all the powers in Europe. Commerce and
arts had been feme time introduced into England,
where they met with a favourable reception. The
young prince himfelf wras beautiful in his perfon, ex¬
pert in all polite exercifes, open and liberal in his air,
and loved by all his fubjects. The old king, who was
himfelf a fcholar, had inllrucled him in all the learning
of the times, fo that he was an adept in fehool-divinity
before the age of 18.
All thefe advantages, however, feemed to have been
loft upon the new king. Being deftitute of a good
heart and folid underilanding, he proved a tyrant.
Being always actuated, not by reafon, but the paflion
which happened to be uppermoft in his mind, he be¬
haved in the moft abfurd and contradictory manner '7
and however fortunate fome of his meafures proved at
laft, it is impoflible that either his motives, or the means
he took for the accompliftnnent of his purpofes, can be
approved of by any good man.
One of Henry’s firft ablions in his royal capacity
was to punifti Empfon and Dudley, who were obnoxi¬
ous to the populace on account of their having been
the inftruments of the late king’s rapacity. As they
could not be impeached merely on account of their
having ftrictly executed the will of the king, they
were aecufed of having entered into a treafonable con-
fpiracy, and of having defigned to feize by force ihe
adminiftration of government •, and though nothing
could be more improbable than fuch a charge, the ge¬
neral prejudice againft them was fo great, that they
were both condemned and executed.
In 1510, the king entered into a league with Pope
Julius II. and Ferdinand king of Spain, againft
Louis XII. of France. In this alliance Henry was
the only difinterefted perfon. He expefted nothing
befides the glory which he hoped would attend his
arms, and the title of M'.JI Chrijlian King, which the
pope allured him would foon be taken from the king
of France to be conferred upon him. The pope was
defirous of wreiling from Louis fome valuable pro¬
vinces which he poffeffed in Italy, and Ferdinand was
deftrous of ftiaring in the fpoil. Henry fummoned his
parliament j who very readily granted him fupplies, as
he gave out that his defign was to conquer the king¬
dom of France, and annex it to the crown of England.
It was in vain that one of his old prudent counfellcrs
objected, that conquefts on the continent would only
drain the kingdom without enriching it j and that Eng¬
land, from its fituation, was not fitted to enjoy exten-
five empire. The young king, deaf to all remon-
ftrances, and hurried away by his military ardour, re-
fblved immediately to begin the war. But after feveral
attempts, which were rendered unfuccefsful only by the
mifmanagement of thofe who conduced them, a peace
was concluded with France on the 7th of Augurt 1514.
Henry’s arms were attended with more fuccefs in
Scotland •, where King- James IV. with the greateft
part of the Scots nobility, and 10,000 of the common
people, were cut off in the battle of Fknvdenf. Henry j See Scot-
in the mean time, puffed up with bis imaginary fue- land-
ceffes againft France, and his real ones againft Scot¬
land,
England.
A. D. 1314
2s4
Cardinal
Wuli'cy
m miller.
* See IVoI-
»5S
Arbitrary
behaviour
•i the kin-
E N G
land, continued to lavilh his treafures
pica lures, and no lefs expenfive preparations tor war.
'i he old minifters who had been appointed by his fa¬
ther to direct him, were now difregarded; and the king’s
confidence was entirely placed in J homas afterwards
Cardinal Wolfey, who leconded him in all his favourite
purtuits, and Avho, being the fun of a private gentle¬
man at Ipfwich, had gradually raifed himfelf to the
lirit employments of the date *. He doth not feem
to have had many bad qualities belides his excefiive
pride, which difgufted all the nobility ; but the great
iiiare lie poiTeifcd in the favour of lueh an abfolute
prince as Henry VIII. pul him quite out of the reach
of his enemies.
The king having foon exhaufted all the trealures left
him by his faiher, as well as the fupplies which he
could by fair means obtain from his parliament, applied
to Wolfey for new methods of repleniihing his cotfers.
The mini iter’s firft fcheme was to get a large fum from
the people under the tide of benevolence; though no
title could be more improperly applied, as it w7as not
granted without the greateft murmurings and com¬
plaints. Wolfey even met with oppofition in the levy¬
ing of it. In the firlt place, having exacted a conli-
derable fum from the clergy, he next applied himfelf
to the houfe of commons •, but they only granted him
halt the fum he demanded. The minifter at firft was
highly offended, and delired to be heard in the houfe $
but they replied, that none could be permitted to fit
and argue there except fueli as were members. Soon
after, the king having oceation for new fupplies, by
Wolfey’s advice attempted to procure them by his pre¬
rogative alone, without confulting his parliament. He
hided out commiflions to all the counties of England
for levying four {hillings in the pound from the clergy,
and three llullings and fourpence from the laity. This
ftretch of royal power was loon oppofed by the people,
and a general infurreftion feemed ready to enfue.
Henry endeavoured to pacify them by circular letters ;
in which he declared, that -what he demanded was on¬
ly by way of benevolence. The city of London, how¬
ever, ftill heiitated on the demand ; and in fome parts
of the country infurreftions were aftually begun.
Thefe were happily fuppreffed by the duke of Suffolk 5
but the cardinal loft fomewhat of the king’s favour on
account of the improper advice lie had given him. To
reinfiate himfelf in his good graces, Wolfev made the
king a prefent of a noble pa1 ace called Tori-place, at
Weitminfter, affuring him that from the firit he had
intended it for the king’s ufe. In order to have a pre¬
tence for amafling more .wealth, Wolfev next under¬
took to found two new colleges at Oxford ; and for
th is purpofe he received every day frelh grants from
the pope and the king. 'The former imprudently gave
him liberty to fupprefs fome monafieries, and make ufe
of their revenues tor the erection of his new colleges ;
but this was a fatal precedent for the pontiff’s interefts,
and it taught the king to feize on the monaltic revenues
whenever he {food in need of money.
For a confiderable time Wolfey continued to enioy
the king’s favour in an extreme degree ; and as no
monarch was ever more defpotic than Henry VIII.
no minifter was more powerful than Wolfey. This
extraordinary elevation ferved only to render his fall
‘-he more confpicuous, and himfelf the more miferable,
[ 109 1 ENG
by expenilve when it took place : and what was worfe, he had long England,
foreleen, from what he knew of the king’s capricious
and obftinale temper, that it certainly would happen
one time or other. The caufe of this final overthrow Caufe of
was the defire King Henry began to entertain of ha- Wolfey’s
ving his queen Catharine divorced. The doftrines oi m griiCC‘
the reformation, propagated by Luther in 1517, had
gained confiderable ground in England, and many pro-
feffed a belief in them, notwitbftanding the fevere per-
fecution which had been carried on againft heretics-
during fome of the preceding reigns. T he clergy had-
become fo exceedingly corrupt, and were immerfed in
fuch monftrous ignorance, that they were univerfally
hated even by their own party ; tv bile no regard at all
was paid to their decilions, or rather they were looked
upon with the utmoft abhorrence, by the reformers.
Even the papal authority, though ft ill very great, had,
in no greater a fpace of time than ten years (viz. from
1517, when Luther firft began to attack it, to the
prefent.year I 527), declined very fenftbly. The mar- Scruples
riage of King Henry, therefore, being looked upon by 7 onccrniug
all parties as in itfelf illegal, and only fanftified by^j^y^
a difpenfation from the pope, had been frequently marriage,
objefted to on different occafions. We are informed
by fome authors, that when Henry VII. betrothed
his fon, at that time only 12 vears of age, lie evidently
fhowed an intention of taking afterwards a proper op¬
portunity to annul the ccntraft 5 and that he ordered
Prince Henry, as foon as he fhould come of age, to
enter a proteftation againft the marriage *, charging him
on his death-bed not to finifh an alliance fo unufual,
and liable to fuch infuperable objeftidns. Some mem¬
bers of the privy-council, particularly Warham the
primate, afterwards declared againib the completion of
the marriage 5 and even after it at as completed, fome
incidents which in a ftiort time took place AATcre fuffi-
eient to make him fenfible of the general fentiments
of the public on that fubjeft. The ftates of Caltile
had oppofed a marriage betivixt the emperor Charles
and the Englifh princefs Mary, Henry’s daughter, ur¬
ging among other things the illegitimacy of her birth. .
The fame objeftion aftenvards occurred on opening a
negotiation Avith France for a marriage Avith the duke
of Orleans.
If thefe accounts are to be depended upon as au- Other rea-
thentic, avc can fcarce perceive it poffible but Henry tons for
himfelf muft have been fomewhat ftaggered by them j Henry’s dc^
though it is by no means probable that they Avere his fire °* a
only motives. The queen Avas fix years older thanV0Ke’
the king, her perfonal charms Avere decayed, and his
affeftion leffened in proportion. All her children had
died in infancy except one daughter, the princefs Mary
above mentioned j and Henry Avas, or pretended to be,
greatly ftruck Avith this, as it feemed fomething like
the curfe of being childlefs, pronounced in the Mo-
faic law againft fome evil doers. Another point of
the utmoft importance was the fucceflion to the croAvn,
which any queftion concerning the legitimacy of the
king’s marriage Avould involve in confufion. It Avas
alfo fuppofed, Avith great reafon, that fhould any ob~
flacles of this kind occur, the king of Scotland
would ftep in as the next heir, and advance his pre-
tenfions to the croAvn of England. But above all, it His love for
is probable that he was influenced by the love he had Anne Ec-
ncAV contrafted for Anne Boleyn, who had lately feyn, .
keen
201
Extreme
perplexity
of the
pope.
ENG. [ i
Englasd. been appointed maid of honour to the queen. In this
^Vi ftation Henry had frequent opportunities of feeing
' 7 her, and foon became deeply enamoured j and finding
that his pailion could not be gratified but by a mar-
260 riagc> lt not to be doubted that he was thus obfti-
Sends to nately fet upon the divorce 5 for which purpofe lie
Rome to fent his fecretary to Rome to obtain from Clement a
obtain a di- by]} f01. {lifiblving his marriage with Catharine. That
vorce i • 1 0 0 •
he might not ieem to entertain doubt of the pope’s
prerogative, he infilled only on feme grounds of nul¬
lity in the bull granted by his predecefibr Julius for
the accompliihment of the marriage. In the preamble
to this bull, it had been faid, that it was granted only
upon the felicitation of Henry himfelf 3 though it was
known that he wras then a youth under 12 years of age :
it was like wife afferted, that the bull was neceffary for
maintaining the peace between the two crowns 3 though
otherwife it is certain that there was no appearance of
a quarrel betwixt them. Thefe falfe premifes feemed
to afford a very good pretence for diffolving it 3 but,
as matters then Rood, the pope was involved in the ut-
moft perplexity. Queen Catharine was aunt to the
emperor, who had lately made Clement himfelf a pri-
foner, and whofe refentment he Hill dreaded : and be-
fides, he could not with any degree of prudence declare
the bull of the former pope illicit, as this would give
a mortal blow to the doftrine of papal infallibility.
On the other hand, Henry was his prote&or and friend 3
the dominions of England were the chief refource from
whence his finances were fupplied 3 and the king of
France, feme time before, had got a bull of divorce
in circumftances nearly fimilar. In this exigence he
thought the wifeft method would be to fpin out the
affair by negotiation 3 and in the mean time he fent
over a commiffion to Wolfey, in conjun£lion with the
archbiihop of Canterbury or any other Englilh. prelate,
to examine the validity of the king’s marriage and of
the former difpenfation 3 granting them alfo a provifi-
onal difpenfation for the king’s marriage rvith any other
perfon.
The pope’s meffage was laid before the council in
England : but they confidered,, that an advice given by
the pope in this fecret manner might very eafily be
difavowed in public 5 and that a clandeltine marriage
would totally invalidate the legitimacy of any iffue the
king might have by fuch a match. In confequence of
this, freih meflengers were difpatched to Rome, and
evafive anfwers returned 3 the pope never imagining
that Henry's paffion would hold out during the tedious
^ courfe of an ecclefiaftical controverfy. But in this he
Henry’s 'vvas miftaken. The king of England had been taught
c •"•vverfy to difpute as well as the pope, and valued himfelf not
with him. a little on his knowledge in theology : and to his ar¬
guments he added threats 3 telling him, that the Eng¬
lilh were but too well difpofed to withdraw from the
holy fee 3 and that if he continued uncomplying, the
whole country would readily follow the example of
their monarch, who Ihould always deny obedience to a
pontiff that had treated him with fuch falfehood and du¬
plicity. The king even propofed to his holinefs whe¬
ther, if he were not permitted to divorce his prefent
queen, he might not have a difpenfation for having two
wives at once ?
The pope, perceiving the king’s eagernefs, at laft
fent Cardinal Campcgio his legate to London 3 who
10 ] E N ,G
wuth Wolfey, opened a court for trying the legitimacy England,
of the king’s marriage with Catharine, and cited the '—~v~—'
king and queen to appear before them. The trial com- A' i'' ,1329"
menccd the 3 ill of May 15293 and both parties pre-xrial of the
lented themfelves. ! lie king anfwered to his name v hen king and
called : but the queen, inltead of anfwering to hers, <lUC(‘n bt>-
rofe from her feat, and, throwing herfelf at the king’s ^
feet, made a very pathetic harangue 3 which her dig-S L
nity, her virtue, and mistortunes, rendered ftill more at-'
feeling. She told her hufband, “ That fire was a llran-
ger in his dominions, without protection, without
counfcl, and without affillance ; expofed to all the in-
jultice which her enemies were plealed to impofe upon
her : 1 hat file had quitted her native country, without
any other refource than her connexions with him and
his family 3 and that, inftead of fuffering thence any
violence or iniquity, ihe had been affured of having in
them a fafeguard againll every misfortune : '1 hat fire
had been his wife during 20 years ; and would here ap¬
peal to himfelf, whether her affectionate fubmiflion to
his will had not merited other treatment than to be
thus, after fo long a time, thrown from him with in- >
^dignity : 1 hat fire wras confcious,—he himfelf was af¬
fured,—-that her virgin honour was yet unllained when
he received her into his bed 3 and that her connexions
with his brother had been carried no farther than the
mere ceremony of marriage: That their parents, the
kings of England and Spain, were efteemed the wifefl
princes of their time, and had undoubtedly aXed by the
bell advice when they formed the agreement for that
marriage, which w as now reprefented as fo criminal and
unnatural : And that fhe acquiefced in their judgment,
and would not fubmit her caufe to be tried by a court
whofe dependance on her enemies w as too • vifible ever
to allow her any hopes of obtaining from them an
equitable or impartial decifion.” Having fpoken thefe
words, the queen rofe 3 and, making the king a low
reverence, left the court 3 nor would Ihe ever again ap¬
pear in it. The legate having again fummoned the
queen to appear before them, on her refufal, declared
her contumacious, and the trial proceeded in her ab-
fence. But w hen the bufinefs feemed to be nearly de¬
cided, Campegio, on feme very frivolous pretences, pro¬
rogued the court, and at lafl transferred the caufe before
the fee of Rome.
All this time Cardinal Wolfey feemed to be in the Emban-aff-
fame dilemma with the pope, and indeed much worfe 3 ment of
as he could not boafl of the fame independence which Cardinal
his holinefs poffeffed. On the one hand, he was very ^ obty-
felicitous to gratify the king his mailer, w ho had dif-
tingiufhed him by fo many and extraordinary marks of
favour 5 on the other, he feared to offend the pope,
whofe fervant he more immediately wras, and who like-
wife had power to punifh his difobedience. He had
long knotrn that this affair was certainly to end in his
ruin 3 and bv attempting to pleafe all parties, he fell
under the difpleafure of every one 3 fo that he was at
lafi: left without a fingle friend in the world. The king
was difpleafed on account of his not entering into his
caufe with the warmth lie thought he had reafon to ex-
peX 3 Anne Boleyn imputed to him the difappointment
of her hopes 3 while even Queen Catharine and her
friends expreffed the greateft indignation againil him
on account of the part he had openly taken in the af¬
fair of her divorce. In this miferable fituation the
ENG [ i
England, king fent him a mclTage by the dukes of Norfolk and
2|' Suffolk, demanding the great feal j the cardinal refu-
'■265^ 9 ied.to deliver it without a more exprefs warrant; upon
Is difgraced which Henry wrote him a letter, and on receipt of this
and pcrfe- it was inftantly given up. The feal was beftowed on
cutcd. Sir Thomas More ; a man who, befides elegant literary
talents, was poffelfed of the higheft capacity, integrity,
and virtue. Wolfey was next commanded to depart
from York-place palace which he had built in London ;
and winch, though it belonged to the fee of York, was
now feized by the king, and afterwards became the
refidence of the Britilh fovereigns, under the name of
Whitehall. All his furniture and plate, the richnefs of
which feemed rather proper for a monarch than a fub-
jedf, was feized for the king’s ufe. He was then com¬
manded to retire to Eftier, a country-feat which he pof-
fefled near Hampton-court, and there to wait the king’s
pleafure. One difgrace followed another ; and his fall
was at length completed by a fummons to London to
anfwer a charge of high treafon. This fummons he at
firft refufed to anfwer, as being a cardinal. However
being at length perfuaded, he fet out on his journey ■
but was taken ill, and died by the way. See the ar-
2I56 tide WoLSEY.
All the uni- After the death of Wolfey, the king, by the advice
verikie5 of of Cranmer *, had the legality of his marriage debated
cenfulted in a11 the univerfities of Europe ; and the votes of thefe
about the were obtained in his favour by dint of money. The de¬
legality of burfements made on the occaffon have even been prefer-
the kings ved to this day. To a fubdeacon he gave a crown, to
* See Cran-a ^cacoIj *-wo crowns, and fo to the reft in proportion
mer. .to t^ie importance of their ftation or opinion.—Be¬
ing thus fortified by the opinions of the univerfities,
' 267 and even of the Jewilh rabbies (for them alfo he had
naTYiarrul con^ulted)’ Henry began to think he might fafely op-
with the^ P0^ ^ie P°Pe himfelf. He began by reviving in par-
pope. liament an old law againft the clergy, by which all
thofe who had fubmitted to the authority of tl>e pope’s
legate were condemned to fevere penalties. The cler¬
gy, to conciliate the king’s favour, were obliged to pay
a fine of 118,000 pounds. A confeffion was likewife
extorted from them, that the king, and not the pope,
was the fupreme head of the church and clergy of Eng-
Imid. An aft was foon after pafled againft levying the
firft-fruils, or a year’s rent of all the bilhoprics that fell
vacant. After this the king privately married his be¬
loved Anne Boleyn } and Ihe proving with child foon
after marriage, he publicly owned her for his wife, and
pafled with her through London, with a greater mag¬
nificence than had ever been known before. The
ftreets were ftrewed with flowers, the walls of the houfes
hung with tapeftry, and a univerfal joy feemed to be
dinufed among the people. The unfortunate C,)ueen
Catharine, perceiving all further oppofition to be vain*
retired to Amphthill near Dunftable, where flie conti¬
nued^ the reft of her days in privacy and peace. Her
marriage with Henry was at laft declared invalid, but
not till after the latter had been married to Anne Bo¬
leyn, though this declaration ought undoubtedly to have
preceded it. See Boleyn.
The pope was no fooner informed of thefe proceed¬
ings, than he pafled a fentence, declaring Catharine to
be the king’s only lawful wife ; requiring him to take
her again,, and denouncing his cenfures againft him in
i:afe of a refufal. Henry, on the other hand, knowing
11 i ENG
that his fubjefts were entirely at his command, refolved England;
to feparate totally from the church of Rome. In the ^ *'1 v~~~11
year 1534, he was declared head of the church by par-A- D'I53<5'
liament j the authority of the pope was completely abo- is declared
hihed in England ; all tributes formerly paid to the ho-head of the
ly fee were declared illegal 5 and the king was entrufted church,
with the collation to all ecclefiaftical benefices. The
nation came into the king’s meafures with joy, and took
an oath called the oath offupremacij; all the credit which
the popes had maintained over England for ages tv as
now overthrown at once j and none feemed to repine
au tne change, except thofe who were immediately in-
terefted by their dependence on Rome.
But though the king thus feparated from the church
of Rome, he by no means adhered to the doftrines of
Luther which had been lately publilhed. He had
written a book againft this celebrated reformer, which
the pope pretended greatly to admire; and honoured
King Henry, on its account, with the title of “ De¬
fender of the faith.” Ihis charafter he feemed to be
determined to maintain, and therefore perfecuted the
reformers moft violently. Many were burnt*for deny¬
ing the popilh doftrines, and fome alfo were executed
for maintaining tile fupremacy of the pope. The
courtiers knew not which fide to take, as both the new
and old religions were equally perfecuted 5 and as both
parties equally courted the favour of the king, he was
by that means enabled to aflfume an abfolute authority
over the nation. As the monks had all along fhown
the greateft refiftance to Henry’s ecclefiaftical charac-
ter, he refolved at once to deprive them of the power
of injuring him. He accordingly empowered Crom¬
well, fecretary of ftate, to fend commiflioners into the
feveral counties of England to infpeft the monafteries •
and to report, with rigorous exaftnels, the conduft
and deportment of fuch as were found there. This
employment was readily undertaken by fome creatures
of. the court, whofe names were Layton, London
Price, Gage, Petre, and Belafis. They are find to’
have dilcovered monftrous diforders in many of the re¬
ligious houfes 5 whole convents of women abandoned
to all manner of lewdnefs; 1'riars accomplices in their
crimes; pious frauds everywhere committed* to in-
creafe the devotion and liberality of the people 5 and
cruel and inveterate faftions maintained between the
inhabitants. Thus a general horror was excited againft s**,?-
theie communities * and therefore the king, in 1536,0! the moY
lupprefled tlie Idler monafteries, amounting to 376 in nalteries.
number. Their revenues, computed at 3 2,000 pounds
a-year, were confifcated to the king’s ufe y befides their
plate and other goods, computed at 100,oco pounds
moit?. In 1538, the greater monaftenes alio were de--
mohihed. the better to reconcile the people to this
great innovation, ftories were publiflied, perhaps with
aggravations, of the deteftable lives which the friars led
in their convents. The relicks alfo, and other objects
of fuperftitious veneration, were now brought forth
and became objefts of derihon to the reformers. A great
number of thefe are enumerated by Proteftant writers •
fuch as the parings of St Edmund’s toes; fome of the
coals that roafted St Laurence; the girdle of the vir¬
gin Mary, ftiown in no fewer than eleven different
places ; two or three heads of St Urfula; the felt of
St Thomas of Lancafter, an infallible cure for the
headachy part of St Thomas of Canterbury’s ftfirt,
much
f E N G [it
England, much reverenced among big-bellied women *, fome re-
v 1 licks, an excellent preforvative again ft rain, others
A. u. 1536. againH weeds in corn, &c. Some impoftures, how¬
ever, were difeovered, which difplayed a little more
ingenuity in the contrivance. At Hales in the county
of Gloucefter had been ftiown, during feveral ages, the
blood of Chrift brought from Jcrulalem. The vene¬
ration for this precious relick may eafily be imagined 5
but it was attended with a moft remarkable circum-
ftance not obferved in any other relicks. The facred
blood was not viflble to any one in mortal ftn, even
when fet before him ; nor could it be difeovered till he
had performed good works fufficient for his abfolution.
At the diffolution of the monaftery, the whole con¬
trivance was difeovered. Two of the monks who were
let into the fecret, had taken the blood of a duck,
which they renewed every week : they put it into a
phial, one fide of which was thin and tranfparent cry-
•fttd, the other thick and opaque. When any rich pil¬
grim arrived, they were fure to ftiow him the dark fide,
till maffes and oft'erings had expiated his offences;
after which they made him happy, by turning the
phial.—A miraculous crucifix had been kept at Boxely
in Kent, and bore the appellation of the rood of grace.
The lips, eyes, and head of the image, moved on the
approach of its votaries. Helfey bifliop of Rochefter
broke the crucifix at St Paul’s crofs, and fhowed to all
the people the fprings and wheels by which it had
been fecretly moved. A great wooden idol, called
Darvel Gathering was alfo brought to London and cut
in pieces: and, by a cruel refinement of vengeance, it
was employed as fuel to burn Friar For eft ^ who was
punifhed for denying the king’s fupremacy, and for
fome pretended herefies. A finger of St Andrew,
covered with a thin plate of filver, had been pawned for
a debt of 40 pounds •, but as the king’s commiffioners
refufed to releafe the pawn, people made themfelves
very merry with the poor creditor on account of his
fecurity. On this occafion alfo was demolifhed the
noted fhrine of Thomas d Becket, commonly called
St Thomas of Canterbury*. The riches of it were
inconceivable : when broken down, the gold with
which it was adorned filled two large chefts that eight
ftrong men could fcarcely carry out of the church.
The king, on the whole, fuppreffed 645 monafteries, of-
which 28 lugl abbots who enjoyed feats in parliament.
Ninety colleges were demolifhed in feveral counties j
2374 chantries and free chapels, and no hofpitals.
The whole revenue of thefe eftablifhments amounted to
161,too pounds.
It is eafy to imagine the indignation which fuch an
uninterrupted courfe of facrilege and violence would
occafion at Rome. In 1535, the king had executed
Bifliop Fiflier, who was created a cardinal while in
prifon, and Sir Thomas More, for denying or fpeak-
ing ambiguoufly about his fupremacy. When this was
reported in Italy, numerous libels were published all
over the country, comparing the king of England to
Nero, Domitian, Caligula, and the moft wicked ty¬
rants of antiquity. Clement VII. died about fix months
-after he had threatened the king with a fentence of ex-
communication 5 and Paul III. who fucceeded him in
the papal throne, entertained fome hopes of an accom¬
modation. But Henry was fo much accuftomed to do¬
mineering, that the quarrel was foon rendered totally
6
See
IStcket.
2 ] E & G
incurable. The execution of Fiflier was reckoned fuch England
a capital injury, that at laft the pope paffed all his cen- ' ~'v 1
fures againft the king, citing him and all his adherents'A"^
to appear in Rome within 90 days, in order to anfwer The king
for their crimes. If they failed, he excommunicated excommu-
them 5 deprived the king of his realm ; fubjedted the nicated.
kingdom to an interdict; declared his iffue by Anne
Boleyn illegitimate 5 diffolved all leagues which any
Catholic princes had made with him ; gave his king¬
dom to any invader 5 commanded the nobility to take
up arms againft him ; freed his fubjects from all oaths
of allegiance 5 cut oft’ their commerce with foreign
ftates ; and declared it lawful for any one to feize them,
to make flaves of their perfons, and to convert their
effefts to his own ufe. But though thefe cenfures were
then paffed, they were not openly denounced. The
pope delayed the publication till he ftiould find an
agreement with England totallv defperate, and till the
emperor, who was then hard prefied by the Turks and
the Proteftant princes of Germany, ftiould be in a con¬
dition to carry the fentence into execution. But in
1538, when news arrived at Rome that Htnry had pro¬
ceeded with the monafteries as above related, the pope
was at laft provoked to publifli the cenfures againft him.
Libels were again difperfed, in which he was anew
compared to the moft furious perfecutors of antiquity,
and the preference was now given on their fide. Henry,
it was faid, had declared war with the dead, whom the
Pagans themfelves refpecled ; was at open enmity with
heaven 3 and had engaged in profeffed heftility with all
the faints and angels. Above all, he was reproached
with his relemblance to the emperor Julian, whom (it
was faid) he imitated in his apoftafy and learning,
though he fell Ihcrt of him in his morals. But thefe
terrible fulminations' had now loft their effeft. Henry
had long ago denied the fupremacy of the pope, and
therefore had appealed from him to a general council j
but now, when a general council was fummoned at
Mantua, he refufed to be fubjedt to it, becaufe it was
called by the pope, and lay entirely under fubjedlion to
that fpiritual ufurper. He engaged his clergy to make
a declaration to the like purpoie, and preferibed to them
many other alterations with regard to their ancient te- 2^t
nets and practices. It was expected that the fpirit of His abfurd
oppofition to the church of Rome w ould have at laft and tyran-
made him fall in with the doctrines of the reformed 3 con*
but though he had been gradually changing the theo¬
logical fyftem in which he wras educated, ever fince he
came to the years of maturity, he was equally pofitive
and dogmatical in the few articles he retained, as though
the whole fabric had continued entire and unlhaken :
and though he flood alone in his opinion, the flattery
of courtiers had fo much inflamed his tyrannical arro¬
gance, that he thought himfelf entitled to regulate by
his own particular ftandard the religious faith of the
whole nation. The point on which he chiefly refted
his orthodoxy wras the moft abfurd in the whole popifti
doflrine ; namely, that of tranfubftantiation. All de¬
parture from this he held to be a damnable error 3 and
nothing, he thought, could be more honourable for him,
than, while he broke off all connexions w'ith the Ro¬
man pontiff, to maintain, in this effential article, the
purity of the Catholic faith.
In 1539, a parliament was called, whh«i met on
the 28th day of April. The chancellor opened this
parliament
ENG [ i
England, parliament by informing the houfe of lords, that it
was his majefty’s earned; defire to extirpate from his
' ‘ ' kingdom all diverfity of opinions with regard to reli¬
gion ; and as this cnterprife was, he owned, difficult
and important, he defired them to choofe a committee
from among themfelves, who might frame certain ar¬
ticles, and communicate them afterwards to parliament.
The lords named the vicar-general Cromwell, now
created a peer, the archbiffiops of Canterbury and York,
272 the biihops of Durham, Carlifle, Worceller, Bath and
haw of the Wells, Bangorand Ely. This fmall committee itfelf
fix articles was agitated’ with fuch diverlity of opinions, that it
framed. could come to no conelufion. The duke of Norfolk
then moved, that lince there was no hope of having a
report from the committee, the articles of faith pro-
pofed to be eftabliffied ffiould be reduced to fix, and a
newr committee be appointed to frame an act with re¬
gard to them. As this peer was underftood to fpeak
the king’s mind, his motion was immediately complied
with *, and, after a ffiort prorogation, the bill of the
fix articles, or the bloody bill, as the Proteftants juftly
termed it, was introduced ; and having pafied the two
houfes, received the king’s afient. By this law the
doftrine of the real prefence was eftablilhed ; the com¬
munion in one kind ; the perpetual obligation of vows
of chaftity 5 the utility of private malTes 5 the celibacy
of the clergy 5 and the neeeffity of auricular confeffion.
The denial of the real prefence fubje&ed the perfon to
death by fire, and to the fame forfeiture as in cafes of
treafon ; and admitted not the privilege of abjuring:
an unheard-of cruelty, unknown even to the inquifi-
tion itfelf. The denial of any of the other articles,
even though recanted, was puniffiable by the forfeiture
of goods and chattels, and imprifonment during the
king’s pleafure : an obftinate adherence to error, or a
relapfe, was adjudged to be felony, and puniffiable by
death. The marriage of priefts was fubje&ed to the
fame punifhment. Their commerce with women was,
for the fir ft offence, forfeiture and imprifonment 5 and
for the fecond, death. Abftaining from confeffion, and
from receiving the eucharift at the accuftomed times,
fubje&ed the perfon to fine, and to imprifonment during
the king’s pleafure and if the criminal perfevered after
conviaion, he was puniffiable by death and forfeiture,
as in cafes of felony. Commiffioners were to be ap¬
pointed by the king for inquiring into thefe herefies and
irregular pra&ices, and the criminals were to be tried
by a jury.
7 lie parliament having thus furrendered their eccle-
fiaftical privileges, next proceeded to furrender their
civil ones alfo. J hey gave to the king’s proclamations
the fame force as to ftatutes enaffed by parliament, and
thus by one blow made a total fubverfion of the Eng-
lifh conftitution ; and to render the matter worfe, if
poflible, they framed this law as if it were only de¬
claratory, and intended to explain the natural extent
of the royal authority.—Notwithftanding this, how-
ever, they afterwards pretended to make fome limita¬
tion-^ in the regal power, and they enafted, that no
proclamation fhould deprive any perfon of his lawful
poffeffions, liberties, inheritances, &c. nor yet in¬
fringe any common law or laudable cuftom of the
realm.
^ As foon as the aft of the fix articles had paffed, the
Catholics were extremely vigilant to inform aeainft of-
Vol. VIII. Part I. ^
13 ] ENG
fenders 5 and, in a fliort time, no fewer than 500 per- England.
fons wrere thrown into prifon. But fome of the chief' * 1
officers of ftate remonftrating againft the cruelty of pu-A’ D' I54*’
milling fuch a number of delinquents, they were all of
them let at liberty; and foon after this, Henry, as if
he had refolved to give each party the advantage by
turns, granted every one permiffion to have a tranfla-
tion of the Bible, w hich had been newly made, in his
family.
In 1540, the king again complained to parliament
of the great diverfity of religious tenets which pre-
vailed among his fubjeefs ■ a grievance, he affirmed,
which ought the lefs to be endured, becaufe the ferip-
tures were now publiftied in England, and ought uni-
verfally to be the ftandard of belief to mankind. But
he had appointed, lie faid, fome bifliops and divines to
draw up a lift of tenets j and he w-as determined that
Chrift and the truth Ihould have the viftory 5 whence
he feems to have expefled more from this new book
of his doctors, than had enfued from the publica¬
tion of .the feriptures. Cromwell, as vicar-general,
alfo made a fpeech in the upper houfe 3 and the peers
in return told him, that he deferved to be vicar-gene¬
ral to the univerfe : To fuch a degree of mean and fer-
vile fubmiffion was the Englilh parliament at this time
reduced.
This year alfo the king fuppreffed the only religious Suppreflio*
order remaining in England 3 namely, the knights ofof liic
St John of Jerufalem, or the knights of Malta, as they kmSlits
are commonly called. This order had by their valour
done great fervice to Chriftendom 3 and had very much
retarded, at Jerufalem, Rhodes, and Malta, the rapid
progrefs of the barbarians. During the general fur-
render of the religious houfes in England, they had
obftinately refufed to give up their revenues to the
king 3 and Henry who would endure no fociety that
profeffed obedience to the pope, ivas obliged to have
recourfe to parliament for the diffolution of this order*
Their revenues were large, and formed a confiderable
addition to the acquifitions which the king had already
made. But he had been fuch a bad economift, that,
notwithftanding the immenfe plunder afforded him by
the church, he now demanded from parliament a very
confiderable fupply. The commons, however, though
laviffi of the blood of their fellow'-fubjecls, were ex¬
tremely frugal of their money 3 and it was not without
murmuring that the grant could be obtained, even bv
this abfolute and dreaded monarch.
The king all this time continued to punifii with un¬
relenting feverity the Proteftants who offended againft
the law of the fix articles, and the Papifts who denied
his fupremacy 3 which gave occafion to a foreigner at
that time to fay, that thofe who were againft the
pope were burned, and thofe who w ere for him were
hanged. The king even feemed to difplay in an often-
tatious manner his tyrannical juftice and impartiality,
which reduced both parties to fubje&ion. This year
he executed three Proteftants and three Papifts coupled
together. The latter declared, that the moft grievous
part of their puniffiment w'as the being coupled to fuch
heretical mifereants as fuffered with them. t
In 1542, Henry proceeded to the further diffolti-an/of ma-
tion of colleges, hofpitals, and other foundations of ny colleges,
that nature. The courtiers had been dealing with the hofpitals,
prefidents and governors to make a furrender of their &c*
revenues
ENG
England, revenues to the king} and they had fucceeded with
^ ' eight. But there was an obftacle to their farther pro-
* 'I"^2'grefs: it had been provided by tire local ftatutes of
molt of thefe foundations, that no prelident nor any
fellows could make fuch a deed without the unanimous
confent of all the fellows. This confent would not
have been ealily obtained j but the parliament proceed¬
ed ip a fummary manner to annul all thefe ilatutes : by
which means the revenues of thofe houfes were expofed
to the rapacity of the king and his favourites. Henry
alfo now extorted from many bilhops a furrender of
their • chapter-lands 5 by which means he pillaged the
fees of Canterbury, York, and London, and enriched
his favourites with their fpoils. He engaged the par¬
liament to mitigate the penalties of the fix articles, as
far as regarded the marriage of priefts, which was now
only fubjefted to a forfeiture of goods, chattels, and
lands during life : he was Hill equally bent on main¬
taining a rigid purity in fpeculative principles. He
had appointed a commiffion confifting of two archbi-
ihops and feveral bilhops of both provinces, together
with a confiderable number of do61ors of divinity 5 and
by virtue of his ecclefiaftical fupremacy he had charged
them to choofe a religion for Ids people. Before the
commiflioners, however, had made any progrefs in this
arduous undertaking, the parliament had palled a law
by which they ratified all the tenets which thefe divines
fhould eftabliih with the king’s confent} and thus they
were not alhamed of declaring exprefsly that they took
their religion upon truft, and had no other rule either
in religious or temporal concerns than the arbitrary will
of their mailer. One claufe of the llatute, however,
feems to favour fomewhat of the fpirit of liberty. It
was enabled, that the ecclefiaftical commiflioners Ihould
eftablilh nothing repugnant to the laws and ftatutes of
the realm. But in reality this provifo wTas inferted by
the king, to ferve his own purpofes. By introducing
a confufion and contradibfion into the laws, he became
more the mailer of every one’s life and property •, and
as the ancient independence of the church Hill gave him
jealoufy, he was well pleafed, under colour of fuch a
claufe, to introduce appeals from fpiritual to civil
courts. For the fame reafon he would never promul¬
gate a body of canon law and he encouraged the
judges on all occafions to interpofe in ecclefiaftical cau-
fes, Avherever they thought the law or the prerogative
concerned. Being thus armed by the authority of par¬
liament, or rather by their acknowledgment of his fpi¬
ritual fupremacy, the king employed Ids commiflion-
Ixtreme ers to hdecl a fyftem of tenets for the aflent and belief
abfurdity of of the nation. A fmall volume was publilhed, under
the king’s the title of T/ie Injlitution of a Chriflian Man, which
conduct. was received by the convocation, and made the infal¬
lible ftandard of orthodoxy. In this book the points
of juftification, faith, free-will, good works, and grace,
were difeuffed in a manner fomewhat favourable to the
oninions of the reformers. The facraments, which a
few years before were only allowed to be three, were
now increafed to feven, conformably to the fentiments
of the Catholics. Throughout the whole of this book
the king’s caprice is very difcernible ; and the book
is in reality to be regarded as his competition. For
Henry, while he made his opinion a rule for the na¬
tion, would himfelf fubmit to no authority whatever ;
jaot even to any which he had formerly eftablilhed. The
ENG
fame year the people had a farther inftance of the king’s England,
inconliftency. He ordered a new book to be compo- ^ 1
fed, called The Erudition of a Chriflian Man; and with-
out alking the confent of the convocation, he publilhed
by his own authority this new model of orthodoxy. He
was no lefs politive in his new creed than he had been
in the .old one } but though he required the faith of the
nation to veer about at his fignal, he was particularly
careful to inculcate the doftrine of paflive obedience in
all his books, and he was no lefs carefid to retain the
nation in the practice.
But while the king was thus fpreading his own books
among the people, both he and the clergy feem to have
been very much perplexed with regard to the ferip-
tures. A review had been made by the ecclefiaftical
fynod of the new tranflation of the Bible 5 and Bilhop
Gardiner had propofed, that inftead of employing Eng-
lilh expreflions throughout, feveral Latin Avords Ihould
ftill be preferved, becaufe they contained, as he pre¬
tended, fuch peculiar energy and fignificance, that they
had no correfpondent terms in the Englifli tongue. A-
mong thefe Avere ecclcfa, panitentia, pout if ex, contritus,
&c. But as this mixture Avould appear extremely bar¬
barous, and Avas plainly calculated for no other pur-
pofe than to retain the people in their ancient igno¬
rance, the propofal Avas rejedled. The knoAvledge of
the people, however, feemed to be ftill more danger¬
ous than their ignorance ; and the king and parliament,
foon after the publication of the feriptures, retraced
the conceflion Avhich they had formerly made, and pro¬
hibited all but gentlemen and merchants to perufe them.
Even that liberty Avas not granted Avithout an appa¬
rent hefitation, and dread of the confequenees. Thefe
perfons Avere alloAved to read, fo it be done quietly and
with good order. And the preamble to the aft fets forth,
“ That many feditious and ignorant perfons had abu-
fed the liberty granted them of reading the Bible j and
that great diverfity of opinion, animofities, tumults,
and fchifms, had been occafioned by perverting the
fenfe of the feriptures.” The mafs book alfo paffed
under the king’s examination ; but little alteration avhs
yet made in it. Some doubtful or fiftitious faints only
Avere ftruck out 5 and the name of the pope Avas erafed.
The latter precaution Avas alfo ufed Avith every neAV
book that Avas printed, and even every old one that
was fold. The Avord pope Avas carefully omitted or blot-
ed out 5 as if that precaution could abolifh the term
from the language, or caufe the people forget that
fuch a perfon exifted. About this time alfo, the king
prohibited the afting of plays, interludes, and farces,
in derifion of the popifli fuperftitions ; Avhich the Pro-
teftants had been in ufe to praftife : and this prohibi¬
tion was in the higheft degree pleafing to the Roman
Catholics.
In this tyrannical and headftrong manner Henry
proceeded Avith regard to ecclefiaftical affairs. In
other refpefts his conduft Avas equally violent. With
regard to his domeftic concerns, hiftory fcarce affords
his parallel. We have already taken notice of his ex¬
treme love for Anne Boleyn, Avhom he married, con¬
trary even to his oAvn principles, before the marriage
Avith Catharine Avas difiblved. His affeftion for the
former Avas carried to fuch a height, that he even
procured an aft excluding from the fucceflion the if-
fue of Queen Catharine, in favour of the children of
Anna
1 114 1
Anne Bo-
lapi.
577
Indecent
behaviour
of the new
queen on
declines.
ENG [ 1
England. Anne Boteyn ; and failing them to the king’s heirs for
l-‘—v n 1 ever. An oath to this purpofe was like wife enjoined, un-
A.D- ‘S42- jer penalty of imprifonment daring the king’s pleafure,
The iuc- and forfeiture of goods and chattels. All Hander againll
ceffion fet- the king and his new queen or their idue was fubjected
tied on the to the penalty of treafon or mifprilion of treafon. The
children ot reafon p-iven for this extreme feverity toward his own
A # ^ _ 111 I' 1 _ . ^
child Was, that her mother had oblunately reruled to
quit the kingdom, notwithftanding all the methods he
could take to induce her to do fo. The oath was ge¬
nerally taken throughout the kingdom; Sir Thomas
More the chancellor, and Fifher bifhop of Rochelter,
being the only jierfons tv ho refufed ; for which both of
them were imprifoned, and foon after executed. The un¬
fortunate Queen Catharine died, in her retreat at Ampht-
hill, in the year 1536. On her death-bed lire wrote
a moft pathetic letter to the king, in which Ihe for¬
gave him all the injuries die had received, and recom¬
mended him to in the ftrongeft terms their daughter
the princefs Mary. This letter affedted Henry fo
much, that he could not read it without tears 5 but
the new queen is faid to have exulted in fuch a man-
liearing of ner on hearing of the death of her rival, as was quite
the death ofinconfiftent with either decency or humanity. Her
Cathanne. however, was of Ihort duration. Henry had
The king’s no fooner pofTeffed her, fecure from every difquieting
affedtion thought by the death of Queen Catharine, than his
paflion began to decline j and to this her delivery of a
dead fon did not a little contribute; for fo impetuous
and abfurd were his pa'lions, and fuch was his defiie
for male iffue, that the difappointment in this refpedt
alone was fufficient to alienate his affedlion from his
wife. The levity of her temper, and her extreme
gaiety of behaviour, bordering upon lieentioufnefs, as
related under the article Boleyn, alfo gave an oppor¬
tunity to her enemies of inflaming the king’s jealoufy
again!! her. The vifeountefs of Rochford, in parti¬
cular, a woman of profligate manners, and who was
married to the queen’s brother, had the cruelty to re-
6*port to the king that her hulband committed incefl:
with his own filter *, and, not content with this, the in¬
terpreted every inftance of favour Ihown by her to a
man, as proof of a criminal intercourfe between them.
At the fame time it mull not be forgot, that he who in¬
filled on fuch rigid fidelity from his Avives,was himfelf the
moll faithlefs of mankind. He had doubts, it may be
allowed, about the legality of his marriage with Queen
Catharine, but his doubts were evidently confirmed by
the charms of Anne Boleyn. After being fatiated
with the poffeflion of her for fix years, perhaps he really
doubted her fidelity; but here again his doubts were
confirmed by the beauty of Jane Seymour, with whom
he had now fallen in love. It may ealily be believed,
that from this confideration alone there was no reafon
to hope that ever the unfortunate Anne would be able
to exculpate herfelf. Had Ihe really been guilty, her
monlter of a hulband might have allowed her to live ;
but his cruelty was as unbounded and infatiable as his
other perverfe paflions. She was condemned} and the
fentence pronounced againll her was, that Ihe Ihould be
burned or beheaded at the king’s pleafure. On hearing
this dreadful denunciation Ihe exclaimed, “ O Father !
O Creator ! thou who art the way, the truth, and the
life ! thou knowell that I have not deferved this fate.”
She then made the moll folemn protellations of inno-
279
She is ac-
cufcd of
infidelity
to the kin
a 80
Henry’s
love for
Jane Sey¬
mour the
true caufe
of Anne
Bolcyn’s
death.
15 ] ENG
cence before her judges 5 but thefe, as they had been England,
from the beginning ineffettual, fo it was not to be
fuppofed that they could now avail any thing. A.nne Vsi^""
was beheaded by the executioner of Calais, who was Execution
reckoned more expert than any in England 5 and Hen- of Anne
ry enjoyed the pleafure of marrying his beloved Jane Boleyn, and
Seymour. His latisfadlion, however, was of no lone-Tm* R*ar
continuance; tor the queen, becoming pregnant imme-Henry,
diately after marriage, died in two days after the birth 282
of the child ; who being a fon, was baptized by the Queen Jane
name of Edward VI. As this lady had been more ^
loved by Henry than any of his other wives, his grief oi Edward
for her lofs was extreme. However, it did notvi.
hinder him from entering very foon afterwards into 283
a new matrimonial fcheme; in which he met with Extrara-
many difficulties. His firil propofals were made
to the duchefs dowager of Milan, niece to the em- tpe
peror and to Catharine his own former queen ; but concerning
as he had behaved fo indifferently to the aunt, it is h's fourth
fcarcely to be fuppofed that his addreffes could prove maniage*
agreeable to the niece. On this he demanded the
duchefs-dowager of Longueville, daughter of the
duke of Guife ; but on making the propofal to the
French monarch, Francis I. he was informed that the
princefs had been already betrothed to the king of
Scotland. Henry, however, would take no refufal.
He had learned that the objedl of his affeclion tv as
endowed with many accomplilhments, was very beau¬
tiful, and of a large fize, which lall property he look¬
ed upon to be neceffary for him who was now be¬
come fomewhat corpulent himfelf. Francis, to pre¬
vent any more felicitations on this fubjefl, fent the
princefs to Scotland, but at the fame time made Henry
an offer of Mary of Bourbon, daughter of the duke
of Vendofme. This princefs was rejected by Henry,
becaufe he had heard of her being formerly refufed
by the king of Scotland. He was then offered his
choice of the two younger fillers of the queen of Scot¬
land, both of them being equal in merit as well as fizc
to the one whom he had defired : but Henry, unwill¬
ing to trull to any reports concerning the beauty of
thefe ladies, or even to their pictures, propofed to Fran¬
cis, that they Ihould have a conference at Calais under
pretence of bufinefs, and that the latter Ihould bring
with him the two princeffes of Guife with the finell
ladies of quality in France, that he might make a
choice. This indelicate propofal Ihocked Francis: he
returned for anfwer, that he was too much impreffed
with regard for the fair fex to carry ladies of the firil
quaXty, like geldings, to a market, to be chofen or re-
jedled according to the- humour of the purchafer.
Henry remonltrated and ilormed as ufual; but though
Francis at this time earnellly wilhed to oblige him, he at
lall totally rejefted the propofal. Negotiations were 2s4
then entered into for a German match ; and the prin- Marriage
cefs of Cleves was propofed by Cromwell, on account with Anne
of the great interell her father had with the Protellantoi tjievcs‘
princes of Germany, Henry had alfo become enamoured
of her perfon from a piflure of her he had feen : but this,
though drawn by an eminent artill, was unluckily done fo
much to the advantage, that when the negotiation was
quite finilhed, and the bride arrived in England, he loll
all patience, fwearing that Ihe Avas a great Flanders mare,
and that he could never bear her the fmallel! affedlicn.
The matter was ftill worfe, when he found that the
P 2 could
385
The mar¬
riage an¬
nulled, and
Cromwell
put to
tleath.
a86
Henry falls
in love
with Ca¬
tharine
Howard.
287
Infidelity
and death
ef the new
«ucen.
ENG [ii
could fpeak no language but Dutch, of tvliicli he was
entirely ignorant. Notwithftanding all thefe objec¬
tions, however, he refolved to complete the marriage,
telling Cromwell, that, lince he had gone fo far, he
muft now put his neck into the yoke. The reafon of
this was, that the friendihip of the German princes
was now more than ever necelfary for Henry ; and it
was fuppofed that the affront of fending the princefs
back to her own country might be refented. Crom-
well, who knew that his own life depended on the e-
vent of the matter, was very anxious to learn from the
king how he liked his fpoufe after having puffed a
night with her ; but was ft ruck with terror when he
replied that he now hated her more than ever} that
he Avas refolved not to cohabit with her, and even fu-
fpeclcd that the Avas not a virgin; a matter in which
he pretended to be a connoiffeur, and about which he
Avas extremely fcrupulous. In a little time his aver-
fion increafed to fuch a degree, that he determined at
any rate to get rid of his queen and prime minifter
both at once. Cromwell had long been an object of
averfion to the nobility, avIio hated him on account of
his obfeure birth 5 his father being no other than a
blackfmith, though the fon had obtained the firlt em¬
ployments in the kingdom. By his office of vicar-
general, he had an almofl: abfolute authority oArer the
clergy j he was alfo lord privy-feal, lord chamber-
lain, and mafter of the Avards. He had alfo been in-
vefted Avith the order of the Garter, and Avas created
earl of Elfex. This Avas fufficient to raife the envy
of the courtiers : but he had alfo the misfortune to
fall under the difpleafure of both Proteftants and Pa-
pifts •, the former hating him on account of his con¬
currence Avith Henry in their perfecution, and the lat¬
ter looking upon him as the greatefl: enemy of their
religion. To thefe unfortunate circumftances on the
part of CromAvell was added the ufual fituation of
Henry himfelf, Avho had hoav fallen in love Avith Ca¬
tharine HoAvard, niece to the duke of Norfolk ; to
enjoy whom, he norv determined to divorce Anne of
Cleves. By the inffnuations of this lady and her
uncle, Cromwell’s ruin Avas accomplifhed j and he
was condemned, not only Avithout any trial, but even
without examination. The charge was of herefy
and high treafon 5 but the inftances of the latter Avere
quite abfurd and ridiculous. He fubmitted, hoAV-
ever, to his fentence without murmuring, as knoAV-
ing that his complaints on this fubjedl would be re¬
venged on his fon. He was terribly mangled by the
executioner before his head could be ftruck off. Plis
death Avas foon folioAved by the diffolution of the mar¬
riage Avith the princefs of Claves, which Avas annulled
by the confent of both parties. The princefs parted
from him Avith great indifference} and accepted of
3000I. a-year as a compenfation, but refufed to re¬
turn to her oAvn country after the affront fhe had re¬
ceived.
The king’s marriage with Catharine Horvard foon
folloAved tke diffolution of that with Anne of Cleves ;
but the event may furely be regarded as a providential
punifhment upon this tyrant, Avhofe cruelty, luff, and
other bad qualities, can fcarcely be matched in hiftory.
We have already mentioned his infinuations againfl the
virtue of the unfortunate princefs of Cleves : thefe Avere
amply repaid by the aftual infidelities of his ucav queen,
6 ] ENG
Avhom we muff: fuppofe he believed to be a pure and England,
perfeil virgin at the time he married her. So happy '
indeed did he imagine himfelf in this nerv marriage, ' ■15‘P‘
that he publicly returned thanks for his conjugal feli¬
city, when a moft unfortunate information concerning
the queen’s incontinence AAras given to Cranmer by
one of the name of Lafcelles, whofe lifter had been
fervant to the duchefs-doAvager of Norfolk. He not
only gave intelligence of her amours before marriage,
but affirmed that fhe had continued the fame criminal
practices ever fince. Tavo of her paramours Avere ar-
refted, and confeffed their crimes: the queen herfelf
alfo confeffed guilt before marriage, but denied having
ever been falfe to the king’s bed; Avhich, hoAvever, had
very little probability: She Avas beheaded on ToAver-
hill, along Avith the vifeountefs of Rochford, Avho had
been a confidant in her amours. The latter, as has
already been obferved, Avas a principal inftrument in
procuring the deftruftion of the unhappy Anne Bo-
leyn, and therefore died unpitied ; Avhile the virtuous
character of that unfortunate lady received an addi¬
tional confirmation from the difeovery of this AAroman’s
guih. _ . .388
To fecure himfelf from any farther difafters of this Abfuidity
kind, Henry pafled a moft extrordinary Ihav, enact- oi the king,
ing, that any one who fliould knorv, or ftrongly fu-
fpeCt, any guilt in the queen, might, Avithin 20 days,
difclofe it to the king or council, Avithout incurring
the penalty of any former larv againft defaming the
queen ; though at the fame time every one AAras pro¬
hibited from fpreading the matter abroad, or even
privately Avhifpering it to others. It Avas alfo enabl¬
ed, that if the king married any Avoman Avho had been
incontinent, taking her for a true maid, fhe fhouid be
guilty of treafon if fhe did not previoufly reveal her
guilt to him.
Thefe larvs afforded diverfion to the people, Avho
noAV faid that the king muft look out for a AvidoAAr ;
as no reputed maid Avould ever be perfuaded to incur
the penalty of the ftatute. This in truth happened to
be the cafe at laft ; for about a year after the death of
Catharine HoAATard, he married, for his fixth wife, Ca- 289
tharine Parr, AvidoAV of Nevil Lord Latimer. This Sixth mar-
lady, being fomeAvhat inclined to the doclrines of the (^fharine1
reformation, and having the boldnefs to tell her huf- parr) wjlom
band her mind upon the fubjecl, had like to have fha-he intends
red the fate of the reft. The furious monarch, inca- »ffo to put
pable of bearing the leaft contradiction, inftantly com-t0 ^ath.
plained to Bifhop Gardiner, Avho inflamed the quarrel
as much as pofiible ; fo that at laft the king confented
that articles of impeachment fhouid be draAvn up againft
her. But thefe Avere rendered abortive by the pru¬
dence and addrefs of the queen, as related under the ar¬
ticle Parr. . . . 290
At this time Henry had tyrannized over his nobi- Monftrous
lity in the moft cruel manner. The old countefs of cruelty of
Salifbury, laft of the houfe of Plantagenet, teas ex-t}ic khg*
ecuted Avith circumftances of great cruelty. She had
been condemned, as ufual, Avithout any trial ; and
Avhen fhe Avas brought to the feaffold, refufed to lay
her head on the block in obedience to a fentence, to
the juft ice of which fhe had never confented. She
told the executioner, therefore, that if he Avould have
her head, he muft Avin it the beft Avay he could; and
thus ihe ran about the fcaffold, purfued by the execu¬
tioner.
291
Attainder
of Norfolk
and Surry.
292
Henry dies,
and is fuc-
ceedcd by
Edward VI.
2 93
’Reforma¬
tion com¬
pleted.
ENG [ 1
txoner, tvlio aimed many fruitlefs blows at her neck
before he was able to put an end to her life. Soon after
her, the lord Leonard Grey was likewife executed for
treafon, but we have very little account of this tranfac-
tion.
The la ft inftances of the king’s injuftice and cruelty
were the duke of Norfolk and his fon the earl of
Surry. The former had ferved the king with fidelity,
and the latter was a young man of the moft promilxng
hopes. His qualifications, however, were no fecurity
againft the violence of Henry’s temper. He had drop¬
ped fome expreflions of refentment againft the king’s
minifters, who had difplaced him from the government
of Boulogne ; and the whole family had become ob¬
noxious on account of the late queen Catharine Ho¬
ward. From thefe motives, orders were given to arreft
both the father and fon ; and accordingly they were
arrefted both on the fame day, and confined to the
Tower. The duchefs-dowager of Richmond, Surry’s
own After, was among the number of his accufers 5
and Sir Richard Southwell alfo his moft intimate
friend, charged him with infidelity to the king. Surry
denied the charge, and challenged his accufer to a
fingle combat. This favour was denied him 5 and,
notwithftanding his eloquent and fpirited defence, he
was condemned and executed at Tower-hill.—The duke
of Norfolk vainly endeavoured to mollify the king by
letters and fubmiflions. An attainder was found againft
him, though the only crime his accufers could allege
was, that he had once faid that the king wras fickly, and
could not hold out long ; and that the kingdom was
likely to be torn between the contending parties of dif¬
ferent perfuafions. Cranmer, though engaged for many
vears in an oppofite party to that of Norfolk, and
though he had received many and great injuries from
him, would have no hand in fuch an unjuft profecu-
tion but retired to his feat at Croydon. The death-
warrant, however, was made out, and immediately
fent to the lieutenant of the Tower; but a period
was put to the cruelties and violence of the king by
his death, which happened on the 14th of January
1547, the night before Norfolk was to have been exe¬
cuted.
Henry was fucceeded by his only fon Edward, a
boy of nine years of age. The moft remarkable tranf-
actions of his reign are thofe with regard to religion.
The reftraint which Henry VIII. had laid upon the
Proteftants was now taken off; and they not only main¬
tained their doftrines openly, but foon became the
prevailing party. Henry had fixed the majority of his
fon at 18 years of age*, and, in the mean time, ap¬
pointed 16 executors of his will, to whom, during the
minority, he entrufted the government of the king
and kingdom. This will, he imagined, would be
obeyed as implicitly after his death as though he had
been alive. But the firft aft of the executors was to
choofe the earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somer-
fet, proteftor of the realm *, and in him was lodged all
the regal power, together with a privilege of naming
whom he pleafed for his privy council.
The duke of Somerfet had long been reckoned a
fecret partifan of the reformers ; and immediately on
his elevation to his prefent high dignity, began to ex-
prefs his intention of reforming the abufes of the an¬
cient religion. Under his direftion and that of Cran-
5
17 ] ENG
mer, therefore, the reformation was carried forward England,
and completed. The only perfon of confequence ^ 1
w'ho oppofed the reformers was Gardiner biftiop of TS47*
Winehelter ; and, to the difgrace of their own prin¬
ciples, the reformers now fhowed that they could
perfecute as feverely as the Papilts had formerly per- 294
fecuted them. Gardiner was committed to the Fleet The refor-
prifon, where he was treated with great feverity. He mers l)erl~e~
was afterwards fent to tire Tower: and having con-^^6 ^
tinned there two years, he was commanded to fubferibe
feveral articles, among which was one confeffing the
juftice of his own imprifonment. To all the articles
but this he agreed to. fubferibe; but that did not give
fatisfaftion. He was then committed to clofe cuftody ;
his books and papers were feized ; all company was
denied him, and he was not even permitted the ufe of
pen and ink. The bilhops of Chichefter, Worcefter,
and Exeter, were in like manner deprived of their offi¬
ces 5 but the biffiops of Llandaff, Salifbury, and Co¬
ventry, efcaped by facrificing the moft confiderable {hare
of their revenues. The libraries of Weltminfter and
Oxford were ordered to be ranfacked, and purged of
the Romifti legends, miffals, and other fuperftitious vo¬
lumes ; in which fearch, great devaftation was made
even in ufeful literature. Many volumes clafped in
filver wrere deftroyed for the fake of their rich bindings j
many of geometry and aftronomy were fuppofed to be
magical, and deftroyed on that account; while the
members of the univerfity, unable to put a flop to thefe
ravages, trembled for their own fafety. *
The reformers, however, were not contented with
feverities of this kind. A commiffion was granted to
the primate and others, to fearch after all Anabaptifts,
heretics, or contemners of the new liturgy. Among
the numbers v’ho were found guilty upon this occalion,
was one Joan Boucher, commonly called Joan of Kent;
who was fo very obftinate, that the commiffioners could
make no impreffion upon her. She maintained an ab-
ftrufe metaphylical fentiment, that Chrift, as man, was
a finful man 5 but, as the Word, he was free from fin,
and could be fubjeft to none of the frailties of the
fleffi with which he was clothed. For maintaining
this doftrine, the poor woman was condemned to be
burnt to death as a heretic. The young king, who-
it feems had more fenfe than his teachers, refufed at
firft to fign the death-wTarrant: but at laft, being over¬
come by the importunities of Cranmer, he reluftant-
ly complied 5 declaring, that if he did wrong, the fin
fhould be on the head of thofe who had perfuaded him
to it. The primate, after making another unfuccefsful
effort to reclaim the woman from her opinions, com¬
mitted her to the flames. Some time after, one Van
Paris, a Dutchman was condemned to death for Aria-
nifm. He fuffered with fo much fatisfaftion, that he
hugged and careffed the faggots that were confuming
him.
The reft of this reign affords only the hiftory of in¬
trigues and cabals of the courtiers one againft another.
The proteftor was firft oppofed by his own brother
Admiral Sir Thomas Seymour, who had married Ca¬
tharine Parr the late king’s widow7. She died foon af¬
ter the marriage 5 and he then made his addreffes to
the princefs Elizabeth, who is faid not to have been
averfe to the match. His brother the duke, who
was at that time in the north, being informed of
his
/E NG [ n
England, his ambitious projects, fpeedily returned, had him at-
^ " tainted of high treafon, and at laft condemned and ex-
I553<eGutedi The duke ol Somerfet himfelf, however, was
fome time afterwards deprived of his odsce by iJudk-y
duke of Northumberland •, who at lau tound means to
get him aecufed of high trealon, and exeeuted. Not
fatisfied with the office of protestor, which he affumed
on the death of Somerfet, this ambitious nobleman
formed a fcheme of engrofling the fovereign power al-
kady Jane together. He reprefented to Edward, who was now
Greydecla-jn a declining ffate of health, that his fitters Mary
red heir to an(] Elizabeth, who were appointed by Henry’s will
t e trown. fucceed, in failure of direct heirs, to the crown,
had both been declared illegitimate by parliament; that
the queen of Scots his aunt flood excluded by the
king’s will ; and, being an alien alio, loft all right of
fucceeding. The three princeffes being thus excluded,
the fucceflion naturally devolved to the marchionefs of
Dorfet, eldeft daughter of tire French queen, Henry’s
After, who had married the carl of Suffolk after her tirft;
hulband’s death. The next heir to the marchionefs was
Lady Jane Grey, a lady univerfally refpected, Loth on
account of the charms of her perfon, and the virtues
and endowments of her mind. 1 he king, who was
accuftomed to fubmit to the politic views of this
minifter, agreed to have the fucceflion fubmitted to
council, where Northumberland hoped to procure
an eafy concurrence. The judges, however, who
were appointed to draw up the king’s letters patent
for this purpofe, warmly cbjecled to the meafure ;
and gave their reafons before the council. They
begged that a parliament might be fummoned, both
to give it force, and to free its partifans from dan¬
ger : they faid that the form tv as invalid, and would
not only fubjeft the judges who drew it, but every
counfellor who frgned it, to the pains of treafon.
Northumberland could not brook their demurs 5 he
threatened them with his authority, called one of
them a traitor, and faid he would fight with any man
in his ftrirt in fuch a juft caufe as that of Lady Jane’s
fucceflion. A method was therefore found out of
fereening the judges from danger, by granting them
the king’s pardon for what they llrould draw up;
and at length the patent for changing the fucceflion
was completed, the princeffes Mary and Elizabeth
were fet afide, and the crown fettled on the heirs of the
duchefs of Suffolk (for Ike herfeif was contented to
forego her claim).
For fome time ihe king had languxfhed in a corfump-
tion. After this lettlement of the crown, his health
vifibly declined every day, and little hopes were enter¬
tained of his recovery. To make matters world, his
phyficians were diffrifled by Northumberland’s advice,
and by an order of council \ and he w as put into the
hands of an ignorant old woman, who undertook in a
little time to reftore him to health. After the ufe of
her medicines all his bad fymptoms increafcd to the
molt violent degree. He felt a difficulty of fpeech
and breathing •, his pulfe failed, his legs fwelled, his
colour became livid, and many other figns of approach-
Deatu of death made their appearance. He expired at
iff ward VI. Greenwich on the 6ih of July 1553, in the 16th year
of his age and 7th of his reign.
After the death of King Fdw^ard, very little regard
was paid to the new7 patent by which Lady Jane Grey
8 ] ENG
had been declared heir to the throne. The undpubt- England,
ed title of Mary, notwilhitanding the ieandaious be- v
haviour of her father and his fervile parliaments, w as ^ 1
acknowledged by the w hole nation. Northumberland,
however, was refolved to put the late king’s will in exe¬
cution. He therefore carefully concealed the death of
Edward, in hopes of fecuring the perfon of Mary, who
by an order of council had been required to attend her
brother during his iilnefs ; but Ihe being informed of
his death, immediately prepared to aliert her right to
the crown. Northumberland then, accompanied by Lady Jane
the duke of Suffolk, the earl of Pembroke, and fome Grey pla-
other noblemen, fainted Lady Jane Grey queen of'1^/”
England. Jane was in a great meafure ignorant °fis forced ta
theie tranfadions, and it was with the utmoit difficulty refign w,
fhe w as perfuaded to accept of the dignity conferred
upon her. At laft Ihe complied, and iuffered herfeif
to be conveyed to the Tower, where it wras then ufual
for the fovereigns of England to pafs fome days after
their, acceflion. Mary, however, who had retired to
Kenning-hall in Norfolk, in a very few days found
herfeif at the head of 40,000 men 5 and Lady Jane re-
ligned the fovereignty in ten days, with much more
pleafure than Ihe had received it. She retired with her
mother to their own habitation ; and Northumberland
finding his affairs quite defperate, attempted to quit
the kingdom. But he was flopped by the band of pen-
ftoner guards, who informed him that he muff ftay to
juftify their conduct in taking arms againft their lawr-
ful fovereign. He therefore furrendered himfelf to
Mary •, and was foon after executed, together with Sir
John Gates and Sir Thomas Palmer, two infamous
tools of his power. Sentence was alfo pronounced
againft: Lady Jane Grey and her hulband Lord Guild¬
ford } but without any intention of putting it in exe¬
cution againft them at prefent, as their youth and in¬
nocence pleaded fo ftrongly in their favour, neither of
them having yet reached their 17th year.
Mary now entered London, and was peaceably fet- ]yrary tj0,
tied on the throne w ithout any eft'ufion of blood. The dared
Engiifti, however, foon found reafon to repent their quueu,
attachment to her caufe. Though Ihe had at firft fo-
lemnly promifed to defend the religion and law's of
her predeceffor, ftie no fooner faw herfeif firmly efta-
bliftied on the throne, than flie refolved to reftore the
Popifti religion, and give back their former power to
the clergy. Gardiner, Bcnr.ar, and the other biftiops
who had been imprifoned or fuffered lofs during the
laft reign, were taken from prifon, reinflated in their
fees, and now triumphed in their turn. On pretence
of difeouraging controvcrfy, the queen by her preroga¬
tive filenced all preachers throughout England, except
fuch as ftiould obtain a particular licenfe, and this ftie
was refolvcd to give only to thofe of her own perfua-
fion. The greater part of the foreign Proteftants took
the firft opportunity of leaving the kingdom ; and many
of the arts and manufa£l tires, which they had fuccefs-
fully introduced, fled with them. Soon after, the queen
called a parliament, which feemed w illing to concur in
all her meafures. They at once repealed all the ftatutes
with regard to religion that had pafled during the reign
of Edward VI. and the national religion was again
placed on the fame footing in which it had been at the
death of Henry VIII.
To ftrengfhen the caufe of the Catholics, and give
the
ENG
England, the queen more power to eftablifli the religion to
which (he was fo much attached, a proper match was
•2-;^t° be (ought for her ; and it was fuppofed that three
Propofals of 'iad already been propofed as candidates for her favour,
marriage to Her affe&ion feemed to be engaged by the earl of De-
C^ueen Ma-Von(hire ; but as he was rather attached to the prin-
ry* cefs Elizabeth, he received the overtures which were
made him from the queen with negleft. The next
perfon mentioned as a proper match for her tvas Car¬
dinal Pole, a man greatly refpeeted for his virtues 5
but as he was now in the decline of life, Mary foon
dropped all thoughts of that alliance. At lalt (lie
calf her eye on Philip II. of Spain, fon to the emperor
Charles V. He was then in the 27th year of his age,
and confequently agreeable in that rdpecl to Mary,
who was in her 48th year ; but when her intentions
with regard to this match became known, the great-
eft alarm took place throughout the whole nation.
The commons prefented fuch a ftrong remonftrance
againft a foreign alliance, that the queen thought pro-
300 Per to diftblve the parliament in order to get quit of
Alliance their importunity. To obviate, however, all clamour,
with Spain the articles of marriage were drawn up as favourably
generally as p0ffible for the interefts of England. It was agreed,
ablef1*" tiiat tJ10U&!1 (hould have the title of king, the
adminiftration (hould be entirely in the queen ; that
no foreigner (hould be capable of holding any office in
the kingdom ; nor (hould any innovation be made in
the laws, cuftoms, and privileges of the people ; that
Philip (hould not carry the queen abroad without her
confent, or any of her children without the confent of
the nobility. Sixty thoufand pounds a-year were to
be fettled upon her as a jointure ; and the male iffue of
this marriage were to inherit Burgundy and the Low
Countries as well as the crown of England: and in
cafe of the death of Don Carlos, Philip’s fon by his
former marriage, without any heir, the queen’s iffue
(hould inherit all the reft of the Spanifli dominions
alfo.
All thefe conceffions, however, were not fufRcient
to quiet the apprehenfions of the people : they were
confidered merely as words of courfe, which might be
retraced at pleafure ; and the whole nation murmured
301 loudly againft a tranfahlion fo dangerous to its ancient
Wyatt’s in- liberty and independence. An infurrecKon was raifed
turrcdion. by Sir Thomas Wyatt, a Roman Catholic, at the head
of 4000 men, who fet out from Kent to London, pub-
1 idling a declaration againft the Spanidi match and
the queen’s evil counfellers. Plaving advanced as far
as Southwark, he required that the queen (hould put
the tower of London into his hands ; that (lie (hould
deliver four counfellors as hoftages ; and, in order to
enfure the liberty of the nation, (hould marry an Eng-
liftiman. But his force was at prefent by far too
(mall to fupport fuch magnificent pretenfions ; and he
unluckily wafted fo much time without attempting any
thing of importance, that the popular ferment entire¬
ly fublided, his followers abandoned him gradually,
302 an(l he was at laft obliged to furrender himfelf to Sir
He is con- Maurice Berkeley near Temple-bar. His followers
executed1"^AVere treate^ great cruelty : no fewer than 400 of
withmany t^iem Offered by the hand of the executioner ; 400
ofhisfol- pore were conducted with ropes about their necks
lowers. into the queen’s prefence, and there received their
ENG
pardon. Wyatt himfelf w'as condemned and exe- England.
This rebellion had almoft proved fatal to the Prim A’I>'I553'
cefs Elizabeth, who for fome time paft had been treat- Princefs li¬
ed with great feverity by her filter. Mary, who pof-hzabeth
feffed a molt malignant and cruel heart, had never tor- harfilIy
got the quarrel between their mothers 5 and when a de-treatcd*
claration was made after her own accethon, recognifing
Queen Catharine’s marriage as legal, (he was thus fur-
niftied with a pretence for accounting Elizabeth ille¬
gitimate. She was likewife obnoxious on account of
her religion, which Elizabeth at firft had not prudence .
fufficient to conceal; though afterwards (he learned
full well to diiguife her fentimehts. ifut, above all, her
Handing fo high in the affection of the earl of De-
vomhire, was a crime not to be forgiven 5 and IVIary
made her (enlible of her difpleafure by numberlefs mor¬
tifications. She was ordered to take place at eburt
arter the duchefs of Suffolk and the countefs of Len¬
nox ; to avoid which, and other indignities, Elizabeth
at laft retired from court altogether into the country.
After the fuppreffion of Wyatt’s rebellion (he was
committed to the lower, and underwent a ftribt exa¬
mination before the council ; but as Wyatt had made
a declaration on the feaftold that (lie wras in no manner
of way concerned, the queen found herfelf under a ne-
ceffity of releafing her. To get rid of fuch a trouble-
fome rival, however, (he wras offered in marriage to the
duke of Savoy 5 and on Elizabeth’s declining "the pro-
pofal, (lie was committed clofe prifoner to Woodftoke.
The rebellion proved fatal, however, to many perfons
of diftindtion, and gave the queen an opportunity of
manifefting that unbounded cruelty which reigned in
her heart. The Tower, and all the prifons in the
kingdom, were filled with nobility and gentry, who
became objects of royal vengeance, more on account of
theii credit and intereft with the people than any con¬
cern they were fuppofed to have had with Wyatt.
Sir Nicholas Throgmorton was tried in Guildhall;
but as no (atisfaffory evidence appeared againft him
the jury gave a verdict in his favour. The queen was
fo much enraged at this difappointment, that (he recom¬
mitted him to the .lower, fummoned the jury before
the council, and at laft fent them all to prifon, fining
them afterwards fome of 1000I. and others of 2000I.
each. Sir John Throgmorton, brother to Sir Nicho¬
las juft mentioned, was condemned and executed upon
evidence which had been already rejected as infuffi-
cient. But of all thofe who periftied on this oceafion, Exeauicm
none excited more univerfal compaflion than the un- of Lady011
fortunate Lady Jane Grey and her hufiband Lord Jane Grey
Guildford Dudley. They had already received fentence and her
of death, as has been mentioned 5 and two days afterllufband*
the execution of Wyatt, they received orders to pre¬
pare for eternity. Lady Jane, who had been in ex¬
pectation of this blow, was no way intimidated, but
received tlm news with the mod heroic refolution.
I he place intended at firft for their execution was
Tower-hill; but the council, dreading the effeas of •
the people’s compaflion for their youth, beauty, and
innocence, gave dircaions that they (hould be beheaded
within the verge of the Tower. The duke of Suffolk .
was foon after tried, condemned, and executed 5 but
would have met with more compaflion, had not his
ambition
[ 119 1
ENG [120] ENG
England, ambition been the caufe of his daughter’s unhappy fate
1 ■ _ v juft mentioned. Sir Thomas Grey alfo loll his life on
A'D> 15S3- t]ie fame account j but the cruel fpirit of Mary was Hill
unfatisfied j and finding herfelf univerfally odious, that
file might free herfelf from any appreheniions for what
305 was pait, as rvell as tyrannize with the more freedom
The people in time to come, fire difabled the people from refifi-
difarmed. ancf^ by or(]ering general mufters, and caufing the
commiffioners feize their arms and lay them up in forts
and caftlee.
Notwithftanding this unpopularity, horvever, the
rebellion of Wyatt had fo itrengthened the hands of
government, that a parliament was affembled in hopes
of gratifying th$> queen’s wdihcs in regard to her mar¬
riage with Philip of Spain. To facilitate this purpofe
alfo, the emperor of Germany fent over to England
400,000 crowns to be diftributed among the members
of parliament in bribes and penfions $ a practice of
which there had hitherto been no example in England.
The queen, notwithftanding her bigotry, refumed the
title of Supreme Head of the Church, which Ihe had
dropped three months before. Gardiner made a fpeech,
in which he propofed, that they Ihould inveft the queen
with a legal pow'er of difpofing of the crown, and
appointing her fucceffor ; but the parliament, however
obfequious in other refpefts, did not choofe to gratify
their fovereign in a meafure by which the kingdom of
England might become a province of the Spanifir
monarchy. 1 hey would not even declare it treaion to
imagine or attempt the death of the queen’s hulband
during her life time, though they agreed to ratify the
articles of marriage. Finding therefore that the par-
306 liament even yet wras not fufficiently obfequious, it was
Marriage thought moft proper to diflblve them. Soon after this
with Philip t]ie marriage with Philip was folemnized ; but as the
folcmmzed. jatter ^ efp0Ufed his queen merely with a view to
become king of England, he no fooner found himfelf
difappointed in this than he ftiowed a total want of
affe&ion for her as a wife. He paffed moft of his time
at a diftance from her in the Low Countries 5 and fel-
dom wrote to her except when he wanted money, with
which Mary would at all times gladly have fupplied
him, even had it been at the expence of her kingdom,
,07 if in her powrer.
froteftants The enemies of the ftate being fuppofed to be fup-
perfecuted. prefted, thofe of the Proteftant religion were next per-
fecuted. The old fanguinary laws which had been
rejected by a former parliament were nowr revived.
Orders rvere given, that the priefts and bilhops who had
married Ihould be eje£ted ; that the mafs fliould be
reftored, and the pope’s authority eftabliihed ; and that
the church and its privileges, all but their goods and
eftates, Ihould be put on the fame footing on which they
were before the commencement of the reformation. But
as the gentry and nobility had already divided the
church-lands among them, it w as thought inconvenient,
and indeed impoffible, to make a reft oration of thefe.
The perfons who chiefly promoted thefe meafures were
Gardiner bifhop of Winchefter, and Cardinal Pole, who
was a kinfman of Henry VIIE but had been long in
Italy, and rvas noAv returned from it. The latter Avas
for tolerating the Proteftants ; but the former, percei¬
ving that rigorous meafures would be moft agreeable
to the king and queen, declared himfelf againft it. Pie
was too prudent, hoAvever, to appear in perfon at the
head of the perfecution j and therefore configned that England,
office to Bonnar biftiop of London, a man ot a very "J
abandoned charadfter. The bloody fcene began by the ‘ 'm •
execution of Hooper bifliop of Gloucefter, and Rogers
prebendary of St Paul’s. Thefe Avere quickly folloAV-
ed by others, of Avhom the principal were Archbifliop
Cranmer, Ridley bilhcp of London, and Latimer
biftiop of Worcefter *. Thefe perfecutions foon became * Sec
odious to the ai hole nation, and the perpetrators oimgr> &.c.
them Avere all Avilling to throw the blame from them-
felves upon others. Philip endeavoured to faften the
Avhole reproach upon Bonnar ; but that biftiop w ould
not take the Avhole, and therefore retorted on the
court. A bold ftep was norv taken to introduce a
court fimilar to the Spanifti inquifition, that fhculd be
empowered to try heretics, and condemn them Avith-
out any other larv but its oAvn authority. But even
this Avas thought a method too dilatory in the prefent
exigence of affairs. A proclamation ifiued againft
books of herefy, treafon, and fedition, declared, that
Avhofoever had fuch books in his poffeflion, and did not
burn them without reading, ftiould fuffer as a rebel.
This Avas attended with the execution of fuch numbers,
that at laft the magiftrates who had been inftrumental
in thefe cruelties refufed to give their affiftance any
longer. It Avas computed, that during this perfecu¬
tion, 277 perfons fuffered by fire, befides thofe punifli-
ed by imprifonments, fines, and confifcations. Among
thofe avIio fuffered by fire Avere 5 biftiops, 21 clergy¬
men, 8 lay-gentlemen, 84 tradefmen, 100 hulhandmen,
5 5 Avomen, and 4 children.
The only remarkable tranfaflion which happened
during this reign Avith regard to the temporal affairs
of the kingdom Avas the lofs of Calais, which had been
in the poffeflion of the Englifti for upAvards of 200
years f. This lofs filled the whole kingdom Avith fSec &?/<»>.
complaints, and the queen Avith grief. She was heard
to fay, that, Avhen dead, the name of Ca/ais Avould be ^
found engraven on her heart. She did not long fur-jyiary
vive this lofs •, but died in the year 1558, of a linger-and is fuo
ine illnefs, after a reign of five years four months and cecded by
,& , 0 Elizabeth,
eleven days.
After the death of Mary, the princefs Elizabeth
fucceeded to the throne Avithout oppofition. She Avas
at Platfield Avhen news of her filler’s death Avere brought
her 5 upon Avhich Ihe haftened up to London, Avhere Ihe
was received Avith great joy. This princefs Avas Avell
qualified for government. She had judgment fufficient
to make choice of proper minifters, and authority
enough to keep her fubje&s in aAve. The reftraints
alfo, to which Ihe had been fuhjecled during her filter’s
reign, had taught her fo well to conceal her fentiments,
that Ihe had become a perfedt miftrefs of diflimulation j
Avhich, though no commendable part of her charadter,
proved occafionally of great fervice to her government.
She perfedted the reformation, and put the religion of
England upon the fame plan Avhich fubfifts at prefent.
This Avas accomplilhed Avithout the leaft difficulty ; for
the perfecutions jn Mary’s reign had ferved only to
give the Avhole nation an averfion for popery. In the
time of Edivard V|. the people had been compelled to
embrace the Proteftant religion, and their fears indu¬
ced them to conform 5 but noAV, almoft the whole na¬
tion Avere Proteftants from inclination. The reforma¬
tion Avas confirmed by adl of parliament in 1559, and
thus
ENG [ 121 ] ENG
A.U- iSs7-
309 .
peace with
France.
310
Prepara¬
tions for
war with
Spain.
England, ^ thus England was fecn to change* its religion four times
' in the fpace of 3 2 years.
During the time that the queen and her counfellors
were employed in fettling the religious affairs of the na¬
tion, negotiations were likewife carried on for a peace
between England and France ; which was at laft con¬
cluded on the following terms, viz. that Henry fhould
reftore Calai-. at the expiration of eight years 5 that in
cafe of failure, he fhould pay 500,000 crow ns, and E-
lizabeth’s title to Calais ftiil remain ; that for the pay¬
ment of this fum he fhould find the fecurity of eight
foreign merchants, not natives of France 5 and until
that fecurity were provided he fhould deliver five hof-
tages. If during this interval Elizabeth fhould break
the peace with France or Scotland, the fhould forfeit
all' title to Calais; but if Henry made war on Eliza¬
beth, he fhould be obliged to reftore the fortrefs imme¬
diately. This pacification was foon followed by an irre-
concileable quarrel with Mary queen of Scotland ;
which was not extinguifhed but by the death of the
Scottifh princefs; and that with fuch circumftances of
accumulated treachery, hypocrify, and diffimulation, as
have ftamped an indelible difgrace on the memory of
Elizabeth. See the articles Mary and Scotland.
Elizabeth having at laft got rid of her rival in the
year 1587, began to make preparations for refilling
the Spanifh invafion. Hearing that Philip v*as fe-
cretly fitting out a great navy to attack her, fhe fent
Sir Francis Drake with a fleet to pillage his coafts
and deftroy his flapping. On this expedition he fet
fail with four capital flaps furnifhed by the queen, and
26 others of various fizes furnifhed him by the mer¬
chants of London in hopes of fharing the plunder,
Exploits of Having learned that a Spanifh fleet richly laden wras
Sir Francis lying at Cadiz in readinefs to fet fail for Lifbon, he
Drake. directed his courfe towards the former port, where he
boldly attacked the enemy. Six galleys were obliged
to take fhelter under the cannon of the forts 5 he burn¬
ed about 100 veflels laden with ammunition and naval
ftores *, and deftroyed a great fhip belonging to the
marquis de Santa Croce. Thence letting fail for Cape
St Vincent, he took by afiault the caftle fituated on that
promontory, with three other fortrefies. Having next
infulted Lifbon, he failed to the ifland Tercera, one of
the Azores, where, after lying in wait for fome time, he
took a rich prize, and then returned to England; havino-
by this fhort expedition taught the Englilh to defpife the
huge and unwieldy fhips of the enemy, and thus prepared
them to aft with more refolution againft the formidable
armament that now threatened to invade them.
But though the expedition of Sir Francis Drake had
retarded the intended invafion of England for a twelve-
fcheme of rnonth*liacl n°t by any means induced Philip to aban-
an invafion. don his defign. During that interval he continued his
preparations with the greateft affiduity, the more efpe-
cially as the invafion of England feemed to be a necef-
1’ary preparative for regaining his authority over the Ne¬
therlands, the revolted provinces having been ftrongly
fupported by Elizabeth. The fleet prepared at this
time wfas funerior to any thing then exifting in the
world ; and no doubt being entertained of its fuccefs,
it was oftentatioufly ftyled the Invincible Armada. The
milerable event of this expedition, and the total failure
°f the mighty hopes of Philip, are related under
the article Armada. The fpirit and courao-e of the
Vcl. VIII. Part I.
3”
312
3V1 ifear-
riage of
1‘hilip’
Englilh were now excited to attempt invafions in England.
their turn ; which they executed in numerous defeents '— * ’
on the Spanilh coafts; though thefe were only tem-A'D'1603'
porary, and defigned not for permanent conqueft, but
to harafs the enemy. It would be endlefs to relate
all the advantages obtained over the enemy at fea,
where the capture of every fliip muft have been a fe~
parate narrative. It is fufficient to obferve, that the
fea-captains of that reign are ftiil confidered as the
boldeit and molt enterprifing fet of men that England
ever produced ; and among this number we are to rec¬
kon Kaleigh and Howard, Drake, Cavendifh, , and
Hawkins. The Englilh navy then began to take the
lead ; and has lince continued irrefiftible in all parts of
the opean.
Elizabeth continued to reign with great glory till
the year 1603 ; but all her greatnefs could not prevent
her from being extremely miferable before her death.
She had cauled her greateft favourite, and probably
her lover, the earl of Eflexf, to be executed. Though | gce ^ ^
this execution could not be called unjuft, the queen’s \-eux%
affeftion (on being informed that he had at laft thrown
himfelf entirely on her clemency) returned to fuch a
degree, that the thenceforth gave herfelf entirely over
to defpair. She refufed food and fuftenance ; ftie con- ,, ,
tinned filent and gloomy ; fighs and groans were the Grief and
only vent ihe gave to her defpondence ; and ftie lay for mifery of
ten days and nights upon the carpet, leaning on cuftiions, Elizabeth,
which her maids brought her. Perhaps the faculties of
her mind were impaired by long and violent exercife ;
perhaps ftie reflefted with remorfe on fome paft aftions
of her life, or perceived, but too ftrongly, the decays
of nature, and the approach of her diflolution. She
faw her courtiers remitting in their afllduity to her, in
order to pay their court to James the apparent fuccef-
for. Such a concurrence of caufes was more than fuf¬
ficient to deftroy the remains of her conftitution ; and
her end was now vifibly feen to approach. Feeling a
perpetual heat in her ftomach, attended with an un¬
quenchable thirft, ftie drank without ceafing, but refu¬
fed the aififtance of her phyficians. Her diftemper
gaining ground, Cecil and the lord admiral defired to
know her fentiments with regard to the fucceffion. To
this ftie replied, that as the crown of England had al-
ways been held by kings, it ought not to devolve upon
any inferior charafter, but upon her immediate heir
the king of Scotland. Being then advifed by the arch-
biftiop of Canterbury to fix her thoughts upon God,
ftie replied, that her thoughts did not in the leaft wan¬
der from him. Her voice foon after left her ; ftie fell (
into a lethargic flumber, which continued fome hours;
and fhe expired gently without a groan, in the 70th
year of her age, and 45th of her reign. She was fuc- 3r4
ceeded by James I. king of Scotland; fince which time, ^Ier <*eatk*
the hiftory of both England and Scotland is compre-
hended under the article Britain.
Since the Norman conqueft, England has been di- 3*5
vided into fix circuits, each circuit containing a cer-
tain number of counties. Two judges are appointed ded.
for each circuit, which they vifit in the fpring and au¬
tumn, for adminiftering juftice to the fubjefts who are
at a diftance from the capital. In holding the lent
(or fpring) aftizes, the northern circuit extends only to
York and Laneafter; the aflizes at Durham, New-
caftle, Carlifle, and Appleby, being held only in au-
Q. twnn.
ENG [ 122 ] ENG
England, tumn, and diftinguifhed by the appellation cf the long
  circuit. Thefe circuits and counties are :
1. Home Circuit contains the counties of EiTex, Hert¬
ford, Kent, Surry, and Sutlex.
2. Norfolk Circuit contains thofe of Bucks, Bedford,
Huntingdon, Cambridge, Suffolk, and Norfolk.
3. Oxford Circuit. Oxon, Berks, Gloucester, Wor-
ceiter, Monmouth, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford.
4. Midland Circuit. Warwick, Leicefter, Derby,
Nottingham, Lincoln, Rutland, and Northampton.
5. We fern Circuit. Hants, Wilts, Dorfet, Somer-
fet, Devon, and Cornwall.
6. Northern Circuit. York, Durham, Northumber¬
land, Lancafter, Weitmorland, and Cumberland.
Middlefex and Chefhire are not comprehended in the
above circuits ; the former being the feat of the fu-
preme courts of jultice, and the latter a county pa¬
latine. There is ftill a court of chancery in Lan¬
cafter and Durham, with a chancellor \ and there is
a court of exchequer at Cheiter, of a jnixcd kind, both
for law and equity, of which the chamberlain of Chef-
ter is judge : there are alfo other juitices in the coun¬
ties palatine, to determine civil actions and pleas of the
crown.
Befides the 40 counties into which England is di¬
vided, there are counties corporate, confifting of cer¬
tain diftridts, to which the liberties and jurifdidlions
peculiar to a county have been granted by charter from
the throne. Thus the city of London is a county di-
ftindf from Middlefex; the cities of York, Chefter,
Briftol, Norwich, Worcefter, and the towns of King-
lion upon Hull and Newcaftle upon Tyne, are coun¬
ties of themfelves, diftinct from thofe in which they
lie. The fame may be faid of Berwick upon Tweed,
which lies in Scotland, and has within its jurifdiction
a fmall territory of two miles on the north fide of the
river. Under the name of a town, boroughs and cities
are contained : for every borough or city is a town,
though every town is not a borough or city.—An ac¬
count of the Englifh conllitution and government is
given under the articles King, Lords, Commons,
3I<j Parliament, Law, Liberty, Rights, &c.
■Religion. The eftablilhed religion of England is Epifcopacy.
Since the reign of Henry VIII. the fovereigns of
England have been called, in public writs, the fupreme
heads of the church ; but this title conveys no fpiritual
meaning, as it only denotes the regal power to pre¬
vent any ecclefiaftical differences, or, in other words,
to fubftitute the king in place of the pope before the
reformation, with regard to temporalities and the inter¬
nal economy of the church. The kings of England
never intermeddle in ecelefialtical difputes, and are
contented to give a fandtion to the legal rights of the
clergy.
The church of England, under this defcription of
the monarchical power over it, is governed by two
archbilhops, and 24 bilhops, befidcs the bilhop of So-
dor and Man, who, not being pofleffed of an Englith
barony, does not fit in the houfe of peers. See Arch¬
bishop and Bishop.
England contains about 60 archdeacons. Subordi¬
nate to them are the rural deacons, formerly ftyled
archprefhi/ters, who fignify the bilhop’s pleafarc to his
clergy, the lower clafs of which confills of parifli-
priefts (who arc called reflcrs or vicars) deacons and
curates. See the articles Curate, Deacon, Parson, England,
and Vicar. 1
The following is a lift of the Englifh bifhoprics,
with their revenues, as charged in the king’s books ; 0f tv,e
though that fum is far from being the real annual va- clergy,
lue of the fee, yet it affifts in forming a comparative
eftimate between the revenues of each fee with thofe of
another.
Canterbury,
York,
London,
Durham,
W mehefter,
Archbishoprics.'
Bishoprics.
L. s.
2682 12
1610 o
2000 o
1821 I
3I24 12
Thefe three bifhops take precedency of all others in
England, and the others according to the feniority
of their confecrations.
Ely,
Bath and Wells,
Hereford,
Rochefter,
Litchfield and Coventry,
Chefter,
Worcefter,
Chichefter,
St ATaph,
Salilbury,
Bangor,
Norwich,
Gloucefter,
Llandaff,
Lincoln,
Briftol,
Carlifle,
Exeter,
Peterborough,
Oxford,
St Davids,
2134
533
768
358
559
420
929
677
187
i385
*3X
834
3I5
J54
894
297
531
coo
414
381
426
18
I
11
4
1
!3
I
II
5
16
11
7
14
18
11
4
o
6
3
o
9
3
8
3
3
8
o
3
7
3
2
1
o
9
o
14 8
11 o
2 1
The ecclefiaftical government of England is, proper¬
ly fpeaking, lodged in the convocation ; which is a na¬
tional reprefentative or fynod, and anfwers pretty nearly
to the ideas which we have of a parliament. They are
convoked at the fame time with every parliament ; and
their bufinefs is to confider of the ftate of the church,
and to call thofe to an account who have advanced new
opinions, inconfiftent with the dodtrines of the church
of England. Some high-flying clergymen during the
reign of Queen Anne, and in the beginning of that of
George I. raifed the powers of the convocation to a
height that was inconfiftent with the principles of re¬
ligious toleration, and indeed of civil liberty : fo that
the crown was obliged to exert its prerogative of call¬
ing the members together, and of diflfolving them ; and
ever fince they have not been permitted to fit for any
time, in which they could do bufinefs.
The following table exhibits a view of the popula¬
tion of England, taken from the returns made to the
houfe of commons in confequence of an adt of parlia¬
ment which, was pafied in 1801, for the purpofe of af-
certaining the number of inhabitants in the kingdom.
From this table it appears that the total number of per-
fons in England amounts to 8,331,434.
Counties,,
%
E N G
C 123 ]
ENG
England,
New
England.
COUNTIES.
Bedford
>erks
Buckingham
Cambridge
Chefter
Cornwall
Cumberland
Derby
Devon
Dorfet
Durham
ElTex
Gloucefter
Hereford
Hertford
Huntingdon
Kent
Lancafter
Leicefter
Lincoln
Middlefex
Monmouth
Norfolk
Northampton
Northumberland
Nottingham
Oxford
Rutland
Salop
Somerfet
Southampton
Stafford
Suffolk
Surry
Suffex
W arwick
Weftmorland
Wilts
Worcefter
York (Eaft Riding)
(North Riding))
(Well Riding))
HOUSES.
Inhabited
By Low many
Families occu¬
pied.
11,888
20,373
20,443
16, *39
34,482
32,906
2L573
31,822
57,955
2L437
27,195
3%,37*
46,457
17, °03
17,681
6,841
5L585
114,270
25,992
4L395
112,912
8,948
47,6i7
26,665
26,518
25,611
20,599
3,274
31,182
48,040
38,345
45,198
32,233
46,072
25,272
40,847
7,897
29,462
26,711
25,781
3*>S*i
111,146
13,980
23,416
23,384
19,262
37,6i3
39,040
25,893
33,660
72,559
24,142
38,109
46,784
55,i33
18,822
20,092
8,! 50
65.967
132,147
27.967
42,629
199,854
9>9°3
57,930
29,361
35,503
3°,081
23,750
3,563
34,5oi
57,oi3
45,331
48,185
43,48i
63,673
3°,755
44,028
9,026
30,527
29,741
3L544
34,542
**7,379
PERSONS.
Maies.
Females.
11,467,870 1,778,420
3°,j ■ 3
52,b2l
52,094
44,od1
92,759
89,868
54,377
79,401
157,24°
53,667
74,77°
111.356
117,180
43,955
48,063
18,521
i5i,374
322.356
63,943
102,445
373,655
22,173
129,842
63,4X7
73,357
68,558
53,786
7,978
82,563
126,927
105,667
118,698
101,091
127,138
78,797
99,942
20,175
87,380
67,631
67,457
74,904
276,005
32,870
56,394
55,8.14
45,265
98,992
98,401
62,853
81,471
185,761
61,652
85,591
115,081
133,629
45,236
49.514
19,047
156,250
350,375
66,138
106,1 x 2
444,474
23,409
143,529
68,540
83,744
7*,792
55,834
8,378
85,076
146,825
113,989
120,455
109,340
141,905
80.514
108,248
21,442
97,727
7i,7°2
7*,976
80,602
287,948
OCCUPATIONS.
rerfons chiefly
eixipioyed in
Agriculture.
Ditto in Trade
Manufadlure.
or Handicraft
3,987,935 4,243,d9Q
I 8,766
38,155
25,083
23,054
38.823
42,687
21,062
3L743
96,208
28,204
18,217
65,174
49,420
3i,26i
20,611
9,536
54,124
52,018
23.823
60, C84
43,4i7
12,871
61,791
29-303
23,190
23,904
33,109
3,995
45,046
6i,434
co,696
43,93°
55,744
2,746
38,925
34,756
12,141
53,5*7
38,865
3M38
44,o6i
55,695
1,524,227
13,816
16,921
20,138
11,988
67,447
24,870
18,387
39,5i6
60,844
22,259
2 c,2o8
25,283
49,645
8,588
12,861
4,484
43,253
269.259
42,036
24,263
162.260
5,540
38,181
31,426
25,738
35,513
16,346
J,923
35,535
54,053
30,303
72,465
34,064
42,865
19,608
91,922
8,673
39,422
30,230
, 22,003
26,207
164,188
1,789,531
Total of
Perfons.
63,393
109,215
107,444
89,346
191,751
188,269
117,230
161 ,1 4 2
345,001
115,319
160,261
226,437
250,809
89,191
5 -577
5 568
307,624
672,731
130,081
208,557
818,129
45,582
273,371
*3*,757
*57,*°*
140,350
109,620
16,3 56
167,639
273,750
219,656
239,T53
210,431
269,043
159,311
208,190
4I,6i7
185,107
139,333
139,433
155,506
563,953
8,331,434
F'ngland,
New
England,
New ENGLAND, late a province of the Britilli
empire in America, is bounded on the north by Ca¬
nada, on the eaft by Nova Scotia and the Atlantic
ocean, on the fouth by the Atlantic and Long Illand
found, and on the weft by New York. It lies in the
form of a quarter of a circle. Its weft line, beginning
at the mouth of Byram river, which empties into
Long Illand found at the fouth-weft corner of Con¬
necticut, latitude 410, runs a little eaft of north, un¬
til it ftrikes the 45th degree of latitude, and then
curves to the eaftward almoft to the gulf of St Law¬
rence. * t
This country was difeovered in the beginning of "the When firll
l6lh century, and called 'North Virginia; but no Eu-dLcovereik
ropeans fettled there till the year 1608. The firft co¬
lony, which was weak and ill-directed, did not fuc-
ceed 5 and, for fome time, there were only a few ad¬
venturers who came over at times in the fummer, built
themfelves temporary huts for the fake of trading with
the favages, and, like them, difappeared again for the
0.2 ** reft
ENG
[ 124 ]
ENG
New reft of tlie year. At laft fome Brownifts, headed by
England, [yj,- Robinfon, whom Neal ityles the Father of the In-
“ 'r-~J dependents, who in x 61 o had been driven from Eng¬
land by perfeeution, fled to Holland, and fettled at
Leyden; but in 1621 determined, with Mr Brewfter
affiftant-preacher to Mr Robinfon, to found a church
for their Eel in the new hemifphere. They therefore
purchafed, in 1521, the charter of the Englifh North
Virginia-company. Forty-one families, making in ail
120 perfons, landed in the beginning of a very hard
winter, and found a country entirely covered with wood,
which offered a very melancholy profpecl to men alrea¬
dy exhaufted with the fatigues of their voyage. Near
one half perifhed either by cold, the feurvy, or other di-
ilrefs. The courage of the reft was beginning to fail;
when it was revived by the arrival of 60 favage war¬
riors, who came to them in the fpring, headed by their
chief. The old tenants afligned for ever to the new
ones all the lands in the neighbourhood of the fettle-
ment they had formed, under the name of New P/y-
viouth ; and one of the favages who underftood a little
Englifh ftaid to teach them how to cultivate the maize,
and inftruct them in the manner of fiftiing upon their
coaft.
This kindnefs enabled the colony to wait for the com-
panions they expefted from Europe with feeds, with
domeftic animals, and with every affiftance they want¬
ed. At firll thefe fuccours arrived but flowly ; but the
perfecution of the Puritans in England increafed the
number of profelytes to fuch a degree in America, that
in 1630 they were obliged to form different fettlements,
of which Bofton foon became the principal. Thefe
firft fettlers were not merely ecclefiaftics, who had been
deprived of their preferments on account of their opi¬
nions ; nor thofe feclaries influenced by new opinions,
that are fo frequent among the common people. There
were among them feveral perfons of high rank, who,
having embraced Puritanifm, had taken the precaution
to fecure themfelves an afylum in thefe diftant regions.
* '['hey had caufed houfes to be built, and lands to be
cleared, with a view of retiring there, if their endea¬
vours in the caufe of civil and religious liberty fhould
prove abortive.
The inhabitants of New England lived peaceably for
a long time, without any regular form of policy. Their
charter had indeed authorized them to eftablilh any
Settlements mocje of government they might cboofe ; but thefe en-
thuftafts were not agreed among themfelves upon the
plan of their republic, tnd government did not pay fuf-
ficient attention to them to urge them to fecure their
own tranquillity. At length they grew fenfible of the
jneceflity of a regular legiflation ; and this great work,
which virtue and genius united have never attempted
but with diffidence, was boldly undertaken by blind fa-
naticifm. It bore the ftamp of the rude prejudices
on which it had been formed. There was in this new
code a lingular mixture of good and evil, of wifdom
and folly. No man was allowed to have a Ihare in the
government except he were a member of the eftablilh-
ed church. Witchcraft, perjury, blafphemy, and adul¬
tery, were made capital oft'ences ; and children were
alfo punifhed with death, ‘either for curling or ftriking
their parents. Marriages, however, were to be fo-
lemnized by the magiftrate. The price of corn was
fixed at 2s. n fd. per bulhel. The favages who ne-
5
New
England.
RnynaPs
Hijflory of
European
Firft code
#f laws.
glecled to cultivate their lands were to be deprived of
them ; and Europeans were forbidden under a heavy
penalty to fell them any Itrong liquors or warlike itores.
All thofe who were detetled either in lying, drunken-
nefs, or dancing, were ordered to be publicly whipped.
But at the fame time that amufements were forbidden
equally with vices and crimes, one might be allowed
to fwear by paying a penalty of ix|d. and to break
the fabbath for 2I. 19s. g^d. Another indulgence
allowed was, to atone, by a fine, for a neglect of
prayer, or for uttering a raih oath. But it is ilill more
extraordinary, that the worlhip of images was for¬
bidden to the Puritans on pain of death ; which was
alfo inflicted on Roman Catholic priefts, who ftiould
return to the colony after they had been banifhed;
and on Quakers who Ihould appear again after having 3
been whipped, branded, and expelled. Such was the Quakers
abhorrence for thefe feclaries, who had themfelves an perftaued.
averfion for every kind of cruelty, that whoever either
brought one of them into the country, or harboured
him but for one hour, was liable to pay a confiderable
fine.
Thofe unfortunate members of the colony, who, lefs
violent than their brethren, ventured to deny the coer¬
cive power of the magiftrate in matters of religion,
were perfecuted with ftill greater rigour. This was
confidered as blafphemy by thofe very divines who had
rather chofen to quit their country than to fliow any
deference to Epifcopal authority. This fyftem was
fupported by the feverities of the law, which attempt¬
ed to put a Hop to every difference in opinion, by in-
flicling capital punilhment on all who diffented. T hofe
who were either convicted, or even fufpecled, of enter¬
taining fentiments of toleration, were expofed to fuch
cruel oppreflions, that they were forced to fly from their
firft afylum, and feek refuge in another. They found
one on the fame continent; and as New England had
been firft founded by perfecution, its limits were ex¬
tended by it.
This intemperate religious zeal extended itfelf to mat¬
ters in themfelves of the greateft indifference. A proof
of this is found in the following public declaration, tran-
feribed from the regifters of the colony. ^
“ It is a circumftance universally acknowledged, Law a-
“ that the cuftom of wearing long hair, after thegainft
“ manner of immoral perfons and of the favage In- ^tarij^r
“ dians, can have been introduced into England only *on^ 1,u ’
“ in facrilegious contempt of the exprefs command of
“ God, who declares that it is a fliameful practice for
“ any man who has the leaft care for his foul to wear
44 long hair. As this abomination excites the indig-
“ nation of all pious perfons ; we, the magiftrates, in
“ our zeal for the purity of the faith, do exprefsly
“ and authentically declare, that we condemn the im-
“ pious cuftom of letting the hair grow ; a cuftom
“ which we look upon to be very indecent and dxlho-
“ neft, which horribly difguifes men, and is oftenfrve
“ to model! and fober perfons, in as much as it eor-
“ rupts good manners. We therefore, being juftly
“ incenfed againft this feandalous cuftom, do defire,
44 advife, and earneftly requeft all the elders of our
44 continent, zealoufly to Ihow their averfion for this
44 odious practice, to exert all their power to put a
44 flop to it, and efpecially to take care that the mem-
44 bers of their churches be not infected with it ; in
order
ENG [ 125 ] ENG
New u order that thofe perfons who, notwxthftanding thefe
Englandl <4 rig0r0US prohibitions, and tlie means of correction
f “ that fliall be ufed on this account, (hall ilill perlift in
“ this cuftom, (hall have both God and man at the fame
“ time againft them.”
This feverity foon exerted itfelf againft the Quakers.
They were whipped, baniftied, and imprifoned. The
behaviour of thefe new enthuftafts, who in the midil of
tortures and ignominy praifed God, and called for blef-
ftngs upon men, iyifpired a reverence for their perfons
and opinions, and gained them a number of profelytes.
This circumftance exafperated their perfecutors, and
hurried them on to the moft atrocious acts of vio¬
lence ; and they caufed five of them, who had return¬
ed clandeftinely from baniihment, to be hanged. This
fpirit of perfecution was, however, at laft fuppreffed
by the interpofition of the mother-country, from
whence it had been brought. Charles II. moved with
the fufferings of the Quakers, put a flop to them by a
proclamation in 1661 } but he was never able totally
to extinguifh the fpirit of perfecution that prevailed in
America.
The colony had placed at their head Henry Vane,
the fon of that Sir Henry Vane who had fuch a re¬
markable {hare in the difturbances of his country. This
obftinate and enthufiaftic young man had contrived to
revive the queftions of grace and free will. The dif-
putes upon thefe points ran very high ; and would
probably have plunged the colony into a civil war, if
feveral of the favage nations united had not happened
at that very time to fall upon the plantations of the
difputants, and to maflacre great numbers of them.
The colonifts, heated with their theological eontefts,
paid at firft very little attention to this confiderable
lofs. But the danger at length became fb urgent and
fo general, that all took up arms. As foon as the
enemy was repulfed, the colony refumed its former
diflenfions j and the frenzy which they excited
broke out in 1692 in a way marked with as many
atrocious inftances of violence as any ever recorded in
hiftory.
Extraordi- There lived in a town of New England, called
nary perfe- Salem, two young women who were fubject to conyul-
cution of fions, accompanied with extraordinary fymptoms. Their
u aches. father, minifter of the church, thought that they were
bewitched •, and having in confequence caft his fufpi-
cions upon an Indian girl who lived in his houfe, he
compelled her by liarfh treatment to confefs that file
was a witch. Other women, upon hearing this, im¬
mediately believed, that the convulfions, which pro¬
ceeded only from the nature of their fex, were owing
to the fame caufe. Three citizens, cafually named,
werq immediately thrown into prifon, accufed of witch¬
craft, hanged, and their bodies left expofed to wild
beafts and birds of prey. A few days after, 16- other
perfons, together with a counfellor, who, becaufe he
refufed to plead againft them, was fuppofed to fliare
in their guilt, fuffered in the fame manner. From this,
inftant, the imagination of the multitude was inflamed
with thefe horrid and gloomy feenes. Children of ten
years of age were put to death, young girls were {trip¬
ped naked, and the marks of witchcraft fearched for
upon their bodies with the moft indecent curiofity ; and
thofe fpots of the feurvy which age impreffes upon the
bodies of old men were taken for evident figns of the
infernal power. In default of thefe, torments were New
employed to extort confeflions dictated by the exeeu- England,
tioners themfelves. If the magiftrates, tired out with v
executions, refufed to punifli, they were themfelves ac¬
cufed of the crimes they tolerated ; the very minifters
of religion railed falfe witnefles againft them, who made
them forfeit with their lives the tardy remorfe excited
in them by humanity. Dreams, apparitions, terror,
and confternation of every kind, increafed theie prodi¬
gies of folly and horror. The prifons were filled, the
gibbets left Handing, and all the citizens involved in
gloomy apprehenfions. The moft prudent quitted the
country ftained with the blood of its inhabitants •, and
nothing lefs than the total and immediate fubverfion of
tire colony was expecled, when, on a hidden, all eyes
were opened at once, and the excefs of the evil awa¬
kened the minds which it had firft ftupified. Bitter
and painful remorfe was the immediate confequence 'r
the mercy of God was implored by a general fait, and
public prayers were offered up to alk forgivenefs for
the prefumption of having fuppofed that Heaven could
have been pleafed with facrifices with which it could
only have been offended.
Pofterity will, probably never know' exactly what was
the caufe or remedy of this dreadful diforder. It had,
perhaps, its firft origin in the melancholy which thofe
perfccuted enthufiafts had brought with them from their
own country, wrhich had increafed with the feurvy they
had contracted at fea, and had gathered frefii ftrength
from the inconveniences and hardftiips infeparable from
a change of climate and manner of living. The con¬
tagion, however, ceaied like all other epidemical dif-
tempers, exhaufted by its very communication. A per-
fect calm fucceeded this agitation ) and the Puritans of
Newr England have never fince been feized with fo
gloomy a fit of enthufiafm.
But though the colony has renounced the perfecuting
fpirit which hath ftained all religious feels with blood,,
it has preferved fome remains, if not of intoleration, at
leaft of feverity, which remind us of thofe melancholy
days in which it took its rife. Some of its laws are ftill
too fevere.
New England had, however, fome remedy againft
bad laws, in the conftitution of its mot her-country,
where the people who have the legiflative power in their
own hands are at liberty t'o correct abufes 5 and it has.
others derived from its fituation, which open a vaft field,
to induftry and population. ^
The clearing of the lands in this colony is not di- M.mnpr of
redted by chance as in the other provinces. This mat- icttlement
ter from the firft wTas fubiedted to law's which are ftillJn tins co-
religioufly obferved. No citizen whatever has the ,01)y‘
liberty of fettling even upo^ unoccupied land. The
government, defirous of preferving all its members from
the inroads of the favages, and of placing them in a
condition to fhare in the protection of a well-regulated
focietf, hath ordered that whole villages fticuld be
formed at once. As foon as 60 families offer to build
a church, maintain a clergyman, and pay a fehool-
mafter, the general affembly allot them, a fituation, and
permit them to have two reprefentatives in the legifla¬
tive body of the colony. The di Uriel afligned them
always borders upon the lands already cleared, and ge¬
nerally contains 60,000 fquare acres. Thefe new people
choofe the fituation moft convenient for their habita¬
tion,
E N G
[ 126 ]
ENG
.. 7
Divifion,
■ See.
tton, Tphich is ufually of a fquare figure. The church
is placed in the centre 5 the colonills divide the land
among themfelves, and each inclofes his property with a
hedge. Some woods are referved for a common ; and
thus New England is conitantly enlarging its territory,
though it Hill continues to make one complete and well
conftituted province.
The country was divided into four dates, which at
fird had no connexion with one another. The necef-
fity of maintaining an armed force againd the favages,
obliged them to form a confederacy in 1643, when they
took the name of ihe United Colonies. In confequence
of this league, two deputies from each edabliihment
ufed to meet in a dated place to deliberate upon the
common affairs of New England, according to the in-
dructions they had received from the aiTembly by
which they were fent. This affociation laid no con-
draint upon the right of every individual to aft entire¬
ly as he pleafed, without either the permidion or ap¬
probation of the mother-country. All the fubmiffion
required of thefe provinces was merely to acknowledge
the kings of England for their fovereigns. Charles II.
widied to make them more dependent. The province
of Maffachufet’s bay, which, though the fmalled, was
the riched and the mod populous of the four, being
guilty of fome mifdemeanour againd government, the
king feized that opportunity of taking away its char¬
ter in 1684 : and it remained without one till the re¬
volution ; when it received another, which, however,
did not anfwer its claims or expeftations. The crown
referved to itfelf the right of nominating the governor,
and appointing to all military employments, and to all
principal pods in the civil and juridical departments :
it allowed the people of the colony their legiflative
power, and gave the governor a negative voice and the
command of the troops, which fecured him a fufficient
influence to enable him to maintain the prerogative of
the mother-country in all its force. The provinces of
Connefticut and RhodeTfland, by timely fubmiflion,
prevented the punifliment which that of Maffachufets
had incurred, and retained their original charter. That
of New-Hampfliire had been always regulated by the
lame mode of adminidration as the province of Maf¬
fachufet’s bay. The fame governor prefided over the
whole colony, but with regulations adapted to the
conditution of each province. To the above dates,
another has been added fince the revolution, viz. Ver¬
mont. Thefe dates are fubdivided into counties, and the
3 counties into townfhips.
Face of the New England is a high, hilly, and in fome parts a
mountainous country, formed by nature to be inhabi¬
ted by a hardy race of free, independent republicans.
—The mountains are comparatively fmall, running
nearly north and fouth in ridges parallel to each other.
Between thefe ridges flow the great rivers in maje-
Itic meanders, receiving the innumerable rivulets and
larger dreams which proceed from the mountains on
each fide. To a fpeftator on the top of a neighbour¬
ing mountain, the vales between the ridges, while in a
date of nature, exhibit a romantic appearance. They
feem an ocean of woods, fwelled and depreffed in its
furface like that of the great ocean itfelf. A richer
though lefs romantic view is prefented, when the val-
levs, by indudrious hufl)andmen, have been cleared of
their natural growth and the fruit of their labour ap-
country,
mountains,
&CC.
pears in loaded orchards, extenlive meadows, covered
with large herds of flieep and neat cattle, and rich
fields of flax, corn, and the vaiious kinds ci grain.
Thefe valleys, which have received the exprefl;vt nan e
of interval lands, are of various breadths, from two to
20 miles ; and by the annual inundations of the rivers
which flow through them, there is frequently an accumu¬
lation of rich fat toil left upon their iuitace when the
waters retire.
There are four principal ranges of mountains, paf-
fing nearly from north-cad to leuth-wed through
New England. 1 hefe confid of a multitude of paral¬
lel ridges, each having many fpurs, deviating from the
courfe of the general range •, which fpurs are again
broken into irregular hilly land. 1 he main ridges
terminate, fometimes in high bluff heads, near the
fea coad, and fometimes by a gradual defeent in the
interior part of the country. One of the main ranges
runs between Connefticut and Hudfon’s rivers. This
range branches and bounds the vales through which
flows the Houfatonick river. The mod eadern ridge
of this range terminates in a bluff head at Meriden ;
a fecond ends in like manner at Willingford, and a
third at New Haven. In Lyme, on the ead fide of
Connefticut river, another range of mountains com¬
mences, forming the eadern boundary of Connefticut
vale. This range trends northerly, at the didance,
generally, of about to or 12 miles ead from the ri¬
ver, and nnfies throvgh Maffachufets, where the range
takes the name of Chid alee Mountain ; thence eroding
into New Hampfhire, at the didance of about 20 miles
from the Maffachufets line, it runs up into a very
high peak, called Monadnick, which terminates this
ridge of the range. A wedern ridge continues, and
in about latitude 430 20' runs up into Sunipec moun¬
tains. About 50 miles further, in the fame ridge, is
Moofcoog mountain. A third range begins near Sto-
nington in Connefticut. It takes its courfe north-ead-
erlv, and is fometimes broken ard difeontinued ; it
then rifes again, and ranges in the fame direftion in¬
to New Hampddre, where, in latitude 430 25', it runs
up into a high peak called Cewfuwajhog. Ihe fourth
range has a humble beginning about Hopkinton in
Maffaehufets. The eadern ridge of this range runs
north by Watertc wn and Concord, and erodes Mer¬
rimack river at Pantucket Falls. In New Hampfhire,
it rifes into feveral high peaks, of which the White
mountains are the principal. From thefe White moun¬
tains a range continues north-ead, croffing the ead
boundary of New Hampfhire, in latitude 440 30', and
forms the height of land between Kennebtk and
Chaudiere rivers. Thefe ranges of mountains are full
of lakes, ponds, and fprings of water, that give rife to
numberlefs dreams of various fizes, wdiich, interlock¬
ing each other in every direftion, and falling over the
rocks in romantic cafcades, How meandering into the
rivers below. No country on the
tered than New England.
On the fea-coad the land is low, and in many parts
level and fandy. In the valleys, between the foremen-
tioned ranges of mountains, the land is generally bro¬
ken, and in many places rocky, but of a flrorg rich
foil, capable of being cultivated to good advantage,
which alfo is the cafe with many fpots even on the tops
of the mountains.
larid.
globe is better wa-
The
New
England.
9
Soil, pro-
d notions,
&.C.
10
Population,
manners,
cuftoms,
and divcr-
fojis.
ENG [ r
The principal river in New England is Connedicut.
See Connecticut.
> The foil, as may be collefted from what has been
faid, muft be very various. Each tradl of different
foil is diftinguilhed by its peculiar vegetation, and is
pronounced good, middling, or bad, from the fpecies of
trees winch it produces 5 and from one fpecics generally
predominating in each foil, has originated the defcrip-
tive names of oaK land, birch, beech, and chefnut lands,
pine, barren, maple, afh, and cedar fwamps, as each fpe¬
cics happens to predominate. Intermingled with thofe
predominating fpecies are walnut, firs, elm, hemlock,
magnolia, moofe-wood, faffafras, &e.&c. The belt lands
produce walnut and chefnut; the next, beech and oak j
lands of the third quality produce fir and pitch-pine}
the next, whortleberry and barberry bullies 5 and the
pooreit produce nothing but marihy imperfeiff flirubs.
Among the flowering trees and flirubs in the forelts
are the red-flowering maple, the faffafras, the locuft-
trce, tne tulip-tree, honeyfuckle, wild rofe, dogwood,
elm, leather-tree, laurel, hawthorn, &c. ivhich in the
fnring of the year give the woods* a moft beautiful ap¬
pearance, and fill them with a delicious fragrance.
Among the fruits which grow wild, are the feveral
kinds of grapes.; which are fmall, four, and thick
Ikinned. 1 he vines on which they grow are very luxu¬
riant, often oyerfpreading the higheff trees in the fo-
refts; and without doubt, may be greatly meliorated
by proper cultivation. Befides thefe, are the wild cher¬
ries, white and red mulberries, cranberries, walnuts,
hazel nuts, chefnuts, butter nuts, beech nuts, ivild plums
and pears, whortle-berries, bilberries, goofeberries,
ftrawherries, &c.
The foil in the interior country is calculated for the
culture of Indian corn, rye, oats, barley, flax, and
hemp (for which the foil and climate are peculiarly
proper), buck wheat, beans, peafe, &c. In many of
the inland parts wflieat is raifed in large quantities ; but
on the fea-coaft it has never been cultivated with fuc-
cefs, being fubjeft to blafts. The fruits which the coun¬
try yields from culture, are apples in the greateft plenty;
of. thefe cyder is made, which conftitutes the principal
drink of the inhabitants ; alfo, pears of various forts,
quinces, peaches (from which is made peach brandy),
plums, cherries, apricots, &c. The culinary plants are
fuch as have already been enumerated. New England is
a fine grazing country ; the valleys between the hills
are generally interfe&ed with brooks of water, the,
banks of which are lined with a traft of rich meadow
or interval land. I he high and rocky ground is, in
many parts, covered with honeyfuckle, and generally
affords the fineft of pafture. It will not be a matter
of. wonder, therefore, that New England boafts of
railing fome of the finelt cattle in the world ; nor will
Ibe be. envied, wThen the labour of railing them is taken
into view. Two months of the hotteft feafon in the
yea5 the farmers are employed in procuring food for
tiicir cattle; and the cold winter is fpent in dealing
it out to them. The pleafure and profit of doing , this,
is however a fatisfying compenlation to the hone'll and
indullrious farmer.
_ New England is the molt populous part of the U-
nited States. It contains at leafl 823,000 fouls. One-
fifth of thefe are fencible men. New England then,
fliould any great and fudden emergency require it,
27 J ENG
could furnilli an army of 164,600 men. The great body
of thefe are land-holders and cultivators of the foil.
T he former attaches them to their country ; the latter,
by making them llrong and healthy, enables them to
defend it. The boys are early taught the ufe of arms,
and make the bell of foldiers. Few countries on earth,
ol equal extent and population, can furnilli a more for¬
midable army than this part of the union.
New England may, with propriety, be called a nur-
fery of men, whence are annually tranfplanted, into
other parts of the United States, thoufands of its na¬
tives. I he Hate of Vermont, which is but of yef-
terday, and contains about 100,000 iouls, has received
more inhabitants from Connefticut than from any other
ftate ; and yet between the years 1774 and 1782, not-
withilanding her numerous emigrations to Vermont,
Sufquehannah, and other places, and the depopulation
occafioned by a feven years bloody war, it is found,
from an actual cenfus of the inhabitants in the years be¬
fore mentioned, that they have increafed from 197,836
their number in 1774, to 290,150, their number in
1782. Valt numbers of the New Englanders, fince
the war, have emigrated into the northern parts of New
York, into Kentucky and the Weftern Territory, and
into Georgia ; and fome are fcattered into every Hate,
and every town of note in the union.
The New Englanders are generaly tall, flout, and
well built. They glory, and perhaps with juftice, in
polTefling that fpirit of freedom which induced their
anceftors to leave their native country, and to brave the
dangers of the ocean and the hardlhips of fettling in a
wildernefs. Their education, laws, and fituation, ferve
to infpire them with high notions of liberty. Their
jealouly is awakened at the firft motion toward an in-
vafion of their rights. JL hey are indeed often jealous
to excels; a circumftance which is a fruitful fource of
imaginary grievances, and of innumerable groundlefs
fufpicions and unjuft complaints againft government.
A law, refpe&ing the defeent of eftates which are
generally held in fee Ample, which for fubftance is
the fame in all the New England ftates, is the chief
foundation and prote&ion of this liberty. By this
law, the poffeflions of the father are to be equally di¬
vided among all the children, excepting the eldeft fon,
who has a double portion. In this w ay is preferred
that happy mediocrity among the people, which, by
inducing economy and induftry, removes from them
temptations to luxury, and forms them to habits of
fobriety and temperance. At the fame time, their in¬
duftry and frugality exempt them from want, and from
the ncceflity of fubmitting to any encroachment on their
liberties.
In New England, learning is more generally diffu-
fed among all ranks of people than in almoft any
other. part of the globe; arifing from the excellent
eftablilhment of fchools in every townftftp. Another
fource of information to the people is the newspapers,
of which not lefs than 30,000 are printed every week
in New England, and circulated in almoft every town
and village in the country. A perfon of mature a«e,
who cannot both read and write, is rarely to be found!
By means of tins general eftablifnment of fchools, the
extenftve circulation of newfpapers, and the confe-
quent fpread of learning, every townfhip throughout
the country is furnifticd with men capable of ccnduft-
'New
Erwland.
ENG
5s? ew
England,
mg the affairs of their town with judgment and dif-
eretion. Thefe men are the channels of political in¬
formation to the lower clafs of people } if fuch a cl a Is
may be* faid to exift in New England, where every
man thinks himfelf at leal! as good as his neighbour,
and believes that all mankind are, or ought to be, equal.
The people from their childhood form habits of can.
vailing public affairs, and commence politicians. This
naturally leads them to be very inquifitive. This
defixe after knowledge, in a greater or leffer deg; cc,
prevails throughout all claffes of people in New Eng¬
land : and from their various modes of expreffmg it,
fome of which are blunt and familiar, bordering on
impertinence, ftrangers have been induced to mention
impertinent inquifitivenefs as a diftinguithing charafter-
iftic of New England people.—Each man alfo has his
independent fyftem of politics; and each affumes a
dictatorial office. Hence originates that retllcfs, liti¬
gious, complaining fpirit, which forms a dark (hade in
the character of New Englandmen.
Before the American war, which introduced mto
New England a flood of corruptions, with many im¬
provements, the Sabbath wras obferved with great itrict-
nefs ; no unneceffary travelling, no fecular bufinefs, no
viflting, no diverflons, were permitted on that facred
day. They contidered it as confecrated to divine vor-
ihip, and were generally punctual and ferious in their
attendance upon it. Iheir lawrs were ftrict in guarding
the Sabbath againft-every innovation. The fuppofed
feverity with which thefe laws w'ere compofed and exe¬
cuted, together with fome other traits in their religi¬
ous character, have acquired, for the New Englanders,
the name of a fuperftitious bigotted people. But fu-
pcrlfition and bigotry are fo indefinite in their fignifica-
tions, and fo varioufly applied by perfons of different
principles and educations, that it is not eaiv to dcU r-
mine how far they defer ved that char abler. Lea¬
ving every perfon to enjoy his own opinion in regard to
this matter, we will only obferve, that, fince the war, a
catholic tolerant fpirit, occafioned by a more enlarged
intercourfe with mankind, has greatly increafed, and is
becoming univerfal; and if they do not break the
proper bound, and liberalize away all true religion, of
which there is much danger, they will counteract that
ftronry propenfity m human nature, which leads men to
vibrate from one extreme to its oppofiteu
There is one diltinguifhing char act criilic in the reli¬
gious character of this people, which we muff not omit
to mention ; and that is, the cuftom of annually cele¬
brating faffs and thankfgivings. In the fpring, the
feveral governors iffue their proclamations, appointing a
day to be religioufly obferved in faffing, humiliation,
and prayer, throughout their refpective ftates, in 11111011
the predominating vices, that particularly call for
humiliation, are enumerated. In autumn, after harveft,
that gladfome era in the huffiandman’s life, the gover¬
nors again iffue their proclamations appointing a day
of public thank (giving, enumerating the public blef-
fings received in the courfe of the foregoing year.
This pious cuftom originated with their venerable
anceftors, the firff fettlers of New England ; and has
been handed down as facred through the fucceffive
generations of their pofterity. A cuftom fo rational,
and fo happilv calculated to cherifti in the minds of the
people a fenfe of their dependence on the great Bene-
f I 28 ] E -N G
faclor of the world for all their bleffings, it is hoped
will ever be facredly preferved.
The people of New England generally obtain their
eftates by hard and perfevering labour ; They 0f confe-
quence know' their value, and fpend with frugality.
Yet in no country do the indigent and unfortunate fare
better. Their law's oblige every town to provide a
competent maintenance for their poor ; and the necef-
fitous ftranger is protefted and relieved from their
humane inffitutions. It may in truth be faid, that in
no part of the world are the people happier, better
furniftted wdth the neceffaries and conveniencies of life,
or more independent than the farmers in New England.
As the great body of the people are hardy independent
freeholders, their manners are, as they ought to be,
congenial to their employment, plain, fimple, and
unpoliffied. Strangers are received and entertained
among them with a great deal of artlefs fincerity and
friendly unformal hofpitality. Their children, thofe
imitative creatures, to whofe education particular atten¬
tion is paid, early imbibe the manners and habits of
thofe around them ; and the ftranger, with pleafure,
notices the honeft and decent refpecl that is paid him
by the children as he pafles through the country..
As the people, by reprefentation, make their own
laws and appoint their own officers, they' cannot be
oppreffed; and living under governments which have
few' lucrative places, they have few motives, to.bribery,
corrupt canvaffings, or intrigue. Real abilities and a
moral char after unblemiffied are the qualifications
requifite in the view of moft people for offices of public
truft. The expreffion of a wiffi to be promoted is the
direft way to be difappointed.
The inhabitants of New England arc generally fond
of the arts, and have cultivated them with great fuceefs.
Their colleges have flourilhed beyond any others in the
United States. The illuftrious charafters they have
produced, who have diftinguiffied themfelves in politics,
law, divinity, the mathematics and philofophy, natural
and civil hiftory, and in the fine aits, particularly in
poetry, evince the truth of thefe obfervations.
Many of the women in New' England are handfomc.
They generally have fair, freffi, and healthful counte¬
nances, mingled with much female foftnefs and deli-
Thofe w ho have had the advantages of a good
New
England.
education (and they are confiderably numerous) are
genteel, eafy, and agreeable in their manners, and -are
fprightly and fenfible in converfation. I hey an tally
taught to manage domeftic concerns with neatnefs and
economy. Ladies of the firft rank and foitune make
it a part of their daily bufinefs to fuperintend the affairs
of the family. Employment at the needle, in cookery,
and at the fpinning-wheel, with them is honourable.
Idlenefs, even in thofe of independent fortunes, is uni •
verfally disputable. The women in the country
manufacture the greateft part of the clothing of their
families. Their linen and woollen cloths are ftrong and
decent. Their butter and cheefe are not inferior to any
in the wmrld.
Dancin.tr is the principal and favourite amufement in
New England ; and of this the young people of both
fexes are extremely fond. Gaming is pratf ifed by none
but thofe w ho cannot or rather will not find a reputable
employment. The gameftcr, the horfe-jockey, and
the knave, are equally defpifed, and their company is
* avoided
ENG [ t^o ] E N G
3>fcw avoided by all -who would fuftain fair Jmd irreproach-
'•Snglanrl, a>D^e characters. The odious and inhuman praclices of
, j duelling, gouging, cock-fighting, and horfe-racing,
are fcarcely known here.—The athletic and healthy
diverfions of cricket, football, quoits, wreixling, jump¬
ing, foot-races, &c. are univerfally pradtifed in the
country, and fame of them in the moft populous places,
and by people of almolt all ranks. Squirrel-hunting
is a noted diverfion in country places, where this kind
of game is plenty. Some divert themfelves with fox¬
hunting, and others with the more profitable fports of
fifhing and duck-hunting j and in the frontier fcttle-
ments, where deer and fur game abound, the inhabi¬
tants make a lucrative fport of hunting theta. In the
winter feafon, while the ground is covered with fnow,
which is commonly two or three months, lleighing is
the general diverfion. A great part of the families
throughout the country are furnifhed with horfes and
fleighs.
Trad” New England has no one ftaple comtaodity. The
ocean and the forefts afford the two principal articles of
export. Cod-filh, mackarel, Iliad, falmon, and other
fifli, whale-oil and whale-bone, malls, boards, fcant-
ling, Haves, hoops, and fliingles, have been and are Hill
exported in large quantities. The annual amount of
cod and other fifii for foreign exportation, including
the profits arifing from the wbale-fiihery, is eftimated at
upwards of half a million. — Befides the articles enu¬
merated, they export from the various parts of New
England ihips built for fale, horfes, mules, live Hock,
pickled beef and pork, pot-alh, pearl-alh, flax-feed,,
butter and cheefe, rum, &c. The balance of trade,
as far as imperfect calculations will enable us to judge,
has generally been againft New England $ not from any
unavoidable neceflity, but from her extravagant impor¬
tations. From a view of the annual imports into New
England, it appears that the greateft part of them con-
fifts of the luxuries, or at bell the difpenfable conveni¬
ences of life*, the country affords the neceffaries in great
abundance.
ENGLISH, or the ENGLISH Tongue, the language
fpoken by the people of England, and, with fotae varia¬
tion, by thofe of Scotland, as well as part of Ireland, and
the reft of the Britifti dominions.
The ancient language of Britain is generally allow¬
ed to have been the fame with the Gallic, or French j
this ifland, in all probability, having been firft peopled
from Gallia, as both Csefar and Tacitus affirm, and
prove by many ftrong and conclufive arguments, as by
their religion, manners, cuftoms, and the nearnefs of
their fituation. But now we have very fmall remains
of the ancient Britifti tongue, except in Wales, Corn¬
wall, the iflands and highlands of Scotland, part of
Ireland, and fome provinces of France; which will not
appear ftrange, when what follows is confidered.
Julius Caefar, fome time before the birth of our Sa¬
viour, made a defcent upon Britain, though he may
be fa’d rather to have difcovered than conquered it j
but about the year of Chrift 45, in the time of Clau¬
dius, A ulus Plautius was fent over with fome Roman
forces, by whom twTo kings of the Britons, Togodum-
nus and Caraftacus, were both overcome in battle :
whereupon a Roman colony was planted at Malden in
Effex, and the fouthern parts of the ifland were redu -
Vol. VIII. Part I.
ced to the form of a Roman province : after that, the
ifland was conquered as far noith as the friths of Dun-
barton and Edinburgh, by Agricola, in the time of Do-
mitian ; whereupon a great number of the Britons, in
the conquered part of the ifland, retired to the weft part
called Wales, carrying their language with them.
The gxeateft part of Britain being thus become a
Roman province, the Roman legions, w ho redded in
Britain for above 2QO years, undoubtedly difi'eminated
the Latin tongue; and the people being afterwards
governed by laws written in Latin muft neceffarily
make a mixture of languages. This feems to have
been the firft mutation the language of Britain dif¬
fered.
Thus the Britifti tongue continued^ for fome time,
mixed with the provincial Latin, till, the Roman le¬
gions being called home, the Scots and Pi£ts took the
opportunity to attack and harafs England : upon which
King Vortigern, about the year 440, called the Saxons
to his affiftance ; who came over with feveral of their
neighbours, and having repulfed the Scots and Piets,
were rewarded for their fervices with the ifle of Thanet,
and the whole county of Kent; but growing too power¬
ful, and not being contented with their allotment, dif-
pofi'effed the inhabitants of all the country on this fide
of the Severn * : thus the Britifti tongue was in a great * See
meafure deftroyed, and the Saxon introduced in its tend, N° i j,
Head. J<1"
What the Saxon tongue was long before the conqueft,
about the year 700, we may obferve in the moft ancient
manufeript of that language, which is a glofs on the
Evangelifts, by Biftiop Edfrid, in which the three firft
articles of the Lord’s prayer run thus :
“ Uren fader thic arth in heofnas, fic gehalgud thin
noma, fo cyilleth thin ric. Sic thin willa fue is heofnas,
and in eortho,” &c.
In the beginning of the ninth century the Danes in¬
vaded England ; and getting a footing in the northern
and eaftern parts of the country, their power gradually
increafed, and they became foie matters of it in about
2CO years. By this means the ancient Britifti obtain¬
ed a tincture of the Danifti language ; but their govern¬
ment being of no long continuance, did not make fo
great an alteration in the Anglo-Saxon as the next re¬
volution, when the whole land, A. D. 1067, ''vas fub-
dued by William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy in
France : for the Normans, as a monument of their con¬
queft, endeavoured to make their language as generally
received as their commands, and thereby rendered the
Britilh language an entire medley.
About the year 900, the Lord’s prayer, in the an¬
cient Anglo-Saxon, ran thus :
“ Thue ur fader the eart on heofenum, ft thin nama
gehalgod ; cume thin rice fithin will a on eorthan fwa,
fwo on hcofenum,” &c.
About the year 1160, under Henry IL it was ren¬
dered thus by Pope Adrian, an Engliftiman, in rhyme:
‘‘ Ure fader in heaven rich,
“ Thy name be halyed ever lich,
“ Thou bring us thy michel bleffe :
“ Als hit in heaven y doe,
“ Evar in yearth been it alfo,” &c.
Dr Flicks gives us an extraordinary fpecimen of the
R Englifti,
E N G [ 130 1 ENG
Englifk, as fpoken in the year 1385, upon the very
—,j »_j raojc^ 0£ ^]ie Englifh tongue.
“ As it is knowe liow meny maner peple beetli in
this lond 5 ther beeth alfo fo many dyvers longages and
tonges. Nothelefs Walfehemen and Scots that beeth
nought medled with other nation, holdeth v.'el nyh hir
firfte longage and fpcche j but yif the Scottes, that
tvere fometime confederate and woned with the Picles,
drawe fomewhat after hir fpeche ; but the Flemynges,
that woneth on the weft fide of Wales, haveth loft her
ftrange fpeche, and fpeketh. Sexonliche now. Alfo Eng-
li the men, they had from the bygynnynge thre maner
fpcche j northerne, foutherne, and middel fpeche in the
middcl of the lond, as they come of thre maner of
peple ot Germania : nothelefs by commyxtion and
mellynge firft with Danes, and afterwards with Nor¬
mans, in meny the contrary longage is apayred (cor-
I'upted').
“ This apayryngc of the burth of the tunge is by-
caufe of tweie things \ oon is for children in fcole agenft
the ufuage and maner of all other nations, beeth com¬
pelled for to leve hir own longage, and for to conftrue
hxr leffons and here thinges in Frenfche, and fo they
haveth fethe Normans come firft into Engelond. Alfo
gentlemen children beeth taught to fpeke Frenfche
from the tyme that they beeth roked in here cradel,
and kunneth fpeke and play with a childe’s broehe ; and
uplondiffche men will lykne hyinfelf to gentilmen, and
fondeth with great befynefie for to fpeak Frenfehe to
be told of.—Flit feemeth a. great wronder how Eng-
lifchemen and hir own longage and tonge is fo dyverfe
of fown in this oon iland } and the longage of Norman¬
die is comlynge of another lond, and hath oon maner
loun amonge alle men that fpeketh hit arigt in Enge¬
lond. Alio of the forefaid Saxon tonge that is deled
{divided') a three, and is abide fcarcelicbe with fewe
uplondiffche men is greet wonder. For meq of the eft,
with men of the weft, is, as it were, undir the fame
partie of hevene accordeth more in fownynge of fpeehe,
than men of the north with men of the fouth. There¬
fore it is that Mercii, that beeth men of myddel Enge¬
lond, as it were, parteners of the endes, underftondeth
bettre the fide longes northerne and foutherne, than
northerne and foutherne underftondeth either other.
—All the longage of the North umbers and fpeehial-
liche at York, is fo feharp, flitting, and frotynge, and
unfehape, that we foutherne men may that longage
uiiethe underftonde,” &c.
In the year 1537, the Lord’s prayer rvas printed as
follows : “ O cure father which arte in heven, hallow¬
ed be thy name : let thy kingdome come, thy will be
fulfilled as well in erth as it is in heven ; geve us this
daye in dayiy bred,” &c. Where it may be obferved,
that the diftion is brought almoft to the prefent ftand-
ard, the chief variations being only in the orthography,
By thefe inftances, and many others that might be gi¬
ven, it appears, that the Englifh Saxon language, of
which the Normans defpoiled us in a great meafure,
had its beauties, was fignificant and emphatical, and
preferable to what they impofed on us. “ Great,
verily (fays Camden), was the glory of our tongue
before the Norman conqueft, in this, that the old Eng-
Jilh could exprefs, moft aptly, all the conceptions of the
mind in their own tongue, without borrowing from any.”
Of this he gives feveral examples.
Having thus fhown how the ancient Britiflr language Erglifh
was in a manner extirpated by the Romans, Danes, II.
and Saxons, and fucceeded by the Saxon, and after ^ngi ,1‘
that the Saxon blended with the Norman French, we
fhall now mention two other caufes of change in the
language. The firft of thefe is'owing to the Britons
having been a long time a trading nation, whereby
offices, dignities, names of wares, and terms of traffic,
are introduced, which we take with the wares from the
perfons of whom we have them, and form them anew,
according to the genius of our own tongue \ and be-
fides this change in the language, arifing from com¬
merce, Britain’s having been a confiderable time fub-
jeef to the fee of Rome, in ecclefiaftical affairs, mull
unavoidably have introduced feme Italian words among
us. Secondly, As to the particular properties of a
language, our tongue has undergone no fmall mutation,
or rather has received no fmall improvement upon that
account: for, as to the Greek and Latin, the learned
have, together with the arts and feienees now rendered
familiar among us, introduced abundance 3 nay, almoit
all the terms of art in the mathematics, philofophy,
phyfic, and anatomy 3 and we have entertained many
more from the Latin, French, &c. for the fake ©f
neatnefs and elegancy : fo that, at this day, our lan¬
guage, which, about 1800 years ago, was the ancient
Britifti, or Welfti, &c. is now a mixture of Saxon,
Teutonic, Dutch, Daniffii, Norman, and modern French, ti,
embcllilhed with the Greek and Latin. Yet this, in
the opinion of feme, is fo far from being a difadvan-
tage to the Englifh tongue as now fpoken (for all
languages have undergone changes, and do continually
participate with each other), that it has fo enriched
it, as now to render it the moft copious, fignificant,
fluent, courteous, and mafeuline language in Europe,
if not in the world.
ENGRAFTING, in Gardening. See Grafting,
Gardening Index.
ENGRAILED, or Ingrailed, in Heraldry, a
term derived from the French grefy, “ hail 3” and
fignifying a thing the hail has fallen upon and broke off
the edges, leaving them ragged, or with half rounds, or
femicircles, ftruck out of their edges.
ENGRAVING, the art of cutting metals and pre¬
cious fttmes, and reprefenting thereon figures, letters, or
whatever device or defign the artift fancies.
Engraving, properly a branch of fculpture, is divided
into feveral other branches, according to the matter
whereon it is employed, and the manner of performing
it. For the rudeft branch, that of
ENGRAVING on IVood, fee IVood, Engraving on.
ENGRAVING on Copper, the making, correfpondently
to fume delineated figure or defign, fuch concave lines
on a fmooth furface of copper, either by cutting or
corrofion, as render it capable, when charged properly
with any coloured fluid, of imparting by eompreflion
an cxacl reprefentation of the figure or defign to paper
or parchment.
Whether we confider the art of engraving, with re¬
gard to the utility and pleafure it affords, or the diffi¬
culty that attends its execution, we cannot but confefs,
that on every account it defeives a diflinguifhed rank
among the polite arts f. It is by means of this artfSceiV
that the cabinets of the curious are adorned with the Ide Art>>
portraits of tha. greateft men of all ages and all na-iN D*
tions 5
ENG [
J'njrraving. lions j that their memories, their molt remarkable and
'■“•"■"v 1 molt glorious actions, are tranfmitted to the latcft po-
ftcrity. It is by this art alfo, that the paintings of the
greatcft mafters are multiplied to a boundlefs number ;
and that the lovers of the polite arts, diffufed over the
face of the whole earth, are enabled to enjoy thofe beau¬
ties from which their diftant fituations feemed to have
for ever debarred them; and perfons of moderate for¬
tune are hereby enabled to become poffeiTed of all the
fpirit, and all the poetry, that are contained in thofe
miracles of art, which feemed to have been referred for
the temples of Italy, or the cabinets of princes. When
we reflect, moreover, that the engraver, befide the
beauties of poetic compofition, and the artful ordi¬
nance of defign, is to exprefs, merely by the means of
light and lhade, all the various tints of colours and clair
obfeure; to give a relief to each figure, and a truth to
each object 5 that he is now to paint a Iky ferene and
bright, and then loaded with dark clouds 5 now the
pure tranquil dream, and then the foaming, raging
lea j that here he is to exprefs the charafter of the
man, ftrongly marked in his countenance, and there
the minuted ornament of his drefs; in a word, that he
is to reprefent all, even the mod difficult objects in na¬
ture •, we cannot fufficiently admire the vad improve-
tfients in this art, and that degree of perfection to which
it is at this day arrived. See the article Prints.
Engraving is an art, for the greated part, of mo¬
dern invention ; having its rife no earlier than the
middle of the 15th century. The ancients, it is true,
I praftifed engraving on precious dones and crydals
with very good fuccefs; and there are dill many of
their works remaining equal to any production of the
later ages. But the art of engraving on plates knd
blocks of wood, to afford prints or impreffions, was not
known till after the invention of painting in oil.
The different modes of engraving are the following :
In drokes cut through a thin wax, laid upon the
copper, with a point, and thefe drokes bitten or cor¬
roded into the copper with aquafortis. This is called
etching.
In drokes with the graver alone, unadided by aqua¬
fortis. In this indance, the defign is traced ivith a
lharp tool, called a dry point, upon the plate j and the
drokes are cut or ploughed upon the copper Avitli an
indrument didinguidicd by the name of a graver.
In drokes fird etched and afterwards finiffied A\rith
the graver : by this expedient the two former methods
are united.
In dots Avithout drokes, Avliich are executed Avith
the point upon the Avax or ground, bitten in Avith the
aquafortis, and afterwards harmonized Avith the graver,
by the means of which indrument fmall dots are made;
or with the graver alone, as in the fledi and finer parts,
unaffided Avith the point.
In dots fird etched and aftenATards harmonized \A7ith
the drv point, performed by a little hammer, called
opus mallei, or the work of the hammer, as praClifed by
Lutma and others.
In mezzotiuto, Avhich is performed by a dark barb or
ground being railed uniformly upon the plate Aviih a
toothed tool. The defign being traced upon the plate,
the light parts are feraped off by indruments for that
pnrpofe, in proportion as the effeCt requires.
fli aquatinta, a neA\Tly invented method of engraving.
5
131 . 1 ENG
1 he outline is fird etched, and afterwards a fort of Avallx Engraving,
is laid by the aquafortis upon the plate, refembling l'“—
draAvings in Indian ink, bifter, &c.
On Avood, performed Avitli a dngle block, on Avhich
the defign is traced Avitli a pen, and thole parts Avhich
diould be Avliite carefully holloAved out; and this block
is afierAvards printed by the letter-prefs printers, in the
fame manner as they print a book.
On wood, performed Avith two, three, or more blocks,
the fird having the outlines cut upon it; the fecond is
referved for the darker ffiadews 5 and the third for the
lhadows Avhich terminate upon the lights 5 and thefe
are lubdituted in their turn, each print receiving afi
impreffion from every block. This mode of engraving
is called chiarofcuro, and Avas defigned to repreient tile
draAvings of the old mailers.
On Avood and on copper : in thefc the outline is en~
graAred in a bold dark ftyle upon the copper; and tAvo
or more blocks of Avood are fubdituted to produce the
darker and lighter ffiadoAArs, as before.
Of all thofe modes of engraving, the mod ancient is
that on xvood; or, to fpeak more properly, the fird im-
preffions on paper Avere taken from carved Avooden
blocks. From this imvention it appears that avc are in¬
debted to the brief-malers or makers of playing-cards,
who pracrifed the art in Germany about the beginning
of the 15th century. From the fame fource may per¬
haps be traced the fird idea of moveable types, Avhich
appeared not many years after : for thefe brief-malers
did not entirely confine themfelves to the printing and
painting of cards, but produced alfo fubje&s of a more
devout nature 5 many of which, taken from holr
Avrit, are dill preferved in different libraries in Ger¬
many, Avith the explanatory text facing the figures j
the Avhole engraved in Avood. In this manner they
even formed a fpecies of books j fuch as, Hi/idria,
finch Johannis, ejufque Vifioncs Apocalyptic^ ; liiforia
Veteris et Novi Tejlamenti, knoAvn by the name of the
Poor Maids Bible. Thefe diort mementos Avere print¬
ed only on one fide ; and tAvo of them being paded
together, had the appearance of a fingle leaf. The
earlied date on any of thefe Avooden cuts is 1423.
1 lie fubjeft is St Chr if op her carrying the Infant Jefus
over the Sea, preferved in a convent at Buxheim near
Menningen. It is of a folio dze, illuminated in the
fame manner as the playing cards) and at the bottom is
this infeription, Chrfoferi faciem die quacunque tuens.
Hla nempe die mortemaia non morieris. Millefmo CCCC9
XX° tertio.
Upon the invention of moveable types, that braneli Strutt's
of the brief-malers bufinefs, fo far as it regarded the #'//• o/'-E*-
making of books, Avas gradually difeontinued j but the^'^7'^-
art itfelf of engraving on wood continued in an im¬
proving date; and toAvards the end of the 15th and
beginning of the 16th century, it became cudomary
for almod eA^ery one of the German engraArers on
copper to engravr on Arood alfo. The Avorks of Al¬
bert Durer in this dyle of engraving are judly held
in the highed edeem. Italy, France, and Holland,
have produced many capital artids of this kind; but
for boldnefs and fpirit, avc mud fee the prints of Chri-
dopher Jegher, Avho AvorkeiJ under the direction of
Rubens, and Avas without doubt affided by that orcat
mader.
I he invention ci that Ipecies of engraAnng didin-
R 2 guidied
E N @ [ 133 1 E N 6
]Sugraving, gniftied by the appellation of chiaro-fcuro, feems alfo
^ to be juftly claimed by the Germans, and firft prac-
tifed by Mair \ one of whofe prints of this kind is dated
1499. Many excellent works in chiaro-fcuro have
been produced in France ; and in Italy it was honour¬
ed with the performances of Titian and Parmegiano j
but the attempts of Jackfon, Kirkall, and others in
Fngland, have not been equally fuccefsful. A fet of
excellent prints in this way have lately been published
by J. Skippe, Efq. a connoiffcur and dillettante.
In Germany, about the year 1450, prints from en¬
graved copper firft made their appearance. The ear-
lieft date of a copperplate print is indeed only 1461 j
but however faulty this print may be with refpedt to
the drawing, or defective in point of tafte, the mecha¬
nical part of the execution of it has by no means the
appearance of being one of the firft productions of the
Strutt's graver. We have alfo feveral other engravings, evi-
Hijl. nf En- dently the work of the fame mailer j in which the
graving. imprelTions are fo neatly taken from the plates, and the
engravings fo clearly printed in every part, that ac¬
cording to all appearance they could not be executed
in a much better manner in the prefent day, with all
the conveniences which the copperplate printers now
poffefs, and the additional knowledge they mull ne-
ceffarily have acquired in the eourfe of more than three
centuries. Hence we may fairly conclude, that if
they Avere not the firft fpecimens of the engraver’s work-
manfhip, they Avere much lefs the firft efforts of the
copperplate printer’s ability. It is likeAvife to be ob-
ferved, that Martin Schoen, who is faid, Avith great
appearance of truth, to have Avorked from 1460 to
i486, Avas apparently the fcholar of Stoltzhirs j for he
followed his ftyle of engraving, and copied from him
a fet of prints, reprefenting the paffion of our Saviour.
Now, alloAving Stoltzhirs to have preceded his difciple
only ten years, this carries the era of the art back to
14^0, as Avas faid above. There is no ground to fup-
pole that it Avas knoAvn to the Italians till at leaft ten
years aftenvards. The e.arlieft prints that are known
to be theirs are a fet of the feven planets, and an al¬
manack by Avay of frontifpiece 5 on Avhich are direc¬
tions for finding Eafter from the year 1465 to 1517
inclufive : and we may be Avell affured, that the engra¬
vings Avere not antedated, for the almanack of courfe be¬
came lefs and lefs valuable every year. In all probabi¬
lity, therefore, thefe prints muft have been executed in
the year 1464, Avhich is only four years later than the
Italians themfelves lay any claim to. The three earlieft
Italian engravers are, Finiguerra, Boticelli, and Bal-
dini. If Ave are to refer thefe prints to any of the
three, Ave {hall naturally conclude them to be the work
of Finiguerra or Baldini; for they are not equal either
in drarving or compofition to thofe aferibed to Boticelli,
Avhich Ave knoAV at leaft were defigned by him j and as
Baldini is exprefsly faid to have Avorked from the de-
figns of Boticelli, it Avill appear moft probable that
they belong to Finiguerra.
With refpeft to the invention of etching, it feems to
be not Avell knowm to Avhom it is to be aferibed. One
of the moft early fpecimens is that print by Albert
Durer, knoAvn by the name of the Canon, dated I5I^>
and thought by fome, Avith little foundation, to have
^een Avorked on a plate of iron. Another etching by
the fame artlft is Mofes receiving the Tables of the Sngra-
Laiv, dated 1524. It Avas alfo practifed in Italy foon ’-"""v
after this by Parmegiano, in Avhofe etchings avc dif-
cover the hand of the artift working out a fyftem as
it were from his oavu imagination, and driving to pro¬
duce the forms he Avanted to exprefs. We fee the dif¬
ficulty he laboured under \ and cannot doubt, from the
examination of the mechanical part of the execution
of his Avorks, that he had no inllrudion j and that it
Avas fomething entirely neAV to him. If the ftory is
true, that he kept an engraver by profeffkm in his
houfe, the novelty of the art is rendered fo much the
more probable. He died in 1540,
As to that fpecies of engraving in which the modes
of etching and cutting Avith the graver are united, it
muft have been found neceffary immediately upon the
invention of etching 5, it Avas, hoAvever, firft carried to
perfedion by G. Audran, and is uoav almoft univer ■
{’ally pradifed, Avhether the Avork is in ftrokes or in
dots.
Engraving in dots, the prefent falhionable method,
is a very old invention, and the only mode difeovered
by the Italians. Agoftina de Mufis, commonly called
Augujiine of Venice, a pupil of Marc Antonio, ufed it
in feveral of his earlieft works, but confined it to the
ilefli, as in the undated print of An Old Man feated
upon a Bank, Avith a cottage in the back ground. He
llouriihed from 1509 to 1536. We alfo find it in a
print of “ A fingle figure {landing, holding a cup and
looking upAvards,” by Giulio Caippagnola, Avho engra¬
ved about the year 1516. The back ground is exe¬
cuted Avith round dots, made apparently Avith a dry
point. The figure is outlined Avith a ftroke deeply
engraved, and finiftied Avith dots, in a manner greatly
refembling thofe prints Avhich Demarteau engraved at
Paris in imitation of red chalk. The hair and beard
are expreffed by ftrokes. Stephen de Laulne, a native
of Germany, folloAved the fteps of Campagnola ; and
many of his flight Avorks are executed in dots only.
John Boulanger, a French artift, who llouriflicd in the
middle of the laft century, and his cotemporary Ni¬
cholas Van Plattenberg, improved greatly on this me¬
thod, and pra&ifed it Avith much fuccefs. It is only,
hoAvever, of late, that it has been confidered as an ob-
jc£l Avorthy of general imitation. John Lutma exe¬
cuted this kind of Avork Avith a hammer and a fmall
punch or chiffel.
The method of engraving in tne%%otinto was invent,
ed about the middle of the 17th century 5 and the
invention has generally been attributed to Prince Bu-
pert, though it has alfo been afl’erted that he learnt the
fecret from another. See Mezzotimo.
Of the method of engraving in aquatinta, a ftiort and
general account has already been given under, that
Avord. See Aquatinta. But as fome farther infor¬
mation relating to this branch of the art of engraving
has fallen in our at ay, Ave embrace this opportunity of
laying it before our readers.
Engraving in aquatinta, was originally invented by
Le Prince, a French artift. For a long time, his pro- .
cefs Avas kept fecret j and his prints, it is faid, Avere at ,
firft fold for draAvings. As a proof that the art rofe at ,
once to perfection, as has already been mentioned, the
print?
ENG
Engraving prints which were executed by him, are ft ill admired as
l—-v——1 the fincft and belt fpecimens of the art. It appears,
however, that he was only acquainted with the powder¬
ed grain, and the common method of Hopping out.
The firft who praciifed this art in England", was Mr
Paul Sandby. By him, we axe informed, it was com¬
municated to Mr Jukes, whofe works afford excellent
examples to what perfection the art has been carried ;
and although it is now generally practifed all over Eu¬
rope, yet in no country with greater fuccefs than in
Britain.
i he principle of this procefs conlifts in corroding the
copper in fuch a manner, that an impreflion from it ex¬
hibits the appearance of a tint laid on paper, or a draw¬
ing in.Indian ink. This is accomplilhed by covering
the copper with fome fubltance which affumes a granu¬
lated form, and prevents the acid from acting where the
particles adhere j and thus the copper is only partially
corroded. The more minute the particles are, it is ob¬
vious the impreflion from the plate will more nearly re¬
ferable a waih of Indian ink, or a drawing ; but the
larger the particles are, the granulation becomes more
diitinft. The powder or granulation is called the aquu-
Unta grain. It is produced in two ways.
The procefs for ufmg the powdered grain, which was
hr It employed, is the following. The outline being
etched on a copper plate, fome fubltance which ealily
melts with heat, adheres to the plate when cold, and
refifts the action of the aquafortis, is to be finely pow¬
dered and lifted. Belides afphaltum, rolin, and gum
fandaric, the fubltances which have been mentioned in
the article already referred to, Burgundy pitch, gum
copal, gum maltic, as well as fome other relins and gum
refins, may be employed. Gum copal, it is obferved,
produces a grain which refills the aquafortis extremely
well. Whatever the fubftanee is which is to be em¬
ployed, the great object of the artift in its application
is, to have it equally diftributed over the plate. This
is an effential part of the operation, and requires con-
llderable attention. The ufual method is, to tie up a
- quantity of the powder in a piece of muflin, and to Itrike
it againlt a Hick held at a confiderable height above
the plate. Thus managed, the powder fettles equally
over it, in the fame uniform manner that hair powder
fettles on the furniture of an apartment, where the ope¬
rations of the hair-dreffer are performed. The plate
being thus covered equally with the duff or powder, it
is to be fixed upon it by the application of a gentle
heat, to melt the particles. This is ufually done by
holding lighted pieces of brown paper, rolled up, and
moving them about till the whole of the powder is
melted, which is known by its changing to a brown co¬
lour. It is now allowed to cool, and after being exa¬
mined with a magnifying glafs, if the particles appear to
be uniformly diltributed, the artifl: proceeds to the next
part of the procefs.
1 hofe parts of the defign or drawing to be engraved,
which are perfectly white, are to be obferved and mark¬
ed, and the corresponding parts of the plate mult be
covered or flopped out. This is belt done by means of
maftic varnifh, diluted to fuch a confiftence with tur¬
pentine as to work freely with the pencil. To give it
colour, lamp-black fhould be mixed with it, that the
touches of the pencil may be diitimttly feen. When j
ENG
thofe parts of the plate which are flopped out, are liif- Engraving
fieiently dry, a border of wax is railed round the plate,
in the fame manner as in etching, and the aquafortis
diluted with water is poured on. This being the molt
precarious part of the procefs, requires the greateft ex¬
perience. When it is fuppofed that the aquafortis has
remained on the plate for fuch a length of time, that
when an impreflion is taken, it will produce the lighted:
(hade in the drawing, it is poured off, and the plate is
walhed with Avater and dried. The lighted tints are
then flopped out, and the aquafortis is again poured
on ; and this procefs is repeated as often as there are
tints or lhades to be produced in the plate.
Many plates are entirely etched in this way, by al¬
ternately flopping out and biting in. It is, however,
found to be extremely difficult, and indeed impoflible,
to produce impreffions of minute and complicated ob¬
jects with the requifite degree of delicacy and freedom,
io obviate this difficulty, another procels has been pxo-
poled, by which the touches are laid on the plate, with
equal eafe and expedition as on drawings with Indian
ink. fine walhed whitening is mixed Avith treacle or
fugar, and diluted Avith Avater in the pencil, that it may
Avork freely. I his is laid on the plate covered Avith
the aquatint ground, in the fame Avay as ink on the
draAving. When this is dry, the Avhole of the plate is
varniffied over Avith a thin turpentine or maftic varnith,
and Avhen this is dry, the aquafortis is poured on. The
varnilti immediately breaks up in thofe parts of the plate
Avhere the treacle mixture Avas laid, and thus they are
expofed to the action of the acid, while the other parts
of the plate remain untouched. Thus the touches or
places ot the plate ay here the treacle has been applied,
are bit in deeper than the reft, and have the precifion
of touches done Avith Indian ink. The plate being
thus completely bit in, the bordering wax is removed,
by _ gently heating it Avith a piece of lighted paper.
It is then cleared from the ground, and varniffied by
means of oil of turpentine 5 and being wiped clean Avith
a rag and a little fine Avhitening, it is ready for the
printer.
But in this method of aquatinting, it is found difficult
to produce the neceffary degree of ccarfencfs or finenefs
in the grain ; and plates which are engraved in this
manner afford but a fmall number of impreffions before
they are Avorn out. On this account it is now more
rarely folioAved.
1 he other method of producing the aquatint ground,
Avhich is molt generally adopted, is the folloAving. A
refinous fubftance, as common refin, Burgundy pitch,
or maftic, is diffolved in fpirits of wine. This folution is
poured ail over the plate, Avhich is inclined, till the
Avhole of the fuperfluous fluid drains off, and AA’hat ad-
heres to the plate becomes quite dry in affew minutes.
The plate being then examined Avith a magnifying
glafs, it Avill appear that the Avhole of the fpirit hav¬
ing evaporated, the refinous matter is left in a granu¬
lated ftate, or is cracked in every diredtion, and adheres
ftrongly to the copper. In this way a regular and
beautiful grain is eafily produced, which will be found
preferable, at leaft for molt purpofes, to that Avhieh is
produced by the former method. The grain being thus
formed, the other parts of the procefs are conducted in~
the fame manner as before fleferibed, „
l 133 ]
Such u
ENG [ i
Mag.
rxiii.
Such are the ufual methods of conducing this procefs.
We (hall add a few hints which the young artiil: may
find ufeful in the different parts of it. With regard to
the materials which are employed, it is to be obferved,
that the fpirits of wine fhould be rectified, and of the
bell quality. Refinous matters, as common refin, Bur¬
gundy pitch, and gum maftic, yield grains of a different
appearance and form ; fo that advantage may be taken
of this circumflance, by ufing them fometimes feparately,
and fometimes mixed in different proportions, according
to the views and tafte of the artift. Different propor¬
tions of refin may be employed, to produce grains of
different kinds. When a coarfe grain is intended, a
greater proportion is to be employed ; and when a fine
grain is wanted, a fmaller proportion of refin only is
required. The proper proportions may be afeertained
by providing a number of fpare pieces of copper ; on
thef’e the liquid may be poured, and the grain examined,
before it is applied to the plate whicli is to be engraved.
After the folution is made, it Ihould remain undifturbed
for a day or two, till the impurities of the refin have
fubfided, and the liquid becomes quite limpid. This is
the befl method of freeing it from impurities ; for if it
is drained through linen or muflin, it is mixed with
hairs, which are extremely injurious to the grain. It
may be added, that the apartment in which the fluid
is poured on the plate, fhould be perfectly ftill, and
entirely free from dull: *, for if any fall on the plate
while it is wet, the grain forms a white fpot which
cannot be removed. Great care fhould be obferved in
cleaning the plate. This is done with a bit of rag and
whitening. The fmalleft flain or particle of greafe
produces a flreak or blcmifh in the grain. Still, how¬
ever, with all the attention which can be employed,
and with the utmofl delicacy in the management, it is
neceffary to obferve, that the procefs is extremely' pre¬
carious and uncertain 5 and even the moll experienced
artifts find themfelves frequently fubject to very unac¬
countable accidents.
Artifts have frequently complained of the inconve¬
nience from the fumes which proceed from the a6tion of
the acid upon the copper, when the plate is large.
“ To remedy this inconvenience, the following ar¬
rangement, which feems well calculated to anfwer
the purpofe, has been fuggefted by Mr Cornelius
Varley, a young artift who diltinguilhes himfelf no lefs
by his mechanical abilities than by the exquifite produc¬
tions of his pencil in water colours.—Get a frame
made of common deal or any kind of wrood, three or
four inches deep, covered with a plate of glafs, and open
at one fide 5 and let the fide oppofite to this have a
round opening communicating, by means of a common
iron pipe, with the alh-pit of any little ftove or other
fire-place, fhut up from all other accefs of air but uhat
mull: pafs through the pipe. It is obvious that any
fumes riling from a copper-plate laid under fuch a frame
will be carried backward into the iron pipe by the cur¬
rent of air required to maintain combuftion in the ftove,
and will by this means be carried up the chimney in
place of being allowed to fty about in the apartment.
The pipe may be very conveniently ufed by carrying it
down through the table to the floor, and fo along to
the place where the chimney may chance to Hand 5 and
when the frame is not wanted, the pipe at one of the
34 ] ENG
joinings may be made to anfwer the purpofe of a hinge, Engraving,
by which to turn up the frame againif the w all w here ' v—
it may be fecured, while out of ufe, by a button or any
other contrivance.”
This method of engraving in aquatinta feems to be
chiefly adapted for flight fubjedls in general, for imita¬
tions of fkelches and walhed drawings. But for the
production of prints from finilhed pictures, it is bv no
means calculated 5 becaufe it is not fufceptible of that
accuracy in the nice management of the tints which is
neceffary for this purpofe. It is equally unfuitable for
book plates becaufe, without retouching the plates, the
number of impreffions that can be thrown off is verv
fmall. On thefe accounts, therefore, it is to be con-
fidered greatly inferior to the other modes of engraving.
But as it is more expeditious, and may be attained with
more facility, it is undoubtedly ufeful when it is con¬
fined to thofe fubjefls for which it is peculiarly calcu¬
lated. This rapidity of execution, however, and facility
in acquiring the pra&iee of the ait, are followed 111111 the
unfortunate circumftance, that they favour the production
of an indiferiminate multitude of prints which, it is to be
feared, may rather tend to vitiate the public tafte.
Engraving with the tool w7as the kind originally
pradlifed, and it is yet retained for many purpofes. For
though the manoeuvre of etching be more eafy, and
other advantages attend it; yet where great regularity
and exaftnefs of the ftroke or lines are required, the
working wTith the graver is much more e fie final : on
which account it is more fuitable to the precifion ne¬
ceffary in the execution of portraits : as there every
thing the moll minute muft be made out and exprefled,
according to the original fubjeft, without any licenfe
to the fancy of the defigner in deviating from it, or
varying the efleft either by that mafterly negligence
and fimplicity in fume parts, or thofe bold failles of the
imagination and hand in others, which give fpirit and
force to hiftory painting.
The principal inftruments ufed in engraving with the
tool are, gravers, ferapers, a burniftier, an oil-ftone, and
a cufhion for bearing the plates.
Gravers are made in feveral forms with refpefl to the
points, fome being fquare, others lozenge ; the fquare
graver for cutting broad and deep, and the lozenge
for more delicate and fine ftrokes and hatches. La
Boffe recommends, as the moft generally ufeful, fuch
as are of a form betwixt the fquare and lozenge : and
he advifes, that they fhould be of a good length : fmall
towards the point, but ftronger upwards, that they
may have ftrength enough to bear any ft-refs there may
be occafion to lay upon them : for if they be too fmall
and mounted high, they will bend ; which frequently
caufes their breaking, efpecially if they be not employed
for very final] fubjefts.
The burnifher is ufed to aflift in the engraving cn
fome oecafions, as well as to polilh the plates. It is
feven inches in length, and made of fine fteel well po-
liHied. The burniftier is formed at one end, and a
feraper on -the other, each about an inch and a half
long from the point: betwixt them, about four inches
of the inftrument is made round, and ferves as a
handle ; and is thicker in the middle than at the necks,
where the burnifher and feraper begin, which necks are
onlv one quarter of an inch in diameter. The princi¬
pal
Engraving,
ENG [ !
^ pal application of it in engraving, bcfides its ufe in po-
ii thing the plates, is to take out any fcratches or acei-
dental defacings that may happen to the plates during
the engraving ; or to leffen the effed of any parts that
may be too itrongly marked in the work, and require to
be taken down.
A eulhion, as it is called, is likewife generally ufed
for iupporting tlie plate in fueh a manner, that it may
be turned every way with eafe. It is a bag of leather
heed with fand, which humid be of the hze that will
belt fuit the plates it is intended to bear. They are
round, and about nine inches over, and three inches in
thicknefs.
The cufhion, made as above dire&ed, being laid
on the table, the plate mult be put upon it 3 and
tne graver being held in the hand in a proper manner
the point muft be applied to the plate, and moved in
the proper direftion for producing the figures of the
lines intended: obferving, in forming ft might lines.
In lin H tlm A   ^1. a - fc’, , ’
.35 ] ENG
and rajfi s a burr ; the burr is feraped off, and there re-
mams a broke more foft and delicate than can be pro- u—.
duced in any other way. 1
In the conduct of the graver and dry point confifts
a,i tlie art > for which there are no rules to be given •
all depending on the habitude, difpofttion, and genius’
ox the artift. However, befides the explanations al¬
ready given, fome general obfervations and direHions
may not be improper. As tlie principles of engraving
are the lame with thole of painting, a perfon cannot
expect to attain any confiderable degree of perfcaion
m this art who is not a good mailer of defign : and
tlierelore he ought to be well acquainted both with
peripechve and arebitedure : for the former by the
proper degradations of ftrong and Hint colours, will
nable him to throw backwards the figures and’other
to hold the place Heady on the culhipn 3 and where
A j J cilUi VV licit;
tney are to be finer, to prefs more lightly, ufing great¬
er force ivhere tliey are to be broader and deeper. In
making circular or other curve lines, hold your hand
.md giaver lleadiiy 3 ^ and as you work, turn your plate
upon the culhion againll your graver, other wife it will
be impoftible for you ^to make any circular or curved
line with that neatnefs and command of hand you by
this means may. After pait of the work is engraved
n is nccelTary to ferape it with the feraper or graver
palled in the moil level diredion over the plate, to take
off the roughnefs formed by the cutting of the graver 3
but great care muft be taken not to incline the edo-e 0f
the feraper or tool ufed, in fuch a manner that it°may
take the leaft hold of the copper, as it would otherwife
produce falfe ftrokes or fcratches in the engraving : and
that the engraved ivork may be rendered more, vifible,
it may .afterwards be rubbed over with a roll of felt
dipped in oil. In ufing the graver, it is neceffary to
carry it as level as poftible with the furface of the plate-
for othenvife, if the fingers flip betwixt them, the line
that will be produced, whether curve or ftraight, Avill
lecome deeper and deeper in the progrefs of its forma¬
tion 3 Avhich entirely prevents ftrokes being made at
one cut, tnat will be fine at their extremities, and larger
m tlie middle 3 and occafions the neeeftity of retouch¬
ing to bring them to that bate. For this reafon, it
is very neceffary for thofe who would learn to cngraA'c
m perfedion, to endeavour, by frequent trials, to ac¬
quire tlm habit of making fuch ftvokes both ftraipht
and curving, by lightening or finking the graver
with the hand,, according to the occafion. If, after
fimfhing the defign, any feratehes appear, or any part
of the engraving be falfely executed, fuch feratehes, or
faulty parts, muft. be taken out by the burnilher, and
iurther pohlhed, if neceffary, by the above-mentioned
roll.
I he plate being thus engraved, it is proper to round
off the edges, by ufing firft a rough fifty and afterwards
a moother 3 and to blunt the corners a little by tlie
lame means : after which,, the burniflier fliould be paf-
ied over the edges to give it a farther polilh.
i he dry point, or needle, which has been of late
much ufed in engraving, is a tool like an etching point,
*' fo- being drjAvn hard on the copper, cuts a ftroke,
1 • a.    cum orner
oojeds of the pidure or defign which he propofes to
imitate 3 and the latter will teach him to preferve the
due proportion of its fcveral orders, which the painter
often entrufts to the diferetion of the engraver. In
order to preferve equality and union in his ‘works the
engraver ftiould always fketch out the principal obieAs
ot his piece before he undertakes to finiftn them. In
working, the ftrokes. of the graver ihould never be
crowed too much in a lozenge manner, particularly in
tne rcprefentation of flelh, becaufe Ihaip angles pro-
uuce the unpleafmg effect of lattice-work, and take
from the eye the repofe which is agreeable to it in all
kinds of piclurefque defiolls ; we fliould except the
ca!e of clouds, tempefts, waves of the fea, the fkins of
hairy animals, or tlie leaves of trees, where this method
of crofting may oe admitted. But in avoiding the lo¬
zenge, it is not proper to get entirely into the fquare,
w Inch Avould give too much of the hardnefs of Hone
In conducting the ftrokes, the action of the figures’
mdi0 f1 ureir ?TtS’ fll0uld be confideredj and it
mould be obferved Iioav they advance towards, or recede
from the eye jjmd the graver fnould be guided accord¬
ing to the riimgs or cavities of the mufcles or folds
making the hrokes Avider and fainter in the lioftt and
cloier and firmer in the lliades. Thus the figures’ will
not appear jagged 3 and the hand ftiould be lightened in
. 1 a ®anner, that the outlines may be formed and ter¬
minated without being cut too hard-3 however, though
the ftrokes breaK oft where the mufcle begins, yet they
nught always to have a certain connedion with each
other, fo that the firft ftroke may often ferve by its re¬
turn to make the fecond, which will ftmw the freedom of
tlie engraver.
. L! engraving the flelh, the effed may be produced
in the lighter parts and middle tints by long pecks
01 the grayer, rather than by light lines 3 or bv round
aots3 or by dots a little lengthened by the graver;
or, bell or all, by a judicious mixture of thefe to¬
gether.
In engraving the hair and the beard, the engraver
fhould begin hiswork by laying the principal grounds,
andfketchmgthe chief ftiades in a carehffs manner, or
Avnh a feAV ftrokes 3 and he may finiih it at leifure
witn finer and thmner ftrokes to the extremities.
When architedure or. fculpture is to be reprefented,
except it be old and ruinous buildings, the work ought
not to oe made very black ; becaufe, as edifices are
commonly conftruded either of bone or whi^ marble,
tlh?.
E N G
t 136 1
E N G
~3E^taving. the colour, being reflected on all fides, does not pro-
'“--v ' duce dark or brown ihades as in other fubftances.
White points muft not be put in the pupils of ihe
eyes of figures, as in engravings after paintings;
nor muft the hair or beard be reprefented as in na¬
ture, which makes the locks appear flowing in the
air; becaufe in fculpture there can be no fuch ap¬
pearances.
In engraving cloths of different kinds, linen (hould
be done with finer and clofer lines than any other forts,
and be executed with tingle ftrokes. Woollen cloth
thould be engraved wide, in proportion to the coarfe-
nefs or finenefs of the ftuff, and with only two ftrokes •,
and when the ftrokes are crofted, the fecond thould be
{mailer than the firft, and the third than the fecond.
Shining ftuffs, which are generally of filk or fatin, and
which produce flat and broken folds, fhould be en¬
graved more hard and more ftraight than others, with
one or two ftrokes, as their colours are bright or
brown j and between the firft ftrokes other Imalier
muft be joined, which is called interlining. Velvet
and plufti are expreffed in the fame manner, and ftiould
always be interlined. Metals, as armour, Sec. are alfo
reprefented by interlining, or by clear Angle ftrokes.
In architecture, the ftrokes which form the rounding
objeft {hould tend to the point of fight •, and when
whole columns occur, it is proper to produce the effeft
as much as poffible by perpendicular ftrokes. It a
grofs ftroke is put, it fhould be at right angles, and
wider and thinner than the firft ftroke. In engraving
mountains, the ftrokes ought to be frequently difccn-
tinued and broken, for lharp and craggy objects; and
they {hould be ftraight, in the lozenge manner, and ac¬
companied with long points or dots ; and rocks {hould
be reprefented by crofs ftrokes more fquare and even.
Objefts that are diftant torvards the horizon {hould be
kept very tender, and {lightly charged with black.
Waters that are calm and ftill are belt reprefented by
itrokes that are ftraight, and parallel to the horizon,
interlined with thofe that are finer,: omitting fuch places
as, in confequence of gleams of light, exhibit. the
fhimng appearance of water } and the form of objects
reflected from the water at a fmall diftance upon it,
or on the banks of the water, are expreffed by the
fame ftrokes, retouched more ftrongly or faintly as
occafion may require, and even by fome that are per¬
pendicular. For agitated waters, as the wTaves of the
fea, the firft ftrokes thould follow the figure of the
weaves, and may be interlined, and the crofs ftrokes
ought to be very lozenge. In cafcades, the ftrokes
{hould follow the fall, and be interlined. In engraving
•clouds, the graver {hould fport when they appear thick
and agitated, in turning every way according to their
form and their agitation. If the clouds are dark, fo
that two ftrokes are neceffary, they fhould be croffed
more lozenge than the figures, and the fecond ftrokes
{hould be rather wider than the firft. Ihe flat clouds,
that are loft infenfibly in the clear {ky, {hould be made
by ftrokes parallel to the horizon, and a little waving ;
if fecond ftrokes are required, they {hould be more or
lefs lozenge *, and when they are brought to the extre¬
mity, the hand fhould be fo lightened, that they may
form no outline. The flat and clear fky is reprefented
by parallel and ftraight ftrokes, without the leaft turn¬
ing! In landfcapes," the trees, rocks, earth, and her¬
bage, lhould be etched as much as poflible j nothing Engraving,
thould be left for the graver but perfecling, foftening, » "
and ftrengihening. The dry point produces an eftect
more delicate than the graver can, and may be ufed to
groat advantage in linen, Ikies, diltanees, ice, and often
in water, efpecially in fmall engravings. In moft
things it is proper to etch the fhadows, only leaving the
lighter tints for the dry point, graver, &c.
To imitate chvik-drnwing.c, a mixture of varied and
irregular dots are ufed, made more or lefs foft, fo as to
refemble the grain produced by the chalks on paper.
Every ftroke of (he chalks on paper may be confidered
„„ infinite number of adjoining points, which
are the fmall eminences of ; iie grain of the paper
touched by the chalk in pafting over it. When the
copperplate has been poliftied and varnifhed, or properly
prepared, as in the common method of engraving,
the drawing to be imitated may be counterproved
on the varniflr of the plate. If this cannot be con¬
veniently done, black lead pencil, or red. cnalk, muft
be applied to varniftred or oiled paper •, and by means
of this chalk or pencil, all the traces of the original
will be tranfmitted to the varniftn The outlines
of the object muft be formed in the etching by points,
whole magnitude and diftance muft be determined
by the quality of the ftrokes in the original draw ing.
The artift may be provided with pointed inftruments
or needles of various fizes with fingle or double points.
In forming the light and {hade, he fhould diftinguiih
between thofe hatches which ferve to exprefs the
perfpedtive of the object and thofe which form the
ground of it. The principal hatches {hould be more
ftrongly marked } the middle tints, if etched, {hould
be marked lightly, or they may be left till the
varniih is taken off, and be perfeaed w ith a greater
degree of foftnefs by needles or the point of the gra\ er,
as the original may require. There is nothing
peculiar in the method of applying the aquafortis in
this kind of engraving } but it may be obferved, that
it {hould not be left fo long as to corrode the lighter
parts too much : if the light parts are fufficiently
corroded, they may be flopped up with turpentine
varnifti and lamp-black mixed together, and the
aquafortis may be applied again to the ftronger parts;
for it will be no detriment to them, if the points
■which compofe the {hade burft into ore another, pio-
vided the extreme be avoided. When the work of
the aquafortis is finiftied, and the vatnifti taken off the
copper, it will be neceffary in the fofteft parts, fucll
as the flefh, &c. to interftipple w ith proper points j
as an effecl will be thus produced more delicate
than it is poffible to attain with the aquafortis only ;
and the ftrongeft {hades wflll require additional ftrength
to be given them with fmall ftrokes of the graver.
Drawings madfe with chalks of different colours ma\
be imitated in this manner, if a plate be. provided
for every colour.—This method of engraving is in¬
tended to form a kind of deception, fo.that the eon-
noiffeur may not be able, on the firft infpedlion, to
diftinguiffi between the original drawing and the en¬
graving made in imitation of it 5 and it is extremely
ufeful,' as it ferves to multiply copies of drawings left
by thofe mafters who excelled in the ufe of chalks, and
thus to form and improve young artifts,. who could not.
have accefs to the originals in the practice cf drawing.
To
ENG
•'Engraving. To this account of the hiflory and praci icc of the art
v 1 of engraving, we ihall annex the following ingenious
obfervations by an eminent living artift (a). We pre-
fent them to our readers without alteration or abridge¬
ment.
On the h- When compared with painting, the art of engraving
rear art in is but a rectnt invention, being coeval only with that
general. r,f printing 5 and like that noble art, it poffelTes not on¬
ly a fimiiar but a greater power, of multiplying and ex¬
tending the productions of genius over the world ; for
its language is univerfally underftood.
It would have been well for the arts, if it could boaft
of a more remote date, as we might then have had many
more of the fineit defigns of the firfl painters of antiqui¬
ty, now doomed to oblivion, fayed from the rude ravages
of time.
But this invention feemed to be referved for the
fourteenth century, and its improvements for the age of
Louis XIV. an age in which a number of artiils, who
may be faid to have invigorated the art, and inveiled it
with beauty, arofe both in France and Italy.
Lines, in the firft Hate of the art, like every other
purfuit, whole excellence is progreffive, were compa¬
ratively rude and unmeaning, and had nothing more to
recommend them, than merely reprefenting a particu¬
lar fort of markings, or flight hatchings with the pen,
without any other apparent degree of execution or ex-
preffion. Although it is our pride to acknowledge,
that it has not been a little beholden to the elegant
etchings of the great mailers in painting, as well as to
their drawings in pen and ink, in its early ft ages, by
which means an eminent degree of tafte was introduced
into the art, particularly in the department of linear dif-
pofition. Amongft thofe, the drawings of a Raphael,
Michael Angelo, and the learned da Vinci ; fome of
which we have occalionally feen and admired. Some
by da Vinci were hatched in a fquare but delicate man¬
ner, with a white fluid, on dark-coloured paper. Thofe
of Michael Angelo and Raphael inclined more to the
lozenge, in black or brown ink. They even carried
this ftyle of hatching with the pencil into their pictures,
fome of which adorn the Vatican j and in the famous
cartoons in his majefty’s collection by Raphael, Baccio
Bandinelli generally hatched his lines in one direction,
particularly a Taking down from the Crofs, which was
fold in London at the fale of the late Sir Joflma Rey¬
nold’s drawings. Vieenzio Dante, hatched in a limilar
way about the year 1550. Julio Romano ufed alfo to
draw in this ftyle with the pen, feverals of vInch are ftill
to be found in the moft feleft cabinets of men of tafte ;
and for near a century and a half after the invention of
etching, it is rare to mention a painter of eminence, who
was diftinguifhed in drawings who did not annex this art
to that of painting. But with the application of the bu¬
rin, the art has been gradually improving till the prefent
period, (b) Linear engraving is nothing more than draw ¬
ing elegantly on copper. It became more ftudied as it
was found capable of reprefenting the various appear-
V01. VIII. Part I.
ENG
ances of nature. The texture or furface of ob’ecls be - Engraviitf.
came proportionally diferiminated by fuch peculiar mo- v—
difications of the line, as feemed moft fuitable to the
fubjeeft reprefented, although, at the lame time, it ren¬
dered it much more arduous in the execution. Hence
arofe that diverftty of ftyle, and that 1'cope for fueceed-
ing excellence, which, by combining elegance with
fimplicity and beauty, diftinguifhed thofe ai lifts who
have been moft confpicuous in its improvement.
It has been faid, that we are indebted for the origin
of this art to an ingenious Florentine, Mafl’o Fini-
guerra, the fculptor. He was fucceeded by a number
of other ingenious men, among whom ive rank Botti¬
celli, Andrea Mantigna, and other able defigners ;—
and in Germany, Albert Durer, Aldgrave, and Lucas
Van Leyden, who feverally contributed their labours.
But in the fifteenth century, die works of the divine
Raphael began to be multiplied by the correct graver
of Marc Antonio, an artift whofe prints were the de¬
light of that great painter. Antonio had many imi¬
tators, but none who equalled him for juftnefs of con¬
tour, for which his works will be ever highly appreci¬
ated among the early productions of the art.—Having-
had eccafion to mention a few of the principal artifts
w ho reared the fcaffolding of this elegant art, we fliall
proceed to thofe w ho have fo much diftinguifhed them-
fclves in finifhing the fuperftrufture. Among thofe,
Auguftino of Venice began to introduce a better dif-
pofition of line in his fhades, as well as the ingenious
Bolognefe, Auguftino Carraehi 5 whilft Egedius Sade-
laer difplayed no Ids zeal in Germany. In the fix-
teenth century, the art difplayed ftill more vigour and
tafte, and feemed to have but little more wanting; for
all that meagre drynefs of line began to difappear, w hich
fo manifeftly marks the early works of II Tedefca, Al-
degraff, and other artifts of a former period. Their
works became confequently more rich in ftyle, by em¬
bracing the beft productions of the pencil; and as they
were applied to a greater number of ideas, they became
ftill more Interefting and fuccefsful.
Patrons were numerous and liberal; and it is but pro¬
per to remark, that the various artifts, on their part ac¬
tuated by a becoming zeal which wus highly creditable
to themfelves, were indefatigable. This is a eircum-
ftance not lefs worthy of imitation, than the many ad¬
mirable monuments of the art which they produced.
Few- but admired the works of Maffon, Poilly, Nantueil,
and Rouffelet •, and fome time after the death of the in¬
genious Cornelius Bloemart, who had given a grace to
his- lines, hitherto unknown at Rome, the matchlefs
Audran and Edelinek difplayed their excellent produc¬
tions at Paris. But arts are liable to flu&uate; and
w hen the art of engraving began to decline abroad, it
gradually difplayed a high degree of luftre in our own
country 5 and the variety of ftyles which has fmee fprung
from the original manner of engraving fliall be the fub-
jeCl of the following fketch.
We {hall therefore treat more particularly of the dif-
pofition of the lines and their confequent effedls, dif-
S tinguifhed
[ 137 1
(A) Francis Legat, Efq. hiftorieal engraver to his royal highnefs the prince of Wales, and F. A. S. E.
(b) . I he author has taken the liberty of here adopting the word linear, from its ftrict analogy to this mode cf
engraving, and with the approbation of fome of the firft profeflbrs, both in painting and engraving-.
On linear
expreffion
and dif-
politioiiv
E N G
Engraving. tinguifKed by tbe terms, linear exprejjion
^ -■ i.l *pojition, and harmony ; with a Uriel invetligation of the
tiril and moll approved fubjefls, either in etching or
engraving ; and of their effential beauties, as far as they
may tend to illuilrate the fubjedl.
As the great objefl of this mode of engraving is, to
adopt thofe lines the molt expreflive of the form and
character of whatever happens to be reprefented, by
maturely inveiligating not only the aclion but the eaule
and correfpondent effefts of the original pitlure ; in or¬
der that the artift may avail himfeli of all that is moll
beautiful in his tranllation, and efficient in the aggregate,
either with refpect to the expreffion, fpirit, or fentiment.
When hiltorical iubjeeb conlift of feveral figures,
where there is generally a variety of draperies, fome of
them appearing thick and cumberfome, others more
thin and flexible, fitting clofe and elegant on the limbs,
being com^ofed of a finer texture, or thread ; the coarfer
Huffs are confequently more effectually reprefented by
a bolder line, as the thinner fort, by the applicaton
of a fine line, gives a more lively reprefentation ; a dil-
crimination which has been obferved of late, by the
molt approved modern artifts in linear engraving. Ob-
fervations of this defeription, when treated in a liberal
manner, not only fuperadd a degree of truth, but even
render the fubjefts fweeter to the eye of fancy. In the
early ffages of tire art, fome excellent artiils have been
led into particular and limited fyltems. In the works
of fuch as have affefted to defcrxbe every fubjeCt in the
fame line indiferiminately, even the arms of the moll
delicate women are qften engraven as if perfectly po-
lilhed, by approaching to a metallic appearance, a mode
not uncommon among the fecond or third elafs of ar-
trlls about the beginning of the lall century \ by which
manner, all that foftnefs and delicacy was negle&ed,
which is fo happily effected in the linear productions of
Bartolozzi, Morgan, Sharp, Heath and others, at pre-
fent of the firlt mailers in Europe. Thofe who are ac¬
quainted with the works of the ingenious Chaffard,
mult with pleafure have perceived in his foliage, how
even the texture of flowers are imitated from the deli¬
cate line-like fibres of which they are compofed, iffuing
from the Hem, and fpreadmg their filken beauties to
the fun : and in this clafs of imitation, the clear tranf-
parency of glafs, the rough texture of woollen, the
thinnefs of lawn, the flickerings of fatin, or the light-
mngs of Heel, as well as the rude rock, the lucid lake,
or the flalhing of the torrent, are all admirably adapt¬
ed to linear effeCl by the almoft infinite diverfity in
their conltruClion, and general eonllituent principles,
ftriClly obferving on what laws the beauty of lines con-
fills, by ever keeping in view the due balance of talle,
and a noble fimplicity of llyle throughout. It is the
bufinefs of the Ikilful artill to overpower and fubdue
the difficulties in his profeffion ; for no excellence in
art is of cheap or vulgar acquifition. Let it be re¬
membered that with forming Heel, even the enchanting
graces of the Venus de Medicis were hewn from a
rock, and the almoll breathing Apollo, from a block of
Parian Hone.
An elegant Englilh poet, in a critical effay on poe¬
try, obferves, that the found Ihould feem an echo to the
fenfe ; fo Ihould the lines in a fine print feem to har¬
monize with the- fubjeCl, by flowing with the external
tail of the features, and the predominant paffion ex-
b
[ 138 ] ENG
imitation, dif- preffed in the original picture •, for the fame character Engravbj
and difpofition of the lines that fuit the aClion of the
mufcles in one paffion, will be found to appear more va¬
cant and lefs expreffive when applied to others, however
graceful they may appear.
As this is a point of view to which the art has never
yet been fully extended, perhaps it may meet with fome
degree of attention, as it will be found of utility in
forming a principle refpedling difpofition, more particu¬
larly in hiilorical fubjedls, -where the paffions are requir¬
ed to be nicely expreffed : and although it may admit
of fome flight exceptions, it is a principle that will in ge¬
neral be found to be true.
For example, let it be fuppofed, that the paffion of the
figure reprefented, is that of joy j the lines fliould feem
to expand and fwell, with every acting mufcle, in the
moll delicate manner poffible.
But, on the contrary, if the fubject difplays deep for-
row, they fliould rather incline downward, partaking
fomewhat of the half ftraight, feeming to aft apparent¬
ly in perfeft unifon and conformity with the features of
the face, with all due fubordination to the general effeft
of light and ffiadow. '
Various obfervations may be made in this manner on
the principal paffions expreffed in the human counte¬
nance, which are but few comparatively, even from the
flighted: movement to the boldell aftion. We often
find, on examining the works of thofe mailers who are
not fo confpicuous for great clearnefs of execution, that
they have been occupied by the difpofition and energy
of the lines, as in the magnificent and mafterly prints of
the battles of Alexander, from the piftures of Carlo
le Brun, engraved by Gerrard Audran 5 where the
executive department is no lefs confpicuous from the
burin of the Chevalier Edelinck in the fine print of the
tent of Darius : whilft Audran difplays the true fpirit
of art, but rarely avails himielf of much of the mecha¬
nical principles. The field, and tumult of battle, feem-
ed admirably calculated to call forth his rapid powers,
particularly in works of magnitude.
The lefs aftive feenery of the tent of Darius, was e-
qually appropriated to the fplendid talents of Edelinck,
as he feems to have been better qualified to difplay fub-
jefts of that nature in general. This is fufficiently ob¬
vious from the beautiful and interefling groupe of the
queen mother, and her illullrious family, kneeling at
the feet of the conqueror 5 his impreffive print of the
magdalene, or his moft admirable portraits of the dig¬
nified clergy, diftinguiffied authors, and eminent artilts.
Thefc, in point of engraving, are no lefs remarkable for
taile in the execution, than for truth and nature in ex-
preffion.
In one of the battles of Alexander, the groupe where
Porus is wounded and fupported by the foldiers, the
rough difcrimin&ion of line finely accords with that
bold deportment of charafter in the grim vifage of that
gigantic prince, wffiilft a more delicate line marks the
youthful countenance of Alexander *, a diferimination
which is totally loll in the large Dutch copy by de Vos.
In the fame print, the figures of Alexander and Cly-
tus, are finely relieved from the diftant feenery by
the varied defeription of engraving on their armour, dra¬
pery, and horfes. The latter are managed with fuch
freedom and fpirit, that it is difficult to fay whether the
horfes or figures teem the moll with mafterly execution ;
particularly-
ENG [i
Jfes^raving. particularly the white war-horfe on the right extremity
y- 0£ t]je prjnt (C).
Had Audran fuperadded a ftill greater portion of the
delicacy and clearnefs of handling fo confpicuous in
Edelinck and bther eminent artifts iince that period, it
would undoubtedly have given aiv additional beauty to
his other tranfcendent aequifitions ; namely, tlie vaft
fpirit of his lines, and power in drawing.
But it is feldom the lot of an individual to combine
every excellence. Arts too have their infancy 5 for
they generally require tl>e labour of ages to bring them
to maturity and perfecKon, and it yet remained to unite
and ameliorate the polilh of Edelinck, to the fpirited
ftyle of Audran. Without prejudice or partiality, a con-
fiderable degree of this excellence will be found in the
bed works of Britifli art, as we fhall hereafter exemplify.
Another fine fpecimen of lineal engraving, and of a
different clafs, is the celebrated dorm of Baiechow,
from a piflure of the famous Vernet. In this print he
has tranfmitted with the graver a certain fluidity and
action in reprefenting the liquid element, to which the
art had never before attained. To a grandeur of dyle
in the bold fuelling of the waves, he has fuperadded
the utmod tranfparency of line ; at the fame time, hav¬
ing attended to all that light redlefs fpray which feems
fporting to the gales as they roll along. In a fanciful
mood, one might almod imagine they heard the motion
of the water : fo finely did this difcriminating artid
tranflate, (if I may be allowed the expredion) this ad¬
mirable pidlure.
When we confider the period in which this dif-
tinguifhed work was engraved, and that little or no¬
thing had been previoudy done in that department of a
fimilar excellence ; it is hoped it will be a fuffieient
apology for the degree of admiration here expreffed :
for, as Lord Verulam truly obfcrvcs, “ we are too prone
to pafs thofe ladders by which the arts are reared, and
generally reded: all the* merit to the lad new perform¬
er.” We have already obferved, they are feldom rear¬
ed with rapidity, and oftentimes that which is confider-
cd an invention, is only a long fuccedion of trials and
experiments, which have gradually followed each other,
and ought rather to be cbnfidered as a feries of human
mind than the knowledge of an individual, being the
works of ages. In any point of view, the prefent fub-
jeft will ever be confidered as a high improvement
and an elegant acquifition in the annals of the linear
art. But in hidorical fubjeds this artid is by no means
equal in point of tade or difcrimination. His print of
St Genevive undoubtedly ranks high in the fird claffes
of engraving. Had his tade in other refpeds been
equal to his powerful clearnefs of execution, it would
have been almod unparalleled 5 but it betrays a want
of that effential, even in his mode of thinking. Patience
and labour are everywhere too prevalent. It remain¬
ed for Woollet to excel both in figures and in landfkip.
In the various dyles and modifications of this expref-
five art, from the NEAT to the FEEBLE, and from the BOLD
to the Extravagant, Tajle dands foie arbitrefs : in
brief, if is die who didributes variety with fpirit, and
•onceals the appearance of intricacy and labour 5 who,
39 1 eng
by a due modification of line, unites clearnefs to Ibitnefs, Engraving,
arreding the hand of the Ikilful artid, from every effort
inconfident with her powers j producing at once to the
mind all that agreeable finilhed combination or harmo¬
ny which ever accompanies and condi Lutes the perfection
of true art.
In the execution of fubjedds of imagination, there is »
perpetual fcope for calling forth the fancy of the en¬
graver, as the various combinations of lines are in-
exhaudible, uncommon effefts, fuch as aerial fpirits, or
celedial beings blended with the light, or ghods com¬
mingled with the gloom, or fairy elves by moonlight,
ivho trip the fands, and yet no footing feen j or wood-
nymphs, laving their taper limbs in the limpid cle¬
ment. Such fubjeCIs, in point of dyle, depend entirely
upon the beauty, lightnefs, and tranfparency of execu¬
tion 5 for thofe that are merely ornamental or grotefque,
demand a dyle of a different cad from that of the
ferious or hidorical, as they require a lefs degree of
truth even from the burin. In thefe cafes the dyle
may be as capricious as the fubjeCIs. Thofe of Raphael,
in the Vatican, difplay an uncommon degree of tade,
and particularly in the elegant flow of line with which
they are compofed.
In all works of tade and genius, thofe which may
appear the mod fimple at a tranfient glance, will be often
found to contain the mod art on a more mature in-
vedigation. The fird impreffion may drike the fancy,
but the fecond generally calls up the difcriminating
powers of the judgment.
Arts generally rife in our efteem according to the
degree of exertion of the mental powers which they re¬
quire ; and, as lines are capable of various dyles, thofe
which are mod congenial to the fubject reprefented
ought to be adhered to in preference to every other
confideration. Teniers, and Gerrard Douw, demand ail
the fidelity and delicacy of the burin in deferibing the
various draperies and individualities which belong to
that clafs of painting 5 but, in proportion as the contour
is compofed of fewer parts, and the forms more full and
elegant, the beautiful flowing qualities of the graver is
increafed, and its lines glide more gracefully over the
figures, as may be found in the works of Strange and
others from Guido and Corregio. This diftinftion will
not appear fo obvious on a fuperficial view of the art.
But, on a due inveftigation, it will be found, that not
only a different modification of lines is neceffary to the
various claffes of painting, but that even a different
defeription of ftyle is requifite to characterize fome of
the matters in each particular clafs, from the fublime
and elevated figures of a Raphael and Michael Angelo,
to the fimple cottagers of Adrian Oftade.
When we take a more comprehenfive view of the
art, we often find, that the ftyles which are adopted in
the different countries in Europe by the artifts where
the art has in any degree been cultivated, are generally
regulated by the modes of painting, drawing, and even
the colouring refpeCtively in each, whether hiftorical,
portrait, or landfcape, and is proportionably appreciated
according to the effective beauty and elegance of the
execution.
S 2 It
(c) Whenever M. Bartolozzi happened to fpeak of thofe prints to me, he always expreffed himfelf with a
great degree of enthufiafm, thinking himfelf extremely fortunate in having works of fuch excellence in his pof*
Ibffion.
E N G [ 140 J E N G
It is not improbable that the clear mode, which at
prefent conftitutes the modern German fchool, is a re-
finement on the fimple Ityle of Cornelius Bloemart.
In Italy, Jachimo Frey, that aftonifhing Swifs, from
his mafterly expertnefs in drawing, and a rapid ufe of
the etching fteel and the nitre, almoft produced an en¬
tire revolution in the art. The unprecedented richnefs
and cafe, the freedom and energy of his ftyle, and the
number and magnitude of his works, attracted all Italy,
and tended greatly to improve the Roman fchool. A-
bout the year 1672, we find him working jointly with
the nervous Dorigny Frezza, and Vanauden Aird.
From this fource we can perceive the ftyle of Wagner,
of Cars in France, and various matters now living 5
namely Francifeo Bartolozzi, Giovanni Volpato, Domi-
nicus Cunigo, and feme of the early works of the excel¬
lent Raphael Morghen.
In many inftances Frey indicates, that if he had con-
iidered it of fufficient confequence to the art, he could
have engraved with more clearnefs, particularly by his
curious copy from the celebrated print by Edelinck, of
the Madona and Child, with St John and Angels, from
Raphael 5 and although but an imitation of another
ftyle, tends to fliew the verfatility of his talents, "when
the judgment is for a while fufpended to know which is
the original. We find a performance of Frey’s, entitled
La Charite Humaine, dated 1723 j a print was afterwards
engraved from the fame iubjeft at Paris by Daulle, dated
1763, in which he has rather been too profufe in the more
mechanical part of the art, and deftitute of that ardour
which a well engraved work fliould not only infpire but
maintain.
It is not enough for lines to be only well difpofed,
but alfo full of expreflion : neither is it enough for a
line to be only clearly cut, but it mutt alfo be free 5 for
in a certain free light fpirited lines convey an idea of
animation, and are fuited to fubjetfts of that defeription,
wThile the long fweeping and bold lines are better adapt¬
ed to the folemn and majeftic produ£Hons of the pencil.
A fine print, like a miniature picture, ought to be
viewed near the eye : as in itfelf, from the nature of
the art, will be found a due fubordination of effect, ever
receding from the bold and articulated lines in the fore
ground to thofe which are more evanefeent and remote.
The graceful birch, the mountain afh, and the oak,
have each their peculiar bark and texture*, and thefe,
when freely indicated, ftamp their mark and character
moft completely to the eye. Much of this, as has been
formerly mentioned, depends upon, and is regulated by,
the peculiar ftyle of the picture and the Ikill of the en¬
graver.
As lines feem to partake of motion, in proportion as
they deviate in gentle bendings from the ftraight and
precife *, even fo alfo, in the motion of water feemingly
increafed, whether they undulate with the fimpleft wave,
or fwell with the fierce and tempeft-curled furge. This
character is fuffieiently illuftrated in the works of Bale-
chow and Woollet.
In the late Mr Brown’s large print of St John
preaching in the wildernefs, no engraver has ever more
fully difplayed the true fpirit of Salvator Roia, particu¬
larly in the original mode of treating the rocks, and the
bold ftyle of the furrounding feenery ) in ihort, in the
aggregate it is a chef d’oeuvre unparalleled in any coun¬
try. This is freely acknowledged, not only by every
man of taite, but by the firft landfcape engravers (d).
But Brow n was perhaps lefs happy in the companion
to the above, from the celebrated Both, by adapting a
fimilar mode to that finiftied and delicate painter. For
the ftyle ftiould ever vary with the fubjeef.
“ Whate’er Lorrain light touched with foftening hue,
Or favage Rofa dafti’d, or learned Pouffin drew*.”—
Thomson’s Cajlle of Indolence.
His admirable etchings of the cottager and its com¬
panion, and the Caledon and Amelia, are fine fpecimens
of his diferiminating powTers, and characterized with fo
near an approach to truth, that we cannot help exclaim¬
ing Avith the poet,
“ He fees no other, nature’s felf who fees.”
The engraving of the above fubjefts was finiftied
by the matchlefs Woollet, with the fame happy tafte.
And it muft be acknowledged that it is but feldom that
we fee fo many excellencies united j for it is equally rare
to fee the fineft engraving united to the fineft drawing,
as to find it in painting combined with the choiceft
colouring: yet each have their decided fafeinations in the
gallery, the cabinet, or the portfolio.
Woollet, whofe works abound with nerve and intelli¬
gence in point of chara&er, his ftyle of landfcape is
delightfully deferiptive ; whether rocks, water, trees, or
Iky j as the Niobe, the Ceyx and Alcyone, and other
maftei—pieces from the great Wilfon evince. In the
winter feene from Smith of Chichefter, he has admirably
contrived to convey the effeft of the drifted (now, by deli¬
cate dotting, and with no lefs precifion he has deferibed
the tranfparent ice with clear lines. Of trees, he was
the firft that ever faithfully characterized the graceful
larch j as may be feen in his views of the noblemen’s
feats. In the print of the fifliery, he is indebted to the
mafterly etching of John Brown, particularly the (hip¬
ping, in which there is perhaps no fubject more articu¬
late and perfpicuous. The engraving of this fubjeft is
finiftied by himfelf. In his figures he was the founder
of a ftyle, moft happily adapted for modern dreffes, and
hiftorical portraiture 5 a ftyle in which he moved w ith
unrivalled reputation. His print of the death of Gene¬
ral Wolf, painted by Mr Weft, is an admirable ex¬
ample, and does honour to the Britifti nation. It
occupied him no lofs than four years. '[’he print
of the battle at La Flogue is another fine fpeci-
men of his knowledge of linear diferimination. In fhort,
when we confider the talents of this artift, it is difficult
to decide whether he moft excelled in modern hiftory
or landfcape. The art has to regret that he, who w'as
fo eminently qualified to adorn any line of the pro-
feffion, has left no works in ancient hiftory. We have
little doubt from his knowledge, and a real love of the
art, he would have left a fufficient monument in that
department alfo, for the pleafure and contemplation of
(d) Were I at liberty to mention eminent living artifts, I Avould have been induced here among others, to have
mentioned the fubject of the Tempeft in the TAvelfth Night, from the late ingenious A right of Derby, engra\rc4
by Mr Middleman, in the Meffrs Boydell’s large edition of the immortal bard of Avon.
ENG [ 141 ] ENG
Engraving, the real connoiffeur and of pofterity. Engraving in this
country fuftained a heavy lofs when he died ; and if the
death of fo excellent an artiil may be considered as a
public lofs, it is certainly the more felt with refpeft to
Woollet, who died while he was yet improving in that
excellence (e).
Chattelaine has been termed a mannerift in his draw¬
ings, but he mult certainly be allowed to be an excellent
one : his etchings are variety itfelf. Perhaps in the de¬
partment of etching no artift has fo happily tranllated
the pictures of Claude de Lorraine as Francis Vivares 5
that is, with refpeft to aerial perfpeftive, the peculiar
charadteriftic of Claude. But his merits are not confined
to this mailer alone 5 for he followed Ruyfdale, Berghem,
Gainfborough, and Cuype, with great fuccefs. He has
fuch a free delivery of ftyle, that almoit every one who
examines his works is irrefiltibly imprefied with an idea
of performing the very fame. Few artills, it has been
mentioned, have excelled in the etching department.
We cannot, however, omit the name of Peranezzi •, who,
to originality of Ityle, which is apparently fpontaneous,
joins a certain grandeur which had never been furpafled.
He has tranfmitted to polterity fo fpirited a reprefenta-
tion of the Greek and Roman edifices and ruins, that
travellers have often confelfed that they have railed
their ideas beyond the magnitude of the fuperltructures
themfelves. It is certain that in works of this llu-
_ pendous nature, a degree of ruggednefs in the execution
correfponds with the fublimity of the fubjecls ; and thus
produces a Itill greater power over the mind, than if
they had been more polilhed. Some have cenfured his
figures, and not without caufe. This defedt has been in-
genioufly palliated by an excellent artift, M. Bartolozzi.
“ For (laid he) if the purchafers of the works of Peranezzi,
get fo much for their money in the building way, the
figures may be fuppofed to be given for nothing.”
Doubtlefs thofe valt piles of perilhing grandeur, were
never more judicioully prefented to the eye, than by
this altonilhing artill, or better calculated to a fleet the
mind by calling forth its molt fublime ideas.
We have another linking intlance of fpirited etching
in a different purfuit of the art, in the works of Ridin-
ger, a name which brings along with it all the lavage
feenery of nature.
“ Aflembling wol ves in raging troops defeend.
   They fallen on the lleed and pierce his mighty
heart.”
Thomson’s Winter.
For we lhall ever find fome peculiar beauty to ad¬
mire, even in the flighted: produdlions of genius, as well
as in the mod perfect produdlions of the burin.
There are few artids who do not regret, that etching
was unknown to Bolfwert, who has done fo much with¬
out its aid i from which we may eafily fuppofe how
much more he could have effected Avith this charming
acquifition. For the truth of this remark we may ap¬
peal to his landfcapes from Rubens, his animated por¬
traits from Vandyke, and his productions from the Fle-
milh Ichool of hidory, particularly his large print of the Eng
taking down from the crofs from Rubens. I'“‘"
There is a fine indance of linear effect in a print of
a Fiemilh converfation piece by Wille. One of the
figures is drinking out of a glafs, and the artid has mod
deceptively deferibed the texture of the drinker’s face
through the glafs. In the fame print, a female figure
flieAVs great ikill in this Avay, even the floor is charac¬
terized by lines ; and the whole drongly marks the molt
proper mode of treating fubjects of a mere local nature.
The beautiful print of the Petit P/u/ficien, is alfo an ad¬
mirable imitation, particularly the little pellucid globule
which has jud mounted from the Ihell. When lines arc
engraved in a fquare acute method of eroding, they ge¬
nerally convey the idea of hardnefs to the fubject repre-
fented. The fcientific Picart feems to have been fo much
aAvare of this, that in a print of his engraving of a large
marble group of horfes, from the animated chifel of
Perriere, he adopted this dyle in order to heighten the
imitation.
Mafon’s print of Marlhal Harcourt, is one of the many
fine efforts of portrait engraving ; and although it ivas
executed at an early period of the art, it abounds Avith
no fmall degree of tade. The celebrated print (called
the table-cloth) from Titian, of the Lad Supper, alfo
contains a confiderable degree of linear diferimination,
although he fometimes carries it to a delation. He is
rather lingular in his mode of engraving hair. Yet the
portraits of Marfhal Harcourt and Brifafiere the fecre-
tary may be deemed exceptions.
While, by the magic of his tooling, is too apt at times
to give his works indiferiminately the appearance of
bronze 5 and we frequently find the fame in the figures
of BaleehoAV : but it feems to have been referved for
Strange to give the foftnefs of carnation to copper 5 and
to Woollet, to give force and clearnefs with diferimi-
nating tade. Bartolozzi in his lines elegance delicacy
and drarving; while the works of Audran teem Avith
boldnefs and fimplicity. In the prints of Sir Robert
Strange, the greated excellence is perhaps his rich and
harmonious tones, as Avell as the whole effect, Avhich is
fupported by an expreflive dyle j Avhich he feems in a
great meafure to have invented for his mod favourite,
painters, Corregio, Titian, Guido, and Guerchino. The
foftnefs, the gudo, and the floAving draperies in the
Avorks of thefe mailers, Avere his delight. His fleeping
Cupid from Guido, and the prints of the Venus and
Danae from Titian, Avill ever be edeemed as chef
cTceuvres in the linear art.
Having thus attempted to fulfil our original intention
of diferiminating the mod expredive combinations of
lines, and of analyzing and illudrating tlieir various
poAvers and efferis in engraving, avc ffiall noAV conclude
thefe obfervations ; and if, from the nature of the fub-
jecl, and from the limits of the Iketch, avc have failed
in marking every brilliant dar in the galaxy of the art;
it mud at lead be aeknoAvledged, that avc harm not
omitted fome of thofe of the fird magnitude.
ENGRAVING upon Glafs, SecGlass^ Engraving on.
Engraving
(e) Although we are now contemplating linear eng: a ing, it is but proper here to obferve, that chalk en¬
graving, mezzotinto, and aquatinta, have alfo made ample improvements in this country, in their various dyles c£
excellence. J
Engraving.
ENG [ 142 j E N H
Engraving on Precious Stones, is llie reprefenting
of figures, or devices, in relievo, or indented, on divers
kinds of hard polifhed Hones.
The art of engraving on precious Hones is one of
thofe wherein the ancients excelled ; there being divers
antique agates, cornelians, and onyxes, which furpafs
any thing of that kind the moderns have produced.
Pyrgoteles among the Greeks, and Diofcorides under
the firft emperors of Rome, are the moil eminent en¬
gravers we read of 5 the former was fo efteemed by
Alexander, thatMie forbade any body elfe to engrave
his head ; and Auguftus’s head, engraven by the latter,
was deemed fo beautiful, that the fucceeding* emperors
chofe it for their feal.
All the polite arts having been buried under the
ruins of the Roman empire, the art of engraving on
Hones met with the fame fate. It was retrieved in
Italy at the beginning of the 15th century, when one
John of Florence, and after him Dominic of Milan,
performed works of this kind no way to be defpifed.
From that time, fuch fculptures became common enough
in Europe, and particularly in Germany, whence great
numbers were fent into other countries : but they came
fliort of the beauty of thofe of the ancients, efpecially
thofe on precious Hones •, for, as to thofe on cryflal, the
Germans, and, after their example, the French, &c.
have fucceeded well enough.
In this branch of engraving, they make ufe either of
the diamond or of emery.
The diamond, which is the hardeH of all Hones,
is only cut by itfelf, or with its owrt matter. The
HrH thing to be done in this branch of engraving is,
to cement two rough diamonds to the ends of two
Hicks big enough to hold them Heady in the hand, and
to rub or grind them agaxnfl each other till they be
brought to the form defired. The duH or powder
that is rubbed off ferves afterwards to polifii them,
which is performed with a kind of mill that turns a
wheel of foft iron. The diamond is fixed in a brafs
diHi *, and, thus applied to the wheel, is covered with
diamond duff, mixed up with oil of olives ; and when
the diamond is to be cut facet-wife, they apply firft
one face, then another, to the wheel. Rubies, fap-
phires, and topazes, are cut and formed the fame way
on a copper wheel, and poliflied with tripoli diluted
in water. As to agates, amethyfts, emeralds, hya¬
cinths, granites, rubies, and others of the fofter
Hones, they are cut on a leaden wheel, moiftened with
emery and water, and poliflied with tripoli on a pew¬
ter wheel. Lapis-lazuli, opal, &c. are poliflied on a
wooden wheel. To faffiion and engrave vafes of
agate, cryftal, lapis-lazuli, or the like, they make ufe
of a kind of lathe, like that ufed by pewterers, to hold
the veffels, which are to be wrought with proper
tools : that of the engraver generally holds the tools,
which are turned by a wheel j and the veffel is held to
them to be cut and engraved, either in relievo or
otherwife •, the tools being moiftened from time to time
with diamond duff and oil, or at leaft emery and wa¬
ter. To engrave figures or devices on any of thefe
Hones, when polifhed, fuch as medals, feals, &c. they
ufe a little iron wheel, the ends of whofe axis are re¬
ceived within two pieces of iron, placed upright, as
in the turner’s lathe ; and to be brought clofer, or fet
further apart, at pleafure : at one end of the axis are
fitted the proper tools, being kept tight by a ferew, I-ngrarmr
Laftly, The wheel is turned by the foot, and the ft one ^ ^ I!
applied by the hand to the tool, and is fhifted and con- ’“T.019'
duffed as occafion requires, t ^—llf
The tools are generally of iron, and fometimes of
brafs j their form is various, but it generally bears fome
refemblance to chifels, gouges, &c. Some have fmall
round heads, like buttons, others like fcrrels, to take the
pieces out, and others flat, &c. When the ftone has
been engraven, it is polifhed on wheels of hair-brufhes
and tripoli.
ENGRAVING on Steel is chiefly employed in cutting
feals, punches, matrices, and dyes, proper for ftriking
coins, medals, and counters. The method of engraving
with the inftruments, &c. is the fame for coins as for
medals and counters : All the difference confifts in their
greater or lefs relievo ) the relievo of coins being much
lefs confiderable than that of medals, and that of coun¬
ters ftill lefs than that of coins.
Engravers in fteel commonly begin with punches,
which are in relievo, and ferve for making the creux or
cavities of the matrices and dyes : though fometimes
they begin with the creux or hollownefs j but then it is
only when the intended work is to be cut very fhallow.
The firft thing done, is that of defigning the figures $
the next is the moulding them in wax, of the fize and
depth they are to lie, and from this wax the punch is
engraven. When the punch is finifhed, they give it a
very high temper, that it may the better bear the blows
of the hammer with which it is ftruck to give the ini-
preflion to the matrice.
The fteel is made hot to foften it, that it may the
more readily take the impreflion of the punch ^ and af¬
ter ftriking the punch on it in this ftate, they proceed
to touch up or finilh the ftrokes and lines, where by
reafon of their finenefs or the too great relievo they are
any thing defective, with fteel gravers of different kinds 5
chifels, flatters, &c. ’being the principal inftrument*
ufed in graving on fteel.
The figure being thus finifhed, they proceed to en¬
grave the reft of the medal, as the mouldings of the bor¬
der, the engrailed ring, letters, &c. with little fteel
punches, v'ell tempered, and very fharp.
ENGUICHE', in Heraldry, is laid of the great
mouth of a hunting horn, when its rim is of a different
colour from that of the horn itfelf.
ENHARMONIC, in Mujic. The Greeks had
three different fpecies of mufic ; the diatonic, the chro¬
matic, and the enharmonic. This laft wus efteemed by
much the moft agreeable and powerful of the three ;
but the difficulty of its execution rendered its duration
ftiort, and latter artifts were upbraided for having fa-
crificed it to their indolence. It proceeded upon leffer
intervals than either the diatonic or chromatic ; and ae
the chromatic femitone is ftill lefs than the diatonic,
the enharmonic intervals muft have confifted of that fe¬
mitone divided into parts more minute. In Rouffeau’*
Mufical Dictionary (at the word Enharmonique), ike
reader may fee how that interval was found in the te-
trachords of.the ancients. It is by no means eafy for
modern ears, inured to intervals fo widely different, to
imagine how a piece of mufic, whofe tranfitions were
formed either chiefly or folely upon fuch minute divi-
fions, could have fuch wonderful effe&s 5 yet the me¬
lody of fpeech, which rifes or falls by intervals ftili
more
/
E N N [ :
Sdiarrao-more minute than the enharmonic, when properly mo-
r;lc dulated and applied with tafte, has an aftonifliing power
Er.'iius. over t!ie (oul* . As to the modern enharmonic lyftem,
—Y—^ we may likewife refer the reader to the fame work for
an account of its nature and ufe ; though he will find
it accurately and clearly explained by D’Alembert in
the Treatife of Music given in the prefent work, (art.
144, 145, 146.).
ENHA DR US, in Natural Hiftory, a genus of fide-
roehita or crullatcd ferruginous bodies, formed in large
and in great part empty cafes, inclofing a fmall quantity
of an aqueous fluid.
Of this genus there are only two fpecies: 1. The
thick-fhelled enhydrus, with black, reddifh-brown, and
yellow crufls. 2. The thinner-ihelled kind, with yel-
lowilh-brown and purple crufts ; neither of which fer¬
ments with aquafortis or gives fire with fteel.
ENIGMA. See /Enigma.
ENIXUM, among chemifts, a kind of natural fait,
generated of an acid and an alkali.
The fal enixum of Paracelfus, is the caput mortuum
of fpirits of nitre with oil of vitriol, or what remains in
the retort after the diftillation of this fplrit; being of a
white colour, and pleafing acid tafte.
ENMANCHE', in Heraldry, is when lines are
drawn from the centre of the upper edge of the chief
to the fides, to about half the breadth of the chief 5
fignifying fleeved, or refembling a fleeve, from the
French tnanche.
ENNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily,
fituated on an eminence to the fouth of the Chryfas 5
called the centre of Sicily. It was famous for a facred
grove, in which the rape of Proferpine happened 5 for
a temple of Ceres, thence fumamed Enncea, and
Ennenjis; and for fine fprings, whence the name
(Bochart.)
ENNE AGON, in Geometry, a polygon with nine
fides. See Polygon.
ENNE AHEDRI A, in Natural Hijlory, a genus of
columnar, cryftalliform, and double-pointed fpars, com-
♦ P0/ed .°f a trigonal column, terminated at each end by a
trigonal pyramid.
Of this genus there are feveral fpecies* diftmguifhed
by the length or fhortnefs of the column and pyramids,
none of which give fire with fteel, but all of them fer¬
ment with aquafortis.
ENNEANDRIA, in Botany, (from ivhcl, nine, and
a man or hujhand), the name of the ninth clafs in
Linnaeus’s fexual fyftem, confifting of plants which have
hermaphrodite flowers, with nine ftamina or male or¬
gans. See Botany Index.
ENNIUS, Quintus, an ancient Latin poet, born
at Rudii, a town in Calabria. He came firft to Rome
when M. Porcius Cato was queftor, whom he had in-
ftrufled. in the Greek language in Sardinia ; and by
his genius and behaviour he gained the efteem of the
moft eminent perfons in the city. According to Ho¬
race Ennius never applied himfelf to writing till he
had drank freely of wine. Hence he contrafled the
gout, of which he died nine years B. C. He was
iiucrred in Scipio’s fepulchre *, v.'ho had a great efteem
and friendfhip for him, and caufied a ftatue to be erec¬
ted to him upon his monument. He endeavoured to
introduce the treafures of the Greek tongue among
the Latins, and was the firft among the Romans who
43 ] E N O
made ufe of heroic verfes. He wrote the Annals of Ennius,
Rome; he tranflated feveral tragedies from the Greek Enoch,
and wrote others, befide feveral comedies. We have ““''v—
only fome fragments of his works, which were firft col¬
lected by the two Stephens, and afterwards publifh-
ed at Naples, with a learned commentary, by Je-
rom Columna, in quarto, 1590 j and reprinted at
Amfteidam in iyoy, in quarto, with additions by.
Heffelius.
ENOCH, the fon of Cain (Gen. iv. 17.), in honour
of whom the firft city taken notice of m Scripture was
called Enoch by his father Cain, who built it. It was
fttuated to the eaft of the province of Eden.
Enoch, the fon of Jared and father of Melhufelah,
was born in the year of the world 622. At the age
of 65 he begat Methufelah, and lived 300 years after,
and had feveral fons and daughters. ~ Enoch walked*
with God ; and after that he had lived in all 36 5 years
“ he was not, for God took him.” Some conftrue-
thefe laft words, as if they intimated that Enoch died a
natuial death, becaufe in reality he lived not near lo
long as the other patriarchs of thofe times 5 as if God, -
to fecure him from corruption, had been pleafed to
take him early out of this world. But the generality
of the fathers and commentators aflert that be'died not,
but was tranftated out of the fight of men, in like man¬
ner as Elijah was. The apoftle Paul (Heb. xi. c.)
ftiows very clearly that Enoch was tranflated, and did
not fee death.
The apoftle Jude (ver. 14, 15.) cites a paffage from
the book of Enoch, which has very much exercifed in-
terpreters. The queftion is, whether the apoftle'took
this paffage. out of any particular book written by
Enoch ; which might be extant in the firft ages of the
church j whether he received it by tradition ; or laftly
by fome particular revelation. It is thought probable
tliat he read it in the book we have been fpeakirm of
which, though apocryphal, might contain feveral truths
that St Jude, who was favoured with a fupematural
degree of underftanding, might make ufe of to the edi¬
fication of the faithful.
The ancients greatly efteemed the prophecy of Enoch.
1 ertullian expreffes his concern that it was not generally
received in the world. That father, on the authority
of this book, deduces the original of idolatry, aftrology
and unlawful arts, from the revolted angels, who
married, with the daughters of men. St' Auo-uftm
allows indeed. that Enoch wrote fomething divine
becaufe he is cited by St Jude-; but he fays it was not.
without reafon that this book was not inferted in th©
canon which was. preferyed in the temple at Jerufalem.
i his father, fufficiently infinuates, that the authority of
this book is doubtful, and that it cannot be proved
that it was really written by Enoch. Indeed the
account it gives of giants engendered by angels, and
not by men, has manifeftly the air of a fable, and the
moft judicious critics believe it ought not to be aferibed
to Enoch. 1 *
This apocryphal book lay a long time buried in
darknefs, till ihe learned Jofeph Scaliger recovered a
part of it. . Scaliger, Voflius, and other learned men
attubute this work to one of thofe Jews vrho lived be¬
tween the time of the Babylonifti captivity and that of
Jefus Chrift. Others are of opinion, that it was writ¬
ten after the rife and eftablifhment of Chriftianity, by
E N S [ 144 ] ENT
Kt'och^ one of tliofe fanatics with whom the primitive clmrch
, li was filled, who made a ridiculous mixture of the Pia-
. tonic philofophy and the Chriftian divinity.
The eaftern people, who call Enocli by the name of
Edris, believe that he received from God the gift of
wifdom and knowledge *, and that God fent him 30 vo¬
lumes from heaven, filled with all the fecrets of the
moft myfterious fciences. The Rabbins maintain, that
when Enoch was tranflated to heaven, he was admitted
into the number of the angels, and is the perfon gene¬
rally known by the name of Michael.
ENORMOUS, fomething exceffive or monftrous,
cfpecially in bulk.—The word is formed of the priva¬
tive c. and norma, “ rule 5” q. d. “ void of, or contrary
to, rule or meafure contra nonnam. In the corrupt
ages of Latinity they ufed innormis and inormis.
In the French jurifprudence, Icef.o enormis, “ enor¬
mous damage,” is that which exceeds half the value of
the thing fold.
ENOS, the fon of Seth and father of Cainan, was
born in the year of the world 235. Mofes tells us
(Gen. iv. 26.), that then, “ men began to call upon
the name of the Lordor, as others tranflate it,
that “ Enos began to call upon the name of the
Lord that is to fay, that he was the inventor of
religious rites and ceremonies in the external worlhip
which was paid to God. I his worlhip was kept up
and preferved in Enos’s family, while Cain’s family
was plunged in all manner of irregularities and impie¬
ties. Several Jews are of opinion, that idolatry wras at
firft introduced into the world in the time of Enos.
They translate the Hebrew thus, “ Then men began
to profane the name of the Lord.” Good men, to
diftinguifh themfelves from the wicked, began to take
upon them the quality of fons or fervants of God 5 for
Avhich reafon, Mofes (Gen. vi. 1, 2.) fays that the fons
of God (that is to fay, the defeendants of Enos, who
had hitherto preferved the true religion), feeing the
daughters of men, that they were fair, took them wives
of all which they ehofe. Enos died at the age of 905
years, in the year of the world 1140.
ENS, among metaphyficians, denotes entity, being,
©r exiftence : this the fchools call ens rea/e, and ens po-
fitivum ; to diftinguilh it from their ens rutionis, which
is only an imaginary thing, or exifts but in the imagi¬
nation.
Ens, among chemifts, imports the power, virtue,
and efficacy, which certain fubftances exert upon our
bodies.
Ens, in Geography, a city of Germany, fituated at
the confluence of the Danube and the river Ens, about
80 miles fouth of Vienna. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat.
, Q. 16.
ENS AT/E, in Botany, (from enfis, “ a fword”) \
the name of the fixth order in Linnceus’s natural me¬
thod, confifting of plants with fword-ffiaped leaves. It
contains the following genera, viz. Antholyza, Cal-
lifia, Comtnelina, Crocus, Eriocaulon, Ferraria, Gla¬
diolus, Iris, Ixia, Morsea, Pontsederia, Sifyrinchmm.
Tradefcantia, Wachendorffa, Xyris. See Botany
Index.
ENSEELED, in Falconry, is faid of a hawk that
has a thread drawn through her upper eye-lid, and made
Fall under her beak, to take away the fight.
ENSEMBLE, a French term, fometimes ufed m
5
our language ; literally fignifying together or one with Enfcmblc
another :—being formed irom the Latin in and fmal.
I n architecture, we fay the enfemble, or tout enfemble,, ‘ j-
of a building •, meaning the whole work, or compoli-
tion, confidered together, and not in parts 5 and fome¬
times alfo, the relative proportion of the parts to the
whole.—“ All thofe pieces of building make a fine
enfemble.'’''
To judge well of a work, a llatue, or other piece of
fe dpture, one mult firft examine whether the enfemble
be good. The tout enfemble of a painting, is that har¬
mony which refults from the diftribution of the feveral
obi efts or figures whereof it is compofed.—“ This
pifture is good, taking the parts feparately ; but the
tout enfemble is bad.”
ENS1FGRMIS cartilago. See Xiphoides.
ENSIGN, in the military art, a banner or colours
under which foldiers are ranged, according to the dif¬
ferent companies or parties they belong to. See Flag,
Colours, Standard, &c.
The Turkiffi enfigns are horfes tails ; thofe of the
Europeans are pieces of taffety, with divers figures,
colours, arms, and devices thereon. Xenophon tells us,
that the enfign borne by the Perfians was a golden
eagle on a white flag ; the Corinthians bore the winged
horfe, or Pegafus, in theirs; the Athenians, an owl;
the Meffenians, the Greek letter M ; the Lacedaemo¬
nians the A. The Romans had a great diverfity of
enfigns ; the wolf, minotaur, horfe, boar, and at length
the eagle, where they Hopped: this rvas firft aftumed *Sec Eagle.
in the fecond year of the confulate of Marius*. A
military enfign on a medal of a Roman colony denotes
it a colony peopled Avith old foldiers.
Ensign is alfo the officer that carries the colours,
being the loweft commiffioned officer in a company of
foot, fubordinate to the captain and lieutenant. It is
a very honourable and proper poll for a young gentle¬
man at his firft; coming into the army : he is to carry
the colours both in affault, day of battle, &c. and
Ihould not quit them but Avith his life : he is always
to carry them himfelf on his left fhoulder : only on a
march he may have them carried by a foldier. 11 the
enfign is killed, the captain is to carry the colours in
his ftead.
Naval Ensign, a large ftandard or banner hoifted
on a long pole erefted over the poop, and called the
enfign-Jlaff.— I he enfign is ufed to diftinguifti the fliips
of different nations from each other, as alfo to charafter-
ize the different fquadrons of the navy. I he Britiffi
enfign in flups of Avar is knoivn by a double crois, viz.
that of St George and St Andrew, formed upon a field
Avhich is either red, Avhite, or blue.
ENSISHEIM, a toivn of France, in Upper Al-
face. It is a pretty little place, Avell built, and con-
fifts of about 200 houfes. E. Long. 7. 30. N. Lat.
47. 58. „ .
ENT, Sir George, an eminent Englifti phyfician,
born at Sandwich in Kent in 1604. He was educa¬
ted at Sidney college, Cambridge \ and, aftenvards
travelling into foreign countries, received the degree
of doftor of phyfic at Padua. After his return he ob¬
tained great praftice, Avas made prefident of the col¬
lege of phyficians in London, and at length received
the honour of knighthood from King Charles H. He
was extremely intimate with Doftcr Harvey ) whom
ENT [
Eht > he learnedly defended, in a piece entitled Apologia
lj. . pro Circulatione Sanguinis, contra JEmilium Parjanum
, " i i -c alf!> publiiiied, Animadverjiones in Malachice Thru-
Jiom i and tome obfervations in the Philofophical
! Vanfactions. Glanville, fpeaking of his Plus Ultra
of the modern improvements in anatomy, numbers
Sir George Ent, Do&or Gliffon, and Do&or Wallis,
with the moft celebrated difeoverers in that fcience.
The two former were among the firft members of
the Royal Society. Sir George Ent died in Oftober
1689.
ENTABLATURE, or Entablement, in Archi¬
tecture, is that part of an order of a column which is
over the capita], and comprehends the architrave, frize,
and corniche. See Architecture, chap. i.
ENT ABLER, in the manege, the fault of a horfe
whole croupe goes before his' fnoulders in working
upon volts j which may be prevented by taking hold
of the right rein, keeping your right leg near, and re¬
moving your left leg as far from the horfe’s Ihoulder
as poffible.
This is always accompanied with another fault called
acultr. See Aculer.
ENTAIL, in Law, fignifies feetail, or fee entailed;
that is, abridged, curtailed, or limited, to certain con¬
ditions. See Fee and Tail.
EN 1E , in Heraldry, a method of marlhalling, more
frequent abroad than with us, and fignifyinn grafted or
ingrafted. ^ & b ^
We have indeed, one inftance of ente in the fourth
grand quarter of his majefty’s royal enfign, whofe bla¬
zon is Brunfwick and Lunenburg impaled with ancient
Saxony, ente en pointe, “ grafted in point.”
EN1 EROCELE, in Surgery, a tumor formed by
a prolapfion of the inteftines through the rings of the
abdomen and proceffes of the peritonaeum, into the fero-
tum. See Surgery Index.
ENTHUSIASM, an eeftafy of tiie mind, where¬
by it is led to think and imagine things in a fublime
furprifmg, yet probable manner. This is the enthufi-
afm felt in poetry, oratory, mufic, painting, fculpture,
&c.
Enthusiasm, in a religious fenfe, implies a tranf-
port of the mind, whereby it fancies itfclf infpired with
fome revelation, impulfe, &c. from heaven. Mr Locke
gives the following defeription of enthufiafra. T In all
ages, men in whom melancholy has mixed with devo¬
tion, or whofe conceit of themfelves has raifed them in¬
to an opinion of a great familiarity with God, and a
nearer admittance to his favour than is afforded to
others, have often flattered themfelves with a perfuafion
45 ] E N T
of an immediate intercourfe with the Deity, and fre- EetWlafm
quent communications from the Divine Spirit. Their I!
minds being thus prepared, whatever groundlefs opinion Ef °mo'
comes to fettie itfelf rtrongly upon their fancies, is an 1 ^ •
illumination from the Spirit of God* And whatfoever
odd action they find in themfelves a ftrong inclination
to do, that impulfe is concluded to be a call or direc¬
tion from heaven, and muft be obeyed. It is a com-
miflion from above, and they cannot err in executing
it. 1 his I take to be properly enthufiafm, which,
though arifing from the conceit of a warm and over¬
weening brain, works, when it once gets footing, more
powerfully on the perfuafions and actions of men, than
either reafon or revelation, or both together 5 men be¬
ing moft forwardly obedient to the'"impulfes they re¬
ceive from themfelves.” Devotion, when it does not
lie under the check of reafon, is apt to degenerate into
enthufiafm. When the mind finds itfelf inflamed with
devotion, it is apt to think that it is not of its own
kindling, but blown up with fomething divine within
it. If the mind indulges this thought too far, and hu¬
mours the growing paffion, it at laft flings itfelf into
imaginary raptures and eeftafies; and when once it
fancies itfelf under the influence of a divine impulfe, no
wonder if it flights human ordinances, and refufes to
comply with the eftabliflied form of religion, as think¬
ing iticlf directed by a much fuperior guide.
ENTHUSIAST, a perfon poflefled with enthufiafm.
See the preceding article.
EN EHYMEME, in Logic and Rhetoric, an argu¬
ment eonfifting only of two propofitions, an antecedent
and a confequent deduced from it. The word is Greek*
idvaypet, formed of the verb “ to think, con¬
ceive,” a compound of sv and Septs, “ mind.”
The enthymeme is the moft Ample and elegant of all
argumentations 5 being what a man, in arguing clofe-
ly, commonly makes, without attending at° all to the
form. Thus, that verfe remaining of Ovid’s tragedy,
(ntitled Medea, contains an enthymeme 5 Servare potui,
perdere an pqjfum rogas “ I was able to fave you ; con-
fequently to have deftroyed you.” All the beauty would
have been loft, had all the propofitions been expreffed ;
the mind is difpleafed with a rehearfal of what is nowife
neceffary.
Sometimes, alfo, the two propofitions of an enthy¬
meme are both included in a Angle propofition, which
Ariftotle cahs an cnthyincviatical f'entence, and gives this
inftance thereof: Mortal, do not bear an immortal hatred.
The whole enthymeme would be, Thou art mortal, lei
not, therefore, thy hatred be immortal.
ENTITY, the fame with Ens,
ENTOMOLOG Y.
T^I\ 1 OMOLOGY, (from wropeg, “ an infedl,” and
. “ a difcourle,”) is that part of zoology
winch treats of infers.
Many are difpofed to reckon the ftudy of Entomo¬
logy trifling. Hunters of butterflies, and catchers of
gralhoppers, are laughed at by the vulgar, and even by
tliofe who are more enlightened. The great numbers
ttno chverfity of infedls, the beauty and configuration of
Yol. VIII. Part I.
fotne of them, and the Angular inftirnfts of others can¬
not but attrafl notice, and excite aftoniflunent in thofe-
v h° f ^ fond of contemplating the works of nature,
rendering thus the ftudy of Entomology, to them, a
fouree of much pleafure. A colleftion of the indivi¬
duals which compofe any of the more numerous genera
placed at the fame time, before one capable of attend¬
ing to the ftriking fimilarity of the whole, and tracing
the-
ENTOMOLOGY.
die dlftinguitiling peculiarities of each, cannot fail to
create iurprife. The great and almoit phantaftic va¬
riety of their forms, the nice adaptation of their parts
to the fituation in which each happens to be placed,
jnuft appear truly wonderful. In every department of
nature, which comes within the reach of the human
mind, a pleafmg and luxuriant variety is difcernible.
The fame Supreme Intelligence, which, by varying the
polltion of the planetary orbs with refpect to the fun,
and by other feemingly limple but beautiful contri¬
vances, hath produced their different length of day and
year,’ and alternation of feafons, is manifelt in the forma¬
tion of the minuteft infect. Each has received that
meehanifm of body, thofe peculiar inftimffs, and is made
to undergo thofe different changes, which fit it for its
dettine d fituation, and enable it to pertorm its proper
functions. The utility of many iniedts, filch as the bee,
the crab, the filk-worm, the cochineal infect, &c> renders
them both interefting and important •, and a more intimate
acquaintance with the clafs, may enable us to add to the
number of ‘hole that are ufcful to man, and to improve¬
ments in the management of thofe already known. I he
hnvock many in feds mafce in the vegetable kingdom,
the vexa1 on, difeafes, and deft rue lion they occafion
among animals, (hould induce thofe who are engaged in
agriculture, and in the rearing and management of ani¬
mals, to pay attention to Entomology *, for the better
they are acquainted with their enemies, the abler they
muft be to attack them with advantage.
Moft infects undergo three very diftindt changes :
which circumftance, joined to the very great difference
of appearance which is often met with in the male and
female, and even in the neuters of fome fpecies, renders
their number apparently greater than it really is, and
adds conftderably to the difficulty of reducing them to
order.
Different naturalifts have attempted to arrange them
into families and genera, particularly the celebrated
Linnaeus, whofe arrangement is followed here. He has
formed them into feven families or orders, compofing his
fixth clafs of animals, Insecta. He defines an infedt, a
fmall animal, breathing through pores on its fides, fur-
nifhed with moveable antenna? and many feet, covered
with either a hard cruft, or a hairy tkin. Before the
diftinguitliing marks of the orders and genera can be
underftood, it will be neceffary to enumerate and ex¬
plain the terms he has given to the different parts, and
the molt remarkable of the epithets he has applied to
them.
The body is divided, into Head, Trunk, Abdomen,
and Extremities.
I, CAPUT, the Head, which is diftinguifhable in
'"C' rnoft infects, is furnifhed with Eyes, Antenna, and moft
frequently with a Mouth.
The Eyes, 2, 4, 6, or 8 in number, deftitute of
eye-lids, are either fmall and fimple 5 or large, compound
and hemifpherical; or polyedral. They are commonly
immoveable.- They are called Jlipitati when placed on
a lialk.
The AntENNTE are two articulated moveable pro-
«efies, placed on the head.
They are either, I. Setacece, fetaceous, i. e. like a
brittle/ when they taper gradually from their bale, or
qaft rtion into the. head, to their point.
2. Clavatce, clavated* i. e. club-thaped, .when they
crow gradually thicker from their bate to their point.
3. Eilifonn.es, filiform, i. e. thread-fhaped, when
they are of an equal thicknefs throughout the whole of
their length.
4. Moniliformes, moniliform, i. e. of the form of a
necklace, when they are of an equal thicknets through¬
out, but formed of a feries of knobs, refembling a ftring
of beads.
Ccipitcitc?^ capitate, i. e. with a head or knob, when
they grow thicker towards the point, and terminat.e in
a knob or head.
6. Eifiles, fiftiie, i. e. cleft, when they are capitate,
and have the head or knob divided longitudinally into
three or four parts or laminae.
y. Perfohutce, perfoliated, when the head or knob is
divided horizontally.
8. PeBinatce, pectinated, i. e. refembling a comb,
when they have a longitudinal leries of hairs projecting
from them, in form of a comb.
9. Barb ala, barbed, when they have little projec¬
tions or barbs placed on their fides. I hey are either,
I. Longiorcs, longer than the body} 2. Breviores, fhorter
than the body 'y or, 3. Mediocres, of the fame length
with the body.
The Mouth, in moft infeCts, is placed 111 the under
part of the head fometimes however, it is fituattd in
the "thorax, and in a few inftances, is entirely wanting.
It is furnifhed with, 1. Pa/pa, or feelers j 2. Rofrum,
1. e. beak or fnout 3. Labium, or lip } 4. Maxilla, oi
jaws, placed tranfverfely, and moving laterally 5 5,
Dentes, dr teeth j 6. Lingua, or tongue 3 7. Palatum,
or palate.
Pa/pa, feelers, which are 4 or 6 m number,. are
attached to the mouth, and have 2, 3, or 4 articulations.
The Stemmata are three prominent Ihining points on
the top of the head. . , , ,
II. TRUNCUS, the Trunk, to which the legs areTrunk.
attached, is fituated between the head and the abdo¬
men. It is divided into, 1. the Thorax, or cheft, which
is the fuperior part 3 2. Sculcllu/n, i. e. fmall ftiicld or
efeuteheon, which is the pofterior part 3 3. the Breajl
and Sternum, which is the inferior part.
III. The ABDOMEN, that part which contains Abdomen,
the ftomach, inteftines, and other vifeera, confifts of
feveral annular fegments. It is perforated on tne fides
with fpiracula, i. e. breathing-holes. The upper part
of it is termed Tergum, or back 3 the inferior par l I en¬
ter, or belly 3 the pofterior part Anus.
IV. ART US, the extremities, are, 1. the lyings ; Extremi-
2. Legs ; 3. Tail. _ ;tlCS'
I. Alai, the wings, are two, or four. Ihey are
either
1. Plana, i. e. plain, fueh as cannot be folded up by
the infeft. r i j j l
2. Plicatiles, or folding, fuch as can be folded up by
the infefit at pleafure. .
3. Erecia, erect, fueh as have their fuperior furfaceS
brought into contact, and ftand upright when the in-
feift is at reft.
4. Patentes, fpreading 3 fuch as are extended hon-
zontally.
ij. Incumbentes, incumbent ) fuch as reil on the upper
part of the abdomen.
6. Defiexa. bent down 3 fuch as are partly incum¬
bent.
/
E N T O M
bent, but liave their exterior edge inclined towards the
fides of the abdomen.
7. Reverfce, reverfed 5 fuch as are incumbent, but
inverted.
8. Dentate?, fuch as have their edcres notched or fer-
rated.
9. Caudate?, fuch as have precedes extended from
their extremities like a tail.
10. Reticulate?, netted j when the veffels of the
w ings put on the appearance of net-work.
11. PiMce, painted} fuch as are marked with co¬
loured fpo'ts, bands, ftreaks, lines or dots.
12? Notate?, marked with fpeteks.
13. Ornatcd, adorned with little eyes, or circular
{pots, containing a fpot of a different colour in their
centre. The central fpot is termed pupil; the exterior
one is called iris. This may happen either in the pri¬
mary or fecondary wings, on their upper or under fur-
faces. The fuperior wing is called primary, and the
inferior fecondary, to avoid cohfufion, as they may be
at times reverfed.
Elytra. The Elytra are hard {hells, occupying the place of
the upper wings. They are, for the molt part, move-
able, and are either,
1. Truncata, truncated, when Shorter than the abdo¬
men, and terminated by a tranfverfe line.
2. Spinofa, or prickly, when their furfaces are co¬
vered with fharp points or prickles.
3. Serrata, ferrated, where their edges are notched.
4. Scabra, rough, when their furface refembles a file.
5. Striata, ftriated, when marked with {lender longi¬
tudinal furrows.
6. Porcata, ridged, when marked with elevated ridges.
7. Sulcata, furrowed.
8. PunSiata, marked with dots.
9. Fafigiata, when formed like the roof of a houfe.
Hemelytra. The Hemklytra, as it were half-elytra, partaking
partly of the nature of cruftaceous {hells, and membra¬
naceous wings } being formed of an intermediate fub-
ftance.
Halteres. Halteres, or poifers, are fmall orbicular bodies
placed on ftalks, fituated under the wings of infects, of
the order Diptera.
II. Pedes, the Legs. They are divided into, 1.
Femur, or thigh, that part which is joined to the trunk}
2. Tibia, or (hank } 3. Tarfus, or foot} 4. Ungues,
hooks or nails: 5. M-anus, (chela), hands or claws,
fimple, with a moveable thumb, as in the crab.
The hind-legs are termed, 1. Curforii, formed for
running} 2. Saltdtorii, formed for leaping} 3. Natatorii,
formed for fwimming,
III. Cauda, the Tail, which terminates the abdo¬
men, is, 1. Solitaria, i. e. fingle. 2. Bicomis, i. e. two¬
horned or double. 3. Simplex, fimple, i. e. unarmed.
4. Armata, i.e. furnilhed, 1. with Forceps or Pincers ;
2. with Furca, a fork } 3. with one or more Sete? or
briltles } 4. with an Aculeus, or fling, either fmooth or
•barbed. A fling is a weapon, frequently hollow, with
which fome infefts are furnifhed, through which they
difeharge a poifon into the wound they inilidt.
.Sexes. The Sexes of infefts are commonly two, male and
female. Neuters are to be met with among thofe infedts
which live in fwarms, fuch as ants, bees, &.c.
O L O G Y, ' . T4y
Moft infefts undergo three changesi, An infixe is Me Amor¬
al firft hatched from a very fmall egg, and becomes a
Larva } a foft fucculent animal, without wings, inca¬
pable of producing its fpecies, flow in its motions, fome-
times without feet, but r.*Te frequently with them }
confuming greedily the kind of food which is peculiar
to it, and which, in proper time, is changed into a
pupa.
Pupa (Nympha, Chryfalisf is firmer and drier than
the larva, and is confined either by a naked membrane,
or enclofed in a follicle. It is commonly without a
mouth} fometimes it lias feet, but more frequently
none.
1. Completa, complete in all their parts, and active }
as the aranea, acafus, onifeus, &c.
2. Semicompleta, half complete, with only the rudi¬
ments of wings } as the gryllus, cicada, cimex, lihellula.
and ephemera.
3. Incompleta, incomplete, with immoveable wings
and feet} as the apis, formica, and tipula.
4. Obte&a, covered, having the thorax and abdomen
enclofed in a {kin, and that either naked, or enclofed
in a follicle differently compofed.
5. Coarctata, confined within a globe } as the mufea,
oeftrus.
The pupa is converted into the imago, or the perfect
infedt.
Imago, is the perfedt infedt, adtive, furniflied with
antennae, and capable of generating.
Infedts are faid to inhabit thofe plants on which they
feed, and not thofe on which they may be occafionally
found, and receive from them many of their fpecific
names.
LlNNJEUS has divided the clafs of infects into feven
orders.
I. Coleoptera, (from KaXitg, “ a {heath,” and Claffifica-
TifUfidv, “ a wing”), are fuch infedts as have four wings, bon.
the upper pair of which are elytra, or cruftaceous
{hells, which, when the animal is at reft, {hut, and
form a ftraight future down the back.
II. Hemiptera, (from spi; “ half,” and Trheci, “ a
wing”), containing fuch infedts as have four wings, the
fuperior pair being half cruftaceous, and incumbent,
and a mouth or beak bent toward the breaft.
III. Lepidoptera, (from Xswoj “ a fcale,” and
wkgav, “ a wing”), containing fuch infedts as have four
wings covered with minute imbricated feales, a hairy
body, and a mouth furnifhed with an involuted fpiral
tongue.
IV. Neuroptera, (from tsvgav, “ a nerve,” and
Trltgo'.', “ a wing”), containing fuch infedts as have
four naked wings, marked with veins crofting one ano¬
ther like net-work } the tail unarmed.
V. Hymenoptera, (from vpw, “ a membrane,”
and Trhgeii, “ a wing”), containing fuch infedt,s as have
four membranaceous wings, and a tail furniflied with
a fling.
VI. Diptera, (from 2v*>, “ two,” and ?r7»g«,
“ a wing”), fuch as have two wings and poifers.
VII. Aptera, (from «, “ without,” and Trhges,
“ a wing”), fuch as have no wings or elytra in
either fex.
T 2
CHARACTERS
ENTOMOLOGY,
148
(‘olcoptcra.
CHARACTERS OF INSECTS.
I. COLEOPTERA.
The infe&s belonging io this order are formed into four fubdivifions. 1. Thofe that have the anler.nse elavated,
and thickened towards their exterior fide. 2. Thofe that have the antexmse moniliform. 3. i hole which have
the antennae filiform. 4. Thofe which have the antennae fetaceous.
A. Antenms clavatis, extrorfum incrajfutis,
a. Clava lamellata.
1. Scarabteus. Tibiae anteriores dentatae.
2. Lucakus. Pcnicilli duo fub labio, palpigeri.
b. Clava perfoliata.
3. Dermestes. Caput infiexum fub thorace, vix
marginato.
4. MelYRIS. Labium clavatum, emarginatum.
Byrrhus. Labium porreftum, bifidum.
6. Sylpha. Thorax et elytra marginata.
7. Tritoma. Palpi anteriores fecuriformes.
8. Hydrophilus. Maxilla bifida.
c. Clava folida.
9. LIister. Caput retractile intra thoracem.
10. Pauses. Antennae biarticulatae. Clava uncinata.
11. Bostriciius. Caput infiexum fub thorace, vix
marginato.
12. ANTHRENUS. Maxilla bifida.
13. Nitidula. Thorax et elytra marginata.
14. Coccinella. Palpi anteriores fecuriformes j
pofteriores filiformes.
15. Curculio. Roftrum elongatum corneum.
B. Antennis moniliformibus.
16. Brentes. Roftrum elongatum, cornemn, rec¬
tum.
17. Attelabus. Roftrum elongatum, incurvum.
18. Erodius. Labium corneum, emarginatum.
19. StaphyliNUS. Elytra dimidiata, alas tegentia.
Veficulae duse fupra caudam exferendae.
20. Scaurus. Labium truncatum integrum.
21. Zygia. Labium elongatum, membranaceum.
22. Meloe. Thorax fubrotundus. Caput gibbum,
infiexum.
23. Tenebrio. Thorax marginatus. Caput exfer-
tum. Corpus oblongum.
24. Cassida. Corpus ovatum. Elytra marginata.
Caput teftum clypeo.
2 Opatrum. Thorax et elytra marginata.
26. Mordella. Lamince ad bafin abdominis.
Caput inflexum.
27. Chrysomela. Corpus ovatim, immarginatum.
28. Horia. Palpi in equales. Maxilla bif da. La¬
bium rot undatum. 5
A. The Ant ounce clava ted, becoming thicher towards
their exterior fide.
a. The Clava or Club lamellated.
S. The fiianks of the fore-legs dentated.
L. Two tufts under the lip, to which the feelers are
attached.
b. The Club perfoliuted.
ID. The head bent under the thorax, which is fcarce-
ly marginated.
M. The lip clavated and eroarginated.
B. The lip ftretched out, and bifid.
S. The thorax and elytra marginated.
rJ . The two anterior feelers hatchet-fhaped.
PL The jaw bifid.
c. The Club folid.
H. The head capable of being drawn back within
the thorax.
P. The antennae confifting of two articulations. The
club hooked.
B. The head bent under the thorax, which is {light¬
ly marginated.
A. The jaw bifid.
N. The thorax and elytra marginated.
C. The anterior feelers hatchet-lhaped ; the pofterior
filiform.
C. The beak lengthened and horny.
B. With the Antenna moniliform.
B. The beak elongated, horny and ftraight.
A. The beak elongated and crooked.
E. The lip horny and emarginated.
S. The elytra half the length of the body, covering
the wings. Twro veficles above the tail, which can be
puflied out at pleafure.
S. The lip truncated, and entire.
Z. The lip elongated and membranaceous.
M. The thorax rcundifh. The head gibbous, and
bent inwards.
T. The thorax marginated. The head ftretched out.
The body oblong.
C. The body oblong. The elytra marginated. The
head covered with a fhield.
O. The thorax and elytra marginated.
M. Laminae at the bafe of the abdomen. Plead in-
fledled.
C. The body oval, immarginated.
H. Feelers unequal. Jaw bifid. Lip rountl#d.
C. Antenna
Ilcmiptera.
ENTOMOLOGY.
C. Antennis jiliformibus,
29. Apalus. J horax fubrotundus. Caput gibbum,
inti exurn.
3°: Makticora. Maxillae exfertse, dent at re. Oculi
prominuli.
31. PlMELIA. Thorax marginatus. Caput exfer-
tum. Corpus oblongum.
32. Gyrinus. Antennae rigidulae. Oculi quatuor.
33. Cu-cujus. Labium breve, bifidum, laciniis dif-
tantibus. *
34. Cryftocephalus. Corpus ovatum immargina-
tum.
35. Bruchus. Antennae extrorfum craffiores.
36. Ptinus. Thorax caput recipiens. Antennae
articulis ultimis longioribus.
37. Hispa. Antennae porre&ae, approximatae, fuli-
formes.
38. Buprestis. Caput dimidium, intra thoracem
retraclum.
39. Necydalis. Elytra dimidiata, alis nudis.
40. Lampyris. Elytra flexilia. Thoracis clypeus
caput obumbrans recipienfque.
41. CaNTHARIS. Elytra flexilia. Abdomen late-
ribus plicato-papillofum.
42. NoTOXUS. Labium bifidum ; laciniis conniven-
tibus obtufis.
43. ElatER. Pecloris mucro e poro abdominis
rcfiliens.
44. Calopus. Thorax ad latera mucronato-callo-
ius.
45. Alurnus. Maxilla fornicata.
46. Carabus. Thorax obcordatus, pofterius trun-
catus.
47. Lytta. Thorax fubrotundus. Caput gibbum,
inflexum.
L. Antennis fetaceis.
48. Serropalpus. Palpi anteriores profunde fer-
rati.
49. Cerambyx. Thorax ad latera mucronato-cal-
lofus.
50. Leptura. Elytra apice attenuata. Thorax
teretiufculus.
51. Rhinomacer. Antennae roftro infidentes.
52. Zonitis. Labium emarginatum.
53. Cicindela. Maxillae exfertae, dentatae. Ocu¬
li prominuli.
54. Dytiscus. Pedes pofteriores ciliati, natatorii.
^ 55* Forficula. Elytra dimidiata. Alis teftis.
Cauda forcipata.
II. HEMIPTERA.
56. Blatta. Os maxillofum. Alae coriacese, planae.
Pedes curforii.
57. Pneumora. Os maxillofum. Alae membra-
naceae, deflexae. Pedes curioni. Corpus cavum, infla-
tum, diaphanum.
58. Mantis. Os maxiilofum. Pedes anteriores
ferrali, ungue unico.
59- Gryllus. Os maxillofum. Pedes pofteriores
faltatorii.
C. Antenncc filiform.
A. Thorax roundiih. Head turgid, infie&ed.
M. Jaws ftretchcd out, furnithed with teeth. Eyes
rather prominent.
P. Thorax margined. Head ftretched out. Body
oblong.
G. Antenna; a little rigid. Eyes 4.
C. Lip ftiort, bifid, the divifions diftant.
C. Body oval, immarginated.
B. Antennae growing thicker towards the external
edge.
P. Thorax receiving the head : laft joints of the
antennae longer than the reft.
IL Antenna; ftretched forwards, approaching one
another, and fpindle-ftiaped.
B. Head half retraded within the thorax.
N. Elytra half the length of the body. Wings
naked.
L. Elytra flexible. Shield of the thorax fhading
and receiving the head.
. C. Elytra flexible. Sides of the abdomen edged
with folded papillae.
N. Lip bifid; the divifions of it obtufe and ap¬
proaching clofely.
E. A iharp point proceeding from the breaft, fpring-
ing out at a pore in the abdomen.
C. The thorax callous at the fides, and fet with fliarp
points.
A. Jaw arched. Feelers 6.
C. 1 he thorax refembling a heart inverted, and ter¬
minating abruptly behind.
L. Thorax roundiih. Head turgid, inflected.
D. Ante mice fietaceous.
S. The anterior feelers deeply ferrated.
C. The thorax callous at the fides, and fet with
{harp points.
L. Elytra tapering towards the tip. Thorax
roundifh.
R. Antennae feated on the fnout.
Z. Lip emarginated.
C. Jaws ftretched out, furnilhed with teeth. Eyes
a little prominent.
D. Hind-legs fringed formed for fwimming.
h • Elytra half as long as the body. Wings covered.
Tail furnifhed with pincers.
II. HEMIPTERA.
B. Mouth furnilhed with jaws. Wings coriaceous,
plane. Legs formed for running.
P. Mouth furniftied with jaws. Wings membrana¬
ceous, deflected. Legs formed for running. Body
hollow, inflated, and tranfparent.
M. Mouth furnilhed with jaws. The anterior legs
ferrated, and terminated by a lingle claw.
G. Mouth furnilhed with jaws. Hind-legs formed
for leaping.
60.
i'5°
E N T O M
60. Fulgora. Roftrum inflexum, Frons produc-
ta, inermis. Antennas capitatas.
61. Cicada. Roftrum inflexum. Pedes pofteriores
faltatorii.
62. Notokecta. Roftrum inflexum. Pedes pofte¬
riores natatorii (ciliati).
63. Nepa. Roftrum inflexum. Pedes anteriores
cheliferi.
64. Cimex. Roftrum inflexum. Pedes curforii.
Antennse thorace longiores.
65. Macrocephalus. Roftrum inflexum. An¬
tennae breviflimae.
66. Aphis. Roftrum inflexum. Abdomen bicorne,
67. Chermes. Roftrum pe&orale. Pedes pofteriores
faltatorii.
68. Coccus. Roftrum pe&orale. Abdomen (mari-
bus) pofterius fetofum.
69. Thrips. Roftrum obfoletum, Alas incum-
bentes, abdomine reflexile.
o L o G Y.
F. Snout inflected. Fore-bead projecting, unarmed.
Antennae capitated.
C. Snout inflected. Hind-legs formed for leaping.
N. Snout infleCted. Hind-legs fringed and formed
for fwimming.
N. Snout infledted. Fore-legs furniftied Avith claws.
C. Snout infleCted. Legs formed for running. An¬
tennas longer than the thorax.
M. Snout infleCted. Antennae very ftrort.
A. Snout infleCted. Abdomen 2-horned.
C. Snout placed in the breaft. Hind-legs formed
for leaping.
C. Snout placed in the breaft. Abdomen (in the
males) terminating in briftlcs.
T. Snout obfolete. Wings incumbent. The ab¬
domen capable of being turned up.
•Lepidop-
tera.
Neurofl-
tera.
III. LEPIDOPTERA.
70. Papilio. Antennae extrorfum crafliores. Alse
ereCt ae.
71. Sphinx. Antennae medio crafliores.
72. Phalena. Antennae introrfum crafliores.
IV. NEUROPTERA.
73. Libellula. Cauda forcipata. Os multi max-
illofum. Alee extenfae.
74. Ephemera. Cauda fetis 2 et 3. Os eden-
tulum. Alae ereCtae.
75. Myrmeleon. Cauda forcipata. Os bidenta-
tum. Alae deflexae.
76. Phryganea. Cauda fimplex. Os edentulum.
Alae deflexae.
77. Hemerobius. Cauda fimplex. Os bidenta-
tum. Alae deflexae.
78. Panorpa. Cauda chelata. Os roftratum. Alae
incumbentes.
79. Raphidia. Cauda filo 1. Os bidentatum.
Alae deflexae.
III. LEPIDOPTERA.
P. Antennae thicker towards the point. Wings ereCt.
S. Antennae thicker in the middle.
P. Antennae thicker towards the bafe.
IV. NEUROPTERA.
L. Tail forked. Mouth with many jaws. Wings
expanded.
E. Tail with 2 and 3 briftles. Mouth without teeth.
Wings ereCt.
M, Tail forked. Mouth with two teeth. Wings
defleCted.
P. Tail Ample. Mouth without teeth. Wings de-
fleCted.
H. Tail fimple. Mouth with two teeth. Wings
defleCted.
P. Tail furniftied with a claw. Mouth ftretched
out into a beak. Wings incumbent.
R. Tail ending in a fimple thread. Mouth with
two teeth. Wings defleCted.
V. HYMENOPTERA,
Hymenop-
80. Cynips. Aculeus fpiralis !
81. Tenthredo. Aculeus ferratus ! bivalvls.
82. Sirex. Aculeus ferratus, fub abdominis fpina
terminal!.
83. Ichneumon. Aculeus exfertus ! triplex.
84. Sphex. Aculeus punCtorius. Alae plan*. Lin¬
gua inflexa, trifida.
85. Scolia. Lingua inflexa, trifida. Labium apice
• membranaceum.
86. Thynnus. Lingua brevilfima, involuta. La¬
bium trifidum.
87. Leucopsis. Labium maxilla longius, emargi-
natum. Antennae clavatae.
88. Tiphia. Labium breve, corneum, tridentatum.
89. Chalcis. Antennae breves, cylindricae, ftifi«
formes.
90. Chrysis. Aculeus punCtcrius. Abdomen lub-
tus fornicatum.
V. HYMENOPTERA.
C. Sting fpiral.
T. Sting ferrated, two-valved.
S. Sting ferrated, under afpine which terminates the
abdomen.
I. Sting ftretched out, triple.
S. Sting pungent. Wings fmooth. Tongue inflec¬
ted, and divided into three at the extremity.
S. Tongue infleCted, trifid. Lip membranaceous at
the extremity.
T. Tongue very ftiort, involuted. Lip trifid.
L. Lip longer than the jaw, notched. Antennae
clavated.
T. Lip ftiort, horny, with three fmall divifions.
C. Aptennae ftiort, cylindrical, fpindle-fhaped.
C. Sting pungent. Abdomen arched beneath.
9li
6
1
*5*
Diptera.
Aptera.
E N T O M
, 91 • ^'£SPA, Aculcus pun&orius. Ake fuperiores
plicatae !
92. Apis. Aculeus punctorius. Lingua inflexa !
93. koRMiCA. Aculeus obfoletus. Ake neutris
nulke !
94. Mutilla. Aculeus punctorius, Alse ncutris
nulla;,
VI. DIPTERA.
A. Probofcide et Hnujlello.
95. Diopsis. Caput bicorne. Oculis terroinalibus,
96. Tipula. Hauitellum line vagina. Palpi 2,
porrcfti, hlifonncs.
97. Musca. Hauitellum jine vagina, fetis inftruc-
tum.
98. Labanus. Hauitelium vagina univalvi, fetif-
que inltruftum.
99. E vlPis. Probofcis inflexa.
100. Con ops. Probolcis porrecta, geniculata.
B. liaujlello Jlnc Probofcide.
101. Oestrus. Hauitellum retraftam intra labia,
connata poro pertufa.
102. Asilus. Hauftellum rectum bivalve, bafl gib-
bum.
103. Stomoxys. Haultellum vagina univalve con-
voluta, ball geniculata.
104. Culex. Vagina exferta, univalvis, flexilis, fe-
tis 5.
105. Bombylius. Hauitellum longiflimum, re£tum,
fetaceum, bivalve.
ic6. Hippobosca. Haulteilum breve, cylindricum,
rectum, bivalve.
VII. APTERA.
A. Pedibus fex, Capite a Thorace difcreto.
107. Lepisma. Cauda fetis exfertis.
108. PoDURA. Cauda bifurca, inflexa, faltatrix.
109. Termes. Os maxillis duabus. Labium cor-
neum, quadrifidum.
1 io.,Pediculus. Os aculeo exferendo.
ill. Pulex. Os roltro inflexo, cum aculeo. Pedes
faltatorii,
B. Pedibus 8—14, Capite Thoracequc unitis.
02. Acarus. Oculi 2. Pedes 8. Palpi cora-
prelfi.
113. Hydrachna. Oculi 2—8. Pedes 8, in an-
teriore corporis pane. Papillae textoria'.
114., Aranea. Oculi S'. Pedes 8. Papillae tex-
toriau Palpi clavati.
n 5. Phalangium. Oculi 4. Pedes 8. Palpi
chelati.
116. Scorpio. Oculi 8. Pedes 8. Palpi chelati.
117- Cancel. Oculi 2. Pedes 10, primo chelato.
O L O G Y.
V. Sting pungent. Upper ivings folded,
A. Sting pungent. Tongue inflected.
F. Sling obfoiete. Neuters without wings,
M. Sting pungent. Neuters without wings.
VI. DIPTERA.
A. With Probofcis and Sucker.
D. Head two-horned. Eyes terminal.
T. Sucker without a Iheath. Feelers 2, projecting,
filiform.
M. Sucker without a Iheath, furnilhed with briitles.
1'. Sucker with a fingle-valved flieath, furnilhed with
briitles. "
E. Probofcis indebted.
C. Probolcis projecting, and bent with an angular
flexure.
B. With Sucker, but no Probofcis.
O. Sucker drawn back within the lips, which are
perforated.
A. Sucker Itraight, with two valves, turgid at the
bale.
S. Sucker with a fingle-valved convoluted flieath,
bent at the bale, with an angular flexure.
C. Snea'h itretched out, ol one flexible valve, with
5 briitles.
E. Sucker very long, Itraight, fetaceous, with two
valvgs.
H. Sucker Ihort, cylindrical, Itraight, with twa.
valves—
VII. APTERA.
A. Legs fx. Head difinEl from the Thorax.
L. Tail ending in fetaceous briitles.
P. Tail forked, indebted, elaltic.
J . Mouth with two jaws. Lip horny, cleft into
four pieces...
P. Mouth armed with a fling capable of being pufli-
ed out at pleafure.
P. Snout inflected, armed with a fling. Feet formed
for leaping.
B. Legs 8—14. Lie ad and Thorax united.
A., Eyes 2. Leg’s 8. Feelers compreffed.
Byes 2—8. Legs 8. Abdomen furnilhed with
papillae, with which the animal Ipms thread and w’eaves
itlelf a web.
A. Eyes 8. _ Legs 8. _ Abdomen furnilhed with
papillae, with which the animal fpms thread and weaves
itfelf a web.
P. Eyes 4. Legs 8. Feelers furnilhed with claws.
S. Eyes 8. Legs 8. Feelers furniflied with claws.
C. Eyes 2. Legs 10, the firlt pair furnilhed with
claws, ,
jiBj
J52
E N T O M
118. Monoculus. Oculi 2. Pedes 12, decern che-
latis.
119. Okiscus. Oculi 2. Pedes 14.
C. Pedibus p/uribus. Capite a Thorace difcreto.
120. Scolopexdra. Corpus lineare.
121. Julus. Corpus fubcylindricum.
N. B.—In the following claj/if cation, fame of the mo
with an aferifk at
O L O G Y.
M. Eves 2. Legs 1 2, 10 of them furnidied with
claws.
O. Eyes 2. Legs 14.
C. Legs numerous. Head difinSl from the Thorax.
S. Body linear.
J. Body nearly cylindrical.
e remarhable fpecies only are enumerated. Thofe marled
natives of Britain.
I. COLEOPTERA.
Elytra covering the wings.
Scarabaeus 1. Scarab^eus, Beetle.
Antennae clavated, the club lamellated. Feelers 4.
Jaws horny, for the moil part without teeth. The
fhanks of the fore-legs generally dentated.
The larvae of the genus fcarabceus have fix feet,
and a body compofed of annular fegments, fumifhed
with hairs, and with veficles at the. end of the abdo¬
men. Their heads are hard, formed of a fubftance like
horn. They are commonly called grubs, and do much
mifehief, both in the fields and in the garden. They
live chiefly under ground, or in dung, on which they
frequently feed. The larvae of the fpeeies cetonia live
on rotten wood, and thofe of the melolontha on the
roots of plants. The pupa remains under ground.—
Grubs are devoured by many kinds of birds, particu¬
larly by the rooks, which, on that account, ought not
to be deftroyed fo eagerly as they are in many places ;
for, though they do much mifehief themfelves, in
fpring, and during harveft, yet it is amply compenfated
by the good they do through the year, in clearing the
ground of grubs.
* Feelers fliform.
f Jaw arched.
a. Without teeth.
N. Thorax horned.
at. Scutel/ati.
* hercules. A horn on the thorax, large, and bent inwards,
barbed below with one tooth j a horn on the head bent
back, dentated on the upper fide with many teeth.
Syf. Nat. Lin. 1. It is a native of America, and va¬
ries in colour, being fometimes black, fometimes azure
fpotted with black. The female is without horns.
* centau- The horn on the thorax bent inwards, with two teeth
rus. at its bafe, and bifid at the point •, the horn on the head
bent back, furniflied with one tooth. 92.
chorinccus. The horn on the breaft bent inwards and very thick
at the bafe, bifid at the point j the horn of the head
bent back, very long, bifid. Native of Brazil. 96.
* typhccus. Bull-comber. With three horns on the thorax, the
middle ones fmaller than the reft, lateral ones project¬
in'! as far as the head does, which is without horns. It
is a native of Europe •, to be met with under cow-dung.
It makes its neft in holes, which it digs deep into the
ground. It is black. Head deprefled, hairy at the
ifides, narrow. Knob of the antenna? grayilh. Thorax
fmooth. The horns fometimes as long as the head, and
fometimes twice as long 5 in the female hardly vifible.
Elvtra ftriated. Shanks hairy. 9.
Thorax with four projections like teeth. The horn * mobilU
of the head bent back, and moveable. 116. Native cornis.
of England and Germany. Black. Elytra ftriated.
Female without horns on the head, or projections on the
breaft.
Smooth ; thorax with two horns •, horn of the head aSlceon,
notched with one tooth, bifid at the end; elytra fmooth.
3. Native of South America. The largeft of all
known infedts, except crabs and monoculi. Elytra
black, or azure fpotted with black.
N. Thorax horned.
/3. Without Scutellum.
Thorax with fix fpines ; jaws prominent ; front flop- violaceus.
ing; body entirely of a violet colour. 11*7. Native of
Siberia ; found under ftones ; fmall. Elytra marked
with deeply excavated fpots.
Hem of the thorax flat, marked with one tooth on
the under fide; the horn of the head terminating a-
bruptly, w ith three teeth. 119. Native of the Cape of
Good Hope. Middle-fized.
Thorax with three horns, the middle one obtufe, and * /unaru.
bifid ; horn of the head eredl; Afield emarginated. 10.
Native of Europe ; on dunghills. The female always
without boms on the breaft.
Thorax marked with four projections like teeth ; po- camelttS%
fterior part of the Afield {lightly marked with twro horns;
body black. 134. Native of Germany. The female
with nearly the fame marks as the male.
b. Thorax unarmed; Head horned.
a. Furnifhed with a Scutellum.
Thorax prominent, divided into twro lobes ; horn ofbilobus,
the head Ample ; elytra ftriated. 12. Native of the
fouth of Europe. Black.
A triple prominence on the breaft ; horn on the head naf cornu.
bent back ; elytra fmooth. 15. Native of Europe ;
met with in dunghills. Its larva gray, with a red-
diftr head, feet, and fpiracula or breathing holes.
Swammerdam has fuppofed it to be the coffus of the an¬
cients. Yid. Plin. 17. 24. Thorax of the female
roundifh.
g. Without Scutellum.
Thorax prominent, formed of two lobes ; horn on thejacchus.
head bent back, and Ample. 156. Native of the Cape
of Good Hope. The horn on the head of the female
verv ftsort, and terminating abruptly.
Thorax flat, angularly rough ; the horn on the head carntfex.
bent
Coleoptera. E N T O M
bent inwards j the body of a yellow colour. 22. Na¬
tive of America. During the whole fummer they may
be feen in great numbers, rolling about balls which
they form out of dung. They mutually affift one ano¬
ther to roll them into holes made for their reception,
like the pilularis. Their bodies are broad, and de-
preffed ; the horn on their heads is placed backwards.
It is black, and fmooth. In the female it is effaced.
c. Both Thorax and Head without horns.
nut.
* Jlere O'
rnrius.
a. Furnijhed with a Scute Hum.
* fmeta- Dunghill-beetle. Body black ; head marked with
tubercles, commonly three in number •, the elytra red-
difh, 32. Native of Europe j frequently to* be met
with in dung.
Clock-beetle. Body black, fmooth ; the elytra fur¬
rowed ; the head of a rhomboidal figure ; fore-head
prominent. 42. Native of Europe j to be met with
in dung; much info tied with fume fpccies of the aco¬
rns and ichneumon, and, on that account, frequently
called loufii beetle. It flies about in the evening with
a loud noife, and is faid to foretel a fine day. It was
conft ■crated by the Egyptians to the fun. It is feme-
times of a greenifli blue colour. It is likewife fome-
times yellowith below, with dufky-red elytra. This is
the Jhard-borne beetle of Shakefpeare. The female
digs a hole, and kneads a lump of frelh dung, gene¬
rally of a cylindrical fliape, on which fhe depofits one
egg, and then covers it with more dung, attaching it
to the root of fome grafs. In a few days the larva
breaks the egg, and feeds on the frei'h dung. During
the autumn it changes its 1km four times.
/3. Without ScuteJlum.
facer.
fchuejfei
The fhield of the head marked -with fix denticula-
tions ; the thorax notched ; the fhanks of the hind-legs
fringed 5 top of the head marked with two flight pro¬
jections. 18. Native of the fouthern parts of the old
continent. It is frequent in dry fituations in the fouth¬
ern parts of Ruflia, where it rolls about cylinders form¬
ed of cow-dung. Its figure is carved by the Egyptians
on the ancient pillars at Rome.
vilulurius °Paclue» fmooth, yellorv underneath; the thorax
* rounded behind. 40. Native of the fouth of Europe ;
of the fame fize with the loufy beetle. In pairs, they
daily roll, like Sifyphus, a ball made of excrement,
feven times the bulk of their own body.
The thorax round ; the Afield emarginated ; the ely¬
tra triangular •, the thighs of the hind-legs elongated
and dentated. 41. Native of Italy, Germany, and
Siberia } to be met with on the funny hills, where it
rolls and buries balls made of cow-dung. It is black.
1 horax retufe ; head marked with three tubercles,
the middle one faintly refembling a horn. 31. A na¬
tive of Europe, in fandy places, and in dunghills.
*Mor.
b. Jaw arched, furnijhed with fome teeth ; the point of
the Abdomen naked, and obliquely truncated. Melo-
lonthte.
% Of a brick colour, and fpotted with white. The feu-
fullo. tellum with two notches 5 the antennm divided into
feven leaves. 57. It inhabits fandy fituations in Eu¬
rope and Barbary, living on the oak, elqmus arenariu,
and arttndo arenaria. It is hairy below' : the hooks at
the ends of their lesrs are furniflied, at their bafe, with
Vol. VIII. Part I.
O L O G Y. 153
a crooked branch. It is the large ft coleopterous infeft
to be met with in Britain, except the ftag-beetle. It
is but rare in England.
The head and thorax befet with bluifh hair; the Hy-fruticola.
tra of a livid colour; the ftiield bent back at the top.
236. Native of Germany ; on the ears of rye.
The head and thorax befet with bluifh hairs ; the ely- * her tic •-
tra of a brick colour 5 the legs black. 59. Native of
Europe ; to be found in gardens, where its grub proves
very deftruClive to cabbages, &c. and the beetle to the
fruit-trees.
The thorax hairy; the elytra of a livid colour, with agricola.
a black edge, and black band j the ftfield turned back
at the top. 58. Native of Europe, on grafs-fields.
The head and thorax covered with bluifh hairs ; the
elytra reddifh; the abdomen white and hairy. 240. nu/[S ^
Native of Europe ; refembles the garden-beetle very
much, and is very deftructive.
Of a fhining copper colour ; the fhield emarginated. regius.
241. Native of Africa, near the equator^
Green ; the fides of the thorax yellow. 249. A vitis.
native both of Europe and America ; on the vine:
very like the frifehii, differing only from it by the ely¬
tra, which are of a brick colour.
Blackifh yellow ; the elytra of a brick colour. 1^°'frifehii.
Is a native of Germany ; on the vine, and the rofe.
The elytra, fometimes, are of the fame colour with the
thorax.
Above fmooth, and of a golden colour; the fcutel- laetus.
lum, and a line on the back of the thorax, of a blood-
colour. 253. A native of New Zealand.
Door-beetle, May-bug, Cockchafer. Furnifhed with * melolon*
a fcutellum ; without horns 5 light brown ; the thorax tha.
hairy ; the tail bent inwards •, a triangular white fpot at
each incifure of the abdomen. 60. It inhabits the
northern parts of Europe j flics about in the evening,
and feeds on the leaves of trees. It is the moft deftruc¬
tive of all the European infefts. When it happens to
be more plentiful than ufual, in the autumn, the vulgar
entertain an opinion, that fome epidemic difeafes are to
follow. The male is diftinguiflied by a fharp infiefted
tail. The grub is gray, with reddifh- brown head and feet.
Eats the roots of plants, particularly of com, frequently
laying wafte a great tract of country. They remain fix
years under ground, before they become beetles. Their
thorax varies yearly in colour, from brown to black.
It is funfifhed with a fcutellum, and is without horns J foljlitialis
the thorax is hairy; the elytra are of a pale yellow eo-"
lour, marked with three white parallel lines. * 61. Is
a native of Europe, to be met with among trees. The
claws at the end of the legs, have one little proje&ion,
like a tooth, at their bafe. They make their appear¬
ance fomewhat later than the May-bug, and are very
frequent about the fummer folftice.
Body of a brick colour, and woolly below j Afield villofus,
marginated, and bent back; fcutellum white. 263.
Native of Europe j of the fame fize with the cockchaf-
fer.
ff Jaw Jlraight.
a. Sharp. Cetonise.
Furnifhed with a fcutellum *, without horns ; ftemum chfyjiu
projefting ; fcutellum one half fliorter than the elytra.
49. Native of South America. Of the fame fize and
colour with the golden beetle.
U
Fumi filed
Coleoptera.
154 ENTOMOLOGY.
fafcicula- Fuvniilied with a fcutellum; thorax marked with four
ris, fmall white lines j elytra green j ineifures of the abdo- 3* DERMESTES, Lcat/ui -i.atei,
men bearded. 75. rsative or the Cape of Good Hope. Antennte clavatedj club perforated5 three articulations
Covered on the under part of the body with pale red thicker than the reft. Thorax convex, {lightly mar-
wool, collected iuto little bundles. ginated. Head bent and concealed under the breaft.
b. Jaws JlraigJit and blunt. Frifchii.
* fafcia-t Furnifhcd with a fcutellum *, body black, covered
Uis. with yellow down \ elytra marked with tw'o yellow bands
uniting into one. 70. Native of the north of Europe :
feeding on the flowers of the fyringa,jilipendula, and on
fome umbelliferous plants.
* hemipte- Furnifhed with a fcutellum } thorax downy, edged
rus. with two longitudinal wrinkles ; elytra fliortened. 63.
Native of Europe. The larva is found in wood ; the
beetle on flowers. The female is armed with a ftiff,
ftiort fting.
** Feelers terminating in knobs. Trox.
* fabulo-
fus.
tnorticinii.
Furnifhed with a fcutellum; black, opaque, with
wrinkled tubercles; antennce hairy at the bafe. 48.
Native of Europe. To be met with on fandy hills,
which are expofed to the funfhine.
Shield unequal and fringed; elytra ftriated, and
marked with convex fharpifh points. 404. Native of
Tartary. To be found in great numbers, under dead
bodies, which have been dried by the fun. It makes a
noife, by rubbing its tail againft its elytra. Is of an
opaque black colour ; and of the fame fize with fc.
fojfor.
*** Feelers cylindrical: the Club of the Antennae tuni-
cated.
letnifplies-
ficus.
Hemifpherical 5 the fore part of the fhield marked
with two obtufe projections. 406. Larger than the
fc. facer.
432 fpecies of this genus, have been deferibed by
Gmelin, in his laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
2. Lucanus.
tikes,
* cervus.
elaphus.
eapreolus.
Antennae clavated ; the club compreffed, being broadeft
at the fides, and divided into peCiinated leaves. Jaws
ftretched out, and forked at the points. Two tufts
under the lip, to which the feelers are attached.
The jaws ftretched out, and furniflied with four teeth
at the point. 8. A native of Afia.
Stag-beetle. Furniflied with a fcutellum 5 the jaws
ftretched out, and forked at the points, furnifhed with
one lateral tooth. it Native of Europe. It is the
largeft coleopterous infeCl to be met with in Britain. It
feeds on decayed oak. The larva is white and very
thick, with head and feet of a rufty colour. By fome
fuppofed to be the craffus of the ancients. The female
fmaller than the male.
The jaws projecting, furniflied with one tooth, and
forked at the point j the lip conical and bent down. 9.
Native of Virginia. In the female, which is fmaller
than the male, the jaws do not projeCt.
Furnifhed with a fcutellum j the jaws projecting, and
only forked at the point. 2. It is a native of the fouth
of Europe, and North. America ; about half the lize of
the flag beetle.
20 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.,
The larver, or grubs, of this tribe, devour dead bodies,
{kins, leather, and almoft any animal fubftance ; and
are exceedingly deftruCtive to books and furniture.
* Jaw bifid.
Black ; the fore part of the elytra of an afh colour. *!ardarius
1. It is a native of Europe. Sometimes, though rare¬
ly, the anterior part of the elytra is of a rufty colour.
This infeCl is the common peft of mufeums, libraries,
and preparations of natural hiftory. It is alfo found in
old bacon, whence it has received its name. When it
is eating, it protrudes balls of excrement from its anus,
which hang down in a firing. The larva is oval and
hairy.
Black ; the elytra livid at the bafe, and marked with elongatus.
a band of the fame colour, at the poiterior part, j the
antennae and feet of a rufty colour. 2. Native of Eu¬
rope ) to be met with in old wood } almoft filiform.
Oblong, black 5 the elytra marked with a double * undatus.
white linear band. 3. A native of Europe. Feeds
on putrid animal fubftances.
Black } the elytra marked with two white fpots. 4. *pellio.
It is a native of Europe. Feeds on Ikins, bacon, and
old books. Its larva is oblong, hairy, and furnilhed
with a briftly tail.
Oblong, of a rufty colour ; with red eyes. 19. Na- *paniceus,
tive of Europe. In bread that has been long kept} in
bookbinders glue ; in books, &c. About the fize of a
millet feed. The larva is oblong, white and ihining.
** Jaw furnifhed with one tooth. Apate.
The elytra reticulated, blunted behind and notched ; muricatus,
thorax prickly and turgid. 6. It is a native of South
America ; in wood, and fugar canes.
Of a dufky colour ; the head drawn back ; the an- rufeornis.
tennae and feet reddilh. 70. It is a native of Europe,
and very fmall.
70 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
4. Bostrichus.
Antennae clavated 5 the club folid. Thorax convex,
and fcarcely marginated. Head infledled and con¬
cealed under the thorax.
Black ; the elytra and abdomen red 5 the thorax capucinus.
flattened. 1. It is a native of Europe, and of Siberia.
It is to be found in trunks of trees, particularly dead
ones, and in houfes.
Of a brick colour j hairy j the elytra ftriated, blunted * ti/pogra-
and notched. 4. It is a native of Europe, and Ame-phus.
ca *, to be met with under the bark of trees. It is par¬
ticularly hurtful to the pine tree 3 very prolific, and
very voracious ; fcooping out furrows under the bark,
from which other fmaller ones proceed, in a parallel di-
redlion. They are very tenacious of life 3 and according
to age and fize, vary in colour, - from a yellow to a
brown, and from that to black.
Black 3 the elytra red, and notched. 5. It is a na- chalcogrtt-
tive phus.
Coleoptera.
tive of Europe j to be found under the bark of trees. It
fometimes varies in colour.
P°fysra~ Blackifh } the elytra are fometimes blunted, and of an
y/ius. azure colour. 6. It is a native of Europe. It forms
winding canals under the bark of trees, and is one of the
molt deltrudtive of this genus.
* micro- Of a rally colour $ the elytra entire, and of a brick
graphus. colour. 7. It is a native of Europe 5 in wood, alfo
within the bark of trees ; fmall, black 5 the elytra, an¬
tennae, and legs, of a brick colour.
* pitupcr- Black, and lomewhat hairy : the elytra entire and
da. black ; the feet reddilh. 13. It is a native of Europe ;
on the under branches of pine-trees, which it perforates,
dries up, and deltroys. It fometimes varies in the co¬
lour of the elytra.
22 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
lalt edition of the Syltem of Nature.
5. Melyris.
Lip clavated, and emarginated. Antennae perfoliated
throughout their whole length. Jaw with one tooth,
and pointed.
viridis. Green ; the elytra marked with three elevated lines.
1. Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
nigra. Black ; the elytra marked with three elevated lines.
2. About the third part of the fize of the preceding
fpecies.
6. Ptinus.
Antennae filiform ; the articulations towards the points
larger than the reft. L horax roundilh, not margina-
ted, receiving the head.
* Fee/ers clavated. Anobia.
fUgofus. Brown j thorax unequal j elytra ftriated. 1. It is
a native of Europe; without fpots, and double the fize
of the fubfequent fpecies.
*pertinax. All over brown. 2. It is a native of Europe ; is
very deftructive to wooden furniture, particularly to ar¬
ticles made of oak ; likewife to books, &c. When
•catched, it contradis itfelf and counterfeits death. It
can be put in motion again, neither by pricking, nor any
other means, except by the application of a ftrong heat.
1 _ It is deftroyed by the attelabus formicaritis.
mollis. Qf a brick colour, with dark coloured eyes. 3. It
13 a native of Europe, amongft rubbifti; an unwelcome
vifitor in collections of plants, and to be got rid of ef-
fedtually, in no other way but by the heat of an oven.
I he larva is white, and is capable of enduring a great
^ degree of cold.
pufator. Death-watch. Cylindrical, opaque, and much wrink¬
led, fprinkled with gray fpots. 13. It is a native of
Europe. It is common in trunks of old trees, particu¬
larly of the willow, and in houfes. It beats, efpecially
in the night-time, making a noife refembling that pro¬
duced by one’s nail ftruck againft a table. This is done
by feven, nine, or eleven diltinct ftrokes, and has been
confidered by the vulgar, as foreboding fome fatal oc¬
currence to the family occupying the houfe in which
the noife is heard. But, it is nothing more than the
call of one fex to the other.
ENTOMOLOG Y.
155
** Feelers filiform, bifid. Ptini.
Light brown, and almoft without wings 5 the thorax * fur.
marked with four projections like teeth ; the elytra
marked with two ■white bands. 3. It is a native of
Europe, and is exceedingly deftruflive to feeds, mufe-
ums, books, furniture, preferved fubjects of natural hif-
tory, and even to the leaves of tobacco. It delights in
cold and moifture ; and is belt kept off by heat and
drynefs, by arfenic or alum. It is molt effectually de-
ftroyed by corrofive fublimate. The female is without
wings. The larva has fix feet, and is foft, thick, and
hairy. Ihe pupa is enclofed in a glutinous fpherical
covering.
Brown ; the thorax fomewhat crenated ; the elytra * impent,.
marked with a white blotch, divided into lobes. 4. It is Us.
a native of the north of Europe j to be found in trees.
It is about the fize of a grain of wheat : the antennae are
of the fame length with the body 5 the legs are of a rufty
colour ; the fcutellum white ; the elytra marked with a
white fpot, refembling the eagle worn on the imperial
ftandard •, from whence it has received its name.
The thorax black, and fmooth ; the elytra connected, * fcotius,
Ihining, brown. 22. It is a native of Europe ; on
the birch.
3 2 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
7. Hister.
Antennce clavated. Club folid, the lower joint compref-
fed, and bent down. Head capable of being drawn
back into the body. Mouth furnilhed with pincers.
Elytra fhorter than the body. Shanks of the fore¬
legs notched.
Very large. 1. It is a native of India, fimilar to maximus.
the unicolor, but ten times larger. The corners of the
thorax rounded 5 point of the breaft extended, not quite
up to the mouth.
Black •, the elytra obliquely ftriated. 3. It is a na- * unicolor.
tive of Europe and America ; in fand, and in dung.
Black j the pofterior part of the elytra red. 5. Na- * bimacu-
tive of Europe ; in cow dung. latus.
17 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft; edition of the Syftem of Nature.
8. Gyrikus, IVhirler, or Water-fiea.
Antenme cylindrical. Jaw very ftiarp, and horny.
Eyes four 5 two above, and two below.
*
Thefe little animals are found on the furface of -water,
on which they run very nimbly, and deferibe circles.
When attempted to be taken, they dive down, draw¬
ing after them a bubble, refembling a globe of quick-
filver.
Black ; faintly ftriated. 1. Native of Europe 5 in * n at a tor,
lakes and ponds.
Black above; below, of a rufty colour; hind-legs bicolor.
compreffed. 3. Native of Europe ; frequents waters ;
is larger than the natator.
Nine fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
U 2
9. Byrrhgs.
15s
ENTOMOLOGY.
9. Byrrhus.
Antennst clavated, and perfoliated. Feelers equal, and
fomewhat clavated. Jaw bifid. Lip bifid.
E>Sas-
' pilula.
vanus.
Black 5 the elytra of a rutty colour, and marked with
points. 1. Native of Europe. JLhe anus of the fe¬
male furnifhed with a fling.
Brown ; the elytra marked with black grooves. 4.
Native of Europe •, in fandy places. It is fometimes,
though rarely, black.
Black ; thorax of a bright yellow ) elytra brown, and
marked with three ftiort green grooves, fpotted with
black. 5. Native of Britain.
Nine fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lafl edition of the Syftem of Nature.
10. Anthrenus.
pimp in ei-
lar.
Antennse clavated. Club folid. Feelers unequal,filiform.
Jaws membranaceous, linear, bifid. Lip entire.
Black 5 elytra marked with a white band, and of a
rufty colour towards their points, with a white ftain. 4*
Native of Europe ; feeds on the flowers of the pimpi-
nella.
Black; elytra fpotted with white 5 future of a blood-
red colour. 1. Native of Europe ; on the fcrophularia.
Clouded j elytra flightly clouded. 2. Found in
mufeums, deftroying animals preferved in them, and
books.
verbafci. Black •, elytra marked with three waved bands. 3.
Native of Europe j on the verbafcum.
Seven fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
Sylph A, Carrion-Beetle.
* fcrophu
lance.
* mufco-
rujn.
11.
Antennae clavated. Club perfoliated. Elytra margi-
nated. Head prominent. Thorax flattifti, margi-
nated.
^ germiam-
xefpillo.
* quadri-
pujlulata.
& quadri-
maculata.
* ruf.fr ons
Coleoptera,
{pots on the elytra, of a nifty colour. 4'i. Native of
England. Antennae black *, club reddifh ; thorax
fmooth, without fpots $ elytra fmooth.
Blackiih j elytra wrinkled, and marked with three * rugofu.
elevated lines \ thorax wrinkled and Lolloped behind.
16. Native of Europe and Alia. It confumes dead
bodies, either flefli or fifh. When catched, it vomits a
very foetid fluid.
94 fpecies of this genus are defcribed by Gmelin, in
the lafl edition of the Syrtem of Nature.
12. Nitidula.
Antennae clavated. Club folid. Elytra marginated.
Head prominent. Thorax a little flattened, and
margdnated.
Lip fquare. Elophori.
Brown *, thorax wrinkled, which, together with the * aquatics.
elytra, are of a brownilh yellow. 1. A native, of
Europe, in ftagnant waters j very fmall, and frequently
to be found among the conferva.
Brown ; thorax wrinkled, and of the colour of brafs j * mi nut a.
elytra pale. 4. To be found in England, in flagnant
waters 5 very fimilar to the aquatica, but only the third
part of its fize.
* * Lip cylindrical.
Oval, black 5 elytra marked with a red dot. 5. * bipufu-
It is a native of Europe ; and feeds on animal fuh- lata.
fiances.
Black •, elytra of a dufky colour at the point. 16. *dif coidea.
Native of England.
30 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the lafl
edition of the Syftem of Nature.
Thefe are chiefly found under the loofe bark of trees,
or on the half-decayed carcafes of animals, upon which
both the grub and the infect feed.
Oblong, black •, ftiield roundifh, unequal, and mar¬
ginated \ elytra very obtufe, with a rufty-coloured
lateral margin. 1. Native of Germany. There are
many varieties of this fpecies. They depofit their eggs
in the carcafes of other infefts, which they bury under
ground.
Oblong, black •, fhield almoft fpherical and unequal;
elytra marked with a double rufty-coloured band. 2.
Native both of Europe and America.—There are many
varieties of this fpecies. In America, fome of them are
ten times larger than thofe in Europe. They frequent¬
ly have the fmell of mufk, and fly very quickly, with
their elytra erect, and applied clofe together. I hey are
much infefted by the acarus, and depofit their eggs in
the carcafes of other infefts, which they bury.
Black, oblong } elytra marked Avith tAVo rufty fpots.
5. Native of Europe and America, in decayed Avood ;
very fmooth j the larva oblong, gray and hairy.
Red 5 thorax and elytra black *, the latter marked
with tAvo red fpots. 27. Native of Europe.
Oblong, fmooth, black ; the front, the legs, and tAvo
13. OpatRum.
Antennae moniliform, thicker toAvards the outfide.
Elytra marginated. Head prominent. Thorax fome-
Avhat flat, and marginated.
Of an afh-colour j thorax flat, and marginated \grifeum.
elytra marked Avith three elevated lines, and dentated
behind. I. Native of Italy, larger than \\\z fabu-
lofum.
Brown •, thorax emarginated \ elytra marked Avith * fabulo-
three elevated lines, and dentated. 2. Native of Europefum.
and North America, in fandy plains.
BroAvn \ thorax and elytra hairy. 16. Native of tnonili-
Europe 5 not quite half an inch in length. corne.
Of a light broAvn colour 5 eyes, thorax, elytra, and tefaceum.
antennae dark broAvn. The bafe and tips of the latter
are reddith ; the elytra marked at the bafe with a large
brick-coloured fpot, refembling a crefcent; the thorax
impreffed with two dots.
22 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the laft
edition of the Syftem of Nature.
14. Tritoma.
Antennae clavated. Club perfoliated. Feelers, anterior
pair hatchet-ftiaped.
Black •, the elytra marked Avith a lateral fcarlet line. * bipufiv*
1. Native of England, to be met with in thofe fpecies latum,
of boletus which grow on trees.,
Smooth,
5
Coleoptera.
glabrum. Smooth, black j the antennae and legs of a dark
colour. 2. Native of the north of Europe, to be met
with under the bark of trees. It fomewhat refembles
the bipujlulatum.
Seven fpecies of this genus are deferibed by Gmelin
in the laft edition of the Syttem of Nature.
ENTOMOLOGY.
15. Cassida.
Antennse moniliform. Elytra marginated.
concealed under the fhield of the thorax.
Head
* vlridis.
murraca.
fajluofa.
fuperba.
Green. 1. Native of Europe 5 frequently met with
on thirties, and on a variety of plants. The larva is
deprefied, and furnilhed with fix feet; it is armed with
acute lateral prickles, and has a tail formed of two
briftles. It walks about covered with its own ex¬
crement.
Black, with a red fliield 5 the elytra of a blood-
colour, fprinkled with black dots. 2. Native of Europe ;
to be met with on different kinds of plants.
* nobilis. Gray ; the elytra marked with a very bright blue
line. 4. Native of Europe ^ to be met with on thirties
and various plants. The bright blue line on its elytra
difappears when it dies, but reappears on its immerfion
into AVarm water.
Black •, elytra reddilh yelloAV, fpotted Avith black.
52. Native of Europe, but rare. It is to be met
Avith on the white poplar, is about the fame fize Avith
the nobilis, and, like it, lofes its bright colour along
Avith its life.
jamaicenjis Of a bright gloffy yelloAV colour ; the elytra, without
fpots, are marked with fmall concave dots. 21. Native
of America. At the anterior part of the future, there
is a prominence forming a bunch on its back. It lofes
its colour in fpirits of Avine, and recovers it again on
being immerfed into Avarm Avater.
Black •, elytra and fhield dotted, and of a golden
green colour •, antennae, abdomen, and legs green. 39.
Native of Europe. It lofes its golden colour at the
fame time Avith its life.
This genus contains 77 fpecies.
16. CocciNELLA, Lady-bird.
Antennae clavated. Club folid. Feelers, the anterior
pair hatchet-fhaped 5 the pofterior filiform. Body
hemifpherical. Thorax and elytra marginated. Ab¬
domen fiat.
* The Elytra red or yellow ; marled with black dots.
, The elytra yellow, Avithout fpots, Avith a black mar¬
gin ; the margin of the thorax marked Avith tAVO Avhite
dots. Sometimes the elytra are red, Avith a black edge;
the margin of the thorax marked with a white dot on
each fide. 1. Native of America, of a middling fize.
Elytra yelloAV, Avithout fpots ; thorax marked Avith
a black fpot, and tAvo Avhite dots. 155. Native of
Europe.
Elytra red, marked Avith tAvo black dots. 7. Native
of Europe ; frequent in gardens and Ayoods j feeding on
aphides.
Elytra yellow, marked Avith four black dots. 9.
Native of Europe. Of a middle fize; black beloAv ;
thorax yelloAV, Avith four black dots ; feet yellow.
Elytra of a blood colour, marked Avith five black
dots* n. Native of Europe ; to be met w'ith on trees.
marginata
mmacula-
ta.
* bipunc-
tata.
* quadri-
punfiata.
* qntnque-
punttata.
_ 157
Elytra red, marked with feven black dots. feptem*
Native of Europe. The dots on the elytra are placedyw/z^A/u.
in the form of a triangle. This infect, as well as
fome others of the coleopterae, is faid to poffefs the pro¬
perty of giving immediate and effectual relief in the
molt violent paroxyfms of the toothache, by rubbing
them betAveen the finger and thumb, and applying the
finger to the aflfe&ed tooth.
Lady-cow. Elytra red, marked with fix black fpots; * fexmacu-
the four anterior ones tranfverfe and arched. 68. It lata.
is a native of India. Head whitifti •, thorax Avhite be¬
fore Avith a black fpot, black behind j future red ; body
pale yellowiih.
The elytra yclloAv 5 with 12 black dots and a black variegata,
band in the middle. 86. It is a native of the Cape
of Good Hope ; of a middle fize.
The elytra tawney, Avith a great number of black centum*
dots, many of them running together. 118. It is -Apuntiata,
native of India, about three quarters of an inch long.
* *
The Elytra red or yellow, marked with white.
The elytra red ; marked Avith 14 white, and Uisenpunfiato-
black dots. 32. A native of Europe 5 differing per-guttata.
haps, only in lex, from the decenipujlulata.
Elytra yelloAV, marked Avith 15 Avhite fpots •, the yuin dec cm*
middle one, common to both elytra, almoft zRaczdi.guttata.
127. A native of Europe.
Elytra yelloAV 5 marked Avith 16 Avhite fpots. yy.fcdeceni-
Native of Europe. guttata*
* * * Elytra black, marked with red.
Elytra black, without dots, but marked Avith red at analis.
the points. 129. It is a native of Europe, very like
the hcemorrhoidalis, but only half its fize.
Elytra black, their points red, marked Avith a black lucmor-
band. 130. It is a native of Germany. It is htc-rhoiJalis*
quently marked on the back Avith a red dot common to
both elytra.
Elytra black, marked Avith tAvo red fpots. 41. It ca6h.
is a native of America ; on the cactus, and is frequently
gathered along Avith the cochineal infedl. It is very
fimilar to the bipujlulatu, which is common in Europe.
Elytra black, marked with tiro red fpots 3 abdomen * bipujiu-
of a blood-red colour. 42^ It is a native of Europe, lata.
common in gardens. Each of the fpots on the elytra is
compofed of three fpots uniting into one.
* * * * Elytra black, fpotted witli white or yellow.- ,
Elytra black, marked Avith eight yellow dots. $.pantherinar
Native of the north of Europe.
Elytra black, marked with eight yellow dots, the limner alls.
two anterior ones hooked. 146. A native of Europe.
163 fpecies of this genus have, been deferibed by
Gmelin.
Alurnus, Rove-beetle.
Feelers, fix 3 fliort. Jaw, horny 3
I7*
Antennae filiform,
arched.
Black 3 thorax fcarlet 3 elytra yellow. 1. It &grcjfu:.
native of America and India. Antennae black, half as
long as the body 3 thorax a little rough, pointed on
each fide at the bafe 3 the hind margin black 3 fcutellum.
rounded, black 3 elytra larger and longer than the
body..
YelloAvifk
158 E N'T O M
e tnoratus, \ ellowifh gtcen, with a metallic luftre ; thehighs
and lhanks of the hind-legs dentated. 2. It is a native
of India. It is large, fmooth, and (Inning} the anten¬
nae are half as long as the body j the extreme articula¬
tions are black.
ientipes. Black } the thighs and (hanks of the hind-legs den¬
tated. 3. Native of the Cape of Good Hope. It is
fmooth, without fpots, and very (imilar to the al. fe?no-
' talus.
jl here have been only three (pecies of this genus de¬
fer ibed.
18. Chrysomela.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers fix, growing thicker to¬
wards their exterior fides. Thorax marginated;
elytra not marginated. Body (in molt of the fpecies)
oval.
This numerous and beautiful tribe is found every¬
where, in woods and gardens. Their motion is (low,
and fome of them when caught, emit an oily fluid of a
difagreeable fmell. The larvae of this and the next
family feed on the leaves of trees and plants, the fibres
and cuticle of which they leave, contenting themfelves
with the pulp.
* Thighs of the Hind-legs equal.
* tenebri- Without wings, black ; antennae and legs of a violet
tides. colour. 1. It is a native of the fouth of Europe. The
larva has a bunch on its back, of a violet colour, with
a red anus j it feeds on a variety of vegetables.
* gottin- Black •, the legs of a violent colour. 4. It is a native
^genfis. of Europe 5 very rare in England.
mttata. The elytra blue, with a yellow edge, and marked with
a yellow (tripe in the middle. 3. It is a native of Ame¬
rica ; very large.
duftarnca. Thorax of a copper colour elytra refembling brafs j
impreffed with bluifli dots, of a violet colour underneath.
74. Native of Portugal.
* banlfii. Of a brafs colour above, and of a brick colour be¬
low. 76. Native of Italy and Portugal, fmaller than
the preceding fpecies. Very rare in England.
duetnor- Black, (hining ; antennae yellow at the bafe ; anus
rhoidalis. red above. 6. Native of Europe, on the birch and
alder. Tile elytra are marked with regular lines of
dots.
*graminis Greeni(h-blue, very (hining; the antennae and legs of
the fame colour. 7. Native of Europe, on different
plants, efpecially on grafs.
* anea. Green, (hining 5 the extremity of the abdomen reddifli,
8. Native of Europe ; on the alder.
* hcemop- Of a violet-colour; feet and wings red. 11. Native
ter a. of Europe,
■centaurei. Of a bright copper-colour 5 beneath green and gold j
the legs of a bright copper-colour. 102. Ndtive of
Europe, on the centaureus. It exhibits fome variety,
efpecially in fi-ze.
tnelanojlo- Oblong, black; head red, the mouth and a fpot on
ma. the back part of the head black ; the thorax red, with
a black fpot on each fide ; the elytra red, with a black
future. 254. Native of Europe.
polita. Thorax gilt; elytra reddifli. 27. Native of Europe j
to be met with on the poplar and willow.
crucntata. Black ; the elytra fmooth 5 marked with red waved
6
O L O G Y. Coleoptera,
crofs bands, and with fpots of the fame colour, 182.
Native of South America.
Blackilh-blue •, the elytra blackifli-yellow, marked * anglica,
with dots arranged in firaight lines j wings red. 187.
Native of England,
* * The Thighs of the Hind-legs thickened, and formed
for leaping. Alticae.
Of a greenifh blue. 51. Native of Europe. olerace*,
feeds on different kinds of plants, particularly on thofe
of the clafs tetradynamia. This is the little infeft which
is fo troublefome in fields and gardens, commonly called
turnip-fly. It attacks turnips, radiflies, and cabbages,
when newly fprung above ground, and confumes their
feminal leaves. It frequently deftroys whole fields of
turnips, fo completely, as to render a fecond fowing ne-
cefiary, which goes like the firlt. The attempts may
be repeated with fimilar fuccefs, till the feafon for fow¬
ing be loft.
Blackifli blue, the head and four fore-legs yellow. 53. chryfoci-
Native of Europe. phala.
Greenifh blue ; the legs teftaceous ; the thighs of the hyofeyami,
hind-legs of a violet-colour. 54. Native of Europe j on
the henbane, turnip, and cabbage.
Black •, the elytra marked with four reddifli fpots. * quadri-
217. Native of England and France, in gardens. puflulata.
Black ; the elytra and lower part of the legs pale. * anglica-
218. Native of England, on various forts of vege- na.
tables.
Greenifh yellow, with a metallic luftre y legs black. * nigripes.
220. Native of England.
Of a violet-colour \ head and thorax reddifli; legs *fufcipes.
black. 224. Native of Britain, on plants of various
forts.
Teftaceous, hunch-backed 5 elytra very fmooth. 225. * teflacea.
Native of England, on different kinds of vegetables.
Blackifli yellow^ j oblong, with black legs. 246. crucifera-
Native of Europe, on tetradynamious plants. rum.
270 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed by
Gmelin in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
19. Cryptocefhalus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four. Thorax marginated.
Elytra not marginated. Body nearly cylindrical.
* Feelers equal, filiform.
f Jaw furnifhed with one tooth.
a. Lip entire, Body cylindrical.
Bulky black; the elytra pale, marked with threelongipcs.-,
black blotches; fore-legs very long. 1. Native of
Europe, on the hazel and willow.
Black ; the elytra red, marked with twro black dots ; * quadri-
the antennae fliort and ferrated. 3. Native of Europe, pm/tf/Ww.
very common on the hazel. The larva is contained in
a rough-bag; which, on the fore-part, is terminated
obliquely and abruptly.
Of an obfeure brafs colour ; the elytra of a brick co- longinw-
lour, with a black fpot at the bafe. 19. Native of nus.
Europe ; feeds on the trifolium montanum, and the eu¬
phorbia cypanflia ; the fore-legs are very long ; the lar¬
va is enclofed in a bag.
Thorax variegated ; elytra reddhh, marked with two cor dig O',
black dots. 25. Native of Europe, on the hazel and
willow.
Coleoptera. E N T O M
willow. The fpot on the middle of the thorax is fome-
times of the ihape of a heart.
Black ; fmooth j elytra reddiih. 27. Native of the
fouth of Europe 5 on the vine, committing fometimes
great havock.
Black j thorax and elytra reddifh brown, 'withoutfpots,
28. Native of Europe ; on the hazel.
b. Lip bifid; Body oblong. Cifteke.
Hairy ,brown; elytra, abdomen, and thighs of a brick
colour. 91. Native of the fouth of France; very
large.
*cervinus. ^ Livid 5 -with brown legs. 92. Native of the north
of Europe.
Black 5 thorax fquare ; elytra ftriated and of a brick
colour. 96. Native of the fouth of Europe j on the
ears of rye.
Yellow j the elytra of a fulphur colour. 98. Native
of Europe. Feeds on umbelliferous plants.
Black ; the elytra and legs reddiih brown. 103. Na¬
tive of the north of Europe.
*angujla- Thorax and elytra of a dark reddiih colour, black in
tus. the middle. 106. Native of Britain ; fomewhat re-
fembling the murimis, but narrower.
pallid us. ^ Pale 5 the head, and tips of the elytra, brown. 107.
Native of Britain.
* vitis.
ryli.
gigas.
rufitarfis
* fulphu-
reus.
* mu r in us.
O L O G Y.
f f The Lip membranaceous.
f f Jaw bifid, Body oblong. Criocerides.
Gray the thorax marked with a line behind ; the
elytra with a black dot at their bafe. 124.. Native of
Italy.
Brown; the margin of the elytra a little prominent
and yellow, 125. Native of Europe, on the water-
lily.
Of a ruily colour, the edge of the thorax and elytra
yellow. 133* Native of Europe, on the willow.
Of a violet colour; head, thorax, and legs reddiih.
139. Native of Britain.
Blue ; thorax cylindrical 5 prominent on the fides.
161. Native of Britain.
Blue j thorax and legs reddiih. 162. Native of
Europe. Feeds on the oak.
_ Black head and thorax fomewhat prickly ; feet red¬
diih. 164. Native of Britain.
Thorax red, marked with two black dots ; elytra
yellow ; marked with a black crois, and four black
dots. 167. Native of Europe, feeding on afparagus.
There are two or three varieties of this fpecies. (2. With
two fpots on the elytra connected at the bafe, is to be
met with in Italy, y. With twro narrow red bands
on the elytra, is to be met with in France.
Black •, the edge of the thorax and two lines on the
elytra yellow. 168. Native of Europe j to be found
at the roots of the phellandrium aquaticutn,
* * Feelers unequal, the anterior ones hatchet-Jhaped.
f The Lip of a fubflance like horn. Erotyli..
Sfianteus. Oval, black j the elytra marked with a great many
tawny dots. 191. Native of India.
Vcnereus. Black the. thorax and elytra of a bright copper
cololir. 205. Native of New Holland.
lineola.
nymphcece
tenellus.
* cantha-
raides.
* cyanella.
melanopus.
* fubfpino-
fus.
*afparagi.
159
Lagriae.
221. Native of* elonga*
tus.
Na- * glabra-
tus.
230.
* phellan-
drii.
corms.
Feelers equal and filiform.. Lip
Black ; the thorax red and hairy.
Europe, particularly of England.
Smooth 5 thorax reddiih ; elytra yellow,
tive of England.
268 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
20. HlSPA, Blojfiofn-cater.
Antennae cylindrical; approaching one another at the
bafe, and placed between the eyes. Feelers fpindle-
Ihaped. Thorax and elytra frequently prickly.
Body entirely black ; antennae fpindle-fhaped ; thorax * alra.
and elytra prickly. 1. Native of the fouth of Eu¬
rope and north of Africa. To be found at the roots of
grafs.
Without prickles ; the antennae-hairy. 4. Native *mutic*.
of Europe ; in rubbilh and in mufeums.
Antennae ferrated ; thorax red ; elytra blue 5 head * cornfie-
furmfhed with two horns. 15. Native of Britain. ra.
Black the antennse peainated; the elytra ftripped. * flabelli-
19. Native of England.
20 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syltem of Nature.
21. Bruchus, Glutton.
Antennae filiform,
pointed.
. ^ ^ie elytra black, fpotted with white 5 the anus white, * nifl
vuth two black fpots. 1. Native of North America. iJ *
It has been lately introduced into Europe, where it
commits great havock in the fields of peas. It is alio
very deftruaive to orchards when in bloom.
Gray, fomewhat Ihining j the elytra very little Ihorter robinice
than the abdomen, p. Large j and has been intro-
duced into Europe, along with the feeds of the robinia
pfeudacacia from America.
Black j the elytra red, marked with raifed ftripes. * fcabra-
11. ISauve of Europe-, chiefly on the horfe-chefnut. rus
Body brown, fpptted with gray. 13. It feeds on^.
tne feeds of the theobroma.
1 he elytra gray ; fpotted with black , legs red; theobroma*
fcutellum white. 2. Feeds on the feeds of the thea-11\
broma. *
Aih coloured; elytra brown4. with a black dot ^bimnRa-
the bafe j furrounded by a yellow circle. 17. Native J
of Switzerland, on different plants. ' US‘
Elytra black j fpeckled with white j the thighs of* pranari
the hind-legs are marked with a Angle projeclion re-//ra
femblmg a little tooth. 5. Native of Europe. Feeds
on the feeds of various plants.
Black ; the bafe of the antennae and fore feet reddiih * feminarL.
brown j thighs fmooth. 6. Native of Europe, onj
flowers; very fmall.
^i fliecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
22. Pausus.
Antennae confifting of two articulations, clavated. Club
folid and hooked..
i6o
E N T O M
microcc- I. It is a native of North America •, entirely black,
phalus, the head very fmall, the thorax narrow, with an ele¬
vated tranfverfe margin on the fore-part •, the elytra ter¬
minated abruptly by a tranfverfe line, and a little long¬
er than the abdomen j which is likewife terminated a-
bruptly. It is about the fize of the dermejles lar-
darius.
tblonga.
23-
Zygia.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers unequal, filiform. Lip
elongated, membranaceous. Jaw furni(bed with one
tooth.
Oblong, reddifh ; head and elytra of an obfeure blue,
x. Native of the eaft.
O L O G Y. Coleoptera,
deflrudlive in granaries, and to feeds of almotl every de-
feription. They infinuate themfelves into the grain,
and confume it gradually, leaving nothing but the Ikin,
in which they lie concealed, and undergo their meta-
morphofis. I hole with the Ihort fnout infefl artichokes,
and the ftalks and leaves of plants. The leaves of many
trees, particularly the elm, may be feen marked with
yellow fpots, occafioned by the larvae of this tribe infinu-
ating themfelves within the cuticle of the leaf, and form¬
ing a bag, in which they lurk, till they come forth *
perfect iniedt.
* Long-fnouted.
f Thighs Jimple.
chryfome-
lina.
jlava.
24. ZONITIS.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers four, filiform ; (horter than
the jaw, which is entire. Lip emarginated.
Yellow ; the elytra marked with a black dot in the
middle and at the bafe. 1. Native of Egypt. Black
below ; the extremity of the abdomen reddilh.
Reddifh •, the elytra yellow and black at the tip. 2.
Native of the eaft.
25. Apalus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers equal j filiform. Jaw horny j
furnilhed with one tooth. Lip membranaceous ) ter¬
minating abruptly, and entire,
bimacula- Furniflied with wings *, black, the elytra yellow,
_[uu marked with a black dot behind : formerly mcloe bi-
maculatus. Native of the north of Europe j co be feen
early in the fpring, in fandy places.
26. Brentus.
Antennae moniliform, advancing beyond the middle of
the fnout. Mouth furnifhed with a ftraight, cylin¬
drical fnout, which projects confiderably.
* Thighs Jimple-
iarbievr- Cylindrical •, fnout very long, bearded beneath ; the
nis. elytra lengthened out and elevated. 1. Native of New
Zealand. " Snout longer than the body j antennae {hort¬
er than the fnout, placed near the tip *, eyes globular,
black •, thorax cylindrical, black with gray hairs 5 ely¬
tra ftreaked and dotted, with furrowed fpots ; leg's black,
with gray hairs.
* * Thighs dentated.
anchor ago.
Linear j the elytra ftriped with yellow: thorax
lengthened. N"ative of South America and India.
This genus includes 11 fpecies.
27. CuRCULXO, Diamond-beetle.
Antennae clavated, placed upon the fnout, which is
formed of a horny fubftance, and prominent. Feelers
four, filiform.
This beautiful and numerous genus is divided into
five fubdivifiohs : their larvae have a fcaly head, and fix
fcaly legs. Thofe of the long-fnouted ones are moft
The thorax and elytra rough. Antennm white atgig&s.
the tips. Native of Japan. Snout cylindrical, long,
arched, brown on the fore part, of an afh-colour be¬
hind ; thorax round, brown, rough, with raifed (harp
points 5 elytra rough, gray, with icattered brown and
white dots. ■
Black ; thorax flat and dotted, with a line flightly krachy
elevated •, elytra ftiortened and fomewhat ftripped : the p ter os.
intervals dotted. 555. Native of Europe.
Black ; the elytra marked with white dots fet in regu- unda.us.
lar rows, and with white interrupted waved bands.
556. Native of Europe.
Scarlet *, the elytra marked with ten rows of dots, coccineus,
558. Native of Europe.
Black ; the elytra of a violet colour ; the fcutellum cyaneus.
white. 5. Native of Europe, particularly on the wil¬
low.
Black above ; afti-coloured below, and hunch-back- cruccce.
ed. 6. Native of Europe j feeds on the feeds of the
vetch ; it is very fmall.
Gray 5 the elytra and legs reddifh brown. 101. i\a- # malvcc*
tive of" England, on the mallow. The fnout and abdo¬
men black.
The fnout and thorax red ; the elytra of a violet roboris.
colour. 103. Native of Europe, on the oak.
Black •, with the abdomen oval. 13. Native of the acrid ulus.
north of Europe, frequently to be met with on plants of
the clafs tetradynamia.
Of a blood-colour. 15. Native of Europe, and very frtmenta-
deftruftive to corn which has been long kept. rius.
Black } the thorax dotted, and of the fame length
with the elytra •, the elytra marked with txvo red fpots.
This fpecies is very deftru&ive to rice kept in gra-
naries. , j j r
Weevil or Bond. Black *, the thorax dotted, and ot * gramri
the fame length with the elytra. 16. This deftruaiye uu
little animal does much mifehief in granaries, and in
bifeuit kept in ware-houfes, or on (hip-board. Woad,
henbane, and elder, are faid to drive them away from
grain which has been infefted by them, and, on that
account, is fometimes mixed with the grain.
The elytra of a brick colour, with cloudy bands. 19. * pnl
Native of Europe 5 in the bark of the pinus fyl-
vejlns.
Black, fprinkled with green : fnout black and bent, Cynara.
fomewhat refembling a keel. 121. Native of Africa,
and the fouth of Europe : on the flowers of the arti¬
choke.
Cylindrical and a(h coloured j the elytra fet with *para])la
J fhnrn . * 
Coleoptera. E N T O M 0 L 0 G Y.
fliarp points. 34. Native of Europe; on umbellife¬
rous plants, particularly on the pheUandrUm aquaticum ;
in the (talks of which the larva is frequently lodged,
and is fuppofed to be the caufe of the flaggers in
horfes.
bardance. Cylindrical; covered with a gray down ; the fore¬
legs long. 152. Native of Europe, on the burdock
When old, it lofes the gray down, and becomes fmooth
and black.
bacchus. Of a bright copper-colour ; fnout and feebblack. 38.
Native of the fouth of Europe, on the vine and hazel.
Somewhat hairy above.
frugilegus. Oblong 5 of a chefnut colour j the elytra equalling
the thorax, marked with four red fpots. Native of
South America and India. It is fmall, and very de-
ftruftive to grain.
f f Hind thighs thickened. Saltatorii.
* quercus. Pale yellow j eyes black. 25. Native of Europe j
on the willow, elm, and oak, the leaves of which it
frequently covers with blotches, by infmuating itfelf
within the cuticle. It is about the flze of the pediculus
humanus.
fegetis. Body black j elytra oblong. 43. Native of Europe \
on the ears of corn.
fff Thighs dentated.
Oterrims. Black ; the elytra fhining. 10. Native of Europe;
very frequent on plants of different kinds.
* cerafi. Black ; the elytra opaque and oblong. 11. Native
of Europe ; on the leaves of the cherry and pear-tree,
the cuticle of which it eats.
&c.; legs rcddilh ; body Covered with oblong fcales of
Various colours ; elytra ftriated, punctured.
Downy, brown ; the thighs acutely dentated ; anten- *tnali.
nac and legs brownifh. 308, Native of Europe ; on
the apple-tree.
ff Thighi fmooth.
The thorax marked with lines ; the elytra of an ?A\-poiggoni.
colour, marked with little brown lines; the future
brown, dotted with black. 26. Native of Europe ;
on the polygonum.
Above, browniih-gray ; beneath, afli-coloured ; fnout *grifcus\
grooved.. 335. Native of Britain.
Blackifti; the ^elytra gray, marked with two white * triguttai-
fpots, and with a larger one behind, which is common tus.
to both elytra. 336. Native of Britain.
I he elytra marked with black elevated ftripes, ^wdiimperialk^
V'ith. bright green and gold dotted furrows alternately,
fwelling out at their bale, and drawing to a point at
their tips. 349. Native of South America. It is
very large, and the moft beautiful infedt hitherto
known; commonly known by the name of the diamond-
beetle.
Body green, filky, ftriped with broad gold bands, rcgalis.
75" Native of South America. The thighs brown,
marked with a golden ring.
Oblong, brown; the back part of the thorax flat. * incamts*
81. Native of Europe ; common in fir.
616 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laff edition of the Syftem of Nature.
^pomonum The thighs of the fore-legs dentated ; body gray,
clouded. 46. Native of Europe, on the flowers of
fruit-trees.
* caligino
Jus.
* germa¬
tins,
* nucum.
^ferophu-
hrice.
, The ftreaks of the elytra approaching one another,
and dotted. 243* Native of Britain, but rare. Body
oblong, entirely black, opaque ; thorax round and
punctured; elytra with deep approximate ftriac in pairs;
thighs lharply dentated.
Black ; the thorax marked with twn reddilh dots
on eacli fide. 58. Native of Europe; very common
in Germany. It is amongft the largeft of this genus that
is to be met with in Europe.
Body gray, of the fame length with the fnout. 59.
Native of Europe; frequently to be found in hazel-nuts.
The elytra marked with two black fpots fituated
near the future. 61. Native of Europe; on the fig-
wort, the capfules of which the larvae confume, and fub-
ftitute in their place brown follicles.
'* * Brevirojires.
f Thighs dentated.
fpe&abihs. The body variegated with green and black. 208.
Native of New Holland.
Black ; the thighs faintly dentated; the thorax and
elytra fmooth, fpotted with brown. 301. Native of
Europe; large, fmooth.
J he abdomen oval and black ; the legs and antennas
reddifh. 69. Native of Europe ; in orchards.
Yellowifh-brown. 72. Native of Europe. The
larva feeds on the leaves of the pear tree ; the perfect
infeft on the flowers of the pear and of the plum.
J he colour varies; fometimes it is bronzed, red, green.
VOL. VIII. Part I. s
fufeo-ma-
culatus.
bvatus.
*P!jri.
28. Rhinomacer.
Antennas fetaceous, placed upon the fnout. Feelefs
four, thicker towards their exterior fide.
Covered with gray down ; antennae and legs black. rwWmf-
1. Native of Italy. 0 ^
Covered with black hair ; ^ antennae 'and legs reddifti. attelaboi~
2. Native (ff Europe ; in pine-forefts. des.
Blue fomewhat hairy ; bafe of the antenna: and Wizccerulcus^
legs yellow. 3. Native of Europe.
Only three fpecies of this genus have been deferibed.
29. Attelabus,
Head drawn to a point on the hind part, and inclined.
Antennae moniliform, the articulations towards the
point thicker than the reft.
* Jaw bifid.
Black, the elytra red and reticulated, f. Native * corfih
ot Europe; on the leaves of the hazel, which it rolls up
into cylinders and flints up at both ends. ^
Black ; legs formed for leaping. 7. Native of* betuU,
Europe ; on the leaves of the birch, which it renders
beautifully curled by its gnawing. It leaps very nim-
juiu jumijnea with one tooth,
f The pojferior feelers hatchei-Jhaped. Cleri,
Black ; the elytra marked with three white bands, and/W/W
red at the bafe. 19. Native of Europe.
Black ; thorax reddilh ; elytra red, white at the bafe. * formica
^ and rius.
i6i
E N T O M O L O G Y.
and marked rvich two wdiite bands. 8. Native of
Europe : it deflroys the ptinus pertinax and many other
infects.
apiarius. Bluifh j the elytra red, marked with three black
bands. 10. Native of Europe and America. The
larva is frequently to be met with in bee-hives, the
perfeft infect on tlowers. It is double the fize of the
J'ormicarius.
f f Feelers four, nearly filiform. Spondilldes.
ceramboi- Black ; the elytra full of wrinkles, and broader than
des. the thorax. 12. Native of Europe, in the boletus
fomentarius.
bttprejioi- Black *, the elytra very much ribbed y the thorax al-
dcs. molt globular. 13. Native of Europe, in woods.
There are 34 fpecies of this genus.
30. Notoxus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, hatchet-fhaped. Jaw
furnifhed with one tooth.
* mollis. Downy ; the elytra black, marked. with three pale
bands. 3. Native of Europe •, on. flowers.
* monoce- Thorax projecting over the head like a horn •, elytra
ros. pale, marked with a black band and dot. 4. Native
of Europe, on umbelliferous plants.
There are four fpecies of this genus.
31. Cerambyx.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers four. Thorax prickly or
turgid. Elytra linear.
This is a very beautiful and finely variegated family.
The larvae referable foft, oblong, (lender worms, with
a. fcaty head and hard legs on the fore part. They
bore through the inner part of trees, pulverifing the
wood, and are transformed into perfedt infects in the
cavities they make. Many of them diffufe a ftrong
fmell, perceiveable at a great diftance; and fome, when
taken, utter a fort of cry, produced by the friction of
the thorax on the upper part of the abdomen and ely¬
tra.
'* Feelers four, equal.
a. Filiform.
f Jaw cylindrical, entire. Prioni.
a. The Thorax furnifhed with moveable fpines.
irochlearis The elytra variegated with a dark colour and white,
with railed' dots. 2. Native of India. ^
lougima- The elytra marked with a fmall projection at their
nus. bafe, and with two at the tip 5 the an ten nee long. x.
Native of South America. The (hanks of the fore-legs,
in the male, are very long.
b. Thorax marginnted.
eervicor- The thorax with three little projections on each fide ;
sis.- the jaw's (Iretched out, and furnifhed with one fpine on
their outfide •, the antennae (hort. 3. Native of
America. The larva is found in the wood of the bom-
bax. It is eatable, and reckcned a delicacy by the na¬
tives,.
Ccleoptera.
The thorax furniftxed with four (mail projections on armillatus,
each fide •, the elytra ruity-coloured, edged with black ;
the thighs of the hind-legs marked wuth a little projec¬
tion. 4. Native of India ; very large.
Thorax furnifhed with very fmall projections ; the damicornis
jaws ftretching out, and furnifhed with two teeth ; the
antennae (hort. 86. Native of South America. The
larva is eaten by the natives, and much relithed.
The thorax wrinkly and marked on each fide with nfaber.
fmall projection j the elytra black •, the antennae of a
middling length. 6. Native of Europe •, in wood.
Thorax marked with three fmall projections*, body * coriarius
black ; the elytra furniflred with (harp points } antennae
(horter than the body. 7. Native of Europe ; on de¬
cayed birch-trees. It produces large, oblong, yellowilh
egg8-
f j- Jaiv obtufe, furnifhed with one tooth. Cerambyces.
Thorax prickly *, elytra formed like the roof of a nebulofus.
houfe, marked with black bands and dots 5 the antennae
longer than the body. 29. Native of Europe 5 in
the Items of fir-trees, which it kills by confirming the
inner bark.
Thorax prickly *, elytra entire, marked with ihretfafcicula-
prickly dots ; the antennae of the fame length with the tus.
body. 106. Native of Europe.
Thorax prickly •, elytra whitiftiat their anterior part,* hifpidus.
and furnifhed with two fmall projections at their tips 5
the antennae of the fame length with the body, and
rough. 30. Native of Europe.
Green (liining } thorax prickly ; antennae blue, and * mofeha-
of the fame length with the body. 34. Native oltus..
Europe; on the willowu The colour of the antennae
and legs varies from a blue to a brown. The living in-
feCt has a fmell of mu(k, wThich is faid to have a fopo-
rific effeCt. It produces wdiite eggs. 1 he green colour
of this infeCt is fometimes tinged with blue, and at other
times it is entirely blue and gold. The fmell it diffufes,
is imagined by fome to referable the fmell of a rofe, and
frequently pervades a whole meadow, where the infeCt
happens to be plentiful.
Black ; the thorax prickly and wrinkled ; the elytra her os.
fomewhat prickly and reddifh brown : antennae long.
128. Native of Europe ; on the oak.
-j- f f Jaw divided.
* Horny. Lamise.
Thorax prickly ; elytra black, w ith rufty-coloured^/or.
foots ; fcutellum yellow ; antennae very long. 38. Na¬
tive of Europe ; in woods.
Black *, thorax prickly *, fcutellum bright yellow far tor.
elytra without fpots-; antennae very long. 159. Na¬
tive of Europe ; larger than the preceding fpecies.
Thorax prickly ; elytra black and convex ; antenna3 text or.
of the fame length, with the body. 41. Native of
Europe ; on trunks of trees.
Black ; thorax fomewhat prickly ; elytra ?&\-oe\oxxs-fuliginaior
cd ; antennae (hort. 43. Native of Europe. When
old, it becomes entirely black. It is met with in wool,
after it has been cut from the (keep.
Thorax prickly, and marked with green bands ; the regahs.
elytra fprinkled with green,with ihxee tawney fpots. 167.
Native of Africa. Antennae longer than the body,.,
black ; head beneath lined with green } a tawney fpot
under
Cokoptera. ENTOMOLOGY. 163
under the eyes } thorax black, with three impreffed
green bands j elytra fomewhat ftriated ; black, fprinkled
with green ; abdomen with a white line of tawney dots
on each ftde.
* * Membranaceous. Saperdse.
carcharias Thorax fmooth, cylindrical; body gray, dotted with
black j antennae of the fame length with the body. 52.
Native of Europe.
cardui. Of a dufky colour 5 thorax marked with lines ; fcu-
tellum yellow ; antennae long. 56. Native of Europe j
on Untiles, injuring them much in the month of May.
Body brown, fpeckled with yellow 5 thorax marked
with three yellow lines.
' populne- Thorax without fpines, cylindrical, yellow, and
us. marked with lines ; elytra marked with four yellow
dots; antennae of the fame length with the body. 57.
Native of Europe 5 on the poplar. Body brown 5 an¬
tennae variegated with black and white.
* cylindn- Cylindrical, black •, fore-legs yellow. 5. Native of
cus. Europe 5 on the pear and plum-tree.
/3, Feelers capitated. Rhagia.
curfor. Thorax prickly ; elytra obtufe and redd iff, marked
with a black line, and black along the future ; antenna;
of the fame length with the body. 45. Native of
Europe.
*anglicus. Thorax prickly ; elytra marked -with two oblique
yellow bands. 237. Native of Britain.
inquijitor. Black 5 thorax prickly ) elytra clouded with brick-
coloured llripes} antennae Ihorter than the body. 49.
Native of Europe, on the trunks of trees. The larva
has fix feet, and is naked j white 5 head and collar
horny, brown ; back grooved.
elegans. Black ; thorax with a fpine on each fide j elytra
chefnut-coloured $ their bafe future, and a fpot on each,
are black ; they are likewife marked with twro yellow
bands. 242. Native of Europe.
y. Feelers c lav a ted. Callidia.
* rujlicus. Thorax naked ; body pale ; the antennae tapering,
and fhorter than the body. 67. Native of Europe $
in woods.
luridus. Thorax naked and furnifned with knobs, black; the
elytra of a brick colour. 68. Native of Europe ; in
fir-woods.
*vwlaceus The thorax fomewhat downy; body of a violet
colour ; antennae fliorter than the body. 70. Native
of Europe ; chiefly in fir-timber, which has been cut
down fome time, and which has not been ftripped of
its bark. It bores ferpentine cavities between the bark
and the wood, which are larger in diameter as the infeft
increafes in fize, filling the ipace it leaves behind with
its excrement, which refembles faw-dult. Body dark
violet," a little hairy ; antennae hardly as long as the
body, hairy ; fternum with a fmall projefting point;
elytra linear, round at the tip, turgid at the bafe. It
varies in having the head and thorax, and even the body,
green ifli.
bajidus. Thorax hairy, marked with twro protuberances; body
brown. 76. Native of Europe, on the trunks of trees,
in timber, in houfes, perforating the joifts, particularly
thofe that have been formed of fir-timber.
* * Feelers unequal; the anterior pair filiform, the pofie-
rior clavated. Stenocori Fabricii.
Thorax flightly prickly; elytra formed like the roof* ?neridia*
of a houfe ; the anterior part of them reddifh brown ; nus.
the bread ihining. 47. Native of Europe. Male of a
brick colour, female blackilh ; larva lives under ground,
and has very long legs.
379 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
lad edition of the Syitem of Nature.
32. Calopus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four; the sftiterior ones
clavated; the pofierlor filiform. Thorax turgid.
Elytra narrow, and of an equal breadth throughout
their whole length.
Brown; the antennae comprelfed. 1. A native of * fierr at i~
Europe ; it is long, and cylindrical. cornis.
Very fmall, brown ; the antenna; ferrated and \\2l\xy.pygmeeus.
3. A native of Europe ; about the fize of a flea.
There are three fpecies deferibed in the lad edition
of the Syltein of Nature.
33. Leptura.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers four, filiform. Elytra
growing fmaller towards the tip. Thorax fomewhat
tapering.
* Lip entire. Donacia of Fabricius.
Of a golden colour ; the thighs of the hind legs clava- * aquatica.
ted and notched. 1. A native of Europe ; on aquatic
plants, on the water-lily, phellandrum aquaticum, at the
roots of which the pupa may be found enclofed in brown
globes. The thighs of the hind-legs are fometimes
without notches. Antennae blackilb, the joints pale,
reddifh at the tip ; head with a little down on the middle;
thorax grooved ; elytra Ifreaked, dotted, and terminating
abruptly, with ihort appendages at each margin ; body
beneath downy5 legs dull, brownifli red.
Of a golden colour ; the thighs Ample. 17. A na-*fimplex.
live of Britain ; on aquatic plants.
Shining green golden colour ; the elytra marked with nit id a.
dotted ftreaks and with crenated wrinkles, likewife with
a bright purple and green fillet; the abdomen, antennae,
and legs, of a golden colour ; the thighs of the hind legs
notched. 88. A native of Europe.
Silvery green ; the elytra marked with dotted ftreaks, vulgaris.
crenated wrinkles, with a broad green and purple fillet
common to both elytra; the head, abdomen, and legs,
of a golden colour ; the thighs of the hind-legs without
notches. 89. A native of Europe.
* * Lip bifid. Leptime.
A. The Thorax on the fore part fojnewhat oblong and
narrow.
Black; the elytra reddifh, with a black dot in theunipunBt*
middle. 22. A native of Europe. ta.
Black ; elytra red, black at the tips and at the fu- hafiata.
ture. 23. A native of Europe. The abdomen is
reddilh in the male, which is fmaller than the female.
X 2 Black ;
Coleoptera.
154 ENTOMOLOGY.
melanura. Black j the elytra reddilh or livid, black at the tips
and at the future. 2. A native of Europe ) the elytra
are black at the tips in the male, in the female they are
all of one colour.
rubra. Black j the thorax, the elytra, and (hank of the legs,
purple. 3. A native of Europe j on dowers.
vilhca. Of a rufty colour j the antennae, elytra, and bread,
dark brown. 28. A native of Britain.
fplsndida. Black ; covered with yellow hairs } the elytra fmooth
at the tips j the legs tawney j antennae brown, and of a
jrufty colour at the bafe. 49. A native of Europe.
fiifipeSj, Black; the legs reddifli j the thighs red at the bafe.
52'. A native of Europe j frequently to be met with
in the month of May, on the buckthorn, the dog-wood,
and hawthorn.
B. The Thorax nearly globular, and not attenuated
on its anterior part i the Elytra blunt at the tips, but
not truncated.
* Virginia. The thorax globular and black j the elytra of a red-
dilh colour j the abdomen reddilh. 15. A native of
Europe.
^ collaris. The thorax globular and red; the abdomen red )
and the elytra black. 16. A native of Europe.
bipartita. Black j the thorax of a rudy colour, marked with a
longitudinal black line j the elytra marked with a rudy-
coloured fpot, common to both of them. 71. A na¬
tive of Europe.
Ttitens, The thorax globular, Avhich, as well as the abdomen,
is of a drilling black, covered with a yellow down •, the
elytra black \ marked with four broad tranfverfe yellow
bands •, the legs of a rudy colour. 67. A native of
America.
100 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by
Gmelin, in the lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
34, Necydalis, Carrion-Eater.
Antennae either fetaceous or filiform. Feelers four,
filiform. Elytra fmaller, diorter, or narrower than
the Avings. Tail fimple.
^Antennce fetaceous ; Elytra fkorter than the wings or
abdomen.
^ major. The elytra of a rudy colour, Avithout fpots ; the anten¬
nae diorter than the body. 1. A native of Europe.
* minor. The elytra reddidi brown, Avith a fmall line at the
top y the antennae larger than the body. 2. A native
of Europe.
* umbel la- The elytra of a brick colour, without fpots ; the anten-
iarum. nae long. 3. A native of Europe j on umbelliferous plants.
* * Antennce filiform ; the Elytra growing narrower
towards the tips, and of the fame length with the ab¬
domen.
'* viridifii- The thorax fomewhat tapering j body green. 13.
mus. A native of Europe ; very frequent in gardens.
* humira- The elytra black, yelloAV at the bafe. 18. A na-
Us. tive of Britain.
melanura. Black , the thorax and elytra reddidi broivn; the
latter are black at the tips. 20. A native of Europe j
on plants of different kinds.
26 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
35. Lampyris, Fire-Tly,
Antennae filiform. Feelers four. Elytra flexible*
Thorax flat, hemifpherical, furrounding and conceal¬
ing the head under it. The fides of the abdomen
furnidied Avith folded papillae. The female in mod
of the fpecies Avithout Avings,
* Eeelers nearly clavated.
Glow-worm. Oblong, broAvn ; diicld afli-coloured. *noldiluca,-
1. A native of Europe j in woods and meadoAVS.
The female is larger than the male, and emits a beauti¬
ful phofphoric light, for the purpofe of attrafling the
male. It is apparent that their diining light depends
on a fluid placed near the extremity of the abdomen }
the light becomes brighter, and of a finer green colour,
Avhen the infedt is in motion. The little animal can
AvithdraAV the light at pleafure by contradling itfelf.
Though the infect be bruifed, the light continues for a
confiderable time.
Dufky black 5 the fliield marked, on both fides, with corufea.
a circular rofe-coloured fpot. 2. A native of North
America.
Oblong, broAvn j the fliield refembling glafs at thefp/endidula
tip. 3. A native of Europe 5 in Avoods, This has
been thought only a variety of the noEhluca ; it is pecu¬
liarly refplendent in (howery Aveather. The female
emits the brighter light, particularly Avhen pregnant.
The (hield reddiih, and black in the middle *, t\\epyralis,
elytra black, Avith a wrhite edge j the abdomen Avhite.
4.- A native of the fouth of America.
YcIIoav •, the third fegment of the abdomen from ihcjaponicsi
anus is black. 22. A nath^e of Japan •, very plenti¬
ful in the months of May and June ; diffufing a very
ftrong light from tAVo fmall bags at its tail, filled with
air •, eyes, antennae, and Avings black.
The elytra brown ; the thorax tranfverfe, red. 11. italiccu
A native of Italy and SAvitzerland } on trees 5 lefs than
the reft of the genus \ brown *, the laft tAvo fegments
of the abdomen yellow \ the bread and legs pale yel¬
low , the female black.
* * Feelers nearly filiform.
Black ; the fides of the thorax and elytra of a bloodfanguinea,
colour. 17. A native of Europe •, in (tony ground.
Black •, the thorax and elytra of a brick colour 3 an-peflinicor-
tennae pedHnated. 34. A native of Europe. nis.
Black ; the thorax and elytra of a blood colour, and * coccinea.
Avithout fpots. 18. A native of Europe 3 in hedges 3
head fometimes reddifli, the elytra fometimes ftriated.
* * * Feelers with the lafi joint thicker than the refi,
and terminating abruptly. Lyei.
YcHoav 3 elytra with a black marginal fpot, and latiffima.
black behind, the lateral margin very much dilated.
14. A native of Sierra Leona. Mouth cylindrical,
prominent 3 body narroAver before, and very Avide be¬
hind ; antennae ferrated.
Black ; thorax orbicular, and Avith the elytra red, atra,
marked Avith an impreffed black fpot on the back. 44.
A native of Europe.
Forty-four fpecies..
3.6
CoJeoptera.
tejlacea.
iermcjlai-
des.
rnuticus.
tejlaceus.
quadratics.
.
*fufca.
marginella
media.
' hcenuito-
fioma.
bigut tat a.
cardiac#.
hijirio.
ENTOMOLOGY.
36. Horia.
iVntennse moniliiorm. Feelers four, thicker towards
their outer fide. Lip linear, rounded at the tip.
Reddilh j antennae and legs black. 1. A native
of Tranquebar •, the hind thigh of the male thickened,
and grooved beneath, and marked with a little projec¬
tion.
Reddifh brown } eyes, wings, and breaft black. 2.
A native of Europe.
There are only two fpecies of this genus defcribed.
37. Cucujus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, equal •, the lait articu¬
lation terminating abruptly, and thicker than the
reft. Lip ftiort, bifid j the divifions linear, and dif-
tant from one another. Body depreffed.
Thorax unarmed, black, with an imprefled dot on
each fide 3 elytra ftriated, brown. 2. A native of
Europe 3 black.
Of a brick colour 3 thorax nearly fquare, unarmed ;
thighs compreffed. 3. A native of Europe, under the
bark of the birch tree.
Black j the thorax fquare, notch behind marked
with tubercles in the middle, and wrinkled on the ex¬
ternal edge, clavated on the anterior part 3 the antennm
brown 3 the legs and elytra fimple and reddiih. A
native of Europe.
Eleven fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
38. Cantharis.
Antennae filiform. Thorax (for the moft part) mar-
ginated, and ftiorter than the head. Elytra flexible.
Sides of the abdomen edged with folded papillae.
* Feelers four, hatchet-Jhaped.
This is an extremely rapacious genus, preying on
other infects, and even on its own tribe 3 thofe of the
divifion lymexylon only, both in the grub and perfect
ftate, feed on green wood.
Thorax red, with a black fpot 3 elytra brown. 2.
A native of Europe 3 in hedges 3 moft; rapacious, and
devouring its own fpecies.
Reddiih 3 the abdomen black and marginated 3 the
back part of the head, eyes, and breaft yellow. 73. A
native of Europe.
Brown 3 the thorax, head, bafe of the antennae, the
fides and tip of the abdomen, and the legs reddilh. 14,
A native of Europe.
Black 3 mouth and abdomen red. 75. A native of
Europe.
The middle of the thorax black 3 the elytra fhorten-
ed, black and yellow at the tip. II. A native of
Europe 3 in groves and gardens.
The thorax fomewhat marginated ; body black 3 an-
tennne pectinated ; the elytra marked with a blood-co¬
loured dot at the tip. 13. A native of Europe3 on the
leonurus cardiaca.
Black 3 the thorax, the bafe of the antennae, pof-
6S
terior bafe of the fegments of the abdomen, and legs
yellow, with a brown fpot on the thorax. 82. A na¬
tive of Europe.
* * Feelers filiform, the lafi articulation fetaceous. Ma~
lachii.
Bright greenifh yellow 3 the upper furface of the * area,
elytra red. 7. A native of Europe 3 on plants. It is
furnilhed with two tentacula at the bafe of the abdomen,
of a blood colour, blunt, and connected at the bafe 3 like-
wife two on the thorax which can be ftretched out.
There is a fmaller variety, with the elytra wholly of a
blood colour.
Bright yellowifh green 3 the elytra red at the tips. * bipufiu*
8. A native of Europe. lata.
Black 3 the thorax and tips of the elytra red. 86. hamercu-
A native of Europe. dales.
Thorax red, emarginated 3 elytra blue and fmooth 3 cryfomilos.-
antennae and legs black. 63. A native of France 3 des.
when touched under the breaft, it contracts its head and
body 3 -when let at liberty it runs off very quickly.
* * * The anterior feelers fir etched out; the lafi arti¬
culation but one, is enlarged with a large ovalfiplit
appendage; the lafi articulation arched, and acute.
Lymexylon.
Black 3 the elytra light brown, and black at the tip ^probofei^
the feelers hooked, and irregular. 69. A native oi (lea^
Europe 3 in timber.
Brown 3 the antennae and lhanks of the legs black, barbata.
70. A native of Europe 3 in timber 3 covered with
gloffy down of a changeable hue 3 antennae and legs
paler.
The thorax fomewhat tapering; body yellow 3 the * navalis.
margin and tips of the elytra black. 26. A native of
Europe 3 in the timber of the oak, to which it is very
deftruCtive.
Eighty-fix fpecies of this genus have been defcribed
in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
39. Serropalpus.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers four, unequal 3 the ante¬
rior one longer than the reft, and deeply ferrated 3 :
four articulations, the laft one very large, termina¬
ting abruptly, compreffed, and like a plate 3 the pof-
terior one nearly clavated. Thorax marginated, the
anterior one receiving the head, with a prominent
angle on each fide. Head bent down. Legs formed
for digging.
Body brown 3 the elytra ftriated. A native of the ftriatus,
ifiand of Runfala 3 found on old wooden building \xi
autumn.
Body black 3 the elytra fmooth. 2. A native of/..-,/™,,.,.
Europe. ixvigam,
40. ElateR, Skipper.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, hatchet-fiiaped. Un¬
der fide of the thorax terminating in an elaftic fpine,
coming out from a cavity of the abdomen 3 by which
means the body, when placed on the back, fprings up
and recovers its natural pofture.
Brown. 3.
Coleoptera,
ENTOMOLOGY.
166
'fJabclhcor- Brown; antennas with a fan-fhaped tuft of eight
nis. large black leaves, x. A native of India. This is one
-of the largeft of the genus} the antennae fhort.
noBilucus. Sides of the thorax marked with a fmooth yellow
fpot. 4. A native of America. This infedt, hke the
lampyris and fu/gora, affords a ftrong phofphoric liglit
in the night time, the ftreams of which are fo ftrong,
that a perfon may fee to read the fmalleft print. When
placed on its back, it vdll fpring four- or five inches
from the level on which it is put, to recover its natural
pofition •, the abdomen when removed from the body is
luminous internally.
pJiofphore- Brown •, the thorax marked on its pofterior part with
us. two fmooth yellow' fpots. 5. A native of South America,
refembling the noBiluca very much, but only half the
fize, although confiderably larger than the fpecies to be
found in Europe ; the fpots of the thorax thine in the
night light like the preceding fpecies.
bipujlulata Black, Ihining *, the elytra marked with a black
dot at the bafe. 9. A native of Europe, on pafture
grounds.
'* brunnius The thorax reddifh, and black in the middle ; the
elytra and body of a nifty colour. 10. A native of
Europe \ in gardens.
* cruciatus The thorax black, rufty-coloured on the fides ; the
elytra yellow', marked with a black crofs, and black on
the edges. 12. A native of Europe $ on pafture
grounds.
'* pvjicollis Black *, the hind part of the thorax red, and fliining.
14. A native of Europe ; on grafs land.
?nefomelos. The thorax and edge of the elytra of a nifty colour $
body and elytra black. 16. A native of Europe ;
larva fix-footed, filiform, and hardilh, furniflied with a
horny (hield at the tail, notched at the fides, and fur-
nifhed beneath with a conical hollow tubercle in form
of a leg on the under fide. It is common in decayed
wood.
* atern- Thorax black and ftiining; the elytra ftriated and
thus. black. 17. A native of Europe.
*cajlaneus The thorax reddifh and downy ; the elytra yellow,
and black at the tip. 13. A native of Europe ; in
low grounds.
^fangui- Black ; elytra of a blood colour. 21. A native of
?ieus. Europe ; in grafs lands. The tip of the elytra black.
—A larger variety is found with the thorax doxvny
and tawney ; the elytra of a deep colour, and marked
Avith a faint black blotch at the bafe.
Jegetis. Black; the antennae and feet brown; the elytra
marked w'ith longitudinal black and brown lines. 114.
A native of Europe ; at the roots of corn. The larva
deftroys the fields, efpecially in dry feafons; it is a long
' time before it undergoes its metamorphofis.
funereus. Reddifli; the elytra ftriated; head brown. 144.
A native cf Europe.
*obfcurus. Of a rufty colour ; head and thorax brown, the latter,
together with the elytra and legs, are of a brick colour.
146. A native of Europe.
149 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
ClCINDELA, the Sparb/er.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers fix, filiform ; the pofterior
ones hairy. The jaws prominent and many-toothed.
Eyes prominent. Thorax rounded and marginated.
* Lip divided into three little projeBions.
This is, in general, a very beautiful genus of infetts ;
they are found in dry fandy places, and prey with the
moft’ ravenous ferocity upon all other infcdls which
come in their way, and which they can overcome. The
larva is foft, white, long, and has fix feet, with a brown
fcaly head ; and lurks in a round perpendicular hole in
the ground, with its head at the entrance, to draw' in,
and devour whatever infects may come near, or fall into
it.
Green; the elytra marked with five white dots. 1. * cctmpef-
A native of Europe ; in fandy plains. The upper part tris.
of the antennae brown, the under part red; thorax a
little angular, rough ; elytra irregularly dotted ; upper
lip w hite ; jaws projecting, ftiarp ; legs red, with a
coppery tinge.
Purple ; the elytra marked with a white band, and * hybrida:
two w'hite circular dots. 2. A native of Europe ; in
fandy places.
Of a copper colour ; the elytra green, marked w ith a germanic*
w'hite fpot, like a crefcent, at the tip. 4. A native of
Europe. It varies in colour, being fometimes blue,
green, or black.
Black, above bright brown ; the elytra with lateral danica.
ftrite at a good diftance from one another. 40. A na¬
tive of Europe.
Black, on the upper part nearly of the colour ofpunBata.
brafs ; the elytra ftriated, marked with four imprefled
dots; legs a yellowifti brown. 41. A native of
Europe.
Of a rufty colour ; legs, elytra, head, and thoraxferrugine*
reddifti; the latter green behind; the elytra are
marked with a waved green band, and have a green
future. 49. A native of Europe ; in water. Head
two-lobed behind ; lip white ; thorax jagged on the
fore part; it has no fcutellum ; elytra w'ith each 15
punctured ftriaj, and three fpots at the bafe near the
anterior margin.
* * Lip rounded, pointed, entire. Elaphrus.
Of a bright greeniffi yellow ; the elytra marked with * riparia.
broad concave points. 10. A native of Europe; in
moift places.
Of an obfeure brafs colour; the elytra fomewhat * flavipes.
cloudy, legs yellow. 11. A native of Europe; on
banks. The elytra are fometimes dotted; antennas
black, the firft joint yellow; thorax rounded, and
grooved on the back.
Black; the elytra brown, marked with tW'o palecjuadrima-
fpots, the ftianks of the legs reddifti. 13. A native culata.
of Europe.
Of a bright brafs colour, polifiled; head ftriated.
14. A native of Europe ; common in water.
48 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
42. Buprestis, the Cow-burner.
Antennas filiform, ferrated, and of the fame length with
the thorax. Feelers four, filiform ; the laft articula¬
tion obtufe and terminating abruptly. Head half
drawn back within the thorax.
This is a genus remarkable for its lich metallic co¬
lours,
Coleoptera.
lours, having frequently the appearance of the moll
highly polilhed gold or copper ; the larvre are ufually
found among timber, and in decayed trees.
vittata. The elytra dotted, and furnilhed with two little pro¬
jections 5 they are likewife marked with four elevated
lines, and with a broad fillet of green and gold. 33.
A native of India.
fajluofa. The elytra terminating abruptly, furnillied with two
fmall projections, green, and marked with dotted ftrite ;
the back is of a bright golden colour. 34. A native
of America.
berolinen- The elytra variegated with green and black, and fur-
Jis. milled with two fmall projections ; the anus is furnilhed
with three fmall projections. 36. A native of Eu¬
rope.
oEloguttata The elytra formed like the roof of a houfe, and def-
titute of projections, marked with four white fpots 5
body blue. 2. A native of Europe ; in groves.
tnaculofa. The elytra black, itriated, furnilhed with projections,
and terminating abruptly, marked with four yellow
fpots. 50. A native of Europe ; of a middle fize.
Head and abdomen green and gold 5 the legs and tho¬
rax black 5 the edge of the latter yellowu
mariana. The elytra are ferrated, and marked with longitudi¬
nal wrinkles, likewife with two impreffed fpots 5. the
thorax furrowed. 6. A native of Europe.
* chryfo- The elytra are ferrated, marked with two golden im-
Jligma. preffed fpots, and longitudinal furrows ; the thorax dot¬
ted. 7. A native of Europe.
* rujlica. The elytra formed like the roof of a houfe, and ftri-
ated ; the thorax dotted. 8. A native of Europe 5. in
groves.
* fulids. Shining green ; the elytra entire, of a golden colour,
and green at the bafe. 85. A native of Europe ; on
the willow.
120 fpecies of this genus have been dfcfcribed in the
lalt edition of the Syltem of Nature.
43. HYDROrHILUS.
Antennae clavated 5 the club perforated. Feelers four,
filiform. The hind-legs hairy, formed for fwimming,
and almoft deltitute of nails or claws.
The infeCts of this and the next genus, dytifcus, are
inhabitants of ponds and ftagnant waters, where they
fwim with much dexterity, turning round with great
velocity. They fly. abroad by night in fearch of other
waters. The males are diftinguifhed from the females,
by having a horny concave flap or fhield on the fore¬
legs, near the fettirig-on of the feet 5 the hind-legs are
peculiarly fitted for their aquatic fituation, being fur-
niihed on the inner fide with a feries of long and clofe-
fet filaments, refembling a fin, by which they are ena¬
bled to fwim with great eafe and celerity. The larva;
remain about two years and a half before they change
into pupce, forming a convenient cell, and fecreting
themfelves in fome bank} are extremely voracious
and deftruClive to the more tender aquatic infeCts,
worms, and young fifh, w'hieh they ravenoufly feize
with their forked jaws, and deitroy by fucking out their
juice.
pceus. ^ Water-dock. Black 5 breaft grooved, with a long
fpine pointing backwards, x. A native of Europe.
167
The larva appears to have its legs feated on the upper
part of the body near the back 5 but this is occafioned
by the peculiar fhape and pofition of the legs j the fe¬
male fpins a flattifti circular web, terminated by a long
tapering horn, from which the young efcape, as foon as
they are hatched.
Black, finning ; the elytra fomewhat itriated. 2. A * caraboi-
native of Europe. des.
Black, ihining 5 the edges of the thorax and elytra * feara-
yellow. 3. A native ot Europe. Feelers filiform. bteoides.
Oval, black ; the elytra and legs gray. 11. A na- * minutus.
tive of Europe. It makes a buzzing noife in the even¬
ing. Thorax is fometimes gray.
Black, ihining above, and thickly dotted. 13. Apilula*
native of Europe.
Twenty fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in
the laft edition of the Syltem of Nature.
44. Dytiscus.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers fix, filiform. The hind¬
legs hairy, almoft entirely deftitute of claws or nails,
and formed for fwimming.
Black ; the edges of the elytra dilated, marked with* latijfi-
a yellow line. 6. A native of Europe. It is fo vora- mus.
cious as even to deftroy its own fpecies. The male is
imooth, the female grooved.
Black ; the whole of the edge of the thorax, and the *margina-
outer edge of the elytra, yellow. 7. A native of Eu- Hs. °
rope, t he fore-feet of the male have a hemifpherical
appendage, with two circular cavities in the middle.
The female is femiftriated.
Brown 5 the elytra hairy, marked with ten furrows, * femijlri-
reaching half their length. 8. A native of Europe, ata.
It is furnilhed with a Iharp- crooked concealed fword.
Its eggs are oblong, large, and v/hite.
The elytra marked with ten longitudinal furrows, *fulcatUs*
and are hairy. 3. A native of Europe and America.
The elytra of the male are fmooth.
Brown 5 thorax yellow, marked with four black dot's, notatus
31. A native of Europe. The thorax is fometimes
reddilh, fometimes variegated with black dots, or with
a Ihort black band.
The thorax of a nifty colour, marked with two black denrefTus
dots at the bafe 5 the elytra brown, fpotted with red. 1
3 2. A native of Europe.
Brown ; the elytra fmooth 5 the legs and belly of a *
rufty colour. 86. A native of Britain; in ftagnant S
waters.
Bluilh, clouded ivith .black ; the antennre and legs of * ., / /
a rufty colour ; the belly black, the margin of a light- r [
brow n colour. 8 7. A native of Britain; in ftagnant wraters.
133 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
45* Cararus, Bull-head.
Antennae filiform. Feelers fix ; the laft. articulation ob-
tufe, and terminating abruptly. Thorax heart-fliaped;
fmaller end which terminates abruptly being next the
body. Both thorax and elytra are marginated.
I nefe infects are exceedingly adtive and quick in
running : they devour the larvae of other infedts, and
all the weaker animals they can overcome j the legs are
entomology.
*t 68
kmg, tlnglis coraprciTed, ilianks rounded and ciliated
within} the fore ones prickly before j the larvae are found
under ground or in decayed wood.
Majores.
voriaceus. Black, opaque $ without wings ; the elytra connecled
and marked with dots which run into one another, and
fomewhat wrinkled. I. A native of Europe; in Avoods.
One of the largeft fpecies in Europe } head and thorax
irregularly dotted j body beneath ihining.
* gram/- Without wings, and blackifli j the elytra of the co-
latus. lour of brafs, ftriated, and marked with elevated dots,
placed between the it rite. 2. A native of Europe ; in
fields.
'*hortenJis. Without wings 5 black, the elytra fmooth, marked with
a triple row of bright yellow depreffed dots, and with a
blue edge. 3. A native of Europe *, in gardens and
woods. The dots on the elytra are fometimes of the fame
colour with the elytra.
arvenjls. Without wings, and of a blackifh copper colour } the
elytra ftriated, and marked with a triple row of concave
dots. 42. A native of Europe.
nitens. Without wings 5 the elytra rough, green, with longi¬
tudinal raifed lines, the edge golden \ legs black. 6. A
native of Europe ; in woods.
® auratus. Without wings 5 the elytra gilt, and marked with
elevated ridges and fmooth furrows. 7. A native of
Europe } in clofe confined places in w'oods.
K)iolaceus. Winged j the elytra fomewhat fmooth, black, with a
gilt edge j the thorax of a violet colour. 8. A native
of Europe 5 very common in woods.
* fijco- Shining golden colour } the thorax blue ; the elytra
jihanta. marked with ftrips of green and gold. 12. A native of
Europe. This is the largeft of this genus that is to be
met with in Europe ) the larva is black, it attacks ca¬
terpillars by night, and devours them.
adfperfus. Without wings j above of an obfcure greenifh yellow j
beneath black *, the elytra marked with four rows of con¬
cave fpots, and with furrows. 8 2. A native of Europe }
in woods, under ground. The elytra are fometimes
black.
* * Minores.
Jabulofus. Pale } the head black, and a black fpot on the elytra.
96. A native of Europe •, in fandy grounds.
* ruficor- Black ; the elytra fmooth, and furrowed, the anten-
nis. nse and legs reddifti. 97* A native of Europe} in
Avoods frequently.
*pilicornis The thorax roundilh ; the elytra ftriated, and mark¬
ed Avith impreffed dots •, the antennae hairy. 104. A
native of Britain. It is fometimes black, fometimes of
a bright yelloAV.
^fpinibar- Blue ; the thorax fpherical 5 mouth, antennae, and
bis. (banks of the legs reddifti. 105. A native of Eng¬
land.
crepitans. The thorax, head, and legs, of a' rufty colour ; the
elytra black. 13. A native of Europe ; in groves.
It purfues the larger beetles, driving them aivay by the
nolle made by its belly.
280 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
iaft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
46. Tenebrk).
Afltennce moniliform ; the laft articulation roundifti.
Thorax flat on one fide, and convex on the other,
4
Cole opt era,
and margined. Head prpjccling. Elytra fomewhat
rigid.
* Feelers fix, filiform; the For e-legs formed for digging
furn if Jed with projctlions at the extremity like a
hand.
The larvae of fome of the fpecies of this genus live in
damp places under ground among rubbifh 5 of others, in
flour and different kinds of food, Avhere they perform
their metamorphofis. The perfedf infedls are very
troublefome in houfes, eating bread, meal, &c. •, they
precipitately avbid the light j refort to damp cellars, and
dark places, where putrefa&ion allures and nourifties
them. They are all of a very dark gloomy appearance,
from Avhich circumftance they have received their
name.
Black} thorax nearly fquare j the elytra very fmooth. compiling
13. A native of Cayenne j large. tus.
Black. 7. A native of Europe j on fand hills, in *foj[or.
which it digs holes.
BroAvn j thorax oblong, marked Avith five projedling * curfor.
angles. 8. A native of Europe j in fand hills.
** Feelers unequal; filiform.
Wholly black, and fmooth. 21. A native of E- atratus,
gypt 5 the elytra joined together, the fore legs furniftied
Avith two projections.
*** Feelers four; the anterior ones faintly clavated, the
pofierior ones filifortn.
Black 3 tire thorax nearly fquare and fmooth 3 the laminatus.
elytra furroAved j the (hanks of the fore legs crooked and
flrarp, terminating in a rufty-coloured plate. 22. A
native of India 3 the largeft of the genus.
Black 3 the elytra ftriated 3 thorax fmooth I. Agigas.
native of Surinam, about the fize of the ftag-beetle ; the
antennae are fomeAvhat clavated.
Wholly black 3 the thighs of the fore legs thicker * molitor.
than thofe of the reft. 2. A native of Europe 3
among flour, in bake-houfes, mills, dry bread, &c.
The larA-a is Avhite, foft, and fmooth, compoled of
thirteen fegments 3 it is eagerly fouglrt after by the
nightingales.
Of a rufty colour 3 the elytra ftriated, the (hield cu/inaris.
emarginated. A native of Europe 3 in loofe fand, in
rubbilh, and in granaries.
Black above 3 beneath of a deeper and brighter black ^pomona,
the elytra marked Avith five elevated ftriae on each fide.
45. A native of Europe, in orchards 3 the larva, co¬
vered Avith a loofe net, by twos or threes lurk in the
folded leaves.
The thorax marked Avith two caA'ities 3 the elytra oilignanus.
a violet colour or reddiflr ; the antennae and legs of a
rufty colour. 57. A native of Europe. The larva is
to be met with in the trunks of pine trees that have
been cut doAvn, the inner bark of which they confume 3
the infeft is, when full grown, about half an inch
long.
64 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
47. PlMELIA.
Antennab filiform. Feelers four. Thorax flat on one fide,
and convex on the other and marginated. Head pro-
jcaing.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera. E N T O M
jecting. Elytra {lightly ridged. Wings are wanting
in many of the fpecies. ’
* Antenna moniliform towards their extremity.
A. Feelers clavated.
gages. Black ; thorax round!fh j the elytra {harp pointed and
very fmooth. r. A native of Europe.
fulcata. The elytra furnifhed with {harp points, and furrow¬
ed. 2. A native of Egypt j common in gardens.
They are recommended as remedies in the earache, and
againit the bite of fcorpions ; the Turkifh women drefs
and eat them, and think them very fattening.
* morti- Black ; the elytra are furniflied with {harp points,
Jag a. and fmooth. 3. A native of Europe; in Ihady clofe
fituations. This infect is regarded as a prefage of the
death of one of the family, by the common people in
Sweden, when it is feen crawling about the houfe.
B. Feelers filiform.
muricata. Black; the elytra obtufe, ftriated, and furnifhed
with fharp points. 20. A native of Europe, and the
northern parts of Africa and Afia; it makes a noife by
rubbing its hind legs againft its elytra ; it refembles the
mortfaga, but larger.
friatula. Black ; the elytra oblong, oval, and ftriated. 54.
A native of Europe.
* * The Antenna filiform through their whole length.
A. Feelers four, filiform.
trinifni- The thorax furnifhed with three fharp points : body
jdataf R™)'- 56- A native of Egypt.
B<, The anterior feelers hatchet-fhaped, thepoferior ones
clavated.
carulea. Bluifh ; the thorax nearly round, the elytra ftriated.
61. A native of Europe.
* anglica. Black ; the thorax roundifh before ; the elytra dot¬
ted and ftriated ; the antennae reddifh at the tips. 76.
A native of England.
buparia. Black; fmooth and furnifhed with wings; the thorax
circular; the jaws ftrong, furnilhed with teeth, and
longer than the head. 84. A native of Europe.
84 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
O L O G 1\ - 169
Hunch-backed, black ; the elytra marked with davetgibLus.
dotted lines. 2, A native of Airica ; in loofe fand,
and very common in Egypt.
Black ; the elytra marked with one clavated Vine.planus.
3. A native of Egypt.
Black'; the elytra, very fmooth. 4. A native of Afia. minutus.
Only four fpecies of this genus have been deferibed.
50. Lytta.
Antennas filiform. 'Feelers four, unequal; the polterior
2>air clavated. Thorax roundifh. Head indebted,
and turgid on the upper fide. Elytra foft, and flex¬
ible.
Green; the antennae black. 1. A native of Eu-veficatorfo
rope ; on the privet, the afli, the elder, the lilach both
common and Perfian, the poplar, and on the Tartarian
Woodbine.
This info<?t is ufed in pharmacy, chiefly for the pur-
pofe of railing blitters. It multiplies greatly, and has a
naufeous fmell, not much unlike that of mice ; which
helps to condubt thofe who go in quell of them. The
odorous particles exhaled from them are extremely ccr-
rofive. They were formerly ranked among the canthari-
des; more recently in the genus meloe. More accurate
obfervation has placed them in the genus lytta.
Green and gold; the elytra reddilh brown. 2. A *nitidula.
native of England.
Black, fmooth ; breafl downy ; the elytra grayifh yel- quadrima-
low, marked with two black and almolt fquare fpots. culata.
14. A native of the north of Afia. A pleafant fmel-
ling oil exfudes from its legs.
Smooth, pale reddiflr brown ; thorax deprefled ; Viwfenef ratal
elytra gray, and black at the tips, and marked with two
fquare glazed fpots. 15. A native of the north of Afia,
among flowers; of a middle fize. A pleafant fmellingoil
is likewife exfuded from its legs.
Brown ; the fore part of the elytra, and the thorax,/omz.Wfis
which are elongated, are red. 29. A native of Eu¬
rope.
29 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
tnaxillofa.
48. Manticora.
Antennae filiform. The articulations cylindrical. Feel¬
ers four, filiform. Thorax roundifh before, and emar-
ginated at the tip behind. Head projecting. Jaws
projecting. Elytra united. No wings.
I. Native of the Cape of Good Hope; body
large, black ; head nearly globular, and imprefled on
each fide ; jaws furnilhed with teeth at the bafe ; thorax
imprefled in the middle, and clavated behind, the mar¬
gin rounded and notched at the tip ; elytra above, flat
and rough, defleCted at the edge with a very fliarp
lateral ferrated line ; legs Ample, black.
Only one fpecies of this genus has been deferibed.
tejludi-
ttarius.
49. Erodius.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers four, filiform. Jaw horny,
bifid, and ending abruptly. Lip horny, emarginated.
Hunch-backed, black ; the elytra united and rough ;
the fides dufty white. 1. A native of the Cape of
Good Hope ; large, flat beneath.
Vox,, VIII. Part I.
51. Meloe, the Blojfom-eater.
Antennae moniliform. Thorax roundifli. Elytra foft,
and flexible. Head inflated, and turgid on the upper
fide.
The larva as well as the perfeCl infeCt, both of this
and the preceding genus, feed on leaves.
* No Wings; Elytra Jhortened.
Body of a violet colour. 1. A native of Europe.*
It is to be met with, particularly in the fpring, in fandy Trofcartt*
plains. They feed on the ranunculus and veratrum ; its
eggs have a pleafant fmell; when touched, a very thin
yellowifli oil exfudes from the joints of its legs. ' It is
recommended as a remedy in the hydrophobia. The
female is thrice as large as the male.
The fegments of the abdomen red. 2. A native
of the fouth of Europe. majahs.
* Furnifhed with Wings; the Elytra covering the Wings.
A. Jaw bifid.
Black ; the elytra yellow, marked with three black Cichoret\
V bands.
17o
Coleoptera,
E N T O M O L O G Y.
bands. 5. A native of Afia, and the eaft of Europe.
It is ufed in medicine among the Chinefe. The an¬
tenna; are fometimes yellow at the tips.
decern- Black \ the elytra reddifh, marked with five black
punBatus. dots. 6. A native of Italy. The laft articulation of
the antennas clavated.
B. Jaw entire.
fcJuzjfferi. Green j the antennae and legs yellow. 12. A na¬
tive of Europe.
Jchreberi. Green 5 the antennae, legs, and three fegments of the
abdomen, yellow.
3 2 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syltem of Nature.
52. Mordella, the Nibb/er.
Antennae moniliform or pectinated. Feelers four •, the
anterior pair clavated, the pbfterior filiform. Head
bent dowrn under the neck. Elytra bent downwards
towards the lip. Before the thighs, and at the bafe
of the abdomen, there is a broad plate.
* An ten rue peBinated.
paradoxa. The fides of the thorax, and the elytra, a brick colour.
I. A native of Europe •, on umbelliferous plants.
Jlabellata. Reddifh browrn ; mouth, breaft, and upper part of the
abdomen, black. 10. A native of Europe.
** Antennce tnoniliform.
himaculuta Of a rally colour ^ bread black 5 elytra reddilh,
marked with a black fpot. 13. A native of Europe.
Large.
aculeata. Black •, the anus terminating in a fpine. 2. A
native of Europe } on umbelliferous, and a variety of
other plants. •
* abdonn- Black \ thorax and abdomen tawney ; the anus ter-
nalis. minating in a fpine. 19. A native of Europe.
'* burner- Black ; the mouth, fides of the thorax, and legs yel-
mlls. low. 3. A native of Europe ■, on flow'ers.
* bicolor. Black ; the elytra reddilh, black at the tip, and
marked with a black band in the middle. 25. A
native of Britain ; very common on the flowers of the
hawthorn, of the dock, and of fome kinds of umbellife¬
rous plants. Very fmall.
*** Antennce clavated.
* clavicor- Wholly black. 23. A native of Europe j on the
nis* rhubarb.
28 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
53. Staphylinus, Rove-beetle.
Antennse moniliform. Feelers four. Elytra half the
length of the body. Wings covered. Tail fimple,
furniihed with two veficles, which can be thrud out
at pleafure.
This is an extremely rapacious tribe, devouring what¬
ever inlefts they can catch, and frequently each other 5
many of them, when laid hold of, turn up the tail; the
jaws are drong and projefting, with which they bite
and pinch very hard. Mod of them are found in damp
places, among putrid fubllances, and a few upon llowcrs.
The larvae live under ground,.
5
* All the Feelers filiform.
Hairy, black ; the thorax and poderior part of the * liirtus.
abdomen black. 1. A native of Europe 5 in fandy
places.
Downy, and afh coloured, clouded with black. 2. * tnurinus*
A native of Europe ; in dead bodies, and in dung.
The elytra blue underneath j larva fix-footed, naked,
pale 5 the head and three fird fegments of the abdomen ^
chefnut brown } tail with tvTo jointed bridles, and a
cylindrical tubercle beneath.
Downy black j marked v ith adi-coloured bands; * maxillo.
the jaws of the fame length with the head. 3. Ayhx.
native of Europe 5 in woods, living on plunder.
Black ) the thorax and elytra finning. 5. A na- * politus.
tive of Europe ; on dead bodies ; when recently caught,,
it diffufes a very fragrant fmell.
Black 5 the edges of the thorax yellowifh 5 the elytra * nitidulus*
of a rudy colour, with a black edge. 4. A native of
Britain.
** The poferior Feelers hatclet-Jhaped.
Reddifh 5 the head, poderioi part of the elytra and * rufus*
abdomen, as w7ell as the bafe of the thighs, black. 6.
A native of Europe ; on the boletus.
Black \ the elytra, antennae, and legs of a rudy co-favipes^
lour. 22. A native of Europe ; on the boletus.
*** The anterior Feelers clavated.
Reddifh ; the elytra blue ; the head and tip of the riparius.
abdomen black. 9. A native of Europe.
Black ; thorax reddifh ; the elytra pale blue. 96. rufcollis^
A native of Europe \ under dones.
Black } the poderior part of the elytra, the legs and elongatus*
antennae, of a rudy colour. 14. A native of Europe.
54. Forficula, the Earwig.
Antennae fetaceous. Feelers unequal and filiform.
Elytra half the length of the body. Wings cover¬
ed. Tail furnifhed with pincers.
The larvae of the forficula run very quickly. This
infeft is very common, and very well known ; the
pincers at its tail, from whence it has received its Latin
name forfeula, afford a very good didinguifhing mark.
The elytra white at the tip ; the antennae have four- * auricu-
teen articulations. 1. A native of Europe 5 common kina.
in fruit. It is aecufed of creeping into the ears of peo¬
ple while fleeping, whence it has received its name,
earwig.
Pale above, variegated with black 5 the anus furnifhedgigantea.
with two projeftions 5 the pincers projefting confider-
ably, and each furnifhed with one projeftion. 3. A
native of Europe. Very large.
The elytra reddifh, without fpots 5 the antennae * minor.
have ten joints. 2. A native of Europe. The tips
of the antennae are whitifh. It is rare.
Black } the hind-part of the head and legs reddifh ; bipunBatdi
back of the elytra marked with a white fpot. 4. A
native of Europe. The antennae have eleven joints.
11 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature^
XL HEMIPTERA,
Hemiptera.
ENTOMOLO G Y. ' T71
II. HEMIPTERA.
The mouth and fnout bent inwards, towards the
bread. Wings covered with homely trie. The upper
wings, compoied of a fetnicruftaceous iubftance, do not
form a ftraight future when fhut, but t3ie inferior edge
of the one paffes over the fuperior edge of the other.
55. Blatta, Cock-roach.
Head bent inwards. Antennae fetaceous. Feelers un¬
equal, filiform. Elytra and wings fmooth, and fome-
what refcmbling leather. Thorax flattilh, circular,
and marginated. Feet formed for running. Two
fmall horns are lituated at the tail in molt of the
fpecies. i
Thefe infefts, with their larvae, wander about by nigh t,
and fecrete themfelves by day. They are fond of
warmth, and haunt about houfes, devouring meal, and
whatever provifions they can get at. They run with
great celerity ; and are deftroyed by the fumes of char¬
coal or fulphur, alfo by the root of the nymphea alba
boiled in milk.
gigantea. Livid *, the fhield of the thorax marked with a fquare
chefnut-coloured fpot. I. A native of Alia and Ame¬
rica. It is the largell of this genus, being nearly the
fize of a hen’s egg.
maderce. Brown ; the thorax and elytra livid, and variegated
with brawn. 11. A native of the illand of Madeira ;
a little fmaller than the laft fpecies.
* ameri- Of a rufty colour ; the fhield of the thorax whitilh
cana. behind. ■ 4. A native of America ; it has been intro¬
duced into Europe along with fagar.
mjlrala- Of a rufty colour ; the thorax black, marked with a
fice. white ring ; the elytra marked at the bafe with a fmall
white line. 13. Found in Ihips returning from the
fouth feas.
* orienla- Of a rufty brown colour, without fpots ; the elytra
Us. Ihort, marked with an oblong furrow. 7. A native
of America, and has been introduced into Europe for
almoft two hundred years. Frequent in many countries
of Europe, in meal and bread, and other provifions 5
likewife in ftioes, which it deftroys. It ihuns the light,
and runs very quickly. It is much harafled by the
large tenthredo coerulea. The female is without wings;
(he produces a cylindrical egg, half the fize of the ab¬
domen,
lapponica. Yellowifh •, the elytra fpotted with black. 3. A
native of Europe ; confuming provifions. In the moift
woods however of the eaft of Europe it is lefs noxious.
germanica. Livid*, body yellowifh; the thorax marked with two
black parallel lines. 9. A native of Europe.
maculata. Thorax black, with a whitifh edge ; the elytra pale,
marked with a large black fpot near the tip. 25. A
native of Europe ; in pine forefts and heaths.
43 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
56. Pneumora.
Body oval, inflated, and tranfparent. Head bent in*
wards, and furnithed with jaws. Thorax convex, be¬
neath formed like a keel of a ftiip. Elytra deflefled
and membranaceous. Legs formed for running.
The whole of this genus feem to confift of a mere
hollow inflated membrane; by rubbing their legs a-
gainft their bodies, they make a ftirill noife in the twi¬
light ; and during the night, they are attracted by a
bright light.
O
Elytra without fpots. 1. A native of the Cape ofimmacula*
Good Hope. Head green ; eyes white ; between the /a.
eyes are three red ftigmata, and above thefe two fhort
projections ; antennae ihort, green ; thorax rough, with
a fhort tooth before and an impreiled wrinkle in the
middle ; the elytra alh coloured, reticulated with green,
fometimes marked with very fmall black dots ; they are
very rarely yellowifh or reddifh ; the infect is about
twice the fize of the houfe-cricket.
Three fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in ths
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
57. Mantis, Soothfayer.
Head nodding ; furnifhed with jaws. Feelers filiform.
Antennae fetaceous. Wings four, membranaceous,
rolled up. Fore-legs comprefled, notched under¬
neath, furnifhed with one hook, and with a lateral
fetaceous jointed finger ; the four hind-legs fmooth,
and formed for walking. Thorax linear, long, and
narrow7.
The thorax fomewhat tapering and rough ; the elytra
very fhort; the legs prickly. I. A native of Afia ;
w ings very large.
Thorax marginated, and marked w ith fmall projec- mendica.
tions; the elytra variegated with green and white ;
dotted with white along the edge. 17. A native of
Alexandria.
The thorax fmooth; the elytra green; the wingsoratoria.
reddifh at the anterior part, marked with a black fpot.
6. A native of Europe. This infect refts fometimes
on its four hind-legs, ftretehes the fore-legs out to the
right or left, and for this reafon has been fuppofed to
point out the way to ftrangers, when afked.
The thorax fomewhat fringed ; the elytra greenift),precaria.
marked with a rufty-coloured ocellus. 8. A native
of America and Africa ; the half of the ocellus on the
elytra is white, fometimes entirely wfliite. This is fup¬
pofed to be the idol of the Hottentots.
Linear, afh-coloured, fpotted with black. 30. AJ’auJla> ,
native of the Cape of Good Hope. This is the tutelary
deity of the Hottentots.
52 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the laft
edition of the Syftem of Nature.
58 Gryllus, Cricket.
Head bent inwards; furnifhed with jaws. Feelers fili¬
form. Antennae either fetaceous or filiform. Wings
four, either deflected or twilled ; the under wings
folded. Hind-legs formed for leaping.
The whole of this genus feed on vegetables, except
thofe contained in the firft divifion, acrid a ^ which de¬
vour other infefts; the achetec deftroy the roots of plants ;
the tetigonice and locujice, the leaves or tender Ihoots, in
feme countries laying wafte whole diftridts; the larvae
and pupae refemble the perfedt infedts, refide chiefly
under ground, and are fix-footed, voracious and adtive :
fome of this tribe are ufed as an article of food by the
natives of Africa and India ; many of them produce
found by the fridlion of fome parts of their body.
Y 2 * Antenna
1*12
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hemiptera.
* Antenna the Jhape of a /word; Head conic, and longer
than the thorax. Acridse.
nafutus. Body green. I.
turritus. Head conic ; antennse fword-diaped ; the wing tranf-
parent. A native of Africa and the fouthern parts of
Europe ; the mouth placed at the under part of the
head ; antennae on the top of the head, and not longer
than the thorax.
giganteus. Green *, marked Avith two reddilh fillets ; the anten¬
nae of a rally colour ; thorax marked Avith three railed
lines. 64. A native of America ; larger than the gr.
nafutus.
foliaceus. Wings yelloAvifh ; the antennae refembling a leaf.
67. A native of Alia.
*'* Thorax formed like a keel; Antenna filiform, foorter
than the thorax. Bullae.
* bipun ft a- Brownifh 5 the fcutellum of the thorax, of the fame
tus. length with the abdomen. 7. A native of Europe j on
fand hills expofed to the funlhine.
* fibula- The fcutellum longer than the abdomen. 3. A
tus. nati\'e of Europe j in ditches. It is fometimes gray,
fometimes broAvn.
* * * Antenna fetaceous ; Feelers unequal; Thorax
rounded; the Tailfurnifhed with two brifiles.
* gryllo-
talpa.
monfirofus.
^ dotnejli-
CHS.
'* campefi
tris.
■pcllucens.
Mole-cricket. The Avings furnilhed with a projec¬
tion like a tail, and longer than the elytra 5 the fore-feet
formed like hands, and doAvny. 10. A native of Europe.
This troublefome little animal frequents gardens and
cultivated grounds, both of Europe and America, where
b burrows beloAV the ground, and is very deftruclive ;
eating and deft roving the roots of plants. Body dark
brown, hairy antennae fhorter than the body.
The elytra and Avings furnifhed Avith projections like
tails, and rolled up. 73. A native of India.
Houfe-cricket. The wings furnilhed Avith a tail and
longer than the elytra : legs fimple *, body yellowifh
broAvn. 12. A native of Europe \ in many houfes,
about ovens, and kitchen chimneys: Avanders about
during the Avhole night, keeping a continual chirping,
efpecially before rain j is faid to forfake houfes infefted
by the cockroach. There is a variety of this fpecies
fix times the fize of the European. Arfenic or the
root of the Avild carrot, mixed up into a pafte Avith flour,
is fometimes made ufe of to poifon them j but an opinion
prevails among the vulgar, that their prefence in any
houfe is the caufe of good fortune j and, therefore, though
they be troublefome, they are umvilling to drive them
aAvay.
Field-cricket. Wings fhorter than the elytra •, body
black, and furnifhed Avith along fpine. 13. A native
of Europe ; chirps from the beginning of May till the
end of September, and is faid to drive away the houfe-
cricket Avhen domefticated.
Whitifh 5 thorax of the form of a trapezium. 8 9.
A native of Carniola and Europe •, in Auneyards and
gardens *, about half an inch in length 5 it makes a
noife during the whole fummer in the night time ; it
refembles the houfe cricket, but larger ; the head is
fhining j the thorax is marked Avith three broAvn fpots,
the elytra with yelloAvifb ones.
* * * * Antenna fetaceous. Feelers unequal. Tail of
the female armed with a projeftion like a /word.
Tetigoniae.
The thorax round, and fomeAvhat Avarty ; Avings very aquilinus.
broad; Avith 15 neraes. 27. A native of South Ame¬
rica and India ; large ; the elytra of the fhape of a
lance; the lhanks of the legs fet Avith four toavs of
prickles.
BroAvn ; the thorax roundifh and keel-fhaped he.-gr ifeus.
hind, furnifhed Avith a black crooked fpine refembling
a fword, the bafe of Avhich is pale on each fide. 108.
A native of Europe ; the antennge yelloAv, and of the
fame length Avith the body ; legs greenifh; the elytra
variegated with broAvn and afh-colour.
The thorax round ; the Avings green and Avithout viridijfi-
fpots ; the antennae very long. 31. A native of mus.
Europe; on trees, in pafture grounds, in barley fields.
It makes a noife in the night time in Avarm Aveather
about the time of the dog days.
Thorax nearly fquare and fmooth ; the Avings green, * verruci-
fpotted with broAvn; the antennae fetaceous, about the mrus.
fame length as the body. 34. A native of Europe,
and is collefted by the common people of Sweden for
the purpofe of deftroying Avarts in the hand ; Avhich it
is faid to perform by biting off the excrefcences, and
difeharging on the Around a fluid which caufes them to
decay.
***** Antenna filiform. Feelers fimple, Tail unarmed.
Locuftse.
The thorax entirely keel-fhaped; body withoutelephas^
Avings. 35. A native of Africa; this is the largeft
and heavieft of the Locufia ; green, the thighs fmooth,
the rudiments of tAvo Avings,
The thorax faintly carinated, compofed of one feg-migra-
ment ; head oblufe ; jaws black. 41. A native of torius.
Tartary, and migrates in incredible fwarms into various
parts of Europe. The mifehief thefe voracious crea¬
tures do, Avhen they appear in vaft fwarms, far exceeds
that done by any other tribe of animals. By fud-
denly deftroying all vegetation, they change the moft
fertile countries into barren deferts, leaving behind
them defolation and famine. They have occafion-
ally appeared in fmall flights in England, but have pe-
rifhed in a fhort time. This was probably the fpecies
that conftituted one of the plagues of Egypt. They
are eaten by the inhabitants of different countries, par¬
ticularly by the Egyptians, Avho roaft them alive and
eat their bodies, after having removed their wings and
legs.
The thorax marked Avith an elevated ridge like a *firidulus.
keel, the wings red and black at the tips. 47. A na¬
tive of Europe ; in dry fandy fituations, chirping all
day long, till late at night. Either black or variegated
Avith black and yelloAv.
240 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed.
59. Fulgora, Lanthorn-fiij.
The head inflated ; forehead prominent. The anten¬
nae fhort, placed under the eyes, compofed of trvo
articulations, the upper one being the largeft and
globular..-.
Hemiptera,
globular.
ENTOMOLOGY.
The fnout long and bent inwards, is a
(heath confiding of five articulations. Legs formed
for walking.
yellow at the bafe.
larva is eatable.
16. A native of Europe j the
173
lanterna- The forehead extended, forming a draight beak ;
ria. wings bluidi, the under wings marked with ocelli. 1.
A native of South America. It emits a very bright
light from the prominent part on its forehead. Travel¬
lers are faid to avail themfelves of the light they emit ;
two or three of them, fixed on the end of a dick, afford¬
ing light fufficient to let them fee in the dark.
iiadema. The forehead fet with tapering points, .and extended
into a beak, divided at the tip into three j wings black,
fpotted with red. 2. A native of India.
Candelaria The forehead extended into a clavated beak 3 the
elytra green, fpotted with yellow 3 the wings yellow
with black tips. 3. A native of China.
phofpkorea The forehead raifed into a tapering beak 3 body
grayifli yellow. 4. A native of South America.
hjalina. The forehead conic and unequal 3 wings tranfparent,
marked with a black dreak. 17. A native of Ben-
gaL
20 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
60. Cicada, Frog-hopper.
Snout bent inwards. Antennse fetaceous. Wings four 3
membranaceous and deflected. Legs (in the mod
of the fpecies) are formed for leaping.
The infects of this genus feed on the juice of plants 3
the larva is without wings ; the pupa has only the rudi¬
ments of wings, but they have both fix legs 3 they very
much referable the perfect infect, and are very active 3
the perfect infe£t chirps as well as thofe of the preceding
genus.
* Antenna: tapering at the point, and placed on the
forehead. Membracides.
A. Thorax comprejjed, membranaceous, and larger than
the bodi/. Foliaceae.
The thorax inflated, light brown and reticulated. 52.
A native of Cayenne.
The thorax brown 3 lengthened out behind, the ab¬
domen being half the length of the thorax. 36. A
native of England 3 on the genifa tinfforia.
The thorax greenidi, tapering to a point, and of the
fame length Avith the abdomen. 57. A native of
America, on plants.
B. The thorax furnifhed with a horn on each fde.
Cruel at*.
The thorax furniflied with two horns 3 black, taper¬
ing to a point behind, and of the fame length with the
abdomen 3 wings brown. 6. A native of Europe 3 on
thidles and willows.
* * Legs not formed for leaping. Maniferae.
I he tip cf the fcuteilum marked with two fm'&ll
projehions 3 the elytra marked with four anadomofes,
and fix lines of a rudy colour. 15. A native of
Europe and Africa, very large. Of this infedl Virgil
fays, et cantu quatruLe rumpent arbufta cicada-, and foie
fib ardente refonant urbujia cicadis.
Black, fpotted with yellow 3 the elytra are furrounded
with a thin edge, "with fix brown connefted dots 3 the
wings are white, marked with two black fpots, and
inflata.
* genijhe.
mennis.
' cornuta,
' plcbeia.
* * * Antennce filiform, fituated under the eyes.
A. The fheath of the fnout Jlretched out, obtufe, and
grooved above. Cercopides.
Yellow ifli 3 the elytra brown, marked with two b iff data.
white bands. 11. A native of Europe 3 on plants of
different kinds.
Brown 3 the elytra are marked on the Tides with * fpuma-
two white fpots, and with a double interrupted whitifli ria.
band. 24. A native of Europe 3 on various plants,
frequently on the rofe, on grafs and ofier ; the larvae
and pupae of this, and fome others of the genus, dif-
charge a frothy matter from numerous pores about the
tail, within which they are completely enclofed 3 this is
frequently found in fummer on various plants, very
much refembling a quantity of faliva, and is commonly
known by the name of cuckow fpit; the pcrfefl infeft
will frequently leap two or three yards to efcape from
any one who attempts to catch it.
Brown 3 the fore part of the thorax marked with veex-punTlulatm
prefled dots, the elytra marked on the Tides with two
white fpots. 212. A native of Europe.
f -[The fheath of the fnout very fhort, membranaceous,
cylindrical, obtufe.
* Legs formed for leaping. Ranatrae.
Brown 3 w ings transparent, fpotted vuth brown, and nervofa.
marked with dotted ribs. 25. A native of Europe 3
on plants.
123. A nti-* fulgida.
Yellow 3 the elytra gilt and brown
tive of Britain 3 on plants.
§ § The wings dcfiecled, covering thejides. Deflexse.
Yellow 3 the elytra, marked with brown, with four
black fpots, and gilt behind. 48. A native of Eu¬
rope.
Yellowifli 3 the elytra marked with blood-coloured
fpots, and brown at the tips. 173. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on the oak.
240 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lad edition of the Syffem of Nature.
61. Notonecta, Boat-fiy.
Snout bent inwards. Antenme (horter than the tho¬
rax. Wings four, folded crofs-wife, the upper ones
coriaceous.* Hind legs hairyr formed for fwim-
ming.
The infers of this and the next genus, Nepa, live in
ftagnant waters, and prey on aquatic animals 3 the lar¬
va; and pupae are fix-footed, active, and fwim readily,
and very much referable the perfeft infect; the lame is
deftitute of wings, the pupae have only the rudiments of
wings.
* Up long.
The elytra gray, dotted with brown along the edo-e, * (
and divided at the tip. 1. A native of Europe 3 "in ^
waters, very troublefome to fi(h. It fwims on its back
for which reafon it has been called by the Greek
name of notonedia. The hind legs, which are longer
than the reft, ferve it as oars. When caught, it muft
be cautioufly handled, as the point of its fnout is very
aurata.
quercus.
lauca.
(harp, and its puncture very painful.
3 *
No
m
*Jlriata.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hcmiptera.
* * iVo lip, Sigarse.
The elytra brown •, marked with a great number of
crofs waved lines of a darker colour. 2. A native of
Europe.
inhabitant of moft houfes in large townscrawling
about in the night time to fuck the blood of fuch as are
afleep, and hiding itfelf by day in the moft retired holes
and crevices.
14 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syttem of Nature.
62. Nepa, Wetter Scorpion.
Snout bent inwards. Antennae fhort. Wings four,
folded crofs-wife, the upper ones coriaceous. The
fore-legs formed like claws; the other four are
formed for walking.
The infers of this genus are very voracious, and feed
on other aquatic animals, which they pierce and tear
with their (harp fnout, while they hold them with the
claws of their fore-legs. They fly well, efpecially in
the evening and night, and convey themfelves from one
pool to another, particularly when water begins to fail
m the pool they have been in.
* Antennce divided into feveral divifons refembling a
hand; Lip wanting.
* cinerea. Afh-coloured thorax unequal; body long and oval
5. A native of Europe •, in ftagnant waters ; the up¬
per part of the abdomen red.
linearis. Linear •, the claws furniflied with a lateral fpine. 7.
A native of Europe and India, in frelli water. The
eggs of this infeft are furniflied at one end with two
hairs; they depolit them in holes made in italks of
ruflies, leaving the hairs Handing out.
* * Lip f retched out and roundijh. Naucorides.
* cimicoi- The edge of the abdomen {lightly notched. 6. A
des. native of Europe.
Twelve fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
63. Cimex, Bug.
Snout bent inwards. Antennae longer than the thorax.
Wings four, folded crofswife ; the upper wings coria¬
ceous in the fore part. Back flat. Thorax margi-
nated. Legs formed for running.
Moft bugs have a bad fmell} all of them except the
reduvii, feed on the juice of plants, and all of them,
without exception, on the juices of animals, particularly
of the fofter infc6ts, which they fuck by means of
their fnout. The larvae and pupae have fix feet, run
quickly, and very much referable the perfeft infect; the
iarvee have no wings, only ftumps of wings.
* Antennce placed before the Eyes.
A. Lip wanting. Acanthiae.
-f- Without Wings.
^ leSlula-
rius.
Houfe-bug. Without wings. 1. A native of Eu¬
rope, though originally7 a foreigner ; it was introduced
into Europe before the Chriftian era, but not into Bri¬
tain until the feventeenth century, being little known
before the year 1670. It is a troublefome and naufeous
f f The Elytra almojl totally coriaceous. Cclcoptrati.
Black 5 without wings •, the elytra.oval, with yellowgrylloida,
edges, and ihorter than the abdomen. 13. A native
of Europe. The thorax refembling the gryllus.
f f -f- Membranaceous and very fat.
The thorax divided into three wings 5 the feutellum * pyri.
refembling a leaf; the elytra reticulated and {’welling out
at the bale. 137. A native of Europe } on the under
furface of the leaves of the pear tree, which become
fpotted w'ith its pumftures.
B. Lip long, tapering to a point at the extremity.
f The fcutellum of the fame length with the Abdomen.
Scutellati.
Black } the thorax marked wk h five, and the fcutel- lineatus,
lum with three orange-coloured lines} the abdomen yel¬
low, dotted with black. 6. There is a variety of this
fpecies.
(/3) Red } the thorax marked with five, and the feu- ni<rrolinen.
tellum with three black lines } the abdomen yellow tus.
dotted with black. A native of Europe} on the flowers
of the apple and elder.
f f The Thorax armed with a fpine on each fde. Spinofi.
The thorax armed with blunt prickles} the elytra * luridus,
gray, marked with a brown fpot, the fliield emargi-
nated. 190. A native of England } in thickets.
f f f Thorax without fpines.
A. Rotundati, fuch as are round or oval.
Somewhat tawney, the edge of the abdomen fpotted * baccha-
with brown. 45. A native, of Europe } on berries. rum.
Blue, with a metallic luftre ; the thorax marked with * oleraceut
a fmall line } the tip of the feutelium, and dots on the
elytra, all of a red or white colour. 53. A native of
Europe } on tetradynamious plants. It is very deftruc-
tive to cabbages and to turnip fields.
B. Such as have the Thorax oblong,
f Antennce terminating in fmall hairs.
Black } head, thorax, and legs reddifti. 364. A * favicoU
native of England.
* * Antennce clavated.
Brown} head and thorax reddilh. 679. A nativeiclcncut.
of Europe.
C. Antennce filiform.
J Legs fmooth.
Yellowifh } elytra green. 36. A native of Europe; *pratenfis\
in meadows.
X X Legs
Hemiptera.
ENTOMOLOGY.
t t Legs notched or prich/y.
Cdlcaratus, Brown ; the upper part of the abdomen of a blood
colour 5 the thighs of the hind-legs furniihed with fix
lharp proje&ions. 114. A native of Europe.
D. An ten nee fetaceous.
J Legs notched.
dbictis. Spotted, with tawney coloured fpots •, legs reddith ;
thighs thick. 115. A native of Europe j on the fir
tree.
flretched forwards, very fliort, clavated, and nearly
moniliform. Head oblong, cylindrical above. Scu-
tellum of the length of the abdomen, flat and mem¬
branaceous.
ITS
A grayifh-reddifli colour j the fcutellum of an afh- cimicoides.
colour; a yellow fpot on the elytra 5 the wings of a
purplifh violet colour 5 the thighs of the fore-legs
thickened. 1. A native of America.
Only one fpecies of this genus has been deferibed in
the lait edition of the Syftem of Nature.
65. Aphis, P/ant-lou/e or Vine-fretter.
J X Legs without prickles.
patulinus. Green, without fpots j wings tranfparent. 83. A
native of Europe 5 in meadows.
§ § § Linear ; Body ohlong and narrow.
|| Antennae fetaceous.
Variegated, with brown and yellow j the thighs of
the hind-legs long and notched. 524. A native of
India.
|| || Antennae filiform.
_ Black and tapering ; the thorax marked in the centre
with two globular dots. 113. A native of England;
very common in lakes.
|| || || Antennae clavated.
trifpinofus. Greenifh brown 5 the antennae long, with three ere ft
prickles on the back. 542. A native of Surinam.
|| || || || Antennae double clavated.
fuecicus. Afli-coloured ; the thighs clavated. 543. A na¬
tive of Europe.
pedes.
*fiagno~
rum.
|| || || || || Antennae with tivo terminations.
tipularius. Whitifh •, all the legs very long 5 the thighs cla¬
vated. 120. A native of Europe 5 on mofles.
* * The Antennae placed above the Eyes; the Snout
arched. Reduvii.
perfonatus.
dndulus.
The antennae refembling hairs at the tips ; body
fomewhat hairy and brown. 67. A native of Europe ;
in rubbifli. The larva is rough, and deftroys the houfe-
bug.
Smooth, black ; the elytra brown, fpotted with
black, and with a red edge. 557. A native of Eu¬
rope. It is finally and moves about with great agility
early in the fpring; - it keeps its antennae in conftant
motion, and makes a flirill noile by rubbing them
againfl the thorax.
693 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syllem of Nature.
54. Macrocephalus.
Snout bent inwards. Sheath of one valve, and con¬
fining of three articulations, and furnifhed with three
briflles, deftitute of jaws, feelers, and lip. Antennae
Snout bent inwards 5 a (heath of five joints, furniflied
with one briftle. Antennae fetaceous, and longer
than the thorax. Wings four, ere£1 in none. Legs
formed for walking. Abdomen frequently termi¬
nating in two horns.
The minute animals which compofe this Angular
genus, infefl: various plants, generally in large focieties,
hindering their growth, and confuming their juices.
A peculiarity in the mode of their propagation attrafled
the attention of naturalifts a good deal towards the be¬
ginning and about the middle of laft century. Reaumur,
from fome obfervations of his own, and from the opinions
of fome preceding obfervers, was led to believe, that they
propagated without fexual connection. Bonnet adopt¬
ed the fame opinion, and thought he had eftabliflied1 it
beyond controverfy by fome very accurate experiments
and obfervations of his own, which he communicated to
the Royal Academy of Sciences. He (hut up a young-
aphis, at the inftant of its birth, in the moft perfect fo-
litude, which neverthelefs brought forth 95 young ones
in his fight. The fame experiment being repeated on
one of this family, it multiplied like its parent; and
one of this third generation, brought up in folitude,
proved no lefs fruitful than the others. Repeated ex¬
periments, in this refpecl, as far as the fifth or fixth ge¬
neration, all uniformly afforded the fame refult. ^A
fufpicion entertained by Mr Trembley induced Mr
Bonnet to repeat his experiments with ftill more accu¬
racy, and to continue them longer. He reared to the
amount of the tenth generation of folitary aphides, and
had the patience to keep an account of the days and
hours of the births of each generation : he difeovered
that they are really diftingufthed by (exes } that the
males are produced only in the tenth generation, and
are but few in number ; that thefe foon arrive at their
full growth, and copulate with the females 5 that the
virtue of this copulation ferves for ten generations : he
likewife found that they were viviparous during fpring
and fummer 5 and that they were oviparous only in the
tenth generation ; that from thefe eggs the aphides of
the following year were hatched early in the fpring.
His obfervations have been repeated by other naturalifts
particularly by Dr Richardfon of Rippon, who has
given a very minute account of his obervations, in a
paper . publiihed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions,
vol. xi. art. 22. Thefe little animals difeharge from
their anus a (weet fluid, commonly called honey-dew^
which attracts the bees and ants. The fpecies are very
difficultly diftinguiftted ; it is ftill more difficult to de¬
fer i be them ; different fpecies are fome times found on
the fame plant.
Of
I '76
^ longlrof- Of an afo-eolour , the fnout three times the length of
tns. the body. 34. A native of Europe ; under the barks
of trees feeds on the larva; of the ants.
* vitis. 36. A native of Europe •, on the vine. T. his deftruc-
tive little infect cuts through the peduncles, or Items
which fupport the clutters of grapes, in their very early
ftage, cauting them to wither and drop off foon after
the fruit is formed.
*pijlacice. Black j wings whitifti; thanks of the legs very long 5
the thorax warty. 33. A native of Europe and Alia \
on the piftachia : the antennae moniliform ; eyes black-
itli •, the abdomen without briitles, covered with white
down, mixed with froall balls j the wings fometimes
erect. It is lodged in a follicle ariting from the bafe
of the leaf, fwelling out in the middle, and tape’ ing to-
■wards each end, of more than an inch in thicknefs, at
fir ft green, after the. infects have left it becoming fleih-
coloured.
77 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
66. Chermes.
The fnout is a (heath placed in the bread, furnilhcd
with three bridles, bent inwards. Antennae cylin¬
drical, longer than the thorax. Wings four, defleft-
ed. Thorax turgid on the upper fide. Legs formed
for leaping.
Thefe infe&s inhabit various trees and plants, and
produce by their punftures, protuberances and excref-
cences of various drapes and fizes, in which are fre¬
quently enclofed the eggs, and infers in their feveral
dates *, the larva is fix-footed and apterous ; the pupa is
didinguidred by two protuberances on the thorax, which
are the rudiments of future wings.
'■*graminis I- A native of Europe ; on grades, particularly the
dira Jiexunfa.
* cajlanea Brown ; the antennae fetaceous and fmooth } the
wings very much ribbed. 21. A native of Europe j
on different plants.
Twenty-fix fpecies of this genus have been deferibed
in the lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
67. Coccus, Cochineal.
The fnout furni died'with bridles, dtuated in the bread.
Antennae filiform. The anus furnidred with bridles.
Male with two ere£t wings ; female without wings.
Thefe are extremely fertile, and very troublefome in
hothoufes and greenhoufes : the male is very active, with
an oblong body, and ovate abdomen 5 the tail furnidied
with a dyle and two long bridles : the female has a
body nearly globular, and is inactive and fixed to dif¬
ferent parts of plants.
lefperi- Oval, oblong. 1. A native of Europe ■, on ever-
dum. green plants, in greenhoufes, c. g. the orange, the lau¬
rel, &c.
adonidum. Reddidr, duded over with powder, and hairy. 4.
A native of America and Africa, lately in the warmer
parts of Europe •, on trees. Body oval and whitidi;
antennae and legs brown, marked on the back with an
elevated line, and with a raifed dot on each of its feg-
ments, with the edges of the fide acute, furnilhed with
fourteen prominent fegments and raifed dots; its furface
Kemiptera.
fprinkled with as many dots fet longitudinally between
the clavated line on the back and the edge 5 the tail
divided : the perfect infeft condructs a follicle in which
it conceals itfelf and its yellow eggs.
Body oblong, ovate 5 purple or chefnut. 17. Onpolonicus,
the roots of the fcleranthus perennis.—This infedt with¬
out impropriety may be called the cochineal of the
northern part of the world. It prefers cold climates,
and is commonly called coccus linciorius polonicus, or
the fcarlet grain of Poland. Ray calls the plant on
which it feeds the polygonum cocciferum ; but it is not
confined to one kind of vegetable, for it is found on
the moufe-ear, pimpernel, and pellitory, as well as on
the fcleranthus perennis. It is a native of fome other
northern countries as well as Poland j though formerly
the greated quantity of it ufed to be colledted there.
Towards the end of June the coccus is in a fit date for
gathering. Every one of thefe creatures is then nearly
of a fpherical form, and of a fine violet colour. Some
of them, however, are not larger than poppy feeds,
and others of the fize of a pepper corn. The males
are produced from the fmall grains, the females from the
larger ones 5 each of them is lodged in a fort of cup
like that of an acorn. Thefe cups cover more than one
half of the body of the animal. They are rough and
of a blackidi brown on the outfide, and fmooth and
diining on the infide. At the roots of fome of the
plants only one or two grains are to be found, at the
root of others more than forty are to be met with.
Thofe who colleft the grains have a diort fpade,
with which they raife the plants from the ground; after
the infeeds have been colledted they replace the plants;
the grains are then feparated from the earth, which
may have adhered to them, by means of a fieve, and
fprinkled with very cold water or vinegar to prevent
them from hatching.
After this they are dried in the fun, or by gentle
artificial warmth ; but this mud be managed with cau¬
tion, as too hady drying might injure their colour.
Sometimes the grains are feparated from their covers,
and made up into balls.
According to Bernard de Bemith, the Turks and
Armenians make ufe of thefe grains not only for dye¬
ing dlk and wool, but likewife the manes and tails of
their horfes. The Turkidi women ufe it for tinging the
tips of their fingers. The Dutch{formerly mixed it
with the true cochineal. The colouring matter extrac¬
ted from this in ft 61, by means of a folution of alum
with the addition of a little chalk, is faid to form a Jake,
equal in beauty to that of Florence. The great fupe-
riority of the Mexican cochineal, has caufed the fcarlet
grains of Poland to be negledted in all the countries of
Europe where dying is bed underdood, as they con¬
tain not a fifth part of the colouring matter which may
be extrafled from the real cochineal.
Body depreffed, downy, and tranfverfely wrinkled 5 caEh,
abdomen purplilh j legs diort and black ; antenna; lubu-
lated, the third part of the length of the body. 22. A
native of South America, on the caSlus coccinilifera.
The male is very fmall; its body is long, of a deep red
colour •, two long diverging threads proceed from the
extremity of the abdomen j its wings are large, white,
and incumbent j its "legs are pretty long j the antennae
are nearly the length of the body.
The female is more than double the fize of the male,
when
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hemiptera. E N T O M
■when at its full growth, it is almoft as large as a pea, of
a dark brown colour, and covered with a white powder j
the antenna; are fliort j the body Hat beneath, and con¬
vex above, and edged with annular fegments diftinctly
marked •, the legs are Ihort.
The female of this infect is the real cochineal, fo
highly valued in every part of the world, for the in¬
comparable beauty of the red colour which it affords,
which forms fo confiderable a branch of commerce be¬
tween the new and old continents. In the year 1736,
there was imported into Europe 700,000 pounds weight,
worth upwards of 700,000!. fterling. It was a long-
while made ufe of before its nature was afeertained ;
for a confiderable time it was thought to be the fruit of
fome vegetable. The fame opinion prevailed with re-
fpeft to another fpecies of coccus, which was much
ufed as a dye before the introduction of the Mexican
cochineal, and which, under the name of kermes, is
collected in Spain, Sardinia, Africa, and Afia Minor.
America is ftill the only quarter from which the true
cochineal is to be obtained. The principal countries,
where the cochineal infects are bred, are Oaxaca, Tlaf-
cala, Chulula, Nueva Gallieia, and Chiapa, in the
kingdom of New Spain ; and Hambalo, Loja, and Tu-
cuman in Peru ; but it is only in Oaxaca that they are
gathered in great quantities, and form a branch of com¬
merce *, the cultivation of tliefe little creatures being
there the chief employment of the Indians. It is im¬
ported into Europe, in the form of fmall irregular
grains, flat on the one fide, and convex on the other :
the bell is of a Hate gray colour, mixed with red, and
covered with a white powder. There are two kinds of
cochineal, firfl: the fine, called by different names, ac¬
cording to the places from whence it comes, viz. Majlique,
Campefcane, and Tetrafcale; of thefe the maftique is
'reckoned the beft. The fecond is called fi/lvejler, from
its being commonly collected from a fpecies of cactus,
which grows without culture •, this is much inferior to
the other, both in price and in the quantity of the co¬
louring matter which it affords ; it is likewife fmaller,
and generally believed to be a different fpecies of coc¬
cus. The plant on which they rear the beft cocbineal
is called nopal by the Indians, (callus cocclnellifera of
Linmeus). The colour of the cochineal is by fome fup-
pofed to be derived from the juice of this plant. Its
flowers and the ’juice of its fruit are of a beautiful red
colour. The natives of thofe countries where the cochi¬
neal is reared, form plantations ot the nopal in fmall
gardens near their houfes; the plant is propagated by
cuttings, which grow freely. In about eighteen months
after the plantations have been formed they are fit for
the reception of the infedffs. Thefe plantations muff be
renewed every fix years, as the infefts fucceed bell on
young vigorous plants.
The nopal will grow on almoft any foil, and needs
no other culture but to be kept clear of weeds, and
protefted from the north-wind. The infedts are placed
upon the nopal about the middle of Odlober, the period
at which good weather commonly commences in Mexico
after the rains. Thofe who rear the infedfts, take care
to preferve a fufficient number of females for tins pur-
pofe, either by protecting them during the rainy feafon
with a covering of matts, or by removing fome branches
of the nopal loaded with them into their own houfes.
Eight or ten of thefe females are put into a fmall neft,
Vol. VIII. Part I.
O L O G Y. E77
formed of a tuft cf threads collected from a fpecies of
palm, or of any other cottony matter, which is attach¬
ed to the fpines of the nopal, on that fide of the plant
expofed to the riling fun, the rays of which promote
the hatching of the young infects, which foon proceed
in great numbers from the neft, as each female pro¬
duces upwards of a thoufand. The larvae fpread over
the plant, and foon fix themfelvcs by means of their
trunk ; after this, fliould they by any accident be dif-
placed, they inevitably periili, as their trunks are broken.
In fome diflricts the females are preferved during the
rainy feafon in boxes carefully ftiut up. The males
live for little more than one month. The females about
double that time. Eoth of them remain in the ftate of
larva; for about ten days \ they remain fifteen day*;
longer in the ftate of pupae. The males when they
pafs from the ftate of pupae get wings; but till that time
they are not diftinguilhable from the females, except
that they are only about half the fize. After they ac¬
quire wings, they impregnate the female, and die. The
female, in going through her different changes, does not
change her form, but only cafts her fkin. After lire
has been impregnated ftie lives for about a month, and
increafes confiderably in bulk ; then lays her eggs, and
dies. According to M. Thierry, there are fix genera¬
tions of thefe little animals in the year. They might
be collefted during the whole year, did not the rainy
feafon check their progrefs, and almoft entirely deftroy
them. According to all the writers on the fubjeft*
there are three collections made of them yearly. The
firfl; takes place about the middle of December, and
the laft in the month of May. When they make the
firft collection, they take away the nefts, and pick out
tfee dead females, which had been placed on the nopal
the preceding Oftobcr. The fecond collection is made
when the infects again begin to produce young. The
infefts are detached from the plant with a knife, the
edge and point of which have been blunted, to prevent
the nopal from being injured. The infefts are received
into a veffel as they are feparated from the plant, put
to death, and dried. The Indians have feveral ways of
killing thefe infefts; which they are anxious to accom-
plifli as foon as poflible, because the females may live
for fome time after they - are detached, and produce
their young, which might efcape and diminith the quan¬
tity of cochineal collected. SoYne natives put the co¬
chineal in a balket, and dip them in boiling water j af¬
terwards they expofe them to the fun to dry.
Others put them in a hot oven, or on heated plates
of iron. But it appears that the beft cochineal is ob¬
tained by following the firft mode. The different co¬
lours imported into Europe depend entirely on the mode
of killing the infefts. That which has been killed by
dipping in boiling water, lofes part of the white pow’der,
with which they were covered, and acquires a brownifh
red colour : this kind is called renagrida. That which
is killed in an oven retains the white powder, and re¬
mains of a gray colour : this is called jarpeada. That
which is killed by plates of heated iron becomes black-
ith, and is called negra.
The dead females which are taken from the nefts
which had been put on the nopal, lofe more of their
weight in drying than the infers which are taken off
alive and full of young 5 the firft lofing three-fourths,
and the laft; two-thirds in drying. After it has been dried
Z it
178
E N T O M
it may be kept for any length of time without lofing
either weight or colour.
* It requires much care and attention to preferve thefe
infefts from their numerous enemies. The principal
enemies which infeft the cochineal are, the larvae ot a
fpecies of coccinella, which fuck them, and leave no¬
thing but the {kin. A caterpillar of about an inch long,
and of the thicknefs of a crowT quill, is their moft de-
ifructive enemy, which would foon deftroy the whole
race, were they allowed to carry on their depredations
without moleftation. The larvae of a fpecies of pt'mus
feeds on them likewife. There is a fpecies of infect
which lives on the nopal in great numbers, and does as
much iniury to the plant as the cochineal infeeds them-
feives do } which pinches their body, prevents them from
taking nouriihment, and caufes them to drop from the
plant. A fmall moufe which always prefers the fine
cochineal to the fylvefter, becaufe the cottony matter
with which the fylvefter is more abundantly covered
entangles its teeth, alfo preys on them. Many birds,
too, are fond of them, and would deilroy great numbers
of them, were they not driven away by the owners of
the plantations.
The fylvefter is fmallet than the true cochineal j
their bodies are -covered with a white cottony matter,
and edged all roijnd with hairs. About eight days
after they are fixed, the cottony matter and the hairs
increafe in length, and become fo clofely attached to the
plant, that part of them is commonly left adhering
after the infect has been removed.' Though thefe infects
commonly feed on a prickly fpecies of caBus, which
grows wild, the Indians frequently rear them on the
nopal, becaufe they are collected from it with much more
facility than from the uncultivated fpecies : for the mom
dexterous workman cannot collect more of the infects in
one day than will produce two ounces of cochineal when
dry } whereas he can colleft from the caBur coccinelh-
fera as many as will yield three pounds when dry.
There is alfo another advantage obtained from rearing
the fylvefter on the nopal which they cultivate in their
gardens *, the infefts become almoft as large as the true
cochineal, and lofe more and more of their cottony
covering in proportion to the frequency of their repro¬
duction. The fylvefter has been lately introduced into
the Rritifh fettlements in India. The following account
of its introduction and comparative value has been
publiftied by Mr Nicolas Fontana, who refided for
many years in that part of the world.
“ The introduction of cochineal into Bengal, which
our neighbours had endeavoured to naturalize in their
Weft India poffeffions, deferves particularly to be mark¬
ed, as being likely, under proper management, to be¬
come not only a new sera in the pr ogre {live refources
of the company, but an acceftion of opulence to the
Britifh empire : an aera the more remarkable, as not-
withftanding the attempts of government, the defign
was not accomplifhed but through accident, the great
parent of difeovery, which, with never-ceafing influ¬
ence operates in many ways for the good of man¬
kind.
“ After a large plantation of the various fpecies of
opuntia had been reared at Madras, waiting only the
arrival of the infeCt to make it ferviceable, which a long
oorrefpondence ®£ thirteen years could not obtain, Dr
Anderion’s felicitations about it had almoft been for-
O L O G Y. Hemiptera.
gotten; yet though his laborious induftry and zeal for his
country’s intereft, had no other reward, the introduction
of the cochineal infeft into India is entirely owing to
his publications on the fubjeft, which fortunately fell
into the hands of Captain Nelfon, who was then fta-
tioned at Madras with the jjzd regiment. On the
captain’s return to India in 1795, the fleet in which he
failed, repaired for refrefhment to the port of Rio de
Janeiro. In his perambulations a little way out of this
town, he was attended as ufually by the centinel, when
he law a plantation of opuntia with the infeft upon it.
This circumftance immediately brought to his recollec¬
tion the ardent with for the importation of the infeft
exprefied in the letters he had read at Madras 5 and he
conceived the hope of being able to gratify Dr Ander-
fon’s defire, by carrying fome to India with him.
“ A day or two previous to his embarkation, he took
another walk to the place where he had feen the opun¬
tia or nopal. He made bold to atk the cultivators for
fome of the plant, being curious, he faid, in matters of
natural hiftory. Having collefted feveral other plants,
he witlied to have this alfo. The good people being
the lefs fufpicious as he was in his regimentals, granted
his requeft. They gave him feveral plants with infefts
on them, which he carefully carried aboard. Many of
thefe, during the paffage to Bengal, which was remark¬
ably long and tedious for fuch delicate paflengers, died.
A few infefts only remained alive on the laft plant,
feveral of the leaves having withered.
“ Captain Nelfon, on his arrival in Calcutta, fent the
furvivors to the botanic garden, where they were dif-
tributed on the different fpecies of the opuntia. This
well nigh fruftrated the whole labour. On the China
and Manilla fpecies, they were found to die fait. It
fortunately occurred to make trial on the indigenous
opuntia of Bengal, which is alfo abundant in many
parts of India. On this the infefts thrived amazingly }
infomuch, that from thefe few, in the courfe of four or
five months, a quantity had been collefted fufticient for
diftribution among all who withed to try the rearing of
them, and feveral plants upon which the infefts were
feeding were fent to Madras.
“ The novelty and importance of the objeft promifing
fo fpeedy and plentiful a harveft of fortune, engaged a
multitude of individuals to undertake the bufinefs *, and
this, no doubt, the more readily, as the cultivation of
this field of wealth required but very little capital.
Many golden dreams were enjoyed by the new planters.
All who had a mind were provided with infefts 5 and
undertook plantations of opuntia.
“ The anxiety and impatience natural to all, who,
indulging in ardent expeftations, undertake new enter-
prifes, induced fome of the planters of nopal to put the
infeft upon it when the plant had juft emerged from
the ground. Others, through inattention, kept their
infefts in places too near to where the opuntia was
growing young, which in that tender and premature
ftate was devoured by thefe creatures when hard preffed
by hunger. The untkilful mode of drying vras like¬
wife adopted ; and fome of thofe perfons wrhofe opinions
led the multitude, declared in the moft decided and po-
fitive manner, that the cochineal wrould never anfwer,
as it would not be found worth the trouble and expence
attending the cultivation of it. All thefe confiderations
damped in a ereat meafure the ardour of the enterprife..
Many
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hemiptera.
Many abandoned the pursuit, and left the infers to pro¬
vide for themfelves, after the plants deitined for their ufe
were deftroyed, wherever they could find nourifhment.
They were feen dying about indifcriminately on various
other plants, and thus perilhingj while others rooted out
the plantations, and employed the ground for other pur-
pofes.
“ Refides the difcouraging circumftances already men¬
tioned, it was urged that the fpeeies imported into In¬
dia was the grana fylvejlris, and that the firft fpecimens
fent home had been of no value. They had grown
lumpy and mutty for want of being properly dried, or
thoroughly diverted of the cottony matter with Which
the infeft is covered. But fuppofing, it was added, that
a proper mode of drying and preparing it could be
found out, and the cultivation of it brought to the
greateft perfection, it would foon overftock the market,
as there is a certain quantity only, and that not very
great, which is required for Europe. This would foon
be fupplied, and lofs inftead of gain would accrue to the
planters. This excefs, however, it was farther urged,
was to be prefumed only in the cafe of the country be¬
ing able to fupply plants fufficient for the food of the
infeft, which was very doubtful on account of its quick
reproduction, as it fends forth a new generation every
forty days. Thefe with other objections of lefs force,
may eafily be refuted by any impartial obferver ac¬
quainted with the nature of the climate and foil of In¬
dia, even without any kind of knowledge of agricul¬
ture. In fuch a vaft extent of territory as that of the
Eaft India Company, and lying under fuch a variety of
climates, it is not furely importible, or very difficult, to
find a climate and foil fitted for the naturalization and
rearing the cochineal infeCt, and where the plants will
grow to proper fize for affording it food •, in the fame
manner as in the diftriCts of Mexico, where the people
who take moft pains, have them growing to fuch a
height as to require ladders to gather the infeCls. Such
a ftate of the plant would check the too rapid repro-
duCIion of the infeCI, and at the fame time improve its
quality 5 for it is a faCI, that the fylvefter cochineal,
when bred upon a full grown nopal, lofes part of its tena¬
city, and grows to double the fize of that gathered on gum¬
my plants, and is lefs covered with the cottony fubftance.
“ The cultivation of cochineal, would in all probabili¬
ty be greatly favoured by the vicinity of a hilly coun¬
try •, fuch as the Boglepore, Rajahmahl, and Purneah.
It can be afcertained by good authority, that there are
already in the Chittagong diftrift, plantations of large
opuntias, which have been growing for twu years part.
Whenever the infedrt fhall be placed on thefe plants, we
(hall fee cochineal of a very good quality. The nature
and habits of the natives feem entirely calculated for
the employment of gathering the infefl; work that
may be done by old men, women or boys.
“ As to the drying the infefls, there is no country
where the fun has fuch influence as in Bengal. The
method of drying in the fun, after fcalding the infeft
in hot water, Is that pradtifed in Mexico and in Brazil:
the infedls colledted in wooden bowls are thereby fpread
from them on a hot diffi of earthen ware, and placed
alive on a charcoal fire, where they are flowly roafted,
till the downy covering difappears, and the aqueous
juices of the animal are wholly evaporated. During
this operation, the infedts are conftantly ftirred about
with a tin ladle, and fometimes water is fprinkled upon
them, to prevent abfolute torrefadlion, which would
deftroy the colour : but a little practice will teach them
to remove them from the fire, though furely its barba¬
rity ought to prevent its adoption.
“ By an ellimate, made on a large Icalc, of the neceffary
expence that would attend the cultivation of one hundred
biggahs of opuntia, it appeared, that after making every
poffible allowance for ground rent, ryots gathering, and an
European overfeer, and intereft on difburfement at twelve
per cent, the quantity produced of grana fylvcjiris, du¬
ring nine months of the year, reckoning it at four iicea
rupees per feer of thirty-two ounces, would more than
treble the capital employed. But if this calculation be
juft in the vicinity of Calcutta, and there is no reafon to
fuppofe it otherwife, where labour and ground rent is
dear ; how much would the whole expence of cultiva¬
tion and preparation be, if transferred to a greater dif-
tance, and to the other provinces !
“ When the infeft has been well dried, it ffiould be
packed immediately, as it might otherwife be affecled
by the damp air of Bengal. In this bufinefs the method
ufed in Mexico ffiould be followed 5 which is to put it firft
into a linen bag, covered with a compadt net; and then
over the whole an ox’s hide fewed fo clofely as to ren¬
der it impervious to water;
“ For fome of the cochineal which I wanted for the
purpofe of making experiments, collefted at Entally,
two miles from Calcutta, I paid irf 1796 fixteen rupees
per feer ; for the fame quantity raifed by another plan¬
ter the following year eight rupees; and in 1797,1 might
have bought a great quantity, part of which came one
hundred miles from Calcutta, at five rupees per feer.
“ The improveability of the grana fy/vejfris, by at¬
tention, will be afcertained more clearly by the follow¬
ing facl, than by a thoufand arguments. Some mer¬
chants, at my recommendation, bought about two hun¬
dred pounds of cochineal made at Bafiapuglah, five
miles from Calcutta, at five rupees per feer. The fame
houfe paid for feven mauns, or 280 feers, to Mr Stephens
at Keerpay, feven rupees per feer j and I can fay, that
it was the beft of the fort that had yet been feen in the
town, both for its fize, cleaning and drying.
“ Let us now fuppofe for a moment, fuch cochineal
as that made at Keerpay, to be the belt that can ever be
obtained at Bengal, and that the above may be within a
rupee, more or lefs, the average price. The grana fina
that is brought to Bengal by way of Manilla, fells, when
abundant, at fixteen rupees per feer, but oftener at nine¬
teen and twenty. The Bengal fylvejlris contains only
from to § parts of the colouring matter contained in
the other ; but fay only one half, fo that the manufadu-
rer will be obliged to ufe twro feers inllead of one, the
quality of the colour to be the fame •, even at this rate,
the filk manufactories at Bengal might be fupplied with
it, with a yearly faving. After fupplying this market,
if the quantity be increafed, there will be a demand for
it in the China and Engliffi markets, though only of the
fylvefter kind. Suppofing it for ever to remain fueh,
by leaving it to the indolent natives only, even this
would be a great acquifition, confidering the various
ways in which it can be employed by the dyers. Be-
fides, if the prices were immediately to fall, fo as not to
indemnify the prefent freight and infurance to the pri¬
vate adventurers, how eafy would it be to reduce the in-
Z 2 fed
i Bo E N T O M
fe& to a mucli fraallcr bulk, by making a lake, and pro¬
ducing carmine no left valuable than \\\c gratia fina.
“ The overllocking of tire market, however, with a
drug fo important, and of fueh extendve ufe, is not a
thing very likely to happen. The manufacturer, where-
ever he could get it at a low price, would ufe it gene¬
rally, and fubliitute it in the room of other materials for
reds, fuch as madder, red-wood, and others, ufed for
woollens, and fdks 5 bolides the great varieties of (hades
from fcarlet and crimfon, dorm to all thofe various tints
to be obtained by modifications of reagents from cochi¬
neal, with a brilliancy, and liability, that would foon re¬
pay the fmall additional expcnce that might be incurred
by the fubftitution.
“ It is a thing greatly to be wifhed, by every citizen
and patriot, that the Bengal cochineal may foon be
brought to fuch a degree of perfection, and produced in
fuch plenty, as may admit of a reduction of its price fuffi-
cient to induce the calico printers in Europe to ufe it
more commonly than hitherto, in the dyeing of cotton j
which would open a much wider field for its confump-
tion. As to the Ihynefs of cotton to the admilfion of
this animal colour, it is not an obltacle that ought by
any means to be confidered as infur mountable in the
prefent Hate of chemiftry, advancing fo rapidly to far¬
ther improvements, and particularly applying with valt
fuccefs many of its* operations to the art of dyeing. The
few unfuccefsful attempts made by manufacturers and
chemilts to fix this colour on cotton, have been defeated
more by the dearnefs of tire drug, than by any imprac¬
ticability of the defign. This exhaufted at once the
purfe and patience, both of the artift and chemilt ; and
precluded that continuation, repetition, and diverlifica-
tion of experiment, which is necefifary to the completion
of new inventions.
“ It was upon cotton that the Spaniards firlt faw the
cochineal ufed in Mexico 5 but for want of preparation
it produced but a dull crimfon. When fome of the
dried Bengal infedt was fhewed to the vakeel of the
rajah of Napaul, refiding as minifter to our government
at Calcutta, he foon knew it, and declared that it was
always ufed in dyeing his country robes and turbans.
The opportunity arifing from the management of a
ehintz manufaftory, induced me to make fome trials
of cochineal in cotton cloth and thread. By thefe it
was afeertained, that the quantity of colouring matter
contained in the Bengal cochineal of 1796, compared
■with the gratia Jina, was from nine or eleven to fixteen.
I then repeated, as far as the chemical reagents to be
obtained in India would permit, various experiments of
the kind mentioned by Dr Bancroft, in his firft volume
of the Philofophy of Fall Colours ; and nearly with the
fame fuccefs, in variety of lhades, and degrees of perma¬
nency. From thefe experiments, there refulted two
eonfiderable benefits to that manufa&ory : the firft was,
that I was induced to make an addition of a certain
quantity of powdered cochineal to the morinda root,
for the fine cloths and mullins that were to undergo the
boiling procefs in the vat. The fecond, I was led to
mix with the bafis for printing red (alum), a decodlion
of cochineal, inftead of the turmeric or red wood, for¬
merly ufed by printers in tracing their defigns. This
laft fubftitute was only boiled in limple morinda, and the
other with the addition of cochineal. By this procefs,
O L 0 G V. Hemiptera.
deep and brilliant reds were obtained, fuch as had not
hitherto been feen in Bengal.”
The cultivation, therefore, of the cochineal infedl, Is
an objedt worthy of all the countenance and care ol go¬
vernment. The attempts towards its naturalization
ought not by any means to be abandoned j but conti¬
nued with all perfevering induftry, and unwearied atten¬
tion to every circumftance that may promote lo import¬
ant a branch of commerce. For this article we lend
annually immenfe fums to the Spaniards. Not only
might this expence be faved to Britain} but, in due time,
the reft of the world might be fupplied from the Ben¬
gal produce of this valuable commodity. It is in the
recollection of rnoft people converfant v ith India affairs,
how the firft fpecimens of indigo fent home from Ben¬
gal ■were depreciated and rejedfed. Hence the cultiva¬
tion of it was obftrudted for fome years. But when it
began to be attended to in 1780 and 1782, by people
who were acquainted with the belt modes of manufac¬
turing it, it was improved with fuch rapidity that in
1790, fome of the Bengal indigo v\as judged to be
equal to the Guatimala, and bore the fame price. The
quantity fent home in the years 1795 and 1796, was far
beyond what had ever been imported into the port of
London from all the world, and more than is required
for the annual confumption of Europe. The ufe of in¬
digo in the dye-koufe is very circumfcribed, and con-
fined chiefly to the colours of blue and green. It gives
alfo a few finer blacks, with lilac grounds j but it can¬
not, like cochineal, be applied to the various principal
colours, as crimfon, fcarlet, purple, and all the interme¬
diate lhades.
Body red ; antennas branched 5 tail furnilhed with jicus*
two briftles. 23. A native of India; on the Jicus re-
ligiofa and indica. This is the inl’edt which produces
the gum lac.
In the months of November and December, they firft
appear, and traverfe the branches of the trees on which
they are produced for fome time, and then fix themfelves
on the extremities of the young branches. By the middle
of January, they are all fixed in their proper fituations,
when they appear as plump as before, but Ihevv no other
figns of life. The legs, antennae, and fetae, are no longer to
be feen. Around their edges they are environed with a
fubpellucid liquid which feems to glue them to the
branch j it is the gradual accumulation of this liquid which
forms a complete cell for each infeft, and is what is called
gumlacca. About the middle of March the cells are com¬
pletely formed, and the infedt is in appearance an oval
fmootk red bag without life, about the fize of a fmall
cochineal i rife ft, emarginated at the obtufe end, full of a
beautiful red liquid. In Oftober and November, we
find about twenty or thirty oval eggs, or rather larvae,
within the red fluid of the mother. When this fluid is
all expended, the young infefts pierce a hole through
the back of their mother, and walk off one by one, leav¬
ing their exuviae behind, which is that white membra¬
nous fubftance found in the empty cells of the flick lac.
Thefe infefts feed on fome other trees befides the
ficus religiofa and indica of Linnaeus, viz. on the rhum-
nus jujuba (Linn.*) and on the plafo, (Hort. Malabar.)
The infefts generally fix themfelves fo clofe together, and
in fueh numbers, that fcarcely one in fix can complete
her cell j the others die, and are eaten by various infefts.
The
E N T O M O L O G Y.
Hemiptcra,
The extreme branches appear as if they were covered
with a red dull, and their fap is fo much exhaufted that
they wither and produce no fruit •, the leaves drop off or
turn to a dirty black colour. Thefe infects are tranf-
ported from one tree to another by birds. It is worth
obferving that thefe fig-trees exfude, when wounded, a
milky juice, which inffantly coagulates into a vifeid
ropy fubftance, and when dried refembles the gum lac.
A red gum is procured by incifion from the p/afo, fo
fimilar to the gum lacca, that it may readily be taken
for the fame fubftance. Hence, it is probable, thefe ani¬
mals have but little trouble in preparing the fap of the
trees for the conftruftion of their cells.
The gum lacca is rarely feen on the rhamnus jujuba,
and is inferior to what is found upon the other trees.
This gum, in Bengal, is principally found on the uncul¬
tivated mountains on both fides the Ganges, where it is
produced in fuch abundance, that the markets might be
readily fupplied, were the confumpt ten times greater
than it is.
The only trouble in colle&ing it is in breaking down
the branches. The beft lac is of a deep red colour;
if it be pale and pierced at top, the value diminifties,
becaufe the infects having efcaped, it cannot be ufeful as
a dye, though it may anfwer better as a varniih.
Thefe infects and their cells have been varioufly de¬
nominated : viz. gum lacca, lack, laElra, and in Bengal
lafcha. By the Englifti, lac is divided into four kinds j
viz. Jlick lac, lump lac, feed lac, and (hell lac; for
which, and their varieties, fee the article Lac.
The following account of the lac infect by Dr Wil¬
liam Roxburgh, is publiihed in the Afiatic Refearches,
vol. ii.
“ Some pieces of very frefli looking lac, adhering to
fmall branches of the mimofa cinerea, were brought me
from the mountains on the 20th of laft month. I kept
them carefully ; and to day, the 4th December, fourteen
days from the time they came from the hills, myriads
of exceedingly minute animals were obferved creeping
about the lac and branches it adhered to, and more ftill
iffuing from fmall holes over the furface of the cells:
other fmall and perforated exerefcences were obferved
with a glafs, amongft the perforations ■, from which the
minute infefts iffued, regularly two to each hole, and
crowned with fome very fine white hairs. When the
hairs were rubbed off, two white fpots appeared. The
animals, when fingle, ran about pretty brifkly 5 but in
general they were fo numerous, as to be crowded over
one another. The body is oblong, tapering moft to¬
wards the tail, below plain, above convex, with a double
or fiat margin ; laterally on the back part of the tho¬
rax are two fmall tubercles, which may be the eyes j
the body behind the thorax is croffed with 12 rings 5
legs fix ", feelers (antennae) half the length of the body,
jointed, hairy, each ending in two hairs as long as the
antennae; rump, a white point between two terminal
hairs, which are as long as the body of the animal; the
mouth I could not fee.
“ On opening the cells, the fubftance that they were
formed of cannot be better deferibed, with refpefl to
appearance, than by faying it is like the tranfparent
amber that beads are made of: the external covering of
the cells may be about half a line thick, is remarkably
ftrong, and able to refill injuries 3 the partitions are
much thinner 3 the cells are in general irregular fquares,
pentagons, and hexagons, about an eighth of an inch in
diameter, and a fourth deep ; they have no communica¬
tion with each other: all thefe I opened during the
time the animals Avere iffuing, contained in one half a
fmall bag filled with a thick red jelly-like liquor, re¬
plete Avith Avhat I take to be eggs: thefe bags, or utri-
culi, adhere to the bottom of the cells, and have each
tAvo necks, Avhich pafs through perforations in the ex¬
ternal coat of the cells, forming the fore-mentioned ex-
crefcences, and ending in fome very fine hairs. The
other half of the cells have a diftin£t opening, and con¬
tain a Avhite fubftance, like fome feAV filaments of cotton
rolled together, and numbers of the infefts themfelves
ready to make their exit. Several of the fame infefts
I obferved to have draAvn up their legs, and to lie flat 3
they did not move on being touched, nor did they IhoAV
any figns of life, Avith the greateft irritation.
“ December 5th. The feme minute hexapedes con¬
tinue iffuing from their cells in numbers 3 they are more-
lively, of a deepened red colour, and fewer of the mo-
tionlefs fort. To day I faAV the mouth 3 it is a flatten¬
ed point, about the middle of the breaft, Avhich the lit¬
tle animal projects on being compreffed.
“ December 6th. The male infe£ls I have found to¬
day. A feAV of them are conftantly running amongft
the females moft actively 3 as yet they are fearce more,
I imagine, than one to 5000 females, but twice their
fize. /The head is obtufe 3 eyes black, very large 3
antennee clavated, feathered, about tAvo-thirds the length
of the body; belosv the middle an articulation, fuch as
thofe in the legs 3 colour betAveen the eyes, a beautiful
fhining green 3 neck very fhort 5 body oval, broAvn 3.
abdomen oblong, the length of the body and head 3
legs fix 3 Avmgs membranaceous, four, longer than the
body, fixed to the fides of the thorax, narroAV at their
infertions, groAving broader for tAvo-thirds of their
length, then rounded 3 the anterior pair is tAvice the
fize of the pofterior 3 a ftrong fibre runs along their an¬
terior margins ; they lie flat, like wings of a common fly,
Avhen it walks or refts 3 no hairs from the rump ; ft
fprings moft aftively to a confiderable diftanee on being
touched 3 mouth in the under part of the head 3 maxilla;
tranfverfe.
“ To day the female infefts continue iffuing in great
numbers, and move about as on the fourth.
“ December 7th. The fmall red infers ftill more
numerous, and move about as before 3 winged infe£Isr
ftill very feAV, continue a£tive. There Lave been frefli
leaves and bits of the branches of both mimofa cinerea
and corinda put into the wide-mouthed bottle Avith them :
they Avalk over them indifferently, without fhowing any
preference, nor inclination to Avork nor copulate.
“ I opened a cell Avhence I thought the winged flies-
had come, and found feveral, eight or ten, more in it,,
ftruggling to ftiake off their encumbrances 3 they Avere
in one of thefe utriculi mentioned on the 4th, which
ends in two mouths, ftiut up Avith fine white hairs, but
one of them was open for the exit of the flies 3 the other
would no doubt have opened in due time ; this utri-
culus I found now perfedtly dry, and dmded into cells
by exceeding thin partitions. I imagine, before any of
the flies made their efcape, it might have contained
about twenty. In thofe minute cells with the livino-
I 82
ilicis.
E N T O M
flies, nr whence they had made their efcape, were fmall,
dry, dark-coloured, compreiled grains, which may be
the dried excrements of the flies.
Shining brown, covered with white dowTn. 6. This
infeft is commonly called kermes grains, and inhabits
the qucrcus coccifera of the fouthern parts of Europe.
Mr Hellot of the French Academy of Sciences, in his
Art of Eyeing, chapter 12. fays it is found in the woods
of Vauvert, Vendeman, and Narbonne ; but more abun¬
dantly in Spain, towards Alicant and Valencia; but
alfo in Murcia, Jaen, Cordova, Seville, EAremadura,
la Mancha, Serranias de Cuenca, and other places. In
Xicona, and Tierra de Relluc, there is a diflrict called
de la Grana, where the people of Valencia firft began
to gather it, whofe example was followed all over
Spain. It has lome years produced 5000I. to the in¬
habitants of Xicona. Both the ancients and moderns
feem to have had very confufed notions concerning the
origin and nature of the kermes ; feme coniidering it as
a fruit : this opinion was entertained by Pliny, and by
molt of the ancient naturalifls j others taking it for an
excrefcence formed by the punctures of a particular flv,
like the common gall obferved upon the oak. Tourre-
fort was of this number. Count Marfigli, and Er
Nifoli a phyncian of Montpelier, made obfervations and
experiments, with a vierv of difcovering its nature, but
did not perfectly fucceed. Two other phyflcians at
Aix in Provence, Dr Emeric and Dr Garidel, applied
themfelves about the fame time with greater fuccefs j
they difcovered the kermes to be nothing elfe than the
body of an infeft. About the beginning of March they
are perceived on the branches of the quercus cocciftra,
very fmall j they foon fix themfelves and become im¬
moveable, after which they increafe rapidly in fize. In
April they arrive at their full growth, and are nearly
about the fize of a pea. About the end of May, fooner
or later, according to the warmth of the climate, the
hulk appears replete with fmall eggs, lefs than poppy
feed. Thefe are properly ranged under the belly of the
infects, progreffively placed in the neft of down that
covers their bodies. After this it foon dies, though it
Hill adheres to its pofition, rendering a further fervice
to its progeny, and {bidding them from the inclemency
of the weather, or the hoftile attacks of an enemy. In
a good feafon they multiply exceedingly, producing from
1800 to 2000 eggs. In Eanguedoc and Provence the
poor are employed to gather the kermes ; the women
letting their nails grow for that purpofe, in order to
pick them off with greater facility.
The cuflom of lopping off the boughs is very injudi¬
cious, as by this means they deftroy the next year’s
harveft. Some women will gather two or three pounds
a day } the great point being to know the places -where
they are moil likely to be found in any quantity, and
to gather them early with the morning dew, as the leaves
are more pliable and tender at that time, than after they
have been parched by the rays of the fun : flrong dews
will occafionally make them fall from the trees fooner
than ufual \ when the proper feafon pafles, they fall off
themfelves, and become food for birds, particularly
doves. Sometimes there is a fecond collection ; but the
infeCts are commonly fmaller, and do not afford fo much
colouring matter. The infeCts which are produced in
• the fpring, are generally found adhering to the bark ;
6
o L O G Eepidoptera,
thofe of the fecond crop are commonly attached to the
leaves.
Thofe who buy up the kermes for exportation, fpread
it on linen, taking care to tprinkle it with vinegar, to
kill the infects, which caufes a red duff to feparate from
them j in Spain, this is carefully collected, and kept
apart by itfelf. After it has been dried, they pafs it
through a fearce and put it up into bags. In the mid¬
dle of each, its proportion of red duff is put into a
leather bag, wdiich likewife belongs to the buyer. The
people of Hinojos, Bonarcs, Villalba, and of fome other
parts in Spain, dry it on mats in the fun, ffirring it
about, and feparating the red duff, which is the fineft
part; which they fprinkle with vinegar, and call paJUL
'1 he kermes is much in requeff on the coaff of Barbary,
particularly that w hich comes from Spain. The people
of Tunis mix it with what is brought from Tetuan,
for dyeing thofe fcarlet caps fo much ufed in the
Levant.
43 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syflem of Nature.
68. Thrips.
Snout concealed withiii the mouth. Antennae filiform,
of the fame length with the thorax. Body linear.
Abdomen capable of being bent upwards. Wings
four, ffraight, incumbent, narrower than the body,
and nearly forming a crofs.
The infeCls of this genus leap about very aClively on
flowers •, their feet are veficular 5 the larvae are equally
aftive with the perfeCt infeCl j commonly red.
The elytra yellowifti; body black. 2. A native *pfiyfup;
of Europe •, on compound flowers. It {huts up the
flowers of the lotus corniculutus, and caufes them to
fwell out; it is very deftructive to wheat and rye, fre¬
quently rendering the ears quite empty.
Eleven fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature,
III. LEPIDOPTERA.
Wings four, covered with fmall feales laid over one
another, like tiles on the roof of a houfe. The mouth
furnilhed with a fpiral tongue. Body hairy.
69. Papilio, the Butterjly.
Antennae thicker towards the points. Moft frequently
they are both clavated and furnilhed with a knob at
the extremity. Their wings, when at reft, are for
the moft part eredl. They fly about in the day-time.
The butterfly feeds on the nefarious juice of flow7er»,
or on the faccharine juice wThich exudes from the leaves
of vegetables. Their larvae are active, and run about
a good deal. They are furnilhcd with tentacula and
16 feet ; fome are naked, others covered with prickles,
and feed on the leaves of plants. The pupa is naked,
and remains torpid for a longer or Ihorter period •, fre¬
quently adhering to different fubftances, by means of
threads attached to its middle or head. The perfect in-
fe£l is furnifhed with two feelers, but wants jaws, and
ha.*
bi?
Lepidoptera.
has four or fix feet. Their names are frequently taken
from the plants on which they feed.
Thefe butterflies which belong to the family of
knights are, for the moft part, furniflied with filiform
antennae, and with a tail or long appendix to the wings j
the larvae are commonly variegated, and but few of them
are natives of Europe.
Linnaeus has arranged the genus of Butterfly into
fix divifions, and thefe again into many fubdivifions.
ENTOMOLOGY.
183
1. Elites.
A. Troes.
I. Equites. Alis primo-
ribus ab angulo pofterio-
re ad apicem longioribus
quam ad bafin j his faepe
antennae filiformes. .
A. Troes. Saepius nigri,
maculis ad peftus fan-
suineis.
B. Achivi. Peftora non
cruenta, ocello ad angu-
lam ani.
a. Alis abfque fafciis.
b. Alis fafciatis.
2. Heliconii. Alis an-
guftis integerrimis, faepe
denudatis j primoribus
oblongis, pofterioribus
breviflimis,
3. Parnassii. Alis in¬
tegerrimis rotundatis.
4. Dana 11. Alis integer¬
rimis.
A. Candidi. Alis albis.
B. Fejiivi. Alis variega-
tis.
5. Nymphales. Alisden-
ticulatis.
A. Gemmati. Alis ocel-
latis.
n. In alis omnibus.
b. primoribus,
pofterioribus.
. Phalerati. Alis abfque
ocellis.
6. Plebeii. Parvi, larva
fiepius contradla.
A. Rurales. Alis maeu-
lis obfcurioribus.
B. Vrbicolce. Alis macu-
hs faepius pellucidis.
1. Knights. Thofe which
have their upper wings
longer from the pofterior
angle to the tip, than
to the bafe,and have their
antennae for the moft part
filiform.
A. Trojans. Thofe equi-
tes that are generally
black, and marked on
the breaft with fpots of a
blood-red colour.
B. Greeks. Such as are
not marked on the breaft
with red fpots ; but have
an ocellus at the angle
of the wing near the a-
nus.
a. Wings without bands.
b. Wings marked with
bands.
2. Heliconii. Thofe which
have narrow and perfect¬
ly entire wings, frequent¬
ly bare, the upper ones
oblong, the under very
fhort.
3. Parnassii. Thofe with
wings perfectly entire,
the upper pair being
round.
4. Danaii. Wings perfect¬
ly entire.
A. Candidi. Wings white.
B. Fejiivi. Wings varie¬
gated.
5. Nymrhales. Thofe with
wings notched.
A. Gemmati. Wings adorn¬
ed with feveral ocelli.
a. on all the wings.
b. on the upper wings.
c. on the under wings.
E. P haler ati. Wings with¬
out ocelli.
6. Plebeii. Such as are
fmall and have contract¬
ed larvae.
A. Rurales. Such as have
their wings marked with
obfcure fpots.
B. Urbicobe. Thofe with
tranfparent fpots on their
wings.
f Wings furnifhed with a tail.
Wings of the fame colour, both on their upper and heCltC.
under iurfaces, black j the upper ones marked with a
white band, the under with red fpots. A native of
India 5 on the arjlolochia. ihe white band on the up¬
per wings is compofed of eight white half-divided fpots.
i he icarlet fpots on the under wings are round and
form a double arch.
\V ings black, both above and below marked with a afcamus.
white band, common to both wings ; that on the lower
clouded with red. A native of the Brafils. It refem-
bles the tincloria; body black, breaft marked with
blood-coloured fpots.
V\ mgs of the fame colour, both on their upper and anteHQT
under furfaees, black fpotted with white; the under
ones marked with circular red fpots along their edges.
A native of India. Head red j antennae and thorax
black } abdomen white, with red bands j wings marked
with numerous white fpots, the lower part greeniih in
the middle, with a red circular fpot at the angle of the
tail.
W ings nearly of the fame colour on both upper and glaucus.
under fm races, clouded $ the upper wings marked with
a yellow fpot, the under with a tawney one near the tail.
A. nati/e of America. Ihe under furface of the lower
wings are marked with red and yellow fpots.
\ v mgs black, fprinkled with green and gold d.o\.s,palinurus
and marked with a bluifli green band. A native of
Tranquebar. Body covered with green and (mid
fpecks. Wings^ black, fpeckled with white on their
under furface.^ .The upper ones afh-colouied at the tip,
the under marked with tawney fpots along their edges! ’
Wings black, the under ones of a fhining green, thephilenora .
under fur face marked with feven red fpots fomewhat re-
fembling eyes. A native of America. Body black:
abdomen fpeckled with white; margin of the upper
wings variegated with white and black j under ones with a
few faint white fpecks j the margin variegated with white
and black, marked_ with a white dot at the bafe on the
undei iurface j the tip greeniih, with feven round tawney
dots furrounded with a black ring, and marked with a
fmall white lateral dot.
Wings black, with a white band ; the under furface a
of the lower wings marked at the bafe and at the tip
with red. A native of America. Thorax marked with
an afh-coloured lateral line j breaft with an afli-coloured
dot on each fide ; abdomen with an afti-coloured lateral
line beneath ; upper wings with both furfaces alike :
under ones black above, with three fcarlet circular fpots
at the angle of the tail, and five'white ones at the mar¬
gin, brown beneath, marked with red fpots at the bafe
a red line at the inner margin, and three circular fpots
at the angle of the tail, with four white circular fpots
on the outer margin. 1
f f Wings notched.
Wings notched and filky, the upper ones green onnnWr
their fupenor furface, marked with a black fpot the^ *
under with fix black fpots. A native of Amboyna.
ThiL
tS4 E N T 0 M
This is the it;oft remarkable fpccies of this genus, both
for its fize and beauty. Head and legs black 5 abdo¬
men bright yellow, and the fides of the thorax varie¬
gated with fcarlet lines.
anchifes. Wings of the fame colour on both their upper and
under furfaces, black j the under wings marked with
feven oval fcarlet tpots. A native of America ; on the
orange tree. The larva is prickly, brown marked with
white circular ftripes,and furnilhed with tentacula. They
are gregarious. Pupa brown, marked with four projec¬
tions on its anterior part.
B. AchivL
f iVings firnijhed with a double tail.
'pyrrhus. Wings brown, each of them marked with a white
band, the band on the upper wings as it were halved.
A native of South America and India.
etcocles. Wings of a dulky blue, marked on both {ides with a
white band, the edges of the under ones green. A na¬
tive of Africa.
f f Wings furnijhed with two notched tails.
tindates. Wings black on their upper furface, fpotted with
blue, and marked with a dotted white edge. A native
of Amboyna.
pollux. Wings brown ; marked with a yellow band on their
upper furface, and on their under furface with a white
band and white fpots. A native of Africa.
f f f Wings furnijhed with two very fight tails.
codes. Wings ftriped with white and yellow, with a white
band in the middle j the lower wings marked on their
under furfaces with a ftrip of dots refembling little eyes.
A native of Siam. Of a middle lize, and very tender.
f j- f -f- Wihgs notched and furnijhed with a tail.
polycaon. Wings black, marked with a yellow band *, the under
furface of the lower wings marked with tawney blue and
yellow circular fpots. A native of Surinam j feeds on
feme fpecies of the althcea.
xiphares. Wings black, the upper fpotted with white, the un¬
der ones marked with a yellow band. A native of
Africa.
O L O G Y. Lepidoptera,
fttuated at the edge ncareft the extremity of the abdo¬
men. This is the largeft and one of the meft beauti¬
ful butterflies.which Britain produces. It changes in¬
to the pupa in July, affumes the winged ftate in Auguft,
and frequents meadows. Sometimes it appears in May.
Wings nearly of the fame colour both on their upper *podaliri*
and under furfaces, marked with brown bands fet in pairs; us.
the under furface of the lower wings marked with a
blood-coloured line. A native of Europe and the
northern parts of Aha and Africa. It feeds on differ¬
ent fpecies of the brafica : Larva folitary, yellow!fh
dotted with brown ; head pale green ; pupa yellowilh
dotted wflth brown, marked with two flight projections
towards the anterior extremity.
Wings white, the upper ones, marked with black alcibiadeSi
bands along the edges, the under ones marked on their
fuperior furface with red near the tip. A native of
Tranquebar. Head tawney, with a broad black line in
the middle ; thorax downy and afli-coloured, marked
with twro tawney fpots ; abdomen whitifh, marked on the
ftdes with a line of black blotches ; upper wings green-
ifli at the bafe; under ones marked with a black fpot
near the tail, and marginal circular fpots ; tail long,
black tipped with white, ftreaked with black beneath.
ffffff Wings terminating in a fight projection faint¬
ly refembling a tail.
Wings broWn, marked on their under furfaces withplidippus,
white bands, adorned with two eyes, and with a double
eye at the tail. A native of India. The female much
larger than the male.
Wings brown, black at the tip, fpotted with white ; aurelius,
the under wings on their lower furfaces adorned with
two eyes. A native of India.
Wings, upper furfaces brown ; under wings with z jafon*
band marked with fix green blotches. A native of
South America and India.
Wings brown : the under wings marked with twophilo&etej
blue ocelli, with black pupils, and three w'hite dots.
A native of South America and India. The female
has a tuft of long diverging hairs at the end of the upper
wings.
Wings black, marked with a plain green band ; the nereus,
under furfaces of the wings are blackifli. A native of
South America and India.
f f f f f Wings furnijhed with a tail.
ulyjfes. Wings black, with a blue radiant centre ; the under
furface of the lower ones adorned with feven ocelli. A
native of Afia.
agamem- Wings black, fpotted with green ; the under furface
non. of the lower ones adorned with an ocellus, and with red
fpots. A native of Afia.
**machaon. Wings of the fame colour In both furfaces, yellow
with a brown edge, marked with yellow circular fpots,
and with a tawney one at the angle of the tail. A na¬
tive of Europe ; on umbelliferous plants, and on rue.
The larvae are feldom found in numbers together, are
fmooth and marked with annular ftrips of green and
black, dotted with red ; their tentacula are ihort and
yellow. They emit a very difagreeable fmell by which
they keep off the ichneumon. Their pupa is black and
yellow. The under wings are adorned with an eye of
a ycllowifli-rcd colour, encircled with blue, which is
f f f f f f f Wings notched.
Upper furfaces of the ■wings of a bright blue, the tnenelaus,
under fpotted with brown. A native of South Ameri¬
ca. The larva prickly and yellow, marked with rofe-
coloured ftrips ; head brown and feet red. Pupa pale,
and has a cylindrical inflefted tail.
Upper furfaces of the wings brown, fpotted with nefor.
white, and blue in the centre; their under furfaces adorn¬
ed with three or four eyes. A native of America.
Wings brown ; the upper furfaces of both have a te/emacJiUS
large radiated dilk, the under furface of each marked
with fix eyes. A native of South America.
Wings pale blue, and black at the tips, fpotted ddhperfeus.
red. A native of Surinam.
Upper furfaces of the wings black marked with a achilles,
blue band ; the under ones are brown, adorned with
three or five eyes. A native of America.
Under
Lepidoptera.
argynos. Under furfaces of all the wings of blue and filver ;
the upper wings black on their fuperior furfaces, mark¬
ed with two filver bands, and with two brown ones on
the under furface •, the under wings marked on their
fuperior furface with a broad filver-band, and with feven
fpots of blue and filver. 378. A native of Afia.
185
margin of the lower wings black, marked with feven
yellowiik dots.
4. Danai,
A. Candidi.
ENTOMOLOGY.
tffffftf Wings faintly notched.
idmencus. Wings nearly crenated, and of a dulky blue colour; the
under furfaces clouded, and adorned with two ocelli. 4 r.
A native of South America. The larva is reddifh, with
feathery protuberances let round it in a ring. The pu¬
pa is dentated, and furniihed with two crooked horns at
the head.
2. Helicon 11 .
terpf chore Upper wings yellow j under wings of a deeper yel¬
low than the upper, fprlnkled with black fpots. 55. A
native of Afia.
calliope.
polymnia.
viol#.
mini.
Wings yellow ; the upper marked with three black
flreaks, and the under with three black bands. 56. A
native of South America and India, Tips of the upper
Avings fpeckled with white.
Wings pale-yellow; the upper ones marked with a
bright yellow band, the under with three black bands.
58. A native of South America. Larva yellowdih and
prickly.
Wings tawnev, dotted with black, and the under ones
have a black edge dotted with white. 3 59. A native
of India ; on the violet and borrage.
Wings brown ; the upper wings marked on both Tides
with two white bands. 63. A native of America ; on
the ricin'ts pa/ma chrifti; the bafe of the under wing
in the male marked with purple, in the female with
blue; the larva green, covered with white hairs.
3. Parnassii.
opollo. Wings white, fpotted with black; the under wings
are red at the bafe, and adorned with four ocelli on their
upper, and fix on their under furfaces. 50. A native
of Europe, and feeds on the fedum tclephium, and the
faxifrapa cotyledon ; flies about flowly ; the larva foli-
tary, filky, black, and furniflied with two tentacula at
the back part of its head ; all its fegments are marked
on each fide with two red dots. The pupa covered with
a flight follicle ; oval, bluifh, and marked on each fide
with red dots on the anterior part.
mnemofyne Wings white, with black veins ; the upper ones
marked with two black fpots near their edges. 31. A
native of Europe.
1 cratccgi. Wings white, with black veins. 72. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on fruit trees. It is very dertruftive in gardens
and orchards, and emits a fluid of a reddifli colour,
which has frequently given rife to the reports of Ihowers
of blood which are faid to have fallen in different pla¬
ces. Larva gregarious ; hairy and yellow, green be¬
neath; head black; body marked with three black lines;
pupa greenifli, with black fpots and dots.
tndroma- Wings of the fame colour, both on their upper and
pta under furfaces ; the upper ones dulky and naked, the
under yellow. 382. A native of New Holland. Head
black ; feelers yellow ; thorax black, with a yellow dot
on each fide ; bread fpotted. with yellow ; pofterior
Vol. VIII. Part I.
Wings black at the tips, marked with two black * braflcoe.
fpots. 75. A native of Europe; on fome fpecies of brafli-
ca. i ne upper wings in the male are without black
fpots, and the fame happens xn the two following fpecies.
i he larva folitary, doited with black, and marked with
three fulphur-eoloured lines ; the tail black ; pupa pale
green, marked with three yellow lines, and three of its
fegments globular ; eggs fet in duffers.
Smaller than the preceding fpecies; wings white,*fapec^
upper ones tipt with brown; the female has three brown
fpots on the upper, and one on the lower pair. 76. A
native of Europe ; on the turnip and other fpecies of
brajjica; alfo on the tropxolwn. Larva green ; marked
with a bright yellow line on the back, and bright yel¬
low on the fides; pupa greenifh, marked with three ful-
phur-coloured lines.
Wings marked on their under furfaces with broad * napec*
greenifli veins. 77. A native of Europe ; on feveral
fpecies of brajlicct.
Wings roundifti; of a dufky colour at the tips. 70. * finavis*
A native of Europe ; on the muftard. J ^
Wings white above ; the upper ones on their fuperior difeors.
£rface, black at the edge and tip, which is marked
with four white dots ; inferior furfaces black, marked
at the tips with four yellow fpots and a yellow bafe ;
the inferior furface of the under wings fcarlet, marked
with black veins. 881.
Wings roundifli, brown at the edges ; their under * daplu
furfaces of a grayifli yellow fpotted with white. 81. Adicce.
native or Europe; on different kinds of vefeda and brajji¬
ca ; larva covered with bluiffi hairs, marked with black
Ipots and yellow ftreaks.
Wings round ; the centre of the upper ones tawney ; * cards,*
the inferior furface of the under ones clouded with mines.
green. 85. A native of Europe; on the card amine, braf-
yteo, and thlafpis. Larva folitary ; greenifli above and
whitifh beneath. Pupa green, marked with a white
line on each fide ; thorax conical, aftending.
. W^gs yellow, with black tips, and alrown mzr-palant*
gm; the inferior furface of the under ones marked with
a filver dot. _ 99. A native of Europe, on the coronilla ;
wings fometimes whitifh. Larva foroewhat hairy ; green
marked with yellowr lines and black dots.
Wrings Angular and yellow; each marked with a rufty- * rhamm.
coloured fpot. 106. A native of Europe ; on the buck¬
thorn. Commonly flies about in Auguff, though fre¬
quently it lies dormant all winter, and appears early in
the fpnng. The male is very often of a fulphur colour ;
tnc female white. Larva fmooth ; and oreen with a '
dark line on the back. Pupa in the anterior part turgid
and drawn to a point. , G *
B. Fefivi.
Wings almoft entire, brown, with a rufly-coloured caffur
band divided at the point. The lower furface of the
under wings afh-coloured, and adorned with two ocelli.
JLhe laiva green, ftreaked with red, with two prickles
i86
* hyper-
(tnthus.
oedipus.
'* pamphi-
lus.
pr can ins.
leander.
>•
* macra.
** megcera.
* ageria.
fhccdra.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Lepidoptera,
on its head, and tail divided. Pupa reddifli, with fil-
very fpots. i 20.
Wings entire, of a dufky colour j the lower furface of
the upper ones adorned with three ocelli, and the infe¬
rior furface of the under wings with two or three. 1 27.
A native of Europe; is found at the roots of the poa
annua ; the wings fometimes have ocelli on their upper
furfaces. Larva folitary, hairy, and of an alh-colour,
marked with a black line behind \ the tail furnilhed
with two little prominences; pupa brown, fpotted
with yellow ; and has a bunch on ids back.
Wings entire ; their upper furfaces black, without
fpots, the under brown ; the upper wings adorned with
three ocelli, the under with live. 495. A native of
Europe.
Wings perfectly entire and yellow 5 the upper adorn¬
ed on their lower furface with one ocellus j the under
ones aih-coloured, marked with a band and four faint
ocelli. 239. A native of Europe 5 on the ci/nofurus
crijlatus ; in woody meadows. Larva and pupa green \
the former marked with a white line, and has two fmall
prominences at the tail.
Wings per reft] y entire, of a rutty colour •, the upper
marked on their inferior furfaces with a iingle ocellus ;
the under wings with five, the firft being feparated by a
band. 242. A native of Europe; in woody meadows.
Larva green, marked on the back with duft-coloured
lines, and on the tides with yellow lines; the tail fur-
nifhed with two little prominences.
Wings perfeftly entire, brownifh ; (the upper win4^
of the female tawney), the lower furface of the under
ones ath-coloured and tawney at the tips, adorned with
fix ocelli. 503. A native of Europe; fomewhat re-
fembling the laid.
5. Nymph ales.
A. Gemmati.
Wings angularly notched, tawney, fpotted with
black ; each adorned with one ocellus. 131. A native
of Europe. Larva gregarious, prickly, black, dotted
with white ; their hind legs of a rulty colour. Pupa
green, dotted with gold ; having ten fmall projeftions
on the fore part of the body ; the tail divided.
Wings notched, brown ; the upper marked on both
furfaces with one ocellus and a half; the under adorn¬
ed on their fuperior furfaces with three ocelli, and on
their inferior with fix. 141. A native of Europe ; on
paftiire ground. Larva greenifh, fomewhat hairy, hav¬
ing two fmall prominences at the tail. Pupa greenifh,
flightly divided, and prickly on the fides.
Wings notched, yellow, and marked with brown
bands; the upper adorned with one ocellus, and the
under with five ocelli on the fuperior, and fix on the
inferior furface. 142. A native of Europe; on paf-
ture ground. Larva hairy, green, {tripped with white;
the tail divided.
Wings notched, brown, fpotted with yellow ; the
upper adorned on both furfaces with one ocellus ; the
under with four ocelli on their fuperior furface, and
four dots on their inferior. 143.
Wings notched, brown on both their fuperior and
inferior furfaces ; the upper wings adorned with violet-
coloured ocelli. 1 50. A native of Europe ; feed chief¬
ly on the avena clatior. Larva gray, with twro lines of
black dots on its back ; tail divided. It remains under
ground till it has undergone its metamorphous.
B. Phalerati.
Wings notched, of a dufky colour, marked viithpopulu
white dots and bands ; their inferior furfaces yellow,
marked with white bands and black fpots. 162. A
native of Europe ; on the populus tremu/a. The female
marked with a broader white band than the male.
Larva prickly, and variegated ; head and tail tawney.
Pupa yellowifh, dotted with black.
Wings angular, black, with a whitifh circumfe- * antiopa,
rence. 165. A native both of Europe and America;
on the birch and willow. When it appears in fpring,
the edges on the wings are white, and in the fummer
they become yellow. Larva gregarious, prickly, black,
marked with fquare rufty-coloured fpots on the back.
Pupa black, marked with fmall projeftions and tawney
dots.
Wings angular, tawney, fpotted with black ; the *pohjchlo*
upper ones marked on their i’uperior furface with four ros.
black dots. 166. A native of Europe ; on fruit trees.
Larva gregarious, prickly, blackifh, marked with a
yellow line on the fides. Pupa of a tlefh colour.
Wings angular, tawney, fpotted with black; the * urtica.
fuperior furface of the upper wings marked with three
black dots. 167. A native of Europe ; very common
on the nettle ; fuppofed, though often falfely, to be a
forerunner of fpring. Larva gregarious, prickly, brown,
variegated with green ; the head black. Pupa brown,
marked with fmall projeftions, and golden fpots on the'
neck, and fometimes entirely of a golden colour. This
infeft, and many others of the fame genus, p. ala/anta,
polyciiloras, jo, &c. foon after their enlargement from
the chryfalis ftate, difeharge a few drops of a reddiih
coloured fluid ; which in places where they have ap¬
peared in great numbers, has had the appearance of
a ihower of blood, and been marked by writers as a
prodigy foreboding fome extraordinary event.
Wings angular, tawney fpotted with black ; the under * C album
ones marked on their inferior furface with a white C. 168,
A native of Europe ; on the nettle, willow, and goofe-
berry. Larva folitary, prickly, and tawney ; the back
yellow on the fore part, and white behind. Pupa of a
flefh colour, contradted in the middle, dotted with gold.
Wings notched, yellow, variegated with black, and hypfipyle.
radiated at the tips; the under ones marked with feven
red dots. 607. A native of Europe; on the arijlolochia
clematis. Larva yellow, marked with black, furnifhed
with prickles fet round in a circle ; red, w ith black
tips.
Wings black, fpotted with white; the upper ones * a/fl/hw/tf-
marked with a purple band on both fides, the under
with a purple band along the edge. 175. A native of
Europe and America ; on the nettle. Larva folitary,
prickly, green, marked with yellow lines on the fides.
Pupa marked with fmall projeftions; blackifh above,
and afh-coloured below, dotted with gold.
Wings angularly notched, brown, marked with taw- celt is.
ney fpots and a fingle white one; the under wungs gray
on their inferior furfaces. 639. A native of the fouth of
Europe. Larva green, marked with wdiite lines, fpotted
with black. Pupa green, marked with white lines.
Wings {lightly notched, variegated, and reticulated, levana,
en.
lepidoptera. £ N T O M
on their inferior farface 5 the upper ones marked on their
fuperior furface with fome white fpots. 201. A native
of Europe ; on the common thiftle. Larva gregarious,
prickly, and black 5 legs red 5 head marked with two
prickles 5 pupa furnifhed with fmall brown projections j
thorax yellowifh below,
* adippe. Wings notched, brown, fpotted with black, adorned
on the inferior furface with twenty-three filvery fpots.
212. A native of Europe } on the viola odorata and
tricolor: the filver fpots fome times, though rarely, change
into yellow ; larva alh-coloured or brown, covered wi\h
many reddilh prickles, and marked on the back with a
black line, riling out of a white one } pupa brown,
marked with lilver dots.
O L 0 G Y. , s7
Wings perfectly entire, fpreading fo as to form an ob- * line a.
tufe angle; tawney, with a black margin. 817. A native
of Europe ; upper wings in the male marked with a
fmall black line on the middle. Larva fblitary and
green. Pupa green \ with a very thin covering.
Wings notched and fpreading fo as to form an obtufe * matvee
angle ; brown, waved with afh colour; the upper wings
marked with tranfparent dots ; the under ones with
white dots. 267. A native of Europe ; in the matva
and althaea. Larva gray 5 head black j neck marked
with four fulphur-coloured dots. It draws together the
leaves on which it feeds, by threads which it fpim.
Pupa hunch-backed and bluiih.
6. Plebeii.
A, Rurales.
cupido. Under wings terminating in fix fmall projeflions,
white on their inferior furface, marked with lilver fpots.
217. A native of America J on the cotton. Larva
white, dotted with black.
* betuic. Wings furnifiied with a flight tail, the under ones
marked with twro white ftreaks. 220. A native of
Europe 5 on the birch and floe. Wings of the male
marked with tawney fpots 5 larva thick, green marked
with two obliquely tranfverfe white lines, and two fmall
furrows on the back ; pupa fmooth, of a rufty colour.
yruni. Wings flightly tailed, browft above, with a red
fpot at the tip of the lowmr ones ; lower wings beneath
with a tawney marginal band, dotted with black. 221.
A native of Europe 5 on the plum-tree. Larva thick,
green, with a pale lateral line 5 pupa brown, with a
white head.
* quercus. Wings flightly tailed, bluifh, beneath afli-coloured,
with a white ftreak and double tawney dot near the tail.
222. A native of Europe •, on the oak. Larva thick
above, of a rofe colour ; with three lines of green dots.
Pupa fmooth, of a rufty colour ; with three lines of
brown dots on the back.
cerafi. Wings tailed, brown, without fpots ; the inferior
furfaces marked with a white ftreak, and tawney cir¬
cular fpots y the under wings marked with a black dot.
719. A native of Europe j on the cherry tree.
fedt. Wings furniihed Avith a tail, blue, with a Avhite
fpotted edge, Avhite on their inferior furfaces, marked
Avith black fquare fpots, and areddifti band. 743. A
native of Europe 5 on the fedumtelephium. Laiwa green 5
marked with a red line on the back. Pupa obtufe j
green on the anterior, and broAvn cm the pofterior part.
cyllarus. Wings entire, and blue Avith a black edge ; beneath
of a broAvnifh colour, adorned Avith a ftreak of dots
refembling ocelli 5 the under Avings on their inferior
furface blue at the bafe. 750. A native of Europe ; on
the floAver of the ajlragalus and mellilot. Larva pale ;
marked Avith a red ftreak on the back, and on the fides
Avith oblique green lines 5 head black. Pupa broAvn,
fpotted with black.
B. UrbicoLe.
876 fpecies of the butterfly have been delcribed in
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature publifned by
Gmelin ; but a great many more are to be met Avith in
the collections of the curious, which have not yet been
deferibed by any author.
Sphinx, Hawk-moth.
Antennae nearly prifmatic, thickeft in the middle*
J ongue (in moft fpecies) projecting. Feelers two,
bent back. Wings defletfted.
* Legitimae. Antenna; fcahjy Feelers hairy. Tongue
Spiral.
f Wings angular.
The under Avings reddifh, adorned with a blue eye. * ocellatiu
1 • Native of Europe and America ; on the fpircea,
AvilJoAV, and fruit trees 5 the thorax marked with a
rufty-eoloured fpot, the tongue very fliort. The larva
folitary, rough, green, and furnifhed with a tail j marked
Avith obtufe Avhite ftreaks, and dotted with yelloAV ocelli.
The pupa is broAvn, Avith a black back.
Wings angularly notched, yellowifh, marked on quercus.
the under furface with broAvn bands 5 the under Avings
with a red band. 48. Native of Europe, on the oak.
The body of the male is afh-coloured 5 that of the female
brown. The larva folitary, furnifhed with a tail, and
green ; marked on the fides with oblique Avhite ftripes,
and Avith reddiih fpeeks. The pupa a light brown, with
reddifh edges.
W ings dentated, reverfed and gray 5 the under Avings ^populi.
of a rufty colour at the bafe 5 the upper ones marked
Avith a Avhite dot. 2. Native of Europe 5 on the poplar
and Avillow. . The larva folitary, rough, green, furnifhed
Avith a tail; it is marked on each fide Avith a white line
and Avith Avhite oblique crofs ftripes. The pupa a dufky
gray, and of a rufty colour behind.
Wings marked with greenilh bands, and clouded * tiliae.
Avith dark green 3 the fuperior furface of the upper
Avings of a yelloAvifh brick-colour. 13. Native of
Europe 3 on the lime-tree. The larva folitary, rouo-h,
green, furniihed_ with a tail. It grows fmaller towards
the head, and is marked on the fides with oblique
blood-coloured and yelloAV ftripes. The pupa of a dufky
broAvn.
vomtna.
Wings perfeflly entire, fpreading fo as to form an
obtufe angle, tawney, marked Avith a fmall Avhite line,
and Avith white dots beneath. 256. A native of
Europe 3 the line Avanting in the female. Larva of a
ihining red 3 head black, Avith a Avhite ftrip on the
collar. Pupa long, cylindrical, and brown.
Wings irregularly notched, and greenifh, marked ot not her a.
Avith a dark green band 3 the under Avings taAvney, and
black at the tips. 54. Native of Europe 3 on the
ce not her a. The larva folitary, broAvn, and Avithout a
tail 3 marked Avith blood-coloured fpecks, and Avith a
black ocellus, the pupil of Avhich is white, on the laft
A a 2 fegment
i88
nerii*.
'* convol¬
vuli.
ligujlri.
'•* utropos.
^ te!erio»
® elpenor.
* euphor-
hice.
jlegmsnt but one of tbc abdomen,
vexed, and light brown.
Wings faintly angular and green ; variegated with
bands of pale or dark green, and yellow. Native o£
Europe ; on the nerium. The larva folitary, dotted
with white, and marked on eaeh tide of the neek vbth
a blue ocellus. The tail is bent down, and almoft joint¬
ed. The pupa yellow, marked with a black line and
black dots on the back.
f j- JVings entire,.
Wings clouded ; the under ones faintly marked with
bands; the abdomen marked with belts of red, black,
and white. 6 . Native of Europe j on the convolvulus.
It fmeils of ambergrife. Its eyes are very bright. The
larva furniihed with a tail; marked on each fide with
oblique white lines, and dotted with faint ocelli. The
pupa light brown, furnished with a reflected involuted
horn.
The under wings reddilh, marked with three black
bands ; the abdomen red, lurrounded with black belts.
8. Native of Europe 5 on the privet, lilac, afh, and
elder. The larva green, and furniihed with a tail j
marked on the fides wyth oblique breaks of a carnation
colour towards the anterior part of the body, and white
towards the poflerior. The fore part of the body is
ere£l, and it refts with the feet elevated. The pupa
brown \ with a tail formed of four fmall projections.
The under wings yellow, marked with brown bands j
the abdomen yellow, marked with black belts. 9,
Native of Europe ; on the jefiamine, potato, and hemp.
It is alfo a native of Africa and Afia ; but the varie¬
ty to be met with there, is double the fize of that in
Europe. It makes a noife by rubbing its feelers againft
its tongue. The larva is folitary,. and lies concealed
under ground all day, coming out in the evening to
feed. It is yellow dotted with black, and fumilhed
with a tail which is bent down ; it is marked on the
fides with crofs lines, half blue, half green. The pupa
light brown, marked on both fides with black fpecks.
Wings gray, marked with white breaks 5 the under
ones with brown ones, and with fix red fpots. 12.
Native of the Ihuth of Europe 5 on the vine. The
larva is brown, marked on the fides with two white
lines, and with two ocelli on each fide of the neck. It
is furniihed with a tail. The pupa is of a dark brown
before, and of a light brown behind.
The wings variegated with purple and green •, the
under wings red, and black at the bafe. 17. Native
of Europe \ on the French willow, the balfam, the con¬
volvulus, and the vine. The larva is furniihed with a
tail, and is fpotted with black •, it is alfo adorned with
two blue ocelli on each fide of the neck. The pupa on-
the anterior part of the body is of a dulky gray, and
brown on the pofterior part, marked with dark-coloured
fpecks.
Wings gray •, the upper ones marked with two green
bands 5 the under with two red bands, with a black
break at the bafe j the antennae a pure white. 19.
Native of Europe ; on the euphorbia. The larva is fur-
nifhed with a tail, and is black, marked with white j
marked with a blood-coloured line on the back, and on
■the fides with yellow dots. The pupa light brown,
Marked with black fpecks..
Lepidoptcra,
The wings entire ; the Tail furniihed with
a beard; the Tongue projecting, and terminating a-
brupthj ; the Antennce cylindrical.
The fides of the abdomen variegated with black and * fl llata-
white 5 the under wings of a ruby colour. 27. Na- rum.
Live of Europe j on the madder, and on the reft of theie
plants which form the natural order called Jieiiatce.
The larva is fpotted with white, and is furnixiied with a
blue tapering tail, ot a ruby colour at the tip. 1 he
pupa brown..
The abdomen black, marked with a yellow band j * fucifor.
the wings tranfparent, with a black edge. 28. Na- mis.
tive of Europe j on the woodbine, and on the feabious.
The larva is green, marked on the fides wiili a yellow
line, and furniihed with a reddilh horn, i he pupa
black, marked on the fore part of the body with yellow
breaks, and encloled in a lollicie.
The wings tranlparent 5 the abdomen yellow, with * apifor-
black incifures j the thorax black, marked with two nns.
yellow Ipots. 29. Native of Europe 3 on dowers.
The larva on the trunk ol the poplar-tree.
The upper wings brown, the under wings tranfpa-/e/Ta.
rent 3 the abdomen black, marked with three yellow
belts. 102. Native of Europe.
The w-ings tranfparent, with a black edge and black * vefpifon
band 3 the abdomen black 3 the feeond and lalt leg- mis.
ments marked with a yellow margin. 31. Native of
Europe.
The wings tranfparent, with a black edge and black * tipuli-
band 3 the abdomen black ; the incilures aie akerna; alyformis.
marked with a yellow margin. 32. Native of Europe.
Feeds on the pith of the common red currant.
* * * Zygaence Fabricii, f. Adfcitae. The Tongue
projecting, and fetaceous ; the Antenna: thicker in the
middle.
The upper wings blue, marked writh fix red dots 3 the * flipen-
under wings red with a blue edge. 34. Native ofdulee.
Europe 3 on the fpircea flipendula. There is a varie¬
ty of this fpecres (A peucedanij dibinguibied by a red
belt on the abdomen, which feeds on the peucedanus.
The larva is thick, of a fulphur-eolour 3 marked with
four rows of black dote, and furniihed with a tail. The
pupa is brown, of a fulphur-colour in the middle, and
marked with brown fpecks.
Black 3 the upper wings green, marked with threepythia.
oblong blood-coloured fpots, placed near one another 3
the under ones red. 106. Native of Europe. The
larva hairy and white 3 the head marked with two lines
of black dots; the fore legs are black 3 the hind legs
yellow.
Blue 3 the upper wings green, marked with five rcitfulvia,
fpots 3 the under ones of a blood colour, and without
fpots. 107. Native of Europe ; on the lotus corni-
culatus.
Greenilh-black 3 the wings marked with tranfparentphegccc
dots, fix on the upper, and tw'o on the under wings 3
the abdomen marked with a yellow bell. 3 ;. Native
of Europe 3 on the oak, &c. The larva brown, with
reddilh head and legs 3 with tufts of whitifli feathers on
the back.
Blue 3 the upper wings marked with fix red dots ; the ophite*
under ones with one red dot 3 the abdomen girt with a
red belt. 36. Native of the fouth of Europe 3 on the
c mcdicago*.
E N T O M Q L O G Y.
The pupa is unco- * * ‘Afre
Lepidoptera. E N T O M
tnedicago. Sometimes the wings are dotted with white,
and the bafe of the upper wings and the abdomen mark¬
ed with a yellow belt. The larva hairy and yellowilh;
the head, legs, and two lines on the body, are of a pale
yellow colour.
165 fpecies of this genus hate: been deferibed in the
lalt edition of the Syitem of Nature.
71. Phal^ena, Moth^
Antennae growing gradually fmaller from their bafe to
. their tip. Tongue fpiral. Jaws none. Shield (in
molt fpecies) ihort, and of a horny fubftance.
Moths fly about at night, have their antennae com-
pofcd of many articulations, and commonly pectinated
in one or both fexes. They feed chiefly on the nec-
tareous juice of dowers. The larva is active, commonly
fmooth, and more or lefs cylindrical, and feeds on the
■ leaves of plants. The pupa remains torpid, is gene¬
rally cylindrical, fometimes pointed before, fometimes
at both ends, and in moll inltances covered with a foL
licle.
PhaijkNjE dividuntur In,
I.Bombyces. Larva 16-
poda, fsepius pilofa, fub-
eylindrica •, pupa apice
acuminata 5 antennis hli-
formibus, apice acutis j
palpis duobus, compref-
lis, retlexis, aequalibus,
pilolis, obtufis •, lingua
fpirali, brevi, membra-
nacea, vix exferta, fili-
formi, obtufa, bifida.
a. Attacos, alls patulis,
b. Bombyces.
tulis.
a. Alis reverfis.
ft. defiexis.
y. incumbentibus.
eh convolutis.
Moths*are divided into,
1. Bombyces. Thofewhpfe
larva: are generally hairy,
nearly cylindrical, and
furnilhed with 16 feet j
whofe pupa is drawn to a
point at the head 5 and
which have their antennae
filiform and lharp at the
tip *, two feelers, equal,
comprelfed, bent back,
hairy and blunt 5 the
tongue fpiral, fnort, mem¬
branaceous, Oightly pro¬
jecting, filiform, blunt,
and divided at the extre¬
mity.
a. Wings reverfed.
/S. defleCted.
y. incumbent.
o. convoluted.
a. At taros, with fpreading
wings.
alis non pa- b. Bombyces, with wings
not fpreading.
2. Geometry. Larva oc-
to vel decem-poda, pedi-
bus peCtoralibus 6, cau¬
dal ibus 2, et interdum
fubcaudalibus 2; hirudi-
nem indar iucedans, dum
quiefeitat, e-eCta, gla¬
bra, pupa apice acumi-
naia •, antennis filiformi-
bus, articulis obfoleiis j
palpis duobus oequali-
bus, reflexis, membrana-
eeis, cylindricis; lingua
porreCta, membranacea,
2.GEOMETRiE. Thofewhore
larvse are fmooth, and
have eight or ten feet, fix
attached to the brealt,
two to the tail, and fome¬
times two more near to
the tail; moving like a
leech, and relting in an
ereCt polture; whofe pu¬
pae are pointed at the
head *, which have fili¬
form antennae, with faint
articulations, two feelers
equal, bent back, mem-
O L O G Y.
fetacea, bifida j alis in-
quiefcentibus, ut pluri-
roum patulis, horizonta-
libus.
a. Alis angulatis, antennis
ut plurimum pec-
tinatis.
b. integris..
c. rotundatis.
3.T0RTRICES. Alis ob
tuiiflimis, fere retuiis,
margine exteriore cur¬
ve j antennis filiformi-
bus j palpis duobus ae-
qualibus, nudiufculis,
ball cylindricis, medio
dilatato-ovatis, apice fe-
taceis 5 lingua porrcCta,
membranacea, fetacea,
bifida j larva 16-poda,
folia, quae vorat, et in-
tra quae fe recipit, filis
contorquente, et con-
nectente.
branaceous, and cylindri¬
cal } the tongue membra¬
naceous, felaceous, divi¬
ded at the extremity, and
projecting; the wings,
when at relt, fpreading
horizontally.
a. Wings angular ; anten¬
nae, for the
molt part, pec¬
tinated.
b> entire.
c. round.
3.ToRTRrcEs, Thofe which
have their wings very
blunt, with a curved ex«.
terior margin; the anten¬
nae filiform 5 two feelers
equal, nearly fmooth, cy¬
lindrical at the bafe, di¬
lated in the middle into
an oval form, and feta-
ceous towards the tip •
the tongue membrana¬
ceous,. ietaceous, divided
at the extremity, and pro¬
jecting; and whole larvae
arefurniihed with ibieet,
and twill up the leaves
on which they feed, by
means of threads they
fpin, into a retreat for
themielves.
4. Pyralides, Alls con-
niventibus, in figuram
deltoideam forficatam;
antennis filiformibus,
articulis obfoletis; pal¬
pis duobus tequalibus,
reflexis, membranaceis,
cylindricis ; lingua por-
reCta, membranacea, fe¬
tacea, bifida; larva 14
•—i6-poda.
.Pyralides. Thole which
have the wings palling
over one another, form¬
ing a forked figure re-
fembling the Greek
the antennae filiform,with
their articulations faintly
exprefled ; two feelers e-
qual, bent back, mem¬
branaceous, and cylindri¬
cal; the tongue membra¬
naceous, fetaceous, divi¬
ded at the extremity,and
projecting; whofe larva
has from 1440 16 feet.
5. Nocttt/e. Larva 16-
poda, faepius glabra, pupa
apice acuminata, anten¬
nis fetaceis, palpis duo¬
bus com pr dPs, pilolis,
apice cylindricis, nudis;
lingua porreCta, cornea,
fetacea, bifida.
5. Noctute. Thole whofe
larvae are for the molt
part fmooth, and furnifil¬
ed with 16 feet; \( hofe
pupae are pointed at the
head, and have their an¬
tennae fetaceeus ; two
feelers comprefled, hairy,
with naked evlindrical
tips ; the tongue formed
of a horny fubltance, ie¬
taceous, divided at the
point, and projecting.
a. Alis
189
Lepidoptera,
T90
/
ENTOMOLOGY.
а. Alls patulls,
L\ incumbentibus,
a. Thorace Icevi.
(i, crlftato.
c. Alls deflexis,
u.. Thorace laevi.
/3. criftato.
б. Tine^:. Larva 16-poda,
faepius intra cucullum
latente j pupa anterius
acuminata ; antennis fe~
taceis j lingua membra-
nacea, fetacea, bifida.
a. Tinece, palpis quatuor,
insequalibus; larva fse-
pius rebus culinariis, vef-
timentis, pellibus, &c.
vidlitante.
b. Tinece, palpis duobus
ad medium bifidis,lacinia
interiori acutifiima.
7. Pterophori five Alu-7
ciTjE. Alis digitatis ad
bafin ufque fiflis j anten¬
nis fetaceis ; palpis duo-
bus tenuiflimis, cylindri-
cis, filiformibus, reflexis,
nudis, apice fubulatis;
lingua porrefta, mem-
branacea, elongata, fe¬
tacea, bifida ; larva 16-
poda, ovata, pilofa ; pu¬
pa nuda apice, fubulata.
8. Hapiali. Larva 16-
poda, fubcylindrica, fie-
pius glabra, radicibus
plantarum vidlitante 5
pupa folliculata, cylin-
drica, apice acuminata j
antennis brevibus, mo-
niliformibus; palpis duo-
bus aequalibus, obtufis,
compreflis, membrana-
ceis, reflexis j linguae-
que bifid* inter hos ru-
dimento.
a. Wings fpreading.
b. incumbent.
«. Thorax fmooth,
/3. creiled.
c. Wings deflected.
a,. Thorax fmooth,
/3. crofted.
6. TlNEjE. Thofe U’hofe
larvae have 16 feet, and
moft commonly lie con¬
cealed under a covering $
whofe pupa is pointed at
the head ; and have the
antennae fetaceous, the
tongue membranaceous,
fetaceous, and divided at
the extremity.
a. Ttnecv, with four unequal
feelers ; whofe larva feed
on clothes, hides, furni¬
ture, &c.
b. Tinea’, two feelers divi¬
ded to the middle, the
interior divifion very
fliarp.
.PTEROPHORIorALUCITiE.
Thofe which have their
wings divided to the bafe
into feveral portions 5 the
antennae fetaceous ; two
feelers, very flender, cy¬
lindrical, filiform, bent
back, fmooth, and ta¬
pering at the tip; the
tongue membranaceous,
fetaceous, divided at the
extremity ,proje£ling, and
very long ; whofe larvae
are oval, hairy, and fur-
nifhed with 16 feet.
8. Hapiali. Thofe whofe
larvae are cylindrical,
commonly fmooth, fur-
niftied with 16 feet, and
feed on the roots of plants j
whofe pupa is cylindri¬
cal, pointed at the head,
and enciofed in a follicle •,
' and have Ihort, monili-
form antennae •, two feel¬
ers, equal, obtufe, com-
prefled, membranaceous,
bent back, and the rudi¬
ment of a divided tongue
placed between them.
6
* Antenna JUifci'tn.
a. Feelers cotvprejfecl,
f Wings fpreading. Attack
Wings curved, of the fame colour, both on their up- atlas.
per and under furfaces, variegated with yellow, marked
with a tranfparent fpot; the upper wings have a fmall
tranfpareut Ipot joined to the other. 1. Native of Alia
and America 5 on the orange tree. Each articulation
of the antennae has two projections proceeding from
them in oppofite directions. The larva has hairy tu¬
bercles fet round it in circles. It fpins a large ball of
filk, which is unravelled with very great difticulty.
Wings of a dark carnation colour; the under one?, nidi items,
marked with a rufty-coloured eye, the pupil of which
is tranfparent. 469. Native of Africa. Female larger
than the male.
Wings round, clouded with gray, and faintly marked *pavonia.
with bands, adorned with a long femitranfparent ocellus.
7. Native of Europe; on heath, bramble, the rofe,
the elm, the willow, and fruit trees. There are three
varieties of this fpecies, minor, media, and tnajor. The
antennae in the male are more diftinClly peCHnated than
in the female. The larva is gregarious, and green,
having red and ye*llow hairy tubercles fet round it in
circles. The pupa is blackifti, with a hole at the top of
the follicle, which is elaftic, and afting like a valve.
Wings of a brick colour, adorned with an eye of a tau.
violet colour ; with a white fpear-ftiaped pupil. 8. Na¬
tive of Europe ; on the birch. The larva green, mark¬
ed on the fides with oblique white ftreaks, the back co¬
vered with knots. The pupa light-brown and hairy.
f f Bombyces. W;ngs not fpreading.
a. Wings reverfed.
Wings of a brick colour, notched, and marked withpopulifo.
a great many brown fpots like crefcents. 485. Na- lia.
tive of Europe ; on the white poplar.
Wings notched, and of a rufty colour ; the mouth * querci-
and flianks of the legs black. 18. Native of Europe folia.
on grafs, the floe, pear tree, apple, and willow. The
larva is hairy, of a rufty colour, with a blue neck, and
furniflied with a flight tail. The pupa brown, marked
wflth red bands.
Wings fawn-coloured, marked with two whitith * rubi,
ftreaks on their upper furface. 21. Native of Europe ;
on the bramble and willow. The larva is hairy, black
on the under fide, and of a rufty colour, marked with
black rings on the upper fide. When young it is cover¬
ed with a veil of black filk. The pupa blackith,
marked with three yellow rings, and enciofed in a co¬
vering of filk.
Wings notched, yellow, and marked with two brownpruni.
ftreaks and a white dot. 22. Native of Europe ; on
the plum. The larva is fmooth, of an afti colour,
marked with blue lines, and furniflied with tufts of hair
on the neck and along the fides ; the hind-legs are
ftretched out, and at a diftance from one another. The
pupa black on the fore part of the body, and of a light
brown behind.
Wmgs faintly notched, and yellow, marked with a * potato-
broad tawney ftripe, and with two white dots. 23. Na- ria.
tive of Europe ; on grafs. It produces oblong eggs of
a leaden colour, marked at each end with a green ring,
and with a green dot in the middle. The larva has a
tail
Lepidoptera. E N T O M
tail and a creil, is hair}-, and fpotted on the fides with
white. The pupa of a light brown.
♦ quercus. Wings of a rally colour, marked with a yellow ftreak;
the upper wings with a white dot. 25. Native of Eu¬
rope ; on heath, the lloe, the birch, the willow and oak.
The colour of the female is paler than that of the male.
The larva is hairy, gray, marked with black rings, and
fpotted with white. The pupa is enclofed in a thick
covering of lilk, is green, and brown on the fore part.
* lanef- Wings of a ruity colour, marked with a white ttreak j
tris. the upper wings are white at the bafe, and marked with
a white dot. 28. Native of Europe j on the lime
tree, the lloe, and the willow. It produces eggs coven*
cd wyth aih-coloured wool. The larva is hairy and
black ; each of its fegments is marked with three white
dots between two red tufted fpots. It is gregarious, and
lives in habitations which it forms for itfelf compoied of
many cells ; going out in quell of food, it returns
through parallel holes. The pupa is of a fulphur co¬
lour.
* vinula. Wings nearly reverfed, waved and llreaked with
brown 5 body white, dotted with black. 29. A native
of Europe ; on the willow and poplar. Larva folitarv,
green, and brown on the back, on which there is fituat-
ed a turgid prominence } the tail is furnilhed with two
bridles 5 it difcharges an acrid fluid from a chink under
its head. Pupa brown.
man. Silk-worm. Wings pale, marked with three faint
brown flrtaks, and a brown circular fpot. 33. Native
of China and Perfla ; on the mulberry. It was intro¬
duced into Europe by Jaflinian. It varies a little in
fize and colour ; the wings being fometimes yellowilh,
Sometimes whitilh. The larva is furniflied with a tail,
is naked, and whitidi. The pupa light brown, enclofed
in a thick filky covering, from which lilk is manufac¬
tured. The fir A perfon who unravelled the cocoons of
the fllk-worm, and manufactured them into fllk, was
Pamphilia, a woman of Coos, the daughter of Latous
(Vide Plin. xi. 22.) \ feu potius Platis film, (Arillot!
Anim. v. 19.).
1 populi. Brown and whitilh on the fore-part; the wings
brownilh, marked with a whitifli fpreading flripe, with
a fmall one placed clofe by it. 34. Native of Europe ,
on the poplar, and on fruit trees. The larva hairy, and
of an alh-colour, darker on the back ; each fegment is
marked with two pairs of red dots. The pupa is brown
on the fore part, and reddilh behind.
tuena. Wings yellow (in the female brown), marked with a
white dot, and becoming paler towards the tip. 499;
Native of Europe; on the floe, &c. It depod Is rough
eggs in cluflers. The larva gregarious, hairy, and light-
brown. The dividons between the fegments black,
and marked on the ddes with blue fpots and fulphur-co-
loured dots. The pupa yellowilh.,
cajlren- Wings dark-coloured, marked with two pale bands,
u 36., Native of Europe ; feeds on the pildfella, jacea,.
millefolium, alchemillu, and euphorbia. It depodts its
eggs in circles round branches. The larva is gregari¬
ous, confuming a great variety of vegetables ; it feeds
under a web, and frequently drifts its quarters : it is
hairy, blue, and marked with red lines dotted with
^ black. The pupa is dark- coloured.
' pi ocef Wings of a brownilh afli-colour : the female marked
huneu. with one dark dripc ; the male with three. 37. Na¬
tive of Europe ; on the oak. Of a middle flze. The lar-
O L O G Y.
voe gregarious, hairy, of a brownifh afh-colour, black on
the back, and marked with yellow warts: they move in
fets, differing in number. The Ikin which they cad;
excites inflammation when touched.
/3. Wings defeBed.
f Tongue fjort.
|j Backfmooth.
191
Wings whitilh, marked on the back with a brownrufa.
fpot, and writh dx brown fpots like crefcents on the
lower wings. 508. Native of Europe. The under
wings white, with a brown edge ; the antenme pecti¬
nated and brown; the legs brown.
Wings black, with white veins; the under wings * plania*
yellow, with a black edge, and dotted with black. 42. pin is.
Native of Europe ; on the plantane, elm, and hyacinth.
The under wings in the female are fcarlet; but in the
north of Europe, frequently white, with a black edge
and black fpots : when caught it emits a yellow drop
from its collar. Larva hairy, black, with the back
brown.
W mgs white, waved with black, marked with blood- * monadic
coloured rings between the fegments of the abdomen.
43. Native of Europe ; on the bramble, the willow,
the apple, the oak, the larix, and other fpecies of pine,
do thefe lafl it is particularly deflrubtive. Larva
browniih aih-coloured, with red tufts on the back ; the
fecond fegment of its body is marked with a black fpot
of a heart-fhape. Pupa black.
V* ings marked with fpots clouded with gray and * difpar.
brown; the wings of the female whitifh, with black ^
dains. 44. Native of Europe ; on the oak, the lime,
and fruit trees ; the pefl of orchards. The female twice
the fize of the male, covers her eggs with balls of dud.
'] he larvae feed on a variety of vegetables, are hairy
marked with white lines, dotted with blue on the fore
patt of the body, and with red behind. When touched
they excite an itching in the hands. The pupa is
marked on the fore part of the body with four black
dots; when touched, it rolls itfelf up into a circle.
Wings of a fnowy white, a beard of a rufly colour * dirvfor*
at the anus. 45. Native of Europe ; on the oak and nfoa.
fruit-trees. There is a fmaller variety of this fpecies
with brownifh wings in India. The female produces
yellow eggs, and covers them with a large quantity of
tawney-coloured wool. The larva is blackifh, hairy,
gregarious ; not confined to one kind of food ; marked ,
with two red lines on the back, tufted with white on the
fides. The pupa blackifh.
INI Back Jurnijhed with a Crejl.
Wings of an afh-colour, marked with three brown* pudibutt^
waved ilreaks. 54. I here is a variety of this fpecie« da
fcopularis,Q. Antennae pe&inated, wings whitifh, mark¬
ed with three dark-coloured bands ; the under wings
white. It is a native of Europe ; on the oak, beech
and fruit-trees. The larva is yellow, hairy; the tuft
on the tail longer than the red, and red ; four tufts on
the back, white ; the head is pale yellow. The pupa is
black in the lower part of the body, and a light brown
behind, fpotted with yellow.
Wings clouded ; the poflerior part of the thorax*™^
marked with a black band; antennas lamellated, 6^,
A
»
5.-92
A native of Europe j in decayed wood. The larva
fomewhat hairy, of a carnation colour ; the head black,
and back of a blood-colour. It was reckoned a deli¬
cacy by the Romans, who fattened it with flour. (Plin.
xviii. 24.). The pupa of a light brown on the fore
part of the body, and yellow behind.
cerana. Wings yellowifh, marked with black bands. 1306.
A native of Chili ; on a kind of comj%a. The larva is
flaked, and red, while it undergoes its metamorphofis;
it rolls itfelf up in a kind of wax, at firft wThite and
fweet, and afterwards yellow and bitter, which the na¬
tives gather in the autumn and put into cakes.
ff Tongue long.
a. Back fmooth.
* auhea. The upper wings gray, and dotted with yellow \ the
under ones tawney fpotted with black. 68. A native
of Europe 5 on the angelica, nettle, and grafs. The
larva folitary, black, marked with white warts; on the
upper part of the body it is covered with whitifh hairs,
and underneath with hairs of a rufty colour.
matronula. Wings brown 5 the upper wings gray, fpotted with
yellow on their fuperior furface ; the under ones yellow
marked with black bands. 92. A native of Europe j
on the artemijia vulgaris.
b. Back furntfhed with a Crejl.
to. Wings of an afh-colour, ftreaked with a light brown,
and marked with 00. 81. A native of Europe; on
the oak. Larva naked, of a violet-colour, marked
with white lines, and dots.
eefeuli. Of a fnow wdiite colour ; wings marked with a great
number of bluifh-black dots; the thorax with fix. 33.
A native of Europe ; in the wood of the pear and horfe-
chefhut. Larva yellow, dotted with black ; head and
tail black.
y. Wings incumbent.
wgraminis. Wings gray ; marked with a white line dividing into
three branches, and a white dot. 73. A native of
Europe ; on grafs. It varies in fize, and is very de-
flrudfive to pafture grounds The larva confumes all
kinds of grafs except the alopecurus. It is fmooth,
dufky, with a lateral and dorfal yellow flripe. It is
deftroyed by rooks and hogs. The pupa remains torpid
for fourteen days only.
^fuliginofa Wings dark-coloured, tinged with red, marked with
a double black dot; abdomen red ; and black on the
back. 9 A native of Europe ; on the turnip, muf-
tard, grafs, and birch-tree. The larva is hairy, of a
rufty colour, with black head and fore-legs ; wanders
over the fnow in winter in Norway ; and is laid to for-
bode a cold fummer and fcarcity where it appears in
confiderable numbers. Pupa black, marked with yel¬
low bands behind.
Varella. Wings tranfparent and gray ; antennae brown. 591.
A native of Europe ; on the vicia fylvatica. The fe¬
male depofits her eggs while in the pupa ftate, and
never becomes a perfect infeed.
0. Wings convoluted.
hi/lrio. Wings tawney, marked with numerous white fpots,
furrounded with blue. 593. A native of the iiland of
Ley idoptera,
Tobago. Feelers white at the bafe, and tipt with
black ; thorax bluiih black with white dots, and two
tawney wots ; abdomen beneath white, with black rings;
anus tawney ; upper wings blue at the tip, with white
dots ; lower wings, and all beneath, black ; the hind
margin a little whitiftn
§ § Feelers cylindrical. Geometrse.
a. Wings angular.
Wings green and faintly notched, marked with a tlijmiaria.
faint waved whitith ftreak ; a fmaller line of the lame
defeription being placed contiguous to it. 199. A
native of Europe ; on thyme. Larva dark-coloured,
marked with carnation-coloured fpots on the back ; the
head and collar furniftied with two little proie£lions.
Pupa light brown, marked with a black line, ftiai'p-
pointed before, and divided behind, and covered with a
very thin follicle.
Wings afti-coloured, and marked with a rnHy-cn-punSIoria.
loured ftreak, and tranfverfe row of black dots. 200.
A native of Europe ; on the oak. Larva alh-eolourer1,
marked with yeftow fpots on the des. P . a of a pa e
can a ion-colour above, beneath yellow; ana is attached
to a leaf.
b. Wings entire.
Wings green, fomewhat waved, marked with zpapiliona-
waved ftreak, and fmaller ftreak of the fame defeription ria.
contiguous to it. 225. A native of Europe; on birch-
trees. Larva green, with ten crooked reddiflt prickles
on the back. Pupa green, varied with yellow ; re¬
mains torpid for 14 days.
Wing pale, marked with a pale fillet. 654. Avittata,
native of Europe.
c. Wings round.
All the wings yellowifh, marked with brown fireaks, *utomaria,
and very fmall dots. 214. A native of Europe ; on
the centaurea. Larva gray, and fmooth, marked with
a number of interrupted lines of a rufty colour, having
two tubercles on the pofterior part of the body.
Wings white, marked with a ftriated yellow band ; *pantana.
the abdomen yellow' dotted v/ith black. 213. A na¬
tive of Europe ; on the elm and plane-tree. Larva
green, marked with black lines ; head and tail black.
Pupa bluifh.
Wings variegated wftth green and afh-colour, marked lichenana.
with two black ftreaks ; the anterior one curved, the
pofterior one waved. 633. A native of Europe; on
lichens. Small. Larva rough, varying in colour accord¬
ing to the colour f>f the lichen on which it feeds, green,
afti-coloured, or yellow, fpotted with black on the fides;
the fore-legs marked with a black fpot, and a green dot.
§ § § Feelers almojl naked, and cylindrical at the bafe;
dentated in the middle, and oval; tapering at the tips.
Tortrices.
The upper wings green, marked with two o\>Vi<\x\eprajinaria-
yellow ftreaks; the under wings white. 23 5. A native
of Europe; on the aider and oak. Larva and pupa
green : the former is marked along the fide with a
yellow line, and has the fecond fegmqnt of the back
marked with tubercles ; the latter marked on the back
with a black line.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Wings
Lepidoptera.
E N T O M
pomona.
rejlnaria.
Wings clouded, the under ones marked with a red-
dilh golden fpot. 401. A native of Europe j on the
apple. Larva naked, and red; with a black head.
Pupa light brown.
Wings brown, marked with a brown fpot at the bafe,
common to both wings, and with a triangular rufty fpot
at the tips. 406. A native of Europe. It takes up
its habitation in a ball of rofin, which exudes from a
wound made in the branches of the pine. Larva naked,
and yellowilh j head light brown. Pupa brown.
§ § § § Wings [hutting ctofely, with the under edge of one
over the upper edge of the other. Pyralides.
farinalis. Feelers bent backwards ; wings yellowilh and polilh-
ed, marked with white waved Itreaks, yellowilh at the
bafe and tips. 327. A native of Europe) in dour
and meal. It walks with its tail ere£L
* pinguiti- Feelers bent backwards ) wings afh-coloured, thicker
clis. at the edges, faintly marked with black bands. 336.
A native of Europe) on butter, bacon, &c. Very
common in houfes and kitchens, fometimes in the hu¬
man ftomach ) the molt pernicious of all the animals
that live within the bodies of others. The larva
fmooth, brown, Ihining, Pupa naked, of a light
brown.
fecalis. Wings gray, ftrcaked with brown, and marked with
a kidney-lhaped fpot, on which there is infcribcd a Ro¬
man A. 338. A native of Europe ) within the ftalks
of rye, which it confumes within the (heath, going from
one to another : this is the caufe of the ears becoming
white and empty. Larva green, marked with three
longitudinal green lines ) head light brown.
* * The Antenna" fetaceous,
§ Tongue projeBitig and horny. Nofluaj.
O L O G Y. *95
/3. The Thorax furnifhed with a Crejl.
Wings white, ftreaked with dark brown, dotted with typhus.
black on their poiterior margin. 1005. ^ native of
Europe ) on the ftalks of the typha anguftifolia. It
comes forth in Auguft, about the ftze oi pinguinaiis^
fmooth and whitilh. Larva is gray and naked. It
undergoes its metamorpholis within the ftalks, in the
month of July.
Wings variegated with green and gray ; the under * fol-ani.
ones reddiftt, marked wilh a band near the edge. 1009.
A native of Europe) on the potato and bean, devour¬
ing the larvae of other infedls. Larva thick 5 wrinkled,
and of an aih-cgluur. Pupa naked, and of a light
browm.
Wings brownifli gray, marked with a black fpot) C„ nigrum*,
white on the outer edge, and wTith a black line at the
tip. 162. A native of Europe) on the common
fpinach. Larva variegated with gray and dark brown,
marked on the fides with black crofs lines, and with a
iingle pale one.
c. Wings defleBed.
a . Thorax fmooth.
Wings whitilh, marked with a very broad band of a IrapczinNt.
darker colour, dotted with black along the edge. 99.
A native of Europe on the hazel. Larva greenilh,
marked with alh-coloured, whitilh, and fulphur-coloured
lines ■: it devours the larvae of other infedfs, and even of
its own fpecies. Pupa of a light brown) it lies dormant
for four weeks.
Wings alh-coloured, without fpots, marked with three
whitilh waved ftreaks) the collar divided. 102. A
native of Europe ; frequently flying into candles,
whence it has received its name ) though many moths
are attradfted by the light, as well as this.
a. Wings fpreading.
tclora. Wings notched, brown, and waved with black ) the
upper wings are adorned with a black eye, and marked
with a blue fpot like a crefcent, and with a white fpotted
ftreak. 11. A native of Surinam.
Jlrix. Wings of the fame colour, both on the upper and
under furface, reticulated and clouded with black and
white. 82. A native of South America. Larva
naked, black, and marked on the lides with a greenilh
line, and with green rings.
macrops. Wings indented ) brown, waved with black ) upper
pair adorned with a large light brown eye. 968. A
native of China. In fome fpecimens, probably the fe¬
males, the outer margin of the lower wings is refledted,
forming a pouch which contains a great quantity of
fine filk.
b. Wings incumbent.
«. Thorax fmooth.
hvida. Wings fliining black ) under wings of a rufty colour,
edged with dark brown. 999. A native of Europe.
Larva growing fmaller towards each end, naked,
greenilh, variegated with yellow, and Ihining red, mark¬
ed with a dark coloured line on the back, and with a
very llender pale one on the fides ) the head of a pale
colour.
Vol. VIII. Part I.
/? Thorax furnifhed with a Cref.
Wings alb-coloured) the upper -wings marked at the *pf.
bale with a black line, and black characters) legs
without fpots. 135. A native of Europe) on the
alder, oak, and fruit trees ) varying in the number and
figure of the characters. Larva hairy ) back yellow j
the fides fpotted with black and red j a black ered horn
on the thorax.
Wings yellowilh, marked with two dark brown turc€t
ftreaks, and adorned with a yellowilh eye. 140. A
native of Europe ) on the j uncus pilofus, and in corn
fields under ftones. Larva reddilh yellow, black at each
end, underneath of a whitilh yellow, marked on the
back with a whitilh line, and on the fides with a dark
coloured one) the divifions between the fegments are
marked with fmall black lines, and the head is dark
brown. It gnaws over the ftalks of the corn clofe by
the ground, in the months of May and June.
The upper wings of a rufty colour, marked with a * oleracan
yellowilh fpot like a crefcent, and with a white line
divided behind. 171. A native of Europe) at the
roots of cabbage, greens, &c. likewife on the leaves of
peas and beans. Larva feeds on a variety of vege¬
tables ) naked, of a livid colour, dotted with black, and
marked on the back with a dark brown line, and on
the fides with a whitilh one. Pupa naked and blaekilh.
Wings of a rufty colour marked with two fpots, and * piR*
B b wi.u
i94 E N T O M
with a pale waved flreak on their pofterior part. 172.
A native of Europe 5 on the pea and broom, confuming
their pods. Larva naked, and of a nifty colour, mark¬
ed with four yellow lines 5 head of a carnation colour.
Pupa dark brown j the divifions between the fegmcnts
of a blood colour.
tritici. Of an afh-colour ; the wings marked with two pale-
coloured fpots, and with a tingle blackifli one. 179.
A native of Europe •, on the ears of wheat and oats.
Larva naked and yellow j marked with three white
lines.
Jiavicornis Upper -wings of an afh-colour, marked with three
black ftreaks 5 antennae yellow. 182. A native of Eu-
,rope 5 on fruit trees. Larva naked, greenilh, mark¬
ed on the Tides with white dots} head of a carnation
colour.
§ § Tongue prominent and membranaceous. Tinece.
a. Wings four, unequal.
€ ere lla. Wings gray, emarginated behind \ back of a dark
brown, and furrowed. 282. A native of Europe } in
bee hives, feeding on the wax.
padilla. The upper wings of a livid colour, and marked with
20 black dots-; the under ones brown. 351. A native
of Europe ; on apple trees. The larva gregarious;
living in fwarms, under a common covering: it is
naked, and gray, marked with a black dot on each fide
of its fegments. Pupa yellowiih.
* pel Hone l- Wings gray, marked in the middle with a black dot.
la, 372. It is to be met with everywhere in woollen fluffs,
which it deftroys, lying concealed within a covering.
Larva whitifh, marked with a red line on the back.
Pupa yellowifh.
*tape%ella Wings black, under ones whitifh ; head pure white.
371. A native of Europe ; on tapeflry, furs, and fkins,
into which it gnaws holes.
*fnfcitella Wings of an afh-colour; thorax marked on each fide
with a white dot. 373- A native of Europe; in cloths
and furs, which it deflroys. It lies concealed under a
covering.
* mello- Wings whitifh, growing purple towards their exterior
nella. part, marked with a white ftreak ; the fcutellum black,
and white at the tip. 375. A native of Europe; in
bee-hives, where it penetrates the honey-combs. Larva
is naked, and gray, with a light brown head. Pupa
light brown.
* prole tel- Wings whitifh, marked with two dark brown dots ;
la. tongue bent inwards. 379. A native of Europe; on
different fpecies of cabbage ; on the horned poppy; and
on the oak, An individual, in the fpace of a year, may
produce many millions, as they propagate every month,
each depofiting a great number of eggs.
b. Feelers divided the length of the middle, two in
number.
*granella. Wings variegated with black and white ; head very
^ white. 377. A native of Europe ; in granaries,
where it delfroys the grain and colle£fs it into knots; it
climbs up the Avails of houfes in winter.
§ § § Wings divided into many divifons. Alucitae.
*dida£lyla Wings fpreading and brown, marked with white
ftreaks; the fuperior wings bind; the pofterior ones
divi-ed into three divifions. 4;4. A native of Europe;
•n the geum rivale, and on the convolvulus. Larva green,
O L O G Y. Neuroptera.
covered with tufts of hair. Pupa long; with two
lines of tubercles on the back, each furnifhed with four
prickles. ,
-* * * § * * Antennce moniliform and fbort. Hepiali.
Wings yellow, with tawney ftreaks; the wings of the * humuli:
male of a fnow-white colour. 84. A native of Eu¬
rope ; at the roots of the hop : the hop-planters manure
Avith hogs dung, as a remedy againft this troublefome
infeft ; it depofits a very great number of eggs.
1529 fpecies of this genus haAre been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
IV. NEUROPTERA.
Wings four; naked; their veins forming a net-work.
Tail unarmed.
72. Libellula, Dragon-Fly.
Mouth furnifhed with jaAvs. JaAvs numerous. Lip di¬
vided into three. Antennae fhorter than the thorax;
very flender and filiform. Wings extended. Tail
of the male furnifhed Avith a hooked forceps.
* Wings fpreading when the infeci is at ref.
A. The central divifon of the Lip very minute.
The under Avings marked at the bafe Avith a blaekifh * quadru
fpot; and all the wings marked on the middle of their rnaculuta
upper furface with a blackifh fpot; the abdomen flattifli
and doAvny. 1. A native of Europe ; in Avaters.
The under Avings becoming black at the bafe ; the * rubicun-
body quadrangular. 4. A native of Europe ; in frelh ga
Avaters. The one fex is Avaved on the back with red,
and the other Avith yelloAv.
All the wings black at the bafe ; the abdomen de- * depreffa.
preffed ; the tides yellow'ifh. 5. A native of Europe ;
in frefh Avater. The abdomen of the male bluifh, mark¬
ed on the fides, near the bafe, Avith yelloAv fpots; the
abdomen of the female brown, and yellow on the
fides.
B. The divifons of the Lip equal. Atfhnse.
Abdomen yelloAv, marked with two black lines ; the minuta.
under wings yelloAv, marked with two black fpots. 42.
A native of China. Small : head yellow ; eyes broAvn;
thorax with yellotv lines beneath ; abdomen with two
black lines above, and one beneath ; upper ones black
at the bafe, Avith a yelloAv fpot.
Thorax black ; marked with various yelloAv charac- * forcipatu
ters; tail furniflied Avith crooked hooks. 11. A na¬
tive of Europe.
* * Wings erect when the infeB is at ref ; the Eyes di-
fant from one another; the exterior divifon of the Lip
fightly divided. Agriae.
Wings coloured. _ * virgo.
a. Body fhining, greenifh blue ; Avings bluifh in the
middle, the bafe and tip whitifh, the margin without
fpots.
b. Body filky ; Avings bluifh green, the tip brown,
the margin without fpots.
c. Silky,
Neuroptera. E N T O M
_ C. Silky, green ) wings brownifh, with a white mar¬
ginal dot,
d. Body filky j wings brown, gilt with a black fpot.
20. A native of Europe j about freih waters.
* pud la. Wings tranfparent.
a. Body red, with yellow and black lines at each feg-
ment; wings with marginal fpots.
b. Body carnation colour $ wings with a brown mar¬
ginal dot.
c. Body alternately blue and afh-colour j wings with
a black dot.
d. Body beneath bluifh green, above brown ; thorax
with alternate brown and bluiih bands ; wings with a
black marginal dot.
e. Body green, and pale carnation colour 5 thorax
with three black lines ; wings with a brown marginal
dot. 21. A native of Europe 5 in almoil endlefs
variety.
This is an extremely ravenous tribe, and are gene¬
rally feen hovering over Bagnant waters. They copu¬
late in the air, and fly about joined together. 1 hey
fly very rapidly, and at a greater height than molt other
infedts. The larvae are fix-footed ; active 5 inhabitants
of the water; furnifhed with articulated pincers, with
which they feize and prey with the molt rapacious fe¬
rocity on aquatic animals. The pupa refembles the
larva, but has the rudiments of wings.
48 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syltem of Nature.
O L o G Y.
i95
Tailfurnijhed xvilh three briftles.
Wings reticulated and fpotted with brown ; body * vulgata.
brown. 1. A native of Europe •, in frefli w aters.
In the month of June, they are to be feen in the even¬
ings fluttering about under trees in innumerable fwarms.
In the neighbourhood of Laz in Carniola, they abound
fo much, that the country people collect them for
manure 5 the peafant who has. not collected to the
amount of twenty cart loads, thinks himfelf unfortu¬
nate.
Wings w-hite, the outer margin brown j body black. * margl-
3. A native of Europe. nata.
Wings black, the under ones whitilh. 4. A native * vefperti-
of Europe ; in freih w aters. na. ~
* * Tail compofed of the two bri/lles.
Wings white, and reticulated ; the head marked with * biocula*
two yellow tubercles. 5. A native of Europe ; in ta-
frefli waters. The briftles of the tail white dotted with
brown, and longer than the body.
Wings white, the edges blackifh and thicker than * horarieh
the reft of the wing. 9. A native of Europe $ in
freih ivaters.
18 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
74. Phryganea.
73. Ephemera, Duy-Flij.
Mouth without jaws. Feelers four, very fliort, and fili¬
form. The refemblance of a jaw, membranaceous,
cylindrical, and eonnetted with the lip. Antennae
ftiort, and tapering towards the tip. Two large ftem-
mata above the eyes. Wings erecl, under ones very
fmall. Tail briftly.
Thefe ftiort-lived animals are found everywhere
about waters in the fummer, and in their perfect ftate
feldom live above a day, during which time they per¬
form all the functions of life. They remain in the ftate
of larvae and pupae for one, twro, or three years. The
larva lives under water, and is eagerly fought after by
filh, particularly by trout, for which it forms an excel¬
lent bait. They are furnilhed with fix feet, a tail, and
fix fins which ferve them as oars. The pupa refembles
the larva, except in having the rudiments of future
wings. They fcoop out holes for themfelves in the
banks of rivers, formed like fiphons ; the one leg ferving
as an entrance, the other as an outlet. The banks of
feme rivers are often perforated with them. When the
waters decreafe, they form frefli holes lower down. The
ephemerae on the Rhine appear twro hours before funfet;
they come forth almoft all at the fame time, and in im-
menfe numbers. Thofe on the Marne and Seine, in
France, do not begin to fly till two hours after funfet.
The females, by the help of the threads of the tail, and
the flapping of their wings, fupport themfelves on the
furface of the water, and in almoft an upright pofition,
drop their eggs in clufters. A female will drop feven
or eight hundred eggs, which fink to the bottom.
Moutli furniflied with a horny mandible, fliort, arched
and fliarp, without teeth. Jaw membranaceous.
Feelers four. Stemmata three. Antennae fetaceous,
and longer than the thorax. Wings incumbent, the
under ones folded.
I liefe infefts are feen in a fummer evening floating
in the air in great numbers, and are eagerly devoured
by i wallows j they are eaiily diftinguiihed from the
fmaller moths, by their wanting the fpiral tongue. The
larva is fix-footed, found at the bottom of ftiallow wa¬
ters enclofed in a tube, conftru&ed of fand, ftraws, or
fmall chips of wood, and is known to fifliers by the name
of caddij, or caddo, who ufe it as a bait for trout, after
they have taken off the tube with which it is covered.
When about to become a pupa, it ftiuts up the mouth
of its tube with a few loofe threads of filk, of the fame
nature with that by which it conne&s the ftraws and
chips that compofe its tube. The larvae of the fpecies
which compofe the firft divifion have one or three tails,
which ferve them for fins; the pupae have fix feet, and
prominent horny jaws. The larvae of the other fpecies
are fomewhat hairy, furniflied with two hooks at the
tail, and with three tentacula on the fourth fegment.
The pupa very much refembles the perfect infedt.
* Jaw divided. Tail formed of two briflles, and ter¬
minating abrupthj. Semblis.
Wings marked with many veins, forming a net-work. * bicauda
I. A native of Europe, in frefti waters 5 carrying ta.
about its egss in a mafs under its belly 5 body greenifli.
Body black ; wings white, fpotted with black. $.phalcenou
A native of Europe. deSy
B b 2
* * Tail
syS E N T O M
m* Tent without brijTles ; the Jaw joined to the lip.
reticulata. Body black j the wings of a rally colour, reticulated
with black. 4. A native of Europe.
* grifea. Body gray j the upper wings clouded, and marked
with a black fpot on the edge. 6. A native of Eu¬
rope 5 in frelh waters. The larva is covered with a tube
compofed of grafs and rallies.
* grandis. Wings of a brow mill brick-colour, marked with afh-
coloured fpots. 7. A native of Europe ; in frefh wa¬
ters. The larva is concealed in a cylindrical tube
formed of chips of wood.
'* rhombi- Wings gray, marked with a white rhomboidal fpot.
ffa* 8. A native of Europe ^ in frelh w’aters. The larva
is lodged within a cylindrical tube, formed of bits of
grafs, connected together tranverfely.
50 fpeeies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syltem of Nature.
75. Hemerobius-
Mouth furmlhed with a Ihort horny manible. Jaw
Cylindrical, llraight, and cleft. Lip prominent and
entire. Feelers four ; projefting, unequal, and fili¬
form. No Itemmata. Wings defiedfed, but not
folded. Antennal fetaceous, projecting, and longer
than the thorax, which is convex.
Like the ephemera, thefe infects are very Ihort-lived ;
and in every Hate of their exiltence,. they prey with un-
cealing avidity upon aphides. The larva is fix-footed,
generally oval and hairy. The pupa commonly folicu-
lated. The eggs are depofited in clufters on the leaves
of plants ; each placed on a fmall ftalk made of gum.
Many of them, when touched, have an excrementitious
fmell. The follicle in which the pupa is enclofed, is of
9 denfe texture, formed of whitifh filk In fummer, at
tire end of three weeks, the hemerobius comes forth a
perfect infect. When the follicle has not been formed
till the end of autumn, the pupa remains in it the whole
winter ; and does not undergo its final metamorphofis
till the enfuing fpring.
A. Lip cylindrical, membranaceous, and tnarked with
rings. Semblides.
^lutnrius. Black; wings whitifh, llreaked and fpotted with
white. 14. A native of Europe j in frelh waters;
very common in the fpring. It depofits a great num¬
ber of light brown eggs, which it attaches in clufters
to the leaves of aquatic plants by means of a glutinous
matter.
B. Lip horny, round at the tip, and arched.
•gtrla, Yellowifh green ; wings tranfparent, and marked
with green veins. 2. A native of Europe ;■ on vege¬
tables. Its eggs are fet on capillary ftalks.
mellano- Yellowifti; wings tranfparent, variegated with blue
tidlos. and gold, marked with whitifh veins, dotted, and fome-
what hairy, the edges marked with very fmall black
dots. 31. A native of Europe.
^ierficolor. Yellow'; wings t’anfparcnt, variegated with blue and
gold; the bafe of the abdomen, the under part, and
5
O L O G Y. Neuroptera
anus black ; the antennae yellow. 32. A native of
Europe.
31 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the laft;
edition of the by item of Nature.
76. Myrmeleon, Lion-ant, or Ant-eater.
Mouth, with a ftiarp horny 'aw, and mandible. Lip
projecting. Feelers fix. No ftemmata. Antennae
thicker towards their outer edge. Wings deflected.,
T ail of the male armed with a pair of pincers, com¬
pofed of two filaments nearly ftraight.
A. The pofterior Tee levs much longer than the rejl
jaw furnijhed with one tooth ; Lip membranaceous and
fquure, terminating abruptly, and emarginated.
The infedts of this family prey with the moft favage
ferocity upon ants, and leil'er infects ; and for the pur-
pofe of enfharing them fink themlelves into the fand, and
form a kind of funnel or pit in which they lie buried,
the head only appearing above the fand: into this hollow
fuch infeCts as wander near it are lure to fall; and not
being able to crawl up the fides of loofe land, are feized
and devoured by the lion-ant. But if the tides of the
pit do not give way, or the unlucky iniedt appears to be
able to make its efcape, its enemy, by throwing up with,
its head repeated fhowers of fand, forces it down till it
comes within its reach. Larva is fix-footed, oval and
hairy, with exferted teethed jawrs. Pupa enclofed in a
ball compofed of agglutinated fand or earth.
Wings clouded with brown, marked with a white *formica«
fpot on their pofterior margin. 3. A native of Eu-rius.
rope. The larva goes backwards; frequents Tandy
places, where it digs pits to enlnare other infedts.
B. Feelers nearly equal, and jiliform; the Jaw fringed;
Lip horny, round and entire.
The upper wings tranfparent, marked at the bafe longicor.
with a double yellow fpot; the under wings are yellow, nis.
and black at the bafe. 2. A native of Europe.
Head black and hairy.
Wings white, marked with a black fpot at the edge 5 aufralis.
body variegated. 14. A native of Europe. Varie¬
gated with brown and yellow} the antennae of the lame
length with the body, and black ; club oblong.
15 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.,
77. Panorpa, Scorpion fly.
Mouth ftretched out into a cylindrical fnout, compofed
of a horny fubftance. M andible, without teeth. Jaw
divided at the point.. Lip very long, covering the
whole mouth, and like it formed of a horny fubftance.
Feelers four, nearly equal. Antennae filiform, and
longer than the thorax. Tail of the male notched, of
the female unarmed.
Wings equal, fpotted with black. I. A native oi* commit*
Europe ; lives chiefly on dipterous infedts. nis.
Wings tapering towards the point, foiiiewhat curved hycmaliu
and fringed ; female without wings. 3. A native of
Europe.,
Hymenoptera. E N T O M
Europe. It is common when winter difappears. It is
of a brownilh yellow colour above.
i o fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the laft
edition of the Syitem of Nature.
78. Raphidia.
Mouth fumifhed with an arched mandible fet with teeth.
Jaw cylindrical and obtufe ; lip round and entire 5
all of them formed of a horny fublfance. Feelers
four, very ihort, nearly equal, and filiform. Stem-
mai:a three. Wings dellefled. Antennae filiform,
the fame length of the thorax, which is lengthen¬
ed out at the anterior part, and cylindrical.
Tail of the female furniihed with a loofe curved
briitle.
'*ophiopJis. Wings without fpots. r. A native of Europe ; in
pine forefts ; feeding on other infects. Larva has fix
feet. The pupa active, very like the perfect infect in
every point, except that it wants wings.
* notata. Wings marked on the edge with a brown fpot. 2.
A native of Britain. Black ; a reddith brown fpot on
the head and legs, and furnithed with a projecting fling
of the fame length with the abdomen.
V. HYMENOPTERA.
WlNGS four, membranaceous for the molt part. Tail
of the female furniihed with a Ring.
79. Cynips, Gall-Jly.
Mouth with a (hort jaw, furniihed with one tooth, and
membranaceous. The mandible arched, cleft at the
tip, and with a ihort, cylindrical, and entire lip, all
compofed of a horny fubitance. Feelers four, lliort,
unequal and capitated. Antennae moniliform. Sting
fpiral, and for the molt part concealed.
The numerous excrefcences or galls, found on the
roots, branches, and leaves of various trees, are produ¬
ced by the puncture of thefe infedls. The larva is
without feet, foft, cylindrical, and inhabits within the
gall, feeding on the juices of the tree. The pupa re-
fembles the perfect infefl, except in having only the ru¬
diments of wings.
adfeendens Of a brazen colour ; the abdomen conical, afeending
and joined to the trunk by a very narrow connexion.
20. A native of Europe. Large ; legs of a pale colour 5
the thighs black at the bafe
* rofee. Body black •, the abdomen of a rally colour, and
black behind 5 the legs of a rally colour. 1.. A na¬
tive of Bedeguar ; on the rofe.
*quercus Black \ bafe of the antennae and legs yellowilh. 4,
baccarum. A. native of Europe. Forms roundilh and tranfparent
galls, about the fize of a pea, on the under furface of the
leaves of the oak ; and comes out about the middle of
fummer.
* quercus Black *, thorax marked with lines •, legs gray ) thighs
Tolu. beneath black. 5. A native of Europe. Forms galls
about the fize of a hazel nut, on the under furface of
the leaves of the oak.
* quercus Blacky antennas and legs pale. 6. A native of
infer a. Europe. Forms globular, opake, red galls about the
fize of a hazel nut, on the under furface of the leaves of
the oak..
O L O G Y 197
Black} legs white ; thighs brown. 7. A native of * quercus
Europe. Forms hollow galls, convex at each end, onpetioli.
the footftalks of the leaves of the oak.
Gray-, wings marked with a linear crofs. 8. A.* quercus
native of Europe. Forms granulated connected galls,pedunculi.
on the male flowers of the oak.
In galls on the bark of the oak. 9. A native of * quercus
Europe. Forms a cup-lhaped gall, the dilk convex and corticis.
furrounded with about twenty concave dots, funk into
the bark oi the oak.
Pale ; abdomen and eyes black. 10. A native of * quercus
Europe. Forms white woolly galls on the fmall ramuli.
branches of the oak.
In the terminal bud of the quercus robur. 11. A*quercus
native of Europe. Found in the large imbricated gallsgemmee^'
on the terminal buds of the quercus robur. 1 his tiy is
of a very dark green, llightly gilded. Its antennas and
feet are of a dun colour, rather deep. It depofits its
eggs in the oak buds, which produce one of the hneft
galls, leafed like a rofe-bud beginning to blow. Vv hen
the gall is fmall, the leaves are comprened, and lie over
one another like the tiles on the roof of a houfe. In
the centre of the gall there is a kind of hard nucleus,
in the middle of which is a cavity, and in that is found
the little larva, which feeds there, takes its growth, un¬
dergoes its metamorphofis, and breaks through the in-
cloiure in order to get out. The whole gall is often
near an inch in diameter, fometimes more when dried
and difplayed, and is attached to the branch by a foot-
ftalk. (Barbut, Infeff. p. 233.).
On the calyx of the oak and cegilops. 18. A native quercus
of Europe. Forms galls on the calyx of the quercus culicis.
robur, fometimes ufed by tanners. They were called by
the Romans cerri.
Black, without fpots. 12. A native of Europe,
Forms galls of the lliape of a pear, on the upper furface
of the leaves of the common beech..
Body brown. 22. Forms tenacious globular galls,rofmarini,
about the fize of a hazel nut, filled with clear oil, on the
branches of the rofmarinus chilenjis.
Body blacky the bafe of the antennae and legs of a phragmi-
brick colour; the abdomen lengthened out into a broad tis.
tail. 25. It is lodged at the top of the italk of the
arunclo fragmitis, which becomes dilated, and grows no
higher.
28 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syitem of Nature.
80. TenTHREUO, Saw-fly,.
Mouth furnifhed with an arched mandible, formed of a
horny fubttance, and notched in, the infide. Jaw
ftraight and blunt at the tip. Lip cylindrical and
divided into three. Feelers four, unequal, and fili¬
form. Wings plain and fuelling out. Sting com¬
pofed of two ferrated laminae, fiightly projeding.
Scutellum marked" with two grains placed on its lur-
face, at a diftanee from one another.
The male and female of many of the fpecies of this
genus vary in colour. ’I hey teed on the leaves of va¬
rious plants; the female ufes her fting in the manner of
a faw, and cuts out fpaces in tire twigs or buds ol trees,
for the purpofe of depoliting her eggs : larva cy.inuii-
cal, foft, with fixteen or twenty-eight feet; feeds on the
leaves
«98 E N T O M
leaves of plants, and ^ vis on touched rolls itfelf up fpirally.
Pupa enclofed in a follicle, and is very like the perfect
infeft j the eggs increafe in fize every day till the larvsi
burft from them.
* Antennee cl abated.
* femora- Antennae pale yellow j body black ; thighs of the
la. hind-legs very large, i. A native of Europe ; on the
alder and willow. Larva green, marked on the back
with a blue line, and on the lides with a yellow one.
trijhs. Body black j antennae pale yellow j wings brown at
the tips. 56. A native of the Sundmore illands.
Larva green, marked on the back with a blue line
fringed with black and yellow.
* ‘vitelh- Abdomen black above, reddilh on the fides j the
ncc. thighs of the hind-legs dentated. 5. A native of
Europe j on the birch and willow j the antennae yellow,
and black at the tip. The larva is green, and fpouts
water from an opening a little above the anus.
* * Antennee without articulations, and thicker towards
their outer edge.
^ enodis. Antennae fmooth : body of a bluifh black, xl. A
native of Europe j on the willow. Larva gi’een, dotted
with black, marked on the lides with a wrinkled yellow
line, and furnilhed with an acute tail.
^ ujlulata. Body black ; abdomen bluifh \ lhanks of the legs
pale. 13. A native of Europe 5 on the rofa canina.
Wings of a faint rufty colour, marked with a brown
fpot. Larva green, marked with two white lines ; the
head of a brick-colour, marked with a dark-coloured
band.
cyanocro- Head and thorax bluifh : the abdomen of a faftron-
cea. colour. 6. A native of Britain; on umbelliferous
plants : antennae black 5 legs of many colours.
* * * Antcnnce peElinated.
cephalotes. Body black; abdomen marked with four yellow
belts. 64. A native of Europe j large j head large,
three dots fituated between the eyes ; the thorax marked
on the fore part with an interrupted yellowifh ftreak $
legs of a rutty colour.
* dorfata. Body whitilh 5 head and back of the thorax and ab¬
domen black. 65. A native , of Britain 5 antennae
black.
* * * * Antennee feathered.
pmi. Antennae fpear-fhaped j the thorax fomewhat hairy.
14. A native of Europe ; very common in the fir-tree.
The male black 5 the thighs and thanks of the legs of
a tawney colour : female twice the fize of the male j
gray j antennae ferrated. Larva blue, and of a tawney
colour at each end.
* * * * * Antenneefiliform ; furnifhed with fieven or nine
articulations.
* rufilica. Body black ; the abdomen marked with three yel¬
low belts 5 the pofterior pair being interrupted. 16.
A native of Europe j on the woodbine. Mouth whitifh;
the fcutellum and thorax marked with a yellow fpot $
the legs yellow ) the knees of the hind-legs black.
O L O G Y. Hymenoptera.
Larva of an ath-colour, marked with triangular light
brown dots on the back.
Greenifh yellow 3 legs tawney; the thighs of the cynipifor*
hind-legs of a brafs colour. 69. A native of Europe 5 mis.
in the pods of the vetch ; about the fize of a black ant j
the thorax lengthened very much, refembling a cynips.
Female bluifh green, with a metallic luflre.
Body variegated. 21, A native of Europe; on*fialicis.
the poplar and willow. Larvse feeding in parallel
troops ; flat, rough, yellow, and marked on each fide
with two rows of black dots; head black.
Body black ; head and thorax red. 29. A native of* a/ni.
Europe 3 on the leaves of the alder. When looked at,
it attempts to conceal itfelf. The antennas are black ;
the abdomen black, with a violet glofs ; the fore-legs
reddifh brown.
Body black ; belly, legs, and fcutellum whitifh. 35. rapsc.
A native of Europe; on the leaves of the turnip.
Small; whitifh beneath ; the edges of the wings black;
the edges of the fegmettts of the abdomen faint yellow ;
head and thorax variegated with white.
Body yellow ; head and upper part of the thorax * caprex,
and abdomen black ; wings marked with a yellow dot.
55. A native of Europe ; on the willow and corinth.
The larva yearly deftroys the goofeberry and red corinth,
but does not injure the black corinth ; blue; the three
fir ft and three laft fegments tawney, marked with nine
lines of dots.
Body black ; the ftianks and apophyfes of the thighs rib is.
of the hind-legs are white on their exterior fides. 88.
A native of Europe ; on the red corinth. The larva
deftroys the edges of the leaves of the red corinth ; it is
green; the head edged with black ; the body wrinkled;
fix feet fituated on the breaft, are furnifhed with hooks;
fix on the abdomen are fet clofe together, and two near
the tail refemble papillae.
****** Antennee fietaceous, compofed of many articu¬
lations.
Body blue; head red. 40. A native of Europe ; on* erytlirfr-
the common pine. Male black ; the mouth and thank.- cephaia.
of the fore-legs pale yellow.
Black, with a tinge of blue; mouth, feelers, andpopuli.
ftianks of the legs yellow. 44. A native of Europe ;
on the poplar; wings brownifh ; the breaft variegated
with pale yellow on each fide, edged with bright yel¬
low ; the abdomen pale yellow ; fpotted on the back
with black.
******* The following fpecies, and other five, feem
doubtful.
Black ; legs yellow ; antennas flightly clavated. 50. intercus.
A native of Europe ; on the leaves of the burdock, the
nightfhade, and the vulvaria ; it is lodged under the
cuticle of the leaf; the antennas fhorter than the body,
tranfparent and deeply articulated; the abdomen oval
and pointed.
140 fpeeies of this genus have been deferibed by
Gmelin, in his laft edition of the Syftem of Nature. ^
81. SiREX, Tailed Wafp.
Mouth furnifhed with a thick mandible, compofed of a
horny fubftance, terminating al raptly at the tip;
the
Hymenoptera.
the jaw bent inwards, pointed, cylindrical, and fring¬
ed, which, together with the lip, is membranaceous,
fhort, and entire. Feelers four ; the pofterior ones
longer than the reft, and thicker on the outfide.
Antennae filiform, compofed of upwards of 24 articu¬
lations. Sting proje&ing, rigid, ferrated. Abdo¬
men clofely attached to the trunk, terminating in a
{harp- point. Wings lance-fhaped and plane.
The larvae of this genus are fix-footed, foft, and cy¬
lindrical 5 the head rounded : they perforate wood, and
frequently eat their way into the bowels of other inlefts
and their larvae, particularly caterpillars, living upon
and confuming their vitals : pupae foliculated. The per-
feft infect lives on the neftar of flowers^
* gigas. Body black ; the abdomen yellow at the bafe and at
the extremity. 1. A native of Europe ; on fir trees.
*fpeclru/n. Abdomen black ; thorax hairy, with a pale yellow
mark before the wings. 3. A native of Europe , in
decayed timber, particularly fir wrood.
hhantoma. Abdomen yellow above, marked with black rings 5
head and legs pale yellow. 12. A native of Europe ;
mouth, thorax, and under part of the abdomen black.
Cx Y. icj
veral buftiels of it in a fhort time. In his opinion, it
poflelTes many advantages over the vegetable cotton.
A. Scutellum whitijh ; the Ant entice marked with white
rings.
Scutellum white 5 the thorax without fpots ; the fe- * rapte*.
cond, third, and fourth fegments of the abdomen pale rius.
yellow ; the reft white at the tip. 2. A native of
Europe ; the thighs of the four hind-legs black.
Black y the fcutellum, the extremity of the abdo-feduSlor.
men, and a notched band on the anterior part of the ab¬
domen, yellow ; the legs, and conneftion between the
abdomen and trunk likewife yellow. 221. A native
of Italy. It forms cells compofed of cemented clay, in
chimneys and windows, arranged commonly in parallel
rows, forming a cylindrical neft, each containing a
brown, lucid follicle, in which the larva is lodged, to¬
gether with the body of a fpider in which the egg had
been originally depofited. The upper wings are dark-
coloured towards the tip.
B. Scutellum whitijh ; Antennee totally black.
ENTOMOLO
18 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
82. Ichneumon.
Mouth furni(lied with a jaw, ftraight, membranaceous,
roundifii at the tip, divided, expanded, and fringed j
the mandible arched, (harp, and fmooth ; and with a
lip cylindrical, membranaceous at the tip, and margi-
nated. Feelers four, unequal, and filiform ; fituated
in the middle of the lip. Antennae fetaceous,
fumifiled rvith upwards of 30 articulations. Sting
prominent, furniflied with a ftieath compofed of two
valves.
Black ; the fcutellum whitifti 5 the divifions between equitati-
the fegments black 5 the fecond, third, and fourth {e^-rius.
ments, as well as the legs, are yellow. 90. A native
of Europe. In the pupa of the plalana piniperda.
Biack 5 the fcutellum yellowifli 5 the under part of the * dimica-
antennae reddifii} the thorax armed on each fide with a torius.
prickle 5 the abdomen black, marked with yellow belts •
anus yellow. 198. A native of Britain.
Scutedum white ; the thorax fpotted 5 abdomen *fafeia*
b aciv ; the bafe of the fecond fegment, the third and torius.
fixth fegments yellow. 93. A native of Britain.
C. The Scutellum and Thorax of the fame colour ; An¬
tennee marked with rings.
1 he whole of this lingular genus are parafitical, de¬
riving their nourifiiment from other infefts. The fly
feeds on the neftar of flowers ; and when about to lay
her eggs perforates the body of forae other infeft or its
caterpillar, with its firing or inftrument at the end of
the abdomen, and there depofits them ; thefe, after be-
ing transformed into larvae, prey upon the inteftines of
their fofter parents till they are metamorphofed into
pupre. I he larva is without feet, foft, and cylindrical}
pupa fometimes naked, fometimes covered with a follicle.
It is a fpecies of this genus which produces the animal
cotton, of which 1VI. Baudry des Lozieres gives an ac¬
count (Vide Second Voyage a la Louifianey par Baudry
des Loiter os'). A worm of confiderable lize, which
Baudry calls jjy-carrier,) well known to planters as the
manioc or indigo worm,) is atmne period of the year
attacked by fwarms of the ichneumon fy, which depo-
fit their eggs in every pore of the worm. The infefts
are produced all nearly at the fame time, and fpin each
of them a minute covering for itfelf. The manioc worm
is now covered with a white cafe, which he with con-
fid''raole dimculty fliakes off, and, in a few days, the in¬
fefts are again hatched from it, but in the form of flies,
leaving the animal cotton behind them. This produc¬
tion is very abundant, as M. Baudry could colleft fe-
6
Black ; the abdomen of a rufty colour, and black at migrator,
the extremity. 116. A native of Europe.
Black ; legs reddiih ; the feet of the hind-legs white * obfeura*
at the tips. 199. A native of Britain. It fmells oitor.
mulk.
E. The Scutellum and 7 horax of the fame colour ; An¬
tennee black.
Body and wings black, marked with a tranfparcnt denigrator,
ipot like a crefeent; abdomen fcarlet. 28. A native
of Britain 5 in gardens.
Black; legs reddiftiq the fhanks of the hind-legs turionellce.
black, marked with white rings. 40. A native of
Europe. In the larva of moths, particularly in the
phalcena turionellce. Antenna; of the fame length with
the body ; the fling fliorter than the abdomen 1 * * * * &
Black ; mouth and legs reddifh ; the abdomen joined * compunc-
to the trunk by a ftaik, or narrow conneftion. 2 2 A tor
native of Europe. In the pupee of fome fpecies of but¬
terfly.
■ Black.t tht: abdomen curved like a royllio, reddifl. * jacula,
tn the middle-the Hughs of the hind-legs cheated; to-,
white at the bale and at the extremity. 52. A native
of Europe ; in the larvae of the bee and of the fphex
Having examined with its antennae, where the fphex is,
and.
203
and having difcovered it, it flies away, and returns and
places its egg on it,
E. Antennce pale yellow.
venofus. Entirely yellow, except feme black between the {lem¬
mata 5 wings white, with yellow veins. 354. A na¬
tive of Europe.
cinElus. Black *, antennae and legs of a rufty colour j wings
tranfparent, marked with a black fpeck. 60. A na¬
tive of Europe j in gardens.
Hymenoptera.
wait till the poifon they have infufed through their
Ifing produce its effeft. Their prey either ferves as
food for themfelves or their young. Thofe of the di-
vilion B are to be found chiefly on umbelliferous plants j
the larva is without feet, foft, and inhabits the body of
fome other info ft, on the juices of which it feeds •, the
pupa has only the rudiments of wings} the perfeft in-
feft depolits her eggs in the bodies of other infefts.
A. Antennce fetaceous; Lip entire; Tongue wanting.
Evaniae.
ENTOMOLOGY.
F. Minute, with the Abdomen clofely attached to the
Thorax.
greg arias. Black ; the legs and fide of the abdomen of a rufty
colour. 204. A native of Europe •, in the larvae of
butterflies 5 gregarious, and very frequent in the fpring.
Soon after they are hatched they fpin each of them a
white follicle for themfelves, which are connefted to¬
gether in a duller, from which they come forth perfeft
infefts.
* bedegua- Shining green } abdomen golden-coloured. 63. A
native of Europe \ in the larvae of the cynips, which
produces the galls on the rofe and the oak. ^ The fting
the fame length with the body.
Of a bronze colour j abdomen black ; {hanks of the
legs whitilh. 64. A native of Europe ; on the larvae
«f the cynips, which produces the galls on the branches
of the oak.
Body blue and gold ; abdomen filming green the
legs pale. 66. A native of Europe j in the larvae of
flies and buterflies.
Green and gold *, the abdomen brown, marked with
a pale-coloured belt at the bale 5 legs yellowilh. 68.
A native of Europe 5 on the larvae of the cynips, and on
the pupae of butterflies.
Black 5 legs of a rufty colour. 74. A native of
Europe ; in {talks of grain, within a roundifh follicle,
compofed of white filk, common to a number of the in¬
fefts.
* galla-
rum.
pup arum,
cynipis.
globatus.
* g lamer a- Black 5 legs yellow. 75. A native of Europe 5 in the
tus. larvae of butterflies. Soon after they are hatched, they
fpin each of them a yellow' follicle for themfelves they
depofite their eggs on the pupae of butterflies foon after
they have changed from larvae.
418 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
83. Sphex,
Mouth furnifhed with an entire jaw *, the mandible
curved, notched, and formed of a fuhftance like
horn. Lip horny, and membranaceous at the tip.
Feelers four. The antennae in fome fpecies have
upAvards of 10 articulations. Wings in each fex in¬
cumbent and not folded. Sting pungent and con¬
cealed within the abdomen.
Body black j the abdomen very ftiort, and attached appends
to the back part of the thorax by a foot-ftalk. \2.gajler.
A native of Europe, America, and Africa. Sprinkled
with concave dots 5 the thorax flattened behind ", the
abdomen oval, compreffed and very fmooth 5 wing's
tranfparent, Ihort, and deflefted.
B. Antennce filiform ; the Lip emarginated, and furnifh-
ed with a brifle on each fide : Tongue bent inwards,
and divided into three divifons for almof half its
length.
a. Abdomen ■attached to the trunk by a folk or narrow
communication.
Black, hairy*, the attachment of the abdomen to *fahuloft,
the trunk furniihed with t v o articulations ; the fecond
and third fegments of the abdomen of a rufty colour.
1. A native of Europe j on fandy ground, udiere it
digs a hole with its fore-feet, like a dog, in which it
buries the larva of a moth, on which it depofits an egg,
and then ftiuts up the holer The abdomen exceeds the
wings in length about one half, and in the male is black
on the back.
Smooth, black *, the lip and the edges of the {eg-fguilts.
ments of the abdomen lucid. 11. A native of Eu¬
rope ; in holes of rvood, in partitions, which have been
formed and abandoned by other infefts : thefe it cleanfes
by gnawing round them *, and placing a piece of moift
clay at the bottom, flicks a fpider upon it. In the body
of this fpider it depofits its eggs, and then clofes up the
entrance with clay. The larva is pale, and very like
the larva of the bee. Having confumed the fpider, which
had been enclofed along rvith it, it fpins a yellowilh
bnnvn membrane for itfelf, exaftly adapted to its body.
One female fphex forms a great many nefts $ (he fpends
no more than tAvo days in forming any one.
Body black ; fore-head, mouth, fcutellum, and tAvo infubrict.
bands on the abdomen, yelloAv. 98. A native of Italy 5
breeds in chimneys and in windows, in the fame neft
with the ichneumon feductor. It is about feven lines
long, dotted 5 the (hanks of the legs yellowifti, and
black at the extremities ; Avings tranfparent and dark-
coloured at the tips.
b. The Abdomen clofely attached to the Thorax.
The infefts of this genus are the moft favage and ra¬
pacious of this clafs of animals", they attack Avhatever
infefts come in their Avay, and by means of their poi-
fonous fting overcome and devour fuch as far exceed
themfelves in fize *, when they attack any infeft, they
give one ftroke, and fall down as if dead, and quietly
DoAvny and black ; Avings broAvn *, the anterior part * viaticaA
of the abdomen of a rufty colour, marked Avith black
belts. 15. A native of Europe 5 in fandy ground : it
digs holes in the fand, in which it buries the larva of a
moth, after it has depofited an egg on it.
Body black } the fore part of the thorax iv>XTi\{\\e&fpinofa,
with
Hymenoptera. E N T O M
with a prickle on eack fide *, the lip and the bread; of
the colour of filver. 86. A native of England j fmoothj
wings tranfparent j legs reddifii.
98 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lad edition of the Syftem of Nature.
84. SCOLIA.
Mouth furnifhed with a curved (harp mandible, crenated
on the infide. Jaw compreffed, projecting, entire
and horny. Tongue infleCted and divided into three
at the tip, very Ihort. Lip projecting, membranace¬
ous at the tip, artd-entire. Feelers four, equal, thort,
filiform, and fituated in the middle of the lip. An¬
tennae thick and filiform : the firlt joint longer than
the reft.
ftxmacu-
lata.
quadri-
pun&ata.
Hairy, black; the abdomen marked with three
pair of yellow fpots. 6. A native of Europe j
marked with a yellow fpot both before and behind the
eyes.
Body black ; the abdomen marked with four white
dots, the wings of a reddith brown. 22. A native of
Europe.
2^7 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in thfe
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
85. Thynnus.
Mouth formed of a horny fubftance j the manible in¬
curved. Thejawftiort, and ftraight. Lip longer
than the jaw, membranaceous at the tip, and divided
into three, the middle divifion emarginated. Tongue
very fhort and involuted. Feelers four, equal and
filiform. Antennas filiform.
dentatus* Abdomen black ; the fecond, third, and fourth feg-
ments marked with two white dots. 1. A native of
New Holland. Likewifethe firft fegments are marked
with a white dot on the fides.
13 fpecies of this genu? have been defcribed in the
ijaft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
86. Leucopsis.
Mouth compofed of a horny fubftance, and furniftied
with ftior.t jaws. The mandible thick, and furnilhed
with three teeth at the tip. Lip longer than the
jaw ; membranaceous and emarginated at the tip.
Feelers four, (hurt, equal, and filiform. Antennae
fhort, ftraight, and clavated. Thorax furnifhed with
a lance-fhaped fcale on its under fide. Sting bent
backwards, arid concealed in a groove in the upper
part of the abdomen.
Cfthgafler. Abdomen attached clofely to the trunk fcale of
the thorax half the length of the abdomen 2. A na¬
tive of Europe; eyes black ; forehead without fpots ;
the pofterior part of the thorax marked with a yellow
fillet, and without dots. Smaller than the common wafp-
Three fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in
the. laft: edition of the Syftem of Nature,
Vol. VIII. Part L
O L O G Y.
201
87. Tihiia,
Mouth furnifhed with a membranaceous rounded jaw.
The mandible arched, and acute. The lip fhort,
furnifhed with three fmall projections, and compofed
of a fubftance like horn. No tongue. Feelers four,
filiform, unequal, projecting, and fituated in the mid¬
dle of the lip. Antennse filiform and arched.
Black j the thighs of the four hind-legs angular zndi*femoratct
reddifh. 4. A native of England.
Black 5 thorax fpotted 5 abdomen marked with five *qmnque-
yellow bands, the fecond interrupted. 6. A native olctntta.
Europe, chiefly in England.
17 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft; edition of the Syftem of Nature.
88. CtiALCIS.
feelers four, and equal. Antennae fhort, cylindrical,
and fpindle-fhaped $ the firft articulation a little
thicker than the reft.
Shining black ; the thighs of the hind-legs thicken-/>«/57/^
ed, and marked with a white dot at their extremities.
6. A native of Europe. Feet white.
7 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
89. Chrysis. Golden-fly.
Mouth compofed of a horny fubftance, and projecting*,
is furnifhed w ith a linear jaw, and with a lip emar¬
ginated, and membranaceous at the tip, and much
longer than the jaw. No tongue. Feelers fourj
projecting, unequal, and filiform. Antennae fhort,
and filiform ; the fiift articulation longer than the
reft. Body gilt and fhining. Abdomen arched
beneath, furnifhed with a fcale on each fide. The
anus (in moft of the fpecies) is furnifhed with fmall
projections. Sting is fiightly projecting. Wings
plane.
The infeCts of this genus commonly form their nefts
in holes made in walls.
Smooth, polifhedj the thorax green*, the abdomen # ?* 7^
of a golden colour, and furniftied with four fmall pA- *
jeCtions at the extremity, t. A native of Europe : in
walls.
Smooth, fhining} the thorax green } the abdomen of* aurata.
a golden colour ; the anus furnifhed with two fmall
projections. 4. A native of Europe 5 in walls.
Smooth, fhining} the thorax and abdomen blue} * cvanea
(he anus furnifhed with three fmall projections. 5. A ^
nati ve of Europe } in walls.
Smooth, fhining green } the thorax and fuperior V^vlridula,
bf the two firft fegments of the abdomen gilt ; the anus * *
furnifhed with four fmall projections. 6. A native of
.Europe } in walls of houfes.
27 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
Cc
90*
202
E N T O M 0 L 0 G Y.
90. Vespa, Wafp.
Mouth compofed of a horny fubftance. Jaw compreffed.
Feelers four, unequal, and filiform. Antennae fili¬
form y the firft articulation longer than the reft, and
cylindrical. Eyes large and circular. Body fmooth.
Sting pungent, and concealed within the abdomen.
The upper wings are folded in the males, females,
and neuters.
Thefe live moftly in numerous focieties, conftru&ing
curious nefts or combs, generally under ground j they
prey upon other infedls, efpecially bees and flies, and
devour meal, bread and fruit. The larva is foft, with¬
out feet, and feeds on the neftar of flowers and honey j
the pupa quiefcent, and has the rudiments of wings.
Some of them are folitary, others live in fwarms.
A. No tongue.
* The Antenme thicker towards their outer edge.
* crabro. Hornet. The thorax black, marked on the fore part
with reddifh fpots j there is a double dot contiguous to
the divifions between the fegments of the abdomen. 3.
A native of Europe. It has its neft in hollow trees, in
out-houfes, or any dry fituation ; its combs are very
neatly conftrufted, and compofed of a fubftance like
coarfe paper, or decayed parchment. They prey on
other infefts, particularly on bees. Their fting is very
painful.
* vulgaris Thorax marked on each fide with a fmall interrupted
line j the fcutellum marked with four fpots j the divi¬
fions between the fegments of the abdomen dotted with
black. 4. A native of Europe, about houfes ; they
prey on flies, and rob bee-hives. They live in fwarms
compofed of males, females, and neuters. The male has
a yellow head, and long antennae j an abdomen com¬
pofed of feven yellow fegments, marked with black
triangular fpots. They are deftitute of ftings, but are
longer and larger than the neuters, though fmaller than
the females. The female has (hort antennae \ lip yellow;
abdomen compofed of fix fegments, marked on the
fides with two black dots, and is furnhhed with a fting.
There are frequently between two and three hundred
females, and as many males, in a fwarm of wafps. A
Angle female in the fpring that had been impregnated
in the preceding autumn, lays the foundation of a fwarm.
It makes itfelf a hole in fome dry fituation, or fixes on
a mole hole, where it haftily builds a few cells, and de-
pofits its eggs; which in the courfe of about twenty
days, pafs through their different changes, and become
perfect infe&s. Almoft the whole of thofe produced
from the firft depofited eggs are neuters, As foon as
they are fit to fly about, they commence their labours,
enlarge their hole by removing the earth with their
mouth, go out in queft of materials, for forming new
cells, which are compofed of fmall fibres of wood, ce¬
mented together by a glutinous fubftance formed within
the body of the animal. They may frequently be feen
©n rails, polls, &c. on reeds, or ftalks of decayed ve¬
getables, gnawing off fmall particles which they convey
to their neft, and deliver to thofe occupied in the con-
ftruftion of the \rork. The external covering of their
neft is formed of feveral layers of thin leaves refembling
Hymenoptcra.
paper, which are not in immediate contact with one
another, and in that way they prevent external moifture,
from penetrating into the cells, which are arranged in
flat combs placed one over another, each ftory being
fupported by a number of very neat pillars. The fe¬
male continues to depofit her eggs, which are oblong
and yellowilh, during the whole fummer, to the amount
of many thoufands. A few hundreds of thofe that are
laft depofited, produce males and females, which are
impregnated in the autumn, and which, Ihould they
furvive the winter, lay the foundation of new fwarms
in the fpring. All the neuters and males perilh in the
beginning of winter.
Body black ; the thorax is marked with two parietum
the fcutellum is likewife marked with two dots, the ab¬
domen with five yellow bands, the firft of which is at a
diftance from the reft. 6., A native of Europe $
about houfes. It forms its neft in holes in wood.
Black \ thorax marked v ith two pale yellow fpots j *muraria
the abdomen marked with four yellow bands, the firft
at a confiderable diftance from the reft. 8. A native
of Europe, in walls ; the fcutellum without fpots j the
{hanks of the legs yellowifti.
Firft fegment of the abdomen funnel-fhaped; the k-*coar8ata
cond bell-fliaped, and very large. 11. A native of
Europe, in gardens. It attaches its neft, which is glo¬
bular, and conftrufted of the fame materials with that
of the common wafp, to the branches of trees j the ab¬
domen black, the fegments yellow at the edges j the
firft and fecond marked with two dots.
** Antenme filiform. Crabrones.
The abdomen marked with two yellow bands; the tridentata.
anus furniftied with three fmall projeftions} wings
black, white at the edge. 98. A native of Europe.
Thorax without fpots j the abdomen marked on each fojjbria,
fide with five yellow fpots j legs black. 101. A na¬
tive of Europe, in fandy fituations. Head large, termi¬
nating abruptly in the fore part j mouth of a filver co¬
lour 5 the fpots on the abdomen uniting fo. as to form a
band.
B. The tongue bent inwards, and divided into three at the
point. Bombyces.
The upper lip conical and divided ; the abdomen rofirata.
black, marked with waved yellowifti bands. 152. A
native of Europe, on fand hills. Their nefts contain on¬
ly a Angle larva.
Black j lip roundilh ; the abdomen marked with hxfafciata.
yellow bands, the firft five of which are interrupted.
157. A native of Europe, covered with afti-coloured
down $ the thorax fpotted with brown, the antennae
black, the firft articulation yellow below, the laft of a
rufty colour ; lip and legs yellow, the thighs black : the
anus furniftied with three fmall projedions.
The lip nearly conical j the thorax brown, fpotted rumjicois.
with yellow 5 abdomen black, marked with fix yellow
bands j antennae and legs of a rufty colour. 159. A
native of Europe 5 head brown ; mouth yellow : the
bands on the abdomen broad, the firft four inter¬
rupted.
160 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed by
Craelin in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
91.
Hymenoptera.
ENTOMOLOGY
91. A?is, Bee.
Mouth formed of a fubftance refembling horn j the lip
and jaw membranaceous at the tip ; tongue bent in¬
wards. Feelers four, unequal, and filiform. Wings
plane. The females and neuters have a pungent
fting concealed within the abdomen.
The infe&s of this genus live fome of them in large
fbcieties, and fome are folitary j their food is the neftar
of flowers, honey and ripe fruit j the larva is foft and
without feet; the pupa refembles the perfectinfeft. The
larvas of the neuters are very numerous, and placed in
hexagonal cells; the larvae of the males are turgid and
obtufe in the fore part, and tapering behind.
A. The Tongue divided into Jive at the point $ the Feelers
very fh or t.
* centun- Black ; the under part of the abdomen covered with
eularis. yellow wool. 4^ A native of Europe. It forms fe-
veral nells under ground, very neatly compofed of the
leaves of roles. There are feveral fpecies which form
fimilar nefts in the trunks of trees or in walls, compo¬
fed fometimes of the leaves of the rofe, at other times of
thofe of the horfe chefnut.
*punBata. Black, covered with alh-coloured hairs; abdomen
black; the fegments of the abdomen marked on each
fide with a white dot; the fcutellum entire. 59. A
native of Britain ; on flowers.
tnelHjica. Common Honey Bee. Downy; the thorax gray! (li; ab¬
domen brown; thighs of the hind legs fringed with hairs;
on the infide marked with tranfverfe ftriae. 22. A native
of Europe, in hollow trees; but they are more frequently
domefticated, and kept in hives. This well-known
and bufy infedl lives in great fwarms, compofed of fe¬
males or queens, males or drones, and neuters or work¬
ing bees. The female is larger and longer than the
reft, the abdomen being about one-third longer than
the wings; the antennae have ten articulations ; the feet
reddilh. The males are larger than the neuters ; their
wings are longer than the body ; their antennae have
eleven articulations; the trunk is covered with long
hairs, and is of a tawney colour. The neuters as well
as the females are gray on the thorax, and are furnifh-
ed with a fting, of which the males are deftitute; their
antennae have fifteen articulations ; they are furnilhed
with two ftomachs. A fwarm confifts commonly of
one female, from 1000 to 1500 males, and of nearly
20,000 neuters (vide Bee). They conftruft regular
combs, compofed of hexagonal cells, with wrax which is
formed within the body of the infedl. Reaumur and
others have fuppofed, that the wax was formed from
the farina of flowers, which the neuters collect and
carry home on their legs, and their opinions have been
implicitly followed. But Mr Huber, member of the
Society of Natural Philofophy and Natural Hiftory of
Geneva, by a fet of very accurate experiments and ob-
fervations, has clearly proven that the wax is formed
from honey (vide Journal de Phyjique, <b’c. P/uviofe
An. XII.). We (hall give here his own account of the
experiments he has made. “ It has been thought ftrange
that the word wax ftiould feldom occur in a book which
treats of bees alone; but neverthelefs, as in the courfe of
*ny obfervations I had not attended to the produds of
their induftry, I could only have repeated what had
been faid by Swammerdam and Reaumur, and that did
not feem to me to be neceffary. I knew that thefe in¬
fers collected abundantly upon the antherae of flowers ;
that they are acquainted with the method of opening
them, of gathering their dull, keeping it in the cavi¬
ties of their hind legs, and carrying it to their hives.
It had been obferved that the particles of this duft
fwell in water, and that when one of them burfts, an
oily liquor runs out, which floats on its furface, but did
not mix with it. From thefeexperiments, repeated on the
duft of a great number of flowers, it was concluded that
they contain the principles of wax; but it was admitted
that thefe muft undergo a peculiar elaboration in the body
of the bee, fince, according to the experiments of Reau¬
mur, a flexible wax could not be made from the duft of
the antherae. It will be feen here from feveral paffages
in my work that I had adopted this opinion ; a fingle
obfervation of Burnons, (the name of Mr Huber’s fe-
cretary), changed all my ideas. The true origin of wax
might have been fooner known, had there been any
fufpicion that it was not already difcovered. I fhall
now ftate how I Was led to doubt, and what I have
done to verify my new conjedlures.
“ I was in Switzerland in 1793 : the farmer of the
eftate on which I refided had many bees; and the
greater part of his hives having been flocked in former
years, the combs with which they were filled reached
to the ftands, confequently there was no room to con-
ftrudl new ones. We remarked, however, that the
working bees carried in a confiderable quantity of this
fecundating powder. There was alfo in the fame apiary,
fome iwarms of that year, the hives having only been
flocked a day or two ; in fome of them'the combs were
only begun ; in others they were larger ; but in all of
them there were vacancies to fill up, and much work to
do. We obferved with aftoniftiment, that the bees of
thefe fwarms did not carry in the pollen ; and that,
neverthelefs, they worked with adlivity in the conftruc-
tion of new combs, and in lengthening thofe already
commenced. Where, therefore, did they procure ma¬
terials for their edifices ? After thefe obfervations, w'e
fufpedled that it was not from the duft Of the ftamina,
and that they had a very diflerent ufe for it than that
for which it was believed to be intended. We, how¬
ever, found that it was impoflible to explain thefe ex¬
traordinary fadls, without abandoning the hypothefis
of Reaumur, by fuppofing that the bees of the old hives
ftored up fo much pollen in their combs for their future
wants, while thofe of the new fwarms did not carry it
outwardly on their legs, in the infancy of their efta-
blilhment, becaufe they had no cells in which they could
depofit it; it might be fufficient to enable them to con-
ftrudl their combs, if they were at liberty to fly to the
flowers, procure their pollen, and return to their hives
after having filled their ftomachs, where it muft be
elaborated, and converted into perfedft wax. It was to
obviate thefe doubts, that I Undertook the following-
experiments.
“ Fuji Experiment.—On bees in confinement, with
honey alone for their nourifliment. Muft pollen be ate
by bees, to be in a ftate to produce wax ? This was
the firft queftion which I thought it neceflary to invefti-
gate : the method of trying the experiment was obvious;
■C c 2 it.
*04
E N T O M
it was only required to keep the bees within their hives,
and thus prevent them from colle&ing or eating the fe¬
cundating powder. On the 24th of May, Burnons
lodged a fwarm. in a ftrarv-hive, with as much honey
and water as was neceflary for their confumption } and
he clofcd the doors, fo that the bees could not get out,
and the air he at. the fame time renewed.
“ At fir ft the bees were very uneafy, but became calm
on removing the hive to a cool dark place 5 their cap¬
tivity lafted five days } they were permitted to come out
into a room, the windows oi which were fliut j we then
examined the hive more conveniently. We firil noticed
that there was no honey left in the veiTel which had been
filled with it, with the foie intention of feeding the con¬
fined bees j and were more aftonifhed to fee five combs
of the moft beautiful wax, fufpended from the roof of
the hive ; they were perfectly white, and very brittle.
This refult was very remarkable j however, before form¬
ing a condufion from if, that the honey with which
thefe bees were fed, had enabled them to produce the
wax, it was neceflary to inquire, whether it could not
alfo be explained in another manner. The bees which
I had employed had doubtlefs eolie&ed the duft while
they were at liberty. They might have done fir the
evening before, or on the very lame day of their con¬
finement, and might have enough in their ftomachs,
and in the cavities of their legs, to extraft from it all
the wax which we found in their hives. But if it was
true that it had been obtained from the fecundating
powder, previoully obtained, this fource was not inex-
hauftible, and the bets being unable to procure any more
they would foon ceafe to conftrubt combs, and fail into
the moft complete inaction. It \\ as neceftary, therefore,
to repeat the fame trial, to render it detifiye.
“ The 28ih, Burnons returned this fwarm into its hive 5
after having taken out all the combs, he fhut them up
as before, with a frelh fupply of honey. This experi¬
ment was not long, for on the evening of the lecond day
we perceived the prifoners working with new wax. I he
next day the hive was infpecled, and we found five
combs, as heavy and as regular as thofe made during the
firft captivity. We afterwards repeated this experi¬
ment five times fuccefi'ively, with the fame bees, and
the fame precautions : we always found that the honey
had difappeared, and that new wax was produced. I his
refult was fo invariable during this long feclufion, that
we could no longer doubt that the honey alone had fup-
plied them with all the elements of their wax, without
the afliftanee of the fecundating dull.
“ Second Experiment.—On a hive from which honey
was excluded, and in which only pollen and fruits, for
the nourilhment of the bees, were left, I thought it
would not be ufelefs to make the inverfe of the preced-
iner experiment j it would (how me whether the pollen
. could not fupply the want of honey, when the bees
were deprived of it, and enable them to produce
wax. _
“ I therefore enclofed a fwarm in a bcll-glafs,in which
had been placed a comb, whofe cells contained only
pollen, and the foie noyrifhment of the bees was fruit.
“ Thefe bees did not make combs, nor did they form a
fingle cell during eight days, which was the time of
their captivity. 1 was going to repeat this experiment,
when Burnons remarked, *that the free bees were, in
feme meafure, in the fame ftate as thofe we had con-
12
O L O G Y. Hymenoptera,
fined •, there being no honey at that time in the flowers,
they found only pollen, and did not work in wax.
“ It may perhaps be afked, how I was fatisfied of
this: to which I anfwer, bees wax is white at firft, the
cells foon become yellow •, and in time, this colour
grows browner ; and in older hives have acquired a
blackifh tinge. It is, therefore, veryeafy to diftinguifh
the new cells from thofe which have been feme time
formed, and confequently to know' whether the bees are
really making combs, or whether that work is fufpend¬
ed it is fufticient to raife the hives, and to notice the
lower edge of the combs.
“ The odour exhaled by thehives, and the fhape of the
bets, are indications, by which it may always be known
whether there is honey in the flowers : if they are com¬
bined, there can be no further doubt; and, particularly,
if a great number of bees return to the hive, which are
remarkable tor the bulk and form of their bellies.
Thofe which axe filled with honey, have the abdomen
cylindrical; the name of wax-making bees belongs to
them exclufively t the bellies of the labouring beej?,.
which have other functions, always preferve their ovoid
form, and their volume is never fenfibly augmented;
the name of nurfing bees is proper for thefe.
“ The farmers of the neighbouring villages kept their
bees in bafkets, or in cafes of different forms ; and I.
w as able to vifit a very great number, w ithout going to
any great diftance from my habitation.
“ In 1793, an intemperate fpring had retarded the
feparation of thefwarms; there had not been any in
the country before the 24th of May ; but towards the
middle of June there were feveral in the vicinity of my
refidence. At that time the fields were covered with
flowers, the bees collected much honey, and the new
fwarms worked at the wax with vigour.
“ Qn the 18th, Burnons vifited 65 hives; at the en¬
trance of all of them he obferved wax-making bees.
Thofe which returned to old hives, not having to con-
ftrudt cells, depofited their^ honey in the combs, or dif-
tributed it among their companions; thofe belonging ta
the young fwarms converted their honey into wax, and
haftened to conftruS combs for the reception of tlnir
young bees.
“ It was fhpwery on the 19th; the bees went abroad,
but brought home only pollen. The weather was cold
and rainy until the 271)1. We w ere defirous of know¬
ing if this had prevented their working. On the 28th,
all the hives were lifted. Burnons found that the work
had been flopped ; the combs which he had meafured
on the 19th, were not at all increafed, and were of a
citron yellow ; nor was there a fingle white cell in any
of thefe hives.
“ On the firft of July, the chefnuts and limes were in
bloffom ; the thermometer indicated the twentieth de¬
gree ; the wax-making bees re-appeared ; they carried
away great quantities of honey, which, as we had before
obferved, was employed in augmenting the provifions
of the old hives, and enabling the young fwarms to
conftrucft new combs. The greateft a&iviiy wasobferv-
able among them ; the gathering of honey, and the
produftion of wax continued, until the middle of this
month. July 16th, the heat remained the fame; the
field flowers, as well as thofe of the chefnut and limes,
were completely withered; they yielded no more honey,
their pollen alone attraiffed the working bees, and they
colic id ed
Hymenoptera. E N T O M
colle£led it abundantly; but there was not any wax
produced ; the combs were not lengthened •, thofe of
the young fwarms did not fill more than two-thirds of
their hives.
“ Auguft 9th. It had not rained for fix weeks j the
heat was very powerful, nor was there any dew to al¬
lay it during the night j the black wheat, which had
been in flower for fome days, did not offer any honey
to the bees 5 they found only pollen.
“On the xOtli of Auguft, It rained for feveral hours j
next day, the black wheat had the odour of honey •, in
fa&it might be feen glittering in their expanded flowers.
The bees found enough to feed them, but too little to
induce them to work at new w ax.
“ On the 14th, the drought recommenced, and lafted
to the end of the month $ no more honey appeared up¬
on the flowers; and when we vifited the 65 hives for
the lalt time, we found, iff, That the bees had not pro¬
duced any wax after the middle of July. 2d, That
they had ftored up a great quantity of pollen. 3d,'
That the fupply of honey w as much leffened in the old
hives, and that hardly any remained in the new fwarms,
that which they had collected in the fpring having been
. employed in the preparation of wax. The pollen, there¬
fore, has not this property, and no farther doubt re¬
mained on this head. This year had not been ftorrny, and
I have fince afcertained, by a great number ofobferva-
tions, that eleftricity is Angularly favourable to the fe-
cretion of honey by the flowers y the bees never colleft
it in greater abundance,, nor is the preparation of wax
ever more aftive than when the wind is in the fouth,
the air humid and warm, and a rtorm gathering.
“ Heat too long continued, and the drought w hich is
the confequence of it,, cold rains, and principally a
north wind, fufpend it entirely.
“ Third Experiment. On the ufe which the bees
make of the fecundating powder. In the fecond ex¬
periment, the bees did not touch the pollen which I
had placed wkhin their reach, and as its quantity was
not fcnfxbly dimimlhed during this trial, I was induced
to believe it was not an aliment proper for them.
“ I alfo knew' that the new fwarms were liable to periflh
from hunger in the middle of fummer, and even when
the country was covered with flowers, if a particular
temperature, which is too uncommon in our climate,
did not favour the fecretion of honey in their nedlaria..
What, therefore, is the ufe of the pollen they collect
with Inch avidity during eight months of the year, and
of which they lay up-fuch abundance (a) ? This ques¬
tion remained to be inveftigated.
“ I had a hive in divilions, the queen of which was
barren ; its combs did not contain any pollen, but they
had much more honey y the two narroweft tides of this
hive were formed of panes of glafs, through which the
furlaces of the exterior combs might be ieen, and tile
conduct of the bees obferved.
“ I took away the queen on the 16th of July } hut to
«onfole the working bees, I removed the firit and
O L O G Y.
twelfth combs, in which there was not any thing to
intereft them •, and I fupplied their places with two
combs, the cells of which wrere filled with eggs and
worms of all ages. I carefully cut away all the cells
in which pollen could be perceived, and Ihut up the hive
with a grating. My intention will be gueffed 3 I wifhed
to know whether thefe infefts could fupport their young
without this fecundating powder. The next day nothing
extraordinary occurred 5 the bees fat on their eggs and
feemed to nurfe them.
“ On the 1 8th, after funfet, a great noife wjas heard
in the hive. Anxious to fee what occafioned it, w e open¬
ed the fhutters, and obferved that all was in confufion y
the incubation was flopped 3 the bees ran over the combs-
in diforder 3 we faw thoufands precipitate themfelves on
the ftand, thofe which were nearefttothe mouth eager¬
ly gnawing the grating 3 their intention was no longer
doubtful, they wiihed to get out of their confinement.
“ I w as fearful of deftroying them by continuing to
prevent them from yielding to their inftinft 3 they were
therefore fet at liberty. The whole fwarm came out,
but the hour was unfavourable to their collefting : the
bees did not go far from the hive, the darknefs and
the chilnefs of the air foon compelled them to return,
and probably calmed their agitation 3 for we faw them
quietly reafeend their combs, and order appeared, to us,
to be re-eftablilhed. This moment wras taken to clofe
the hive again. On the 19th, we faw two royal cells
begun on one of the combs of the nurfery : the even¬
ing of this day, and at the fame hour as the day before,
■we heard a great tumult in the clofed hive 3 it was in a
general confufion, and we were again obliged to permit
the fwarm to come out. The 20th was the fifth day of
their captivity. We thought it had been of fufficient
duration, and were alfo very impatient to examine the
nurfery, and to fee what was the caufe of this periodical
agitation of thefe bees : Burnons therefore opened the
fir ft and twelfth windows, and drove the bees from the
combs, fuffering them to take their flight in a room, the
windows.of which were flint. He firft noticed that the
royal cells had not been continued, that they did not
contain any worm, and that there was not an atom of
the jelly w hich ferves for the nourKliment and the cra¬
dle of the larvae of the queens.. He fought in vain for
eggs, for v'orms, and for the liquid in the common
cells 3 all had difappeared. Had thefe worms died of
hunger ? Had we, by withdrawing the fecundating
pow der, deprived the bees of every means of nourifhing
the larvae.
To afeertain this, it would be fufficient to reftore
them their pollen, and obferve the iflue. The bees
were, therefore, again returned to their prKbn, after
having fubilituted young worms for thofe which had
been fuffered to die.
“ On the 22d, we found that the bees had faflened
thefe combs, and that they were again in a ftate of in¬
cubation 3 we then gave them fome pieces of combs in
which other bees had ftored up the fecundating powder 3
and
(a) Reaumur was of opinion that the bees of a well flocked hive, might colleft at leaft a hundred pounds
of this lubftance in the courfe of a year 3 but having remarked that the weight of wax, fabricated in the fame
time, did not exceed two pounds, he concluded that the bees exlradl only a very final! portion of the true wax
from this native wax, that the greateft part of it is required for their nouriffiment, and that the reft is difeharged
from their bodies in the form of excrement.
20(5
ENTOMOLOGY,
and the better to obferve what they did with it, we took
ferae of the pollen out of the cells, and laid it expofed
on the ftand of the hive. In a few minutes, the bees
difeovered the pollen in the combs, and that which we
had taken out; they took it grain by grain in their
jaws, and conveyed it .into their mouths; thofe which
had eaten moft voracioully reafeended the combs, and
placed themfelves, at firii, upon the cells of the young
worms, which they entered head foremoft, and remain¬
ed there a greater or lei’s length of time. One of the
windows of the hive was now opened cautioully, Bur-
nons powdered the bees which ate the pollen, and
watched them for fome hours; he obferved that the
marked bees always reafeended the nurfery, and imme¬
diately entered the cells of the young bees.
“ The 23d, we found the royal cells begun.
“ The 24th, we drove the bees from off the young
worms ; and we remarked,
“ iff. That all of them had the jelly, as in the com¬
mon hives.
“ 2d. That the worms had grown larger, and were
forwarder in their cells.
“ 3d. That others had been fhut up again : and,
“ 4th. That the royal cells had been lengthened,
“ The 25th, we withdrew the pieces of comb which
we had placed on the ftand, and found that the quan¬
tity of pollen was certainly diminiflred ; we afterwards
replaced them in the hive with other cells filled with
the fecundating powder.
“ The 26th, the royal cells had been clofed during
the night, as well as feveral of the common ones.
“ The 27th, I reftored thefe bees to liberty. Burnons
examined the cells with the greateft attention, and
found jelly in all thofe which ftill contained worms,
but moft of therti were ftiut with a lid of wax : he ex¬
amined fome of the latter, and found the worms em¬
ployed in fpinnihg cocoons of filk.
“ All the worms therefore had been tended as in the
natural hive. In this fecond trial we did not perceive
any diforder in this hive ; there had not been the leaft
agitation : it is true fome of the working bees attempt¬
ed to go out in the courfe of the day ; but finding it im-
poflible, they reafeended the combs quietly, which were
never left for an inftant. The hive being abundantly
ftlpplied with honey, and with the pollen neceffary for
their young, left them nothing to wifti for; and they
were ftill more happy when a queen was born, who af¬
terwards became pregnant, and laid a great number of
eggs. After thefe two experiments, there could be no
more doubt that the fecundating powder was the ali¬
ment proper for the young bees, and that the want of
this fubftance was the caufe of their death, and of the
evident anguith of their nurfes during their firft cap¬
tivity.
“ On bees deprived of honey and
pollen, and which it was attempted to feed with fugar.
I wiilied to know, if it was the faccharine part of the
honey which enabled the bees to produce wax. Bm-
nons confined a fwarm in a glazed hive ; one pound of
Canary fugar was their foie aliment. He put a fecond
fwarm into another hive, and endeavoured to feed them
with very coarfe raw fugar; and to obtain a term of
comparifon, a third fwarm w as (hut up in the fame man¬
ner, and fed with honey. The bees of the three fwarms
produced wax; thofe fed with the different qualities of
Hymenoptera
fugar produced it fooner than the fwarm which had on¬
ly had honey, and they produced a greater quantity.
A pound of Canary fugar reduced to iyrup, and clari¬
fied with white of egg, yielded 10 gros, 52 grains, of a
wax not fo white as that which the bees extradl from
honey. An equal weight of raw fugar, gave 22 gros
of very white w ax. Maple fugar produced the fame
effe6t. This experiment having been repeated feven
times fucceffively, always employing the fame bees, we
could not doubt that iugar contains the principles of
wax ; and concluded that it was the faccharine part of
the honey which had this property.
“ Conclujion. Thefe obfervations fliewq
“ 1 ft. That the wax comes from the honey.
“ 2d. That the honey is alfo a food of the firft ne-
ceflity to the bees.
“ 3d. That flowers do not always contain honey, and
that the fecretion of honey depends in a great meafure
on the ftate of the atmofphere.
“ 4th. That it is the faccharine part of the honey
which enables the bees to produce wax.
“ 5th. That raw fugar yields more wax than honey,
or refined fugar.
“ 6th. That the duft of the ftamina does not contain
the principles of wax.
“ 7th. That this duft is not the food of the adult bees,
and that they do not colle£l it for themfelves.
“ 8th. Thatthe pollen affords the only aliment which is
proper for their young ; but that this fubftance muft un¬
dergo a peculiar elaboration in the ftomachsof the bees,
to be converted into an alimenl; which is always ap¬
propriated to their fex, their age, and their wants ; fince
the heft microfcopes do not Ihew the particles of pollen,
or their coverings in the liquor, prepared by the work¬
ing bees.”
Hairy, black ; wings of a violet colour. 38. A r\&-violacea»
tiVes of Europe, and of India. It pierces the trunks of
decayed trees, or polls, and forms longitudinal excava¬
tions, in which it conftrufts feveral nefts; having placed
one at the bottom of the hole, it depolits an egg in it,
fills it with a mixture of honey and pollen of flowers,
clofes it up, and commences another ; it proceeds in this
way till the cells occupy the whole length of the perfo¬
ration ; the eggs are fo placed in the cells, thatthe head
of the larva points downwards towards the exit.
Humble-bee. Hairy, black; thorax marked with ^terrejlris*
yellow belt; anus white. 41. A native of Europe,
It forms a neft at a confiderable depth under ground,
and collefls a good quantity of honey.
Hairy, black ; the anus of a tawmey colour. 44. A lapidaria*
native of Europe ; in heaps of Hones, or in old walls.
It collefls a confiderable quantity of honey.
Black ; flighty covered with reddifti hairs; abdomenpreecox,
fmooth, marked with three bands, white above, and red-
difh beneath. 147. A native of Europe. It fomewhat
refembles A. mellifica, butlefs. It comes out very ear¬
ly in the fpring.
B. The Tungue divided into three at the extremity.
* The Lip furnijhed on each Jide with two membrana¬
ceous brijlles. Andrenae.
Abdomen brown, marked with five whitilh belts; \\\e,bidentctt«>
anus furniftied with two fmall projedlions. 136. A
native of America, k forms its neft in w'alls, of leaves
of
Hymenoptera. E N T O M
of trees neatly folded up j the fore legs are long and
yellow ; the feet fringed.
iichroa. Black anus of a rully colour. 137. A native of
Europe j in groves.
* * Lip ’without bri/Iles, comprejfed, and entire ; pojlerior
Feelers tongue-Jljaped. Nomadce.
fuecica. Covered with aih-coloured hairs; the abdomen fmooth
and black ; the fecond and third fegments of the abdo¬
men of a rufty colour. 200. A native of Europe j
in groves.
variegata. The thorax and abdomen variegated with white j the
legs of a rufty colour. 24. A native of Europe. It
lleeps all night fixed to the flowers of the geranium
plueum. The fcutellum fometimes of a rufty colour, and
fometimes white j the firft and fecond fegments of the
abdomen marked with two white fpots 5 the third, fourth,
fifth, and fixth, marked with four.
morio. Very hairy, and black ; the jaws broad, and marked
on the outfide with elevated lines, and rounded at the
points 5 wings of a reddifh violet-colour. 214. A na¬
tive of the fouth of America. One of the largeft of
this genus.
92. Formica, Ant, or Emmet.
Feelers four, unequal, with cylindrical articulations,
placed at the tip of the lip, which is cylindrical, and
nearly membranaceous. Antennae filiform. Afmall
ereft fcale placed between the th**rax and abdomen.
The females and neuters have a fling concealed with¬
in the abdomen. The males and females have wings 5
the neuters none.
This is a gregarious, and proverbially induftrious fa¬
mily, confifting, like bees, of males, females, and neuters.
The laft are the well known little infefts, who conftruft
thenefts or ant-hills, who labour with fuch unremitting
afliduity for the fupport of themfelves and the idle
males and females, and who guard with fuch ferocity
the larvae, or what are commonly called ant eggs.
They wander about all day in fearch of food or materials
for the neft, and aflift each other in bringing home what
is too cumberfome for fuch as have attempted it. They
every day bring out of the neft, and expofe to the warmth
of the fun, the new hatched larvae, and feed them till
they are able to provide for themfelves. In the evening
they confume together whatever has been collefted du¬
ring the day, and do not, as is commonly fuppofed, lay
up any ftore for the winter, but probably become torpid
or die. They are peculiarly fond of aphides, and are
themfelves eagerly fought after by the ant-eaters, and
various birds. The puncture infli£ted by their fting,
occafions a hot painful itching fenfation. They con¬
tain a peculiar acid. See Chemistry Index,
hercula- Black; the abdomen oval j legs of a rufty colour.
nea. I. A native of Europe, and America 5 lodge in the
trunks of decayed trees.
viatica. Of a rufiy colour the abdomen oval and black. 23,
A native of Europe ^ runs very quickly j the tip of the
jaws black ; the abdomen fmooth.
rtifa, Black ; the thorax compreffed j the legs of a rufty
colour. 3. A native of Europe j it lodges in fandy
hills, in woods) it is large, and has no fting.
o L o G Y. 20,
Black the mouth, the tip of the thorax, and legs,* fufca.
of a rufty colour. 4. A native of Europe j in woods.
Of a brick colour j eyes black j a black dot under * rubra.
the abdomen. 7. A native of Europe. It lodges
under ftones in woods. They inflidl a very painful
pumfture. «
Black 5 two knots on the filament which conne£ls ccefpitum
abdomen to the trunk ) the fcutellum furnifhed with
two fmall projeflions. 11. A native of Europe) in
diy meadow's, under mofs. 1 he males and females, in
the month of Auguft, leave their neft about mid-day,
when the weather is ferene, and fly about in the air.
The abdomen oval.
Bhe thorax marked with raifed dots; the filament
which joins the abdomen to the thorax is furnilhed with
tw'o knots) the bodyvof a brick colour j the abdomen
frnall. 12. A native of America. It is very deftruc-
tive to all forts of provifions. Small. The abdomen
brown, covered with white hairs fcarcely perceptible.
Black) abdomen oval and hairy. 50. . A native otvaga,
Europe ) on decayed trees. It gnaws holes in the wood
under the bark, and forms a number of palfages for
itfelf. 0
Black, fmooth) the fcale placed betw'een the XhoT&xglabra,
and abdomen, furnifhed with two fmall projections ) the
divifions between the fegments of the abdomen whitifh )
legs reddifh. 53. A native of Europe.
55 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
93. Mutella.
Mouth formed of a fubftance like Jiorn ) without a
tongue. Jaw membranaceous at the tip. Lip pro¬
jecting, refembling an inverted cone ) at the extremi¬
ty of which, are placed four unequal feelers, with
conical articulations. Antennee filiform. Wings
wanting in moft fpecies. Body downy. The pof-
terior part of the thorax turned back. The fting is
pungent, and concealed within the abdomen.
Scarlet) the abdomen marked with a black belt. 1. occidental
A native of Europe. The antennae, eyes, legs, and Us.
under part of the body black ) the fting long and fili¬
form.
Black ) the bafe of the abdomen marked with two diadema.
yellow dots j the middle with an interrupted yellow
itre.ak ) the extremity with a fmall white line. 10. A
native of South America. Large ) the lower part of
the head marked with a white band ) the thorax mark¬
ed with two white lines, and with white on the inferior
part.
Bluifh ; the abdomen marked with a large golden- aurata
coloured fpot. 13. A native of New Holland.
Black; the thorax reddifli ; the edges of the fe?-*europxa
ments of the abdomen white. 4. A native of Europe • ’
in woods of maple. 1 7
Hairy, black ; the thorax reddifh) the abdomen
marked with two white dots, and with a white band
on the pofterior part. 15. A native of Europe ; the
upper part of the fhanks brown.
27 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftero of Nature, publifhcd by
Cimeljn*
VI.
2o i E N T O M
VI. DIPTERA.
Wings two. Polfers clavated j oiYe placed behind
each wing under a little fcale.
94. Oestrus. Gad-Jy, Breeze.
A fucker drawn back within the lips, which are con-
nefted, and furnifhed with a fmall pore. Feelers two,
of two articulations, orbicular at the tip, and feated
in a depreffion on each lide of the mouth. Antennae
Ihort and fetaceous.
The face of this fingular genus is broad and depreffed,
and has fome refemblance to the ape. Ihey are ex¬
tremely troublefome to horfes, {beep, and cattle, de-
pofiting their eggs in different parts of their bodies, and
occalioning painful tumours and even death. The larva
is without feet, thick, ftiort, foft, and eompofed of Se¬
veral fegments} they are fometimes furnithed with
hooks. They lurk within the bodies, or under the fkin,
of horfes, oxen, &c. j and feed on their juices during
the winter. The pupa is without feet, oval, and in¬
capable of motion, covered with a hard light brown
cruft. The perfect infeft lives but.for a Ihort time.
^ boi)tS. Wings brown, without fpots: the abdomen black,
white at the bafe, and of a tawney colout at the ex¬
tremity. I. A native of Europe. It depofits its
eggs on the backs of oxen, and lodges them under
the fkin. The larva, when young, is fittooth, white,
and tranfparent •, as it advances in age it becomes
brownifh, and when full grown and ready to be
changed into a pupa, it acquires a dark-brown colour.
It is lodged in a fack formed in the cellular fubftance
immediately under the fkin, and occafions a very con-
iiderable tumour on the back of the animal. The fack
communicates with the air by a very narrow opening,
next to which the anus of the animal is placed. Through
the anus a yellow purulent matter is difeharged j and near
the anus are fituated two fpiracula. There is a finall in¬
dentation on the oppofite extremity of the larva, which
is fituated at the bottom of the fack, furrounded by two
or three papillae, which forms the mouth. It has^ a
* number of dots on its furface, difpofed in tranfverfe in¬
terrupted lines. Two diftinft and different kinds of
lines are feen on each fegment; the uppermoft of them
is narrower, and confifts of larger dots. Underneath
this is a broader line, and the dots confiderably fmaller.
The firft are eafily feen, by ufing the lens, to be hooks
bent upwards, or towards the tail of the infeft. On ex¬
amining the broader line of fmall dots, with a tolerably
powerful magnifier, they are alfo found to be hooks,
but turned in an oppofite direftion, that is, downwards
in the fack, and towards the head of the infefl. Ihefe
hooks, it is probable, are occafionally erefted by the
mufcles of the fkin ; and according to the feties of them
ufed by the larva, it is raifed or depreffed in the fack ;
and by this motion, and confequent irritation,. a more
or lefs copious fecretioti of pus is occafioned for its fufte-
nance.
This fingular arrangement of hooks round the body
of the larva;, in this inftance ferves the fame purpofe as
the legs in other larvae, enabling them to move about in
O L O G Y. Eiptera.
the fack, and to crawl out of it when about to change
into pupae.
They never change their fkin like moft other larvae,
the fame ferving them through their growth 5 and it at
length alfo ferves to form the fhell of the pupa. After
leaving the fack, and previous to their becoming pupae,
they contradl themfelves, and affume a different figure.
They continue in the ftate of pupae from about the >
latter end of June until about the middle of Auguft,
when the fly appears. Full grown larvae are fometimes
to be met with on the backs of cows in the month
of September, which probably remain in the ftate
of pupae till the enfuing fpring. The perfeft infeft, on
leaving the hard cruft which furrounds it, forces open a
very remarkable, marginated, triangular valve, which
may be traced in the fkin of the lame, and is fituated
on one fide of the fmaller end.
The oejlrus bovis, in its perfeft ftate, is the largeft of
the European fpecies of this genus, and is very beauti-
ful. >
The pain it infli&s in depofiting its eggs is much
more fevere than any of the other fpecies. When one
of the cattle is attacked by this fly* it is eafily known by
the extreme terror and agitation of the whole heurd l
the unfortunate objeft of attack runs bellowing from
among them to fome diftant part of the field, or the
neareft water, while the tail, from the feverity of the
pain, is held, with a tremulous motion, ftraight from
the body, in the dire&ion of the fpine j and the head
and neck are alfo .ftretched out to the utmoft.. The
reft, from fear, generally follow to the water, or difperfe
to different parts of the field. When the oxen are
yoked to the plough, the attack of this fly is attended
with real danger, as they become perfe&ly uncontroul-
able, and will often run with the plough dire&ly for¬
wards, through the hedges, or whatever obftrufts their
way. There is provided, on this account, a contrivance
in many ploughs, to fet them immediately at liberty.
The ftrongeft and healtbieft beafts feem conftantly to
be preferred by it, and commonly have the greateft
number of botts, wormuls, or warbles, on their backs;
dealers are frequently guided in their choice of cattle
by this circumftance. The female fly is very quick in
performing the operation of depofiting her eggs (he
does not appear to remain on the back of the animal
more than a few feconds.
Gray, marked with a white band, and dotted with, buccatti:
black. 6. A native of Carolina.
Black, hairy *, wings of a footy colour *, their outer trom/>e>
edge bright black head, thorax, fcutellum, and anus,
grayifh yellow. 7. A native of Lapland. The larvre
occupy the frontal finus of the rein-deer •, the animal
fometimes in the fpring, forces out great clufters of
larvte by fneezing. This is the largeft 'fpecies of the
genus. ,
Wings without fpots •, the thorax yellow, marked
with a black band ■, the abdomen tawney, and bright
yellow at the extremity. 2. A native of Lapland. It
depofits its eggs on the back of the rein-deer. Such is
their dread of it, that they every year leave the woods,
and take refuge in the mountains. A very great pro¬
portion of them fall viftims to this infeft, before they
are three years old. Thofe who .efcape with life are
very much emaciated, and have their ikins fpoiled.
Bottt,
Diptera. E N T O M
K Bom. Wings wlutiflt, marked with a black band in
the middle, and two black dots. A native of Europe.
(Vide Tranfa&ions of the Linntean Society, vol. iii.
p. 326.). The forehead white and downy 5 top of the
head brown} the eyes black, and diftant from one ano¬
ther ; thorax brown, with a dark-coloured centre ; the
abdomen yellowifh brown, the divifions between the
fegments of the abdomen marked with black fpots and
dots} the fcutellum furnilhed with two tufts of hair j
wings marked near the bafe with a very fmall black
dot, in the middle with a black band, and towards the
extremity with two black fpots. The male is diftin-
guifhed by a brighter yellow j the female by a deeper
brown, and by the extremity of the abdomen which is
long, bent inwards, and black, terminating in a bifid Ity le.
It depofits its eggs on the hairs of the knees or lides of
horfes, which, when the animal licks itfelf, are con¬
veyed by the tongue into the ftomach. The body of
the larva is compofed of eleven fegments, all of which,
except the two lall, are furrounded with a double row
of horny briftles diredted towards the truncated end,
and are of a reddifli colour except the points, which are
black. Thefe larvae attach themfelves to every part of
the ftomach, but are generally moft numerous about
the pylorus ; and are fottietimes, though much lefs fre¬
quently, found in the inteftines. Their numbers in the
ftomach are very various, often not more than half a
dozen ; at other times more than a hundred ; and if fome
accounts might be relied on, even a much greater
number than this. They hang moft commonly in
clutters, being fixed by the fmall end to the inner mem¬
brane of the ftomach, to which they adhere by means
of two fmall hooks or tentacu/a. When they are re¬
moved from the ftomach they will attach themfelves to
any loofe membrane, and even to the {kin of the hand.
For this purpofe they (heath or draw back the hooks
slmoft entirely within the {kin, till the two points come
clofe to each other j they then prefent them to the
membrane ; and keeping them parallel till it is pierced
through, they expand them in a lateral diredlion, and
afterwards, by bringing the points downwards towards
themfelves, they include a fufficient piece of the mem¬
brane, and remain firmly fixed for any length of time.
Thefe hooks, the better to adapt them to this purpofe,
appear to have a joint near their bafe.
The larvae attain their full growth about the latter
end of May, when they quit their hold of the internal
membrane of the ftomach, and pafs along with the
food through the inteftinal canal. From the end of
May till the beginning of July they maybe feen in the
dung which drops from the horfe j when they reach
the ground they feek out fome convenient fituation, and
become pupce, and remain in that ftate for about fix
or feven weeks. The mode purfued by the perfefl in-
feft to obtain for its young a fituation in the ftomach of
the horfe, is truly fingular, and is efr dted in the fol¬
lowing manner.—When the female has been impreg¬
nated, and the eggs are fufficiently matured, fhe feeks
among the horfes a fubjedt for her purpofe 5 approach¬
ing it on the wing, (lie holds her body nearly upright
in ’h air, and her tail, which is lengthened for the
pur note, cuived inwards and upwards: in this way (he
approaches the part where (he defigns to depofit the
egg , and fufpending herfelf for a few feconds before it,
Vol. VIII. Part I.
O L O G Y. 209
fuddenly darts upon it, and leaves the egg adhering to
the hair $ (he hardly appears to fettle, but merely
touches the hairwuth the egg held out on the projected
point of the abdomen. The egg is made to adhere by
means of a glutinous liquor fecreted with it. She then
leaves the horfe at a finall diftance, and prepares a fe-
cond egg, and poifing herfelf before the part, depofits it
in the fame way. The liquor dries, and the egg be¬
comes firmly glued to the hair : this is repeated by va¬
rious flies till 400 or 500 eggs are placed fometimes on
one horfe.
The infide of the knee, or thofe parts of the body of
the animal that are liable to be licked, are chofen by
the fly from inftindt, as the proper places for depofiting
its eggs. The well-known diieafe in horfes called the
botts, which frequently proves fatal, is fuppofed to be
occafioned by the larvae of this infeft.
Wings without fpots j the thorax of a rufty colour 5 Wfl/di/tV.
abdomen black, covered with yellow hairs. 3. A native
of Europe. This infect is faid to depofit its eggs in the
noftrils of horfes, mules, affes, and of goats j and the
larvae occupy the fauces. Body black j thorax defti-
tute of furrows j the head and abdomen covered with
yellow' hairs, except the firft fegment, which is covered
with white ones.
Thorax yellow, marked with a black band; wungs * hcemor-
white, marked with black bands. 4. A native of Eu- rhoidalis.
rope. It depofits its eggs on the lips of horfes, occa-
fioning a titillation, which caufes the animal, when at¬
tacked by it, to move his head about violently, and
gallop about with every appearance of diftrefs. The
larva of this infeft needs not to be particularly deferibed,
as it refembles in almoft every refpeft that of the cqui.
Its habits are the fame, being feen in the ftomach of the
horfes, occupying the fame fituation as thofe of the equi,
from which they can only be diftinguiftred by their
fmaller fize and greater whitenefs. When it approaches
maturity it acquires a red colour. It is frequently feen
adhering to the extremity of the re&um ; which cir-
cumftance, along with its colour, has oceafioned it to
receive the name of hamorrhoidalis. In about two days
after it has left the body of the horfe, it is changed in¬
to a pupa, in which ftate it remains nearly two months.
Wings faintly dotted j the abdomen variegated with * ovis,
white and black. 5. A native of Europe. The larva
occupies the frontal finus of the flieep j they are flat on
the one fide, and convex on the other j of a whitifli
colour j and nearly of the fame fize with the larvse of
the 0. equi. When young thefe larvae are perfe&Iy
V'hite and tranfparent, except the two horny plates,
which are black. As they increafe in fize, the upper
fide becomes marked with two tranfverfe brown lines on
each fegment, and fome fpots are feen on the fides.
When full grown they fall through the noftrils, and
change to the pupa ftate, lying on the earth. The in-
fe£t depofits its eggs on the inner margin of the noftriis
of the (beep. The moment the fly touches that part of
the (beep, they drake their heads, and ;?rike the ground
violently with their fore feet; at the fame time hold¬
ing their nofes clofe to the earth, they run away, look¬
ing about them, on every fide, to fee if the fty purfue.
They do not, like the horfes and cows, take refuge in
the w'ater; they have recourfe to a rut, or dufty road,
or a gravel pit, where they crowd together during the
D d heat
I
210
antilopce.
fafclculo'
Jus.
Jictninis.
E N T 0 M
heat of the day, with their nofes held clofe to the
ground, which renders it difficult for the fly convenient¬
ly to get at, the noftril.
Wings dotted with brown, and marked with a brown
band $ body hairy, of a grayiflr yellow colour *, the ab¬
domen marked with three rows of blackilh fpots. 8.
A native of Afia. Itdepofits its eggs under the Ikin of
the back of the antelope. About the lize of the mufca
carnaria.
Yellow and downy ; the anus furnifhed with three
tufts of black hairs. 9, A native of Siberia 5 head
and eyes black.
Entirely brown. 1 o. A native of South America.
Depofits its eggs under the (kin of the abdomen of the
natives, or of people redding in countries where they are
prevalent. The larvae continue fix months under the
ikin ; if they be difturbed, they penetrate deeper, and
produce very troublefome ulcers, which fometimes prove
fatal.
10 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lad edition of the Syftem of Nature.
95. Tipula, Crane-fiy.
Mouth furnifhed with a very (hort probofcis, membra¬
naceous, and grooved on the back, receiving a
bridle j with a fhort fucker without a (heath $ and
with feelers two, equal, filiform, and longer than the
head. Antennae in mod of the fpecies filiform.
Mod of this genus have a great refemblance to the
gnat. They feed on various fubdances. The larva is
(oft, without feet, and cylindrical •, its head is furnifhed
with a fmall proje&ion, and terminates abruptly; they
feed on the roots of plants j they are eagerly fought
after by crows and other birds. The pupa is cylindri¬
cal, and is furnifhed with two horns on the anterior ex¬
tremity, with fmall projections behind.
0 L O G Y. Biptera
Wings tranfparent, and fhining body of a brownifh * rcgela.
afh colour. 21. A native of Europe. This fpecies/zWj,
appears very early in the fpring ; and may be feen dan¬
cing in the air in great numbers in mild weather,
B. Wings incumbent, Culiciformes.
Thorax greenifh j wings white, marked with a brown * plumoja
dot j the antennae feathered. 26. A native of Europe 5
in marfhy places.
Green ifh 5 wings fpotted j the fore legs xtry long.* littoralii
27. A native of Europe j on the fea coad.
Black j fmooth, wings white, marked with a blackjohannis.
dot j the antennae fhort j legs black. 41. A native of
Europe j in (haded places.
Black ; fmooth, wings tranfparent, marked with a *ponma
black dot j the thighs of a rudy colour. 101. A na¬
tive of Britain, and Norway j on the flowers of fruit
trees.
Black, filky. 45. A native of Europe 5 on theJiorilega,
flowers of fruit trees, which it injures^very much. It
frequently blafls the hopes of the farmer.
Wings tranfparent j the outer edge black. 46. A* hortula
native of Europe. It is very deflnndive to afparagus, na.
and to the flowers of fruit trees. The thorax and ab¬
domen fometimes black, fometimes red.
Wings of an a(h colour j the thorax and abdomen mofchifer,
yellow. 123. A native of Chili. This infeft has a
very pleafant fmell, and is made ufe of by the young
girls of Chili for perfuming their clothes.
Of a tawney colour, wings white and tranfparent, * tritici.
hairy on the margins j the eyes black. A native of
England. Larva leaps j without feet j is orange-colour¬
ed, and marginated j the margin folded with papillae ;
the head acute $ the tail terminating abruptly. The
pupa is narrow, acute at both ends and reddith.
126 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
A. Wings expanded.
96. Diopsis.
*peftini- The antennae pe&inated j the wings marked with a
cornis. black fpot $ the thorax yellowilh. 1. A native of
Europe \ in moid places. The abdomen reddiih at
the bafe, marked with a yellow band in the middle,
black at the tip.
* oleracea. Wings tranfparent, with a brown rib along the edge.
5. A native of Europe. It does a great deal of mif-
chief in gardens, corn fields, and meadows, by confum-
mg the roots of pot-herbs, growing corn, and grafs.
*hortorum Wings tranfparent, fprinkled with very faint fpots. 6.
A native of Europe j in gardens, dedroying the crops.
* triangu- One half of the wings brown, marked with white
laris. triangular fpots. III. A native of Scotland.
* vane- Black •, the bafe and fides of the abdomen red, fpot-
gata. ted with yellow. 7. A native of Europe j in gar¬
dens.
*pratenjis. The thorax variegated j abdomen brown, fpotted
with yellow on the fides j the forehead tawney. 10.
A native of Europe *, in meadows. It is very de-
ftru&ive to the roots of grafs.
wrnicina. Wings tranfparent, marked on the edge with a brown
fpot} the abdomen yellow, marked with three brown
lines. 12. A native of Europe. Very dedru&ive to
the roots of plants, and much fought after by crows.
The head furnidied with two filiform horns, without
articulations, much longer than the head, on the tops
of which the eyes are placed.
1. A native of North America and Guinea. Red- ichneumo
di(h j antennae very fmall and fetaceous ; the horns of nea. -
a rufty colour j the eyes which terminate the horns are
globular and black; the thorax black j furniflied with
two yellow tapering projections behind, and with a
(ingle one on each fide $ wings tranfparent, and marked
with a black dot before j the abdomen clavated, and
attached to the trunk by a narrow ftalk j the two lad
fegments of the abdomen black j the legs yellow $ the
thighs of the legs clavated. It refembles an ichneumorr,
and is about the fize of the red ant.
Only oqe fpecies of this genus has been defcribed ia .
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
97. Musca, Tly.
Mouth furnifhed with a flefliy proje&ing probofcis, with
two equal lips, with a fucker furniflied with briftles, .
and with two (hort feelers. Antennae (hort (in moft
fpecies).
Elies live chiefly in dunghills j their larvre are without
feet,
Diptera. E N T O M
feet, cornpofed of fevera] fegments, nearly cylindrical,
and becoming fmaller behind. The larvae of the flies
of the fii-ft and fecond divilions, live in the water, have
a breathing hole at their head, are bearded, and live
on aquatic animalculte j thofe of the fourth divifion live
on rubbifh ; thole of the third on dung, putrid animal
fubttances, and on fmall infedls ; fome of them parti¬
cularly on aphides : they remain fixed on a leaf, and
with their fnout coll eft, and devour the aphides. The
pupae are immoveable, and moft of them covered with
a hard fkin ; the pupae of the flies of the firft and fe¬
cond diviflons are cylindrical, and covered with the
fkin of the larvae, which becomes hard.
A. The Sucker compofcd of a Jingle valve ; the An¬
tenna; conneEled at the bafe, and Jharp at the points.
Bibiones.
*plebeja. an colourt and hairy j the abdomen conical j
the edges of the fegments white, i. A native of the
north of Europe. The thorax is fometimes yellow, and
abdomen of a rufty colour.
* margi- Blaqk.; the abdomen conical j the edges of the feg-
nata. n?ents wllite 1 w*ngs Spotted. 130. A native of
Europe.
O L O G Y.
211
B.
Sticker without a JJjeath.
a. Thofe which have a fugle brifle.
f The Antenna; pointed and conneBed at the bafe.
Stratiomyes.
* chantce- The fcutellum pale yellow, and furnilhed with two
leon. fmall proje&ions ; the abdomen black, marked on the
fides with yellow bands. 3. A native of Europe j on
flowers. The larva lives in frefh water.
utigmofa. Body black j the fcutellum without projedlions j the
abdomen white, and black at the extremity. 22. A
native of Europe. The forehead yellow ; the joints of
the legs white : the (hanks of the legs pale.
vallata. The fcutellum marked with fix projections ; the ab¬
domen and thighs yellow. 166. A native of Britain ;
on hedges. Wings of a faint rufty colour; incumbent
and plain ; the nerves of the wings marked with a
brown dot in the middle ; the poifers yellow ; the feet,
and lower extremity of the ftianks of the legs brown.
neitarea. Black; antennae cylindrical and perfoliated ; wings
white. 24. A native of Europe ; on the flowers of
apple trees. It drinks the neCtarious juice, and lodges
all day long within the flower ; it is very fmall, and not
larger than a common flea ; body oblong ; legs long.
ff The Antennce fort and clavated, furnifhed with a
brifle.
* Feathery, or with hairy feathered Antennce.
* inanis. Brown ; the abdomen tranfparent, marked with three
^ black belts, 61. A native of Europe; in thickets.
pelluccns Black ; the firft fegment of the abdomen white, and
tranfparent. 62. A native of Europe ; in (haded
1 ,• Place?-.
CiJar. Shining green ; legs black. 64. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on carrion.
°>nicina. I borax of a (Inning copper colour ; the abdomen of
a greenifti yellow with a metallic luftre; legs black.
169. A native of Europe. The fides of the lips of a
(hining filver colour.
Shining ; the thorax blue; the abdomen green, 65. * cadave-
A native of Europe ; on carrion. rina.
The thorax black ; the abdomen (hining blue ; the * vomito-
forehead tawney. 67. A native of Europe and Ame-rzh.
rica ; on carrion ; they confiime dead bodies very quick¬
ly ; they likewife feed on milk.
Black ; the thorax marked with pale lines; the ab-* carnariM
domen (Inning, and chequered. 68. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on carrion. The eyes reddifti; the anus tawney.
I he larva likewife infefts bee-hives.
Common houfe-fy. The thorax marked with lines ; ^damefica
the abdomen chequered, and pale on the under fide at
the bafe, 69. A native of Europe and America j in
houfes. The larvae live in horfe dung.
Brown ; the thorax blue and downy, marked withc/<?<r.
three eminences ; the tip of the fcutellum and thighs
yellow. 390. A native of Europe ; very deftjru&ive
to olives. The female depofits a great number of eggs
in the month of July, on the fruit of the olive 5 the lar¬
vae confume the pulp.
The Antennce furnjhed with a naked brifle.
Smooth, black ; the abdomen wrinkled on the upperfenefrata,
fide, marked with white ftreaks ; wings brown. 14, A
native of Europe : in windows.
Blackilh ; the tip of the fcutellum of a faint brick * larva*
colour; the abdomen chequered. 78. A native oirutn.
Europe; on the caterpillars of moths and butterflies,
and likewife on the roots of cabbage and colewort, ren¬
dering the root knotty ; the tips and bafe whitifti; tho¬
rax black, marked with lines.
Black ; the abdomen of an a(h colour, marked with * radicum.
black bands. 79. A native of Europe ; on the roots
of the radifli.
Hairy and whitifti, marked with a black line on the napobraf
back, with feveral black lines along the fides. 2o%.fcce.
A native of Europe ; on the roots of the turnip, which
it deftroys, and caufes to appear as if rotten ; it attacks
thofe turnips chiefly that have been fown in light fandy
foil. The larva is white, without feet; the head is
pointed and tipt with black ; it undergoes its transfor¬
mation about September. Pupa is oblong, brown, com-
pofed of feveral fegments, and becomes a perfett infedfc
in May.
Of an afh colour; the thorax marked with five blackpluvialis.
fpots ; the abdomen marked with very faint fpots. 83.
A native of Europe. It is to be feen flying about in
fwarms before rain.
Hairy and a(h-coloured ; the extremity of the thighs * rapax.
and (hanks of the legs of a rufty colour. 212. A na- *
tive of Britain ; and feeds on other flies.
Black ; the abdomen pale ; the eyes of a rufty co- * cellaris.
lour. 87. A native of Europe ; in cellars.
Black ; the abdomen of an afti colour ; the wings* metcoru
yellowilh at the bafe. 88. A native of Europe.ca.
They fly about very much in the air immediately before
rain, and colled about the mouths of horfes in great
fwarms, particularly about the fummer folftice. The
larvse are fometimes found in the human ftomach.
Shining black ; eyes browniih; wings Alining red and avenee.
green. 216. A native of Europe ; in oats, which it
D d 2 deftroys
$12 E N T O M
deftroys by gnawing the ftalks when young. Larva
yellowifti and without feet.
* frit. Black 5 the poifers and feet of the hind legs, and ab¬
domen, pale green. 90. A native of Europe 5 on the
ears of barley. It is fo frequent in Sweden, that it has
been calculated that one-tenth of the grain is confumed
by it annually.
* pumilio- Black } the under part of the head, and two lines on
su. the thorax yellow j the poifers white ; the legs of an
alh colour, and black at the tip. 217. A native of Eu¬
rope. The larva has a fliarp head, black at the extre¬
mity $ the body white, compofed of ten fegments j it is
changed into a pupa about the end of May. The pupa
is yellow, Ihining, and compofed of feveral fegments j
the perfect infefl appears about the middle of June.
At what time it depofits its eggs is not well afcertain-
ed. The larvae are perceived early in the Spring, in
the centre of the ftalks of wheat and rye, very near the
root. In all probability the eggs have been depoilted
in the month of Oflober, or end of September, as the
early fown grain i? found to be molt affected. White
wheat is more liable to be injured than red. The Itaiks
in which the larva is lodged, do not advance in growth,
but continue dwarf, whence the infe£t has received the
name of pumlumis. The itaiks become yellow in the
beginning of fummer, and decay ; others commonly
fpring up from the fame root, and fupply their place.
This infect firit attracted notice in England in the fpring
of the year 1791, when it excited fome alarm, as fears
were at firft entertained that it was the Heflian fly,
which had done fo much mifehief in America. Some
plants of infedted wheat were fent to Mr Markwick
by a friend in the neighbourhood of Battle Mr Mark¬
wick fucceeded in obtaining the perfedt infedt from
them, of which he has given an account, [Vide Tranf-
adtions of the Linnean Society, p. 76. tab. 15.). Some
of the infedled wheat was likewife fent by Arthur
Young to Sir Jofeph Banks, who afeertained the infedl
to be the mufea pumilionu deferibed in Gmelin’s Syf-
tem of Nature, and not the Heffian fly. An account
of this fly, and of the mifehief caufed by it, was firft
publifhed in the Tranfadtions of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Stockholm for the year 1778, by Mr Ob.
Bjerkander, who difeovered it on the young fhoots of
the rye, in the month of May j and in fuch quantity,
that in fome fields he found three or four ftalks affedted
in a fquare foot.
petronella. Livid j the forehead red ; the legs long, and of a
light red colour \ the joints of the legs black. 96. A
native of Europe. It may be feen running about on
the furface of ftagnant water.
(hnchi. Wings tranfparent, marked on the edge with a black
fpot ; the eyes green. 121. A native of Europe •, on
the receptacles of the flower of the fow-thiftle. Thorax
brown, with a pale fcutellum } the abdomen black, oval,
and greenifh beneath •, the edges of ^he fegments whit-
ifh ; tail with an obtufe ftyle \ wings with two brown
nerves $ legs of a brick colour.
b. Sucker furnjhed with three hri/iles. Ragiones.
Wermilio. Of an afh colour j the abdomen marked with three
rows of black dots j the thorax fpotted ; the wings
without fpots. 17. A native of Europe j in loofe
fand.
O L O G Y. Diptera.
Black j the divifions between the fegments of \}\t colomba.
abdomen, the thanks of the legs, and feet, white, qi^./chenjis,
A native of Europe and Alia. It is about half the fize
of the common gnat, and is moft frequent in the begin¬
ning of fpring and end of fummer, in Servia, Ruffia, and
Siberia ; where it infinuates itfelf into the bodies of cat¬
tle, which it frequently deftroys, as its bite proves fatal
in a few hours j fmoke is very offenfive to it j and in the
places where it prevails the people have recourfe to it,
as their only mode of defence.
Antennae, body, and wings hairy. 325. A nativepapataji.
of Europe. It is very troublefome in Lombardy in the
night time, during the whole fummer. It is very mi¬
nute \ eyes black, dotted with white ; the wings when
the infeft is at reft, diverge fo as to form an obtufe
angle ", the abdomen red.
Black •, the abdomen long, flender, and tapering to- acuminata,
wards the extremity ; the wings fpotted j the thighs
reddilh-yellow 5 the Ihanks of the legs and feet brown-
ifti. 226. A native of Europe.
c. The Sucker furnifhed with four brijlles. Syrphi.
|| Brifile of the Antemux feathery.
Black j the abdomen hairy, and reddifti behind. 25. * bomby.
A native of Europe 5 among bullies. Ians.
The anterior part of the thorax yellow j the extre-* apiaria,
mity of the abdomen white j the wings of a rufty co¬
lour at the tip. 528. A native of Europe j the pof-
terior part of the thorax, the forehead, and abdomen,
black $ wings obfeure.
|| || The Brijile of the Ante time ftuple andfmooth.
Black, without hairs, the fidesof the thorax marked
with yellow lines, the abdomen with three yellow lines.
21. A native of Europe; among bulhes.
The thorax marked with four yellow lines ; the zh&o-*pendula,
men with three interrupted yellow bands. 28. A na¬
tive of Europe. The larva lives in ftagnant w ater, and
is fufpended by a long filiform tube through which it
breathes.
Thorax gray ; the abdomen brown; the thighs o{* tenax,
the hind legs compreffed. 32. A native of Europe ;
in dunghills, in neceffaries, and in putrid water. The
larva is very tenacious, and difficuhly deftroyed by
preffure.
Very flightly hairy, black; the thorax without fpots; * pyrajlri.
the, abdomen marked with fix white circular fpots. 51.
A native of Europe ; and feeds on the aphides on the
leaves of the pear tree.
Black ; not hairy ; the thorax fpotted ; the abdomen* merthaj-
marked with four yellow' belts, the fcutellum yellow, tri.
54. A native of Europe ; on flowers, chiefly on the
mint. The perfeft infeft feeds on honey, the larva on
aphides.
Naked ; yellow; the upper part of the abdomenfaltatrix,
brown ; the thorax marked with three brown lines.
60. A native of Europe ; in meadow s, where it leaps
about on the ground like a grafshopper ; the longitudinal
line on the thorax, fomewhat broad, marked with an
oblong black fpot, and with a black line on each fide
towards its extremity ; poifers white.
4
360
213
Diptera. E N TOM
3^0 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lall edition of the Syftem of Nature, publilhed by
Gmelin.
98. Tab anus, Ox-JIy.
Mouth furniihed with a ftraight, projefting, and mem¬
branaceous probofcis; with a fmall and oval head 5
with two equal lips ; with a long proje&ing fucker,
which can be concealed in a groove on the back of
the probofcis. Sheath of one valve, and furnilhed
with five bridles. Feelers two, equal, clavated, and
diarp at the points. Antennae diort, cylindrical, ap¬
proaching to one another, pointed, and compofed of
feven articulations.
Thefe infers live by fucking out the blood of various
animals, of which they are very greedy. The larvae
are found under ground, in mold meadows : the colour
of the eyes vanidies when the infeffc is dead, but may be
redored by placing it in warm water.
. bwinus* Eyes greenidi •, the back of the abdomen marked
with long triangular white fpots. 4. A native of Eu-"
rope. It is very troublefome to horfes, and horned cat¬
tle j their bite is painful ^ they even moled the human
fpecies in very warm weather ; they are mod frequent
in moid fituations.
tarandinus Eyes green : the fegments of the abdomen yellow
on the edges •, legs reddidn 7. A native of Europe.
They wound the tender horns of the rein-deer, and fpoil
their lhape ; they are met with in Italy, and the fouth-
ern parts of Europe, as well as in Lapland.
pellucens. Black-, eyes marked with bands; fird fegment of the
abdomen bluidi; the (hanks of the legs pale.
*paganus. The anterior parts of the eyes green, marked with
three tawney bands ; the abdomen marked on both (ides
with rudy-coloured fpots. 2 5. A native of Britain.
* tropicus. Eyes marked with three purple bands ; the fides of
the abdomen of a rudy colour. 14. A native of Eu¬
rope ; very troublefome to cattle, efpecially to horfes,
immediately before rain.
*pluvialis. Eyes green, marked with four waved bands; wings
dotted with brown. 16. A native of Europe.—This
little animal fixes on the hands, face, and legs, and
excites a painful inflammation in the part where it has
drawn blood.
* ccccuti- Eyes green, dotted with black ; wings without fpots.
ens. 17. A native of Europe. It is extremely trouble¬
fome in hot weather, efpecially before rain, fixing on
the hands and face, or any uncovered part ; it draws
blood very dexteroufly, and leaves an inflamed bloody
pun&ure behind.
38 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature publilhed by
Gmelin.
99. Culex, inat.
Mouth furnilhed with a fheam of one piece, flexible,
and fet with five bridles. Feelers two, compofed of
three articulations. Antennae filiform.
1 he infers of this genus live on the juices of the
larger animals, and are eagerly fought after by poultry,
O L O G Y.
and fmail birds. The larva lives in ftagnant waters, and
has a fmall cylindrical refpiratory tube, near the tail; the
head is armed with hooks to feize on the aquatic infe&s
upon which it feeds; it is devoured by ducks, and wa¬
ter fowl. The pupa is curved and oval, with refpira¬
tory tubes near the head. They continue but a flrort
time in the date of larva and pupa. The perfect infe£t
depofits her eggs in eluflers on the furface of the water,
where they remain for a few days until they are hatch¬
ed. Gnats in this country, however troublefome they
may be, do not make us feel them fo feverely, as the
mufquito does in foreign parts.
Of an a(h colour ; the abdomen marked with eight *pipiens,
brown rings. 1. native of Europe, and the north¬
ern parts of Afia and America j in the neighbourhood
of frefli waters, and in marfhy places. It is larger in
more foutherly climates, and its bite occafions more
pain and inflammation. When on the wing it makes a
condant flirill noife, whence it has received its name
pipiens. The male is not eafily didinguifhed from the
female by its peftinate antennae: it is more trouble¬
fome, and its bite more painful than that of the female.
Ducks, and other aquatic fowls, feed their young with
them ; different fpecies of the hbellula likewife devour
them. They fometimes infinuate themfelves into the
lungs and intedines of quadrupeds, where their bite ex¬
cites a fatal inflammation. The natives of countries
where they are very troublefome, have recourfe to the
fmoke of different vegetables as a defence. In warm cli¬
mates they are frequently compelled to make ufe of
gauze curtains, which they draw clofe round them w hen
afleep. They are (aid to flih e in the dark.
Brown; the abdomen and feet marked with white
rings , the wings (potted. 8. A native of the north
of Europe ; the fnout half the length of the body.
Brown; the thorax faintly marked with lines. bifurca-
A native of Europe ; in marfliy fituations. tus.
Brown ; wings white, marked with three obfeure *pulicaris
fpots. 10. A native of Europe ; it creeps about a
great deal ; its bite is fucceeded by a brown fpot.
13 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by Gme¬
lin, in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
100. Empis.
Sucker with a (heath of one piece, furnilhed with three
bridles, and an inflected probofcis. Feelers (hort,
and filiform. Antennae fetaceous.
The minute infects which compofe this genus, live
by fucking out the blood and juices of other animals.
Black ; wings nearly round, and of a rudy colour. * borealis.
I. A native of Europe; they may be feen dancing in
the air in great numbers in the evening when the wea¬
ther is good.
Black ; the hind legs long and feathered 2. A *pennipes.
native of Europe ; it is frequently found on the leaves
of the geranium fylvaticum, and cardamtne pratenfis.
Livid; thorax marked with lines, the bafe of the * livida.
wings and legs of a rudy colour. 3. A native of Eu¬
rope ; it is frequently to be found on the heraciium
fpondylium; the upper part of the abdomen very dark
brown ; wings oblong, marked with brown veins.
Of
214
* cinerea.
* calci¬
trant.
* irritant.
pungent.
* rojlrata.
lineata.
ENTOMOLOG Y.
Of an afli colour j thorax without fpots legs pale j
wings brown at the tip. 9. A native of Europe ; on
umbelliferous plants.
19 fpecies of this genus are defcribed in the edition
of the Syftem of Nature publilhed by Gmelin.
101. Stomoxys.
Sucker confiding of a {heath of one piece, and fur-
nifhed with enclofing bridles. Feelers two, ftiort,
bridle-diaped, and compofed of three articulations.
Antenna? fetaceous.
The infefts of this genus live by fucking the blood
and juices of other animals j thofe of the divifion rin-
gice principally attack infers of the orders lepidoptera
and dipt era.
Diptcra.
The inlefts of this genus live by fucking the blood
and juices of other animals.
A. Sucker furnijlted with a Jhort valve of one piecey
and with a fingle bri/lle.
Blackifli j back part of the head veficular, the ab- * vefctt.
domen yellowilh and black at the bale. 4. A native laris,
of Europe j in groves.
Black j fix fegments of the abdomen yellow on the * macroce-
edges j antennae and legs reddidi. 5. A native of Ihu-phalus,
rope j in groves.
B. The Sucker bent both at the middle and at the bafey
with an angular flexure. Sheath conflflivg of two
pieces^ the two pieces which compofe the Sheath equal.
Myopae.
A. The Sheath convoluted, and bent at the bafe, with
an angular flexure, and furnijhed with two bnflles.
Gray ; antennae {lightly feathered ; legs black. 4.
A native of Europe. It refembles the common fly
very much in every refpeft, except in the fnout, and
in having the fegments of the abdomen marked with
two black fpots. It is very troublefomo to horned cat¬
tle j by getting about their feet, it caufes them to kick,
and damp with their feet: before rain it bites more
frequently. It does not fpare the human fpecies, par¬
ticularly in autumn.
Of an afh colour, and fomewhat hairy ; the abdomen
fpotted with black. 5. A native of Europe. This
fpecies is very frequent, and troublefome to cattle j by
fixing on their backs, it caufes them to keep their tails
alinod in condant motion to lafli it off.
Of an alh colour, with black thighs. 6. A native
of Europe. It is very troublefome to cattle, refembles
St. irritant, but much fmaller wings; whitifli, w ithout
fpots ; the abdomen fometimes of a dark colour.
B. Sheath covering the mouth, and furnijhed with four
bnflles. Rhingice.
Thorax faintly marked with lines j the fnout, legs,
and abdomen of a brick colour. 8. A native of Eu¬
rope. Very troublefome to cattle •, about the fize of the
common fly ; wings pale.
Thorax marked with lines ) abdomen black, marked
on the fides with yellow fpots. 9. A native of Eu¬
rope. The lip long, yellow, with a black emarginated
tip, and formed of a horny fubdance enclofing the pro-
bofeis. The antennte black, with a rudy-coloured
knob, and furniflied with a bridle ; the thorax marked
with four white lines*, the fcutellum of a brick colour ;
wings w'hitidi j legs yellow ; the thighs marked with a
white belt.
Only 9 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by
Gmelin in the lad edition of the Syde'm of Nature.
10 2. CoNOPS.
Mouth furniflied with a projefting fnout, which is bent
with an angular flexure. Antennae clavated, and
pointed at the extremity.
Of a rudy colour*, the abdomen cylindrical, and bent * ferrugi.
inwards •, the forehead reddidi. 8. A native of Eu- nea.
rope j in groves.
Abdomen cylindrical, and bent inw ards j body black, atra.
2. A native of Europe ; among budies.
14 fpecies of this genus are defcribed in the edition
of the Sydem of Nature publiftied by Gmelin.
103. Asilus.
Mouth furnidied w ith a fucker, compofed of a horny
fubdance, projecting, draight ; condlting of two
pieces, and turgid at the bafe. Antennae filiform.
They prey on other infefts, efpecially thofe of the
lepidopterous and dipterous orders.
The abdomen hairy on the fore part there are three *crabroni-
of the fegments black *, behind yellow and bent inwards.formis,
4. A native of Europe. The larva lives under ground.
This is the larged fpecies of the genus which is to be
met with in Britain. Its ding is very painful.
Hairy, black the thorax white at the bafe. 19. Aepiphiutn.
native of Europe.
Hairy, black ; with a whitidi band. 7. A native * ater.
of Europe. It reds by leaning on its bread, with its
legs fpread. Claws white. »
Black ; wings black ; the forehead white. 22. Adiadema.
native of Europe. Band and wings wholly black.
Of an afti colour, without hairs j legs of a rudy co- * tipuloi-
lour *, feet black. 14, A native of Europe. des.
Black *, the thorax marked on each fide with an aftx-flriatuu
coloured line; the poifers yellow. 44. A native of
Europe.
Gmelin has defcribed 48 fpecies of this genus, in his
lad edition of the Sydem of Nature.
104. Bombylius, Bu%fly.
Mouth furnilhed with a fucker, very long, fetaceous,
draight, and compofed of two valves, the valves un¬
equal, and likewife w'itb three bridles. Feelers two,
Ihort, and hairy. Antennae tapering towards the
point, and connetded at the bafe.
The fpecies of this genus feed on the neiffarious
juice of flowers which they colled when on wing.
Humble
215
Aptera. E N T O M
* major. Hi/mble Bee. Wings with a broad black waved out¬
er edge 5 body black, with thick yellowifh down. i.
A native of Europe.
* tnedius. Wings dotted with brown ; body yellowith and white
behind. 2. A native of Europe. It is to be met
with very early in the fpring.
minimus. Wings brownilh at the bafe j body yellowifh, and
hairy ; fnout and legs black. 7. A native of Europe.
Very fmall 5 antennm black $ wings white.
grifeus. Hairy j wings white, brown at the bafe j thorax
black, marked with white lines j abdomen gray. 11.
A native of Europe 5 on compound flowers. Wings
marked with two black dots in the middle.
virefcens. Wings white, without fpots j body hairy, and green-
ifh ; the fnout fliort. 12. A native of Europe j on
flowers. Thickly covered with greenifh hair.
There are 15 fpecies of this genus defcribed in the
lafl edition of the Syflem of Nature.
105. Hjppobosca.
Mouth furnilhed with a fliort, cylindrical, ftraight
fucker, compofed of two equal pieces. Antenme fi¬
liform. Legs fumifhed with many claws.
1 he fpeces of this genus live on the blood of other
infe&s.
O L O G Y.
fugar, decayed wood, and putrid fubflances The lar¬
vae and pupa; are fix-footed, adive, and fwift.
. Scaly, and refembling filver } tail triple. 1. A na- * faccJta-
tive of America j among fugar. They have been in- rinum.
troduced into Europe, and are frequently to be met with
among books and furniture. They run very quickly,
and are not eafily caught. Antennse whitifh, of the fame
length with the body. It is furnilhed with twro feutella
which enclole the thorax 3 turn fegments of the abdomen
lefs than the. reft j the tail furnilhed with three long
briftles (landing at a diftance from each other, and
w ith two pair of very fmall ones under the anus.
Leaping 3 tail triple 3 fegments of the abdomen hairy * polypus,
on each fide beneath. 2. A native of Europe 3 in
fandy fituations, among ftones and rubbilh, and takes
prodigious leaps by means of the fprings under its tail 3
brownilh 3 the antennae the length of the body 3 the
fore feet placed very near the mouth ; each fegment of
the abdomen is furnilhed with a fpine beneath.
Naked 3 tail triple. 3. A native of Europe. \UerreJire,
reiembles the podura, but larger, wholly white, and cy¬
lindrical ; the antennse obtufe, and half the length of
the body. °
There are feven fpecies of this genus defcribed by
Gmehn.
* equina.
* avicu-
iaria.
* hirundi-
nis.
* ovina.
Horfe fly. Wings obtufe 5 thorax variegated with
white j legs terminating in four claws. 1. A native
of Europe and America.—They are very troublefome
to horfes 3 they hide themfelves under the hairs, and at¬
tach themfelves firmly to the fldn, by means of their
crooked claws.
Wings obtufe 3 thorax of one colour.^ 2. A native
of Europe 3 on the bodies of various birds, efpecially
{wallows. . Wings longer than the body by one half,
marked with black veins 3 the hind part of the abdo¬
men flattened and dotted.
Wings tapering towards the extremity 3 legs termi¬
nating in fix claws. 3. A native of Europe 3 on the
bodies and nefts of fwallows.
No wings. 4. A native of Europe 5 among the
wool of Iheep. The abdomen diltended, pale, obtufe,
marked on each fide with a double waved white line!
and.on the back with a red fpot 3 legs hairy, the claws
fet in pairs.
1 here have been only five fpecies of this genus hi¬
therto defcribed.
VII. AFTER A.
Wings none in either fex.
106. Lepisma.
Mouth furniflied with four feelers, two fetaceous, and
tw’o capitated. Lip membranaceous, round, and
emarginated. Antennas fetaceous. Body covered
with feales laid over one another, like tiles on the
roof of a houfe. Tail furnilhed with briftles. Legs
fix, formed for running.
Thefe in their various ftages of exiftence prey upon
107. Podura, Spring-tail. ■
Mouth furnilhed with four feelers, (lightly clavated 3
S6-.1 rP (!IVlded- EyeS two’ comP°fed of eight facets.
I ail forked, bent under the body,, and afting like a
fpring. Legs fix, formed for running,
The infers of this genus, through all their ftages,
feed on vegetables. The larva and pupa have fix feet
and are active, and-very much referable the perfed
mfeft, r
iNcany gioouiar, ana green, r. A native of Eu- * vlridis
rope 3 on plants of different kinds, efpecially on the
leminal leaves of the buck-wheat (polygonium faga-
py ruin'). a
Oblong, and alh-coloured, with black marks. 6. * nivalis
A native or Europe 3 among bulhes, in wood. It is
fiequently to be feen in the winter on the fnow, in the
footfteps of men and other animals.
Black, and lives in water. 12. A native of Eu- * aquatica
rope, Allembles in troops, early in the morning, on
the banks of pools and filh-ponds.
White 3 lives on land. 13.. A native of Europe 3 *Jimetaria
found very early m the fpnng on recently ploughed
land. 'ro
31 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the -
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
108. Termes, White Ant.
The mouth furniflied with two jaws, formed of a horny
jubilance. Lip formed likewife of a horny fubftance • ■
is divided intq. four* the divifion linear and (harp!
Feelers four, equal and filiform. Antenna; monili-
form in moll fpecies. Eyes two.
Thefe infc&e might with more propriety be placed
under
3
21tj
E N T O M
under tire ordef Neur&ptera, or Hymenoptera, moil of
them having either two or four wings in the peifeft
ftate. They are very deftruftive, and deftroy provi-
fions, cloths, furniture, books, and timber of whatever
magnitude, leaving a thin (hell not thicker than paper •,
in houfes they are not only troublefome, but dangerous,
as they deftroy the beams which fupport the floors and
roofs, and occafion them to fall in.
fatale. Brown above ; the thorax is compofed of three feg-
ments; wings pale,furnifhed witharib ornerveofabrick
•colour, i. A native of India and Africa. Larva fm'all,
about a quarter of an inch long, furnifhed with fix feet,
pale with a roundifh brick-coloured head, without eyes;
mandible fliort and ftrong, antennse as long as the tho¬
rax } the abdomen oval. Pupa larger •, about half, an
inch long, with a very large oval polifhed head, with¬
out eyes } jaws projecting, as long as the head, forked,
without teeth, (harp and black; thorax and abdomen
palifh. The perfeCt infeCt both male and female has a
brown head, antennae yellowifh and globular, promi¬
nent black eyes, the fegments of the thorax margined,
the abdomen variegated with white ftreaks, wings twice
the length of the body, legs yellowifh. . Of the . white
ant we have a very curious and interefting defcription,
.in the Philofophical Tranfactions for 1781, by Mr
Henry Smeathman of Clement’s Inn. According to
this account, the works of thefe infefts furpafs thofe of
the bees, wafps, beavers, and other animals, as much
at leaf! as thofe of the moft polifhed European nations
excel thofe of the leaf! cultivated favages. With re-
fpeCl to the interior conflruftion, and the various mem¬
bers and difpofitions of the parts of the building, they
may come into comparifon with fome of the. moil cele¬
brated works of man himfelf. The moft ftriking parts
of thefe ftruftures are the royal apartments, the nur-
feries, magazines of provifions, arched chambers and
galleries, with their various communications ; the ranges
of Gothic ftiaped arches, proje&ed, and not formed by
mere excavation, fome of which are two or three feet
high, but which diminifh rapidly like the arches of
aides’ in perfpeftive *, the various roads, Hoping ftair-
cafes, and bridges, confifting of one vaft arch, and
conftruCled to fhorten the diftance between the feveral
parts of the building, which would otherwife communi¬
cate only by winding paffages. In fome parts near
Senegal, their number, magnitude, and clofe arrange¬
ment, make them appear like the villages .of the na¬
tives. But thefe and many other curious mftances of
the great fagacity and powers of thefe inftfts cannot
f be underftood, without viewing the plates in which
their feeble frames, and comparatively, ftupendous
works are delineated. See Phil. Tranf. above referred
to. The economy of thefe induftrious infers appears
to have been very attentively obferved by the ing.nious
author, as well as their buildings. There are three
diftina ranks or orders of them, conAtutmg a well
regulated community. 'Ihefe are, firft, the larvae, la¬
bourers, or working infeas •, fecond, th< pupae, loldiers,
or fighting order, who do no kind of labour, and are
about twice as long as the former, and equal in bUl^ ^0
about fifteen of them •, and Lilly, the winged or pcifi a
infeas, which may be called the nobility of the ftate,
for they neither labour nor fight, being fcarcely able to
defend themfelves Thefe only are capable of being
eleaed kings or queens p and nature has fo ordered it,
CLOG Y. ^ Aptera,
that they emigra'e within a few weeks after they are
elevated to this ftate, and either eftabliih new king¬
doms, or periftr within a day or two. . The firft order,
the working, are moft numerous, being in the propor¬
tion of too to one foldier. In this ftate they are about
a quarter of an inch in length, and twenty-five of them
weigh about a grain, fo that they are not fo large as
(bme of our ants. Sc Plate Dt. fig. 1. and 2. Ihe
fecond order, or loldiers, have a very different form
from the labourers, and have been by fome authors fup-
pofed to be the males, and the former the neuters 5 but
they are in faft, the fame infefts as the foregoing, only
they have undergone a change of form, and approached
nearer to the perfect infeft. They are now much
larger, being half an inch long, and equal in bulk to
15 of the labourers, (fig. 3. and 4.). The third order,
the infedl in its per feel ftate, varies its form (till more.
The head, thorax, and abdomen, differ almoft entirely
from the fame piafts in the labourers and foldiers j and
befides this, the animal is now furnifhed with four .fine
large brownifti, tranfparent wings, with which it is at
the time of emigration to wing its way in fearch of a
new fettlement. It differs fo much from the other two,
that they have not hitherto been fuppofed to belong to
the fame community. In fȣl:, they are not to be dif-
covered in the neft, till juft before the commencement
of the rainy feafon *, when they undergo the laft change,
which is pueparative to the formation of new colonies.
They are equal in bulk to two foldiers, and about 30
labourers (fee fig. 5.), and by means^of the wings with
which they are furniflied, they roam about for a. few
hours, at the end of which time they .lofe their wings,
and become the prey of innumerable birds, reptiles, find
infefts } while probably not a pair out of many millions
of this unhappiy race, get into a place of fafety, fulfil
the firft law of nature, and lay the foundation of a
new community. In this ftate, many fall into, the
neighbouring waters, and they are eaten ivith avidity
by the Africans. The author found them delicate,
nouriftiing, and wholefome, without fauce or .other
help from cookery, than merely roafting them in the
manner of coffee. The few fortunate pairs who happen
to furvive this annual maffacre and deftriiclion, are re-
prefented by the author as being carnally found by
fome of the labourers, that are continually running a-
bout on the furface of the ground, and are defied kings
and queens of new ftates. Thofe who are not fo defi¬
ed and preferved, certainly perifti, and moft probably in
the courfe of the following day. By thefe induftrious
creatures, the king and queen elefl are immediately
protefied from their innumerable enemies, by being in-
clofed in a chamber of clay, where the bufinefs or pro¬
pagation foon commences j their voluntary lubjefis,
then employed in conftrufting wooden nui fenes, or
apartments entirely compofed of wooden materials,
feemingly joined together with gum. Into theie, they
afterwards carry the eggs produced from the. queen,
lodging them there as fail as they can. obtain them
From her. The author even furnilhes us with plaufible
reafons to believe, that they here form a kind of gar¬
den for the cultivation of a fpecies of microfcopical
muftiroo w. which Mr Konig, in an Effay on the E.aft
Indian Termites, read befo -e the fociety of naturalifts
QC Berlin, cpnje&ures to be the Food of the young in-
feds. But perhaps the moft wonderful, and at the
fame
217
ENTOMOLOGY.
Aptera.
fame time beft authenticated part of the hiftory of thefe
fingular infers is that which relates to the queen or
mother of the community in her pregnant ftate. After
impregnation, a* very extraordinary change begins to
take place in her body, or rather in her abdomen only.
It gradually increafes in bulk, and at length becomes
of fuch an enormous fize as to exceed the bulk of the
reft of her body 1500 or 2000 times. She becomes
1000 times heavier than her confort) and exceeds
20,000 or 30,000 tunes the bulk of one of the labour,
ers. In this ftate, the matrix has a eonftant periftaltic
or undulating motion, the confequence of which is (as
the author has counted them), (fig. 8.) the protrufton
of a great many thoufands of eggs in twenty-four hours.
Thefe eggs, fays the author, are inftantly taken from
her body by her attendants, of whom there always are
a great number in the royal chamber and the galleries
adjacent, and carried to the nurferies, which are fome-
times four or five feet diftant in a ftraight line. Here,
after they are hatched, the young are attended and
provided with every thing neceffary, until they are
able to ftiift for themfelves, and take their lhare of the
labour of the community. Many curious and ftriking
particulars are related of the great devaftatians com¬
mitted by this powerful community, which conftruft
roads, or rather covered ways diverging in ail direc¬
tions from the neft, and leading to every obiect of plun¬
der within their reach. Though the mifchiefs they
commit are very great, fueh is the economy of nature,
that it is probably counterbalanced by the good pro¬
duced by them, in quickly deftroying dead trees, and
other fubftances, which, as the author obferves, would,
by a tedious decay, ferve only to encumber the furface
of the earth. Such is their alacrity and difpatch in this
oftice, that the total deftruftion of deferted towns is fo
effectually accomplilhed, that in two or three years a
thick w'ood fills the fpace, and not the leaft veftige of a
lioufe is to be difcovered. From the many fingular ac¬
counts here given of the police of thefe infeCts, w e (hall
mention one refpecting the different functions of the
labourers and foldiers, or the civil and military eftablifli-
ments in this community, or an attempt to examine their
neft and city.
. On making a breach in any part of the ftruCture
with a hoe or pickaxe, a foldier immediately ap¬
pears and walks about the breach, as if to fee whether
the enemy has gone, or to examine whence the attack
proceeds. In a (hort time he is followed by two or
three others, and foon after by a numerous body, who
ru(h out as faft as the breach will permit them, their
numbers increafing as long as one continues to batter
the building. During this time they are in the moft
violent agitation and buftle, while fome of them are em¬
ployed in beating with their forceps upon the building,
10 as as to make a noife that may be heard at three or
four feet diftance. On ceafing to difturb them, the
foldiers retire, and are fucceeded by the labourers, who
haften in various directions to the breach, each with
burden of mortar in his mouth ready tempered.
U hough there are millions of them, they never (top to
•mbarrafs each other j and a wall gradually arifes that
fills up the chafm. A foldier attends every 600 or 1000
of the labourers, feemingly as a direCtor of the works j
for he never touches the mortar, either to lift or carry
it. One in particular places himfelf clofe to the wall
yoL. VIII. Part I.
which they are repairing, and frequently makes the
noife above mentioned j which is conftantly anfwered
by a loud hifs from all the labourers within the dome ;
and at every fuch fignal they evidently redouble their
pace, and work as faft again. The work being com¬
pleted, a renewal of the attack conftantly produces
the fame effeCts. The foldiers again rufh out and then
retreat, and are followed by the labourers loaded with
mortar, and as aCtive and diligent as before. Thus,
fays the author, the pleafure of feeing them come out
to fight or to work alternately may be obtained as often
as curiofity excites or time permits ; and it will cer¬
tainly be found, that the one order never attempts to
fight, or the other to work, let die emergency be ever
lb great. The obftinacy of the foldiers is remarkable.
They fight to the very laft, difputing every inch of
ground fo well as often to drive away the negroes,
who are without Ihoes, and make the white people bleed
plentifully through their ftockings. Such is the
ftrength of the buildings ereCted by thefe puny infeCls,
that, when they are raifed to little more than half
their height, it is always the pradice of the wild bulls
to Hand as centinels upon them while the reft of the
herd is ruminating below. When at their full height
of ten or twelve feet, they are ufed by Europeans as
places to look out from over the top of the grafs, which
here grows to the height of thirteen feet, upon an a-
verage. The author has flood with four men on the
top of one of thefe buildings, in order to get a view of
any veffel that might come in fight. Thefe termites
indeed are frequently pernicious to mankind, but they
are alfo very ufeful and even neceflary j one valuable
purpofe W'hich they ferve is to deftroy decayed trees
and other fubftances, which, if left on the furface of the
ground in hot climates, would in a (hort time pollute
the air. In this refpeft they refemble very much the
common flies, w hich are regarded by mankind in gene¬
ral as noxious, and at beft as ufelefs beings in the crea¬
tion j but it is certainly for want of confideration.
There are not probably, in all nature, animals of more
importance j and it would not be difficult to prove, that
we (hould feel the want of one or two fpecies of large
quadrupeds much lefs than one or twm fpecies of thefe
defpicable looking infedts. Mankind, in general, are
fenfible that nothing is more difagreeable than putrid
fubftances, and nothing more peftiferous.
Of a brick colour above, head black 5 antennas -yfiVdeJlrufor.
low. 4. A native of America, Africa, and India.
They build ftrong oval nefts round the branches of
trees. It very much refembles the T. fatale^ but is
only half the fize, the lower ftemmata are impreffed
with a dot on the centre ; wings brownilh, marked with
a yellowifh rib. Larva pale brown-j head black, conic,
and projecting forwards.
Black j fegments of the abdomen tipt w ith white • arda*
legs pale. 5. A native of Africa $ and refembles in
economy the T. fatale. It builds a neft of a cylindri¬
cal (hape, two or three feet high, of brown clay and
vegetables mixed up together, with a round vaulted
dome, (urrounded by a prominent terrace. Larvse or
labourers have a pale head, without eyes ; mandibles
(hort, furnifhed with teeth; thorax and abdomen oval,
grayifh lead colour $ legs of a brick colour. Pupse or
guards have very large brick-coloured head, clavated
and fwelled out before, oval and extended behind ^
E« mandible
218
tnordax.
capenfe.
fatidicum.
* pulfato-
rium.
divinato-
rium.
*Aumanus,
E N T O M
mandible proje&ing and forked j antennae of a brick
colour, as long as the head, without eyes', thorax fmall $
abdomen oval, grayifh lead-colour j legs of a brick-
colour. Perfect infe£t lefs than the former ones, with
incumbent black wings, and pale brick-coloured legs.
Black 5 fegments of the abdomen tipt with white j
legs black. 6. A native of Africa. Builds cylindri¬
cal houfes. Larva and pupa like the laft, but much
lefs.
Pale yellow j wings tranfparent, edged with brown.
7. A native of India and Africa. Larva furnilhed
with two black eyes $ and wanders about in the day¬
time in troops like the common ant.
Abdomen oval ; mouth pale ; eyes brown ; antennae
fetaceous. 3. A native of Europe.
Abdomen oblong j mouth red •, eyes yellow *, anten¬
nae fetaceous. 3. A native of Europe and America.
Frequent in houfes, in old books, wood, decayed fur¬
niture, mufeums, and is rarely found with wings. The
female beats like the ticking of a watch, and is often
miilaken for the ptinu.r puljator.
Abdomen tranfverfely furrowed j mouth brown ;
eyes black. 7. A native of Europe ; found in books,
and is very active and lively. Body whitifh.
Thefe eight fpecies are all that have been defcribed
by Gmelin : other two, the mono and Jlavtcolie, have
been defcribed fincc.
106. Pediculus, Loufe.
Mouth furniflied with a fucker, which the infefl can
ftretch out or draw back at pleafure j without feelers
or probofcis. Antennas of the fame length with the
thorax. Eyes two. Abdomen hattilh. Legs fix,
formed for running.
The infedis of this genus live by fucking the juices
of animals. The larvae and pupae have fix feet, and
are adtive, refembling the perfedt infedf.
1 Abdomen alh-coloured, and lobed. 1. There are
two varieties of this fpecies, the one fofter and whiter,
occupying the body and clothes, the other harder and
darker-coloured, occupying the heads of thofe that do
not attend to cleanlinefs, particularly of children.
The loufe which infefts the human body makes a
very curious appearance through a microfcope. It has
fuch a tranfparent (hell or Ikin, that we are able to dif-
cover more of what paifes within its body than in molt
other living creatures. It has naturally three divifions,
the head, the bread, and the tail part. In the htad
appear two fine black eyes, with a horn that has five
joints, and is furroundt d with hairs handing before each
eye, and from the end of the nofe or fnout there is a
pointed projefting part, which ferves as a (heath or cafe
to a piercer or fu ker, which the creature thruds into
the Ik n to draw out the blood and humour which are
its denined food •, for it has no mouth that opens in the
common way. This piercer or fucker is judged to be
700 times fmaller than a hair, and is contained in an¬
other cafe within the fird, and can be drawn in or thruft
out at pleafure. The bread is very beautifully marked in
the middle j the fkin is tranfparent, and full of little
pits; and from the under part of it proceed fix legs,
O L O G Y. Aptera.
each having five joints, and their Ikin all the way re¬
fembling fliagreen, except at the ends, where it is
fmoother. Each leg terminates by two claws, which
are hooked, and are of an unequal length and fize.
Thefe it ufes as w e would a thumb and middle finger:
and there are hairs between thefe claws as well as all
over the legs. On the back part of the tail there may
be difcovered fome ring-like divifions, and a fort of
marks which look like the drokes of a rod on the hu¬
man Ikin : the belly looks like dragreen, and towards
the low er end it is very clear and full of pits : at the
extremity of the tail there are two femicircular parts
all covered over with hairs, which ferve to conceal the
anus. When the loufe moves its legs, the motion of
the mufcles, which all unite in one oblong dark fpot
in the middle of the bread, may be didinguilhed per-
feftly, and fo may the motion of the mufcles of the
head when it moves its horns. We may likewife fee
the various ramifications of the veins and arteries, w hich
are white, with the pulfe regularly beating in the ar¬
teries. But the mod furprifing of all the fights
is the periftaltic motion of the guts, which is con¬
tinued all the way from the fiomach down to the
anus. If one of thefe creatures be placed on the back
of the hand, when hungry, it w ill thruft its fucker into
the Ikin j the blood which it fucks may be feen palling
in a fine dream to the fore part of the head, where
falling into a roundidi cavity, it pafles again in a fine
dream to another circular receptacle in the middle of
the head j from thence it runs through a fmall vefiel
into the bread, and then to a gut which reaches to the
hinder part of the body, where, in a curve it turns a
little upw ards 5 in the bread and gut the blood is
moved without intermifiion with a great force, efpecial-
ly in the gut, where it occafions fuch a contraflion of
the gut, as is very furprifing. In the upper part of
the crooked afcending gut above mentioned, the pro¬
pelled blood dands dill, and feems to undergo a ft pa-
ration, fome of it becoming clear and waterilh, while
other black particles are pudied forwards to the anus. ,
If a loufe is placed on its back, two bloody darkilh fpots
appear, the larger in the middle of the body, the lef-
fer towards the tail : the dark bloody fpot, in or over
which the bladder feems to lie. This motion of the
fydole and diadole is bed feen when the creature be¬
gins to grow weak; and on pricking the white bladder,
which feems to be the heart, the creature indantly
dies. The lower dark fpot is fuppofed to be the excre¬
ment in the gut.
The posterior part of the abdomen emarginated; legs *pulis*
formed like claws. 2. A native of Europe. It is
found about the hairs of the groin, and fometimes,
though rarely, on the eyebrows of people who do not
attend to cleanlinefs. The antennae have five articu¬
lations ; the hind part of the abdomen hairy.
The abdomen orbicular, marked with a white line ^ricinoides^
fcutTlum compoftd of three lobes; the fnout w hite. 3,
A native of America. It gets into the legs of the
naked inhabitants, where it draws blood, and depofiting
its eggs in the wound occafions foul and malignant ulcers.
8. A native of Europe ; on Iheep. * ovts.
The abdomen is marked with eight tranfverfe rudy-*fow.
coloured lines. 9. A native of Europe j on horned
cattle.
. 66
5
2T9
ENTOMOLOGY.
Aptera.
66 rpecics of this genus are defcribed in the laft edi¬
tion of the Syftem of Nature, all of which occupy the
bodies of different animals.
110. PULEX, F/ed,
Mouth without jaws or feelers. The fnout long, and
bent inwards. A (heath of two pieces, confiding of
five articulations, covered at the bafe with two oval
fcales, and furniihed with a (ingle bridle. Lip round,
fringed with (harp points, which are bent backwards.
Antennae moniliform, projefting, and becoming
thicker towards their outer fide. Eyes two. Ab¬
domen comprelfed. Legs fix, formed for leaping.
The genus />u/ex is rather doubtful; it approaches in
many refpefts to the infedts of the order hemiptera.
They live on the juice and blood of other animals.
Larva without feet, cylindrical, adlive, and furnidied
with two fpines under the tail.
*irrilans. The fnout (horter than the body. I, This fami¬
liar infeft is to be met with everywhere 5 it lives by
fucking the blood of other animals, and is very trouble-
forne to many of them, efpecially to the hare and rabbit.
They depofit fmooth round eggs at the roots of the
hair of the animals on which they feed, on blankets,
and articles made of wool, fur, &.c. From thefe eggs are
hatched the larvae, refembling fir,all white (Inning
worms, which feed on the fcurfy fubftance adhering
to the cuticle of animals, or on the downy matter col-
ledled on clothes. About a fortnight after they are
hatched, they acquire a confiderable fize, and become
very adtive j when difturbed they roll themfelves up
into a ball. After they have acquired their full fize,
they retire into fome undifturbed (ituation •, they form
fmall bags for themfelves compofed of filky threads,
which they fpin from their mouths. Thefe bags are
very white internally ; but on the outfide they are of
the colour of duft, and are very little difcernible. They
remain in the (fate of pupa about 14 days. It continues
to be of a white colour till the fecond day before its
efcape from the bag, when it acquires a dark colour,
becomes firmer, and is transformed into a perfect in-
feft.
The flea, when viewed in the microfcope, exhibits a
very Angular appearance It is covered all over with
black and hard fcales, which are curioufiy jointed, and
folded over one another, fo as to comply with all the
nimble motions of the creature. Thefe fcales are po-
lifhed, and are befet about the edges with (liort fpikes
in a Very beautiful and regular order. Its neck is
finely arched, and fomewhat refembles the tail of a lob-
fter. Its eyes are Very large and beautiful. The
fucker contains a couple of lances or darts j which,
after the fucker has made an entrance, are thrull far¬
ther into the flelh, to make the blood flow from the ada
jacent parts, and occafion that round red fpot, with a
hole in the centre of it, which remains for fome time
after the pundlure of a flea, commonly called flea-bite,
A proper view of the fucker with its two lances is not
eafily obtained, as the infeit puts out its fucker only at
the time of feeding. The belt way of obtaining a view
is to cut off the head, and fubjedt it to the microfcope
by itfelf. There is an hofpital at Surat where a number
of fleas are kept, and fome poor creature,' for pay, al¬
lows himfelf to be fixed down and fed upon by them.
Chigur. Snout of the fame length with the body .penetrans,
2. A native of America. This infedt is very trouble-
fome in the fugar colonies, penetrating into the feet of
the inhabitants, where it lodges its eggs and caufes ma¬
lignant ulcers. Body reddilh brown. I he female pro¬
duces a very great number of eggs, and wrben pregnant
the abdomen fwells to ioo times the fize of the reft of the
body. It penetrates chiefly under the nails of the toes,
and eats its way onwards, depofiting its eggs, which
are exceedingly minute, in a bag. It is difcovered by
the uneafy itching it occafions, and muft be extradled.
with great caution and dexterity J for if the bag be
burft, and if any of the eggs or animals remain, a very
troublefome ulcer enfues, which fometimes renders the
limb ufelefs. The (laves who go barefooted are chiefly
expoied to this calamity, and they are moft dexterous
at extradling them.
There are only two fpecies of this genus defcribed in
the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature publilhed by
Gmelin.
in. Acarus, Tick or Mite.
Mouth without a probofeis. The fucker with a cylin¬
drical (heath, compofed of two pieces. Feelers two,
compreffed, equal, and of the fame length with the
fucker. Eyes two, placed on the (ides of the head.
Legs eight.
The infefts of this genus are very minute, and very
prolific : they abound everywhere ; moft of them live
on the juices of other animals. The larva and pupa
haVe fix feet, (thofe of the divifion trombidium have
eight feet) ; they are adlive, and very much refemble
the perfeft infeft.
A. The Antennee are filiform, comprejfed, and of the
fame length with the legs.
Tranfparent •, convex above and flattened beneath j urfellus.
marked in the middle with a blackifti fpot. 36. It is
very common in waters, on the mucus w hich covers the
fpawn of frogs. Very fmall, (low, inoffenfive, and legs
terminating in three nails.
Oval, almoft globular •, abdomen marked at the bafe * ricinus,
with a round brown fpot 5 antennae clavated. 7. A
native of Europe ; it is very common on oxen and
dogs.
Second pair of legs vetw thick. 8. A native oi* craflipes,
Europe *, and very common. It is aftive, gregarious,
frequently to be found in gardens among the earth in
%ing-
Thorax angularly cruciform $ the legs terminating in * vefpsrti-
hook-, and longer than the body. 9. It is found on lionis.
the body of the bat {yefpertiho mannas') of an uncommon
figure, refembling the phalangium. It cannot walk on
a flat furface.
Commonly called Fed Spider. Tranfparent and red- telarius.
difli; the abdomen marked on rach fide with a brown
fpot. 14. A native of Europe ; on various plants,
particularly thofe that are not expofed to the wreather,
or (hut up in hot-houfes. It forms webs of parallel threads,
by which it fometimes fuffocates plants in green-houfes.
E e 2 It
220
*Jiro.
* fcabiei.
* laflis.
Jysenteru
* bacca*
rum.
E N T 0 M
It is frequently to be found on the leaves of the lime-
tree in autumn.
Cheefe-Mite. Whitifh ; head and thighs of a nifty
colour j the abdomen briftly. 15. A native of Eu¬
rope ; in flour, cheefe, &c. which have been long
kept. The cheefe mite, is a very minute fpecies j to
the naked eye they appear like moving particles of
duft. But the microfcope fliows them to be perfect ani¬
mals, having as regular a figure, and performing all the
functions of life as perfectly, as creatures that exceed
them far in fize. The head is fmall in proportion to
the body, and has a (harp fnout; they have two fmall
eyes, and are very quick-fighted, when they have once
been touched by a pin, they artfully avoid another touch.
The extremity of their legs are furnifhed with two little
claws, with which they take hold of any thing. The
hinder part of the body is plump and bulky, and ends
in an oval form, from which iflue out fome long hairs.
Other parts of the body are thinly befet with long
hairs. The males and females are eafily diftinguiftied.
The females are oviparous; and from their eggs the
young ones are hatched, in the fpace of 12 or 14 days
in warm weather, but in colder weather longer time
becomes requifite. They are very minute when firft
hatched, and call their Ikin feveral times before they
arrive at their fullgrowth, but do not materially change
their appearance. They are very tenacious of life, and
may be kept alive feveral months without food. Mr
Leeuwenhoek had one that lived 11 w eeks on the end of
a pin, on which he had fixed it for microfcopical obferva-
tions. They may be kept a long time between two
concave glafles, and occafionally fubjefted to the micro¬
fcope. In this way they may be feen in coitu, conjoin¬
ed tail to tail, and this is performed by an incredibly
fwift motion. They are very voracious animals, and
have been often feen eating one another. Their man¬
ner of eating is by thrufting one jaw forward and draw¬
ing the other back alternately, and in this manner, as
it were, grinding their food 5 after they have done feed¬
ing they feem to ruminate.
Itch-infeci. White ; legs reddifti *, the four pofterior
legs are furniftied with a very long briftle. 50. In the
puftules occafioned by the itch. It is generally thought
to be the caufe of the itch, though fome hold a con¬
trary opinion j the manner, how'ever, in which the
itch is communicated, feems to confirm the former
opinion.
Abdomen oval and obtufe, furnilhed with four
briftles the fame length with the body, which incline
downwards. 16. It is found in cream that has been
long kept, and in milk veffels that have not been kept
clean.
’ Legs furniftied with two briftles j the abdomen oval,
furniflied behind with four horizontal briftles of the
fame length with the body. 17. It is found in calks
and vats, in which beer has been kept $ they are moll
frequently found about the top or near any chink in the
veffel 5 they are likewife found very frequently within
the calk, and are faid to walk about on the top of the
beer from 10 o’clock at night till to o’clock in the
morning-, during the day they conceal themfelves in
the chinks of the calk.
The abdomen turgid and red, and dark-coloured on
the fides. 23. It is found on the fruit of the corinth
and goofeberry.
O L O G Y. Aptera,
The abdomen reddilh j the hind-legs very long and * mufco-
filiform. 24. ik native of Europe j on different fpe-raw.
cies of flies.
Abdomen red, marked on each fide with fcarlet *
dots. 26. It is to be found on bees, wafps, dragon-teroraw.
flies, 6cc.
Oval, and reddilh •, the anus whitilh. 27. It is * co/eop.
found on many infefts, particularly on the common tratorurn,
black beetle; ifrhich, on that account, has been called
the loufy-beetle: they run very quickly.
The pofterior part of the abdomen crenated j the hu-fanguifu-
tellum oval, and fomewhat tawneyj the fnout divided
into three. 6. A native of America j they fix on the
legs of travellers and fuck the blood 5 they adhere fo
clofely, that they are removed wdth difficulty ; the fore¬
legs are furnilhed with Ihort prickles, near their jundtion
with the body.
The firft pair of legs very thick, and furniffied with eruditus,
claw's j the fecond pair very long, and furnilhed with
two briftles at the extremity. 62. Found in books kept
in damp places, particularly about the backs, where the
Iheets have been glued together. It is very injurious,
and not vifible without the help of a glafs.
Hemifpherical, pale, and fmooth. Legs equal. 31. acarorutti,
It is found in troops on the body of the acarus craf-
Jipes.
Oval 5 furnilhed wuth feveral long hairs at the ex- dejirucltr,
tremity of the abdomen ; the legs are furnilhed with a
lingle briftle. 61. Found on the bodies of infedls and
other fubjedts of natural hiftory which are kept in too
moift places, and is more deftrudtive to mufeums than
even the ptinus fur, and not vilible to the naked eye.
B. Antenna fetaceous. Trombidia.
The abdomen hairy, red, and obtufe behind; the tinEtoriii't,
fore legs whiter than the reft. 20. A native of Suri¬
nam and Guinea ; very hairy ; it becomes white when
immerfcd in fpirits of w ine.
The abdomen of a blood colour, flat, and downy, * holoJerU
turned up behind. 22. A native of Europe and ceus.
America ; is faid to be poifonous if fwallowed.
82 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
112. Hydrachna.
Head, thorax, and abdomen united. Feelers two, joint¬
ed. Eyes two, four, or fix. Legs eight.
The infedts of this genus are inhabitants of the
water, fwim with great velocity, and prey on the
larvae of tipulce and monoculi. They depofit red fpheri-
cal eggs, which in about a month acquire a lunar form,
and produce fix-footed larvae furnilhed with a Angle
probofeis, which, after they have changed their Ikin
leveral times, become perfedl infedls furnilhed with
eight feet.
A. Eyes two.
* Thofe which are furnijhed with a Tail.
Globular; eyes red. 1. It is to be found in ditches
containing water ; male greenilh and fpotted ; female
bluiffi and without fpots, and double the fize of the
male.
Oval,
221
Aptera. E N T O M
buccinator. Oval, red, and black behind; furmfhed with a
yellow cylindrical tail, and ftraightened at the bafe. 3.
It is found on the banks of rivers j black beneath, eyes
reddilh, legs black.
popillator. Purple and globular, furnilhed with a papilla on
each fide of the tail j legs black. 12. It is to be
found early in the fpring in overflowed meadows.
* * Furcatse. Back marked with a fork.
trajipes. White and oval j the difk black and marked with a
reddifh fork, and furnifhed with papillae near the anus j
fore legs thick. 13. It is found in fifli ponds and ditches
containing water $ the legs twice or thrice the length of
the body, which renders it eafily to be diftinguifhed. It
is tranfparent; bread whitilh j eyes black ; when walk¬
ing freely, it dire&s its legs forwards ; after it has gone
a few daps, it extends its legs horizontally, and reds
as if it were dead, and a little afterwards it renews its
motion.
-flavicornis Reddifh and oval j marked with a yellow fork, feel¬
ers clavated, legs pale. 15. It is found in murfhesj
eyes fmall and black, feelers and legs white.
* * * G/abra.
defpiciens. Round and red, marked with feveral fpots j the eyes
placed on the under part of the body. 23. It is to
be found in ditches full of w'ater j it refembles the H.
maculata in every refpect, except the pofitions of the
eyes 5 flattifh, wrinkled, full of dimples, marked with
nine fpots •, eyes blackifh ; legs yellowifh.
merjicolor. Nearly fquare, marked with white, blue, and brown
fpots. 44. It is found in places overflown with wa¬
ter ; white above, brown beneath, edge yellowifh } the
feelers and legs white and tranfparent.
B. Eyes four.
calcarea. Round, brown, and very white in the middle. 45.
It is to be found, though rarely, in moift places j eyes
black, feelers pointed, legs pale and tranfparent.
maculata. Oval and red ; marked on the back with black fpots.
48. It is found in wet ditches 5 fhining j eyes black $
legs yellow and tranfparent j feelers yellow, fometimes
long, fometimes fhort.
C. Eyes Jix.
^umbrata. Round and red, marked with feveral fpots. 49. It
is found in woody marfhes; fmooth, fomewhat depref-
fed, marked with more than ten obfcure fpots, black¬
ifh beneath *, eyes black j feelers very fmall, tipt with
black *, legs yellow.
49 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
93. Phalangium.
Mouth furnifhed with two filiform feelers*, the mandible
compofed of a fubflance like horn j the fecond joint
furnifhed with a fliarp tooth, moveable, and furnifh¬
ed with a claw. Antennse none. Two eyes on the
top of the head contiguous, and two lateral eyes.
Legs eight. Abdomen (for the moft part) round.
The infe&s of this genus in their various ftages of
transformation prey on the fmaller infects and worms j
O L O G Y.
the larvae have eight feet, active, and refemble the per¬
fect infedt.
A. Sucker, a conical tube. Pycnogona,
Feelers four $ body filiform ; legs very long. T. A* ^rojfpes*
native of the north of Europe 5 found on the Norwe¬
gian feas j very flow, and very minute j it is compofed
of feveral articulations, and has a very narrow linear
tail ^ it enters the fhells of mufcles, and confumes their
contents.
Feelers two j body oval. 6. It is found in the* balccna*
north feas, under flones j it is red on the back, therwwr.
fucker projecting, ftraight, obtufeat the extremity, and
perforated with a round entire perforation ; the feelers
inferted at the bafe of the fucker, and almoft equalling
it in length j the legs jointed and angular.
B. Without a fucker.
Body oval and black j the under part of the body morio,
and legs pale. 10. A native of Europe $ it is to be
found on rocks.
Long-legged fpider, or fiepherds fpider. Abdomen * opilio.
oval and gray, beneath white. A native of Europe
and America *, wandering about in the night time.
Abdomen inverted, oval and flattifh 5 claws fmooth, * cancroid
the fingers hairy. 4. A native of Europe *, in confin- des.
ed fhaded places, in boxes and damp cellars 5 it feeds
on termites and mites, and moves like a crab } it is de-
ftruftive to collections of dried plants} it likewife en¬
ters the fkin of the human body, and excites a very
painful pimple about the fize of a pea.
Abdomen cylindrical, the claws fmooth j head fur- acaroides.
nilhed with an appendage. 5. A native of America j
in confined places in tropical countries. Its bite is faid
to be dangerous j yellowifh, the claws oval.
Claws notched, and hairy j body oblong. 15. A araneoides.
native of Italy, Africa, Perfia, and the fouthern fhores
of the Volga *, its bite occafions very violent pain, livid
tumors, delirium, and fometimes death j foft, lurid, and
woolly 5 the claws very turgid.
15 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by
Gmelin in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
114. Arakea, Spider.
Mouth furnifhed with fhort horny jaws j the lip round
at the tip. Feelers two, bent inwardsjointed and
very {harp at the extremity : in the males they are
clavated, and have the organs of generation placed
in them. Antennae none. Eyes eight; fometimes fix,
though feldom. Legs eight. The anus is furnifhed
with papillae, with which the infeCt fpins threads,
and form its web.
Thefe infeCls, through every ftage of their exiftence,
prey upon other infefts, efpecially thofe of the order
Diptera; they even do not fpare thofe of their own
genus or fpecies: from the papillae at the end of the ab¬
domen they throw out at pleafure a number of fine
threads, which they unite in various ways for the pur-
pofe of entangling their prey. They every year caft
their old fkin, which they perform by fufpending them-
felves in fome folitary corner, and creeping out of it.
The young ones have the power of afcending the air to
a
22 2
E N T O M
a great height ; to accoiriplifh which, they climb up
fome eminence, and are wafted about by the winds,
fili ng the air with their threads. They are deftroyed
by the fphex and ichneumon.
Linnaeus has fubdivided this genus according to the
number and pofition of their eyes.
A. Eyes eight.
I. Eyes placed thus, : “ {
fafciata* Of a filver colour ; the abdomen marked with yel-
lowilh bands*, the legs furrounded with brown rings.
48. A native of the ifland of Madeira.
• diadema. Abdomen nearly globular and reddiih; brown, mark¬
ed with a white crofs compofed of dots. 1. A native
of Europe, on trees ; it is a very beautiful infe6t.
^ aquatic a. Brown ; abdomen oval and of an alh colour j the
back brown, marked with two dots. 39. A native of
Europe, in ftagnant waters, where it dives to the bot¬
tom in fearch of its food. It takes up its winter quar¬
ters in an empty fnail (hell, the aperture of which it
clofes up with a web ; jaws black, claws red.
0 L 0 G Y. Aptera
gentle fudorific *, thorax marked with a large deprefled
circular fpot 5 abdomen oval •, legs equal.
7. Eyes placed thus, : :
Black, thorax marked with a white line on the back. *
79* A native of Britain. ' U‘
Marked with triangular black fpots on the back ottarantula
the abdomen 5 the legs fpotted with black. 34. A
native of the fouth of Europe, particularly Italy and
Barbary. It is found in caverns in argillaceous foil j
its bite was formerly fuppofed to be curable by nothing
but mufic; though it occafions a great deal of pain, it
is almolt never fatal.
8. Eyes placed thus, * ’
Oval and oblong; thorax hairy, white, abdomen and
legs black, marked with yellow bands. 33. A native"^
of Europe.
* •
9. Eyes placed thus, . .
2. Eyes placed thus, ; '*:
tatro. Thorax hairy, and of an a(h colour; the abdomen
oval, black, and fpotted with red. 65. A native
of America ; large, the thorax oval, legs black, thighs
pale.
* domeJU- Abdomen oval and brown, marked with five black
ca, fpots nearly contiguous, the anterior ones larger than
the others. 9. A native of Europe, in houfes, and
about windows; feeds chiefly on flies.
3. Eyes placed thus, . • * •.
*globofa. Black ; fides of the abdomen of a blood red colour,
69. A native of Europe, in meadows.
4. Eyes placed thus, -* • •
urgent at a. Abdomen white, and brown behind, and marked
round the edge with fix fmall projections. 70. A na¬
tive of South America.
5. Eyes placed thus, : :
fumigata.
* face at a.
Abdomen oval and brown, marked at the bafe with
two white dots. 16. A native of Europe, in mea¬
dows ; it wotches near the nefts of the larvae of differ¬
ent infe&s, and waits their coming out, when it feizes
on one after another, and fucks out their fubftanee.
Abdomen oval, of a brownifh colour. 40. A na¬
tive of Europe, in gardens, and carries its eggs behind
it enclosed in a bag ; legs livid, marked with unequal
brown rings fet clofe together.
6. Eyes placed thus, :;::
ttrtenfa. Abdomen long, of a filver colour tinged with green,
the legs extended longitudinally. 22. A native of
Europe, in woods; its legs are applied clofely to the
branches.
nidulans. Shining black ; the abdomen hairy and black. 73.
A native of America ; it forms a neft under ground,
and fpins a large cylindrical web, which is covered
with a lid ; its bite is very painful, and frequently oc-
«afions fever and delirium, which is foon removed by a
Black, abdomen oval, forehead white, and leaps ongOezii,
its prey. 84. It is to be found frequently in woods
about Vienna; abdomen marked with two compreifed
dots.
10. Eyes placed thus, \;
Thorax orbicular and convex, with a tranfverfe cen- auicular'uit
tral excavation. 31. It is a native of South America,
among trees, where it preys upon the larger infeCls,
and even fmall birds, dropping into their nefts and
fucking their blood and eggs; it is of fo enormous a
fize that its fangs may be compared to the talons of a
hawk, and its eyes are very large.
11. Eyes placed thus, . .
Of a grayifh rufty colour, and flightly clouded; tho- truncate,
rax globular, and flightly heart-fhaped; abdomen fome-
what triangular, and marked with a faint longitudinal
crofs. 85. A native of Europe, on oak and other
trees; abdomen marked with four impreffed dots on the
back; papillae three.
12. Eyes placed thus, : :
Abdomen oval, obtufely conic behind, variegatedca/j/cd,
with brown and white ; beneath black. 86. A na¬
tive of Europe, among bufhes; it fpins and fpreads out
a web, to the furface of which it attaches the infefts it
has enfnared, after it has fucked out their juice. Tho¬
rax black, flightly tinged with rufty colour, and nearly
double behind ; legs gray, marked with brown rings ;
abdomen marked with a whitifh fpot, beneath refem-
bling a horfe fhoe ; papillae four.
13. Eyes placed thus, *•....•*
Hairy; body oval, black, variegated with btwn.albifronS,
99. A native of Europe.
B. Eyes fix, placed thus, . *• .
. Abdomen greenifh, the fides yellow. 30, A na- *fenocu*
live of Europe ^ in gardens. v jatat
G. Eyes
ENTOMOLOGY.
Aptera.
C. Eyes
* holoferi- Abdomen oval, oblong, and filky ; marked under-
m neath near the bafe with two yellow dots. 29. A native
of Europe. It is found within the leaves of plants which
it rolls up.
’■enaioria. Thorax orbicular, fmooth and black 5 abdomen oval,
'downy and brown. 33. A native of America. It
conftru&s a tenacious cylindrical neft about a foot in
length, furnilhed with a lid.
96 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by Gme-
lin, in the lalt edition of the Syftem of Nature.
115. Scorpio, Scorpion.
Legs eight; likewife two claws lituated on the fore part
of the head. Eyes eight j three placed on each lide
of the thorax, and two on the back. Feelers two,
furnilhed with claws, and projecting. Lip bifid.
Antennae none. Tail long, jointed, terminating in
a (harp crooked ding. On the under fide, between
the bread, and abdomen, are two excrefeences refem-
bling combs.
Scorpions have been conceived to be the mod malig-
hant and poifonous of all animals. Though this opinion
be now very generally exploded, there are none of the
infeCts we are acquainted with fo formidable. It is true
the effect of their ding differs greatly, according to the
circumdances of the conditution of the perfon receiving
the wound, as well as of the animal itfelf, the heat of
the climate in which it lives, and the degree of violence
with which the wound may have been infliCted.
The common European fenrpion certainly is not of
fo terrible a nature as is commonly fuppofed j its ding
being very rarely produftive of bad confequences.
Eut the large icorpions of Africa, which are faid to be
nearly a foot in length, may well be fuppofed capable
of inflicting a wound of the mod fevere pungency, and
of the mod dreadful malignity. The poifon is evacua¬
ted through three very fmall foramina near the tip of
the ding •, viz. one on each fide of the tip, and the
other on the upper part. A diverfity of opinion has
fubfided among naturalids, relative to the flit or fora¬
men in the fangs of fpiders, through which their poifon
is evacuated -7 and the fame variety of opinion has pre¬
vailed with refpeft to the foramina in the fcorpion’s
ding. The celebrated Redi, adided by the bed micro-
fcopes he could procure, was not able to difeover them,
though he was well convinced of their exidence, from
having perceived the minute drop of poifon exfude from
near the tip of the ding. Others have denied the exid¬
ence of the foramina; but Valifnerius-and Leeuwenhoek
ha ve both defcribed two, viz. one on each fide of the
tip, and which in fhape are inclining to triangular •, be-
fides thefe a third has fometimes been feen, fo that the
ding of the fcorpion can with greater facility difeharge
its venom, than that of auy other animal. The ppifon
is whitifh, and is contained in a fmall bladder near the
tail. When this bladder is preffed, the poifim may be
feen ifluing out through the foramina of the lling.
Maupertuis has made many experiments with the
fcorpion of Languedoc, the refults of which were by no
means uniform. He provoked one to fiing a dog in
three places of the belly, where the animal w as without
hair. In about an hour after the animal feemed greatly
fwollen and very fick. He then cad up whatever he
had in his bowels, and for about three hours continued
vomiting a whitilh liquid. The belly w as always great¬
ly fwollen when the animal began to vomit, but this
operation always feemed to abate the fwelling; thus al¬
ternating for the fpace of three hours. The poor ani¬
mal after this fell into convuldons, bit the ground, drag¬
ged himfelf along on his forefeet, and at length died five
hours after he had been dung. There w as no partial
fwelling round the wound indieded, as is ufual after the
ding of a wafp or bee ; but the whole body w'as indated,
and there only appeared a red fpot on the places dung.
'I wo days afterwards the fame experiment was tried on
another dog, and even with more aggravated cruelty j
yet the dog feemed no way offended by the w ounds, but
howling a little when he received them, continued alert
and w'ell after them, and foon after was fet at liberty,
without fhewing the fmalled fymptoms of pain. The
experiment was repeated with fredi icorpions upon feven
other dogs, and three hens, but not the fmalled deadly
fymptom was feen to enfue. He put three fcorpions and
a moufe into the fame vcffel, and they foon dung the
little animal in different places. The moufe thus af-
faulted, dood for lome time on the defenfive, and at laft
killed them all one after another, and did not feem to
have received any material injury itfelf, at lead no fatal
confequences followed, though it had received feveral
fevere wounds. From hence it appears, that many cir¬
cumdances which are utterly unknown mud contribute
to give efficacy to the fcorpion’s venom.. Whether the
nature of its food, long fading, the feafon,. age of the
infeft, or the part of the body which it w ounds, add to
or diminiffi the malignity of the poifon, dill remains to
be afeertained. The infefts employed by Maupertuis
were newfly caught, feemingly vigorous, and were ©f
different fexes. I he refult of thefe experiments may
ferve to ftiew, that many of the boafted antidotes which
are given for the cure of the fcorpion’s ding, owe their
fuccefs more to accident than to their own efficacy.
The fcorpions of tropical climates are very large, and
perhaps more venomous. Helbigius, who refided long
in the ead, lays that he was often dung by the fcorpion,
and never differed any material injury from the w ound,
though a painful tumor generally enfued, which was
cured by rubbing with a piece of iron or done, as he
had feen the Indians do, until the part became infenfi-
ble. Seba, Moore, and Bofman, give a very different ac-
nount of the fcorpion’s malignity j and affert that without
the fpeedy application of proper remedies, the wound
proves fatal. Several fabulous anecdotes have been re¬
corded of thefe animals by the older writers on natural
hiitory, which are totally unworthy of notice. The
mod remaikable of thefe is, that fcorpions fometimes
commit filicide, when they find themfelves in a fituation
from which they cannot make their efcape. It is faid
that a newly caught fcorpion, placed in a circle formed
with pieces of burning charcoal, runs round endeavour¬
ing to effeft its efcape, but finding no exit, it applies
its tail to the back part of its head, and dings iifelf to
death. Scorpions are viviparous, and produce about
forty or fifty young ones at a time, which are complete¬
ly fliaped, and undergo no further change, except cading
their Ikin from time to time like fpiders. They feed on
fliesj fpiders, worms, &c. and even on one another.
The
22^
224
aujlralix.
mauruso
carpaihi-
cus.
efur.
america-
nus.
chi/enjis.
europaus,
hotentotus.
Mujlralis,
iUrfer,
pennophy-
sax.
^ pifum.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Aptera.
Tke comb-like excrefcences placed between the bread;
and abdomen, compofed of fix teeth j claws fmooth. 7.
A native of the South fea iilands.
Comb compofed of eight teeth j claws nearly heart-
fliaped and pointed. 1. A native of Africa.
Combs compofed of fix teeth j claws nearly heart-
fhaped and fmooth. t. It is found on the Carpathian
mountains, and in Switzerland.
Combs furnilhed w ith thirteen teeth} claws nearly
heart-lhaped and hairy. 3. A native of India apd
Perfia $ and is the largeft and moft: formidable fpecies.
Combs furnilhed w ith fourteen teeth j the claws
fringed with hair j toes filiform. 4. A native of South
America. It is eaten by the natives of California.
Combs furniftied w ith fixteen teeth 5 claws fomewhat
angular. This is a variety of the former.
Combs furnifhed with eighteen teeth 5 claws angular.
5. A native of the fouth of Europe and north of Afia.
It is viviparous.
Combs furniftied with twenty-two teeth 5 claws
fmooth j the tail rough. 8. A native of Africa, in
the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone. Body of a dark
brown colour, and marked with raxfed lines j legs
pale.
Combs furniftied with thirty-two teeth j claws fmooth.
6. A native of Africa.
Thefe are all the fpecies of the fcorpion that have
been defcribed in the laft edition of the Syftem of Na¬
ture.
116. Cancer, Crab.
Thorax nearly fquare \ edge fomewhat (harp ; the legs * minutus.
compreffed. 8. It is found in the open fea, particu¬
larly on the fucus natans, and runs about on the furface
of the water. *
Very fmooth ; the anterior part of the thorax ftsiX-pinmth*
tened on the fides; the tail is carinated and knobbed m.
in the middle. 9. A native of the Afiatic leas. It
refides within the ftiell of the pinna. The ancients fup-
pofed that this was a friendly connection formed for mutual
defence: that the pinna being deftitute of eyes, and thus
expofed, when he opened his (hell, to the attacks of the
cuttle-fifli and other enemies, was warned of their ap¬
proach by his little lodger, on which he immediately
Ihut his fliell, and both w ere fafe.
Land Crab. The firft: joint of the legs prickly j the fe- ruricoU,
cond and third joints fet with tufts of hair. 11. A native
of South America. This fpecies refides in the woods. In
the Bahama ifiands they are fo numerous that the
ground feems to move as they craw l about. At breed¬
ing time they generally make to the fea Ihores, for the
purpofe of waftiing off their fpawn, and depofiting it in
the fand, and no obftruftion will make them turn afide
from the ftraightroad, when they are on their progrefs
towards the fea. They are efteemed very excellent
food. They feed on vegetables, but when they have
fed on the manchineel apple they are reckoned poifon-
ous. When taken, they will feize the perfon’s finger with
their claw, and endeavour to efcape, leaving the claw
behind, which for the fpace of a minute after it has
been feparated from the body, continues to fqueeze the
finger clofely. They vary in fize and colour j the
light-coloured ones being efteemed the beft food.
j| || Thorax marked along the Jides with incijions.
Thorax marked with one fmall projection, one of the vocanj,
claws larger than the other 5 theeyeslong. 14. Anative
of Jamaica. It conceals itfelf under ftones, and utters
a cry when caught, and pinches feverely.
The thorax furniftied with two projections on each * angufa
fide $ claws very long. 110. Anative of England, taj.
Found in the fea near Weymouth. The claws are
three times the length of the body.
Hairy •, thorax notched on both fides •, the hind-legs dr omit,
terminating in two nails. 24. A native of the Indian
feas. Black $ the extremities of the claws fmooth and
white. It is reckoned poifonous.
Common Crab. Thorax marked on each fide with * pagunu
nine obtufe folds $ the tips of the claws black. 27. A
native of both the European and Indian feas. This is
the crab moft generally ufed in this country for the
table } they are in feafon and heavieft in the fummer ;
and call their fhells in the winter and fpring. They
frequent rocky ftiores.
Legs eight, (feldom fix or ten), likewife tW'o claws.
Feelers fix, unequal. Eyes two, placed at a diftance
from one another, and fet on moveable ftalks in moft
fpecies. Mandible compofed of a horny fubftance,
and thick. The lip triple. The tail jointed and with¬
out a fting.
Thefe live chiefly in water j and feed on infeCts, worms,
dead fifti, and dead bodies of any kind. They every
year call their Ihell, which is performed with much dif¬
ficulty and pain j and during the change they become
weak and fickly.
A. Antenna four.
f The lajl articulation bifid} the Tail JJjort.
4; The Thorax fmoothy
|| And entire on the Jides.
The psfterior parts of the fides of the thorax furnifti¬
ed with ftiarp points $ the tail bent back. 1. A na¬
tive of the Mediterranean and Indian feas. About fun-
fet it leaves the water, and runs about the fands with
great velocity.
Thorax orbicular, unequal and fringed j four dorfal
legs. 5. A native of America, within the Ihell of the
chama lazarus, to which it gives notice of the approach
of the cuttle-fifti.
Thorax orbicular, obtufe ; the tail of the fame length
■with the body. 6. A native of the Mediterranean
feas. About the fize of a pea j the tail very obtufe ;
the legs fmooth and without fpines $ claws fomewhat
eblong $ toes equal.
J 4 Thorax hairy or prickly on the upper fide.
Thorax hairy, marked with knobs and oval; fumifti- * arantti!
ed with a beak which is divided at the extremity ; claws
oval. 30. A native of the European feas. This
fpecies is fuppofed to be injurious to oyfter-beds j on this
account the fifliermen, when they meet with them in
the courfe of dredging, are careful not to return them
into the water, but carry them on ihore, and deftroy
them.
l
Thorax
Aptera
tnaja.
E N T O M
Thorax prickly j claws turgid and covered with
fpines
223
j the fingers of the claws covered with tufts of
hairs j legs fix, 41. A native of the Norwegian feas.
*horridus. The thorax fet with fpines, and covered with knobs ;
claws oval ; tail carious,, 43. A native of the Afiatic
and Norwegian feas. There is a large variety of this
found on the eaft coaft of Scotland, which has its legs
and claws covered with fpines.
§ § Antenna fet on folks; the lof articulation of the
poflerior pair bifid; Tail long and without leaves.
Paguri Fabricii. Parafitici.
latro. Thorax divided into four ; the tail Ample and big-
bellied beneath. 56. A native of Ealf India, In holes
of rocks. Wanders pbout on land by night in fearch
of cocoa-nuts, on which it feeds. To procure them
it mounts the trees, and having detached the nuts, and
let them drop to the ground, it defcends and tears them
open with its claws, ihis fpeeies is eatable, except
the intellines.
bernhar- Claws heart-lhaped, and covered with tharp points 5
lus. the claw on the right fide larger than the other. 57.
A native of the European feas. This fpecies being
deftitute of (hell towards the tail, takes pofleffion of
the empty (hells of different fpecies of cochlea, chan¬
ging from one to another as it increafes in fize ; the tail,
which is foft and without a (hell, is furnifhed with a
hook to fecure itfelf in its habitation.
iiogenes. Claws fmooth and downy ; the claw on the left fide
larger than the other. 53. A native of the Ameri¬
can and Afiatie feas. It occupies the empty (hells of
different fpecies of cochlea.
‘a/)Ut tnor- . Downy, covered with a hemifpherical cap. A na¬
ze////, tive of the JVIediterranean lea. It is of a dirty gray co¬
lour ; hemifpherical and without fpines. It very much
refembles a fcull or death’s head, whence it has re¬
ceived its name ; it is about the fize of a chefnut. The
cap proceeds, as it were, from the hind-legs, and
is turned over the body ; the fingers of the claws
equal and naked at the tips y the extremity of the legs
(harp.
Claws rough ; the tail callous at the extremity, and
furnifhed with a hook. 143. It is found in the fiffures
of the rocks on the fea-(hore near Edinburgh. It oc¬
cupies the empty (hells of the nerita or turbo.
Thorax wrinkled, ciliated, and prickly on the fore
part ; the beak furnilhed with three (mall proje&ions,
the claws filiform. 149. A native of the Mediterra¬
nean and north feas. It is found on the fea-drore near
Tan ft in Scotland. This is the C. Banff us of Pennant,
and the C. Brachiatus of Shaw.
j § § Antenna fet on folks, the poferior pair cleft;
Tail long.
t The fbell of the Thorax covering the Thorax com¬
pletely. Aftaci. Lobfters.
jj The poferior Antenna bifd.
Lobfer. I horax fmooth } the beak notched on the
fides, marked on the upper fide, at the bafe, with a
double tooth. 62. It inhabits the fea, on rocky (hores.
1 his is reckoned the mojft delicate fpecies; and is moll;
Vol. VIII. Part I.
aranei-
irmis.
fugofus.
gamma¬
's.
O L O G Y.
in requefi: for the table. They chiefly frequent deep
clear water. They are taken in wicker-baikets, with
holes on the fides, which allow the lobfters to enter, and
prevent their egrefs} or with fmall nets attached to
iron hoops. They breed in the fummer months, and
depoftt many thoufands of eggs in the fand. They call
their (hell annually, and when any of their legs or claws
happen to be torn off they grow again. They are in
feafon from October to May. Lobfters are faid to be
very much alarmed at thunder, fomuch fo as fometimes
to eaft their claws.
Craw-fijh. Thorax fmooth, the beak notched on the * afacus*
fides, with a fingle tooth on each fide at the bafe. 63.
It inhabits fre(h waters ; it lodges in holes in the clayey
banks of rivers or lakes. It is reckoned a delicacy, and
is much in requeft as food.
Antennae proje&ing ; beak tapering towards the ex- * halecum.
tremity j eyes globular and prominent. 136. A na¬
tive of the north feas. This little animal is very abund¬
ant, and is the principal food of the herrings and cod-
filh.
✓
|j || The poferior Antenna divided into three.
Prawn. Thorax fmooth ; the beak ferrated above,*fquilla.
beneath furniftied with three fmall projections ; the
edge of the thorax furniftied with five fmall proje£tions.
66. A native of the European feas. The beak is
fometimes ftraight, fometimes crooked. There is a
fmaller variety of this, called in London the white 1
Jhnmp, which is white when boiled. Prawns are much
reliflied by moft people ; and are very abundant in
fandy (bores.
Shrimp. Thorax fmooth; beak (bort and entire ; * crangonf
the moveable toe of the claw longer than the other. 67.
A native of the northern feas. This fpecies is reckon¬
ed the moft delicious of the genus. It is very plentiful
on the fandy (hores of Britain.
11 The fbell of the Thorax not covering the Thorax
completely. Squillae Fabricii.
Claws furniftied with a fingle fang ; crooked, com-mantis
preffed, and notched without a moveable toe. 76.
A native of the Mediterranean and Afiatic feas. It is
reckoned a delicacy by the Italians.
|| Antenna fet on fa Iks, and fmple.
Fabricii.
Gammari
Claws confiding of a fingle fang; legs fourteen ;
the thighs of the hind-legs compreffed and dilated.
170. A native of the north feas. Large, almoft
white ; the beak fliort, curved, and (harp ; the tail
compofed of fix leaves or plates ; the laft articulation
bifid.
Claws four, furnifhed with a fingle fang, and defti- *pulex%
tute of a moveable toe ; legs ten. 81. A native of F
Europe. It is frequent on the fea-flicre, in wells,
ditches,_ rivulets, and likewife in the fait lakes of Si¬
beria ; it fwims on its back, and leaps. It is injurious
to fidiermen by eating their, nets, and alfo hurtful to
fifties, by exciting ulcers on their gills. It (bines in
the dark.
Ff B.
Ff
226
ENTOMOLOGY
E. Antenna two.
j| Two arched Scales in place cf the pojlerior Antennae.
Scyllari Fabricii.
* arSlus. The fcales of the antennse fringed with prickles. 75.
A native of almoft every fea.
jj |j Scales none ; Antenna fringed with thickly-fet hairs.
Hippae Fabricii.
cancharus. Thorax wrinkled and oval; claws compreffed and
prickly along the edges. 72. A native of South A-
merica and India.
181 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed by
Gmelin? in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
117. Monoculus.
Legs formed for fwimming ; very long ; from four to
eight. Body covered with a Ihcll, compofed of from
five to ten fegments, growing fmaller towards the
tail. Antennae two j thoie of the male thicker and
fiiorter than thofe of the female, in fome fpecies
they are wanting. Sometimes one eye, more fre¬
quently two, approaching very near to one another.
Feelers four, conftantly in motion while the animal
is fwimming j the pofterior pair are very fmall, and
bent like hooks.
The infe&s of this genus live in water ; fome of them
are found in the fea, others in rivers, but moil of them
in ftagnant waters; they have been called monoc/li from
the circumftanee of fome of them having but one eye,
or two eyes placed fo clofe together as to appear but one.
Some of them are viviparous, fome oviparous.
A. Thofe which have one Eye.
§ Body covered with a hard Cruft.
J Antenna none. Polyphemus Mulleri.
oculus. Feelers two, long and divided j tail inflefted. 10.
A native of Europe. To be found in lakes and
marthes from May to September. It fwims on its back,
frequently in large fwarms *, eye very black, occupy¬
ing almoft the whole of its head.
X X Antenna two or four. Cyclopes Mulleri.
§ Antenna four.
* quadri- Tail ftraight, and divided at the extremity. 6. A
cornis. native of Europe ; in frefh waters. Body grayilh or
greenifh, fmooth or covered with hair; legs eight and
hairy. Female with an oval bag on each fide of the
tail, which contain the eggs. The antennae in the male
are much thicker and (horter than in the female ; the
tail is compofed of four articulations j in the fe male it
is furnilhed with two fmall fpines. When viewed in
the microfcope they are found to have two eyes placed
very clofe together. They are very frequent even in
the pureft water, and are often fwallowed along with it.
f -f- Antenna two.
J Antenna linear.
%rulens. Reddilh; tail ftraight and forked. 13. A native of
Aptera.
Europe *, in marfhes, lakes, and rivulets: it is to be
met with throughout the whole year. The antennse
as long as the body j legs eight.
|] || Antenna nearly clavated.
Antennae ftiff; tail bifid. 18. Inhabits, thoughdwiger,
rarely, the rivers of Germany ; and glides flowly along,
alternately on its back, belly, and fides; and fome-
times raifes itfelf upright. Upper part of the body
white, beneath red 5 legs eight j tail very fmall and
without articulations.
J § § Antenna dilated.
Antennae Ihort; tail furnilhed with two (harp points, crajficor* \
19. A native of Europe j inmarlhes. It is very rare. nis.
Body compofed of five fegments j the antennae fwelling
from the bafe to the middle, and becoming {harp to¬
wards the extremity.
§ § § § The tip of the Antenna terminating in three
points.
Antennae very fmall and ftraight ; body without ar- curticornii
ticulations: claws fmooth-, tail furniflied with two
briftles. 20. Inhabits fait water.
§ § § § § Antenna bent backwards.
Antennae (hort -, body without articulations, furnilh- chelifer.
ed with claws 5 tail furnifhed with two briftles. 21.
Inhabits fait water.
§§§§§§ Antenna of the (male) furnifhed with little
hooksi
The briftles of the tail very (hort. 22. Inhabits
fait marfhes. It very much refembles the M. quadri- nis.
cornis ; the top of the antennae in the female larger,
and forked at the extremity.
f f Thofe which have a bivalved Shell.
X Head expofed; two-branched Antenna; Legs from
eight to twelve. Daphniae Mulleri.
§ Tail bent inwards.
The pofterior part of the {hell fet with (harp points. * pulex,
4. It is found everywhere in ftagnant waters, and in
great abundance. It is a frequent caufe of the water
afluming the colour of blood. The {hell is yellowifh j
the abdomen, inteftines, and ten legs red. The fe¬
male is three times the lize of the male j and produces
from eight to twelve green eggs -, the back is marked
with a large fquare fpot refembling a faddle.
§ § Tail bent downwards.
The fhell without prickles : the head furnifhed with fqy/W/f-
two ihort proje&ing horns. 29. A native of the north nus.
of Europe j in lakes and rivers. W hite and oblong $
very tranfparent 3 viviparous, and furnithed with twelve
hairy feet.
§ § § Tail bent backwards.
Tail bent backwards. 5. A native of Europe 3 in pediculut,
frefh water.
Aptera.
§ § § § TailJtraight.
fetifer. The anterior angles of the (hell furniftied with a tuft
of briftles. 30. A native of Europe j in llagnant
waters ; tranfparent, of an oblong oval form j antennae
divided into three, furnilhed with eight or more hairy
legs; the extremity of the tail terminating in two
hooks.
ENTOMOLOGY.
very rarely found among petrefa&ions. There are
feven fpines on the anterior part of the back of the
thell: legs 14.
Shell oblong; the future before of the form of a * opus.
crefcent j tail compofed of two briftles. 3. A native
of Europe 5 in ditches, ponds, &tc. $ and though dried
in fummer, when the water has evaporated, yet they
revive when the water returns. This is the largeft
fpeeies to be found in Britain.
227
Head concealed; Antennce two, and hairy ; Legs eight.
Cytherse Mulleri.
Hindis. Shell kidney-ftraped and downy. 31. A native of
Europe; found on various fpecies of ficus and conferva ;
the extremity of the antennae terminating in three
points ; the fore-legs formed like hooks.
|| || || Head concealed; Antennce two, like hairs; Legs
four. Cyprides Mulleri.
*conchace- Shell oval and downy. 7. Found in clear ftagnant
waters •, the antennae wEite or yellowilh, and ftretched
out; fwims very fwiftly, with ten briftles. It is green,
opaque j feet yellowifti -, abdomen nearly bilobed and
orange-couloured, marked in the middle with a black
cifcle. It conceals itfelf w ithin its (hell, and fwims on
its belly. It refembles a mufcle in miniature, is very
minute, and feldom exceeds the tenth part of an inch.
-f- f f Thofe with Jhells conffitig of one valve.
J Legs four ; Antenna: two. Amymonae Mulleri.
*fatyrus. Shell oval; antennae obtufe, and extended in a ver¬
tical direftion. 46. It is frequent in clear frefli wa¬
ter ; it is agitated at intervals with a tremulous motion ;
the fhell is flat and membranaceous; antennae rigid,
furnilhed with three very ftiort briftles at the extremity ;
the fore-legs thick and bifid j tail terminating abruptly,
eight-cleft in the middle. The infed is tranfparent.
|| || Legs fx ; Antenna two. Nauplii Mulleri.
Ira&ealus. Shell orbicular, and without fpines or briftles. 52.
It is rare ; found in clear frelh vvqter j the Ihell very
tranfparent j the antennae refembling legs 5 the legs
terminating in three briftles j the eye not conlpicuous.
B. Eyes two. Binoculi.
f Thofe with Jhells compofed of one valve.
§ Eyes two placed beneath ; dntennce two ; Legs four
to eight. Arguli Mulleri.
*delphinus Legs eight. 55. Found in rivers.
§ § Eyes ftuated on the bad ; Antenna two or fx;
Legs varying in number. Limuli Mulleri.
\pohjphe- Shell orbicular $ future in the middle of the form of
• mu . a crefcent ; tail triangular, long and tapering. 1. A
native of' the Indian feas, particularly in the neighbour-
heo-j of the Molucca iflands. It is likewife found on
the (horei of Carolina. It is the largeft of all known
infeOs *, fometimes it grows to the length of four feet.
It is frequently found in pairs, male and female. It is
$ § § Eyes placed on the fdes; Antenna two,fetacecus ;
Legs eight or ten. Caligi Mulleri.
Body fhort 5 tail bifid, and compbfed of one thin dap. * pifeinus.
2. A native of the European feas. Found on flound¬
ers, cod-filh, falmon, &c. adhering on the outfide be¬
tween the feales j running fwiftly both on the fi(h and
on the water.
f f Thofe with Shells compofed of two valves ; Head
not enclofed voithin the Jhell; the Eyes placed on the
fdes; Antennce two or four, refembling hairs, and
placed beneath; Legs eight and more. Lyncese
Mulleri.
Tail infledted ; fhell globular. 60. A native of Eu- *fpheeri-
roper It is found about the edges of ftagnant waters, Ciis.
and among duck-weed. It is very minute j the fhell
is reddifh ; antennae tw-o ; legs twelve ; tail furnilhed
with a fmall hook at the extremity and concave beneath j
the ovaria green.
66 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed by
Gmelin in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
118. Oniscus.
Jaw terminating abruptly, and furnilhed with fmall
teeth. Lip bifid. Feelers unequal, the pofterior ones
being longer than the others. Antennae fetaceous.
Body oval. Legs fourteen.
The fpecies of this genus feed on the leaves of plants,
on filth, and on the juices of animals j fome of them
are very injurious to the fruit of wall trees 5 they under¬
go no other change but a change of fkin. They are
found under ftones, in old walls, houfes, and woods 1
fome fpecies live in water.
Abdomen covered with two thin plates ; the tail fe- * aflus.
mioval. r. A native of the European leas. Vivipa¬
rous ; and is very injurious to fifties.
Antennae four ; tail long and lharp. 5. Inhabits * entomon.
the fea It fwims very quickly. It lives on crabs and
fifties; the fiftiermen dillike it very much.
Oval, and of a brownilh afti-colour ; tail obtufe and * armadiL
entire. 1 5. A native of Europe ; under ftone... When /©.
touched it rolls itfelf up into a hard motioniefs ball •
from which cireumftance it has received the name of
armadillo.
Oval ; tail obtufe, furnifhed with two Ample append- * afellus.
ages. 14. A native of Europe; in houfes, walls,
woods, &c. The young are contained in a follicle of
four valves on the abdomen of the mother. This fpe¬
cies was formerly ufed in medicine.
38 fpecies of this genus have been deferibed in the
laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
Ff 2
119.
328 E N T O M
I 19. SCOLOFENDRA.
An-tenna^ fetaceous. Feelers two, filiform •, articulated
and connected within the jaws. Lip divided and
marked with fmall projections. Body llattifli. Legs
very numerous ; one on each fide of each of the feg-
ments of the body.
Thefe infeCls live in decayed wood, about houfes,
under Hones, and fome of them in frefh water. They
feed on other infefts in every ftage of their exiftence.
The larvae differ but little from the perfeCf infeft, ex¬
cept that they have fewer feet. The pupae likewife
are active, and very much refemble the perfeCt infeCt.
All the European fpecies are fmall, but in tropical
countries they are to be feen a foot long and an inch
and a half in circumference.
* /agyra. Twelve legs on each fide 5 body oval; tail furnifhed
with a white tuft of hairs. 1. A native of Europe ;
* forjicata
gig an tea.
in mofly ground.
Legs fifteen on each fide. 3. A native of Europe
and America. Very frequent under Hones.
Legs feventeen on each fide. 4. A native of Ame¬
rica.
morjitans. Legs twenty on each fide ; eyes eight. 5. A na¬
tive of America and India. Body compofed of 22
fegments 5 the antennae confifling of 20 articulations.
It is much dreaded on account of its bite, which is faid
to be poifonous.
'* eleBrica. Legs 70 on each fide •, body linear. 8. A native of
Europe; in clofe damp places, and fhines in the dark.
phofphorea Legs 76 on each fide. 9. A native of Afia. It
fhines in the dark like the lavipyris; it is faid that this
infeft has dropt from the air into a fiiip 100 miles from
land, in the Indian and /Ethiopian feas. Head oval,
yellowifh, and marked with two grooved lines, and a
third tranfverfe line j body filiform, and is about the
O L O G Y. Aptera.
thicknefs of a goofe-quill, marked with two parallel
yellow lines } antennae tapering, of a rufiy colour, and
confiding of 14 articulations.
I 2 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lafi edition of the SyHem of Nature.
12C. Julus.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers two, filiform and joint¬
ed. Body femicylindrieal. Legs very numerous,
two on each fide of every fegment of the body.
The infects of this genus feed on other infects, parti¬
cularly acari. The larva and pupa have many feet,
are aftive, and refemble the perfect infect.
Legs 20 on each fide. 1. A native of the Euro-oW/j-,
pean feas.
Legs 134 on each fide. 9. A native of America.maximus
This is the largefi fpecies of the genus. It bites fe-
verely, but is not poifonous.
Legs T 20 on each fide. 5. A native of Europe ; *fabulofua
in fandy places, and on the hazel.
I 2 fpecies of this genus have been defcribed in the
lafi edition of the Syflem of Nature.
The following table exhibits the number of fpecies
included under each order.
COLEOPTERA „ 4087
Hemiptera 1427
Lepidoptera 257°
Neuroptera i 74
Hymenoptera 1265
Diptera 692
Aptera 679
In all 10,894
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Though the definition of an infedt which we have
already given from Linnaeus be perfedly coi-redt, (viz.
a fmall animal breathing through pores on its fides,
furniihed with many feet and moveable antennae, cover¬
ed with either a hard crufi, or a hairy Ikin), it may
not be improper to mention, more at large, thofe cir-
eumfiances which form the line of diflinttion between
infefls and other animals.
1. Infefts are not furnifired with red blood, but in-
Head of it their veffels contain a tranfparent lymph.
This may ferve to difiinguifh them from the fuperior
animals, but it is common to them with many of the
inferior j though Cuvier has lately demonfirated the ex-
ifience of a kind of red blood in fome of the vermes.
2. They are defiitute of internal bones, but in place
of them are furniflied with a hard external covering to
which the mufcles are attached, which feryes them both
for fkin and bones ; they are likewife without a fpine
formed of vertebrae, which is found in all the fuperior
elafles of animals.
3. They are furnifiied with articulated legs, fix or
mere this circumfiance difiinguithes them from all
other animals deftitute of a fpine formed of vertebrae.
4. A very great number of infects undergo a meta-'
morphofis : this takes place in all the winged infefls.
5. They frequently change their Ikin in the progrefs
of their growth.
6. A very great number of infefts are furnifhed with
jaws placed tranfverfely.
7. The wings, with which a very great number of
infefts are furnifhed, difiinguifh them from all other
animals which are not furnifhed with a fpine compofed
of vertebrm.
8. Infefts are oviparous", fcorpions and aphides du¬
ring the fummer months are viviparous.
9. Infedts have no noftrils.
10. Infefts are defiitute of voice.
11. They are not furnifiied with a diftimfi heart com¬
pofed of ventricle and auricle.
12. Incubation is not neceffary for hatching their
eggs-
T/ie Organization of Infects.
WHEN we wifh to become thoroughly acquainted
with natural objects, we muft not confine ourfelves to
an examination of their external appearance and confi¬
guration,
E N T O M
General guratxon, but ought to examine their internal ftruclure
Obferva- and their component parts j and extend our inquiries to
) every thing which relates to them. Infers, like all
other organized bodies which form the animal and ve¬
getable kingdoms, are compofed of fluids and folids.
In the four fuperior clalfes of animals, viz. quadru¬
peds, birds, reptiles, and fiflies, the bones form the
moft folid part, and occupy the interior part both of
the trunk and limbs 5 they are furrounded with mufcles,
ligaments, cellular membrane, and Ikin. The matter
is entirely reverfed in the clafs of infefts 5 the exterior
part is moft folid, ferving at the fame time both for fkin
and bones 5 it enclofes the mufcles and internal organs,
gives firmnefs to the whole body, and by means of its
articulations, the limbs, and different parts of the body,
perform their various motioift. In many infefts, fuch
as the crab, lobfter, &c. the external covering is very
hard, and deftitute of organization j it is compofed of a
calcareous phofphate, mixed with a fmall quantity of ge¬
latine, formed by an exfudation from the furface of the
body. As its great hardnefs would check the growth of
the animal, nature has provided a remedy ; all of thefe
cruftaceous infers caff their fliell annually. The fkin
of moft of the other infers, though compofed likewife
of calcareous phofphate, is fofter and organized, being
formed of a number of thin membranes adhering clofe-
ly to one another, and putting on the appearance of
horn. It owes its greater foftnefs to a larger proportion
of gelatine. The mufcles of infedls confift of fibres
formed of fafciculi j there are commonly but two muf¬
cles to produce motion in any of their limbs, the one
an extenfor, the other a flexor. Thefe mufcles are com¬
monly attached to a tendon compofed of a horny fub-
itance, connected to the part which they are deftined
to put in motion. The articulations of infefts are
formed in a variety of ways ^ Cuvier, in his Compa¬
rative Anatomy, tom. i. page 445. has given a very
minute account of them. Though Linnaeus, and feve-
ral others following him, have afferted thatinfedls have
no brain, yet it is certain that at leaf! a number of
the larger kind, as the lobfter, crab, &c. have a foft
iubftance fimilar to brain, from which the optic and
other nerves take their rife; befides, when this fub-
ftance is’irritated, the animal is thrown into convulfionsj
hence we would conclude, that infedls have a brain as
well as the animals of the four fuperior claffes, though
it be fmaller in proportion to their body.
In moft infedls the brain is fituated a little above the
offophagus •, it divides into two large branches w hich
furround the oefophagus, and unite again under it, from
which jumffion a whitifh nervous cord proceeds, cor-
refponding to the fpinal marrow of the fuperior animals,
which extends the whole length of the body, forming
in its courfe twelve or thirteen knots or ganglions, from
each of which fmall nerves proceed to different parts of
the body. ThofeAvho deny that infe<5ts have no brain,
lay muchftrefson thiscircumftance, that many infeftsare
capable of running about after they have been deprived
ot their heads 5 the hippobofca in particular, is frequent¬
ly inftanced, which moves about quite readily, and is
even faid to copulate after its head has been cut off.
Ihe ganglions which are formed in the courfe of thb
larger nerves, perform in a great meafure the function
of the brain, indeed each of thefe ganglions may be
viewed as a lubordinate brain j in this way it may be
O L O G Y.
eafily conceived how the various parts which derive
their nerves from any one of thefe ganglions, may be
enabled to perform their different functions, after they 4
have been feparated from the other parts of the body,
and deprived of all connexion w ith the brain.
Whether infedls be endow ed with any fenfes different
from thofe of the fuperior animals, cannot eafily be af-
certained, becaufe w e are only acquainted with the five
which we eurfelves enjoy. It appears pretty evident
that they poffefs vifion, hearing, fmell, and touch ; as
to the fenfe of tafte wre are left to conje£lure, for we are
acquainted with no fa£ts, by which we can prove that
mfefts enjoy the fenfe of tafte, nor do we know of any
by which we can prove that they do not.
The eyes of infeifts are of two kinds} the one com¬
pound, compofed of a number of lenfes, large, and on¬
ly two in number 5 the other are fmall, fmooth, and vary
in number from two to eight. The fmall lenfes which
form the compound eyes are very numerous j they a-
mount in fome infefts to many hundreds. Leeuwen¬
hoek has counted 800 of them in the eye of a fly.
Pugett fays he obferved upwards of 17,000 in the eye
of a butterfly. The eyes of infedfts are wdthout eye¬
lids, and are covered externally with a hard fmooth
fubfiance. Cuvier has given the anatomy of the eye of
a dragon-fly. The internal furface of the lenfes is cove¬
red with a black varnifh. Under each of the lenfes of
which the eye is compofed, there is a fmall nervous fi¬
bre, attached to the edge of the black covering which
lines the internal furface of each lens by one extremity,
and by the other to a membrane which is of the fame
extent w ith the cornea, w hich Cuvier calls the choroide.
It is eafily detached from the fmall nervous fibre, and
appears to the naked eye, finely radiated with black
and white 5 behind this there is ftill another membrane
compofed entirely of medullary fubftance, which is con-
nefted on each fide w ith the hemilphere of the brain.
Whether inlefls from the compound nature of their
eyes fee obje&s multiplied, or enjoy only fingle vifion,
cannot be afeertained j were objects to be feen multi¬
plied in proportion to the vaft number of lenfes of which
the eyes of infers are compofed, vifion would certainly
be very confufed; and were xve to be guided by analogy,
we might naturally enough fuppofe that infefts faw ob¬
jects fingle with their compound eyes, as we ourfelves
fee objefrs fingle with two eyes.
The eyes of infeefts, according td Swammerdam, do
not contain the fame humours which are found in the
eyes of animals which compofe the fuperior claffes.
I he external membrane which covers the eyes, varies
in colour in different infe&s ; in many of the dipterous
infefts, particularly the gad-fly, it is agreeably varie-
galed.
The far greater number of infe&s have only two
eyes, like the animals of the fuperior claffes ; fome have
three, e. gr. the fcolopetidro ; fome four, e. gr. pyrinus;
fome fix, e. gr. fcorpions; fome eight, e. gt.fpiders. .
The eyes of infefts are commonly immoveable5 crabs,
however, have the powder of moving their eyes.
'I hat infects are endowed with the fenfe of hearing
can no longer be difputed, fince frog-hoppers, crickets^
&c. furniih us wath undeniable proofs of the fad. Na¬
ture has provided the males of thefe infeds with the
means of calling their females, by an inftrument fitted
to produce a found, which is heard by the latter. The
male
229
General
Obltrva-
tions.
 '
0->
O E N T O M
General male and female death-watch, give notice of each others
tions a* Pre^ence> by repeatedly ftriking with their mandibles
— ^ - againft old wood in houfes, or decayed trees, their fa¬
vourite hatmts. Their ears have been difcovered to be
placed at the root of their antennae, and can be di-
ftin&ly feen in iome of the larger kinds, as the lobrter.
lhat infedts enjoy the faculty of fraelling, is very
evident. It is the moft perfedl of all their fenfes.
'Beetles of various forts, nitiduUe, the different fpecies
of dermejfes, fylphs, Jlies, &.c. perceive at a very con-
hderable diilance, the fmellof ordure and dead bodies,
and refort in fwarms to the fituations in which they occur,
either for the purpofe of procuring food or laying their
eggs. The common blue flefh-fly, is attrafted by the
ftrong fmell of the arum dracuntium, which very much
refembles that of carrion, and depofits its eggs on it:
thefe flies are likewife deceived, and depoflt their eggs
on the flowers of \\ie Jiapeha htrfuta, which has a very
cadaverous fmell. But, though we can thus eafily
prove the fenfe of fmell among infedls, it is difficult
to difcover the feat of that particular fenfe. Several
naturalifts have fuppofed that it refides in the antennae.
Dumeril, in a differtation publiffied in 1799, attempts
to prove, that it muft be fituated about the entrance of
the fpiracula or refpiratory organs, as Bailer had previ-
oufly fuppofed. Notwithftanding his arguments, La-
treille is ftill difpofed to follow the opinion of thofe who
believe the antennae to be the organs of fmell. His
reafons for favouring this opinion are :
1. Smell is produced by the adlion of air, impreg¬
nated with odoriferous particles, on the nervous or ol-
faftory membrane, which tranfmits the fenfation.
If infefls be endowed with an organ, furniffied with
limilar nerves, capable of receiving impreffions from air
charged with odoriferous particles, fuch organ may be
regarded as that of fmell. Should the antennae prefent
a tiflue of many nerves, what inconvenience can refult
from fuppofing that this tiffue is capable of tranfmitting
odour ? Would not this hypothefis, on the contrary, be
more fimple, and more confonant to anatomical princi¬
ples, than that which fixes the feat of fmell at the en¬
trance of the fpiracula ?
2. Many male in lefts have their antennae more de¬
veloped than the females; a faft eafily explained, if
we admit that thefe organs are the feat of fmell.
3. It is certain that moll of thofe infefts which live
or depofit their eggs on putrid animal or vegetable mat¬
ters, ilagnant waters, &c. are almoft uniformly diftin-
guiffied by a greater developement of the antennae;
fuch, for example, as the beetle, fylphs, leather-eaters,
tipulae, &c. Thefe r< guired a more perfeft fenfe of
fmell, and are organized accordingly.
4. A great many infefts, which are entirely rapaci¬
ous, have fimple antennae 5 and thofe which are charac-
terifed by fimilar manners, and which are fedentary,
have none at all ; as for intiance fome of the fpiders.
5. Infefts difcover their habitations and food by the
fenfe of fmell. Latreille deprived fe'-eral infefts of
their antennae, and found they inftantly fell into a
Hate of llupor or derangement, and feemed to be in¬
capable of recognifing their haunts or their food,
though placed elofe by t: em. Such experinvms de-
ferve to be profecuted. With this view, were the an¬
tennae of dung beetles to be coated with varniffi, and
the animals placed near excrement, (their ufual food),
CLOG Y,
a decifive proof would be obtained j for were they rea- General
dily to find their way to the excrement, it may be fairly Obferva,
inferred that the antennae were not the organs of fmell. tlons•
Should the reverfe take place, an oppolite conclufion
might naturally be drawn.
6. Nerves terminate the antennae, the articulations of
which, though externally covered with a pretty thick
membrane, are hollow, lined within with a foil fubtlance,
which is often of a watery confiflence, the extremities
of which, when expofed to the air, may receive impref¬
fions from it.
Some have imagined the antennae to be the organs
of touch ; but Latreille contends that fuch an opinion is
by no means fupported by fafts, and alleges that the
ffiortnefs of the antennae in moft fpecies, and the way
in which moft infefts carry their antennae, feem to prove
the contrary. He thinks their antennae ill adapted to
become the organs of touch, becaufe they have a hard
and fcaly covering. He is rather inclined to believe
that the fenfe of touch, at leaft in certain fpecies, is fi¬
tuated in the paw's or extremities of the fore legs. The
palpi or feelers in fpiders and fome other infefts, feem
to polfefs the fenfe of touch in an eminent degree j but
many are difpofed to confider thefe palpi rather as the
organs of tafte. Though we have no direft proof that
infefts enjoy the fenfe of tafte, yet we may naturally
enough fuppofe that they do, both from analogy, and
from the circumftance that moft infefts prefer fome par¬
ticular kinds of food to all others; many of them will
rather die of famine, than eat any other kind of food
than that which is peculiar to them. The fuperior part
of the oefophagus has been fuppofed by fome to be the
feat of the organ of tafte.
Aliment of InfeBs.
Insects feed on a great variety of fubftances ; there
are few things either in the vegetable or animal king¬
doms which are not confumed by one or other of them.
The leaves, flowers, fruit, and even the ligneous parts of
vegetables, afford nouriffiment to a very numerous clafs j
animal bodies both dead and alive, even man himfelf,
is preyed on by many of them ; feveral fpecies of the
loufe, of acarus, of the gnat, and the common flea, draw
their nourilhment from the furface of his bod^ j the gi-
gur or clnegoc, pul ex ulcerous f penetrates the cuticle,
and even enters his fleth. A fpecies of gad-fly [ce/irus ha-
minis') depolits its eggs under his Ikin, where the larvae
feed ; the phalena pinguinalis frequently finds its way
into his ftomach, where it fometimes proves a fatal
lodger. Other caterpillars infinuate themfelves into
different cavities of his body. All the inferior animals
have their peculiar parafitical inlefts which feed on them
during their life.
There are fome infefts which can feed only on one
fpecies. The caterpillars both of moths and butterflies,
which ft ed on the leaves of fome particular vegetable,
would die without being able to tafte any other. '1 here
are others which can make ufe of two or three kinds of
vegetables, but which never attain full perfeftion, except
when they are fed on one nar‘icular kind ; for example,
the common filk-worm, which eats readily all the fpecies
of mulberry, and even common lettuce, neither attains
fo great a fize, nor produces fo much filk, as when fed
on the white mulberry. Although that fpecies of coc¬
cus
tions.
E N T O M
General cus which produces the lac, feeds on the ficus religiofa,
obferva- ficus indica, rhamnmjujuba, and piofia Horti Malabarici;
yet the lac collefted from ficus reiigiofia, is very much
fuperior in quality. That fpecies of coccus which pro¬
duces the cochineal, if it will at all feed on any other
fpecies of vegetables, never affords a dye equal to that
which is to be obtained from it when fed on that parti¬
cular fpecies of cactus called coccinellifera by Linnaeus,
There are a great many which feed indifcriminately on
a variety of vegetables, which from that circumftance
receive the title of potyphagn. Alrnoft all herbivorous
infefts eat a great deal, and very frequently j and moil
of them periih if deprived of food, for but a fhort time.
Carnivorous infefts can live a long while without food,
e. g. the carabus, dytficus, cicindehi, fpiders, &c. As
many infefts cannot tranfport themfelves eafily in quell
of food, to places at a diltance from one another, nature
has furnifhed the perfedt infedls of many fpecies with an
inftindl, which leads them to depolit their eggs in fitu-
ations where the larvae as foon as hatched, may find that
kind of food which is bell adapted to their nature.
Moil of the butterflies, though they flutter about
and colledl the nedtarious juice of a variety of flowers
as food for themfelves, always depofit their eggs on, or
near to thofe vegetables deitined by nature to become
the food of their larvae. The various fpecies of ichneu¬
mon depofit their eggs on the bodies of thofe infedls on
which their larvae feed. The Jirex (tailed wafp), and
fiphex are like wife careful to depofit their eggs in fitua-
tions where their larvae, when hatched, may find fub-
fiftence. The ichneumon fiedudlor, after having killed
an ini’edl (moft commonly a fpider) depofits an egg on
it, and then fhuts it up in a cell which it forms of clay,
The fphex figulus likewife depofits its eggs on the body
of fpiders which it has killed, and enclofes it in a cell
compofed of clay. Some infedls, at different p; riods of
their exiflence, make ufe of aliment of very different
properties : the larvae of fome are carnivorous, while
the perfedt infedl feeds on the nedlarious juice of flowers:
e. g. Jirex, ichneumon, &c. The larvae of moft of the
lepidopterous infedls feed on the leaves and young flioots
of vegetables, while the perfedl infedls either take no
food at all, or fubfifl on the fwreet juice which they ex-
tradl from flowers 5 indeed the conftrudtion of their
mouths prevents them from taking any other than fluid
food.
The alimentary organs may be divided into four
parts. 1. Thofe of Maflication ; 2. Deglutition ; 3.
Digeflion j and, 4. Excretion. The organs of maflica¬
tion vary confiderably in different infedts. Amongfl
thofe animals, fome fubfifl: on folid food ; therefore
mult be furnifhed with tentacula (or pincers) for its
comminution. Others fubfilt on liquid food ; and are
furnifhed with fuckers, which vary in form in differ¬
ent infedls. Sometimes with a trunk formed of a
double iheath twilled in a fpiral form, as is to be feen
m the butterfly and the fphinx. Sometimes with a lharp
ft iff beak bent towards the brealt j fuch as in the bug,
the frog-hopper, and boat-fly. At other times with a
flelhy probofcis ending in two moveable lips, or in a
fucker compofed of feveral fyphons, inclofed in a fheath
confining of two valves, which is the cafe in the dip¬
terous infedls ; fuch as the common fly, the horfe fly,
the gnat, &c.
Amongtl infedts which have jaws, fome, fuch as
4
O L O G Y.
thofe of the orders Coleoptera and Aptera, have thefe
parts hard and compofed of a horny fubftance, and fub¬
fifl: on matters of a confiderable degree of tenacity. ^
Thofe coleopterous infedls which have fix feelers feed
on living infedls j and thofe which have only four, feed
on putrid animal or vegetable fubftances. The other
infedls furnilhed with jaws (fuch as many of the order
Hymenoptera J, have thefe parts foftand membranaceous, .
and corifequentiy fubfilt on liquid or very fucculent food.
There are no fklivary glands to be met with in the
mouths of infedls, but a fet of floating veffels fecrete a
fluid, varying in colour in different infedls, very fimilar.
to faliva.
The organs of deglutition prefent nothing very re¬
markable. The oelbphagus is a llraight Ihort tube,,
reaching from a little way under the brain to the firlt
ganglion of the nerves, which perhaps may be confider-
ed as the cerebellum of infedls. In the infedts without
jaws, deglutition is performed by a tube compofed of
annular tnufcular fibres. The trunk of the butterfly,
the probofcis of the common fly, and the beak of he¬
mipterous infedls, may be conlidered as part of the
oefophagus projedling beyond the mouth.
The organs of digeltion confilt of the ftomach and
inteftinal canal. The ttomach of infedts varies very
much according to the nature of the aliment on w'hich
they fubfilt. Sometimes it is Angle, frequently double,
at other times manyfold. The greater number of in¬
fedls have a Angle ftomach, which is fometimes entire¬
ly membranaceous, fometimes mufcular, and at other
times it is merely the continuation of the oefophagus
without any perceptible dilatation. Thofe infedts which
have a dilated membranaceous ftomach, fubiilt com¬
monly on the juices of vegetables j fuch as the bees,
which fuck the nedlar of flowers, the butterflies &c.
Their iiomachs are airnoll always dilated, owing to the
difengagement of gas from the fubftances they contain.
I hofe which are furnilhed wfith a mufcular llomach,
fuch as the bug, the boat-fly, and aimolt all the he¬
mipterous infedls, feed on animal fubltanees. Finally,
thole which have no dilatation in the oelbphagus fo as
to form an evident llomach, commonly feed on the
leaves and roots of vegetables, fuch as the cock-chafter
and all the beetles. 1 he whole of the alimentary canal
in thefe infedls is very long, without any perceptible en¬
largement. The double llomach is to be found in
thofe coleopterous infedls which feed on other live in¬
fedls, fuch as the cwindela, carabus, attelabus, &c. all
of them are likewife dillinguilhed by fix palpce. The
firll of their two Iiomachs is mufcular, and is a fort of
gizzard, the mufcles of which are compofed of llender
fibres. I he lecond is a long membranaceous canal,
which appears villous when examined by the micro-
fcope ; this villofity at firll fight may appear Angular,
but a little attention to the manner in which nutrition
goes on in infedls, will fuggell an explanation of this
peculiarity. When we confider that circulation pro¬
ceeds very flowly, and that the nutritive fluids mult be
nearly in a Hate of tlagnation, digeftion could not
proceed without the aflillance of abforbent tubes, which
may take up thefe fluids. We may naturally enough
fuppofe this villofity to be nothing elfe, but a number
of abforbent veffels which take up the nutritive part of
the circumambient fluid. Thofe infedls which have,
miyiy ftomachs may be called ruminating, becaufe they
have
231
General
Obferva-
tions.
   J
E N T O M 0 L O G Y.
General have the power of caufing the food to return from the
Obferva- ftomacfo to be chewed over again} fuch as the grals-
tl0*'s' , hopper, cricket, &c.
The mole cricket has a long cefophagus terminating
in a round membranaceous ftomach, which may perhaps
be compared to the firit ftomach of the ruminating ani¬
mals of the clafs Mammalia •, where the food is accu¬
mulated, to be thrown back into the mouth, again to
undergo a farther maftication.
A Ihort inteftine proceeds from this into a fecond
ftomach much lefs than the former, but mufcular and
apparently thicker, and furniftied with parts which re¬
ferable the grinders in the ftosnach of crabs. They are
fmall laminae, refembling faws, difpofed in five longitu¬
dinal row's, each compofed of from ten to twelve fmall-
er laminae, which perform a fort of periftaltic motion
by means of the mufcular aftion of the ftomach ; and it
appears pretty evident that the aftion of thofe laminae
is exerted on the food contained in the ftomach. The
other two ftomachs are very fimilar, and placed one op-
pofite to the other at the opening of the inteftine which
correfponds to the duodenum of the fuperior animals j
they are wrinkled and thicker than the firft ftomach,
but not fo thick as the fecond.
This apparatus is to imbibe feme part of the fluid
from the aliment.
In the grafshopper the ftomachs are fimilarly arran¬
ged. The cricket has to the number of five fmall and
llender ftomachs j indeed the two firft Item only to be
Ample dilatations of the oefophagus.
In the cock-roach there is only one ftomach which is
very lg.rge, and almoft entirely membranaceous *, at the
extremity of which, there is a number of partial en¬
largements which may be confidered as fo many fto-
machs. The ftomachs of the larvae frequently difler
from thofe of their perfedl infects } viz. the alimentary
canal of the caterpillar differs very much from that of
the butterfly ; and the inteftinal canal of the grub dif¬
fers widely from that of the beetle.
The cefophagus of the grub of t)\Q fcarab^us najicor-
nis dilates fuddenly, forming a cylindrical ftomach
which is furniftied with three ranges of cceeum, which
have their extremities Ample and loofe. The inteftine
proceeds in a ftraight line from the ftomach *, then hav¬
ing formed a doubling, becomes larger, and puts on
the appearance of a colon, four times the length of the
ftomach ; on w'hich is to be perceived two tendinous
lines. At the extremity of the colon there is a confi-
derable dilatation 5 beyond which it becomes flender,
and forms the reftum. The inteftinal canal of the
fcarabaus melolontha, or cock-chaffer, is almoft exadlly
fimilar ; but nothing analogous to this ftrufture is ob-
fervable in the perfeft infedt. The inteftines of the
fcarabceus melolontha, and fc. najicornis are very long,
very much contorted, and equal throughout their whole
length.
The larva of the hyaroplnlus has a very evident fto¬
mach, and a very fhort inteftine. In the perfedt infedl
the inteftine is long, without any vifible enlargement or
ftomach, which may be accounted for, perhaps in this
way the larvae fubfift on animal food, while the per-
feft infedls feed on vegetables. The examples we have
juft given are ftriking. It may be remarked, that when¬
ever the larvae and the perfedl infedt fubfift on the fame
kind of food, the difference in ftrudlure is lefs remark¬
able j only the inteftiaal canal is longer in the perfedl Genera!
infedl. Obferva.
The anus or the pofterior orifice of the inteftinal ca- tlons‘
nal, not only affords a paffage for the excrement, but 'r"'"
enefofes the extremities of the parts of generation.
There are neither kidneys, bladder of urine, pancreas,
nor any of the conglomerated glands obfervable in ani¬
mals of the fuperior claffes, to be found in infedls.
Inftead of the liver, there is a number of fmall float¬
ing filaments which furround the inteftinal canal for al-
molt two-thirds of its length. There is a great quan¬
tity of fat in many infedts, particularly in thofe which
fpend a confiderable portion of their lives in a torpid
ffate. It is contained in loofe membranes that fill up
the intervals between the bronchiae. This fat in cater¬
pillars is very white, and both in tafte and confiftence
very much refembles that of other animals. The quan¬
tity is fo confiderable in fome infedls as to equal one-
third of the bulk of the body. All the infedls which
undergo a metamorphofis, are abundantly fupplied with
this fat; without it, indeed they feem unable to go
through their deftined changes *, for it has been obfer-
ved, that thofe caterpillars which have been fed on by
the larvce of the various fpecies of ichneumon, though
they may furvive the ravages of thefe parafitical infedls
till they are changed into pupae, commonly die before
they become perfedt infedls.
The Refpiration of InfeSh.
Respiration is the adl of inhaling and exhaling the
air into, and out of the lungs. Quadrupeds, birds, and
moil of the amphibia, breathe through the mouth and
noftrils. The air when received into the lungs is mix¬
ed with the blood, and imparts to it fomething necef-
fary, and carries off fomething noxious.
Some authors have afferted that infedls have no lungs.
But late experiments and obfervations {how, that no
fpecies wants them, or at leaft (omething fimilar to
them ; and in many infedls they are larger in proportion
to their bodies than in other animals. In moll of them
they lie at or near to the furface of the body, and fend
out lateral pores or trachem. The refpiration of infedls
has attradled the attention of many naturalifts, particu¬
larly Swammerdam, Malpighi, Reaumur, Lyonnet,
Muffchenbroeck, Degeer, Bonnet, Vauquelin, &c.
From their obfervations it may be inferred,
1. T hat infedls do not breathe through the mouth
or noftrils.
2. That there are a number of veffels for the recep¬
tion of air placed along on each fide of the body, which
are commonly called fpiracula, w hich are fubdivided
into a number of fmaller veffels or bronchise.
3. That the veffels or tracheae which proceed from
the pores on the fides, are not compofed of a Ample
membrane, but are tubes formed of circular rugae.
4. That the fpiracula are diftinguifliable, and are
covered with a fmall fcaly plate, with an opening in
the middle like a button hole, which,is furniftied with
membranes, or threads, to prevent the admiflion of ex¬
traneous bodies.
Reaumur is of opinion that the air enters by the
fpiracula into the tracheae and bronchia; and is ex¬
pired through fmall pores on the {kin, without return¬
ing by the fame way through which it entered. Were
this
entomology:
233
General this the cafe, the refpiration o£ infeas would differ
Obferva- from that of other animals. Degeer feems to entertain
cions. tjie pame opinion with Reaumur, from the account he
gjven 0f the manner in which caterpillars breathe $
but thinks that infpiration and expiration through the
fpiracula and bronchia take place in the pupa. Lyonnet
is not of the fame opinion with Degeer, on account of
an experiment made on the pupa of the fphinx. He
' fuppofes that this pupa lives for a certain time without
refpiration, and that the two anterior fpiracula, which
are the largeft, and enclofe the pofterior ones, only
ferve the purpofe of allowing the fuperabundant moii-
ture to exhale, and to permit the external air to enter
in its Head. Some experiments of Mufchenbroeck
feem to confirm the opinion of Lyonnet with regard to
the pupa.
Perhaps nature, with that forefight which is obferv-
able in all her works, has taken care to form the pupa
fo as to require but a fmall quantity of air, and may
have included in its body every thing neceffary to en¬
able it to undergo the change of its condition. The
pupa of moft infefts is certainly very torpid, and little
capable of receiving external impreflions. The experi¬
ments of Malpighi and Reaumur have eftablilhed the
fa£t that infers muft refpire. Oil applied to the fpira-
' cula caufes thefe animals to fall into convulfions, in¬
duces a general or partial paralyfis, or caufes their
death.
Vauquelin, the celebrated chemift, has made feveral
experiments on the refpiration of the green grafhop-
per. The male of this infeft being put into fix cubic
inches of oxygen gas (the purity of which was afcer-
tained), lived eighteen hours. The oxygen gas was
changed into carbonic acid gas j it rendered lime water
turbid, but did not extinguilh a lighted candle ; after
the carbonic acid had been abforbed by means of fixed
alkali, the combuftion of the candle was more vivid
than in common air. He found that the infedl refpir-
ed fifty or fixty times in a minute *, but when put into
oxygen, its refpiration became about twelve times more
frequent, being interrupted at laft almoll continually,
becaufe it was on the point of undergoing afphyxia.
The air in which the infeft had died, being waftied
with alkali, underwent a diminution of five per cent,
and the vapour of ammonia could not again revive the
infeft.
A female infeft being put into eighteen cubic inches
of common air, lived thirty-fix hours j its refpiration
was not altered as to frequency 5 the bulk of the air
was not diminilhed at the death of the animal, but it
extinguilhed a candle even after it had been walhed in
lime water j this is a new proof that oxygen is neceffary
to the life of infetts j and when the atmofpheric air
contains but little of it, that infefts would foon die.
This female grathopper, being placed in fulphur-
ated hydrogen gas, was feized with afphyxia inftantly,
and could be revived by no ftimulusc I hefe experi¬
ments not only prove that infefts refpire, and that oxy¬
gen is that part of the air which is neceffary to their
exiffence, but that carbonic acid or azote is fatal to
them. The fpiracula are neither of the fame form, nor
fimilarly fituated in every infeft 5 the larvae of the com¬
mon fly have feveral of thefe organs placed at the pof¬
terior extremity of their bodies } they are moft frequen-
ly fix.
Vol. VIII. Part I.
Circulation and Secretion of Infefls.
General
Obferva-
tians.
All the animals of the two firft claffes have a double
circulation \ their hearts confift of two diftinct auricles
and ventricles. The heart in the amphibia has two dit*
tin£l auricles without any communication 5 and under
thefe there is the appearance of two ventricles fimilar
in fhape to thofe of the former clafs } but they may be
confidered as one cavity } for the ventricle fends out
not only the pulmonary artery, but likewife the aorta j
for there is a paffage in the feptum, by which the
ventricles communicate freely, allowing the blood to
pafs from the left into the right one.
The heart of fifties has but one auricle and one ven¬
tricle, and one great artery which conveys the blood
to the gills. The circulation in infe&s differs confider-
ably from that of the fuperior animals. In the lobfter,
and others of the larger infeifts, when a piece of the
fliell is broken, the pulfation of the heart is feen dif-
tin&ly, and that fometimes for feveral hours after it
has been laid bare. A long delicate veffel runs along
the back parallel to the inteftines of many infe£ts, par¬
ticularly caterpillars, in which an alternate contraction
and dilatation is perceptible. TLhe heart, or principal
artery which performs the function of the heart, feems
to be compofed of a great number of fmall hearts, con¬
nected together, which tranfmit the blood from one to
another. But when this veffel is injeCted it becomes
continuous, and the fmall hearts difappear. In the ca¬
terpillar the pulfation begins at the pofterior part, and
proceeds from one fegment to another, till it arrive at
the head. Reaumur has alleged, that the pulfation
of this artery changes its direction in the pupa, and that
the blood is propelled from the head towards the tail;
he fays this may be plainly obferved in a pupa newfty
ftripped.
Lyonnet denies the accuracy of Reaumur’s obferva-
tions 5 and fays that he found a fpecies of caterpillar,
the pupa of which is very tranfparent, in which the
longitudinal artery was to be feen very diftinftly j hav¬
ing examined it carefully, a few days after its change,
he afeertained that the motion of the artery had not at
all changed its direction, and that it ftill continued to
move from the tail towards the head as in the caterpil¬
lar. Further obfervations can alone determine which
of thefe two opinions is the moft correCt. One anato-
mift has lately aflerted that the dorfal canal obfervable
in infeCts, ferves the purpofe of refpiration, Cuvier has
proved, that the conglomerate glands which are to be
met with in all the animals that have a heart, do not
exift in infe&s; but inftead of them, that they are fur-
niftied with very long flender veffels which float in the
internal cavities of the body, without being even.con¬
nected into fafciculi •, from this circumftanee Cuvier is
difpofed to believe that infeCts have no heart. It is by
means of thefe fine tubes that the different fluids are
fecreted, which are peculiar to various kinds of infeCts.
Some infeCts difeharge an acrid and fetid fluid, others
difeharge an oil of a very pleafant fmell.
The bee, the wafp, the fphex, the cryfis, have two
veffels fituated at the bottom of their fting, which con¬
tain a very acrid fluid, fecreted from the mafs of blood,
which the animal difeharges at pleafure through a per¬
foration in the fting 5 it is this fluid which caufes the
G g pain,
234
ENTOMOLOGY.
Ge j'-ral pain, inflammation, and fwelling, -which follow a wound
tbiir- infliaed bythefe
 t In the fcorpion, there is a fluid of a very malignant
nature, which the animal difcharges at pleafure through
its fling ; under certain circumftances, this fluid pro¬
duces fatal effects. Some of the fpiders difcharge a fluid,
which renders their bite dangerous. The aranea avicu
/aria, and the tarantula, in particular, are well known;
even the common fpiders inflidt a fatal wound on the
infedts they entangle in their web. The filk of the
common filk-worm and other caterpillars, according to
Malpighi, Lyonnet, and others, is a fluid contained in
two veflels, which are of a confiderable fize at the ex¬
tremity, and taper towards the mouth, and become very
flender.
The carabus and dytifcus contain an acid which
reddens the infufion of litmus. The ant contains an acid
well known to chemifts.
The acrid matter contained in the body of the lytta
vejicatoria, is ufed in medicine, and forms the bed
epifpaftic we are acquainted with.
Generation of InfeEls.
Insects are the only animals without vertebrae in
which the fexes are diflinguithed. Copulation is per¬
formed in them by the introduftion of the parts of ge¬
neration of the male into thofe of the female.
All infeils are either male or female, except in a few
of the genera of the order Hymenoptera, (fuch as the
. bee, ant, &c.) where individuals are to be found, which
are neither male nor female; and, on that account call-
«d neuters. Among the bees, the neuters form the far
greater part of the community, and perform the office
of labourers. Among the ants, the neuters are very
numerous, and conftitute the. only active members of
the fociety. It has been alleged that thefe neuters are
nothing but females, whofe parts have not been deve¬
loped for want of proper nouriffiment. Olivier, how¬
ever, after ftridt examination, is difpofed to think them
really different, though he does not adduce fads fuffi-
eient to eftabliffi his opinion.
The parts which di inguifli the male from the
female, may be divided into two claffes, viz. i. Thofe
which are not directly connected with generation. 2.
Thofe which are abfolutely neceffary for the purpofes
of generation. The circumftances which have no direct
communication with generation, which ferve to point
out the diftin£tion between the fexes, are, I. The dif¬
ference of fize, obfervable in the male and female.
1. The brightnefs of the colour in each. 3. The form
and number of articulations of the antennae. 4. The
fize and form of their wings. 5. The prefence or abfence
,of a fling. The male is always fmaller than the female.
The female am is nearly fix times larger than the
male. The female cochineal is from 1 2 to 15 times
the fize of the male. The f m 1e tertnes is '’OO or ^00
times the fize of the male. The colours of the male
are commonly much more brilliant than thofe of the
female; this is particularly the cafe in lepidopterous in¬
fects. In fome infefts, the colour of the male is totally
different from that of the f male. The antennae of the
male are commonly of a different form, and larger than
thofe of the female. Frequently the males are furnifti-
ed with wings, while the females have none j the
2
latnpyris, coccus, and blatta, and feveral moths, afford General
an example of this. The female bee is furnilhed with 0bfcrva,
a fling, while the male is deftitute of one. The males tlOI,s•
of fome infefls are furniffied with fharp prominent '
points, refembling horns, lituated either on the head or
breaft, which are either not perceptible, or very faintly
marked in the female. The parts effential to gene¬
ration.afford the heft diftinguifhing mark. In moft in¬
fers they are fituated near the extremity of the redlum.
By prefling the abdomen near to the anus they may
frequently be made to protrude. But the parts of ge¬
neration are not always fituated near the anus. In the
fpiders they are fituated in the feelers. In the tibel-
lula, the male organ is fituated in the breaft, while,
that of the female is placed at the anus..
Organs of Generation.
In male infefls, the organs which ferve for the pre¬
paration of the femen, bear fome refemblance to thofe.
organs in the animals which compofe the clafs Mam-
tnaha. All of them have four organs, two of which
may be compared to the tefticles, and the other two to
the veficulee feminales. They vary very much in form
in different fpecies. During the period the male is
ufually employed in impregnating the female, thefe
parts are very diftinft ; after that, they difappear total¬
ly. In the larger aquatic infefts, (particularly in the
hydrophilusj befides thefe four organs already mention¬
ed, there are other two fmall velicles which may be
compared to the proftate gland of the fuperior ani¬
mals. The vafa deferentia in the hydrophilus are fome-
what reflected, its tefticles are very large, and terminate
in a very fiender folded filament. In the graihopper,.
thefe four organs are likewife found, but the vejicu/ec
feminales are of a compound nature ; the tellieles
have a good deal the appearance of thofe of the mam~
molia.
They are of an oval form, and are fixed to the infide
of the back, their convex furface is covered with feve¬
ral tubes of a bright golden colour. After thefe yellow
tubes have been removed, the tefticles are eafily unfold¬
ed ; like all the other fecretory organs of infects, they
feem to be nothing but a colleflion of convoluted vef-
fels. The veficulce fetninales, which are attached to the
tefticles, are formed into clufters. In the feafon of co¬
pulation, they increafe in bulk fo much as nearly to
occupy three-fourths of the abdomen ; they are full of
a limpid fluid, which is the femen.
The vafa deferentia, which in moft infers are very
fhort, in the blatta mucronata are of a confiderable
length, and form feveral convolutions before they ar¬
rive at the penis.
rY\\('penis, in infers, is either fingle or double. Thofe
which have a fingle penis, have it placed at the pofte-
rior extremity of the abdomen ; in the libeliuta, how¬
ever, it is placed at the anterior part: it is membrana¬
ceous externally ; internally it is compofed of a fubftance
analogous to the coipus cavernofum of other animals ;
its form is either cylindrical or conical; it is furniflied
with two feales, one on each fide, which form a fort of
wedge ; this wedge being introduced into the vagina of
the female, and the feales being feparated by means of
particular mufeles, which are fituated at their bafe, open
the vagina, and make way for the introdu&ion of the
penis.
E N T O M
C -neval penis. This Angular conftru&ion is perhaps owing to
Obftrva- want of a proper ere&ion.
tions- Infeds which have a double penis (fuch as the
' fpider) have this organ placed at the extremity of the
feelers of the lower jaw ; thefe feelers are large in the
male. During copulation, they are introduced into two
vaginae fituated in the anterior part of the abdomen of
the female. In thefe infe&s, the two fmall fcales are
likewife to be found, which ferve to open the vagina of
the female.
The female is furnilhed with two ovaria; they are
long tubular canals, in which the eggs are arranged like
a ftring of beads. The eggs which are fituated next the
opening into the oviduct, are largeft, and they diminillr
gradually as they recede from it, till they difappear al¬
together. The tubular canals unite, and terminate in a
common canal, which communicates with an oblong
cavity, analogous to the uterus. It is in this cavity,
that the femen of the male is depofited. Malpighi
afferts, that the fluid penetrates into the oviduft, by
means of a canal of communication, and that the eggs are
fecundated the inftant they pafs the mouth of this canal,
as they proceed towards the external orifice of the uterus.
In viviparous in lefts, fuch as the hippobofca, fcorpion,
&c. the ovaria are different. Sometimes the little ani¬
mals are arranged in clufters ; at other times they com-
pofe a fpiral cord, the length of which correfponds to
the number and fite of the foetus.
Copulation is not performed exaftly in the fame way
by all infefts. In moll of the fpecies, the male mounts
on the back of the female; but the fpiders, dragon-flies,
and fome others, have a mode of performing copulation
peculiar to themfclves. After copulation, they foon
begin to lay their eggs. Some depofit their eggs gra¬
dually, one after another ; others difeharge them all at
once, for example, the ephemera, the very Ihort dura¬
tion of whofe exiftence renders this necelfary. But the
far greater number of infefts lay them one by one.
There are fome which lay a confidcrable number at the
fame time. The large blue flelh-fly {jnufca carnaria')
when it finds carrion in a proper ftate for the reception
of its eggs, depofits a good number of them at once in
the fame place ; but when it does not find a proper
fituation in which to depofit its eggs, it can refrain
for fome time, till it find a proper place and opportu¬
nity. There are fome infefts that do not lay their eggs
till a very long time after copulation ; bees, wafps, &c.
are impregnated before winter, but do not lay their eggs
till fpring.
"Eggs'of I rife els.
The eggs of infefts are of two forts; the firft membra¬
naceous, like the eggs of the tortoife, and the other
reptiles; the other covered with a (hell like thofe of the
birds; their figure varies exceedingly ; fome are
round, fome elliptical, fome lenticular, fome cylindrical,
fome pyramidal, fome flat, fome fquare, but the round
and oval are the mod common. The eggs of infefts
feldom increafe in fize, from the time they have been
depofited by the parent till they are hatched. Thofe
of the tenthredo, however, and of fome others, are ob-
ferved to increafe in bulk.
At firft there is nothing to be perceived in the eggs
of infefts but a watery fluid ; after fome little time an
obicure point is obfervable in the centre ; which, ac
o L o G Y. 23s
cording to Swammerdam, is not the infeft itfelf, but Gene at
only its head, which firft acquires confidence and colour "
And the fame author alleges, that infefts do not in-  *
creafe in bulk in the egg, but that their parts only ac¬
quire fuape and confiftence. Under the (hell of the
egg there is a thin and very delicate pellicle, in which
the infeft is enveloped, which may be compared to the
chorion and amnios which furround the foetus in qua¬
drupeds. The little infeft remains in the egg till the
fluids are diffipated, and till its limbs have acquired
ftrength to break the egg, and make its efcape. The
different fpecies of infefts remain inelofed in the egg
for very different periods. Some continue enelofed on¬
ly a few days, others remain for feveral months. The
eggs of many infefts remain without being hatched
during the whole winter; and the young infefts do not
come forth from them till the feafon at which the leaves
of the vegetables on which they feed begin to expand.
When the infefts are ready to break their prifon, they
commonly attempt to pierce the (hell with their teeth,
and form a circular hole, through which they put forth
firft one leg, and then another, till they extricate them-
felves entirely.
Number of InfeBs.
INSECTS areby far the moft numerous clafs of animals.
About eleven thoufand fpecies have been deferibed by
Gmelin in the laft edition of the Syftem of Nature.
A great many more have been deferibed by other na-
turalifts fince the publication of that work, and a very
confiderable number are to met with in the cabinets
of the curious, which have not as yet been deferibed by
any author.
In thofe parts of the wrorld which we are bed ac¬
quainted with, we may eafily fuppofe that many fpecies
of infefts exift which have hitherto efcaped notice. The
minutenefs of fome infefts makes them eafily overlook¬
ed ; the agility of others renders the catching of them
difficult. The retired fituations which many of them
haunt favour their concealment. In the unexplored
parts of America, Africa, and Afia, many hundred
(pecies muff exift utterly unknown to naturalifts. All
thefe circumftances render it very probable that not
one half of the infefts which exift in the world have
hitherto been deferibed.
Utility of InfeBs.
Insects afford nourifliment to a great number of the
fuperior animals; many of the fifties, reptiles, and birds,
draw' the principal part of their fuftenance from that
fource The immenfe fwarms of different fpecies of
crab which abound in every fea, direftly or indirt ftly
form the principal part of the food of the cod, haddock,
herring, and a great variety of fifties. The fnake, li¬
zard, frog, and many other reptiles, feed both on land
and aquatic infefts. Gallinaceous fowls, and many of
the fmall birds, &c. feed on infefts. Swallows, indeed,
feed entirely on winged infefts. They afford food like¬
wife to many of the mammalia, viz. to many fpecies of
the bat, to the ant-eater, &c. and even to man himfelf.
Many fpecies of crab, viz. lobfter, common crab,
flirimp, prawn, landcrab, &c. are reckoned delicacies.
The larvae of fome coleopterous infefts and locufts form
part of the food of man.
Infefts likewife, by confuming decayed animal and
G g 2 vegetable
236
Hiftory
E N T O M
vegetable matter, which if left to undergo the putrefac¬
tive procefs, on the furface of the ground, might taint
the atmofphere Avith peftilential vapours, prelerve the
air pure for the refpiration of man and other animals.
Prefervation of Inf eels m Cabinets.
In' collefting infects, both male and female ought if
poflible to be procured 5 and the time of the year when
they are taken ought to be noted. Specimens with in¬
jured wings or antennae muft be rejected.
For collefting infects in their perfe£t date, a fort
of forceps are made ufe of, which have their extre¬
mities covered with gauze. Befides thefe the en-
tomologift, in his walks, Ihould be furnilhed with
a pincufhion, ftored with pins of various fxzes, and a tin
box lined with cork, of a convenient fize for the
pocket, in which the infers when caught are to be
placed ; the lepidopterous infefts being firft carefully
killed by fqueezing their thorax, left their fluttering
fhould injure their wings. Coleopterous infefts are
rnoft expeditioufly killed by being immerfed in boiling
water •, and thofe who prefer this method may carry
them home without injury in common pillboxes. Moft
infetfts are killed with a few drops of fpirit of turpentine j
the lepidoptera and hymenoptera may eafily be killed
by being ftuck through with a pin dipt in aquafortis.
When the infers are killed they are to be transfixed
with pins, their wings, antennae, and feet fpread out and
kept difplayed. In fome of the lepidoptera, two fpe-
cimens fhould be preferved} the wings in the one dif¬
played, and in the other placed as much as poflible in
their natural pofition.
Infefts may likewife be collefted by breeding them
from their larvae ; and this, when it is convenient, is by
O L O G Y.
far the beft method for procuring fine fpecimens *, it is
chiefly praclifed with the lepidopterous kinds. When
the caterpillars are taken, they are to be fed on the
leaves of the plant or tree on which they Avere found,
and kept in a box with fome moift earth at the bottom ;
they Avill afterwards turn into a chryfalis, either by go¬
ing* into the earth, by fphining a web and enclofing
themfelves in it, or by changing into a pupa obteBa^ ac¬
cording to their kinds. Having continued in this ftate
their appointed time, the perfect infeft will come forth,
and muft then be killed before it has injured its wings
by flying.
Lepidopterous infers are likewife to be colle&ed in
their pupa ftate, by feeking for them under the pro-
jeftions of garden Avails, pales, and out-houfes, fummer-
houfes, &c. or by digging for them in the winter
months under the trees they feed on. When thus dug
up, they are to be put into a box Avith moift earth, and
kept till they come out.
When the infe&s are prepared in this manner, they
are to be placed in the cabinet, which may confift of
boxes or draAvers deep enough to hold a long pin, and
lined on the bottom with cork, or Avith wax j the in¬
fers of each order in drawers by themfelves; and the
different genera clofe together. The generic and trivial
name of each infeft is to be written on a piece of
paper, fixed to the bottom by the fame pin which fup-
ports the infe61. The drawers muft be made to fhut
very clofe, fo as to exclude the duft and minute infe&s j
fome cover them with glafs. A little camphor in each
drawer is likevvife ufeful.
Infers of the aptera order, fuch as fpiders, Jcolo-
pendrse, juli, &c. are beft preferved in fome kind of
fpirits. The onifei and cancri may be preferved like
beetles.
HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY.
THOUGH the attention of man muft have, been
attrafted by the vegetables and animals with which he
found himfelf furrounded, and by the earth and mine¬
rals on which he trod, even at the very earlieft periods
of human fociety, yet a very confiderable time muft
have elapfed before any attempts vvere made at ar¬
rangement or claflification. Ariftotle was the firft (as
far as Ave knoA\') A\Tho deferved the name of natural
hiftorian } his arrangement of animals vvas the only one
followed for many centuries. He divided all animals
into viviparous and oviparous 5 the firft contained qua¬
drupeds, the fecond birds, filhes, and infefts. Under
infefts were comprehended all fmall annuals whofe bo¬
dies Avere divided into fegments. Ihis definition of in-
fefts AAas followed by all natural hiftorians doAvn to the
time of Linnams.
Theophraftus, the difciple of Ariftotle, the only other
perfon among the ancient Greeks who deferves the
name of natural hiftorian, beftoAved the moft of his at¬
tention on vegetables and minerals. Pliny has given us
an account of all that vvas known in natural hiftory
doAvn to his own times. Though he has mentioned many
infefts, owing to his aa ant of method little is to be learnt
from him refpefting entomology. Diofcorides, Ayho
was nearly cotemporary with Pliny, has confined him¬
felf chiefly to natural hiftory conne&ed with medicine.
He has given an enumeration of all the natural bodies'
Avhich entered into the materia medica. On the revi¬
val of learning in Europe, writers on natural hiftory
feemed to have confined themfelves to writing commen¬
taries on the ancients 5 and nothing Avas done in ento¬
mology till the times of Gefner, Avho.was the greateft
naturalift the Avorld had feen from the time of Ariftotle,.
and Avho was the firft who made a colledtion of the ob-
jefts of natural hiftory, and formed a mufeum. He was
born in Zurich in 1516, and died in 1565. Aldrovan-
dus lived nearly about the fame time with Gefner, and,
like him, formed a mufeum which ferved for the founda¬
tion of the public mufeum at Bologna, where many
fpecimens may be ftill feen marked Avith the venerable
hand of the firft colleaor. Gefner formed his zoology
on the principles of Ariftotle : his hiftory of animals is
very voluminous. Aldrovandus made a colleftion of
all that had been written on natural hiftory before his
owm time, Avithout diferiminating truth from fiftion.
He has given a methodical arrangement of infers
in the feventh book of his large Avork publilhed in 1602.
He followed nearly the fame arrangement with Gefner.
Gefner, in conjunftion with fome other natural hifto¬
rians, wrote a treatife on infers, which was publiihed by
Mouffet,
ffftory. Mouffet, an Engli^i phyfician. About this time our
<—countryman, the illuftrious Harvey, ventured to con¬
trovert Ariftotle’s erroneous opinion with refpeft to
equivocal generation. Though his aphorifm, omnia ex
ovo, at firft met with great oppofition, it was at laft ef-
tablilhed by his own experiments and thofe of Rhedi and
Malpighi. From this period the writers on entomo¬
logy have been numerous; we fhall content ourfelves
here with giving little more than an enumeration of the
principal works on the fubjeft.
Agricola, in a work entitled de Animantibus Sub-
terraneis, publiflied in 1549, has given a methodical ar¬
rangement of infefts: he divides them into, 1. Creep¬
ing infedls; 2. Flying infe&s; and 3. Swimming in-
feds. After giving this arrangement, he proceeds to
give an account of each fpecies.
A work entitled Theatrum InfeBorum Thomce Mouf-
feti opera concinnatum, Lond. 1634, the joint labour
of feveral of the mod eminent natural hiitorians who
lived about the middle of the fixteenth century, though
not publifhed till 1734, about 30 years after the death
of Mouffet, by whofe care the work had been abridged,
and prepared to meet the public eye, is the next worthy
of notice. It is divided into two books j the firft treats
of winged infe&s j the fecond of infefts without wings :
thefe two grand divifions are fubdivided into feveral
families chara&erized by the number and polition of the
legs. There is but little method difplayed in the
arrangement of the infe&s which compofe the different
• families.
Aldrovandus divides infefts into terrejlria et aquatica
(la'nd infects, and aquatic infe£ts). The different orders
and fubdiviffons of thefe two elafles, are for the moft
ipart determined by the number, nature, and pofition of
their wings and legs. He calls his firft order Favifica,
(thofe which form combs). As to the reft, according
to his own declaration, he follows Ariftotle.
Wolfang Frenzius, in his Htjlona Ammalium facra,
publiftied in 1612, has divided infefts into three claffes,
viz. 1. Aeriay (fuch as fly); 2. Aquatica, (fuch as in¬
habit the water) ; 3. Terrea et Replentia, (fuch as
creep about, or are lodged in the earth). His defcrip-
tions are much more accurate than thofe of any of the
authors who preceded him.
John Johnfton has borrowed freely from his predecef-
fors, in his H'/loria Naturalis InfeBorum, publifhed in
1653. He divides infefts into terrejlria and aquatica,
(into land and aquatic infefts) : the land infefts he di¬
vides into three orders ; 1. Such as have wings and
legs; 2. Such as have legs without wftngs ; and 3. Such
as have neither wings nor legs. Thefe three orders oc¬
cupy his three firft books ; his fourth contains aquatic
in lefts.
Walter Charleton follow's thefyftemof Aldrovandus
in his Onomajicon Zoicon, publilhed in 1668.
Jo. Goodart publiihed Metamorphojs et Hijoria Na-
turnhs de InfeBis, 8vo. Mediob. 1667.
Likewife in 1675, a work of his appeared, de InfeBis
in Methodum reduBis, opera Mart. Lifer. Ebor. In
this w'ork infefts are divided into ten families : the
1 ft includes butterflies with ereft wings; 2d, Butterflies
with horizontal wings ; 3d, Butterflies with deflefted
wings; 4th, Libellula;, (dragon-flies) ; 5th, Apes,
(bees) ; 6th, Coleopterous infefts ; 7th, Locufts, and
■gralhoppers; 8th, Flies correfponding to the order
ENTOMOLOGY. 237
diptera of Linnaeus ; 9th, Millepedr; and xoth, Spi- Hiftory.
ders. This work is full of typographical errors and
miftakes in natural hiftory.
The difeovery of the microfcope in 1618, tended
greatly to the advancement of entomology, as by means
of it the moft minute parts of infefts could be viewed,
and their organization examined. Naturalifts were
much engaged in making microfcopic difeoveries, parti¬
cularly Borel, Rhedi, Swammerdam, Bonanni,Bonomo,
Leeuwenhoeck and Joblot.
John Swammerdam, in his Biblia Naturce, publiftied
in 1669, has divided iufefts into four clafles.
John Ray publiftied his Hijoria InfeBorum. Lond.
1710. This work was properly the joint produftion of
J. Ray and Francis Willoughby. Thefe illuftrious
friends laboured together with uncommon ardour in
the ftudy of nature. Death carried off Willoughby in
the prime of life, before he had properly digefted what
the induftry of his early years had collefted; and his
labours would have been loft to the world, and his
name might have funk in oblivion, but for the friend-
fhip of Ray. So clofe was the intercourfe between thefe
two naturalifts, and fo intimately were their labours
blended together, that it is not eafy to aflign each his
due lhare of merit. Indeed Ray has been lb partial to
the fame of his departed friend, and has cheriftied his
memory with fuch afteftionate care, that we are in
danger of attributing too much to Mr Willoughby,
and too little to himfelf. Though what Dr Derham
afferts be not correft, that Mr Willoughby had taken
the animal kingdom for his talk, and Mr Ray the ve¬
getable one, yet it is generally agreed, that the Hijoria
InfeBorum is principally to be ai’eribed to Willoughby.
In that w;ork infefts are divided into Tranfmutabi/ia et
Intranfmutabiha, (thofe which undergo a metamorpho-
fis, and thofe which undergo none). Thefe two grand
divifions are fubdivided into feveral orders, which are af-
certained by the number of their legs, or total want of
legs ; by the places which they inhabit; by their fize;
by the configuration of the various parts of the body ;
by the fmell which they diffufe, &c. The tranfmutabi-
lia are divided into four orders. 1. Vaginipennes, (thofe
which have their wings covered with a ftieath). 2. Pa-
piliones, (lepidopterous infefts). 3. ^uadripennes, (thofe
which have four wings) ; and 4. Bipennes, (thofe which
have two). The papiliones, quadripennes, and bipennes
are again fubdivided into families, the charafters of
which are taken, either from the appearance and con¬
formation of their larvae, or from the form, colour and
different properties of the perfeft infeft.
Eleazar Albin publiftied a natural hiftory of Englilh
infefts in 1720. He likewife publilhed the Natural
Hiftory of Spiders in 1736.
Antony Valifnieri, in his work entitled Efpenen%e
■e Oferva%ioni in tor no agli Infetti, publiflied in 173 c, .
has divided infefts into four orders, according to the
fituation in w-hich they pafs their lives.
Mary Sybelle Merian, publiflied in 1730, Hijoire
d'lnfeBes d'Europe et de Surinam. She likewife publilh¬
ed in 1705, Metamorphojs InfeBorum Surinamcnjum
ad vivum piBa et dejenpta; and in 1717, Erucarum
Ortus.
George Bernard Rhump publiflied in 1705, and
again in 1741, a work entitled AmboinifcheRavitutkam-
mer, .
Hairs
E N T O M
Hans Sloane, in the years 1707 and 172 c, publifrie.d
a Voyage to the Illands of Madeira, Barbadoes, Nevis,
Saint Chriftophers and Jamaica.
Henry Ruifch in 1710 and 1718 publiihed Theatrum
XJniverfale omnium Animahum.
J. Petiver publirt'.ed in 1715 his leones et Nomina
Jjtquatilium Animahum Amboina.
Richard Bradley publifhed in 1721 his Philofophical
.Account of the Works of Nature.
Linnaeus, the moft celebrated natural hiftorian the
world ever produced, in his firft edition of the Syjiema
Nature?, publiihed in 1735, divided infers into four
orders, from the number and different appearances of
their wings j 1. Coleoptera ; 2. Angtoptera ; 3. Hemip-
tera; znCi q. Aptera. This was but an imperfect Iketch,
a firft effay. In the fubfequent editions of the Syftem of
Nature which he publithed, to the number of twelve,
he completed the arrangement of infects, of which we
need fay nothing here, as we have followed it in pre¬
ference to all others *, and moft authors who have writ¬
ten on the fubjedt for more than half a century pail
have either followed it clofely, or with very flight al¬
terations. His extenfive genius embraced all the three
kingdoms of nature. In botany and entomology in
particular he far excels all who went before him, and
as yet remains unrivalled. Writers on entomology be¬
came fo numerous after Linnaeus had publiihed his
Syftem of Nature, and eftabliihed entomology on a folid
foundation, that a mere enumeration of their names
and titles of their books would occupy more room than
we can aft’ord to beftow on this article ; we {hall there¬
fore only notice a few of the moft remarkable.
Charles Degeer, in his Memoires pour fervir a PUif-
toire Aes Infetfes, in 1752, has arranged infects into four¬
teen orders, diftinguiftied by the different appearances
nf the various parts which compofe their bodies, particu¬
larly the elytra, wings, and moft remarkable parts of
the head. He publiihed again in 1778.
M. de Reaumur publiihed his Memoires pour fervir a
PHiftoire des Infecles at Paris in 1737. No one has
paid fo much attention to the habits of infects, and to
every thi g that concerns them, as Reaumur. He ought
to be read by every ftudent of entomology.
John Retzius, has fimplified the arrangement of
Degeer, in a fmall work entitled Genera st Species
InfeBorum. But although in this arrangement he has
followed ihe meihod of Degeer, the terms he has made
ufe of are principally thofe ofvLirmaeus. Plis 14 orders
are, 1. Lepidoptera. 2. Alinguia. 3. Neuroptera.
4. Hymenoptera. 5. Siphonata. 6. Dermaptera.
7. Hemiptera. 8. Coleoptera. 9. Hafterata. 10. Pro-
bofeidea. 11. Suftoria. 12. Ancenata. 13. Atra-
chelia. 14. Cruftacea.
M. Geoffrey, in his Hiftoire Abrege des IvfeBes, pub¬
liihed at Paris in 1762, has divided infe&s into fix or¬
ders*, Coleopteres, Hemipteres, Tetrapteres ailes fari-
neufes, Tetrapteres ailes nues, Dipteres, and Apteres.
He determined his families by the number of the arti¬
culations of the feet, and his genera by charafters drawn
from all the parts of the body. He has formed a great
number of new genera.
John Antony Scopoli, in his Entomologia Carniolica,
-publifhed in 176.’, has followed the arrangement of
Linmeus, and only changes the names of fome of the
orders j e. g. Probofeidea, inftead of Hemiptera j Acu-
o l o G Y.’
leata, inftead of Hymenoptera ; Halterata, xnftead of
Diptera ; and Pedeftria, inftead of Aptera.
J. C, Schaeffer publifned in 1766, Elementa Entomo-
lofca, 135 tabuice cere excujpehe follows in many
points the method of Linnaeus. He divides inftwfts into
feven claffes. 1. Coleoplero-macroptera. 2. Coleop-
tero-microptera. 3. Hemiptera. 4. Hymeno-lepidop-
tera. 5. Hymeno-gymnoptera. 6. Diptera; and
7. Aptera. His firft and fecund claffes correfpond with
the Coleoptera of Linnaeus } the fourth with the Lepi¬
doptera, and the fifth with the Hymenoptera.
John C. Fabricius is the founder of a new fyftem of
Entomology, which he publfthed in his Syfema Natural
1775. lie diferiminates his orders and genera, by the
parts of the mouth, (injirumenta cibaria). He after¬
wards publifhed Species InfeBorum, Entomoiogia Syfe-
matica, and Mantiffa InfeBorum.
The arrangement of Fabricius has acquired great re¬
putation, efpecially on the continent. It may not there¬
fore be amifs to give a flight view of it. He divides
infedts into eight dalles.
Clafs I.
Clafs II.
Clafs III.
CMs IV.
Clafs V.
Clafs VI.
Clafs VIL
Clafs VIII.
Eleutherata. Mouth armed with jaws,
and four or fix feelers. The jaws naked
and free.
Ulanata. The jaws covered with an ob-
tufe helmet.
Sykistata. The jaws united with the
lip.
Agonata.
Unogata.
The under jaw wanting.
Mouth armed with jaws and
two feelers *, the under jaw generally
furnifhed with a fmall unguis or nail.
Glossata. Mouth furniflied with feelers,
and a fpiral tongue.
Rh YNGOTA. Mouth furniftied w ith a fhout,
and an articulated {heath.
AntliaYA. Mouth furnilhed with a hauf-
tellum and a (heath not articulated.
In a fupplement 'to his Entomoiogia Syfema tic a, he
has divided infe£ts into thirteen orders. 1. Eleutherata,
2. Ulonata. 3. Syniftata. 4. Piezata. 5. Odorata.
6. Mitofata. 7. Unogata. 8. Polygonata. 9. Klei-
ftagnatha. 10. Exoehnata. ii.Gloffata. 12. Rhyn-
gota. 1 3. Anthliata. He has lately publifhed a work
entitled Syftema Eleutheratorum, no more than two
volumes of which have as yet made their appearance.
Mofes Harris publifhed an Expofition of Englifh In-
feds, &c. with coloured plates, 1776.
Jo. Chrift publifhed Philofophia Entomologica ffens
feientia fundamenta, &c, Hamb. 177^’ ^vo*
Archiv. der Infehengefchichte heraufgege bet von.
Job. Cafp. Fuefly. Zurich, 1781.
Fr. Paul la, v. Schrank $ Enumeratio InfeBorum An-
frice indigenorum. Aug. Vindel. 1781.
P. Sim. Pallas; leones InfeBorum. Hamb. 1781.
A. W. Knock; Beytraege %ur hfektengefchichte,
1781.
James Barbut publifhed the Genera InfeBorum of
Linnaeus, exemplified by various fpecimens of Englifh
infeds drawn from nature. Lond. 1781. ^
John Nepomuk de LaichartLg, has divided infeds
into ten orders, charaderized by the configuration of va¬
rious parts of the body. He adheres pretty clofely to
OicLex X. C oTeopXera .
v/y' sr/’s/f’i'/.j t y/-rrs//r,j.
WjlwAi&cilci Seit/p ■ ‘
ENTOMOLOGY.
PLATE CCV
OxcLcr III, Ti irLoptera.
, - ,
- -
.
entomology
OrcLcr Y. Hymexioptera
s’//
WArr/ii&a/d J'af/p.r
E N T O M
Hiftory. the method of Lmnseus. His orders are, i. Scarabse-
’—T"—' oides. 2. Grylloides. 3. Cimicioides. 4. Papilionoides
5. Libelluloides. 6.Vefpoides. 7. Mufcoides, 8. Can-
croides. 9. Aranoides, and 10. Onifcoides.
Olivier, in 1780, publilhed Entomo/ogie, cu HiJIoire
Eaturel/e des Infefies, in 3 vols. 410. Paris. In 1790,
in the DiBionnaire des Infc&cs, forming a part of the
Encyclopedic Methodique, he has given an arrangement
of infefts little different from that of Linnaeus. He has
added one order which he calls Orthopteres, diftinguifh-
ed by the mode of folding the lower wings, and a part
on the head, which he terms galea. He has likeMife
fubdivided the order Aptera, into Arachindes and Cruf-
taces. Latreille in 1795, in a work entitled Precis du
Cara Sere des Genres, divides infedls into two grand di-
vifions, viz. infeSes ailes, et infeSes apteres (winged
infefts, and infers without wings). Thefe two grand
divifions he fubdivides into 14 orders. 1. Coleopteres.
2. Orthopteres. 3. Hemipteres. 4, Neuropteres. 5.
Lepidopteres. 6. Suceurs. 7. Thyfanoures. 8. Pa-
rafites. 9. Acephales. 10. Entomoftraces. n.Cruf-
' j taces. 1 2. Myriapodes. Since that he has publifhed
a mere detailed account of this method in a work enti¬
tled les Genres et les Families des InfeSes.
Clairville in 1795, in the introduction to his Entomo-
logie llelvetique, has given an arrangement of infeCts,
O L O G Y.
in which he differs from Linnaeus almoft in nothing, ex¬
cept in the names of his orders, viz. Elytropteres, Dic-
tyopteres, Thlebopteres, Haltipteres, Lepidopteres,
Heminopteres, Rophoteires, and Pododuneres.
Link, in his Magafin fur Thiergefchite, has divided
infeCts into eleven orders $ he follows de Laicharting
almoft in every thing, even in the names of his or¬
ders j he has indeed added an order which he calls
Pediculoides.
Cuvier and Dumeril, in their Comparative Anatomy,
have very nearly followed the method of Linnaeus; they
have however divided the order Aptera into two, viz.
Gnathaptera and Aptera j they have likewife altered the
arrangement of the orders, and have placed thofe firft
which contain infefts furnifliedwdth jaws, viz. Gnathap¬
tera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, and Or-
thoptera j and have thrown thofe laft which are defti-
tute of jaws, viz. Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera and
Aptera.
339
Hiftory.
We (hall refrain from noticing thofe authors who have
W'ritten partial treatifes 7 though there are feveral works
of that kind which the entomologift might perufe with
advantage, fueh as the Fauna Suecica, publifhed in 1761
by Linnaeus, at Stockholm. Fauna Germanica, by
Panzer. La Faune Panjienne deWalhnair Kirby’s Mo,
nographia apum Ang/ue. Latreille’s treatife on Ants,.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES,
Plate CCITL
Fig. I. Antenna PECTINATE, or feathered J as in the
phahena, moths.
2.  perfoliate, or perfoliated $ as in
the dermefes and dytifeus.
3. — FissiLES, or fiflile, divided into la¬
minae at the extremity, as in thefcarabcei,
beetles.
.4.   clay ate, or club-fhaped, as in the
papilio, butterfly.
5.   MONILIFORMES, like a necklace of
beads; as-in the chryfomela.
  setacee, fetaceous; or briftle-fha-
ped ; as in many of the ph'alcenee.
7. aristate, furnifhed with a lateral
hair, as in the fly.
5. 9. a. Caput, the head.
b, Palpi, or feelers
c, Antennae, or horns.
d, Oculi, the eyes.
e, Thorax.
fl Sculellum, or efcutcheon.
g, PeCtus, or breaft.
h, Sternum, or breaft-bone.
1, Abdomen, and its fegments.
b, Anus.
» /, Elytra, or fhells.
m. Membranous wings.
Pedes, or feet, which are natatorii.
10. 0, Femur, or thighs
р. Tibia, or leg.
y, Tarfus, or foot,
r, Unguis, or claw.
11. a, The anterior part of the wingi
b, The polterior part.
с. The exterior part.
d, The interior part.
e, The margin.
y^.The difk, or middle.
g, Oculus, or eye.
12> 13> l4> 15- Reprefent the infeCI in its egg4
caterpillar, pupa, and perfeCl
ftate.
Order I. COLEOPTERA, Fig. 16. Scarabs us. Fig. 17,
Ptinus. Fig. 18. Bupreflis. Fig. 19. Carabus.
Order II. Fig. 20. Mantis. Fig. 21. Fulgora.
Fig. 22. NotoneSa. Fig. 23. Cimex. Fig. 24. Mis.
Fig. 25. Coccus.
Older III. Fig. 26. Papiho, Fig. 27. Sphinx.
Fig. 28. Pha/cena. ,
Order IV. Fig. 29. Libellula. Fig. 30. Hemero-
bins. Fig. 31. Panorpa.
Order V. Fig. 32. Tenthredo. Fig. 33. Ichneu-
won. Fig. 34. Chrysis. Fig. 35. Formica.
Order VI. Fig, 36. Oeflrus. Fig. 37. Tipu/a.
Fig. 38. Afllus.
Order III. Fig. 39. Lepifma. Fig. 40. Aranea.
Fig. 41. Scorpio. Fig. 42. Cancer. Fig. 43. Sco/o-
pendra.
INDEX,
[ 24° 1
INDEX.
Abdomen, p. 146
Acarus, > 219
jlchivi, a fubdivilion of papilio, 183, 184
Attceon, largeft coleopterous infeft
known, 152
Aculeus, I47
Adonidum, fpecies of coccus, 17^
fer, fpecies of fcorpio, 22 4
Aliment of infects, 230
Alurnus, J57
Animal cotton, J99
207
Ant-eater, I9^
Ant-eggs, 297
do not ftore up for the winter, tb.
Antennte,
ufe of, 230
Anthrenus, 15 ^
Anus, J4^
Apalus, 160
Aphides, propagation of, 175
Aphis,
Apiarius, fpecies of attelabus, 162
Apis, 203
Aptera, i47j 2I5
Aranea, _ 221
Armadillo, fpecies of onifeus, 227
Afilus, 2I4
AJlacus, - 225
Atlas, fpecies of pbalaena, 190
Atrops, fpecies of fphinx, 188
Attacos, a fubdivifion of phalsena, 189
Attelabus, 161
Auriculana, fpecies of forficula, 17°
Avicularia, fpecies of aranea, 222
B
Barded,
Bach,
Beak,
Bee,
Beetle,
Blatta,
Blijlering fly,
BloJJbm-eater,
Boat-fly,
Bombyces, divifion of phalsena,
Bombyhus,
Bond,
Boflrichus,
Bolts,
Bovinus, fpecies of tabanus,
Bovis, fpecies of osftrus,
Breafl,
Breeze, .
Brentus,
Bruchus,
146
ib.
ib,
203
152
171
169
ib.
173
189, 190
214
160
154
309
213
208
146
208
160
159
Bug, P* x73
when introduced into Europe, 174
Bull-comber, 152
Bullhead, 1 ^7
Bupreflis,
Butterfly, 1^2
Bu%fly, 214
Byrrhus,
Cacao, fpecies of bruchus, 159
CaEli, fpecies of coccinella, 157
a fpecies of coccus, 176
Caddo, l9S
Caddy, > tb-
Calcitrant, a fpecies of ftomoxys, 214
Calopus, 163
Campefcane, cochineal, l11
Cancer, _ 224
Cancroides, fpecies of phalangium, 221
Candelaria, fpecies of fulgora,. 173
Candidi, a fubdivifion of papilio, 183
Cantharis, I^5
Capitate, 14 6
Carabus, *^7
Carnaria, fpecies of mufca, 211
Carrion-beetle, 15°
Carrion-eater, 1 ^4
Caflida, 157
Ccecutiens., fpecies of tabanus, 213
Cells of wafps, how formed, 202
Centuncularis, fpecies of bee, 203
Cerambyx,
Cerrana, a fpecies of phalsena, 192
Cerella, a fpecies of phalsena, 194
Chalcis, 201
Cheefe mite, 220
Chela, I47
Cher mes, I7^
Chernies grains, I°2
Chryfalls, *47
Chryfls, 201
Chryfomela, 158
Cicada, 173
Cicindela, 1
Cimex, ' ' 174
Circulation of fluids in infects, 233
Clavated, 14^
Claw, 147
Clock-beetle, I53
Coccinella, , I57
Coccus, 17^
Cochineal, 1 *
falfely fuppofed a vegeta¬
ble production, 177
introduced into Bengal, 178
Cock-chojfer, J53
Cockroach, 171
Coleoptera, I47> 152
Colombafchenfls, fpecies of mufca, p. 21 j
Comparative quantity of wax made
from fugar and from
honey, 206
Conops, ' 214
Cojfus, fpecies of phalaena, eaten by
the Romans, ipt
Cow-burner,
Crab, _ 224
Crabro, fpecies of vefpa, 202
Crane-fly, _ 210
Crangon, fpecies of cancer, 22j
Cratagi, a fpecies of papilio, igj
Craw-fljh, 22^
Cricket, iyi
Cryptocephalus, 1 jg
Cuckow-fpit,
Cucujus, 165
Culex, 213
Culinaris, a fpecies ef tenebrio, 168
Curculio, 160
Cynips, 197
D
Danai, a divifion of papilio, 183, 185
Day-fly, 195
Death-watch, 155
Demoted, 147
Dermefles, 154
DeflruBor, a fpecies of acarus, 220
fpecies of termes, 217
Defied ed, 146
Diamond-beetle, 160,161
Diopfls, 210
Diptera, 147, 208
Domeflica, fpecies of mufca, 211
Domeflicus, fpecies of gryllus, 172
Door-beetle, 153
Dragonfly, 194
Drone-bee, 203
Dung-beetle, 153
Dyfenterica, fpecies of acarus, 220
E
Ear-wig, 17°
Economy of termes fatale,
Elater, ^5
Elytra, J47
Emmet,
Empis, 2I3
Ephemera, J95
Equi, fpecies of ceftrus, 209
Equina, fpecies of hippobofca, 2IJ
Equites, a divifion of papilio, ^3
Erodiu,, . l6>
Eruca,
Eyes of infeCts, 229i
Experiments of Maupertuis on fcor-
pions,
Extremities,
Index.
F
Farina of flowers, the food of the
young bees, p. 205
farinalis, a Ipecies of phalsena, 193
fajHgata, 147
Fata/e, a fpecies of termes, 216
Faujla, fpecies of mantis, a Hotten¬
tot deity, 171
Feelers, 146
Female bee, 203
Feftm, a divifion of papilio, 1 83, 188
indica, food of the lac infeft, 180
religiofa, food of the lac infect ib.
fpecies of coccus, ib.
Field-cricket, 17 2
Figu/us, fpecies of fphex, 200
Filiform, 146
Fire-Jhj, 164
Fifile, 146
Flea, 219
Flowers do not always contain honey, 208
Fly, 210
Forceps, 147
Forjicula, 170
Formica, 207
Formicarius, fpecies of attelabus, 161
fpecies of myrmeleon, 148
Fojforia, fpecies of vefpa, 202
Frit, fpecies of mufca, 212
Frog-hopper, 173
Frumentarius, a fpecies of curculio,
injurious to corn, 160
Fulgora, 172
Fulto, largelt Britifh fcarabaeus, 183
Furca, 147
Gad-fly, 208
Gallfly, . 197
Gawwflrwj, fpecies of cancer, ~ 225
Gemmati, a fubdivifion of papilio, 183, 186
Geometrcv, a divifion of phahena, X89, 192
Generation of infedts, 234
Gigur, 219
Glomeratuss a fpecies of ichneumon, 200
Glow-worm,
Glutton, j . n
Gnat, 213
Golden-fly, 20 x
Grana-flna, compared with grana-fyl-
veftris, 179
compared with Bengal
cochineal, j8o
Grana fylveftris improveable, 179
Grananus, a fpecies of curculio, in-
r junous to grain, j6o
GraneUa, a fpecies of phalaena, 144
Gryllotalpa, a fpecies of gryllus, 172
%//y, ,T,
Gum lac, l8o
Gynnus,
Habitations of the white ant, 211
^’’■0,rlioidahs, a fpecies of oeftrus, 209
Hawk-tmth, 1 qZ
' Vol. VIH. Part I.
entomology.
Flapiali, a divifion of phalsena, n. 190, 194
Hearing of infefts, 229
Heltconii, a divifion of papilio, 183, 185
Hemelytra, 147
Herniptera, 147, 171
Hemerobius, 196
Hlppobofca, 21 r
HHfpa, 159
H'fler, ^ 155
Homtnis, a fpecies of oeftrus, 210
Honey-bee, 202
Horia, 165
Hornet, 20 2
Flor/e-fly, 219
Houfe-bug, , 174
Houfe-cricket, 172
Hoife-fly, 2X1
Humble-bee, 206
Hu mile, a fpecies of phalaena, 194
Hyalina, a fpecies of fulgora, 173
Hydrachna, 220
Hydrophilus, 167
Hymenoptera, 147, 197
24I
LucanuSy p. 134
Lytta, 169
M
Ichneumon, iqq
Ilicis, a fpecies of coccus, 182
Imago, _ 147
Imperial is, a fpecies of curculio, l6x
Incumbent, x^6
InfeB, definition of, ib,
In/eSls, charafters of, 148
clafiification of, 147
Irritans, a fpecies of pulex, 219
a fpecies of llomoxys, 2x4
Itch infeft, 220
lulus, 228
Jaculator, a fpecies of ichneumon, 199
Japonica, a fpecies of lampyris, 164
Jarpeada, a kind of cochineal, 177
L
Lacca, jgo
Lac infeft, ib.
Lady-bird,
Lady-cow,
Lampyris,
Land crab,
Lanternaria, a fpeeies of fulgora,
Lantliorn-Jhi,
Larva,
I^atro, a fpecies of cancer,
Leather-eater,
L-eBularis, a fpecies of cimex,
Lepidoptera,
Lepifma,
Leptura,
Lcucop/is,
Libellu/a,
Lion-ant,
Lobjler,
LocuJI,
Locuflce,
Long-legged fpider,
Loufe,
Leafy beetle,
r57
164
224
*13
172
147
225
*54
174
147, 192
2*5
163
201
194
196
22 c
172
ib*
Machaon, a fpecies of papilio,
Macrocephalus,
Maie-bee,
Manticora,
Mantis,
MaJHque cochineal,
Maurus, a fpecies of fcorpio,
Maxilla,
May bug,
Melliflca, a fpecies of apis,
Melonella, a fpecies of phalaena,
Meloe,
Melolontha,
Melyris,
Met amorphojis,
Meteorica, a fpecies of mufca,
Method of rearing cochineal,
Migratorius, a fpecies of gryllus,
Mite,
Mole-cricket,
Molitor, a fpecies of tenebrio,
Moniliform,
Monoculus,
Mordella,
Mon, a fpecies of phalaena,
Mono, a fpecies of apis,
i8x
175
203
169
171
177
224
146
202
J94
169
*53
i83
147
212
177
172
2x9
172
168
146
226
170
191
. - 207
Morjitans, a fpecies of feolopendra, 2 28
Moth, 183
Mufca, 2X0
Mufquito, 217
Mutdla, 207
Myrmeleon, igS
N
Nava/is, a fpecies of cantharis, inju¬
rious to oak timber, 165
Necydalis, 164
Negra, a kind of cochineal, 177
Nepa, 174
Neuroptera, 147, 194
Neuter bee, } 203
Neuters, J47
Nibbler, j 73
Nidufans, a fpecies of aranea, 222
Nympha, " 147
Nymphalis, a divifion of papilio, 183, i85
Nitidula, 164
Notlilicus, a fpecies of elater, 166
NoHuce, a divifion of phahena, 189, 193
Nopal, food of the true cochineal, 177
NototteBa, 173
Natoxus, 1 fig
Number of bees in a hive, 203
of fpecies of infers, 228, 235
Number of bolts in the ilotnach of
horfes, 209
Nurfing bees, 204
O
Ocelli, ,47
Oejlrus, 20q
221 Oleracea, a fpecies of tipula, 2X0
218 Oleraceus, a fpecies of cimex, 174
153 Omjcus, 227
H h Opatrum,
242
Opatnmi, P* I5!^
Opi/io, a fpecies of phalangium, 221
Organisation of infecls, 228
Organs of digeftion of infers, 23 7
generation, 234
maftication, 231
Orientalis, a fpecies of blatta, 17*
Orni, a fpecies of cicada, larva eatable, 173
OWj, a fpecies of oeftrus, 209
Ox-jlij, 213
Pagwrus, a fpecies of cancer, 225
Palpcey
Panorfia} 196
Pafiilio, 182
Parap/echcur, a fpecies of curculio, fup-
pofed to be the caufe
of flaggers in horfes, 160
ParnaJJti, a divifion of papilio, 183,
Pajlely a preparation of coccus ilicis,
Paufus,
Pedicular,
Peciinated,
Penetrans, a fpecies of pulex,
Perfoliated,
Phalanglum,
Phalccna,
Phalerati, a fubdivifion of papilio,
Phofphoria, a fpecies of fcolopendra,
Phojphorius, a fpecies of elater,
Phryganea,
Pilularius, a fpecies of fcarabseus,
Pimelia,
Pincers,
Pinguinalis, a fpecies of phalaena,
fometimes found in the
human ftomach, 193
PinnopJiylax, a fpecies of cancer, 224
Pipiens, a fpecies of culex, 213
Pifi, a fpecies of bruchus, introduced
into Europe from America, 159
Plant-lice, 179
Plebeii, a divifion of papilio, 183, 187
1 85
182
1S9
2x8
146
219
146
221
189
*83
228
166
I95
I53
168
*47
Pneumora,
Padura,
Polonicus, a fpecies of coccus
Polyphemus, a fpecies of monoculus,
Prawn,
Prefervation of infedls in cabinets,
Pterophori, a divifion of phalaena, 190,
Ptinus,
Pubis, a fpecies of pediculus,
Pulex,
a fpecies of monoculus,
Pulfatorius, a fpecies of termes,
Pumilionis, a fpecies of mufca,
171
215
176
227
225
236
194
155
218
2x9
227
2X8
21*2
Pyratides, a divifion of nhalaena, 189, 193
&
^ueen bee, 20$
^uercus gemmfe, fpecies of cynips, 197
folise, tb.
R
Rophidia, J97
E N T O M O L O G Y.
Red fpider, __ p. 219
Rein deer go to the mountains to (hun
the oeftrus, 208
Renagnda, a kind of cochineal, 177
Refpiration of in feds, 232
Rev erfed, __
Rhamnus jujuba, food «f the lac
infed, 18o
Rhinomacer, _ *61
Robinue, a fpecies of bruchus, intro¬
duced into Europe from
America, _ 159
Rof/narini, a fpecies of cynips, 197
Rojlrata, a fpecies of ftomoxys, 214
Rove-beetle, _ 157
Rurales, a fubdivifion of papilio, 170
Ruricolce, a fpecies of cancer, 224
S
Sabulofa, a fpecies offphex, 200
Sacchannum,?i fpecies of lepifma, 215
Sanguifugus, fpecies of acarus, 220
Saw-fy, 197
Scabiei, a fpecies of acarus, 2 20
Scarabceus, 15 2
Scluefferi, a fpecies of fcarabseus,. 153
Scarlet grain of Poland, 176
Scolia, 201
Scolopcndra, 228
Scorpio, 223
Scorpion, 2 21
Scorpion Jly, 196
Scutellum, " 146
Secalis, a fpecies of phalaena, 193
Secretion of infeds, 233
SeduBor, a fpecies of ichneumon, 199
Segetis, a fpecies of elater, 166
a fpecies of curculio, deftruc-
tive to grain, 161
Senfes of infeds, 229
Serropalpus, 165
Setaceous, 146
Sexes of infeds, 147
Shanks, tb.
Shepherd's fpider, 221
Shrimp, 225
Silk, by whom firft made, X91
Silk-worm, ib.
Sir ex, 198
Siro, a fpecies of acarus, 146
Skipper, 165
Snout, 146
Soothfayer, a fgecies of mantis,. 171
Spamjhjly, 169
Sparkier, 166
Spkex, 200
Sphinx, 187
Spider, 2 21
Spiracula, 146
Splendidula,, a fpecies of lampyris, 164
Spring-tail, 215
Spumana, a fpecies of cicada-, 173
Squilla, a fpecies of cancer, 225
Stag-beetle, 154
StaphilinuSj 17 0
Index
Slate of the atmofphere muft favour¬
able for the fecretion of
honey» p. 20
Stemmata, T.;
sternum, $
, 14*
©f the European fcorpion not fo ‘
dangerous as' is commonly
fuppofed,
Stipitati,
Stomoxys,
Sulcata, a fpecies of pimelia,
Sycophanta, a fpecies of carabus,
Sylpha,
Sylvejler, a fpecies of cochineal,
Tabanus, 21:
Tail, i4:
Tailed wafp, 19J
Tape%ella, a fpecies of phalaena, 19,
Tarandi, a fpecies of ceftrus, 208
Tarantula, a fpecies of aranea, 22:
Telarius, a fpecies of acarus, 2i<
Tenebrio, 16S
Tenthredo, 19’
Termes, 2E
Terrejiris, a fpecies of apis, 201
Tetrafcale cochineal, 17
Thorax, l4i
Thrips, 18
Thynnufy 20
Tick, 21;
Tinece, a divifion of phalaena, 190,19
Tiphia, 20
Tipula, 21 j
Tortrices, a divifion of phalaena, 19I
Tritici, a fpecies of phalaena, 19
a fpecies of tipula,
Tritoma,
Trees, a fubdivifion of papilio,
Trompe, a fpecies of oeftrus.
Trunk,
Turnip-fly,
Verrucivorus, a fpecies of gryllus,
Vefcatoria, a fpecies of lytta,
Vefpai
Vitellmce, a fpecies of tenthredo,-.
Vine-fretter,
Violacca, a fpecies of apis,
Vitis, a fpecies of aphis,
Vocans, a fpecies of cancer,
Vulgaris,,a fpecies of vefpa, 2C
Vulgata, a fpecies of ephemera, ufed
as manure by the inhabi¬
tants of Carniola,
Urbicola, a fubdivifion of papilio, 183, ft
Urtica, a fpecies of papilio, _ ft
Ufe the bees make of the farina, of
flowers, 2C
Utility of infeds,.
w
Warbles, 2C
243
Index.
'Mater-clod, P- i67
Water-flea, , I55
Water-fcorp'-on, 174
Wax formed from honey, 203
making bees, 204
Weevil) 16°
ENTOMOLOGY.
Whirler, p. 1^5
Wings, 146
ere&, ib.
defledfed, ib.
White ant, 215
eaten by the Africans, 216
Y
Youngcjl and moft vigorous cattle at¬
tacked by the breeze, p. 208
Z
Z'gia, 160
Zonitis, tb.
ENT
£ntrepas ENTREPAS, in the manege, a broken pace or go-
11 ing, that is neither walk nor trot, but has fomewhat of
Entry, an amble.
■“"'V"”’' This is a pace or gait of fuch horfes as have no reins
or back, and go upon their (houlders j or, of fuch as
are fpoiled in their limbs.
ENTRING ladders, in a fhip, are of two forts
one ufed by the veffel’s fides, in a harbour, or in fair
weather, for perfons to go in and out of the (hip : the
other is made of ropes, with fmall ftaves for fteps ; and
is hung out of the gallery to enter into the boat, or to
come aboard the Ihip, when the fea runs fo high that
they durft not bring the boat to the (hip’s fide for fear
of ftaving it.
ENTROCHUS, in Natural Hi/lory, a genus of ex¬
traneous fulfils, ufually of about an inch in length, and
made up of a number of round joints, which, when fe-
parate and loofe, are called trochitce: They are compo-
fed of the fame kind of plated fpar with the folfil Ihells
of the echini, which is ufually of a bluilh-gray colour,
and very bright where frelh broken j they are all ftri-
ated from the centre to the circumference, and have a
cavity in the middle.
The entrochi are found of all fizes, from that of a
pin’s head to a finger’s length, and the thicknefs of
one’s middle finger 5 and are plainly of marine origin,
having often fea-lhells adhering to them. They are
fometimes known by the name of St Cuthbert’s beads,
and are ufually found in limeflone.
ENTRY, in Law, fignifies taking poflelfion of lands
or tenements, where a perfon has a right fo to do.
Entr T of an Heir, in Scots Law, that form of law
by which an heir veils in himfelf a proper title to his
predeceffor’s eltate.
Bill of Entr r, in commerce. See Bill.
In making entries inwards, it is ufual for merchants
to include all the goods they have on board the fame
Ihip in one bill, though fometimes they may happen to
be upwards of 20 feveral kinds : and in cafe the goods
are Ihort entered, additional or poll entries are now al¬
lowed j though formerly the goods fo entered were for¬
feited. As to bills of entry ,outwards, or including
goods to be exported, upon delivering them, and pay¬
ing the culloms, you will receive a fmall piece of parch¬
ment called a cachet, which teftines your payment there¬
of, and all duties for fuch goods.
If feveral forts of goods are exported at once, of
which fome are free, and others pay culloms; the ex¬
porter mull have two cockets, and therefore mull make
two entries ; one for the goods that pay, and the other
for the goods that do not pay cullom.
Entries of goods, on which a drawback is allowed,
®iult jikewife contain the name of the Ihip in which the
EON.
goods were imported, the importer’s name, and time of Entry
entry inwards. The entry being thus made, and an ^ •!
oath taken that the culloms for thofe goods were paid 01 1'
as the law directs, you mull carry it to the collector
and comptroller, or their deputies ; who, after exami¬
ning their books, will grant warrant, which mull be
given to the furveyor, fearcher, or land-w7aiter, for them
to certify the quantity of goods j after which the cer¬
tificate mull be brought back to the colledlor and
comptroller, or their deputies, and oath made that the
faid goods are really Ihipped, and not landed again in
any part of Great Britain.
ENVELOPE, in Fortification, a w'ork of earth,
fometimes in form of a fimple parapet, and at others
like a fmall rampart with a parapet: it is raifed fome¬
times on the ditch, and fometimes beyond it.
ENVIRONNE', in Heraldry, fignifies furrounded
with other things : thus, they fay, a lion environne
with fo many bezants. See Bezants.
ENUMERATION, an account of feveral things,
in which mention is made of every particular article.
Enumeration, in Rhetoric, a part of peroration ; in
which the orator, collecting the fcattered heads of what
has been delivered throughout the whole, makes a brief
and artful relation or recapitulation thereof.
ENVOY, a perfon deputed to negotiate fome affair
with any foreign prince or Hate. Thofe lent from the
courts of Britain, France, Spain, &c. to any petty
prince or Hate, fuch as the princes of Germany, the
republics of Venice, Genoa, &e. go in quality of en¬
voys, not ambaffadors ; and fuch a charafler only d«
thofe perfons bear, who go from any of the principal
courts of Europe to another, when the affair they ge
upon is not very folemn or important. There are en¬
voys ordinary and extraordinary, as well as ambaffa¬
dors ; they are equally under the prote&ion of the law
of nations, and enjoy all the privileges of ambaffadors;
only differing from them in this, that the fame cere¬
monies are not performed to them.
ENVY, in Ethics, pain felt, and malignity con¬
ceived, at the fight of excellence or happinefs in an¬
other. See Emulation.
EON, or TEon. See ,/EoN.
EONIANS, in church-hillory, the followers of Eon#
a wild fanatic of the province of Bretagne, in the 12th
century, whofe brain was difordered. He concluded
from the refemblance between eum, in the form for
exerciling malignant fpirits, viz. Per cum, qui venturus
ejl judicare vivos et mortuos, and his own name Eon,
that he was the fon of God, and ordained to judge
the quick and dead. Eon, however, was Iblemnly con¬
demned by the council at Rheims, in 1148, at which
Pope Eugenius III. prefided, and ended his days in a
H b 2 Jenifer able
l
E P A [ 244 ]
tonians miferable prifon. He left beliind him a number of fol- every 19 years
Epa£b.
lowers and adherents, whom perfecution and death fo
, weakly and cruelly employed could not perfuade to aban¬
don his caufe, or to renounce an abfurdity which, fays
Molheim, one would think could never have gained cre¬
dit but in fuch a place as Bedlam.
EORI A, in Mythology, a fealt celebrated by the
Athenians in honour of Erigonus, who, by way of pu-
niihment for their not avenging the death of his father
Icarus, engaged the gods to inflift the curfe on their
daughters that they fhould love men who never return¬
ed their paflion. The feaft was inflituted by the order
»f Apollo.
EOSTRE, in Mythology, a Saxon goddefs to whom
they facrificed in the month of April, called the month
of Eojlra ; and thence the name Eafter, which the Sax¬
ons retained after their converfion to Chriftianity, ap¬
plying it to the feftival celebrated in commemoration of
our Saviour’s refurreftion.
EPACRIS, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs. See Botany Index.
EPACTS, in Chronology, the exceffes of the folar
month above the lunar fynodical mpnth, and of th6
folar year above the lunar year of twelve fynodical
months \ or of feveral folar months above as many
fynodical months, and feveral folar years above as many
dozen of fynodical months.
The epa&s, then, are either annual or menjlrual.
Menftrual epafts are the exceffes of the civil or ka-
lendar month above the lunar month. Suppofe, e. gr.
it were new moon on the firfl: day of January ; fince
the lunar month is 29 days 12h. 44' 3",' and the month
of January contains 31 days, the menftrual epa£l is I
day nh. 15' 57/'.
Annual epa&s are the exceffes of the folar year above
the lunar. Hence, as the Julian folar year is 365 days
6h. and the Julian lunar year 354 days 8h. 48' 38",
the annual epa£l will be to days 2ih. 11' 22" that is,
nearly 11 days. Confequently the epaft of 2 years is
22 days j of 3 years, 33 days j or rather 3, fince 30
days make an embolifmic or intercalary month.
Thus the epatt of 4 years is 14 days, and fo of the
reft *, and thus, every 19th year, the epaft becomes 30
or o j confequently the 20th year the epafl is 11 again ;
and fo the cycle ofexpafts expires w ith the golden num¬
ber, or lunar cycle of 19 years, and begins with the
lame, as in the following table :
Gold.
Numb.
Epafb.
XI
XXII
III
XIV
XXV
VI
XVII
Gold.
Numb.
8
9
10
11
12
J3
Epatfls,
XXVIII
IX
XX
I
XII
XXIII
Gold.
Numb.
Epa<fts.
*4
iJ
16
17
18
!9
IV
XV
XXVI
VIII
XIX
XXX
Again, as the new moons are the fame, that is, as
they fall on the fame day every 19 years, fo the dif¬
ference between the lunar and folar years is the fame
E P A
And becaufe the faid difference is al- Epads,
ways to be added to the lunar year, in order to adjuftEPara‘non.
or make it equal to the folar year j hence the faid dif- ^
ference refpeftively belonging to each year of the
moon’s cycle is called the epaB of the faid year, that is,
the number to be added to the faid year, to make it
equal to the folar year; the word being formed from
the Greek wruyu, induco, intercalo.
Up on this mutual refpeft between the cycle of the
moon and the cycle of the epafts, is founded this rule
for finding the Julian epa£l, belonging to any year of
the moon’s cycle. Multiply the year given of the
moon’s cycle into 11 : and if the product be lefs than
30, it is the epaft fought j if the produdft be greater
than 30, divide it by 30, and the remainder of the di¬
vidend is the epaft. For inftance, I would know the
epaift for the year 1712, which is the third year of the
moon’s cycle. Wherefore 3 is the epadt for 1712 j
for 11 X3—33i and 33 being divided by 30, there is
left 3 of the dividend for the epa<ft. But the difference
of the Julian and Gregorian years being equal to the
excefs of the folar above the lunar year, or 11 days, it
happens that the Gregorian epadl for one year is the
fame with the Julian epaft for the preceding year.
EPAMINONDAS, a celebrated Theban, the fon
of Polymnus, and one of the greateft captains of anti¬
quity. He learned philofophy and mufic under Ly-
fis, a Pythagorean philofopher *, and was from his in¬
fancy inured to all the exercifes of body and mind.
He was learned, generous, w'ell-lkilled in war, brave,
modeft, and prudent j and had fuch a regard for truth,
that he would not tell a falfehood even in jeft. He fer-
ved firft under the Lacedaemonians ; faved the life of
Pelopidas their chief, who received in a battle feven of
eight wounds 5 and contrafted a ftridl friendlhip with
that general, which lafted till his death. At his per-
fuafions, Pelopidas delivered the city of Thebes from
the yoke of the Spartans, who had rendered themfelves
matters of Cadmea, which occafioned a bloody war be¬
tween the twm nations. Epaminondas was made ge¬
neral of the Thebans ; on which he gained the cele¬
brated battle of Leuftra, in which Cfteombrotus, the
valiant king of Sparta, was killed. He then ravaged
the enemy’s country, and caufed the city of Medina
to be rebuilt and peopled. At length, the command
of the army was given to another, becaufe Epaminon¬
das had kept his troops in the field four months longer
than he had been ordered by the people 5 but, inftead
of retiring in difguft, he now ferved as a common fol-
dier, and diftinguiftied himfelf by fo many brave ac¬
tions, that the Thebans, afhamed of having deprived
him of the command, reftored him to his poft, in order
to carry the war into Theffaly, where his arms were
always victorious. A war breaking out between the
Elians and the inhabitants of Mantinea, the Thebans
took the part of the former. Epaminondas then refol-
ved to endeavour to furprife Sparta and Mantinea 5 but
not fucceeding, he gave the enemy battle, in which
he received a mortal wound with a javelin, the bearded
iron remaining in the wound. Know ing that it could
not be drawn' out without cccafioning immediate death,
he would not fuffer it to be touched, but continued to
give his orders : and on his being told, that the enemy
were entirely defeated, “ I have lived long enough (he
cried}-,
E P H [ 24s } E
rminon- cried), fmce I die without being conquered and at by aftronomers, Showing the
iphemen
des-
das the fame time he plucked the javelin from his wound,
» . and expired, 363 B- C.
EPANALEPSIS. See Oratory, N° 73.
EPANODOS. Ibid. N° 75.
EPANORTHOSIS. Ibid. N° 75.
EPARER, in the manege, fignifies the flinging
of a horfe, or his yerking and itriking with his hind¬
legs.
EPAULEMENT, in Fortification, a work raifed to
cover fidewife, is either of earth, gabions, or fafcines
loaded with earth. The epaulements of the places of
arms for the cavalry, at the entrance of the trenches,
are generally of fafcines mixed with earth.
EPAULETTES, are a kind of (houlder-knots
chofen for the foldiers, which are to be of the colour
of the facing, with a narrow yellow or white tape
round it, and worfted fringe j thofe for the officers are
made of gold or fllver lace, with a rich fringe •, they
are badges of diftinftion worn on one or both fnoulders.
Thofe of the dragoon-guards, horfe, and dragoons,
are worn on the left flioulder: the light dragoons, and
officers of grenadiers, have one on each (houldcr :
thofe of the battalion wear one on the right Ihoulder
only, which is to be made of embroidery or lace
with a gold or filver fringe. Thofe of the royal regi¬
ment of artillery are to be gold and embroidery, with
gold fringe or fcarlet cloth, and worn on the right
Ihoulder.
EPENTHESIS, in Grammar, the interpofition ©r
infertion of a letter or fyllable in the middle of a wmrd j
as alituum, for alitum ; reliigio, for religio ; induperator,
for impcrator, &c.
EPEUS, of the line of Endymion, the inventor of
the battering ram, an engine of great fervice in fieges
to make a breach. He is thought to have built the
Trojan horfe, and to have founded the city Metapon-
tum.
EPHA, or Ephah, in .Tewifh antiquity, a meafure
for things dry, equal to 3 pecks and 3 pints.
EPHEB/EUM, in antiquity, the place where the
ephebi or youth exercifed \ or, as lome fay, where thofe
who defigned to exercife met, and agreed what kind
of exercile they fliould contend in, and what fhould be
the vigor’s reward.
EPHEBI, among the Athenians, a deflgnation gi¬
ven to their young men when they arrived at 10 years
of age, at which time they had their names entered in
a public regifter.
EPHEDRA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
dioecia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 51ft order, Conifercc. See Botany Index.
EPHEMERA, from “a day j” a diary fe¬
ver, or a fever of one day’s continuance only. In this
cafe, fuch a heat as attends an excefs of wine, a puife
fomewhat full and quick, but foft and regular, a flight
headach, a naufea, and reftleffnefs, are all the fymp-
toms, and which terminate without any fenfible eva¬
cuation. If it continue unto the third day, it is not a
diary fever •, and if the conftitution is very dry, a
heftic is to be dreaded.
Ephemera, the Day-jly, a genus of infers belong¬
ing to the order of neuroptera. See Entomology
Index.
EPHEMERIDES, in AJlronomy, tables calculated
P H
prefent Rate of the hea-
that is, the places where-
vens for every day at noon •,
in all the planets are found at that time. It is from _
thefe tables that the eclipfes, conjunctions, and afpefts
of the planets, are determined 5 horofeopes or celeftial
fchemes conftruCted, See. We have ephemerides of
Origan, Kepler, Argoli, Heckerus, Mezzarachis,
Wing, De la Hire, Parker, &c. S. Caflini has cal¬
culated ephemerides of the iidera medicsea or fatellites
of Jupiter, which are of good ufe in determining the
longitude.
In England, the Nautical Almanack, or Aftronomi-
cal Ephemeris, publiffied annually by anticipation, un¬
der the direction of the commiffioners of longitude, is
the molt conflderable. In France, celeftial epheme¬
rides have been publifhed by M. Delplaces every ten
years, from 1715 to 1745 ; they were afterwards con¬
tinued by the Abbe Caille, with many additions •, of
which an account may be feen in the Hiitory of the
Academy of Sciences for I743« The Academy of
Sciences have likewife publiflied annually, from the
beginning of the prefent century, a kind of ephemeris
under the title of Connoijfance des Terns.
EPHESUS, a city of antiquity, much celebrated
on account of its temple of Diana, and for being
the moft famous mart or ftaple town of Hither Alia.
Ephefus was in ancient times the metropolis of all
Alia. Stephanus gives it the title of EpiphaneJIates, or
mojl illnjlrious; and Pliny ftyles it the ornament of
Alia. The ancient city flood about 50 miles fouth of
Smyrna, near the mouth of the river Cayfter, and the
{bore of the Icarian fea, which is a bay of the zEgaean j
but as it has been fo often deftroyed and rebuilt, it
is no eafy matter to determine the precife place. Moft;
of our modern travellers are of opinion, that the an¬
cient city flood more to the fouth than the prefent j
which they argue from the ruins that ft ill remain.
Ephefus was, in ancient times, known by the names of
Alopes, Ortygia, Morges, Smyrna, Trachera, Samornion,
and Etclo. It was called Ephefus, according to He-
raclides, from the Greek word ephefus, fignitying per-
mifjion; becaufe Hercules (fays he) permitted the Ama¬
zons to live and build a city in that place. Others tell
us, that Ephefus wras the name of the Amazon that
founded the city *, for Pliny, Juftin, and Oroflus, una-
niraoufly affirm that it was built by an Amazon j
while others beftow' this honour upon Androclus, the
fon of Codrus king of - Athens, who was the chief of
the Ionians that fettled in Afia. But, in matters of fo
early a date, it is impoflible to come at the truth, and
therefore not worth our while to dwell on fuch fruit-
lefs inquiries. What we know for certain is, that
the city, which in the Roman times was the metro¬
polis of all Afia, acknowledged Lyfimachus for its
founder*, for that prince, having caufed the ancient
city to be entirely demoliftved, rebuilt, at a vaft ex¬
pence, a new one, in a place more convenient, and
nearer the temple. Strabo tells us, that, as the in¬
habitants fhowed a great relu&ance to quit their an-
. cient habitations, Lyfimachus caufed all the drains
that conveyed the water into the neighbouring fens
and the Cayfter to be privately flopped upq where¬
by the city being on the firft violent rains in great
part laid under w*ater, and many of the inhabitants
drowned, they were glad to abandon the ancient and
retire
Ephcmerl-
def,
EphefuS*
I
E P H [ 246 ] E P H
Ephefu;. retire to the new city. This new Ephefus was greatly
^ v damaged by an earthquake in the reign of 1 iberius,
but by that emperor repaired and adorned with feveral
ftately buildings, of which there are now but few ruins
to be feen, and fcarce any thing worthy of ancient E-
phefus. The aquedudt, part of which is ftill Handing,
is generally believed to have been the work of the Greek
emperors; the pillars which fupport the arches are of
fine marble, and higher or lower as the level of the wa¬
ter required. This aqueduft ferved to convey water
into the city from the fpring of Halites, mentioned by
Paufanius. The gate, now called by the inhabitants,
for what reafon we know not, the Gate of Perfecution,
is remarkable for three bas-reliefs on the mould, of an
exquifite tafte. The port, of which fo many medals
have been (truck, is at prefent but an open road, and
not much frequented. The Caylter was formerly na¬
vigable, and afforded a fafe place for (hips to ride in,
but is now almoft choked up w ith fand.
But the chief ornament of Ephefus was the temple
of Diana, built at the common charge of all the dates
in Afia, and for its drufture, fize, and furniture, ac¬
counted among the wonders of the world. 'I his great
edifice wTas fituated at the foot of a mountain, and at
the head of a marfh •, which place they chofe, if we
believe Pliny, as the lead fubjeft to earthquakes. This
file doubled the charges •, for they were obliged to be
at a vad expence in making drains to convey the w'ater
that came down the hill into the morafs and the Cay-
fter. Philo Byzantius tells us, that in this work they
ufed fuch a quantity of done, as almod exhauded all
the quarries in the country *, and thefe drains or vaults
are what the prefent inhabitants take for a labyrinth.
To fecure the foundations of the conduits or fewers,
which were to bear a building of fuch a prodigious
weight, they laid beds of charcoal, fays Pliny, well
rammed, and upon them others of wool. Two hun¬
dred and twenty years, Pliny fays 400, were (pent in
building this wonderful temple by all Alia. It was 425
feet in length, and 200 in breadth, fupported by 127
marble pillars, 70 feet high, of which 27 were mod
curioufly carved, and the red polilhcd. Thefe pillars
were the works of fo many kings, and the bas-reliefs
of one were done by Scopas, the mod famous fculptor
of antiquity 5 the altar was almod wholly the work of
Praxiteles. Cheiromoerates, who built the city of
Alexandria, and offered to form Mount Athos into a
ftatue of Alexander, was the architeft employed on
this occafion. The temple enjoyed the privilege of an
afylum, which at fird extended to a furlong, was after¬
wards enlarged by Mithridates to a bow-fhot, and dou¬
bled by Mark Antony, fo that it took in part of the
city : but Tiberius, to put a dop to the many abufes
and diforders that attend privileges of this kind, re¬
voked them all, and declared, that no man guilty of
any wicked or dilhoned aftion diould efcape judice,
-though he fled to the altar itfelf.
The prieds who officiated in this temple were held
in great edeem, and truded with the care of facred
virgins, or priedeffes, but not till they were made eu¬
nuchs. They were called EjUatores and Effence, had a
particular diet, and were not allowed by their conffi-
tutions to go into any private houfe. They were
maintained with the profits accruing from the lake Se-
linufis, and another that fell into it, which mud have
been very ccnf derable, fince they ere&ed a golden da- Ephefo,
tue to one Artemidorus, who being fent to Rome, re-’—v-^
covered them after they had been feized by the farm¬
ers of the public revenues. All the lonians reforted
yearly to Ephefus with their wives and children, where
they folemnized the fedival of Diana w ith great pomp
and magnificence, making on that occafion rich offer¬
ings to the goddefs, and valuable prefents to her priefis.
The affiarchas, mentioned by St Luke, were, accord¬
ing to Beza, thofe prieds whofe peculiar province it was
to regulate the public fports that were annually per¬
formed at Ephefus in honour of Diana : they were
maintained with the colleftions made during the fports j
for all Afia flocked to fee them. The great Diana of
the Ephefians, as (he was fiyled by her blind adorers,
was, according to Pliny, a fmall datue of ebony, made
by one Canitia, though commonly believed to have been
fent down from heaven by Jupiter. 1 his datue w as
fird placed in a niche, which, as w e are told, the Ama¬
zons caufed to be made in the trunk of an elm. Such
was the fird rife of the veneration that was paid to
Diana in this place. In procefs of time the venera¬
tion for the goddefs daily increafing among the inha¬
bitants of Afia, a mod dately and magnificent temple
was built near the place where the elm dood, and the
datue of the goddefs placed in it. "I his w'as the fird
temple; but not quite fo fumptuous as that which we
have deferibed, though reckoned, as well as the fecond,
among the wonders of the world. The fecond, being
that above deferibed, was remaining in Pliny’s time,
and in Strabo’s •, and is fuppofed to have been dedroy-
ed in the reign of Condantine, purfuant to the edi&
by which that emperor commanded all the temples of
the heathens to be thrown down and demoliflied : the
former was burnt the fame day that Alexander was
born, by one Erodratus, who owned on the rack, that
the only thing which had prompted him to dedroy fo ex¬
cellent a work, w as the defire of tranfmitting his name
to future ages. Whereupon the common council of Afia
made a decree, forbidding any one to name him j but
this prohibition ferved only to make his name more
memorable, fuch a remarkable extravagance, or rather
madnefs, being taken notice of by all the hidorians
who have written of thofe times. Alexander offered
to rebuild the temple at his own expence, provided the
Ephefians would agree to put his name on the front j
but they rejected his offer in fuch a manner as prevent¬
ed the refentment of that vain prince, telling him, that
** it was not fit one god (hould build a temple to ano¬
ther.” The pillars, and other materials that had been
faved out of the flames, were fold, and alfo the jewels
of the Ephefian women, who on that occafion willing¬
ly parted with them •, and the fum raifed from thence
ferved for the carrying on of the work till other con¬
tributions came in, which in a fliort time amounted
to an immenfe treafure. This is the temple w hich Stra¬
bo, Pliny, and other Roman writers fpeak of. It
flood between the city and the port, and was built, or
rather finiflied, as Livy tells us, in the reign of King
Servius. Of this wonderful drudlure there is nothing
at prefent remaining but fome ruins, and a few broken
pillars.
The lonians firfl fettled at Ephefus under the con-
duft of Androclus, who drove out the Carians and Le-
leges, by whom thofe places were poffeiled at his ar¬
rival.
E P H [ 247 ] E P H
rival. The city, whether built by him, as Strabo af¬
firms, or by Croefus or Ephefus, long before the Io¬
nic migration, as others maintain, became foon the
metropolis of Ionia. It was at firft governed by An-
droclus, and his defeendants, who affumed the royal
title, and exercifed the regal authority over the new
colony :-whence, even in Strabo’s time, the pofterity
of Androclus were ftyled kings, and allowed to wear
a fcarlet robe, with a fceptre, and all the enfigns of the
royal dignity. In procefs of time, a new form of go¬
vernment was introduced, and a fenate eftablifhed ; but
when, or on what occafion, this change happened, we
know not. This kind of government continued till the
time of Pythagoras, who lived before Cyrus the Great,
and was one of the moft cruel and inhuman tyrants we
read of in hiftory j for having driven out the fenate,
and taken all the power into his own hands, he filled
the city with blood and rapine, not fparing even thofe
who fled to the temple of Diana for {belter, Pytha¬
goras was fucceeded by Pindarus, who bore the fame
fway in the city 5 but treated the citizens with more
humanity. In his time Ephefus being befieged by
Croefus king of Lydia, he advifed the inhabitants to
devote their city to Diana, and fallen the wall, by a
rope, to the pillars of her temple. They followed his
advice, and were, from reverence to the goddefs, not
only treated with great kindnefs by Croefus, but refto-
red to their former liberty. Pindarus being obliged
to relign his power, retired to Peloponnefus. He was,
according to Ailian, grandfon to Alyattes king of Ly¬
dia, and Croefus’s nephew. The other tyrants of E-
phefus mentioned in hiftory are, Athenagoras, Comes,
Ariftarchus, and Hegefias ; of whom the laft was ex¬
pelled by Alexander, who,. coming to Ephefus, after
having defeated the Perfians on the banks of the
Granicus, bellowed upon Diana all the tributes which
the Ephefians had paid to the Perfians, and efta-
bliftied a democracy in the city. In the war between
Mithridates and the Romans, they fided with the
former, and, by his directions, maffacred all the Ro¬
mans that refided in their city; for which barbarity
they were feverely fined, and reduced almoft to beg¬
gary by Sylla, but afterwards treated kindly, and fuf-
fered to live according to their own laws, as is plain
from feveral ancient inferiptions and medals. The
Ephefians were much addi&ed to fuperftition, forcery,
arid curious arts, as the feripture ftyles them : whence
came the proverb “ Ephefian letters,” fignifying all
forts of fpells or charms.
In the time of the apoftle Paul, Ephefus retained a
great deal of its ancient grandeur. But it was a ruinous
place, when the emperor Juftinian filled Conftantinople
with its ftatues, and raifed his church of St Sophia up¬
on its columns, Since then it has been almoft quite
exhaufted. Towards the end of the 1 ith century, a
Turkifti pirate, named Tangripermes, fettled there.
Rut the Greek admiral, John Duc^s, defeated him in
a bloody battle, and purfued the flying Turks up the
Maeander. In 1306, it was among the places which
fullered from the exactions of the grand duke Roger ;
and two years after, it furrendered to Sultan Sayfan,
*ho, to prevent future infurredlions, removed moft of
the inhabitants to Tyriseum, where they were maffacred.
Rphefus appears to have fubfifted as an inconfiderablq
4
place for fome time. But now, the Ephefians are only
a few Greek peafants, living in extreme wretchednefs,
dependence, and infenfibility ; the reprefentatives of an v
illuftrious people, and inhabiting the wreck of their
greatnefs j fome, the fubftruftions of the glorious edi¬
fices which they raifed j fome, beneath the vaults of
the ftadium, once the crowded feene of their diver-
lions j and fome, by the abrupt precipice, in the fe-
pulchres which received their alhes.
EPHETAi. from “ I fend forth”), in anti¬
quity, a fort of magiftrates among the Athenians, in-
ftituted by King Demophoon, to take cognizance of
murder, manllaughter, and chance-medley.
Their number was 100, whereof 50 were Athe¬
nians, and 50 Argians : they were not admitted to the
poll till upwards of 50 years of age. Draco new-mo¬
delled it, excluded the Argians out of it, and made it
to confift of 31 Athenians, each above 58 years of age :
Ubbo Emmius de Rep. Athen.. fays, he transferred to
them part of the jurifdidlion of the Areopagites. See
Areopagus.
EPHOD, in Jewilh antiquity, one part of the prieft-
ly habit) being a kind of girdle, which, brought from
behind the neck over the two {boulders, and hanging
down before, was put acrofs the ftomach, then carried
round the waift, and made ufe of as a girdle to the tu¬
nic.—There were two forts of ephods, one^of plain li¬
nen for the priefts, and the other embroidered for the-
high-prieft.
EPHORI, in Grecian antiquity, magiftrates efta-
blilhed in ancient Sparta to balance the regal power.
The authority of the ephori was very great. They
fometimes expelled and even put to death the kings,,
and abolilhed or fufpended the power of the other ma*
giftrates, calling them to account.at pleafure. There
were five of them, others fay nine. They prefided in
the public Ihows and feftivals. They were entrufted
with the public treafure j made war and peace ; and
were fo abfolute, that Ariftotle makes their government
equal to the prerogative of a monarchy. They were
ellablilhed by Lycurgus, according to the generality
of authors: though this is denied by others, who date
their origin 130 years after the time of that legilla..
tor. Thus Plutarch, in his Life of Cleomenes, a-
feribes their inftitution to Theopompus king of Spar¬
ta j which is alfo confirmed by the authority of Ari¬
ftotle.
EPHORUS, an orator and hiftorian of Cum® in
iEolia, about 352 years before Chrift. He was dif-
ciple to Ifocrates, by whofe advice he wrote a hiftory
which gave an account of all the aftions and battles
that bad happened between the Greeks and barbarians
for 730 years. It w'as greatly efteemed by the ancients 5
but is now loft.
EPHRAIM, in Ancient Geography, one of the dL-
vifions of Paleftine by tribes ; Ephraim and the half
tribe ef Manaffeh are blended together by the facred
writer, and it only appears that Ephraim occupied the
more fouthern,. and the half tribe of Manaffeh the more
northern parts, but both feem to have extended from
the Jordan to the fea. Ephraim alfo denotes a king¬
dom, on the feparation of the 10 tribes from the houfe
of David, called alfo tjie kingdom of Ifrael and Sa¬
maria.
EPHRATA&
Ephtfu*
II.
Ephraim,
——V—J
E P I
t
Ephrata
. li
Epicedon.
EPHRATA, a fmall town of Pennfylvania in Ame¬
rica, and the principal fettlement of the religious le£t
called Dunkards or Tuniers. See Tunkers.
EPHREM, Syrus, an ancient Chrxitian writer, in
the fourth century, deacon of Edefia, was born at Ni-
libe in Syria. He was greatly elleemed by St Bafil,
St Gregory Nyifen, and other great men. He wrote
againft the opinions of Sabellius, Arius, Apollonarius,
the Manichees, &c. and acquired fuch reputation by
his virtue and his works, that he was called the doBor
and the prophet of the Syrians. He died in 37^*
beft editions of his works are, that of Oxford, in 17°^,
in folio, and that of Rome, from 1732 173^j *n
Syriac, Greek, and Latin, 6 vols folio.
EPHYDOR, in antiquity, an officer in the Athe¬
nian courts of juftice, who was to provide the plaintiff
and defendant with equal water hour-glaffes. When
the glafs was run out, they were not permitted to
fpeak any farther •, and, therefore, we find them very
careful not to lofe or mifpend one drop of their water.
Whilft the laws quoted by them were reciting, or if
any other bufinefs happened to intervene, they gave or¬
ders that the glafs ffiould be Hopped.
EPIBATiE, EtjXsI**, among the Greeks, marines,
or foldiers who ferved on board the (hips of war. 'I hey
were armed in the fame manner as the land-forces, on¬
ly that more of them wore full or heavy armour.
EPIBATERION, a poetical compofition, in ufe
among the ancient Greeks. When any perfon of con¬
dition and quality returned home after a long abfence
or journey into another country, he called together
his friends and fellow-citizens, and made them a fpeech,
or rehearfed them a copy of verfes, wherein he return¬
ed folemn thanks to the immortal gods for his happy
return ; and ended with an addrefs by way of compli¬
ment to his fellow-citizens.—Thefe verfes made what
the Greeks call S7r<Sasrsg<»v, epibatcrium, of esnSatow, “ I
go abroad.” At going away they had another, called
apobaterium.
EPIBATERIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
th e monoecia clafs. See Botany Index.
EPIC, or Heroic, Poem, a poem expreffed in nar¬
ration, formed upon a ftory partly real and partly
feigned ; reprefenting, in a fublime ftyle, fume fignal
and fortunate aft ion, diftinguithed by a variety of great
events, to form the morals, and affeft the mind with
the love of heroic virtue.
We may diftinguilh three parts of the definition,
namely, the matter, the form, and the end. The mat¬
ter includes the aftion of the fable, under which are
ranged the incidents, epifodes, charafters, morals, and
machinery. The form comprehends the way or man¬
ner of the narration, whether by the poet himfelf, or
by any perfons introduced, whofe difcourfes are related :
to this branch likewife belong the moving of the paf-
fions, the defcriptions, difcourfes, fentiments, thoughts,
■ftyle, and verfification j and befides thele, the fimilies,
' tropes, figures, and, in ffiort, all the ornaments and de¬
corations of the poem. 1 he end is to improve our
morals and increafe our virtue. See Poetry.
EPICEDON (formed of tm, upon, and fu¬
neral), in the Greek and Latin poetry, a poem, or
poetical compofition, on the death of a perfon.—At
the obfequies of any man of figure, there were three
itinds of difcourfes ufually made j that rehearfed at his
24S ] E p 1
bujlum or ftmeral pile, was called neniaj that engraven Epicedm,
on his tomb, epitaph ; and that fpoken in the ceremony ||
of his funeral, epicedion. We have two beautiful epice-
dions in Virgil, that of Euryalus and that of Pallas. ^
EPICEDIUM, in ancient poetry, a poem rehear¬
fed during the funeral folemnity of perfons of diftinc-
tion.
EPICHARJV1US, an ancient poet and philofopher,
born in Sicily, was a fcholar of Pythagoras. He is
faid to have introduced comedy at Syracufe in the
reign of Hiero. Horace commends Plautus for imi¬
tating him, in following the chafe of the intrigue fo
clofely as not to give the readers or fpeftators time
to trouble themfelves with doubts concerning the dif-
covery. He wrote likewife treatifes concerning phi-
lofophy and medicine j but none of his works have
been preferved. He died aged 90, according to La¬
ertius, who has preferved four verfes inferibed on his
ftatue.
EPICHIROTONIA, among the Athenians. It
was ordained by Solon, that once every year the laws
ffiould be carefully revifed and examined ; and if any
of them were found unfuitable to the prefent Hate
of affairs, they ffiould be repealed. 4 This was called
mix tuv from the manner of giving their
fuffrages by holding up their hands. See a farther ac¬
count of this cuftom in Pott. Archaeol. Grace, lib. I.
cap. 26. tom. i. p. 242.
EPICOENE, in Grammar, a term applied to nouns,
which, under the fame gender and termination, mark
indifferently the male and female fpecies. Such in La¬
tin is aqui/a, vefpertilio, &c. which fignify equally a
male or female eagle or bat.
Grammarians diftinguilh between epiccene mi com¬
mon. A noun is faid to be common of two kinds,
when it may be joined either with a mafeuline or a fe¬
minine article *, and epiccene, when it is always joined
to fome of the two articles, and yet fignifies both gen¬
ders.
EPICTETUS, a celebrated Stoic philofopher, born
at Hierapolis in Phrygia, in the firft century, was the
fiave of Epaphroditus, a freedman and one of Nero’s
guard. Domitian banilhing all philofophers from
Rome, about the year 94, Epiftetus retired to Nico-
polis in Epirus, where he died in a very advanced age;
and after his death, the earthen lamp he made ufe of fold
for 3000 drachmas. He was a man of great modefty;
which was eminent in his own practice, as well as in his
recommendation toothers : hence he ufed tofay,“ That
there is no need of adorning a man’s houfe with rich
hangings or paintings, fince the molt graceful furniture
is temperance and modefty, which are laliing ornaments,
and will never be the worfe for wearing.” Of all the
ancient philofophers, he leems to have made the near-
eft approaches to the Chriftian morality, and to have
had the molt juft ideas of God and providence. He
always poffefl'ed a cool and ferene mind, unruffled by
paffion ; and was ufed to fay, that the whole of mo¬
ral philofophy was included in thefe words,y&/>/>or/ and
abfioin. One day, his mafter Epaphroditus ftrove in
a frolic to wrench his leg } when Epiftetus faid, with
a fmile, and free from any emotion, “ It you go on, you
will certainly break my leg :” but the former redoubling
his effort, and ftriking it with all his ftrength, he at laft
broke the bone } when all the return Epiftetus made was.
E P I [ 2'49 ] E P I
.^etuS) « Did not I tell you, Sir, that you would break my
vlrurean lCg ?” No man was more expert at reducing the rigour
•ilofophy. 0f thg maxims of the Stoics into pra&ice. He con-
r"J formed himfelf ftrictly, both in his difcourfe and be¬
haviour, to the manners of Socrates and Zeno. He
waged continual war with fancy and fortune •, and it is
an excellence peculiar to himfelf, that he admitted all
the feverity of the Stoics without' their fournefs, and
reformed Stoicifm as well as jirofeffed it *, and betides
his vindicating the immortality of the foul as ftrenu-
outly as Socrates or any Stoic of them all, he declared
openly againtt felf-murder, the lawfulnefsof which was
maintained by the reft of the fe&. Arrian, his difciple,
wrote a large account of his life and death, which is
loft; and preferved four books of his difcourfes and
his Enchiridion, of which there have been feveral edi¬
tions in Greek and Latin ; and, in 1758, a tranflation
of them into Englifti was publithed by the learned and
ingenious Mifs Carter.
EPICUREAN philosophy, the doctrine or fy-
ftem of philofophy maintained by Epicurus and his
followers.
His philofophy confifted of three parts; canonical,
phyfical, and ethereal. The firft was about th® canons
or rules of judging. The cenfure which Tully paftes
upon him for his defpifmg logic, will hold true only
with regard to the logic of the Stoics, which he could
not approve of, as being too full of nicety and quirk.
Epicurus was not acquainted with the analytical method
of divifion and argumentation, nor was he fo curious
in modes and formation as the Stoics. Soundnefs and
fimplicity of fenfe, aflifted with fome natural reflec¬
tions, was all his art. His fearch after truth proceed¬
ed only by the fenfes ; to the evidence of which he gave
fo great a certainty, that he confidered them as an in¬
fallible rule of truth, and termed them the JirJ} natural
light of mankind.
In the fecond part of this philofophy he laid down
atoms, fpace, and gravity, as the firft principles of all
things: he did not deny the exiftence of God, but
thought it beneath his majefty to concern himfelf with
human affairs: he held him a bleffed immortal Being,
having no affairs of his own to take care of, and above
meddling writh thofe of others.
As to his ethics, he made the fupreme good of man
to confift in pleafure, and confequently fupreme evil in
pain. Nature itfelf, fays he, teaches us this truth ; and
prompts us from our birth to procure whatever gives
us pleafure, and avoid what gives us pain. To this end
he propofes a remedy againft the fliarpnefs of pain :
this was to divert the mind from it, by turning our
whole attention upon the plea lures we have formerly
enjoyed. He held that the wife man muft be happy as
long as he is wife*, the pain, not depriving him of his
wifdom, cannot deprive him of his happinefs.
There is nothing that has a fairer (how of honefty
than the moral doftrine of Epicurus. Gaffendus pre¬
tends, that the pleafure in which this philofopher has
fixed the fovereign good, was nothing elfe but the high-
eft tranquillity of mind, in conjumftion with the moft
perfeR health of body : but Tully, Horace, and Plu¬
tarch, as well as almoft all the fathers of the church,
give us a very different account of it: indeed the na¬
ture of this pleafure, in which the chief happinefs is
fuppofed to be feated, is a grand problem in the mo-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
rals of Epicurus. Hence there were two kinds of E- Epicurean
picureans, the rigid and the remifs: the firft were thofe Ehilofophy
who underftood Epicurus’s notion of pleafure in the j7pKjyurus
beft fenfe, and placed all their happinefs in the pure ^ ^ ■
pleafures of the mind, refulting from the practice of
virtue : the loofe or remifs Epicureans, taking the words
of that philofopher in a grofs fenfe, placed all their hap¬
pinefs in bodily pleafures or debauchery.
EPICURUS, the greateft philofopher of his age, was
born at Gargettium in A.ttica, about 340 B. C. in the
109th Olympiad. He fettled at Athens in a fine garden
he had bought; where he lived with his friends in great
tranquillity, and educated a great number of difciples.
They lived all in common with their mafter. The re-
fpedt which his follow'ers paid to his memory is* admi¬
rable : his fchool w'as never divided, but his dodbine
was followed as an oracle. His birth-day was ftill
kept in Pliny’s time; the month he was born in was
obferved as a continual feftival; and they placed his
pifture everywhere. He wrote a great many books,
and valued himfelf upon making no quotations. He
faifed the atomical fyftem to a great reputation,
though he was not the inventor of it, but had only
made fome change in that of Democritus. As to
his doftrine concerning the fupreme good or happi¬
nefs, it was very liable to be mifreprefented, and fome
ill effe&s proceeded from thence, which diferedited his
fe<ft. He was charged with perverting the worfhip of
the gods, and inciting men to debauchery ; but be did
not forget himfelf on this occafion ; he publifhed his
opinions to the whole world ; he wrote fome books of
devotion ; recommended the veneration of the gods, fo-
briety, and chaftity ; and it is certain that he lived in
an exemplary manner, and conformably to the rules of
nhilofophical wifdom and frugality. Timocrites, a de-
ferter of his feft, fpoke very fcandaloufiy of hiih. Gaf¬
fendus has given us all he could colledl from the
ancients concerning the perfon and doftrine of this
philofopher; who died of a fuppreflxon of urine,
aged 72.
EPICYCLE, in the ancient aftronomy, a little
circle whofe centre is in the circumference of a greater
circle : or it is a fmall orb or fpliere, which being fix¬
ed in the deferent of a planet, is carried along with it;
and yet, by its own peculiar motion, carries the pla¬
net fattened to it round its proper centre.
It Was by means of epicycles that Ptolemy and
his followers folved the various phenomena of the
planets, but more efpecially their ftations and retrogra-
dations.
EPICYCLOID, in Geometry, a curve generated
by the revolution of the periphery of a circle, along
the convex or concave fide of the periphery of another
circle.
EPICYEMA, among phyficians, denotes a fuper-
fetation ; being a falfe conception or mole happening
after the birth of a regular fetus. ,
EPIDAURUM, Epidaurus, or Epitaurum, in
Ancient Geography, a town of Dalmatia, on the Adria¬
tic, built the fame year, as is faid, with Dyrrachium,
430 years after the deftruftion of Troy: a confiderable
town formerly, but now reduced to a fmall village, cal¬
led Ragu/i Vecchio ; diftant fix miles from the modern
Ragufi. E. Long. 190. Lat. 420. 20'.
EPIDAURUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
I i Argolis,
o ?
E P I [
Epilaimis. Argolis, in Peloponnefus, on the Saronic bay, to the
v"~1 '' fouth of the promontory Spircenm; called facred, be-
caufe of the religious veneration paid to Atfculapius,
•whofe temple flood at the diftance of five miles from
the town. The Romans, during a peflilence, being
advifed to convey the god to Rome, fent a fliip, with a
folemn embalfy, for his conveyance j but while the Epi-
daurians were in fufpenfe to part with him, a huge fer-
pent failed to the fhip \ and being taken for the god,
was carried to Rome in great folemnity. Epidaurus
flood in a recefs of the bay, fronting the eaft \ and was
fortified by nature, being inclofed by high mountains
reaching to the lea, and rendering it difficult of accefs.
It had feveral temples, and in the acropolis or citadel
was a remarkable ftatue of Minerva. The fite is now
called Epi-thavro. The traces are indiftinft, and it
has probably been long deferted. Ihe harbour of
Epidaurus is long. Its periplus or circuit was 15
fladia or near two miles. The entrance is between
mountains, and on a fmall rocky peninfula on the left
hand are ruins of a modern fortrefs. This, it feems,
was the point on which a temple of Juno flood. It is
frequented by veffels for wood or corn. The grove
of iEfculapius was inclofed by mountains, within
which all the facrifices as well of the Epidaurians as
of flrangers were confumed. One was called Titthion j
and on this the god when an infant was faid to have been
expofed, and to have been fuckled by a fhe-goat. He
w'as a great phyfician, and his temple was always crowd¬
ed with fick perfons. Beyond it was the dormitory
of the fuppliants ; and near it, a circular edifice called
the Tholus, built by Polycletus, of white marble, worth
feeing. The grove, befides other temples, was adorn¬
ed with a portico, and a fountain remarkable for its roof
and decorations. The bath of iEfculapius was one of the
benefaflions of Antoninus Pius, while a Roman fena-
tor ; as was alfo a houfe for the reception of pregnant
women and dying perfons, who before were removed
out of the inclofure, to be delivered or to expire in the
open air. The remains are heaps of ftones, pieces of
brick wall, and fcattered fragments of marble j befides
fome churches or rather piles of rubbiffi mifcalled,
being deftitute of doors, roofs, or any kind of orna¬
ment. The ftatue of iEfculapius was half as big as
that of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. It was made of
ivory and gold, and, as the infcription proved, by
Thrafymedes fon of Arignotus of Paros. He was re-
prefented fitting, holding his ftaff, with one hand on
the head of a ferpent, and a dog lying by him. Two
Argive heroes, Bellerophon combating with the mon-
iter Chimaera, and Perfeus fevering the head of Medufa,
were carved on the throne. Many tablets defcribed
' the cures performed by the deity, yet he had not e-
fcaped contumely and robbery. Dionyfius deprived
him of his golden beard, affirming that it was unfeem-
ly in him to appear in that manner when his father
Apollo was always feen with his face fmooth. Sylla
amaffed the precious offerings belonging to him, and to
Apollo and Jupiter, at Delphi and Olympia, to pay
his army before Athens. The marks in the walls tef-
tified that a great number had been plucked down.
A few fragments of white marble exquifitely carved
-occur in the heap of the temple. The inclofure of the
temple once abounded in inferiptions. In the tccond
o ] £ P 1 .
century fix marbles remained, on which were written EpidaunJ
in the Doric dialedi the names of men and women who 1|
had been patients of the god, with the diftemper each , EPldotg- j
had laboured under, and the remedies he had diredted.
Dr Chandler found only a couple of votive inferiptions,
and two pedeftals of ftatues, one of which reprefented a
Roman, and vras eredled by the city of the Epidau¬
rians. The ftadium was near the temple. It was of
earth, as moft in Greece were. At the upper end are
feats of ftone, but thefe w ere continued along the fides
only a fewr yards. A vaulted paffage leading under¬
neath into the area, now choked up, was a private way
by wffiich the agonothetae or prefidents w ith the priefts
and perfons of diftinclion entered. Two large citterns
or refervoirs remain, made by Antoninus for the recep¬
tion of rain Avater. Beyond them is a dry water-
courfe ; and in the mountain-fide on the right hand are
the marble feats of the theatre, overgroAvn with buthes.
The fprings and Avells by the ruins are now fuppofed to
poffefs many excellent properties. To thefe and a
good air, Dr Chandler thinks, with the recreations of
the theatre and of the ftadium, and to the medicinal
knowledge and experience of the priefts, may be attri¬
buted both the recovery of the fick and the reputation
of ATculapius.
Epidaurus, with the furname Limera, to diftinguiffi
it from the Epidaurus of Argolis j called fo, either from
its meadows or its commodious harbours (Stephanus,
Apollodorus) : a town of Laconia, on the Ionian fea,
to the fouth of the Sinus Argolicus, fituated where
now Molvafia Hands, in the Morea. E. Long. 23. 30.^
N. Eat. 35. 40.
EPIDEMIA, in Grecian antiquity, feftivals kept
in honour of Apollo and Diana, at the ftated feafons,
when thofe deities, who could not be prefent every¬
where, were fuppofed to vifit different places, in order
to receive the vowrs of their adorers.
EPIDEMIC, among phyficians, an epithet of dif-
eafes which at certain times are popular, attacking
great numbers at or near the fame time.
EPIDENDRUM, a genus of plants, belonging to
the gynandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the feventh order, Orchidece. See Botany In¬
dex.—This is the plant which produces the fruit called
’vanilla, and which is ufed in perfuming chocolate, to¬
bacco, and fnuff.
EPIDERMIS, in Anatomy, the cuticle or fcarf-fkin.
See Anatomy Index. The word is formed of the Greek
wn, on, over; and Jkin.
EPIDICASIA, among the Athenians. Daugh¬
ters inheriting their parents eftate were obliged to
marry their neareft relation j which gave occafion to
perfons of the fame family to go to law with one
another, each pretending to be more nearly allied to
the heirefs than the reft. The fuit w-as called iTrdaixtrtus
dixt): and the virgin, about whom the relations conteft-
ed, sw^otes.
EPIDIDYMIS, in Anatomy, a little round body,
on the back of each tefticle j called zlioparajlata. See
Anatomy Index.
EPIGAtA, a genus of plants, belonging to the de-
candria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 18th order, Bicorner. See Botany Index.
EPIDOTJE, certaia deities who prefided over the
growth
e p i r 2:
EpMct* growth, of children. They were worfliipped by the
|| Lacedaemonians, and chiefly invoked by thofe who
Epigram. were perfecuted by the ghofts of the dead, &c.
EPIGASTRIC region, a part or fubdivifion of
the abdomen. See Anatomy Index.
EPIGLOTTIS, in Anatomy, one of the cartilages
of the larynx or wind-pipe. See Anatomy Index.
EPIGONI, the fons and defendants of the Grecian
heroes who were killed in the firft Theban war. The
war of the Epigoni is famous in ancient hiflory. It
was undertaken ten years after the firft. The fons of
thofe who had perifhed in the firft war, refolved to
avenge the death of their fathers, and marched againft
Thebes, under the command of Therfander j or, ac¬
cording to others, of Alcmaeon the fon of Amphiaraus,
about 1307 years before Chrift. The Argives were
afiilled by the Corinthians, the people of Meffenia,
Arcadia, and Megara. The Thebans had engaged all
their neighbours in their quarrel, as in one common
caufe. Thefe two hoftile armies met and engaged on
the banks of the Gliflas. The fight was obftinate and
bloody, but viddory declared for the Epigoni, and fome
of the Thebans fled to Illyricum with Leodamas their
general, while others retired into Thebes, where they
were foon befieged, and forced to furrender. In this
war ALgialeus was the only one who was killed, and
his father Adraftus was the only one who efcaped alive
in the firft war. This whole war, as Paufanias ob-
ferves, was written in verfe ; and Callinus, who quotes
fome of the verfes, afcribes them to Homer, which
opinion has been adopted by many writers. “ For my
part (continues the geographer), I own, that next to
the Iliad and Odyffey of Homer, I have never feen a
finer poem.” The defendants of the veteran Mace¬
donians, who ferved under Alexander the Great, and
who had children by Afiatic women, were alfo called
Epiconi, (Juftin.)
EPIGRAM, in Poetry, a fhortpoem in verfe, treat¬
ing only of one thing, and ending with fome lively,
ingenious, and natural thought or point. The word is
formed of infcription, of to infcribe,
or write upon.
Epigrams then, originally fignify infriptions, and
they derive their origin from thofe infriptions placed
by the ancients on their tombs, ftatues, temples, trium¬
phal arches, &c. Thefe, at firft, were only fimple
monograms : afterwards, increafing their length, they
made them in verfe, to be the more eafily retained :
Herodotus and others have tranfmitted to us feveral
of them. Such little poems retained the name of epi¬
grams, even after the defign of their firft inftitution
was varied, and people began to ufe them for the rela¬
tion of little fafts and accidents, the characterizing of
perfons, &c. The point or turn is a quality much in¬
filled on by the critics, who require the epigram con-
llantly to clofe with fomcthing poignant and unexpect¬
ed, to which all the reft of the compofition is only
preparatory ; while others, on the contrary, exclude
the point, and require the thought to be equally dif-
fufed throughout the poem, without laying the whole
ftrefs on the clofe : the former is ufually Martial’s
practice, and the latter that of Catullus.
The Greek epigrams have farce any thing of the
point or brilknefs of the Latin one : thofe collected
m the Anthology have moft of them a remarkable air
1 ] _ E P I
of eaf and fimplicity, attended with fomething juft and Epigranr
witty j fuch as we find in a f nfible peafant, or a child . H
that has wit. They have nothing that bites, butE^m^nR et’.
fomething that tickles. Though they want the fait of
Martial, yet to a good tafte they are not infipid \ ex¬
cept a few of them, which are quite fiat and fpirit-
leis. However, the general faintnefs and delicacy of
the pleafantry in them has given occafion for a Greek
epigram, or epigram a la Greque, to denote, among the
French, an epigram void of fait or ftiarpnels.
The epigram admits of great variety of fubjefts :
fome are made to praife, and others to fatirize} which
laft are much the eafieft, ill-nature ferving inftead of
point and wit. Boileau’s epigrams are all fatires on
one or another j thofe of Des Reaux are all made in
honour of his friends j and thof of Mad. Scudery are
fo many eloges. The epigram being only a fingle
thought, it would be ridiculous to exprefs it in a great
number of verfes.
EPIGRAPHE, among antiquarians, denotes the
infcription of a building, pointing out the time when,
the perfons by whom, the ufes, and the like, for which
it was ere&ed.
EPILEPSY, in Medicine, the fame with what is
otherwife called the falling-Jicknefs, from the patient’s
falling fuddenly to the ground. See Medicine Index.
EPILOBIUM, the Willow Herb j a genus of
plants belonging to the oCtandria clafs j and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 17th order, Calycan-
themce. See Botany Index.
EPILOGUE, in Oratory, the end or conclufion of
a difcourfe, ordinarily containing a recapitulation of
the principal matters delivered.
Epilogue, in dramatic poetry, a fpeech addrefled
to the audience, after the play is over, by one of the
principal aftors therein 5 ufually containing fome re-
fieCHons on certain incidents in the play, efpecially
thofe in the part of the perfon that fpeaks it; and hav¬
ing fomewhat of pleafantry, intended to compofe the
paflions raifed in the courfe of the reprefentation \ a
pradftice which is ridiculed by the Spectator, and com¬
pared to a merry jigg upon the organ after a good fer-
mon, to wipe away any impreflions that might have
been made thereby, and fend the people away juft as
they came.
EPIMEDIUM, Barren-wort ; a genus of plants,
belonging to the tetrandria clafs; and in the natural
method ranking under the 24th order, Corydales. See
Botany Index.
EPIMENIDES, an ancient poet and philofopher,
was born at Gnoffus in Crete. Contrary to the cuftora
of his country, he always wore his hair long ; which,
according to fome, was becaufe he was alhamed of
being thought a Cretan : and indeed he does not feem
to have had a high opinion of his countrymen, if that
verle cited by St Paul be, as it is generally believed to
be his ; “ The Cretans are always liars, evil beafts,
flow bellies.” Many ftories are related of him, too
wonderful to merit attention j however, his reputation
wras fo great over all Greece, that he w as there efteem-
ed a favourite of the gods. The Athenians being af-
flidled wdth the plague, and commanded by the oracle
to make a folemn luftration of the city, fent Nicias,
the fon of Niceratus, wdth a Ihip to Crete, to defire
Epimenides to come to them. He accepted their in-
I i 2 vitation,
E P I [ 252 ] E P I
Eplmenldes vitalion, accompanied the meffengers to Athens, per-
II formed the luftration of the city, and the plague ceafed.
Here he contracted an acquaintance with Solon, whom
he privately inltruCted in the proper methods for the
regulation of the Athenian commonwealth. Having
fin .lhed his bufmefs at Athens, the citizens offered him
many valuable prefents and high honours, and appoint¬
ed a ihip to carry him back to Crete ; but he returned
their prefents, and would accept of nothing except a
little branch of the facred olive preferved in the cita¬
del j and defired the Athenians to enter into an alli¬
ance with the Gnoffians. Having obtained this, he
returned to Crete where he died foon after, aged 157
years j or as the Cretans, conliftently with their cha¬
racter, pretended, 299. He was a great poet, and
wrote 5000 verfes on “ the genealogy of the gods,”
6500 “ on the building of the (hip Argos and Jafon’s
expedition to Colchis,” and 4000 “ concerning Minos
and Rhadamanthus.” He wrote alfo in profe, “ Con¬
cerning facrifices and the commonwealth of Crete.”
St Jerome likewife mentions his “ book of oracles and
refponfes.” The Lacedaemonians procured his body,
and preferved it among them by the advice of an ora¬
cle ; and Plutarch tells us, that he was reckoned the
feventh wife man by thofe who refufed to admit Peri-
ander into the number*
EPHVfETHEUS, a fon of Japetus and Clymene,
one of the Oeeanides, who inconfiderately married
Pandora, by whom he had Pyrrha, the wife of Deu¬
calion. He had the curiofity to open the box which
Pandora had brought with her, and from thence iifued
a train of evils, which from that moment have never
ceafed to affliCt the human race. Hope was the only
one which remained at the bottom of the box, not
having a fufficient time to efcape, and it is fhe alone
which comforts men under misfortunes. Epimelheus
was changed into a monkey by the gods, and fent into
the illand Pithecufa.
EPIPHANIUS, St, an ancient father of the
church, born at Befanducan, a village in Paleftine,
about the year 332. He founded a monaftery nsar
the place of his birth, and prelided over it. He was
afterwards ele&ed bifhop of Salamis j when he lided
with Paulinus againft Meletius, and ordained in Pale-
Itine Paulinian the brother of St Jerome *, on which a
conteft arofe between him and John bilhop of Jerufa-
lem. He afterwards called a council in the ifland of
Cyprus, in which he procured a prohibition of the
reading of Origen’s writings j and made ufe of all his
endeavours to prevail on Theophilus bifhop of Alex¬
andria to engage St Chryfoftom to declare in favour
of that decree : but not meeting with fuccefs, he went
himfelf to Conftantinople, where he would not have
any converfation with St Chryfoftom 5 and formed the
deftng of entering the church of the apoftles to pubKfh
his condemnation of Origen ; but being informed of
the danger to which he would be expofed, he refolved
to return to Cyprus 5 but died at fea in the year 403.
His works were printed in Greek, at Bafil, 1544, in
folio j and were afterwards translated into Latin, in
which language they have been often reprinted. Peta-
vius revifed and corrected the Greek text by two manu-
fcripts, and publifhed r together with anew tranflation
at Paris in 1622. This edition was reprinted at Co¬
logne in 1682.
EPIPHANY, a Chriftian feftival, othervife called Eplpi,^
the Manftjlation of Chri/i to the Gentiles, obferved on ||
the fixth of January, in honour of the appearance of our EPilus-
Saviour to the three magi or wife men, who came toV^v,*,,
adore him and bring him prefents. The feaft of epi.
phany was not. originally a diftinft feftival 5 but made a
part of that of the nativity of Chrift, which being cele¬
brated 12 days, the firft and laid of which were high
or chief days of folemnity, either of thefe might pro¬
perly be called epiphany, as that word fignifies the ap¬
pearance of Chrift in the world.
The word in the original Greek, fignifies
appearance or apparition ; and was applied, as iome critics
will have it, to this feaft, on account of the ftar which
appeared to the magi.— St Jerome and St Chryfoftom
take the epiphany for the day of our Saviour’s baptifm, ^
when he was declared to men by the voice, Hie ejiflint
mens dileSius, in quo mihi complacui; “ This is my be¬
loved Son, in whom I am well pleafed.” And accord¬
ingly it is ftill obferved by the Cophtae and Ethiopians
in that view. Others contend, that the feaft of Chrift-
mas, or the nativity of our Saviour, was held in divers
churches on this day ; which had the denomination epi¬
phany, or appearance, by reafnn of our Saviour’s firft ap¬
pearance on earth at that time. And it muft be allow¬
ed, that the word is ufed among the ancient Greek
fathers, not for the appearance of the ftar to the magi,
but for that of our Saviour to the world : In which fenfe
St Paul ufes the word epiphania in his fecond epiftle to
Timothy, i. 10.
EPIPHONEMA. See Oratory, N° 96.
EPIPHORA, in Medicine, a preternatural defluxion
of the eyes, when they continually difeharge a lharp
ferous humour, which excoriates the cheeks. See Me¬
dicine Index.
EPIPHYSIS, in Anatomy. See Anatomy Index.
EPIPLOCELE, in Medicine, is a kind of hernia
or rupture, in which the omentum fubfides into the
ferotum.
EPIPLOOMPHALON, in Medicine, an hernk
umbilicalis, proceeding from the omentum falling into
the region of the umbilicus or navel.
EPIPLOON. See Omentum, Anatomy Index.
EPIRUS, a diftri£l of ancient Greece, bounded
on the eaft by Etolia, on the weft by the Adriatic, on
the north by Theffaly and Macedon, and on the fouth
by the Ionian fea. This country was anciently go¬
verned by its own princes, in which ftate it made a
very confiderable figure. The country, according to
Jofephus, was firft peopled by Dodanim the fon of Ja¬
van and grandfon of Japhet. The people were very
warlike ; but they continued in their lavage ftate long
after their neighbours were civilized j whence the
iflanders ufed to threaten their offenders with tranfpor-
tation to Epirus. Their horfes were in great requeft
among the ancients, as well as the dogs produced in
one of the divifions called Molojfus; and hence thefe
dogs were called by the Romans Molojf.
The hiftory of Epirus commences with the reign of
Pyrrhus the fon of Achilles by Deidamia the daughter
of Lycomedes king of Scyros, He is faidtohavebehaved
with great bravery at the fiege of Troy 5 but it would ap¬
pear that he behaved with no lefs barbarity. After the
city was taken, he is faid to have killed old king Priam
f itj} Uis owa hand; to havo thiowa Atfyanax the fon
E P I
Epirus, of He&or and Andromache headlong from a high
tower ; and facrificed Polyxena the daughter of Priam
on the tojnb of his father. He carried Andromache
with him into Epirus, where he fettled by the advice
of the famous foothfayer Helenus, one of Priam’s fons,
who had ferved during the Trojan war both under his
father and himfelf. The only remarkable period of
the hiftory of Epirus is the reign of P'yrrhus II. who
made war upon the Romans. He was invited into
Italy by the Tarentines ; and embarked about 280
B. C. After having efcaped many dangers by fea, he
landed in that country, and with great difficulty gain¬
ed a victory over the Romans j but he was afterwards
See utterly defeated by them f, and obliged to return into
his own country. To retrieve his honour, he then
undertook an expedition again!! Macedon •, where he
overthrew Antigonus, and at laft made himfelf mailer
of the whole kingdom. He then formed a defign of
fubduing all the other Grecian Rates ; but met with
fuch an obllitate refiftance at Lacedaemon, that he was
obliged to drop the enterprife ; and was foon after kill¬
ed at the liege of Argos by a woman, who from the
wall threw a tile upon his head* Deidamia, the grand¬
daughter of Pyrrhus, was the laft that fat on the throne
of Epirus. She is faid to have been murdered after a
ihort reign ; upon which the Epirots formed them-
felves into a republic.
Under the new form of government Epirus never
made any conliderable figure, but feems rather to have
been dependent on the kingdom of Macedon. The
Romans having conquered Philip king of that country,
reftored the Epirots to their ancient liberty •, but they,
forgetful of this favour, foo i after took up arms in fa¬
vour of Perfeus. As a punilhraent for this ingratitude,
the Romans gave orders to Paul us Emilius, after the
redu£lion of Macedon, to plunder the cities of Epirus,
and level them with the ground. This was pundlual-
ly executed throughout the whole country on the fame
day and at the fame hour. The booty was fold, and
I each foot-foldier had 200 denarii, that is, fix pounds
nine (hillings and twopence, and each of the horfe
the double of this fum. An hundred and fifty thou-
fand men were made flaves, and fold to the bet! bid¬
der for the benefit of the republic. Nor did the ven¬
geance of Rome Hop here^ all the cities of Epirus, to
the number of 70, were difmantled, and the chief men
of the country Carried to Rome, where they u'ere tried,
and moil of them condemned to perpetual imprifon-
ment. After this terrible blow, Epirus never recover¬
ed its ancient fplendor. Upon the diffolution of the
Achaean league, it was made part of the province of
Macedon ; but when Macedon became a dioeefe, Epi¬
rus was made a province of itfelf, called the province
ot 0/d Epirus, to ditlinguith it from New Epirus, an¬
other province lying to the eaft of it. On the divifion
of the empire, it fell to the emperors of the ealt. and
continued under them till the taking of Conilantinople
by the Latins, when Michael Angelus, a prince near¬
ly related to the Greek emperor, leized on Etolia and
Epirus, of which he declared himfelf defpot or prince 5
and was fucceeded by his brother Theodorus, who took
feveral tow ns from the'Latins, and fo far enlarged his
dominions, that, difdaining the title of defpot, he af-
fumed that of emperor, and was crowned by Deme-
ttius archbilhop of Bulgaria. Charles, the lal! prince
E P I
of this family, dying without lawful iffue, bequeathed Epirus, ^
Epirus and Acarannia to his natural fons, who were dri- EPllcopatT*~
ven out by Amurath the fecond. Great part of Epirus
was afterwards held by the noble family of the Caf-
triots; who, though they were mailers of all Albania,
yet ftyled themfelves princes of Epirus. Upon the
death of the famous George Caftriot, furnamed Scan*
derbeg, Epirus fell to the Venetians, who were foon dif-
poffeifed of it by the Turks 5 in whofe hands it Hill con¬
tinues, being now known by the name of Albania, which
comprehends the Albania of the ancients, all Epirus, and
that part of Dalmatia which is fubjedl to the Turks.
EPISCOPACY, that form of church-government,
in which diocefan biffiops are eftabliffied as diftinft from
and fuperior to prieils or prefbyters. We have already
obferved, that it is a long time fince the miniliers of
religion have been diftinguiffied into different orders,
and that it has been much controverted whether the
difiinclion be of divine or human right j whether it was
fettled in the apoftolic age or afterwards. (See Bi¬
shop). This controverfy commenced foon after the ,
Reformation 5 and has been agitated with great warmth Commenced
between the Epifcopaiians on the one fide, and the EreJ- ot Ehe
byterians and Independents on the other. Among the ^troverf^,
Proteftant churches abroad, thofe which were reformed
by Luther and his affociates are in general epifcopal;
whilft fuch as follow the doctrines of Calvin have for
the moil part thrown off the order of biftiops as one of
the corruptions of popery In England, however, the
controverfy has been confidered as of greater import¬
ance than on the Continent; for it has there been ftre-
nuoufiy maintained by one party, that the epijcopat order
is eflential to the contlitution of the church j and by
others, that it is a pernicious encroachment on the
rights of men, for which there is no authority in fcrip-
ture. Though the queftion has for fome time lain al-
moft dormant, and though we have no defire to revive
it ; yet as a work of this kind might perhaps be deem¬
ed defeftive, did it contain no account whatever of a
controverly which has employed fome of the ablelt wri¬
ters of the pal! and prefent centuries, we ftiall give a
fair though ffiort view of the chief arguments by which
the advocates ef each contending party have endeavour¬
ed to fupport their own caufe, leaving our readers to
judges for themfelves where the truth lies. See Inde- n
pendents and Presbyterians. 2
The Independent maintains, that under the gofpel The Inde-
difpenfation there is nothing which bears the fmalleft pe; dent
refemblance to an exclufive priefthood ; tiiat Chriil andlci)eme*
his apotlles conftituted no permanent order of minifters
in the church ; but that any man who has a firm belief
in revelation, a principle of fincere and unaffe£led pie¬
ty, a capacity for leading devotion and communicating
in(tru6lion, and a ferious inclination to engage in the
important employment of promoting the everlalting fal-
vation of mankind •, is to all intents and purposes a re¬
gular minilter of the New Teilament, eipeeially if he
have an invitation to the paltoral office from fome par¬
ticular fociety of Chriftians.
Again!! this fcheme, which fuppofes the rights of
Chriftians all equal and common, and acknowledges no
authority in the church except what may be derived
from the election of her members, the Proteflant Epif- Epifcopal
copalian reafons in the following manner. He admits, arguments
as as undoubted truth, that our blefled Lord gave to agamit its
none
[ 253 T
e p i r 254 ] e p I
Epifcopacy. none of his immediate followers authority or juriicliction
v-ni.. * a na|;Ure as could interfere with the rights of
the civil magistrate, for all fuch authority was declaim¬
ed by himfelf: “ My kingdom (faid he to Pilate) is
not of this world and to a certain perfon who alked
him to decide a queftion of property between him and
his brpther, he replied, “ Man, who made me a judge or
a divider over you.” But when it is conlxdered, that
Chrift came into this wwld to “ turn men from darknefs
to light, and from the power of Satan to the living
God ; that he gave himfelf for us, that he might redeem
us from all iniquity, and purify to himfelf a peculiar
people zealous of good works; that of thefe works
many are fuch as unregenerate humanity has no incli-
, nation to perform, and that the doftrines which he re¬
vealed are fuch as human reafon could never have dif-
covered} the advocate for epifcopacy thinks it was ex¬
tremely expedient, if not abfolutely neceffary } that,
when he afcended into heaven, he diould eftabliih upon
earth fome authority to illuflrate the revelation which
he had given, and to enforce obedience to the laws
which he had enafled. There is nothing, continues
he, more ftri&ly required of Chriftians, than that they
live together in unity, profeffing the lame faith, join¬
ing in the fame worlhip, and praftiling the fame vir¬
tues. But as men have very different paflions, preju-
^ dices, and purfuits, fuch unity would be impoffible,
Chriftians were they not linked together in one fociety under the
linked to- government of perfons authorifed to watch over the
gether m pUrity 0f the faith, to prefcribe the forms of public
caUecHh? worlhip, and to explain the nature, and inculcate the
church, the neceflity of the feveral virtues. The fociety of Chri-
kingdom of ftians, in refpeft of its unity and organization, is com-
beaven, and pareci to the human body : for “ as we have many
'doinoT' members in one body, and all members have not the
Go'll. fame office •, fo we being many are one body in Chrift,
and every one members one of another,” (Rom xii.
4, 5.). It is called the church, the kingdom of heaven,
and the kingdom of God; and its affairs, like thofe of
every other kingdom, are adminiftered by proper offi¬
cers in fubordination to the ONE Lord, who, “ when
he afcended up on high, and led captivity captive, gave
fome apoftles, and fome prophets, and fome pallors
and teachers, for the perfecting of the faints, for the
work of the miniftry, for the edifying of the body of
Chrift :” (Ephef. iv. 8—13.). That thofe various or¬
ders of minifters were veiled with real authority in the
church might be inferred from principles of reafon as
well as from the dictates of revelation. A fociety with¬
out fome fort of government, government without laws,
5 or laws without an executive power, is a direCt abiur-
The church Where there are laws, fome muft govern, and
bv^rooer ol^ers be governed ; fome muft command, and others
officers, obey ; fome muft direCt, and others fubmit to direc¬
tion. This is the voice of nature ; it is likewife the
language of feripture. “ Obey them (fays the infpir-
ed author of the epiftle to the Hebrews) who have the
rule over you, and fubmit yourfelves ; for they watch
for your fouls as they that muft give account.” A text
which (hows that the authority of the minifters of re¬
ligion was diftinCt from that of the civil magiftrate,
whofe duty is to watch, not for the fouls, but for the
lives and properties, of his fubjeCts.
Of the fociety thus conftituted, it was not, as of a
yhilofophical feCt, left to every man’s choice whether or
not he would become a member. All who embrace Epif opa()
the faith of the Redeemer of the world are required to 
be baptifed, under the pain of forfeiting the benefits of A1J 6
redemption: but one great purpofe for which baptifmftian^llru
was inliituted, is to be the rite of initiation into thequired to
church of Chrift •, “ for by one fpirit are we all bapti-be mem-
fed into one body, whether w^e be Jews or Gentiles,beri> ofti>e
whether we be bond or free,” (1 Cor. xii. 13.). Qt lurch.
baptifm, whatever be the importance, it is evident,
that to receive it, is not, like the praCtice of juftice, or
the veneration of the Supreme Being, a duty refulting
from the relations of man to his Creator and fellow-crea¬
tures y that its whole efficacy, which in feripture is faid
to be nothing lefs than the remiffion of fins, is derived
from poftive infitution ; and therefore, that the external
rite can be of no avail, but when it is adminiftered in
the manner preferibed, and by a perfon authorifed to
adminifter it. That all Chriftians are not veiled with
this authority, as one of the common privileges of the
faith, appears from the commiflion which our Saviour
after his refurreftion gave to his apoftles. At that ah Chri.
period, we are affured that the number of his followers ftians not
was not lefs than five hundred; yet we find, that to the authorifed
eleven difciples only did “ he come and fpeak, faying,
All power is given unto me in heaven and on earth 3 cramentj“
go ye, therefore, and teach all nations, baptifing them
in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the
Holy Ghoft.”
Of the 500 difciples there is furely no reafon to be¬
lieve that there were not many well qualified to inftrudt
either a Jew or a Gentile in the dodlrines of the gof-
pel 3 and it is certain, that any one of them could have
walked his convert with water in the name of the Holy
Trinity as well as St Peter or St John : but fuch an
unauthorifed walking would not have been Chriftian
baptifm, nor of equal validity with it, any more than
the opinion of a lawyer at the bar is the judgment of a
court of juftice, or of equal obligation. It is the com-
miffipn of the fovereign which gives force to the judg¬
ment of the court 3 it is the commiffion of Chrift
which gives validity to baptifm. The fame reafoning
is applicable to the Lord’s fupper, which if it be not
adminiftered by thofe who have authority for fuch ad-
miniftration, cannot be deemed a facrament of Chrift’s
inftitution.
Thefe two rites are the external badges of our pro-
feffion. By the one, we are incorporated into that fo¬
ciety of which our Redeemer is the head and fove¬
reign : in the celebration of the other, we have a right
to join, whilft of that fociety we continue members.
But if by an open and fcandalous difregard of the pre¬
cepts of the gofpel, we Ihould prove ourfelves unworthy
of its privileges, the fame perfons who are authorifed
to admit us into the church, are likewile veiled with
authority to call us out of it : for to them were given
“ the keys of the kingdom of heaven (or the church),
with affurance, that whatfoever they Ihould bind on
earth, Ihould be bound in heaven 3 and whatfoever they
Ihould loofe on earth, Ihould be loofed in heaven,”
(Mat.xviii. 18.). As baptifm is to be adminiftered folong
as there {hall be perfons to be enlifted under the ban¬
ners of Chrift, and the Lord’s Supper to be celebrated
fo long as it lhall be the duty of foldiers to adhere to
the ftandard of their leader and their head 3 and as it is
likewife to be feared that there will never come a time
_ ' - when
E P 1 [2
'piaopacy. when all Chriftians fhall “ walk worthy of the voca-
-—v—^ tion wherewith they are called it follows, that this
8 power of keys, which was originally given to the a-
a body p°ftles» miift continue in the church through all ages,
annot even unto the end of the world. But as we have feen,
ransferto that it was not at firft intruded to all the difciples in
me of their common^ as one 0£ i;jie privj}eges infeparable from their
Ul'thority of Pro^e®on> an(^ as no ^ody of men can poffibly transfer
vhich they an authority of which they themfelves were neverpof-
me never feffed; it is certain, that even now it cannot, by the
wlTeffed. gie^ion of one clafs of Chriftians, be delegated to ano¬
ther, but muft, by fome mode of fucceffion, be derived
from the apollles, who were fent by Chrift as he
was fent by his Father. To argue from the origin of
r/V/to that of ecclefiajl'wal government, although not
very uncommon, the Epifcopalian deems extremely fal¬
lacious. Of the various nations of the world, many of
the fovereigns may indeed derive their authority from
the fuffrages of their fubje&s •, becaufe in a date of na¬
ture every man has an inherent right to defend his life,
liberty and property ; and what he pofieffes in his own
9. perfon, he may for the good of fociety transfer to ano-
luthonty t]}er. but no man js nature, or can make himfelf, a
hechurch member of the Chridian church ; and therefore autho-
anbede- rity to govern that fociety can be derived only from
ived only him by whom it was founded, and who died that he
rom Chnft. mjght “ gather together in one all the children of
God.”
TO
;tn objec-
lion an-
yered.
Againd fuch reafoning as this it hath been urged,
that to make inditutions, which like baptifm and the
Lord’s fupper are generally neceflfary to the falvation
of all Chridians, depend for their efficacy upon the au¬
thority or commidion of a particular order, appears in-
confident with the wifdom and goodnefs of God •, as
by fuch an economy an intolerable domination would
be edablifhed over the fouls of men, and the purpofe
for which the Saviour of the world died might be in
fome degree defeated by the caprice of an ignorant and
arbitrary priedhood. The obje&ion is certainly plau-
fible •, but the Epifcopalian affirms, that either it has no
weight, or militates with equal force againd the wifdom
of Providence in the government of this world. In
every thing, he obferves, relating to their temporal
and to their fpiritual intereds, mankind are all fubjedf-
ed to mutual dependence. The rich depend upon the
poor, and the poor upon the rich. An infant negledl-
ed from the birth wrould barely cry and ceafe to live ;
nor is it eafily to be conceived, that in the more rigid
climates of the earth a full grown man could provide
even the neceffaries of mere animal life. Of religion,
it is certain that in fuch a date nothing could be known ;
for there is not the fmalled reafon to imagine that any
individual of the human race—an Ari/lotle, a Bacon, or
a Newton, had he been left alone from his infancy, with-
out.culture and without education,—could ever, by the
native vigour of his own mind, have difcovered the
exidence of a God, or that'fuch fpeculations as lead
to that difcovery would have employed any portion of
his time or his thoughts. Even in civilized fociety it
would be impodible, in the prefent age, for any man,
without the adidance of others, to underdand the very
md principles of our common Chridianity ; for the
captures, which alone contain thofe principles, are
''ntten in languages which are now nowhere vernacu-
iar' In the fidelity of tranflators, therefore; every il-
55 ] E P I
literate difciple of Jefus mujl confide, for the truth of^pdcopacy.
thofe do&rines which cohditute the foundation of all-"v-"-'
his hopes ; and as no man ever pretended that the
Chridian facraments are more necefiary to falvation than
the Chridian faith, the Epiicopalian fees no improprie¬
ty or inconfidency in making thofe perfons receive bap¬
tifm and the Lord’s fupper by the minidration of others,
who by fuch minidration mud of necedity receive the
truths of the gofpel. n
By fuch arguments as thefe does the EpifcopalianA Pernia'’
endeavour to prove that Chrid condituted fome per-npnt °^er
manent order oj nnnflers m the church, to whom m the conftituted
externals of religion the great body of Chridians are by Chrift.
commanded to pay obedience ; and thus far the Prelby-
terian aglees with him ; but here their agreement ends.
They hand in hand attack the Independent with the
fame weapons, and then proceed to attack each other.
The one maintains, that originally the officers of the
Chridian church were allprejbyters ox elders of one order,
and veded with equal powers ; whild the other holds,
that Chrid and his apodles appointed divers orders of
miniders in the church \ that of thefe orders the high-
ed alone was empowered to ordain others j and that
therefore obedience, as to thofe that watch for our
fouls, can be due only to fuch as are epifcopally or¬
dained.
12
In behalf of the Prefbyterian plea it is urged, that the The Pref-
titles of bifhop and prejhyter, being in the New Teda-byterian
ment indifferently given to the fame perfons, cannotplea*
be the titles of didintt ecclefiadical officers ; which
appears dill more evident from the ordination of Timo¬
thy, who, although he was the fird bifhop of Ephefus,
received his epifcopal charafter by the impofition of the
hands of the prejbyter.—That one and the fame man
is, in the New Tedament, dyled fometimes a bifhop and
fometimes a prejbyter, cannot be denied; but although
every apodolic biffiop was therefore undoubtedly a
prefbyter, it does not of courfe follow', fays the Epif¬
copalian, that every preffiyterian was like wife a biffiop.
In the Old Tedament, Aaron and his fons are without
any difcrimination of order frequently dyled priefls ; and
in the New, both St Peter and St John call themfelves
prejbyters, as St Paul, upon one occafion, dyles him¬
felf a deacon—(Eph. iii. y.) : yet no man ever
fuppofed thofe apodles to have been fuch ecclefiadical
officers as modern prefbyters and deacons $ and it is
univerfally known, that in the Jewilh priedhood there
W'ere different orders, and that Aaron was of an order
fuperior to his fons. This being the cafe, the prefby- ^
ters, by the laying on of whole hands Timothy was Epifcopal
made a biffiop, may have been of the fame order with
St Peter and St John j and if fo, it follows that hisasainftit’
ordination was Epifcopal. At all events, w'e are certain,
continues the advocate for Epifcopacy, that it was not,
in the modern fenfe of the word, Prejbyterian ; for the
gift, which in the fird epidle is faid to have been “ gi¬
ven by prophecy with the laying on of the hands of the
preffiyter,” is in the fecond faid to have been “ in him
by the putting on of the hands of St Paul.” And here
it is worthy of obfervation, that the prepofition ufed
in the former cafe is pda, which fignifies coffew/vwwe ra¬
ther than indrumentality ; but that in the latter is 'Six,
which, as every Greek fcholar knows, is prefixed to
the injlrumental caufe by which any thing is effected :
fo that whatever may have been the order of the pref¬
byters
Three or¬
ders of
Chriftian
minifters
E P I [25
S'pifcopacy. byters wbo concurred, St Paul appears to Lave been
tp[e file ordainer. But by the confeflion of all parties,
St Paul was a bilbop in tbe higheft fetife in which that
word is ever ufed 5 and the powers of the epifcopate
not being parcelled out among various partners, of
whom each poffeffes only a fhare, the impofition of his
hands was fufficient for every purpofe which could
have been effefted by the hands of the whole college of
apoftles.
It appears, therefore, that from the promilcuous ufe
of the titles bifhop and prejbyter, and from the ordination
of Timothy, nothing can with certainty be concluded on
either fide of this celebrated queftion. But if, inftead
of refling on mere words, which when taken alone and
without regard to the context, are almoft all of am¬
biguous fignification, we attend to fome important
jfa&s recorded in the New Teftament, the Epifcopalian
thinks we lhall in them difcover fufdcient evidence
that the government of the primitive church was pre-
latical.
During our Saviour’s flay upon earth, it is unde¬
niable that he had under him two diftinft orders of
minifters—the twelve, and the feventy ; and after his
afcenfton, immediately before which he had enlarged
the powers of the eleven, we read of apojlles, prejbyters,
and deacons, in the church. That the prefbyters were
fuperior to the deacons, and the apoftles fuperior to
miiuucis both, is univerfally acknowledged j but it has been
during our faid, that in Scripture we find no intimation that the
Saviour’s apoftolic order wTas defigned for continuance. A
ftay upon Quaker fays the fame thing of vater-baptifm ; and
likewife^f- Epifcopaltan obferves, that it would be difficult
ter his af- to point put by what paffage of Scripture, or what
cenfion in- mode of reafoning, thofe who upon this plea rejeft the
^   apoftolic order of Chriftian minifters, could overthrow
the principles upon which the difciples of George Fox
rejeft the ufe of that rite which our Saviour inftituted
for the initiation of mankind into his church. They
■were the eleven alone to whom Chrift faid, “ Go ye
therefore and teach all nations, baptifing them in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghoft:” and therefore, although we frequently find
prefbyters and deacons adminiftering the facrament of
baptifm, we muft conclude, that as a judge admini-
fters juftice by authority derived from his fovereign, fo
thofe inferior officers of the church adminiftered bap¬
tifm by authority derived from the apojlles. Indeed,
had they pretended to aft by any other authority, it
is not eafily to be conceived how their baptifm could
have been the baptifm inftituted by Chrift ; for it was
not with the external wafhing by whomfoever perform¬
ed, but with the eleven and their fucceffors, that he
promjfed to be “ always, even unto the end of the
world.”
That the eleven did not confider this promife, or the
commiffion with which it was given, as terminating
with their lives, is evident from their admitting others
into their own order ; for which they had Competent
authority, as having been fent by Chrift as he was fent
by his Father. When St Paul, to magnify his office
and procure to it from the Galatians due reverence,
ftyles himfelf, “ an apoftle not of men, neither by man,
hut by Jefus Chrift and God the Father,” he muft
permanent, have known fome who derived their apoftolic miffion
by man; otherwife he could with no propriety have
£0 heaven.
6 ] E P I
claimed particular refpeft, as he evidently does, fromEpifcopacy
what was in his own apoftleffiip no particular diftinc-
tion. At that very early period, therefore, there muft
have been in the chuch fecondary apoftles, if they may
be fo called, upon whom, by impofition of hands, or
by fome other fignificant ceremony, the eleven had
conferred that authority which was given to them by
their Divine Mafter. Such were Matthias and Bar.
tiabas; fuch likewife were Timothy, Titus, and the an¬
gels of the feven churches in Afia, with many others
whofe names, and offices are mentioned in the New
Teftament.
That Matthias and Barnabas were of the apoftolic
order, has never been controverted ; and that Timothy
and Titus were fuperior to modern prelbyters, is evi- l6-
dent from the offices affigned them. Timothy was,Matthias,
by St Paul, empowered to prejide over the prelbyters Barnabas,
of Ephefus, to receive accufations againft them, to timothy
hort, to charge, and even to rebuke them ; and Titus
was, by the fame apoftle, left in Crete for the exprefs0f the feve
purpofe of fetting things in order, and ordaining/>n^churches h
byters in every city. To exhort, to charge, with ^fia’bi-
authcrity to rebuke one’s equal, is certainly incongru--^’
ous; and therefore the Epifcopalian thinks the powers
Conferred on Timothy altogether inconfiftent with that
parity of order and of office for which his antagonifts
fo ftrenuoufly plead. Even the com miffion given to
Titus appears in his eyes by much too extenftve for a
Prefoyterian minifter, who, after having ordained in
one city, could not have proceeded to ordain in another
without the confent and affiftance of his brother and
fellow-labourer. With refpeft to the angels of the A-
fiatic churches, he oblerves, that in the Old 1 eftament
the title of angel is fometimes given to the Jewijh high-
priefl, and particularly by the prophet hialachi, who
calls him 44 thp melfenirer fat'wsAeO of the Lord of
i5
The apo-
ftoiic or
higheft or¬
der deftgp-
ed to be
    the tneffenger (ayysAas) of the
Hofts 5” and that the angels of the churches mention¬
ed by St John, were Chriflian high-priefls, or bifhops
prefiding over more than one congregation, as it is af¬
firmed by all the ancient writers, cannot, he thinks, be
denied by any man who will take the trouble to com¬
pare Scripture with Scripture. We read (Afts xix. io,
and 20.), that “ in the fpace of two years all they
who dwelt in Afia heard from St Paul the word of the
Lord Jefus, both Jews and Greeks j and that there the
word of God grew mightily and prevailedbut with
what truth or propriety could this have been faid, if at
the time of St John’s writing the Apocalypfe, which
was 30 years after St Paul’s death, all the Chriftians
of Proconfular Afia were comprifed in feven congrega¬
tions, which affembled, each with its proper pallor, to
perform, in one otace, the duties of public worlhip ? In
a word, the advocate for Epifcopacy infills, that no
man, who reads without prejudice the afts of the apo¬
ftles, the epiilles of St Paul, and the Apocalypfe of
St John, can ferioufly believe that Timothy, litus, E-
paphroditus, Soflhenes, and Silvanus, with the angels of
the feven churches in Afia, were mere prefbyters, ox that
the government of the church was, in thofe days, by
a college of elders.
When from the infpired penmen of the New Tella-
ment he proceeds to examine the lucceeding writers or
the Chriftian church, the Epifcppalian finds fuch mul¬
tiplied and concurring evidence of the apoftolic inftitu-
tion of epifcopacy, as he thinks it impoffible to refill
1 r ^ without
1
E P I
[
• Tcopacy. without denying the truth of all ancient hiftory, and
—■Y"*’- even fliaking the pillars of revelation itfelf j for “ in
the noble array of martyrs,” the witneffes of the epif-
copal government of the church are earlier, and by far
more numerous, than thofe who teftify that the gofpel
of St Matthew was written by that apoftle, or that the
book of the Apocalypfe is canonical Scripture. The au¬
thority of theindeed is at prefent very low ; but
fliould they be allowed to be as fanciful divines and as
bad critics as their worft enemies are pleafed to repre-
fent them, this would detract nothing from their evi¬
dence when they bear witnefs to the conilitution of
the church in their own times ; for of their integrity
there can be no doubt: and what the Epifcopalian
wants of them is only their tettimony to matters of fa£t
which fell under the cognizance of their own fenfes,
and about which therefore they could not be deceived.
It is here indeed chiefly that he triumphs over his an-
tagonifts. In the fecond and third centuries there
was no general council, nor any Chriftian fovereign.
t7 A prelacy therefore, he urges, could not have been
■Fhedivine univerfaUy introduced, during that period, either by a
j-ight of E- concert among the clergy, or by the authority of the
nfcopacy. cjvjj magiftrate. Yet that even then there was no
church under heaven, of which the government was
not epifcopal, has been confeffed by fome of the molt
learned writers among the Prelbyterians themfelves j
■whence he concludes that epifcopacy is of divine inlti-
tution.
The candid Epifcopalian, however, allows, that in
the apoftolic age there may have been fome churches
which at firft had only bifhops and deacons to perform
the oflices of religion for when the number of difci-
jdes in any place was fo fmall that they could all meet
in one affembly, there was no neceffity for any other
order of minifters; but it appears that, from the very
beginning, bijhops^prejbyters, and deacons. Were fettled in
all the larger cities of the Roman empire j and it was
in thofe days an allowed maxim, that without a bi/hop
there could be no church. The better to underhand the
original Hate and inftitution of epifcopacy, it is neceffary
to obferve, that the empire, which contained almoft
all the known part of the Chriftian world, was by Au-
guftus Ctefar divided into provinces, fubjefted each to
the authority of one chief magiflrate, who was com¬
monly a prcetor or proconful, and who reflded in the
metropolis or chief city of the province. A province
comprehended the cities of a whole region 5 and in the
age of the apoflles, each city was under the immediate
government of certain magiftrates within its own bo¬
dy, known by the name of /SovXn, ox fenatus, or do and
curia, “ the ftates and court of the city.” Thofe magi*
Urates were fubordinate to the prcvtvr or proconful: but
among them there was one fuperior to the reft, called
fometimes diid a tor and fometimes defenfor civitatis,
whofe jurifdi&ion extended not only over the city it-
lelf, but likewife over all the adjacent territory. That
territory was denominated Mex/hi#, i*r the fuburbs, and
often reached to the diftance of 10 or 12 miles round
the city, and fometinaes muck farther, containing
iS within it many villages and fmall towns under the go-
the origin yernment of the city magiftrates. From fome paffages
loctks. in the New Teftament, and from the concurring evi¬
dence of the earlieft writers of live church, it appears
to have been the purpofe of the apoftles to fettle a bi-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
257 ] E P I
fhop in every city where there was a civil magiftracy : Epiftoplep.
but as they could not be perfonally prefent in all places w"v
at once, it was natural for them to enter upon the great
work of converting the nations by firjl preaching the
gofpel in that city of each province which was the or¬
dinary reftdenee of the governor ; becaufe to it there?
muft have been the greateft refort of people, who
would carry the glad tidings with them into the coun¬
try when they returned. Accordingly, having difpef-
fed themfelves over the empire, and made numbers of
profelytes in the principal cities, they fixed in each,
where they faw it necelfary, a bijhop, with a college or
prejbyters and deacons ; and gave to thofe biftxops, who
were at firft called apofles, a com million, as the other-
cities of the province ftiould be converted, to fix i#
them bifhops alfo.
In fome of the fmaller cities, it is extremely probable
that a bifhop and a deacon were for a (liort time the
only ecelefiaftical officers, till the number of Chriftians
increafed fo much as to make it -impoffible for them
all to affemble in one houfe fot the purpofes of public
worfhip. The bifhop then ordained prefbyters to of¬
ficiate in thofe congregations where he himfelf could
not be prefent, and to affift him in other parts of his
paftoral office ; but in all their miniftrations the pref¬
byters were fubordinate to him, who was the chief
paftor within the city, who compofed the prayers which
were offered up in public, and to whom all the other
minifters of religion were accountable for their con-
du£I. So long as the number of the faithful was con¬
fined within the walls of the city, it appears that the
bifhop with his prefbyters and deacons lived together
as in a college-j that divine fervice was every Lord’s
day, or oftener, performed in what was afterwards call¬
ed the cathedral or mother-church, by the bifhop him¬
felf, affifted by fome of his clergy *, and that the congre¬
gations which met in other churches, having no fixed
paftors, were fupplied by fuch prefbyters as the bifliop
chofe to fend to them from his own church. Whilft
matters continued in this ftate, the clergy had no other
revenues than what arofe from the voluntary oblation*
of the people ; which were indeed fo large as not only
to fupport them with decency, but likewife to anfwer
other ends of charity and munificence. They wens
commonly divided into four equal parts 5 of which one
was allotted to the bilhop, a fecond to the inferior
clergy, a third to the poor, an'd a fourth to keep the
churches in repair •, and it was confidererl as a part of
the bifhop’s duty to take care that the offerings fhould
be faithfully applied to thefe purpofes. uy
When converts increafed. in number, and churches Tlie origlu
were built in the fuburbs, each of thofe churches had ot Pat^ie>l
a fixed paftor iimilar to a parifli-prieft among us ; but
flill thofe paftors, as well as the city-clergy, miniftered
in fubordination to the bifhop, whofe authority ex¬
tended as far as the civil authority of the Roman ma¬
giftrate, within which diftrict or diocefe it was fupreme
over all orders of Chriftians. This every man knows
who is acquainted with ecclefiaftical hiftory; for th»
bilhop alone could ordainpriefs and deacons, adminifter
the rite of confirmation, abfolve penitents who were under
church cenfure, and excludefromcommunion heretics and
notorious offenders •, and from his fentence there lay no
appeal but to a f'ynod of comprovincial bifhops.
Such fynods were in each province convened by tho
K k. biftiop
E P I . [ 2;)
Ep&opaey. biftiop of tbe chief city for the apoftles having been
"v careful to place in thofe cities men of the molt emi¬
nent gifts and abilities, the other biihops of the pro¬
vinces applied to them for advice upon every emergen¬
cy, and paid a particular deference to them upon every
occafion. So that though all bilhops were of equal
authority as bijhops, yet when they met to confecrate a
new bilhop, or to deliberate upon the affairs of the
church, they yielded a precedency to the bifhop of the
20 metropolis, who called them together, and who fat as
The .origin prgUent or moderator of the fynod. Hence the origin
of metropolitans or archbijbops ; whofe authority was fo
' confiderable, that though there is not a doubt but the
eleftion of biffiops was anciently placed in the clergy
and people of the vacant diocefe, yet the bilhop
could not be confecrated without the conlent of the
archbilhop of the province.
In confequence of the extenlive powers with vhich
the primitive bilhops were veiled, they are commonly
llyled in the writings of thofe times prefidents, provojls,
or ivfpe&ors of the church, chief priefis, princes of the
clergy, and even princes of the people ; but their autho¬
rity was wholly fpiritual. Thofe prelates, imitating
the example of their Divine Mailer when on earth
neither poffeffed nor affumed to themfelves any junf-
diftion over the properties or civil rights of men. In
confequence of St Paul’s having reprimanded the Co¬
rinthians for going to law before the unbelievers,^ they
were indeed often chofen as arbiters of fuch pivil de¬
putes as arofe between individuals under their epifco-
pal government; but onthefe occafions they could not
aft unlefs the fubmiflion was voluntarily made by both
the contending parties, and then their decifion was fi¬
nal. When the empire became Chriftian, this privi¬
lege was confirmed to them by law *, for any civil
caufe depending before a court of jullice could be
withdrawn, and by the mutual confent of parties be
Submitted to the arbitration of the bifliop, whole
award, which in former times could be enforced only
by the terror of ehurch-cenfures, w as then enforced y
the fecular magillrate. In cnw/na/caufes, where t e
trial might be for life or death, they were prohibited
both by the canons of the church and by the laws of
the ftate from afting as judges *, and therefore they
never fuffered fuch caufes to come before them, except
when it was neceffary that the perfon accufed, if found
guilty, Ihould be excluded from the communion of the
faithful. But they had fo many civil caufes flowing
,T in upon them, that they were foon obliged to devolve
The nroba-part of that care upon other perfons, in whofe know-
ble origin ledge, prudence, and integrity, they could fully con-
of fpiritual ^ . an^ as the perfons employed to act in the bi-
ceurts. {ho ,g ftead were often laymen, it has been conjedtured
that they gave rife to the office of lay-chancellor in the
church, and to all that train of fpiritual judges and
fpiritual courts againft which fuch numbers are dil-
pofed to clamour. . , . , .
Be this as it may, it is certain that, through the
piety and munificence of the Chriilian emperors, the
biffiops enjoyed large revenues and many valuable pri¬
vileges *, but it does not appear that they ha<i an7 r^nk
or authority, as barons or temporal princes, till the Lro-
thic nations, which fubverted the Roman empire, had
embraced the Chriftian faith. As Chnftiamty incapa¬
citated the leaders of thofe tribes from officiating as
58 ]
E P I
chief prit fts at the religious rites which vf re ufually Epifcop^,
celebrated at the opening of their public affemblies,
the biffiops came naturally to difcharge that duty on’2
fuch occafions, when they mull have ffiaredin the rankno Aj‘ai1
by lharing in the fundtions of the chief. The fitua-rank till af.
tion in which they thus appeared at the opening of all ter the fab.
political conventions, would enable them to join with0f
much effedt in the deliberations which enfuedj and J
their fupeiior knowledge, their facred character, andtbeconver.
their influence with the people, would foon acquirefion of the
them power equal to their rank. They muff thereforeGothlc »»'
have been well entitled to demand admiffion into thatUon!’
council which was formed by the king and the lay-
chiefs at the national affemblies : and as they balanced
the authority of thofe chiefs, we cannot doubt that the
king would be difpofed to give the utmoft eftea to
their claim. Accordingly, we find the dignified cler¬
gy, who received large grants of land to be held on
the fame tenures w ith the lands of the lay-magiflrates,
prefiding along with thofe magiftrates in the provincial
affemblies of every degree in all the Gothic nations,
and enjoying every advantage in point of rank and au¬
thority in their national diets. Hence the biffiop of
Rome, and feveral bifhops in Germany, have, like the
dukes and marquifes of that empire, been for a long
time fovereign princes ; and hence too the bifhops of
England and Ireland have always fat, and have an
equal right with the lay-peers to fit, in the upper houfe
of parliament. It is however obvious, that, fo far
as epifcopacy is of apofolical inftitution, thofe. peeis
and princes poffefs not the original character in any
higher degree than the bifhops in Ameiica, who are
barely tolerated, or than thofe in Scotland who do not
enjoy that privilege *, and that confirmation admini-
ftered, or holy orders conferred, by a perfecuted pre- _
late, muff be as effectual to the purpofes of religion, as
if given by a German prince or an Englifh peer.
In this fliort view of epifcopacy, it has been our en¬
deavour todojuftice to the fubjeft, without fuffering
ourfelves to be influenced by partiality or prejudice.
As we are not ourfelves epifcopalians, we have advan¬
ced nothing of our owm j but have fele<£led from Eng-
lifli writers, who have at different times undertaken to
defend the divine right of epifcopacy, fuch fads and
arguments as to us appear to be of the mod impor¬
tance, or to have the greateft weight, without remark¬
ing upon them, or offering any anfiver. Ihe reafon-
ing employed to prove that the order of bifhops was in-
ffituted by the apoftles, is taken from a wroik prepared
for the prefsby Dr Berkeley prebendary of Canterbury,
and fon of the celebrated biffiop of Cloyne. . For the
reft of the detail we are indebted chiefly to Bingham s
Origines Ecclefajlica; a performance in great eftima-
tion with thofe Englifh divines who are commonly
known by the appellation of high churchmen. As edi¬
tors of a work of this kind, jt is not our bufinefs to be
of any party, or to fupport, in oppofition to all others,
a particular church, though that church Ihould be our
own : We ffiall therefore treat independency and prejby-
tery as we have treated epifcopacy, by employing iome
able writer of each fociety to plead his own cauie.
Meanwhile, we ffiall conclude this article with a few
reflexions, which, though they come from the pen ot
an obfeure author, deferve to be engraved deep in the
memory of every controvertiil of every communion
“ On
E P I
n contra-
rerfy re-
.ommeiuJ-
tl
i 14 ,
pifcopal
'burcb of
oidanf.
Jplfcopacy. On complicated queftions (fays a late   ii_
—y—1 for the epifcopal church in Scotland), men will always
iModerationdiffe!: in °PinIon » but confcious each of the weaknefs
of his own underftanding, and fenfible of the bias
which the ftrongeft minds are apt to receive from
thinking long in the fame track, they ought to differ
with charity and meeknefs. Since unhappily there are
ftill fo many fubje&s of debate among thofe who name
the name of Chriil; it is doubtlefs every man’s duty,
after diverting himfelf as much as portable of prejudice^
to invertigate thofe fubjefts with accuracy, and to ad¬
here to that fide of each difputed'queftion which, after
fueh inveftigation, appears to him to be the truth : but
he tranfgreffes the favourite precept of his divine ma¬
tter, when ho carts injurious reflections, or denounces
anathemas, upon thofe who, with equal fincerity, may
view the matter in a different light ; and by his want
of charity does more harm to the religion of the Prince
of Peace, than he pofiibly could do good, were he able
to convert ail mankind to his own orthodox opi¬
nions.”
The following is a (hort hirtory of the epifcopal
church of Scotland, extra&ed from a more detailed ac¬
count by a member of that church.
Ihe real tenets of the Scotch epifcopalians, or mem¬
bers of what was at one period the eflablHhed church of
Scotland, he obferves, appear to be imperfeftly un-
derllood. About the time of the reformation from popery,
the want of order and decency in the worfhip of the re¬
formed church was abolithed in the reign of James VI.
by the eftabliihment of epifcopacy on very liberal prin¬
ciples. This mode of worlhip obtained the fan&ion of
the molt retpedlable part of the nation, and continued
to flourilh under the aufpices of government, till it was
overthrown by the {ticklers for the national covenant.
Its reftoration was effected in the year 1662, and twenty-
feven years afterwards it was again abolithed by the
advocates of the prince of Orange.
It may be proper to obferve, that the Scotch epifco¬
pal church had no public liturgy during her legal erta-
blifhment. It is indeed true, that, the Englith book
of common prayer was ufed by the firft reformers, and
there is reafon to believe that John Knox himfelf was
by no means inimical to let forms of prayer, nor to cle¬
rical fubordination ; but his fucceffor, Andrew Melvil
a man much inferior to him in point of erudition, intro¬
duced an equality among the clergy, and excited the
odium of the people againft the liturgy to fueh a de-
gree, that an attempt to modify the prayer book for the
ute 0. the church of Scotland, was produftive of the fo-
Imn league and covenant, and the fubfequent ruin of
the unfortunate Charles,
During the reign of William III. the epifcopalians
were treated with Come degree of feverity, becaufethey
could not transfer that allegiance to him which they
3 , . v',orn 4o James. It is laid that they were
prohibited from officiating on the fabbath day, except
in their own hired houfes, where they received fuch
tnends as chofe to come in unto them.” In this man¬
ner was their worfliip condufted, praying either extem¬
pore, or from premeditation, till the acceffion of Queen
Anne, when the Englirti liturgy was introduced hy de¬
grees into Scotland, under the fan&ion of an aft of par¬
liament, paffed on the 3d of March 1712, “ to pre¬
vent the diliurbing of thofe of the epifcopal communion
[ 25? 1 e p 1
apologia in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, in the Epffopacv
4,  " — w V-**. V, V* •-'V I.ACW4V* J Ati L ii V_- i f
exercife of their religious worlhip, and in the ufe of the . II
liturgy of the church of England.” But as their at-
tachment to the houfe of Stuart was well known, they v™'
were, at the rebellion in 1715, laid under fome re-
ftraints, yet neither fevere in their nature, nor of any
long continuance, lince in 1720 their places of worlhip
were as numerous as before, and frequented by numbers
both of rank and refpeftability, many of whom held
places under government.
In England, Dr Sancroft, archbilhop of Canterbury,
with live other bilhops, were deprived of their fees for
refufing their allegiance to King William, which occa-
fioned a Ichifm in the church, as they w ere extremely
popular. Different opinions were entertained refpefting
the nature and defign of the Lord’s Supper, and the
controverfy Infefted the epifcopalians of Scotland. The
introduftion of prayers into public worlhip in behalf of
departed friends, was at leaft a very impolitic rtep at
fuch a critical period, when every thing favouring of
popery was held in the utmoft abhorrence. On the
death of Dr Rofe, the proferibed bilhop of Edinburgh,
the diocefan form of church government was oppofed
by fuch of the prelbyters as had been raifed to the epif¬
copal dignity, and it was propofed to govern the whole,
church by a college of bilhops. This plan, for the
adoption of which no precedent could be found in the
annals of hiftory, was fuccefsfully oppofed by many of
the moft enlightened bilhops, and it was of confequence
abandoned.
The Scotch epifcopalians, it is ^vell known, were al¬
ways charged with an undue attachment to the Stuart
family, which was even confidered as their moft diftin-
guilhing tepet j yet there is fome reafon to believe that
the public opinion of this matter was rather exaggerat¬
ed. They have invariably maintained that the Al-
mighty, and not the people, is the ruler of princes,
which fairly places them beyond the imputation of a
republican or levelling fpirit. The feveral reftraints
laid on Scotch epifcopalians from time to time, .with a
view to eradicate their attachment to the Stuart family,
were happily removed in the year 1792, and they en!
joyed a free toleration like the reft of diffenters. It was
about this time that the clergy of this church, with a
very few exceptions, took the oaths of abjuration and
allegiance.
It is well known, it is added by the fame writer, from
whole account the above is taken, that in Scotland there
are chapels quite diftinft from the Scotch epifcopal
church, where clergymen who have been ordained ei¬
ther in England or Ireland, make ufe of the liturgy of
the church of England j but as each of thefe is ftriftly
and properly independent of the reft, and under the (
guardianffiip of no bilhop whatever, thofe who attend
them have, in every fenfe of the word, a much better
claim to the appellation of congregationalifls than to that
of epifcopalians.
EPISCOPAL, fomething belonging to Bishops.
EPISCOPALIANS, in church hiftory, an appel¬
lation given to thofe who prefer the epifcopal govern¬
ment and difciplme to all others. See Episcopacy.
By the teft aft, none but epifcopalians, or members
of the church of England, are qualified to enjoy any
office civil or military. J
EPISCOPIUS, Simon, one of the moft learned
K k 2 men
E P I [ 260 ] E P I
men of t!ie 17th century, and the chief fupporU rof the
Arminian fe£l, was born at Amfterdam in
1612, he was chofen divinity profeflbr at Leyden, in
the room of Gomarus, who rehgned j and the func¬
tions of his office, with his private ftudies, were light
burdens to him, compared with the difficulties he fuf-
tained on account of the Arminian controverfy. which,
though it began in the univerfities, foon flew to the
pulpits, from whence it fpread and inflamed the peo¬
ple. The ftates of Holland having invited Epitcopms
to take his place at the fynod of Hort, he went thither
accompanied by fome remonftrant minilters j but the
fynod would not allow them to fit as judges, nor to ap¬
pear m any other capacity than as perfons fummoned
before them : they fubm-itted, were depofed from their
funaions, and baniihed the territories of the common¬
wealth. Epifcopius and his perfecuted brethren re¬
tired to Antwerp j but the times growing more favour¬
able, he returned to Holland in 1626, and was made
mini ter of the church of the Remonfliants at Rotter¬
dam : in 1634 lie was chofen reaor of the college found¬
ed by the fea at Anv erdam, where he fpent the re¬
mainder of his. days. He died in 1643 of the fame dif-
ordec which had killed his wife before, a retention of
urine j having loft his fight fome weeks previous to his
end. The learned have beftowed great eulogiums on
Epifcopius} but he did not always write with that mo¬
deration which might have been wiftied. His works
make two volumes in folio, of which the fecond confifts
of pofthumous publications.
EPISCOPUS, the fame with biihop. See Bishop
and Episcopacy.
EPISODE, in Ptxlry, a feparate incident, ftory,
or aaion, which a poet invents, and conneas with his
principal aaion, that his work, may abound with, a
greater diverfity of events j though in a more limited
fenfe, all the particular incidents whereof the aaion or
narration is compounded are called epijodes. See
Poetry.
EPISPASTIC, in AM:b«, atopical remedy, which
being applied to the external parts of the body, attraas
the humours to that part.
E PI STATES, in the Athenian government, was
the prefident of the proedri. See ProEBRI.
EPISTEMON ARCH, in the ancient Greek churchy
an officer of great dignity, who had the care of every
thing relating to faith, in the quality of cenfor. His
office anfwered very nearly to that of mafter of the fa-
cred palace at Home.
EPISTLE, denotes the fame with a miflive letter ^
but is now' chiefly ufed in fpeaking of Ancient waitings,
as the epiftles of St Paul, epiftles of Cicero, epiftles of
Pliny, &c. # , ,
EPISTLES and Gofpeh, in the liturgy of the church
of England, are felea portions of feripture, taken out
of the writings of the evangelifts and apoftles, and ap¬
pointed to be read, in the communion fervice, on Sun¬
days and holidays. They are thought to have been
feleaed by St Jerome, and by him put into the leaion-
ary. It is certain they were very anciently appropri¬
ated to the days whereon we now' read them, fince they
are not only of general ufe throughout the weftern
church, but are alfo commented upon in the homilies
>f feveral ancient fathers, which are faid to have been
preached upon thofe very days to which thefe portions Epi/ti#
of feripture are now affixed. . H
The epiftl^ and gofpels are placed in an admirable ,EpitaP^
order and method, and bear a fpecial relation to the ^
feveral days whereon they are read. The year is di-
ftinguifhed into two parts j. the firft being defigned to
commemorate Chrift’s living among us, the other to in-
ftruft us to live after his example. The former takes
in the whole time from Advent to Trinity-Sunday ; the
latter, all the Sundays from Trinity to Advent. Du¬
ring the firft of thefe feafons, the epiftles and gofpels
are calculated to raife in us a grateful fenfe of what our
Saviour did and fuffered for us, and fet before our eyes
his nativity, circumcifion, and manifeftation to the
Gentiles j his dodrines and miracles y his baptifm,
farting, and temptation ”, his agony and bloody fweat j
his crofs and paffion •, his death, burial, refurredion,
and afeenfion j and his miffion of the Holy Ghoft.
During the fecond feafon of the year, the epiftles and
gofpels tend to inftrud us in the true paths of Chrifti-
anity. See COLLECTS.
EPISTOL ARY, fomething belonging to an epiftle,
fee Epistle.
EpistOLART Cotnpqjitions. See Letter; and the
article Poetry.
EPISTROPHE. See Oratory.
EPISTYLE, in the ancient arehitedure, a term
ufed by the Greeks for what we call architrave, viz. a
maflive piece of ftone or w'ood, laid immediately over
the capital of a column.
EPITAPH (from tyrt, upon, and txQ*;, fepulchre^p
a monumental infeription, in honour or memory of a
perfon deceafed. It has been difputed whether the
ancient lew's inferibed epitaphs on the monuments of
the dead; but be this as it will, epitaphs, it is cer¬
tain, of very ancient date, are found among them.—
The Athenians, by way of epitaph, put only the name
of the dead, with the epithet fignifying.“ good,”
or ifvf, “ hero,” and the word fignifying their
good wifties: the name of the deccafed’s father and
his tribe were frequently added.—1 he Lacedaemonians
allowed epitaphs to none but thofe who had died in
battle. The Romans inferibed their epitaphs to the
manes, diis mambus; and frequently introduced the
dead by way of profopopoeia, {peaking to the living ;
of which we have a fine inftance, worthy the Auguftan
age, wherein the dead wife thus befpeaks her furviving
hulband:
Immatura peri;, fed tu, felictor, annos
Vive tuos, conjux optime, viv? meos.
The epitaphs of the prefent day are generally cram¬
med with fulfome compliments which w’ere never me¬
rited, charafters which human nature in its belt ftate
could fcarce lay claim to, and expreflions of refpeft
which were never paid in the life-time of the deceafed.
Hence the proverb with great propriety took its rife,
“ He lies like an epitaph.” _ .
Epitaph, is alfo applied to certain eloges, either in
profe or in verfe, compofed without any intent to be
engraven on tombs ; as, that of Alexander,
Sufficit huic tumulus, cui non fujjiceret erbis.
and that of Newton,
Jfaetcum
E P 1
r 261 j e p u
l/aacum Newton,
S^uem immortalem
Tejlantur Tempus, Nature, Ccelum ;
Morta/em,
Hoc Marmor
Fatetur
EPITASIS, in ancient poetry, the fecond part or
divifion of a dramatic poem, wherein the plot, entered
upon in the firft part or protafis, was carried on, height¬
ened, and worked up, till it arrived at its ftate or height,
called catnjlajis.
Epitasis, in Medicine, the increafe of a difeafe or
beginning of a paroxyfm, particularly in a fever.
EPITHALAMIUM, in Poetry, a nuptial fong or
compofition in praife of the bride and bridegroom, pray¬
ing for their profperity, for a happy offspring, &c.
Epithalamia were fung amongft the Jews, at the door
of the bride, by her friends and companions, the even¬
ing before the marriage. Pfalm xlv. is an epithala-
mium. Among the Greeks the'epithalamium was fung
as foon as the married couple were, gone to bed, and at¬
tended with fhouts and damping of the feet to drown
the cries of the bride. They returned in the morning,
and with the fame fong, a little altered, faluted them
again. The evening fong was called iirfoxXupM *o<-
/twiW, the morning falute was called ixtixXufucc
This was the practice amongft the Romans alfo, but
their epithalamia were often obfeene.
EP1THEM, in Pharmacy, a kind of fomentation,
or remedy of a fpirituous or aromatic kind, applied ex¬
ternally to the regions of the heart, liver, &c. to
ftrengthen and comfort the fame, or to correft fome
intemperature thereof.
EPITHET, in Poetry and Rhetoric, an adjeclive
exprefting fome quality of a fubftantive to which it is
joined •, or fuch an adjective as is annexed to fubftan-
tives by way of ornament and illuftration, not to make
up an effential part of the defeription. Nothing, fays
Ariftotle, tires the reader more than too great a redun¬
dancy of epithets, or epithets placed improperly y and
yet nothing is fo effential in poetry as a proper ufe of
them. The writings of the belt poets are full of
them.
EPITOME, in literary hiftory, the fame with
Abridgement.
EPITRITUS, in profody, a foot conftfting of three
long fyllables and one ftiort. Of thefe, grammarians
reckon four kinds: the firft confifting of an iambus and
fpondee, as fhlutantes j the fecond, of a trocheus and
fpondee, as concitatT; the third of a fpondee and an
iambus, as communicans •, and the fourth, of a fpon¬
dee and trocheus, as Tncantare. See the articles Sfon-
deus, Trocheus, &c.
EPITROPE. See Oratory, N° 83.
EPITROPUS, a kind of judge, or rather an arbi¬
trator, which the Greek Chriftians, under the domi¬
nion of the Turks, eleft in the feveral cities, to termi¬
nate the differences that arife among them, and avoid
carrying them before the Turkifh magiftrates. See
Arbitrator.
Anciently the Greeks ufed the term txilgcTres, in the
fame fenie as the Latins did procurator, viz. for a com-
miffioner or intendant. Thus the commiflioners of pro-
vifions in the Perfian army are called by Herodotus and
Epitaph
II
Jpitropus.
Ecul ares.
Xenophon epitropi. In the New Teftament, fxflgexcs EpitrdJmj
denotes the fteward of a houfehold, rendered in the ^ jl
Vulgate procurator.
EP1ZEUXIS. See Oratory, N° 68.
EPOCHA, in Chronology, a term or fixed point of
time whence the fucceeding years are numbered or
counted. See ./Era.
EPODE, in lyric poetry, the third or laft part of
the ode, the ancient ode being divided into ftrophe,
antiftrophe, and epode. See Ode, &c.
The epode was fung by the priefts, Handing ftill be¬
fore the altar, after all the turns and returns of the
ftrophe and antiftrophe, and was not confined to any
precife number or kind of verfes.
The epode is now a general name for all kinds of
little verfes that follow one or more great ones, of what
kind foever they be j and in this fenfe a pentameter is
an epode after an hexameter. And as every little verfe,
which, being put after another, clofes the period, is
called epode; hence the fixth book of Horace’s odes is
intitled liber epodon, “ book of epodes,” becaufe the
verfes are all alternately long and ftiort, and the ftiort
ones generally, though not always, clofe the fenfe of
the long one.
EPOPOEIA, in Poetry, the hiftory, aftion, os
fable, which makes the fubjedft of an epic poem. The
word is derived from the Greek sjtoj, carmen, “ verfe j”
and xhhu, facto, “ I make.”
In the common ufe of the word, however, epopaia is
the fame with epos, or epic poem itfelf. See the article.-
Poetry.
EPOPS, or Hoopoe. See Ufupa, Ornithology
Index,
EPSOM, a towm of Surry, about 16 miles fouth-
weft from London, long famous for its mineral wa¬
ters. Thefe were difeovered in 1618; and though not
in fuch repute as formerly, yet they are not impaired in
virtue, and the fait made from them is famous all over-
Europe, for gently cleanfing and cooling the body.
The hall, galleries, and other public apartments, are
now run to decay *, and there remains only one houfe
on the fpot, which is inhabited by a countryman and
his wife, who carry the waters in bottles to the adja¬
cent places, and fupply the demands of dealers in- Lon-
don. On the neighbouring downs are annually horfe-
races; but the inns, (hops, and bowling-greens are not
near fo much frequented as formerly. The market is
on Friday ; fair, July 25. The town is about one mile
and a half in femicircle, from the church to the palace
at Durdans, which was burnt down fome years lirice,
but has been rebuilt. It was once inhabited by his pre-
fent majerty’s father. In Hudfon’s Lane here was Ep-
fom Court, an ancient Saxon feat, long fince converted
into a farm. Here are fo many fields, meadows, or-
chardsj gardens, and the like, that a ftranger would
be at a lofs to know whether this was a town built in a
wood, or a wood furrounded by a town.
Epfom water is eafily imitated by art; i. e. by only
diffolving half an ounce of Epfom fait in a quart of
pure water, madefomewhat brilk or quick by adding a
little fulphuric acid and potafti, fo as to let the alkali-
prevail.
EPULARES, in antiquity, an epithet given
thofe who were admitted to the facred epulce or enter-
tainments*
.Epularcs
II
Equator.
E q u [ 262 j B q u
taindents, it being unlawful for any to be prefent at
them -who were not pure and chafte,
EPULO, in antiquity, the name of a rainifter of fa-
crifice among the Romans.
The pontiiices, not being able to attend all the fa-
,crifices performed at Rome to fo many gods as were
adored by that people, appointed three minilters, whom
they called eputones, becaufe they conferred on them
the care and management of the epula, feafts in the fo-
lemn games and feilivals. To them belonged the or¬
dering and ferving the facred banquet, offered on fuch
occafions to Jupiter, &c. They wore a gown bordered
with purple like the pontifices. Their number was at
length augmented from three to feven, and afterwards
by Caefar to ten. Their firft efiablilhment was in the
year of Rome 558, under the confulate of L. Furius
Purpureo and M. Claudius Marcellus.
EPULUM, in antiquity, a holy feaft prepared for
the gods in times of public danger. The feaft was
fumptuous, and the gods were formally invited and
attended \ for the ftatues were brought on rich beds
furnilhed with foft pillows, called pulvmaria : Thus ac¬
commodated, their godftiips were placed on their couch¬
es at the moft honourable part of the table. The care
• of the epula belonged to the epulones, and the gods w ere
plentifully ferved with the richeft dainties, as if they
were able to eat *, but the epulones performed that func¬
tion for them, and doubtlefs were competent proxies !
No wonder that Pliny folicited Trajan to be admitted
of their order.
Epulum is alfo ufed to fignify any folemn feaft j
fo we meet with epulum ferale, “ a funeral entertain¬
ment.”
EQUABIFE, an appellation given to fuch motions
jis always continue the fame in degree of velocity, with¬
out being either accelerated or retarded,
EQUAL, a term of relation between two or more
things of the fame magnitude, quantity, or quality.
Mathematicians fpeak of equal lines, angles, figures,
circles, ratios, folids.
EQUALITY, that agreement between two or more
things, whereby they are denominated equal,
EQUANIMITY, in Ethics, denotes that even and
calm frame of mind and temper, under good or bad
fortune, whereby a man appears to be neither puffed
up nor overjoyed with profperity, nor difpirited, foured,
or rendered uneafy by adverfity.
EQUATIONS, in uilgebra. See Algebra.
Equation of Time, in AJlronomy and Chronology,
the redu&ion of the apparent time or motion of the
fun, to equable, mean, or true time, ,See Astronomy
Jnde%.
EQUATOR, or /Equator, in AJlronomy and
Geography, a great c'.rcle of the fphere, equally diftant
from the two poles of the world, or having the fame
oles with thofe of the world. It is called the equator,
ecaufe when the fun is in it the days and nights are
equal; whence alfo it is called the equingSUalj and
when drawn on maps and planifpheres, the equmoBial
Hue, or fimply the line. Every point of the equator is
a quadrant’s didance from the poles of the world $
whence it follows, that the equator divides the fphere
into two hemifpheres, in one of which U the northern,
sytd in the other the fourthern pole,
3
EQUATORIAL instrument. See Astronomy Equator
Index. ||
EQUERY, or Ecury, a grand liable or lodge for Equtftriaj
horfes, furniffied with all the conveniences thereof; as
ftalls, manger, rack, &c. The word is formed from
the French efcurie, which fignifies the fame thing.
Some again derive efcurie from the Latin /curia, which
not only denotes a place for beafts to be put up in, but
alfo a grange or barn. But a more probable derivation
is from equile, “ a liable for horfes,” of equus, “ horfe.”
Some hold that the word Jlable, in propriety, relates
only to bullocks, cows, (beep, hogs, &c. and equcry, to
horfes, mules, &c.
A Jimple equery is that provided for one row of
horfes j a double equery that provided for two, with a
paffage in the middle, or two pafl'ages ; the horfes be.
ing placed head to head, as in the little equery at Ver-
failles.
Under equery are fometimes alfo comprehended the
lodgings and apartments of the equerries, grooms,
pages, See.
Equery {efeuyer), is alfo an officer who has the
care and management of the horfes of a king or prince.
EQUER1ES, or Equerries, popularly called
Quernes, are particularly ufed among us for officers of
the king’s ftables, under the mailer of the horfe, feven
in number, who when his majefty goes abroad, ride in
the leading coach, are in waiting one at a time month,
ly, and have a table with the gentlemen uffiers during
the time, and a falary of 300I. a-year each. They
ufed to ride on horfeback by the coach fide when the
king travelled ; but that being more expenfive to them
than neceflary to the fovereign, it has been difeonti.
nued.
E QUERIES of the Croxvn Stable have that appellation,
as being employed in managing and breaking the fad-
dle-horfes, and preparing them for the king’s riding,
Thefe are two in number $ tbe firft having an annual
falary of 256I. and the fecund 200I, whereof one is, or
always fhould be, in clofe waiting at court j and when
his majefty rides, holds the ftirrup, while the mafter of
the horfe, or one of the equeries in his abfence, affifts
in mounting him j and when his majefty rides, they
ufually attend him.
EQUES, in antiquity. See EQUESTRIAN Order and
Equites.
EQUES Auratus, is ufed to fignify a knight-bachelor,
called auratus, q. d. gilt, becaufe anciently none but
knights might gild or beautify their armour or other
habiliments of war with gold. In law this term is
not ufed, but inftead of it miles, and fometimes cheva¬
lier,
EQUESTRIA, among the Romans, a place in the
theatre where the equites or knight fat,
EQUESTRIAN (quejlris), a term chiefly ufed in
the phrafe equejlrian Jlatue, which fignifies a ftatue re*
prefenting a perfon mounted on horfeback. The word
[s formed of the Latin eques, ” knight, horfeman,” of
equus, ” horfe.”
EQUESTRIANGames, among the Romans, horfe-races,
of which there were five kinds, the pradvomus or plain
horfe race, the chariot-race, decurfory-race nhoulfo-
neral piles, the ludi/evirates, and the ludi neptunales,
EQUESTRIAN Order, among the Romans, fignified
their
E Q U - [ 263
iqueftrian their knights or equites; asalfo their troopers orhorfe-
|| men in the field j the firft of which orders flood in con-
jquinox. tradiftin&ion to the fenators j as the laft did to the foot,
‘ v ' military, or infantry. Each of thefe diftin&ions was
introduced into the Hate by Romulus.
EQUIANGULAR, in Geometry, an epithet given
to figures whofe angles are all equal: fueh are a fquare,
an equilateral triangle, &c.
EQUIDISTANT, an appellation given to things
placed at equal diftances from fome fixed point or place
to which they are referred.
EQUILATERAL, in general, fomething that hath
equal fides 5 as an equilateral triangle.
EQUILIBRIUM, in Mechanics, is when the two
ends of a lever or balance hang fo exa&ly even and le¬
vel, that neither doth afcend or defcend, but both
keep in a pofition parallel to the horizon ; which is
occafioned by their being both charged w ith an equal
weight.
EQUIMULTIPLES, in Arithmetic and Geometry,
are numbers or quantities multiplied by one and the
fame number or quantity. Hence, equimultiples are
always in the fame ratio to each other as the fimple
quantities before multiplication ; thus, if 6 and 8 are
multiplied by 4, the equimultiples 24 and 32 will be to
each other as 6 to 8.
EQUINOCTIAL, or ^Equinoctial, in AJlrono-
my, a great and immoveable circle of the fphere, under
which the equator moves in its diurnal motion.
The equinoflial or equinoftial line is ordinarily con¬
founded with the equator : but there is a difference ;
the equator being moveable, and the equinoflial im¬
moveable $ and the equator being drawn about the con¬
vex furface of the fphere, but the equino&ial on the
concave furface of the magnus orbis.
Whenever the fun in his progrefs through the eclip¬
tic comes to this circle, it makes equal days and nights
all round the globe j as then rifing due eaft and fet-
ting due wreft, which he never does at any other time
of the year. And hence the denomination from cequus
and nox, “ nightj” quia eequat diem noEii.
I he equinoctial then is the circle which the fun de¬
fences, or appears to deferibe, at the time of the
equinoxes 5 that is, when the length of the day is
'everywhere equal to that of night, which happens twice
a-year. See Equinox.
Equinoctial, in Geography. See Equator.
1 he fhadows of thofe who live under this circle are
call to the fouthward of them for one half of the year,
and to the northward of them during the other jhalf;
and twice in a year, viz. at the equinoxes, the fun at
noon calls no lhadovv, being in their zenith.
From this circle is the declination or latitude of pla¬
ces accounted in the degrees of the meridian.
EQUINOCTIAL Points, are the two points wherein the
equator and ecliptic interfefl each other : the one being
m the firll point of Ark s, is called the vernal point or
equinox; and the other in the firft point of Libra, the
autumnal point or equinox.
EQUINOCTIAL Dial, is that whofe plane lies parallel
to the equinoctial. See Dial.
Equinox, or ^Equinox, in JJlronomy, the time
when the fun enters one of the equinoctial points.
1 he equinoxes happen when the fun is in the equi-
noftial circle } when of confequence the days are equal
1 E q u
to the night throughout the world, which is the cafe
twice a-year, viz. about the 20th of March and the 23d
of September, the firft of which is the vernal and the
fecond the autumnal equinox.
It is found by obfervation, that the equinosftial points,
and all the other points of the ecliptic, are continually
moving backward, or in antecedentia, that is, weftward.
This retrograde motion of the equinoftial points, is that
famous and difficult phenomenon called ‘Os\eprecejjion of
the equinoxes. See Astronomy Index.
EQUIPAGE, in the military art, denotes all forts
of utenfils, artillery, &c. necefiary for commencing and
profecuting with eafe and fuccefs any military opera¬
tions. Camp and field equipage confifts of tents,
kitchen-furniture, faddle-horfes, baggage, waggons, bat-
horfes, &c.
lo EQUIP, in naval language, a term borrowed
from the French marine, and frequently applied to the
bufinefs of fitting a ihip for fea, or arming her for w ar.
EQUIPOLLENCE, in Logic, is when there is an
equivalence between any two or more terms or propo-
fitions; i e. when they fignify one and the fame thing,
though they exprefs it differently. Such propofitions,
&c. are faid to be equipollent.
EQUIRIA, in antiquity, a feftival inftituted by Ro¬
mulus, and celebrated on the 27th of February, in ho¬
nour of Mars, at which there were horfe-races.
EQUISEIUM, Horse-tail; a genus of plants
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs; and in the natural
method ranking under the 51ft order, Conferee. See
Botany Index.
EQUI1ES, amongft the Romans, were perfons of
the licond degree of nobility, immediately fucceeding
the fenators in point of rank. The equites or knights
were required to be poffeffed of 400 fejlertia before they
could be admitted into that order; and when the
knights were fo reduced as to fall ffiort of the pre-
feribed revenue, they were expunged out of the eque-
ftrian lift. The equeftrian revenue juft mentioned a-
mounted to about 10,000 crowns.
Part of the ceremony whereby the honour of knight¬
hood was conferred amongft the Romans was the giving
of a horfe ; for every cques or knight had a horle kept
at the public charge, he received alfo the ftipend of a
horfeman to ferve in the wars, and wore a ring ivhich
was given him by the ftate. The equites compofed a
large body of men, and conliituted the Roman cavalry ;
for there was always a fufficient number of them in the
city, and nothing but a review was requifite to fit them
for fervice.
The knights at laft grew too powerful, were a ba-
lance for the fenate and people, neglected the exercifes
of war, and betook themfelves to civil employments.
The equites were liable to be punifhed by the cenfors*
and to fuffer degradation. They were degraded by ta¬
king from them the horfe which was kept for each of
them at the public charge ; this was called equum adi-
mere.
EQUITY, in a general fenfe, the virtue of treating
all other men according to reafon and juftice, or as we
would be gladly treated ourfelves when we underftand
aright what is our due. See JUSTICE.
Equity, in jurifprudence, is defined a corre&ion
or qualification of the law, generally made in that part
wherein it failetk or is too fevere. It likewife fignifies
the
Equinox
1)
Equity,
I
£ Q U [ 264 I ERA
JEquiiy extenfion of the words of the law to cafes unex-
Equivoca Pre^e(^» yet having the fame reafon j fo that where one
t;011 thing is enacted by ftatute, all other things are enafted
■■ v-—that are of the like degree. For example, the ftatute
of Glouc. gives aftion of wafte againft him that holds
lands for life or years j and by the equity thereof, a
man {hall have action of wafte againft a tenant that
holds but for one year, or one half-year, which is with¬
out the words of the a<ft, but within the meaning of it j
and the words that enaft the one, by equity er.a£t the
other. So that equity is of two kinds. The one
abridges and takes from the letter of the law j the
other enlarges and adds to it: and ftatutes may be con-
ftrued according to equity, efpecially where they give
remedy for wrong, or are for expedition of juftice.
Equity feems to be the interpofing law of reafon, exerci-
fed by the lord chancellor in extraordinary matters to do
equal juftice j and by fupplying the defefts of the law,
gives remedy in all cafes. See Chancery.
Equity, in Mythology, fometimes confounded with
Juf ice, a goddefs among the Greeks and Romans, re-
prefented with a fword in one hand and a balance in
the other.
EQUIVALENT, is underftood of fomething that
is equal in value, force, or effeft, to another.
Equivalence is of various kinds, in propofitions, in
4erms, and in things.
Equivalent Propofitions. See Equipollence.
EQUIVALENT Terms, are where feveral words that
-differ in found have yet one and the fame fignification •,
as every body was there, and nobody was abfent, nihil
non, and omne.
Equivalent Things, are either moral, phyf cal, or
fatical. Moral, as when we fay that the commanding
or advifing a murder is a guilt equivalent to that of the
murderer. Phyjical, as when a man who has the ftrength
of two men is faid to be equivalent to two men. Sta¬
tical, whereby a lefs weight becomes of equal force
with a greater, by having its diftance from the centre
increafed.
EQUIVOCAL terms or words, among logicians,
are thofe which have a doubtful or double meaning.
According to Mr Locke, the doubtfulnefs or uncer¬
tainty of words has its caufe more in the ideas them-
felves, than in any incapacity of the words to fignify
them ; and might be avoided, would people always ufe
the fame term to denote the fame idea or collection of
ideas : but, adds he, it is hard to find a difceurfe on
any fubjeft where this is the cafe ; a practice which can
only be imputed to folly or great diftionefty fince a
man, in making up his accounts, might with as much
fairnefs ufe the numerical characters fometimes for one
fometimes for another collection of units.
Equivocal Generation, the production of animals
without the intercourfe between the fexes, by the in¬
fluence of the fun or ftars, &c.
This kind of generation is now quite exploded by the
learned. v
EQUIVOCATION, the ufing a term or expreflion
that has a double fignification. Equivocations are ex¬
pedients to fave telling the truth, and yet without tell¬
ing a falfity. The fathers are great patrons of equivo¬
cations and mental refervations, holding that the ufe
of fuch Ihifts and ambiguities is in many cafes allow-
sabje.
EQUULEUS, or Eccueeus, in antiquity, a kind Squill^
of rack ufed for extorting a conf ffion j at firft chiefly !|
practifed on flaves, but afterwards made ufe of againit. Erafam,
the Chriftians.
The equuleus was made of wood, having holes at
certain diitances, with a ferew by which the criminal
was ftretched to the third, fometimes to the fourth or
fifth holes, his arms and legs being faftened on the
equuleus with cords •, and thus was hoifted aloft, and
extended in fuch a manner, that all his bones were dif-
located. In this Itate red-hot plates were applied to his
body, and he was goaded in the tides with an inftrument
called an ungula.
Equuleus, Equiculus, and EquVS Minor, the
horfe’s head, in Ajh onomy, a conftellation of the north¬
ern hemifphere, w'hofe ftars in Ptolemy’s catalogue are
four, in Tycho’s four, in Hevelius’s fix, and in Mr
Flamftead’s ten.
EQUUS, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the
clafs mammalia, and order of belluae. See Mamma¬
lia Index. And for the difeafes of the horfe, fee Far¬
riery Index.
ERA, in Chronology. See ./Era.
ERANARCHA, a public officer among the an¬
cient Greeks, whofe bufinefs was to prefide over and
direft the alms and provifiorts made for the poor. Cor¬
nelius Nepos, in his life of Epaminondas, deferibes his
office thus : When any perfon w'as reduced to poverty,
taken captive, or had a daughter to marry, which he
could not effeeft for want of money, &c. the eranarcha
called an affembly of friends and neighbours, and tax¬
ed each according to his means and eftate, to contri¬
bute towards his relief.
* ERANTHEMUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the diandida clafs. See Botany Index.
ERASISTRATUS, a celebrated phyfician, grand-
fon to the philofopher Ariftotle. He difeovered by
the motion of the pulfe the love which Antiochus had
conceived for his mother-in-law Stratonice, and was re¬
warded with 100 talents for the cure by the father of
Antiochus. He was a great enemy to bleeding and vio¬
lent phyfic.
ERASMUS, Desiderius, born at Rotterdam in
1467. He loft his father and mother at 14 years of
age \ and was committed to the care of certain guar¬
dians, w ho xvould force him to be an ecclefiaftic, which
he refufed for a long time. However, he was obliged
to affume the religious habit among the canons regular
in the raonaftery of Stein near Tergou ; but afterwards
obtained a difpenfation from his vows. He was the
moft learned man of the age in which he lived ; and
contributed, by his example and his writings, to the
reftoration of learning in the feveral countries in w hich
he occafionally refided, viz. Italy, Switzerland, Hol¬
land, France, and England : w ith the laft, he was moft
fatisfied j and found the greateft encouragement from
Henry VIII. Sir Thomas More, and all the learned
Englifhmen of thofe days. He publiffied a great ma¬
ny books } and died at Bafil in 1536. He was buried
honourably, and his memory is fiill held in venera¬
tion. He had, however, many enemies ; and as he
did not embrace the reformation, and yet cenfured
many things in popery, he hath been treated injun-
oufly both by the Catholics and Proteftants. The works
of Exaiinus in 10 vols folio were publilhed at Leyden
f in
4
ERE
F.i.ifnnus
■!re<flion.
in 1706, in a very handfome manner^ under the care
of M. le Clerc. Dr Jbrtin publifhed his life in one
_ vol. 4to, 1758.
ERASTIANS, a religious fe& or faftion which
hrofe in England during the time of the civil wars in
1647, thus called from their leader Thomas Eraftus,
whole diftinguifhing dodfrine it was, that the church
had no right to difcipline, that is, no regular power to
excommunicate, exclude, cenfure, abfolve, decree or
the like.
ERATO (from / love), in Mythology, the
name of one of the nine mufes, who prefided over love-
poetry. To this mufe fome have afcribed the inven¬
tion of the lyre and lute ; and the is reprefen ted with
a garland of myrtles and rofes, holding a lyre in one
hand and a bow in the other, and at her fide a Cupid
with his torch. There is alfo a Nereid of the fame name.
ERATOSTHENES, a Cyrensean philofopher, hi-
ftorian, and poet 5 called for his learning Plato Minor.
He was keeper of the famous library at Alexandria j
and was greatly in favour with Ptolemy fiuergetes, by
whofe order he wrote a hiftoiry of the Theban'kings of
Egypt, which fuccefiion was entirely omitted by Ma-
netfio. He thus fixed the Egyptian chronology, and
his authority is by many preferred to that of Ma-
tietho. He wrote many other things, a catalogue of
which is to be feen in Fabricius, Voffius, &c. but his
only piece now remaining entire is a defcription and
fabulous account of the liars. He Rarved himfelf in
old age through grief for the dimnefs of his fight,
about the 10th or ilth year of Ptolemy Epiphanes,
194 B. C.
ER AIOS1RA TUS, an Ephefian who burnt the
fathous temple of Diana the fame night that Alexan¬
der the Great was born. This burning, as fome wri¬
ters have obferved, was not prevented or feen by the
goddefs of the place, who was then prefent at the la¬
bour of Olympias, and at the birth of the conqueror of
Perfia. Eratoftratus did this villany merely to eternize
his name by fo uncommon an aflion.
EREBUS (EgtSaj, from 5*1?, night), in Mythology, a
term demiting darknefs. According to Hefiod, Ere¬
bus was the fon of Chaos and the night, and the fa¬
ther of the day. This was alfo the name of part of the
tnferi among the ancients: they had a peculiar expia¬
tion for thofe who W'Ore detained in Erebus.
Erebus was properly the gloomy region, and diftin-
guilhed both from Tartarus the place of torment, arid
Elyfium the region of blifs : according to the account
given of it by Virgil, it fotmS the third grand divifion
of the invifible world beyond the Styx, and compre¬
hends feveral particular diftrifts, as the limbus infantum,
or the receptacle for infants 5 the limbus for thofe who
have deftroyed themfelves; the fields of mourning,
full of dark groves and woods, inhabited by thofe w ho
died for love *, and beyond tliefe, an open champaign
country for departed warriors.
ERECTION, in a general fenfe, the art of raifirig
or elevating any thing ; as the ereflion of a perpendi-
oular, &c. It is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe j as the
erection of a bifhopric, marquifate, &c.
Erection is particularly ufed by medical writers
for the Hate of the penis when fwelled and diltended
by the aftion of the mufcles called ereBores. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
Vol. VIII. Part I.
[ 265 ]
E R I
There Is alfo an erection of the clitoris, which is
performed by mufcles for that purpofe.
EREMITi See Hermit.
ERETRI A, in Ancient Geography, a town of Euboea,
fituated on the Euripus, in the fouth-weft of the ifiaud,
A very ancient city, and the largeft of the illand,
after Chalcis. After being demolifhed by the Per-
fians, it was reftored on an adjoining fpot, according
to Strabo, who mentions a fchool of Eretrian philofo-
phers there* The Abantes of Homer were of Eu¬
boea.
ERFORT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, the capital of Thuringia, and fubjeft
to the eleflor of Mentz. It is defended by good ram¬
parts ; and has a caltle on an eminence, which com¬
mands the town. Its inhabitants are almoft all Lu¬
therans, but its principal churches belong to the Ca¬
tholics. There are feveral handfome ftru&ures, both
public and private j but the houfes in general are
but indifferently built. E. Long. 11. 14. N. Lat. 50.
49-
ERG AST ULUM, among the Romans, was a pri-
fon, work-houfe, or houfe of correftion, where Haves
by the private authority of their mailers were confined
and kept for their offences to hard labour. The
Greeks had a place of confinement of this fort called
ERGOT, in Farriery, is a Hub, like a piece of foft
horn, about the bignefs of a chefnut, placed behind
and below- the paftern joint, and commonly hid undet
the tuft of the fetlock. See Farriery Index.
ERICA, Heath, a genus of plants belonging to the
oflandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 18th order, Bicornes. See Botany In¬
dex.
ERIDANUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of At¬
tica, falling into the Iliffus.—Another Eridanus, the
more ancient name of the Padus, an appellation afcrib¬
ed by Pliny to the Greeks; followed in this by Virgil.
If (ifes in Mount Vefulus, in the Alpes Cottias, and di-
vidirig the Cifalpine Gaul into the Cifpadana andTranf-
padana, and fwelled on each hand with no inconfider-
able rivers from the other Alps and the Apennine,
falls by feven mouths into the Adriatic. Famous in
mythology, from the ftory of Phaeton ; whole filters,
the Heliades, were here changed into poplars, accord¬
ing to Ovid.
Eridanus, in JJlronomy, a cohllellation of the
fouthern hemifphere, in form of a river..—The liars in
the conltellation Eridanus, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are
34 i in Tycho’s, 19 j and in the Brililh catalogue,
S4- . .
ERIE, a vail lake to the weftward of Pennfylyania,
in North America, fituated between 8c° and 87° w!
Long, and between 410 and 420 N. Lat.
_ ERIGENA, or Scotus, John, a famous fcholaliie
divine, born about the beginning of the ninth century ;
but where, is a matter of difpute among authors. Bale
and Pits fay he was born at St David’s in Wales j
Dempller, Mackenzie, and Henry, that he was born
fit Ayr in Scotland 5 which they infer from his names
Erigena and Scotus, by the latter of which he was
generally dillmguilhed by his cotemporary writers. But
Du Pin and Sir James Ware affert that he was by birth
an Irilhman $ Ireland being in thofe days called Scotia,
L! and
Eretflioit
.1!
Erigena*
E R I [ 266 ] E R 1
Erigena. and by the natives £r/». They agree, however, in re- Alfred: but in this they confound him with John, Erigena
"*^v lating that he travelled to Athens, where he acquired a
competent knowledge of the Greek and other oriental
languages 5 and that he afterwards refided many years
in the court of Charles the Bald, king of France, who,
on account of his lingular abilities, treated him as his
intimate friend and companion. He llept frequently in
the royal apartment ; and was conftantly admitted to
the king’s table. “We may judge (fays a modern
hiftorian) of the freedom which he ufed with Charles,
by the following repartee. As the king and Scotus
were fitting one day at table, oppofite to each other,
after dinner, drinking a cheerful glafs, the philofopher
having faid fomething that was not quite agreeable to
the rules of French politenefs, the king in a merry hum¬
our alked him, Pray what is between a Scot and a fot ?
To which he anfwered, “Nothing but the table.” See
Henry's HiJIory of Great Britain, vol. i. p. 344, who
quotes this flory from Hovedeni Annal. ad an. 86.
Ouer. What' language were they talking when this
bon mot was uttered ?
During his refidence with Charles, he wrote feveral
books of fcholaltic divinity j which, though abfurd
enough, were at that time not fufficiently fo to fecure
him from the imputation of heterodoxy 5 and on that
account the pope commanded Charles the Bald to fend
him to Rome j but the king had too great a regard for
his companion to trull him with his Holinefs. One of
the chief controverfies in which Scotus was engaged,
and with which the pope was much offended, was con¬
cerning the real prefence and blood of Chrill in the
wafer. His opinion of this weighty matter is exprefs-'
ed in thefe few words : “ What we receive corporally
is not the body of our Lord ; but that which feeds the
foul, and is only perceived by faith.” He was alfo en¬
gaged in two other controverfies of equal importance,
but of a fomewhat lefs delicate nature. The firll was,
Whether any part of the eucharilt be evacuated by
llool ? and the fecond, Whether Chrill was born of
the Virgin Mary aperta vulva; Pafchafius was of opi¬
nion, that this could not be without fome injury to
her perpetual virginity ; and therefore believed that
Chrill came into the world per vulvnm claufam, as he
came into the place where his difciples were afiembled,
through the door and not through the wall, without
opening the door. Concerning the firll of thefe deli¬
cate queftions, Scotus with feveral others declared, that
part of the eucharill was certainly evacuated by Hod] ;
for' which they were honoured with the appellation of
Stercorijls. And as to the fecond quellion, he faid,
that the vulva claufa was a dangerous opinion : for it
would thence follow, that he was not born, but
ilfued} non eft nafci, fed erumpi. See Mackenzie, vol.
i- P- 55-
Whether this John Scotus returned to England, or
ended his days in France, is a matter of doubt. Some
of our hillorians tell us, that he left France in the
year 864 5 and that, after refiding about three years
* in Oxford, he retired to the abbey of Malmfbury, where
his fcholars llabbed him with their pen knives.' There
is no foundution for this llory. Probably he died
about the year 874 ; but whether in France or Eng-
t land, is uncertain, and of little importance. Some'
hare related, that he was invited to England by King
abbot of Etheling, who was aflaflinated in 895 •, and to ji
this millake the various accounts concerning this au- 'Eflv
thdr are to be attributed. Regardlefs of his hillory, he ^
appears from his writings to have been a man of parts,
and, in'point of learning, fuperior to any of his co¬
temporaries. He wrote, 1. De divifone naturce, lib. v.
2. De prcedefinatione Dei. 3. Excerpta de differentiis
& JocietaEbus Greed Latinique verbi. 4. De corpora et
fanguine Domini. 5. Ambigua S. Maximi, feu fchqlia
ejus in difficiles tocos S. Gregorii Na%ian%enif Latine
verfa. 6. Opera ’ S. Dionyfi quatuor in Latinam ling,
convsrfa. All publifhed. 7. De vifione Dei, and fe¬
veral other works, in manufcript, preferved in different
libraries.
ERIGERON, Flea-bane, a genusof plants, belong¬
ing to the fyngenefia clals ) and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th order, Compoftce. See Botany
Index.
ERIGONE, in fabulous hillory, daughter to Ica-
rius, died of grief for her father’s death, was tranllated
into heaven, and makes the fign Virgo.
ERINACEUS, or Hedge-hog, a genus of quadru¬
peds belonging to the order of ferte, in the clafs mam¬
malia. See Mammalia Index.
ERINGO. See Eryngium, Botany Index.
ERINUS, a genus of plants belonging to the didy-
namia clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking under
the 40th order, Perfonatce. See Botany Index.
ERIOCAULON, a genus of plants, belonging to
the triandria clafs} and in the natural method ranking
with the fixth order, Enfatce. See Botany Index.
ERIOCEPH ALUS, a genus of plants, belonging
to the fyngenefia clafs j and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compofitce. See Botany Index.
ER1GPHORUM, a genus of plants, belonging to
the triandria clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking
under the third order, Ca/amarice. See Botany Index.
ERITHALIS, a genus of plants, belonging to the
pentandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Indextr
ERIVAN, a city of Perfia, in Alia, and capital of
Perfian Armenia. It is a large, dirty, ill-looking place,
in which are no handfome buildings, the houfes being
very mean, and raifed with earth or mud j but it is full
of gardens and vineyards It is fituated in a plain
which is furrounded on all fides with mountains. Two
rivers pafs near it, the Zengui to the north-weft, and
the Qufeur Boulac to the fouth-weft. The fortrefs
may pafs for a town of itfelf; it is of an oval form, and
is four miles in circumference, containing about 800
houfes. It is inhabited by none but the native Perfians.
The Armenians have (hops in it, where they work and
trade in the day time, but at night return to their ha¬
bitations in the city. The forlrefs is furrounded with
three walls, made with bricks dried in the fun, which 1
have battlements, and are flanked with towers, and de¬
fended with ramparts. On the north-eaft there is a
dreadful precipice, above 200 yards in depth, at the
bottom of which the river runs. The garrifon ufually
confifted of 2000 men j but ho\v mriny there are fince
the' revolution is hard to fry. The palace of the go-
venor of the province is within the* forlrefs. The city
is
E R M [ 267 ] E R P
Envan Is about a cannon’s Hiot diftant from the fortrefs, and
tl tlie fpace between is full of houfes and markets. E.
Ermin- , Long. 44. 50. N. Lat. 40. 20. _
ER1PHYLE, in fabuloushiftory, a fifter of Adraf-
tus king of Argos, who married Amphiaraus. She was
daughter of Talaus and Lifimache. When her hulband
concealed himfelf that he might not accompany the
Argives in their expedition againft Thebes, where he
knew he was to perilh, Eriphyle fuftered herfelf to be
bribed by Polynices with a golden necklace which had
been formerly given to Hermione by the goddefs Ve¬
nus, and fire difeovered where Amphiaraus was. This
treachery of Eriphyle compelled him to go to the war ;
but before he departed, he charged his fon Alcmaeon
to murder his mother as foon as he was informed of his
death. Amphiarus periflred in the expedition ; and
his death was no fooner known than his halt injun&ions
were obeyed, and Eripbyle was murdered by the hands
of her fon.
ERIS, the goddefs of difeord among the Greeks.
She is the fame as the Difcordia of the Latins.
ERISICHTHON, in fabulous hiftory, a Theftalian,
fon of Triops, who derided Ceres and cut down her
groves. This impiety irritated the goddefs, who afflidted
him with continual hunger. He fquandered all hispof-
feftions to gratify the cravings of his appetite, and at
laft he devoured his own limbs for want of food. Some
faythat his daughter had the power of transforming
herfelf into whatever animal {he pleafed, and that Ihe
made ufe of that artifice to maintain her father, who
fold her, after which fhe aflumed another fliape, and be¬
came again bis property.
ERMIN. See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
Ermin, or Ermine, in Heraldry, denotes a white
field or fur, powdered or interfperfed with black fpots,
called powdering. It is fuppofed to reprefent the ikin
of an animal of the fame denomination. There is
however no animal whofe Ikin naturally correfponds to
the herald’s ermin.
The animal is milk white ; and fo far is it from ha¬
ving fpots, that tradition reports, that it will rather die
or be taken than fully its whitenefs. Whence its fym-
bolical ufe.
But white fldns having for many ages been ufed for
the linings of the robes of magiftrates and great men 5
the furriers at length, to add to their beauty, ufed to
few bits of the black tails of thofe creatures upon the
white {kins, to render them the more confpicuous.
Which alteration was introduced into armoury.
The fable fpots in ermin are not of any determinate
number, but they may be more or lefs at the pleafure
of the painter or furrier.
Ermin, an order of knights, inftituted in 1450 by
Francis I. duke of Bretagne, and formerly fubfifting in Erfmh
France. The collar of this order was of gold, compo- £ ]!nius<
fed of ears of corn in {altier ; at the end of which hung . y !
the ermin, with this infeription, a ma vie. But the
order expired when the dukedom of Bretagne was an¬
nexed to the crown of France.
Ermines, in Heraldry, the reverfe of ermine, i. e.
white fpots on a black field.
ERMINITES, in Heraldry, ftiould fignify little er¬
mines, but it is otherwife •, for it fignifies a white field
powdered with black, only that every fuch fpot hath a
little red hair on each. Erminites alfo fignify a yellow
field powdered with black, which the French exprefs
much better by or femee d'ermine de fable.
ERMINOIS, in Heraldry, fignifies the field or, and
the fpots black.
EROORO. See Alcedo, Ornithology Index.
EROS, (of ££<y?, “ love”), in Mythology, one of two
chiefs over all the other Cupids, being the caufe of
love. See Anteros.
EROTIA, a feftival in honour of Eros the god of
love. It was celebrated by the Thefpians every fifth
year with fports and games, when muficians and others
contended. If any quarrels or feditions had arifen
among the people, it was then ufual to offer facrifices
and prayers to the god, that he would totally remove
them.
EROTIC (derived from “ love 5” whence i^u-
'rir.oC), is applied to any thing which has a relation to
the paflion of love.
In medicine we find the phrafe delirium eroticum ufed
for a kind of melancholy contra&ed through excefs of
love.
EROSION, among phyfieians, denotes much the
fame with corrosion, only in a ftronger degree.
EROTESIS. See Oratory, N° 94.
ERPENIUS, Thomas, in Dutch Thomas of
ErpE, a celebrated profeffor of the Arabic language,
was born at Goreum in Holland in 1584, and edu¬
cated at Leyden. He applied himfelf to the orien¬
tal languages at the perfuafion of .Tofeph Scaliger $
and afterwards travelled into England, France, Italy,
and Germany, and everywhere obtained the efteem
of the learned. On his return to Holland, he was
made profeffor of Arabic in the univerfity of Leyden,
and died there in 1624. He publilhed a great many
excellent works, which fpread his reputation through
the whole learned world. It is faid, that the king
of Morocco admired fo greatly the letters of Erpeniiis
wrote to him in Arabic in the name of the United
Provinces, that he could not ceafe reading them, and
{bowing them to thofe who fpoke that language natu¬
rally.
ERPETQLOGY.
INTRODUCTION.
rT~’HE animals of which we propofe, under the general
title Erpetology, to give the claflification and na¬
tural hiftory, belong to the clafs Amphibia, and the or¬
der Reptilia, in the Linnaean arrangement. The ani¬
mals included under this clafs have obtained the deno¬
mination f amphibious, from the fuppofed circumftance
that they are equally capable of living both on land
and in the water. But in this view', the application of
the term is inaccurate, for there are few, or perhaps no
animals belonging to this clafs which can always exift,
L 1 2 or
268
ERPETOLOGY. Introd
or even perform the functions of life for any confider-
ahle length of time, in the water. Many of them,
however, poffefs this faculty to a certain degree, and
therefore, the name has been extended to all which are
diftinguilhed by the fame peculiarity of external form,
and a fimilar flrufture of internal organs.
Some naturalifts have denominated this order of ani¬
mals oviparous quadrupeds. I his denomination is un¬
doubtedly fufficiently chara&eriftic for although fume
fpecics are viviparous, and in this circumilanee, as well
as being furniihed with four feet, exhibit fome refcmb-
lanee with the higher order of quadrupeds, the linking
difference which is difcovered by the anatomiil and the
phyfiologill, affords unequivocal and decided marks of
diltindlion. From the llrufture, habits, and general
economy of this order of animals, we derive charafters
which are fufficiently diftinftive between it and the
clafi of birds, to which the term oviparous is llridtly ap¬
plicable. This denomination, therefore, which is alio
employed by the Count de la Cepede, is fufficiently
charatleritlic of the clafsof animals which are included
under it.
The word reptile, by which this order of animals has
been diliinguiffied by Linnaeus, feems not to be liable
to much objedlion. All the individuals of which it is
compofed have very ffiort legs, and thefe are placed at
a great dillance from each other, and fo weak, that
they are unable to fupport the weight of the body. The
gray lizard, for inftance, which is one of the moil aflive
af the tribe, is obliged to fupport itfelfon its belly, as
foon as its progreffive motion is greatly diminiffied \ fo
that it employs its limbs rather for the purpofe of crawl¬
ing than that of walking. And indeed all the animals
of the order, from the peculiar ftrufture and difpofition
of their limbs, when their motions are flow, muff drag
the body along on the belly, other modifications of their
locomotive powers depending only on the great length
and relation of the inflrumcnts of motion. In this
view, therefore, the Linn man name of the order is not
improperly applied to almofi all the individuals which
it comprehends.
The term crpelologij, which we have given to this
ireatife upon the order rep!ilia, was formerly employed
by the Swediffi naturalid Klein, in a more extenfive
fenfe. Under this title he included the order fer-
pentes, as well as that of reptiha, thus comprehending
the whole clafs of amphibia. Here we have adopted it
in a more limited acceptation, and confined its meaning
to the laft order, purfuing the plan of M. Bonnaterre,
in his arrangement of the lame order of animals in the
Encyclopedic Methodique.
Linnaeus has adopted as a mark of difti'n£Hon of this
order of animals, the peculiar ftrudture of the heart,
which in the language of the anatomiit is faid to be
unilocular, or furniihed only with one ventricle or ca¬
vity. This doftrine has been admited by eminent
■Unatomills, as well as by fome of the greatetl phyfiolo-
gifts, Rich as Boerhaave, Haller, and fome others ; and
vailed in queftion only when fome exceptions have oc¬
curred, of animals belonging to this, tribe, which have
exhibited fomewhat of a different ftnwffure. One in¬
ftance of this is quoted in the heart of an Indian inland
tortoife, which was examined by the French academi¬
cians of the 17th century, and in which they difcovered
three ventricles inftead of one. But other phyfiologifts
are of opinion, that the heart of this order of animals
is really furnidied with two ventricles, having an im¬
mediate communication between them •, they muft
therefore be confidered as having a double heart.
The lungs of the order reptilia, are, in their ap¬
pearance and ftruifture, widely different from thofe of
other animals. They are in general compofed of two
large bladders, or membranaceous bags, which, in the
different fpecies are divided into a greater or fmaller
number of cancelh, or fubdivifions ; among which are
diftributed the pulmonary blood-veffels. Thefe bear
but a fmall proportion to the veficular part through
which the ramifications are carried ; in this refpeft
differing greatly from the lungs of the higher order of
quadrupeds, or mammalia, in' which the proportion of
the blood-veffels is fo much greater than that of the air-
cells, that the lungs have more of a fleffiy than of a
membranaceous appearance. In this order of animals,
therefore, in which the blood is cold, the veficular
fyftem far overbalances the vafculsr 5 but in the clafs
mammalia, which are warm-blooded animals, the vaf-
cular fyilem prevails over the veficular.
Of all the animals which occupy the furfaee of the
earth, and which the Almighty creator has difperfed
throughout his works, to fill up the void fpaco, and
to produce motion, the tribe of reptiles feems at firft
fight to have been leaft the objecls of beneficence and
wifdom. In their ftru&ure, habits, and modes of life,
when compared with other orders of animals, they ex¬
hibit marks of degradation and negleft. The body in
general prefents only a rude inaftive mafs ; their fenfes
are extremely obtufe ; their inftinfts are limited to the
groffeft fenfations, and the extent of their enjoyments
reaches only to the gratifications of appetite. On the
boundaries of land and water, in thofe vaft moraffes,
which are remarkable only for immenfe depofitious
of mud, few or fcarcely any poffefs the graces or ele¬
gance of other terreftrial animals •, like the latter they
enjoy not the pleafure of affociating together for amule-
merit or defence, or of indulging in fportive tricks on
the land or in the air. On the contrary, they crawl on
the earth, on the margin of extenfive lakes, furrounded
with unwholefome vapours •, or they live in the card-
ties of the rocks, or in the midft of barren deferts, undjf-
turbed by other animals, and far retired from the habi¬
tations of man. Some delight in expofing ihemfelves
to the rays of the fun ; while others retire during the
day to ffiady, moift, and fequeftered places, proceeding
from their retreats only during the night, as it were to
conceal their deformity, and to fpare man thofe feelings
of fear, difguft, and horror, with which their prefence
infpires him. But as the ftudy of. every part of the
long chain of beings is worthy of our attentive con-
fideration and regard, thefe animals, in the eyes of th©'
careful obferver of nature, are far from being wanting
in exciting his intereft and curiofily. He cannot fail
to be highly gratified with contemplating the refources
which they derive from the peculiar ftruflure of their
external form, as well as from the nature of their func¬
tions. Their manners, their habits, and the relations
which they bear to beings of a higher order, on the one
hand, and the diftanee to which they are removed from
brute matter on the other, are objects worthy of the
contemplation of the naturalift. This ftudy, properly
directed and applied, unveils to our eyes the beneficent
defign.
hap. I. . F R PET
defign rind riches of creation, and raifes our admiration
to the wonderful and extenfive variety of animated
beings.
The ufes of fome of the animals belonging to this
clafs, as valuable articles of food in thofe regions where
they abound, or as furnifhing the tables of the luxuri¬
ous in other countries with a rich delicacy 5 the pe¬
culiarities of external form, and of internal ilrufture,
as well as of feveral of their functions, fuch as circula¬
tion and refpiration 5 , their great length of life ; the re¬
productive power of fome, and the long abitinence
o L o G Y. 2%
which others can undergo, give additional intereft and
importance to the natural hiltory of thefe animals.
In the following treatife, we propofe to lay before
our readers a brief but comprehenlive view of the na¬
tural hiltory of this order of animals 5 and for the fake
of perfpicuity we {hall treat this fubjedt under two ge¬
neral heads. We (hall firlt confider the claflification.
and natural hittory of the order reptilio; and fecondly,
we {hall give a ihort {ketch of their anatomy, with the
principal facts connected with their phyfiology. Thefe
will form the fubjeCts of the two following chapters.
CHAP. I. OF THE CLASSIFICATION AND NATURAL HISTORY OF REPTILES,
IN the Linnaean arrangement, the order reptilia is
divided into four genera. Other naturaliits have adopt¬
ed a different arrangement. De La Cepede, in his hif-
tory of oviparous quadrupeds, has divided this order into
two great claffes. The firft clafs includes thofe animals
which are furniined with a tail, and the fecond com¬
prehends thofe which have no tail. The following
table exhibits a view of the claflification of this eminent
naturalifl.
Clafs I. Animals furniflred with a tail.
Genus 1. Tortoifes, having the body covered with
a bony Ihield.
Divifion 1. The fingers very unequal, and
lengthened out in the form of fins.
Divifion 2. The fingers very fhort, and almofl;
equal.
Genus 2. Li%irds\ the body having no bony co¬
vering.
Divifion 1. The tail flattened ; five fingers on
the fore feet.
Divifion 2. 'L'he tail round; five fingers on each
foot, and-elevated feales on the back.
Divifion 3. The tail round ; five fingers on the
fore feet; fcaly bands under the belly.
Divifion 4. The tail round ; five fingers on the
fore feet* without fcaly bands under the belly.
Divifion ?. The fingers furnilhed underneath with
large feales, covering each other, like the
Hates on the roof of a houfe.
Divifion 6. Three fingers on the fore and the
hind feet.
Divifion 7. Membranes in the form of wings.
Divifion 8. Three or four fingers on the fore
feet; four or five fingers on the hind feet.
Oafs II. Animals which have no tail.
Genus 1. Frogs: the head and the body length¬
ened out, and the one or the other angular.
Genus 2. Tree-frogs: the body long, with foft
vifeid tubercles under the toes.
Genus 3. Toads: the body thick and round.
Appendix. Biped reptiles.
Divifion 1. Two fore feet.
Divifion 2. Two hind feet.
Of thisarrangementitmaybe obferved, that, although
it exhibits much minutenefs and ingenuity, thediftinftivc
characters upon which fome parts of it are founded, are
not always confiant and fixed ; for it has been found
that thefe characters vary in the different individuals in
which they have been obferved. This variety, it has
been conjeCtured, arifes from the difference of age, and
peculiarities in their food and modes of life.
M. Bonnaterre has adopted a different arrange¬
ment. He has alfo divided the whole order of reptiles
into two clafles, as will appear from the following
table.
Clafs I Reptil es which have no tail.
Genus 1. Frog.
Genus 2. Tree-Frog.
Genus 3. Toad.
Clafs II. Reptiles which are furnilhed with a tail/
Genus 1. Tortoife.
Genus 2. Chamelion.
Genus 3. Crocodile.
Genus 4. Li%ard.
Genus 5. Flying dragon. -
Genus 6. Salamander. .
Genus 7. Chalcis.
This arrangement is undoubtedly, in many cafe?,'
convenient and proper ; yet, as there feems to be in
others an unneceffary multiplication of genera, we fliall
{fill adhere tothe Linnaean claflification, which, though
more fimple, will in general be found not to be much
lefs accurate ; and the objeCts which it comprehends
not being very numerous, it is fufficiently diftinCt. Lin¬
naeus divided this order into four genera. The follow¬
ing are the characters of the genera, of which we give
a tranflation, for the accommodation of the Englifli
reader.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
Genus I. Testudo. Corpus caudatum ; lorica offea,
«ut coriacea fuperne et inferne, vel fquamis fuperne
obteCtum. Oris mandibula fuperior inferiorem pyxidum
uiftar claudens.
Genus I. Tortoise. Body having a tail; covered
above and beneath with a bony or coriaceous {hell, or
feales above. The upper jaw doling over the lower like
the lid of a box.
Genus H.
2*]0
Tortoifes.
E R P E T
Gtnus II. BaVA. Corpus tetrapodum, nudum, ut-
plurimum ecaudatum : pedibus pofterioribus longiori-
bus. '
Genus III. Draco. Corpus tetrapodum, caudatum,
alatum : alis propriis.
Genus IV. Lacerta. Corpus tetrapodum, elonga-
tum, caudatum, nudum : pedibus sequalibus.
OLOGY. Chap, i
Genus II. Frog. Body four-footed, naked, general- TbitojfcJ
]y without tail j the hinder feet long til; and vou]iquiK~~~'r**
any integument but the Jkin.
Genus III. Flying Dragon1. Body four-footed
furnilhed with a tail, and on each fide with an expanfile
wing-like fkin.
Genus IV. Lizard. Body four-footed, elongated,
furnifhed with a tail, without any additional integu¬
ment : legs equal.
I. TESTUDO, or Tortoise.
From the great fimilarity which prevails among fe-
veral fpecies, and the variety in fize, colour, and other
circumftances, according to the different periods of their
age, confiderable difficulties have arifen in difcriminat-
ing them with pr§cifion. The obfervations of later
naturalifts have ffiown, that the fpecific charadlers of
Linnaeus are not fufficient for the purpofe of accurate
diftinftion ; nor have the defcriptions of the Count de
la Ccpede been more ufeful in furnifning proper cha-
radteriftic marks. One fet of characters, which have
been ufually employed for this purpofe, it has been ob-
ierved by Mr Schoepff, ought not to be trufled. They
are derived from the number of claws on the feet of
marine tortoifes, or turtles. Thefe, however, are found
to vary fo much, that they are not to be confidered as
affording uniform and conffant characters of diftinCtion.
As a proof of this obfervation, if different individuals of
the common green turtle (tejludo tnidas}, be compared
together, it will appear that fome have only a tingle
claw on each foot j while others are furnithed with two,
and fometimes three; fometimes with two on the fore
feet, and with one on the hind feet. Similar variations
have alfo been obferved in the number of claws of land
tortoifes, and particularly in thofe of the common tor-
toife, {tejludo greeca') ; in fome individuals of which the
fore feet have four, and in others five claws. Avoid¬
ing, therefore, thefe uncertain and varying characters,
the ffiape, pattern, colours of the (hell, and form of the
head, Dr Shaw obferves, furnilh the moft accurate
marks of didinClion.
Some of the fpecies belonging to this genus are na¬
tives of the ocean •, fome are confined to the land, or to
frefli water. This affords a natural divifion into land
and fea tortoifes. In following out this divifion, we
lhall treat of them in two feCtions, including under the
firft thofe that frequent frelh waters.
Sect. I. Land and Frejh-nvater Tortoifes.
I. Testudo Grjeca. Lin. Common Land Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—The (hell is hemifpherical, and of a black
and yellow colour, and having a bunch behind \ the
pieces of which the dilk is compofed are convex, and
the fides are obtufe.
Defcription. The length of the common tortoife is about fix inches,
and rarely exceeds eight: when full grown, it is about
forty-eight ounces weight. The fhell is compofed of
thirteen middle pieces, and about tw enty-five marginal
jones j is of an oval form, and very convex above. The
l
middle pieces, or thofe which confiitute the dilk of the
fliield, are moftly of a fquare form, fbmewhat oblong j
their colour is blackiffi or dark brown, each having a
broad yellow' band running along one fide, which is
continued half way along the upper part. The colours
vary in different individuals, and the fhape of the pieces
is alfo fubjeft to occafional variations. The fulci or
furrows which appear on the furface of young animals
are obliterated as they grow old. The belly part of the
fhell is of a pale yellow colour 5 the head is rather final),
the upper part covered with iregular tough fcales, and
the neck with fmaller pieces, which admit of the mo¬
tion of the head } the eye is fmall and black, and the
mouth does not extend beyond the eyes. The legs are
fhort 5 and the feet, which are moderately broad, are
covered with ftrong ovate fcales. The feet have ufu¬
ally four flout claws, but their number is found to vary
in different circumftances. The tail is rather fhorter
than the legs, is covered with fmall fcales, and termi¬
nates in a naked, horny, pointed tip.
The land tortoife is a native of almoft all the coun-Native
tries round the Mediterranean ; but it has been fuppof-country,
ed to be more frequent in Greece, from whence it has
derived its fpecific name. It is alfo found in the illands
of the Archipelago, in Corfica, Sardinia, and in many
parts of Africa. From the account of the Danifli na-
turalift Forfkal, it is employed in Greece for the pur¬
pofe of food. “ The inhabitants,” he fays, “ often
fwallow the blood recent, and eat the eggs boiled,
w hich are about the fize of thofe of a pigeon, four or
five in number, and of a white colour. In September
the animal hides itfelf under ground, and again emerges
in February \ laying its eggs in June, in a fmall hole,
which it fcratches in fome funny fpot, out of wffiich, af¬
ter the firft rains of September, the young are hatched,
which are about the fize of a walnut. The males of this
fpecies are faid to fight often, butting at each other with
fuch force, as to be heard at a confiderable diftanee.”
The land tortoife, when it is kept in gardens in Italy
and Germany, is commonly obferved to conceal itfelf
in Odlober, and to reappear in April. The period of
retirement in England is about the end of Odlober, and
the time of its appearance is about the middle of April;
but it ought to be added, that thefe periods vary in
different countries, and according to the temperature
of the feafon.
The land tortoife lives to a very great age. In fe-Greatagc-
veral inftanees which feem to be well authenticated, it
has confiderably exceeded the extraordinary period of
an hundred years. One inftance which is perhaps not
the leaf! remarkable, is recorded of a tortoife which
was introduced into the archbifliop’s garden at Lam-
:'hap. I- E R P E T
Tortoifes. betl), about the year 1633, and lived till the year
—"v  J753 > tlie or" " hich is ftill preferved in the library
of the palace at Lambeth. Another remarkable cir-
cumftance refpefting this individual is, that it was of a
larger fi2e than uftial. The ihell meafured 10 inches
in length, and fix and a half in breadth.
j ten a- None of this order of animals is more tenacious of
iousof lift; than the tortoife. The experiments of Redi afford
ife. a remarkable proof of this fa<ff. In the beginning of
November he made a large opening in the ikull of a
land tortoife, extra&ed the whole of the brain, walked
out the cavity, that no part might remain ; and having
left the hole open, let the animal go. It walked off
feemingly uninjured, excepting that it clofed its eyes,
which never afterwards opened. At the end of three
days, during which time the whole of the {hull began
to clofe, the wound was covered with a complete fidn;
and thus without brain it walked about as ufual, and
lived for fix months. The fame naturalift cut off the
head of another tortoife, which lived for the fpace of
twenty-three days afterwards.
iMiuenee. ihis animal is not lefs remarkable for its abftinence.
Blafms kept an individual of this fpecies for ten months,
during which time it tailed no kind of food whatever.
It died about the end of that time, but this was aferibed
to the feverity of the feafon, rather than to the want of
food; for the inteflines being examined, they were
found full of excrement of the natural colour.
_ Mr White, in his Natural Hiftory of Selborne, has
given fo full and diltindt an account of the natural hif¬
tory of the land tortoife, founded on fadls drawn from
his own. obfervation, that we lhall lay it before our
readers in his own words.
Ate’s ac- “ A land tortoife (fays he), which has been kept for
mntof thirty years in a little walled court belonging to the
houfe where I now am viliting, retires under ground
about the middle of November, and comes forth again
about the middle of April. When it firft appears in
the fpring it, difeovers very little inclination towards
food 5 but in the height of fummer grows voracious :
and then as the fummer declines, its appetite declines 5
fo that for the lalf fix weeks in autumn, it hardly eats
at.alh Milky plants, fuch as lettuces, dandelions, fow-
thiltles, are its favourite dilh. In a neighbouring vil¬
lage one was kept, till by tradition it was fuppofed to
135. be an hundred years old. An inftance of vaft longevity
in. fuch a poor reptile !
“ On the iff of November, I retnarked that it be¬
gan firft to dig the ground in order to the forming its
hybernaculum, which it had fixed on juft befide a great
tuft of hepatieas. It ferapes out the ground with its
fore-feet, and throws it up over its back with its hind j
but the motion of its legs is ridiculoully flow', little ex¬
ceeding the hour-hand of a clock j and fuitable to the
compofure of an animal faid to be a whole month in
performing one feat of copulation. Nothing can be
more, atnduous than this creature night and day in
fcooping the earth, and forcing its great body into the
cavity ; but, as the noons of that feafon proved unufual-
ly warm and funny, it w'as continually interrupted, and
called forth by the heat in the middle of the day ; and
though I continued there till the thirteenth of Novem¬
ber, yet the wmrk remained urifinifhed. Harfher wea-
■her, and frofty mornings, would have quickened its
O L O G Y.
operations. No part of its behaviour ever ftruck me
more than the extreme timidity it always expreffes with
regard to rain j for though it has a ftiell that would fe-
cure it againft the wheel of a loaded cart, yet does it
difeover as much folieitude about rain as a lady dreffed
in all her beft attire, fttuffling aw ay on the firft fprink-
lings, and running its head up in a corner. If attend¬
ed to, it becomes an excellent weather-glafs ■, for as fure
as it walks elate, and as it were on tiptoe, feeding with
great earneftnefs in a morning, fo fure will it rain be¬
fore night. It is totally a diurnal animal, and never
pretends to ftir after it becomes dark. The tortoife,
like other reptiles, has an arbitrary ftomach as well as
lungs 5 and can refrain from eating as well as breathing
for a great part of the year. When firft awakened it
eats nothing 3 nor again in the autumn before it re¬
tires : through the height of the fummer it feeds vora-
cioufly, devouring all the food that comes in its way.
I wras much taken with its fagacity in difeerning thofe
that do it kind offices : for, as foon as the good old lady
comes in fight who has waited on it for more than thirty
years, it hobbles towards its benefaftrefs w ith awkward
alacrity ; but remains inattentive to ftrangers. Thus
not only “ the ox knoweth his owner, and the a/s his
tnafler's crib/ but the moft abjeft reptile, and torpid oihbid. p. 158.
beings, diftinguiffies the hand that feeds it, and is touch¬
ed w'ith the feelings of gratitude !
“ -The old Suffex tortoife, (he adds), that I have men¬
tioned fo often, is become my property. I dug it out
of its winter dormitory in March laft, when it w-as
enough awakened to exprefs its refentments by hilling j
and packing it in a box with earth, carried it eighty
miles in poft-chaifes. The rattle and hurry of the jour¬
ney fo perfe&ly roufed it, that, when I turned it out on
a border, it walked twice down to the bottom of my
garden ; however, in the evening, the weather being
cold, it buried itfelf in the loofe mould, and continues
ftill concealed.
“ As it will be under my eye, I lhall now have an
opportunity of enlarging my obfervations on its mode of
life and propenfities; and perceive already that, to¬
wards.the time of coming forth, it opens a breathing
place in the.ground near its head, requiring, I conclude,
a freer refpiration as it becomes more alive. This crea¬
ture not only goes under the earth from the middle of
November to the middle of April, but lleeps great part
of the fummer j for it goes to bed in the longeft days
at four in the afternoon, and often does not ftir in the
morning till late. Belides, it retires to reft for every
Ihower ; and does not move at all in wet days.
“ When one refletts on the ftate of this ftrange be¬
ing, it is a matter of wonder to find that Providence
ffiould bellow fuch a profulion of days, fuch a feeming
wafte of longevity, on a reptile that appears to reliffi it
fo little as to fquander more than two-thirds of its exift-
ence in a joylefs ftupor, and be loft to all fenfation
for months together in the profoundeft of llumbers.
“ While I was writing, a moift and warm afternoon,
wdth the. thermometer at 50, brought forth troops of
Ihell-fnails; and, at the fame jumfture, the tortoife heav¬
ed up the mould, and put out its head 5 and the next
morning came forth, as it were raifed from the dead,
and walked about till four in the afternoon. This was
a curious coincidence ! a very amuffng occurrence ! to
fee
^2 E K F E T
lortoifes. fee fuc h a fimilarlty of feeling between the two <p?gso<*8< !
J v , for fo the Greeks called both the lhell-fna.il and the
-“"'■‘’■“‘•tortoire.
“ Becaufe we call this creature an abjeft reptile,
ive are too apt to undervalue his abilities, and depre¬
ciate his powers of inllinft. Yet he is, as Mr Pope
fays of his' lord,
.—  “ Much too wife to walk into a well
and has fo much <lifcernment as not to fall down a
haha •, but to flop and withdraw from the brink with
the readied precaution.
« Though he loves warm weather, he avoids the
hot fun j becaufe his thick Ihell, when once heated,
would, as the poet fays of fohd armour, $5 fcald with
fafety.” He therefore fpends the more fultry hours
under the umbrella of a large cabbage-leaf, or amidft
the waving forells of an afparagus-bed.
“ But as he avoids heat in the fummer, fo, in the
decline of the year, he improves the faint autumnal
beams, by getting within the refleftion of a fruit-wall:
and, though he has never read that planes inclining to
the horizon receive a greater (hare of warmth, he
inclines his (hell, by tilting it againft the wall, to Col¬
lett and admit every feeble ray.
“ Pitiable feems the condition of this poor embarraffed
reptile : to be cafed in a fuit of ponderous armour,
which he cannot lay alide ; to be imprifoned, as it were,
within his own (bell, mud preclude, we flrould fuppofe,
all activity and difpofition for enterprife. Yet there is
a feafon of the year (ufually the beginning of June)
when his exertions are remarkable. He then walks on
tiptoe, and is dirring by five in the morning j and,
traverfing the garden, examines every wicket and in¬
terdice in the fences, through which he will efcape if
poflible : and often has eluded the care of the garden¬
er, and wandered to lome didant field. Ihe motives
that impel him to undertake thefe rambles feem to be of
the amorous kind : his fancy then becomes intent on
■fbid.p. 4*7. fexual attachments, which tranfport him beyond his
ufual gravity, and induce him to forget for a time his
ordinary folemn deportment.”
2. TestuBo Marginata, Marginated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—The (hell is blackilh-brown, variegated
with yellow, oblong, and gibbofe, widened and de-
‘prefled on the hinder part.
The length of this fpecies is nearly fourteen inches,
the breadth about ten, meafuring the curvature of the
(hell. The head which is fiat and triangular above, is
nearly two inches long, above an inch broad, and one
inch deep. The eyes are furnilhed with a nictitating
membrane 5 but the lower eyelid only is moveable*
The mandibles are firong, notched, and internally befet
with protuberances which have been fometimes mif-
taken for teeth. The external orifices of the ears are
covered with the common (kin. The tail is very (liort.
The fore legs are about three inches and a half long *, the
hind legs are about two and a half long. The (kin is
grainy, and covered with brown coloured, unequal,
hard feales, extending over the head, legs, and tail.
Some of thefe feales on the ends of the feet are large,
hard, and pointed j fo that at firft fight they might be
{aken for claws* The feet arc thick? and fo cover-
CLOG Y. Chap. I
ed with the invefting membrane, that the toes ate orily Tortoifes.
diftinguifhed.
The di(k of the (hell is compofed of thirteen pieces
which are ftriated on the margin. The border confifta
of twenty-four pieces \ all of which, efpecially the pof-
terior ones, are proportionally larger than in the other
fpecies. From the pofition of the latter, the circumfe¬
rence of the upper (hell appears toothed. The upper
(hell is very convex, being more than four inches deep :
in confequence of this form, wheit the animal is placed
on its back, it can recover its former fituation*
The colour of this fpecies is generally dark, or
blackith-bay. The convex part of the pieces which
compofe the di(k are irregularly varied with yellow.
The pieces are alfo variegated with the fame colour*
This prevails chiefly on the porterior divifions, and thefe
are diltin&ly ftriated or furrowed. The width or dila¬
tation of thefe divifions, being greater than in other fpe¬
cies, conftitutes the principal chara&eriftic mark of the
prefent. The colour of the under (hell is pale yellow ;
each divifion is marked on its upper joining with a
tranfverfe blackfth band, which runs into A pair of point¬
ed or triangular proceffes, extending nearly to the in¬
ferior divifion. Another fpecific difterence between this
and the common tortoife is, that in the former the out¬
line of the (hell, feen from above, is proportionally long¬
er, and has a (light finking or contraction on each
fide.
It is fuppofed that this fpecies is a native of America,
but this feems not to be certainly determined ; and;
little, or fearcely any thing, is known of its natural hif-
tory.
3. Testudo Geometrica, Geometrical Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—The, (hell is black and ovate j the fefi-
tella elevated, and radiated with yellow.
The number of pieces of which the dilk is compofed,
is fubjeft to variation. Inftead of thirteen, fourteen
pieces have been obferved in different fpecimehs. Thefe
pieces are very prominent, ftriated diftinCtly with nu¬
merous lines on their fides, and terminated above by a
yellowifti coloured, flat, hexagonal roughened fpace,
from which proceed, in a radiated direction, feme well
defined yellow ftreaks towards the edge j in this form¬
ing on the black ground colour, fomething like geome¬
trical figures. The marginal pieces are commonly 24,
but fometimes 26. They alfo are ftreaked with yellow'.
As in other fpecies, the brightnefs of the colours is fub-
jeCt to variation, but their regular diftribution is never
entirely obliterated.
This fpecies, it is faid, is a native of Alia, Africa,
and alfo of America j but this feems not to be fully
afeertained, which is rather furprifing, as its (hell is
oftener met with in Europe than that of any other fpe¬
cies. Thunberg fays that it is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope, where it frequents fhrubby places. It is
faid alfo that it is found on the coaftofthe Pine iflands,
between the continent of America and Cuba, where
they frequent moift and marftiy places in the forefls.
They are very eafily taken, and are fought after as food.
It is ufual for the natives to put a mark on the (hield,
and then to allow them to go about in the woods, find¬
ing them again almoft as readily as any domefticated
animal, when they tranfport them to Cuba. This fpe-
cie?
'hap. I. E R P E T
fortoifes. cies is fuppofed to be the terrapin of Dampxer^ who
—r-' gives the above account) and reprefents it as beautifully
variegated^
4. Testudo RadiaTa, Radiated Tortoi/e.
Specif. C/i/xr.—Shell oVate, black j fcutella flattilh, and
radiated with yellow.
This fpecies has fometimes been confounded with the
preceding 5 it often however exceeds a foot in length,
and its outline is nearly fmooth. The fize of the geo¬
metrical tortoife is lefs, its outline is very much tu-
berculated, and the pieces of w'hich it is compofed rife
greatly towards their centres.
According to Grew, it is a native of Madagafcar j
and its charafters correfpond nearly with one defcribed
by Browne in his hiftory of Jamaica, fo that it muft alfo
be confidered as a native of that ifland. Grew has
given a very particular defcription of it.
5. Testudo Indica, Indian Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell brown, refle&ed above the neck j
the three upper fcutella are marked with a tu¬
bercle.
This is a very large fpecies, wdiich was firft defcribed
by Perrault in the hiftory of animals publiftied by the
Royal Academy of France. It meafured from the tip
of the nofe to the tail four feet and a half; the height
or convexity was about fourteen inches j the (hell itfelf
was in length three feet, and two in breadth 5 the co¬
lour was of a dull brown. The pieces compofing the
fliield were large and diffimilar, of which the three
anterior were marked in the middle with a round knob
or tubercle, about half an inch wide. The Ikin of
the head, feet, and neck, was wrinkled and granulated j
the fore legs were nine inches long, the feet undivided,
with five blunt claws : the hind legs were eleven inches
long, with four toes, each armed with a claw $ the tail
fix inches thick at the bafe, fourteen inches in length,
and terminating in a horny bent procefs. This fpecies
is a native of the coaft of Coromandel.
Var. 1. A variety of this fpecies brought from the
Cape of Good Hope, is defcribed by Vofmaer ; it was
about 2\ feet long, i-J foot broad, one foot high, with
thirteen pieces in the difk, and twenty-five in the mar¬
gin. In this, the three tubercles on the anterior pieces
of the ftiield are w anting.
Var. 2. Another variety of this fpecies, of a very
large fize, has been brought from the South Sea iflands.
The (hell, which is of a dull uniform brown, with a
fmooth furface, is of an ovate oblong form, widening
at the bottom, and contracting conliderably on each
fide of the neck. It is at leaft three feet and a half
long j the divifions are all even, but the whole furface
of the (hell is marked with regular elevations and de-
preflions.
6. Testudo RuGosa, Wrinkled Tortoife.
Specif Char.— Shell black, wrinkled, mottled and varie¬
gated with yellow j the middle dorfal piece fubpan-
duriform.
This fpecies, of which a fpeeimen is preferved in the
Vol. VIII. Part I*
O L O G Y 17 j
Leverian mufeum, is defcribed by Dr Shaw-f. The Tortoifes.
colour is dark brown, or black, thickly mottled with
fmall confluent fpots of pale yellow, which are largeft
on the fides of the (hell. The form of the ftiell is long voi, iij,
and oval, dilated or widened behind j the depth or con- p. 18.
vexity is very confiderable. The three middle divifions
of the row of fcutella on the back are fomewhat pandu-
riform, or fiddle-lhaped. The upper piece referable*,
the outline of a pitcher; the loweft approaches to a
hexagonal form. The number of the fide pieces is four,
of the ufual form ; that of the marginal pieces is twenty-
five, the upper one very fmall. A carina or ridge runt
down the dorfal row ; the upper furface of the (hell is
ftrongly wrinkled. The under ftiell is fmooth, and of
a yellowilh white colour, mottled with black. Th6
length of the flrell is nine and a half inches; width
in the middle five inches. Its native country is un¬
known.
Var. A variety of this fpecies is aifo defcribed, con
filling chiefly in the colours of the ftrell, and owing, it
is fuppofed, to a fexual difference.
7. Testudo Europea, Speckled Tortoife.
Specif. C/mr.—Shell oval, flattilh, fmooth, dark-brown,
marked with numerous yellowilh fpecks and ftreaks.
Tefudo orbicularis, Lin.
This fpecies is from four to five inches long ; the
colour is blackilh or olive brown ; the fhell flattilh,
but flightly convex, marked with numerous, oblong,
yellow fpecks, difpofed in a radiated form on each divi-
fion of the Ihell. The (kin of the neck and breaft is
fimilarly fpotted. The dilk confifts of thirteen, and
the margin of twenty-five pieces. The under ftiell is
of a whitilh yellow, tinged with brown at the jointsi
The head is ovate, fomewhat convex above, flattilh on
the fides and beneathi The Ikin of the neck is wrink¬
led and loofe. The legs are Ihort, and covered with
fcales. The feet are webbed, the fore feet having five
toes, the hind only four. The claws are {harp pointed
and crooked ; the tail is nearly half the length of the
body, and is thin and compreffed.
This fpecies is a native of Italy, Sardinia, France,
Hungary, and Pruflia, as well as other parts of Europe.
It inhabits lakes and muddy waters, feeding on fmall
fifh, infe£ls, fnails, and aquatic plants. The flelh is ef-
teemed and employed as food, and in feme places
brought to market for fale. It is fometimes kept in
ponds for the purpofe, and fed with lettuce leaves,
bread, &c. It may be kept in a cellar, and fed with
oats fcattered on the floor, which it eats as foon as they
begin to germinate. In the beginning of fpring it de-
pofits its eggs in fandy places, expofed to the fun ; and
it has been faid, that thefe are not hatched till the
fpring following. The growth of this animal is ex¬
tremely flow, and it varies fomewhat in colour, accord¬
ing to the climate where it is found.
8. Testudo LuTaria, Mud Tortoife.
Specif Char.—The (hell is flattilh, and the tail is half
the length of the body.
The length of this fpecies dees not exceed feven or
eight inches from the tip of the nofe to the end of the tail.
The breadth is about three or four inches. The difle
is compofed of 13 pieces, which are ftriated and flight-
M m ly
274 E R P E T
Tortoifes. ]y punflated in the centre. A longitudinal ridge runs
" along the middle range. The margin confids of 23
pieces {lightly ftriated on the edges. The {hell is blackifh,
as well as the {kin j the feet are webbed, and have five
toes before and four behind.
This fpecies is a native of many parts of Europe ; it
is alfo found in different parts of Afia, as in India and
Japan. It is very common in France, particularly in
Languedoc, and in different parts of Provence. It is
laid that fuch numbers were found one time in a lake
half a league wide, in the plain of Durance, that the
neighbouring peafantry were fupported by them for
more than three months.
This fpecies always lays its eggs on land, digging a
hollow, in the ground, and covering the eggs with
earth. When the young are firft hatched, they are
only about half an inch in diameter. The motions of
this fpecies are quicker than thofe of the land tprtoife.
It continues to grow for a long time, and lives for up¬
wards of 24 years. It has been found ufeful in gardens,
by deftroying fmall {nails, and other animals which are
deftruftive to vegetables ; but it ought to be obferved,
that it is difpofed to attack and deftroy the filh in
fifh-ponds.
9. Testudo Carinata, Carinated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Feet digitated ; {hell gibbofe j four firft
dorfal fcutella carinated 5 fternum entire.
The {hell of this fpecies does not exceed three inches
in length. The form is broad, and fomewhat orbicu¬
lar } the colour is brown, and each fcutellum is marked
with a pale zone of confluent fpots, which furround the
centre part, the edges of each being furrounded with
three or four diftinftly marked furrows. Marginal
pieces 25 in number, including the uppermoft, which
is very fmall. Its native country is unknown.
10. Testudo Carolina, Lin. Testudo Clausa,
Shaw. Clofe Tortoife.
O L O G Y. Chap I
black clouds and fpots : it has only the rudiment of a Tortoifes,
tail, on which the vent is placed : the lower {hell is di- v—«.
vided acrofs the middle of the belly, and joined to the
upper {hell by a tough though flexible {kin, by which
means it can, when it draws in its head and legs, clofe
up its fliell as firmly as an oyfter.” From this pecu¬
liarity in its ftrufture, this fpecies has derived its name j
and this proves fo ftrong a defence to the little animal,
that it feems not only not to receive any injury, from
having a weight of five or fix hundred pounds laid up¬
on it, but to walk under the load without any incon¬
venience.
The'length of this fpecies feldom exceeds four or
five inches. It is a native of North America, and is
chiefly found in marftiy fituations ; but it alfo fome-
times appears in dry and warm places. It lives both
on vegetables and animals. Of the latter beetles, mice,
and fometimes ferpents, are its prey. Thefe it feizes,
draws them into its fhell, and cruihes them to death.
It is much in requeft on account of its eggs, which are
efteemed a great delicacy. They are about the fize of
a pigeon’s egg.
11. Testudo Sulcata, Sulcated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.— Shell brown, ovate j fcutella furrowed,
and yellow on each fide.
This fpecies exceeds a foot in length, from the tip of
the nofe to the end of the tail •, fo that it is one of the
larger of the land tortoifes. The {hell is very convex.
The difk is compofed of 13 pieces, which are five and
fix-fided ) and each is tranfverfely and ftrongly furrow¬
ed from the lower edge to the upper area •, acrofs thefe
run three impreffed lines in an oppofite diredlion : the
marginal pieces are furrowed in the fame manner. The
colour of the Ihell is in general a dull yellow ; but
both the fliield and marginal pieces have a brown and
yellow divifion. The head is large and covered with
fix-fided fcales of different fizes. The fore and hind legs
are alfo fcaly ; on the former are five claws, on the
latter only four. The tail is very fliort.
This fpecies is a native of the Weft Indies; and it
is fuppofed to be the fame with the hicatee deferibed by
Browne in his Hiftory of Jamaica.
12. Testudo Tabulata, Tabular Tortoife'.
Specif Char.—Shell brown, oblong, gibbous ; fcutella
of the difc rectangular and furrowed, having yel-
lowifh coloured centres.
The fliape and fize of the pieces of which the dife
is compofed, are more uniform than in any other be¬
longing to this genus. This feems to be the principal
mark of diferimination. Each piece is {lightly convex,
and in general fix-fided, excepting fome of the pieces
towards the fides, which are five-fided. The central
part of each piece is large, and {lightly granulated,
and the fides are diftindlly fulcated. The whole has a
kind of flattened or tabular appearance : the colour is
a yellowilh chefnut; it is paler on the centre of each
divifion; the legs are thick, and fpotted with red; the
number of pieces on the dife is 13, that of the margin
23. The length of the {hell is from five to fix inches.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Africa; but according
to fome, it has been found in Brazil.
I3‘
Specif Char.—Shell blackifti, irregularly fpotted with
yellow ; dorfal carina obtufe ; under fhell bivalve,
completely inclofing the upper {hell.
This fpecies is thus deferibed by Edwards. “ The
head is furnifhed with & hard or ihelly covering of a
dark brown colour on the top : on the fides and throat
it is yellow, with fmall black or dulky fpots : its
noftrils are near together, a little above the end of the
beak: the eyes are of a yellowith colour : the neck is
covered with a loofe (kin of a dark purpliih flefh colour,
which partly covers the 'head when it is not fully ex¬
tended : the hinder legs and parts about the vent are
covered with a {kin of the fame dull flefh colour as the
neck : the fore-legs and feet are covered with yellow
hard fcales : it hath five toes on each foot forwards,
and four on each of the hinder feet, all armed with
pretty ftrong claws : the {hell above rifes pretty much,
and is round, divided into feparate fcales of the horny
fubftance called tortoife fliell: each fcale is engraven,
as it were, with rings round its extremities, which leffen
inwards to its centre : the fhell above is of a dulky
brown colour, with yellowifti fpots of various forms :
underneath it is flattilh, and of a yellow colour, with
E R P E T O L O G Y.
L
13. TeSTUDO CoNCEVTRICA ; Te/htdo Palujiris, Lin.
Concentric Tortoife.
Specif Char.—Shell fomewhat depreffed, flightly ridged,
oval, of a yellow colour j having the fcutella marked
with brown concentric zoney.
The (hell of this fpecies is (latter than that of others 5
in fome of the larger; fpecimens nearly fmooth : the
middle row of pieces, of which the difc is compofed,
are five in number j they are more elevated than thofe
of the fides, are fix-fided, and projeifl behind into an
obtufe carina. There are four fide-pieces on each iide,
which are pentagonal. The ground colour of the whole
is pale, and marked with brown zones and centres. The
(hell is from four to fix inches long.
This tortoife is a native of North America, and is
met with in the markets at Philadelphia, where it is fold
under the name of terrapin. It is alfo a native of
Jamaica, where it is very common. It is faid, by
Browne, who feems firft to have deferibed it, to be a
wholefome and delicate food. In that illand, it grows
to the length of eight or nine inches.
14. Testudo Picta, Painted Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—The fiv-dl is oblong, and flightly convex,
fmooth, and of a brown colour; the (eutella are bor¬
dered with yellow.
This fpecies is well diilinguiflied from all others, by
the remarkable colours of the ihield, which confifts of
I 3 fegments nearly fquare, and deeply edged with pale
yellow. The marginal pieces are 25 in number. The
(hell is from four to fix inches long.
The painted tortoife frequents frefli waters, and in
particular, is found in the flow and deep rivers of North
America. In bright funlhine weather they leave the
water in great numbers, and balk themfelves on Hones,
pieces of wood, and the banks of the (dreams, fuddenly
retreating into the water, when they are difturbed.
They walk very (lowly, but fwim with great rapidity.
They can remain for many hours together under the
water, but live only a few days in the open air. They
are extremely voracious, and are known to deftroy young
aquatic fowls, feizing them by the feet, and dr gging
them under water. Sometimes they are employed for
the purpofe of food.
15. Testudo Guttata, Spotted Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell oblong, flightly convex, fmooth,
and of a brown colour, with fcattered yellow fpots.
This fpecies is alfo fufficiently diftinguifhed by its
remarkable colour. The pieces both of the difc and
margin being marked with a few diftantly placed
round yellow fpots. Thefe fpots vary, as well as the
ground, in different individuals. The young of this
fpecies, which itfelf is fmall, are not larger than a
pigeon’s egg, are very black, and beautifully (potted
with gold colour.
This tortoife is a native of North America, frequent¬
ing lakes and rivers.
16. Testudo El^gans, Elegant Tortofe.
Specif Char.—-The (hell is round, convex, and of a
yellow colour, with tranfverfe, oval, brown fpots.
This is a very fmall fpecies, only about two inches
long •, the (hell is of a bright yellowr colour, the furface
apparently fmooth. At each of the joinings which
compote the dife, there is a large, leaf-(haped, dark
brown tranfverfe (pot. The marginal pieces are marked
with a tranfverfe black zone 5 the head is (hort and
thick.
Nothing particular is knowm of its natural hiftory,
or to what country it belongs.
17. Testudo Areolata, Areolated Tortofe.
Specif Char.—The (hell is flightly convex j the fcu¬
tella are nearly four-fided, elevated, deeply furrowed,
and are furnifhed with depreffed rough areolae.
The length of this fpecies is from three to four inches.
The fcutella, which are nearly four-fided, are broader
than long, with a pretty large, depreffed, central
part, which is of a yellow colour, roughifh, and fur-
rounded by a pale zone. The margin is compofed of
23 pieces j the difc, in fome individuals, of 1 5, and in
others of 14.
This tortoife, according to fome, is a native of Brazil,
according to others, of the Eail Indies.
18. Testudo Serrata, Serrated Tortofe. Tejludo
Spenglcri, Lin.
Specif. Char.—Shell depreffed, of a yellow colour, and
minutely freckled with du(ky fpecks. The fcutella
of the difc are all ridged ; the hinder margin of the
(hell ferrated.
This tortoife is confidered and deferibed by Dr Shaw
as a new fpecies 5 it is fmall, only about three quarters
of an inch long, and about two inches and a half
broad. It is of an oval form, and flightly convex.
The colour is of a yellowifti brown, and when clofely
examined, appears thickly marked with minute, con¬
fluent, dufky fpots. The under (hell is blackilh, with a
yellow margin.
The native country of this fpecies is unknown.
19. Testudo PusiELA,Z//y/<? Tortofe. African Land
Tortoife of Edwrards.
Specif. Char.—Shell hemifpherical, with convex, trape¬
zoidal fcutella, ftriated on the margin, and dotted on.
the difc. Feet fubdigitated.
The (hell of this fpecies meafures only about four
inches in length. The whole animal, from the tip of
the nofe to the end of the tail, does not exceed fix.
This fpecies has a confiderable refemblance to the com-
mon tortoife, orIt is particularly de¬
feribed by Edwards, who kept two of them which he
received from Weft Barbary for two years in the gar¬
den of the college of phyficians in London j but of its
natural hiftory, nothing farther is known.
20. Testudo Tricarinata, Tricarinated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell oval, flightly convex ; margin en¬
tire ) all the fcutella of the difc carinated.
This fpecies refembles a good deal the tejludo orbicu¬
laris, Lin. In fize it fcarcely exceeds that of a large
walnut j the colour is blackiih ; the (hell is compofed
Mm2 of
276 E R P E T
t Tortoifes. of 13 fcutella; the number of the marginal pieces is
,"'1 1'" 23. Each fcutella is marked in the middle with a lon¬
gitudinal ridge, and wrinkled on the lides with feveral
furrows and roughifh points.
Its native place, and its natural hiftory, are unknown.
2r. Testudo Scabra, Rough Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell flattifh, the intermediate fcutella
elevated on the back 5 feet pahnated.
o L O G Y. - Chap. I
This fpecies is about four inches long and three broad. TortoifesJ
The {hell is of a pale yellowilh brown colour 5 the dife
is compofed of broad five and fix-fided fcutella. They
are flattilh, and have a large diftinft fpace in the
middle, granulated with fmall tubercles. The other
part of the fcutellum is marked with five furrows 5 the
marginal pieces are 23 in number, and project in a
lerrated form.
It is fuppofed to be a native of North America.
This tortoife is about two inches and a half in length,
and nearly two in breadth. Its form is fomewhat cor-
dated, of a light reddilh colour, finely variegated on the
head and {hell, with waved w hite lines and fpots. The
feet, each of which is furnilhed with five toes, with
{harp claws, are marked w ith red fpots. The head is
prominent, and the eyes are fmall.
It is confidered by fame naturalifts as a native of
Amboyna.
22. Testudo ScRIPTa, Letter'd Tortoife. Tejludo Sca¬
bra of Thunberg.
Specif. Char.—Shelldepreffed, orbicular j fcutella mark¬
ed v'ith various figured characters $ marginal pieces
fpotted underneath.
This fpecies is either very fmall, or the fpecimen
from which the defcriptions have been taken were very
young, as it did not exceed the fize of a half-crown
piece. It is flattiih, of a round form, and whitilh
colour tinged v ith yellow. The upper furface is mark¬
ed with various figures, having fomewhat the appear¬
ance of written characters. The pieces of the mar¬
gin, which are 25 in number, are marked with fimi-
lar characters as thofe of the fcutella. The feet are
large, webbed, and have five toes furnifhed with {harp
claws.
It is not mentioned to what country it belongs.
23. Testudo Galeata, Galeated Tortoife.
Specif Char.—Shell depreffed, oval ; the three middle
fcutella Iharply ridged j marginal pieces 24.
This is a fmall fpecies, not exceeding two inches and
a half long, and about tw'o broad. The colour of the
{hell is pale brow n, and the difc is compofed of 13 fcu¬
tella, of which the middle row is very broad, and
ftrongly ridged in the middle. Marginal pieces 24 in
number, and fimilar in colour to the dife, but having
white edges. The head is fmooth, furnifhed with
a kind of Ihield, from whence it derives its fpecific
name.
Its native place is unknown ; but an individual of
this fpecies, brought from India, lived two years. It
was kept in frefn water, and could occafio .ally remain
for a few hours in the open air. Its food was bread and
{lies. It continued in a kind of dormant date during
the winter, taking no food from the beginning of Octo¬
ber till the middle of May, and fcarcely ever raifing
its head above the furface of the water.
25.Testudo Pennsylvanica, PennfylvanianTortofe,
Small Mud Toriofe of Edwards.
Specif. Char.—Shell brown, fmooth, elliptic j back flat¬
tifh ; the middle row of fcutella fomewhat rhom-
boidal and imbricated. The firlt is fubtmngular.
This is a fmall tortoife ; the length of the {hell, at
its full grow th, does not exceed three or four inches.
In this fpecies, the middle nwv of dorfal pieces are longer
than in others, and are fo arranged as U> overlap each,
other at the tips. The marginal pieces are 23 in num¬
ber, the upper one being very fmall. The edges of the
fhell are tinged with dull yellow. In the joinings of
the pieces, this fpecies refembles the ItruCture of the
clofe tortoife, fo that the animal has the power of con¬
cealing itfelf almoft entirely, by clofing up its fliell.
It is a native of North America, and is particularly
found in Pennfylvania, where it frequents muddy wa¬
ters, and hence its trivial name of mud tortoife. When
alive, it is faid that it gives out a flrong mulk fmell.
Several varieties of this fpecies have been noticed by
naturalifts.
26. Testudo Longicollis, Long-neched Tortoife.
Specif. Chiar—Smooth, ovate; neck very long.
This fpecies is about five inches and a half long, and
four and a half broad. The ftiell is of an oval form,
of a dark olive brown colour, refembling in feme parts
of it the grain of common black leather. The dife is
compofed of 13, and the margin of 25 pieces. The
under {hell is of a yellowilh colour, marked with black
brown at the joinings.. The claws on the feet, which
are four in number, are like thofe of birds.
It is a native of New' Holland.
27. Testudo Caseica, Cafpian Toriofe.
Specif. Char.—Shell orbicular, head fealy, tail naked 4
five claws on the fore feet, four on the hind.
This fpecies of tortoife grows to fuch a fize, that,
feveral men can hand together on its ftiell. The pieces
of which the dife is compofed are nearly four-fided,
and fquare : thofe of the margin are in the form of
a parallelogram. Xhe colour is variegated with black
and green ; the under ftiell is blackifti, fpotted with
white.
It is a native of Hyrcania, and frequents frefli waters.
24. Testudo Denticulata, Denticulated Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell roundifti, and heart-ftiaped ; mar¬
ginal fegments denticulated j feet fubdigitated.
28. Testudo Ferox, Fierce Tortofe.
Specif. Char.—Shell ovate, cartilaginous \ three claws
on the feet, which are tubular j noftrils prominent.
This
:hap. I-
Cortoifes. This fpecies is about one foot and a half in length,
^.v—' and about 15 inches in breadth. The ftiield, which is
hard or olfeous in the middle only, while the edges be¬
come gradually flexible and coriaceous, is a fufficiently
chara£terifl:ic mark of diftinftion. The head is {mail,
and fomewhat trigonal, with the fnout much elongated.
The colour of this fpecies is brownilh j olive above j
and on the under parts white.
This fpecies is a native of Pennfylvania, Carolina,
and other parts of America. It is extremely vigorous
and fwift in its motions, and when it is dilturbed or at¬
tacked, it fprings forward towards its enemy with great
fiercenefs. Some which have been found in the rivers
and lakes of Eaft Florida, weighed from go to 40 lbs.;
and it is faid that they even grow to fuch a fize as to
weigh 70 lbs.
A fpecies dcfcribed by Thunberg, under the name
of teftudo rojlrnta, is fuppofed by Dr Shaw to be an in¬
dividual belonging to the above, not yet arrived at its
full growth. The teftudo triunguis of Forikal feems
alfo to be a variety of this fpecies.
29. Testudo Granulata, Shagreened Tortoife.
Specif. Char.—Shell granulated, orbicular, flattifli j
border cartilaginous.
The fliield of this fpecies meafures about 3^ inches
in length, and 3^- in breadth. It appears as if it were
compofed of Uvo fliields, the upper of which is the fmal-
left and fliorteft. This is of a bony fubftance, roughened
all over like the furface of fhagreen. It is compofed of
23 pieces, eight of which are placed on each fide. The
borders of this fliield are cartilaginous and fomewhat
tranfparent, through which may be feen the ribs of the
animal.
This fpecies is faid to be a native of India ; but of
its habits and natural hiitory nothing is known.
30. Testudo Fimbriata, Fimbriated Tortoife.
Specif Char.—Shell oval, a little convex, and having a
triple ridge j neck fimbriated on each fide 5 fnout
cylindrical, and feet fubdigitated.
The length of the fliell of this fpecies is above 15
inches, and the breadth 11. The length of the animal,,
from the tip of the nofe to the end of the tail, is two
feet three inches. The head is large and flat, edged
on the fides with wrinkled membranaceous appendages,
and covered behind with a threc-lobed prominence.
The nofe is cylindrical, and fomewdiat refembles a pro-
bofcis. It is 10 lines long, truncated, and pierced at
the tip by the noftrils. The difk of the fliell is a little
convex, and compofed of 13 femicircular pieces, which
are nearly conical. They are all wrinkl d, and irre¬
gularly notched at the hinder part. The marginal
pieces are 25 in number, nearly fquare, radiated on the
furface with oblique wrinkles, and toothed on the inner
edge. The colour is brown, and fomewhat paler be¬
neath.
This fpecies is faid to be a native of Guiana, and was
once common in the rivers of Cayenne*, but it is now
rarely to be met with, having been much fought after
as a nourifhing food. Its food is aquatic plants ; and it
is faid that it leaves the river, and wanders about in
the night, to feme diitance from the banks, in fearch of
E R P E T O L O G Y.
pafture. The individual from which the defeription is
taken by M. Bruguierre, was brought to him alive, and
lived for fome time on herbs, bread, and fome other
fubftances. It laid feveral eggs, one of which produ¬
ced a young tortoife in the box where it was kept.
277
Turtles.
31. Testudo Serpentina, Snake Tsrtofe.
Specif Char.—Shell ovate, deprefled, triply carinated^
and (harp fealed j rounded and acutely ferrated at the
pofterior margin.
This fpecies grows to the weight of 15 or 20 lbs.
The general colour is of a dull chefnut brown, but
lighter or paler underneath. The head is large, tri¬
angular, and covered with a warty {kin. The neck is
alfo covered with fcaly warts. The toes, which are
five in number on the fore feet, and four on the hind
feet, are all diflinft, but connefted by means of a web.
They are armed with long claws. Tire tail is ftraight,
two-thirds the length of the fhell, compreffed, and creft-
ed on the upper part with fharp bony feales, pointed
backwards.
This fpecies is a native of North America 5 inhabit¬
ing ftagnant waters, where it preys on fifh, ducklings,.
Stc. feizing its prey with great force. And indeed,
whatever it feizes with its mouth, it holds with fuch
force, that it will fuffer itfelf to be raifed out of the
water rather than quit its hold. The more eafily to
catch its prey, it is laid too, that it conceals itfelf in.
muddy waters, leaving out only part of its back, which
has the appearance of a ftone.
32. Testudo Squamata, Scaly Tortoife.
Specif Char.—Body ovate, fmooth beneath ; but the-
upper part with the neck, feet, and tail, covered with
numerous fcales-.
The
a fnake
(harp,
fcales}
the tail
It is
flefli is
verifed
nefe as
head of this fpecies is fmall, refembling that of
} the eyes- are fmall and moveable, the teeth
All the upper part of the body is covered with
the under parts are foft, fmoolh, and tender y
is pretty long.
faid to be a native of China and Java. The
accounted a great delicacy, and the fcales, pul-
and diffolved in water, are given by the Chi-
a remedy in cafes of dyfentery and colic.
Sect. II. Turtles^ or Sea Tortofes.
The large and long fin-fliaped feet, which inclofe the
bones of the toes, are the moll obvious charadleriftic
marks of diflinftion between the fea tortoifes, and the
fpecies included under the preceding feftion. In the
fea tortoifes the fliield is alfo compofed of a ftrong bony
covering, which is coated externally with hard horny
plates, which in fome of the fpecies are much thicker
and ftronger than thole of the land tortoifes.
33. Testudo Coriacea, Coriaceous Turtle.
Specf. Char.—Colour brown, paler beneath 5 {hell co¬
riaceous, marked with five longitudinal, tubereulated
ribs.
This fpecies, in the form of its body, which is pro¬
portionally longer, and in its outer covering, which is
not
278
lurtles, not of a horny fubftance, hut refembles ftrong leather,
v is fufficiently diftinguUhed from others. Five dittindt,
prominent, tuberculated ridges run along the whole
length of this covering. This fpecies is not furnifh-
ed with an under or thoracic {hell. The head is large,
and the upper mandible is notched at the tip, which
gives it the appearance of having two large teeth.
The fins are large and long, and covered with a tough
leathery {kin. The general colour is dulky brown, but
paler beneath.
The coriaceous turtle Is a native of the European
feas. It is alfo found on the coafts of South America
and Africa. It frequents the Mediterranean fea, and
has been oecafionally met with on the coaits of France
■and England. This fpecies, of all the turtles, grows to
the largeft fize. Some have been taken eight feet in
length, and weighing no lefs than looclbs. One was
taken in the month of Auguft 1729, not far from the
mouth of the Loire in France, which meafured feven
feet one inch in length, three feet feven inches in
breadth, and two in thicknefs. It is reported that it
uttered fo hideous a noife when it was taken, that it
might be heard at the diftance of a quarter of a league.
At the fame time it foamed at the mouth, feemingly
with rage, from which it emitted a noifome vapour.
Another was taken in 1778,,on the coatt of Langue¬
doc, which meafured feven feet five inches in length.
One taken on the coaft of Cornwall in July 1756, mea¬
fured, from the tip of the nofe to the end of the (hell,
fix feet nine inches, and the weight was fuppofed to be
near 800 lbs.
The Greeks, it is fuppofed, were acquainted with
this fpecies of turtle, which they employed in the con-
firuftion of the ancient lyre or harp. The fidh of this
fpecies is extremely fat, but coarfe and ill-flavoured ;
but the religious order of Carthufians prefer it to that
x>f every other.
34. TESTUDO Mydas, Green Turtle.
Specif. Char.—Of a browniftx colour, with 13 fcales on
the difc.
This is the efculent, or common green turtle j the
latter name being derived from the colour of the fat.
This is fuppofed to be owing to the vegetable matters
on which the animal feeds, and efpecially the %oflera
marina, or turtle grafs, of which it is faid to be ex¬
tremely fond. This fpecies is one of the largeft of the ge¬
nus, often exceeding five feet in length, and weighing
300 or 600 lbs. The (hell is fomewhat heart-draped,
pointed at the extremity, and compofed of x 3 dorfal divi-
fions, with 25 marginal pieces. The colour is of a dull
pale brown, more or lefs variegated with deeper undu¬
lations, but lefs ftrong and beautiful colours, than the
hawkftfill turtle, which yields the tortoife fhell.
The green turtle is a native of all the feas within the
torrid zone.
This fpecies of turtle has been long efteemed a de¬
licious food by the inhabitants of many of the iflands
and continents within the torrid zone. In the time of
Chap. I,
Sir Flans Sloane, the inhabitants of Port Royal in Ja- Turtles,
maica employed 40 {loops for the purpofe of catching v-—
them. The markets were at that time, as they are at
prefent, fupplied with turtle in the fame way as thofe of
Europe are with butcher’s meat. Many of them, ac¬
cording to Catefby, are carried from the Bahama idands
to Carolina, where they- are efteemed as a great delica¬
cy. “ They feed,” he adds, “ on a kind of grafs, grow,
ing at the bottom of the iea, commonly called turtle
grafs. The inhabitants of the Bahama iilands, by fre¬
quent pradtice, are very expert at catching turtles, ef¬
pecially the green turtle. In April they go in boats
to Cuba, and other little neighbouring idands, where
in the evening, efpecially on moon-light nights, they
watch the going and returning of the turtle, to and from
their nefts, at which time they turn them on their
backs, where they leave them, and proceed on, turn¬
ing all they meet, for they cannot get on their feet
again when once turned. Some are fo large, that it
requires three men to turn one of them (a). The way j. |
by which the turtle is molt commonly taken at the Ba- takinglhs
hama idands, is by ftriking them with a fmall iron peg turtle,
of two inches long, put in a focket at the end of a
ftaff of 12 feet long. Two men ufually fet out for this
work in a little light boat or canoe, one to row and
gently fteer the boat, while the other {lands at the head
of it with his linker. The turtle are fometimes dif-
covered by their fwimming with their head and back
out of the water 5 but they are ofteneft found lying at
the bottom, a fathom or more deep. If a turtle per¬
ceive he is difeovered, he ftartsup to make his efcape j
the men in the boat purfuing him, endeavour to keep
fight of him, which they often lofe, and recover again,
by the turtle putting his nofe out of the water to breathe.
Thus they purfue him, one paddling or rowing, while
the other {lands ready with his ftriktr. It is fometimes
half an hour before he is tired ; then he finks at once
to the bottom, which gives them an opportunity of
ftriking him, which is by piercing him with an iron
peg, dipping out of the focket, but is faftened with a
firing to the pole. If he is fpent and tired by being long
purfued, he tamely fubmits when {truck, to be taken
into the boat, or hauled aftiore. There are men who,
by diving, will get on their backs, and by prefling
down their hind parts, and raifing the fore part of them
by force, bring them to the top of tfie w-ater, while
another Hips a noofe about their necks.”
“ The turtle never go on (here, except to lay their
eggs, which is in the month of April. They then crawl
up from the fea above high-water mark, where they
dig a hole two feet deep in the land, into which in a
fingle night they drop above 100 eggs. At this time
they are fo little liable to be difturbed, that they have
been known to drop their eggs into a hat held by a
perfon under them. If, however, they happen to be
difturbed before they begin to lay, they forfake the
place, and feek another. They lay their eggs at three, jwhatch
and fometimes at four different times, a period of four-etfby the
teen days elapfing between each time. When they (un.
have laid their complement of eggs, they fill the hole
with
ERPETOLOGY.
(a) We have feen the fame mode of watching and turning the turtle pra&ifed in Jamaica, and the phrafe
there is not to take or feize the turtle, but to turn it.
3
Chap. T. E R P E T
Turtfes. with fand, and leave them to be hatched by the heat
of the fun. This is ufually accomplifhed in about three
weeks.” The eggs are round, white, covered with a
fmooth parchment-like fkin, and about the fize of tennis
balls.
Although the green turtle be a native of the Teas
within the torrid zone, it is fometimes found on the
coalts of Europe, where it has probably been driven by
ft or ms, or has fallen overboard from Ihips from the
Weft Indies. A turtle of this kind, of the enormous
fize of fix feet long, by four broad, and of the weight
of 800 or 900 pounds, was taken at Dieppe in France in
1752; and two years afterwards, another ftill larger
was taken on the fame coaft.
ntroduced The flelh of the green turtle is not only highly ef-
nto Eu- teemed in thofe countries of which it is a native, but
•ope. alfo fo much fought after in Europe, that the importa¬
tion of it now forms a confiderable article of trade, few
fliips returning from the Weft Indies without bringing
fome turtle. But the turtle which now forms a difh, by
no ‘means uncommon at the tables of the luxurious,
feems.to have been little known in Britain previous to
the middle of the 18th century, and indeed it was fo
rare an occurrence, that when one was eaten, it was
announced to the public as a piece of news. This ap¬
pears from the following articles of intelligence. “ Fri¬
day, Auguft 31. a turtle weighing 350 pounds was eat¬
en at the King’s Arms tavern, Pall mall} the mouth of
an oven was taken down to admit the part to be baked.”
Gent. Mag. for 1753. “ Saturday, September 29. the
Turtler, Capt. Crayton, lately arrived from the ifland
of Afcenfion, has brought in feveral turtles of above
300 pounds weight, which have been fold at a very high
price. It may be noted, that what is common in the
Weft Indies, is luxury here.” Ibid. 1753* “ Satur¬
day, July 13th, the Right Honourable Lord Anfon
made a prefent to the gentlemen of White’s chocolate
houfe, of a turtle which weighed 300 pounds weight,
and which laid five eggs fince it was in their poffeffion.'
Its fiie.ll was four feet three inches long, and about
three feet wide. When its head was cut off, at leaft
five gallons of blood iffued from it, and fo full was it of
life, that the mouth opened and fhut for an hour after
it was cut off.” Ibid. 1754.
35. Testudo Caretta, Loggerhead Turtle.
Specif Char.—Variegated with 15 dorfal feales, of
which thofe of the middle row are gibbous toward
the tip.
This fpecies moft refembles in general appearance
the laft fpecies, or green turtle. The larger fize of
the head, the proportional breadth of the (hell, the
deeper and more variegated colours, are marks of diftinc-
tion fufficiently eharafteriftic ; but the number of dorfal
fegments, amounting to 15, affords the principal cha-
raffer •, for not only the middle row, but thofe of the
fides contain five pieces *, and this number is almoft al¬
ways uniform and conftant. There is a confiderable
protuberance on each of the pieces of the middle row,
which conftitutes a range of tubercles along the back of
the ffiield •, the fore feet are very large and long j the
hind feet are broad, but much Ihorter.
This fpecies frequents the fame leas with the green
turtle, but it is alfo found occafionally in very diftant
CLOG Y. ' 279
latitudes, as in the Mediterranean, and particularly Turtles,
about the coafts of Italy and Sicily. v~
Excepting the coriaceous turtle, this fpecies is the
largeft in fize which has yet been difcovered. In the
LeVerian mufeum, there is a Ikull which feems to be¬
long to this fpecies. It meafures above a foot in length,
and it is faid that it was taken from a turtle, the weight
of which exceeded 1600 pounds.
In a commercial point of view the loggerhead turtle
is of little importance } for the flefh is coarfe and rank,
and the plates of the Ihell are too thin to be applied to
the ufual purpofes of tortoife (hell. It yields, however,
a confiderable quantity of oil, which is fit for burning
in lamps.
This fpecies is very ftrong and fierce ; it can defend Great
itfelf very vigoroufly with its legs, and with its mouth ftrength °f
it is able to break the ftrongeft Ihells and other fub-1 15 Pecles>
ftances. One which was exhibited at Bologna, in an
inftant bit in two a thick walking ftick which was of¬
fered to it.
The following is the account of this fpecies of turtle
which is given by Catelby. “ The loggerhead turtles, and fierce-
fays he, are the boldeft and moft voracious of all others jnels-
their ffefli is rank, and therefore little fought for, which
occafions them to be more numerous than any other kind.
They range the ocean over ; an inftance of which, a-
mong many others that I have known, happened in A-
pril 17 25, in N. Eat. 30°. when our boat was hoifted out,
and a loggerhead turtle ftruck as it was fleeping on the
furface of the water. This, by our reckoning, appear¬
ed to be the mid way between the Azores and the Ba¬
hama ifiands, either of which places being the neareft
land it could come from, or that they are known to
frequent, there being none on the north continent of
America farther north than Florida. It being amphi¬
bious, and yet at fo great a diftance from land in the
breeding time, makes it the more remarkable. They
feed moftly on fhell fiffi, the great ftrength of their
beaks enabling them to break very large ftiells, as the
large buccinum and trochiP
36. Testudo Imbricata ; Imbricated or Hawkjbili
Turtle.
Specif Char.—Variegated, and having thirteen imbri—
cated feales on the dilk.
In this fpecies the outline of the (hell exhibits more
of a cordated form than any other j and the termination
of the (hell is more acute. Each of the middle row of
feales on the back is alfo of a fharpened form at the tip,
and a ridge runs down the middle. The head is pro¬
portionally fmaller than in other turtles 5 and the neck
is longer, narrower, and more curved, thus refembling
the bill of a hawk j hence deriving its trivial name.
The fpecific name of imbricated is taken from the pe¬
culiarity in the difpofition of its feales, which overlap
each other at the extremities like the tiles on the roof
of a houfe.
The length of this fpecies is about three feet from
the tip of the bill to the end of the {hell 5 but fome in¬
dividuals have been found which meafured five feet in
length, and weighed from five to fix hundred pounds -7
and it is faid that fome have been met with in the In¬
dian ocean, of enormous magnitude.
The hawkfbill turtle is a native both of the Ame¬
rican
ago E R P E T
Turtles, rlcati and Afiatic Teas; lumetimes, but more rarely, it
is met with in the Mediterranean.
The ancients employed the fliell of this fpecies of
turtle for the purpofe of a ftiield } and even at the pre¬
fect day it is ufed for a fnnilar purpofe among rude na¬
tions. The flefh of the animal is not held in any efti-
mation as a food ; but the plates of the fliell being
thicker, ftronger, and clearer, than thofe of any other
fpecies, render it of great importance as an article of
trade. Thefe plates conftitute the fubftance which is
Tortoife 'veil known under the name of tortoife JhelL Being fe-
fliell. mitranfparent and finely variegated with many beauti¬
ful colours, they afford, after proper preparation and
poliftiing, numerous elegant ornaments.
Mode of Xo obtain the tortoife ftiell, the external coating is
'Obtaining feparated from the bony part by means of heat. A
fire is placed under the fliell, the effeft of which is to
make the plates Hart, and then they are eafily detach¬
ed from the bone : the thicknefs of the plates varies ac¬
cording to. the age and fize of the animal. X hey mea-
fure from one-eighth to a quarter of an inch in thiek-
tiefs. Eight pounds of tortoife fliell, it is faid, may be
obtained from a large turtle. Some even yield, ac¬
cording to other accounts, fifteen or twenty pounds j
but unlefs the weight of the animal itfelf be equal to
150 pounds, the ftiell is worth little.
*nd pre- Jt may, perhaps, not be uninterefting to our readers,
paring it. to inention the method which is employed by the artift,
to give to tortoife (hell the particular forms which are
wanted for the different purpofes to which it is applied.
The firft part of the procefs is to foften it fufficiently.
This is done by fteeping it in boiling w ater, after which
it is introduced into aftrong metallic mould of the form
wanted, and to this great preffure is applied. When a
confiderable extent of furface is required, different
pieces mufl be joined together. TL his is done by fcrap-
ing the edges of the pieces to be united, thin, and lay¬
ing them over each other, while they are in the heated
and foftened ftate. Strong preffure being then applied,
they become completely agglutinated. It is in this w ay
that gold, filver, and other metals, for different orna¬
ments, are made to adhere to tortoife {hell.
This fubftance was greatly fought after by the Greeks
and Romans for ornamental purpofes. It was not un-
ufual, among the latter people, to fee their beds, the
doors, and pillars of their houfes, decorated with tor¬
toife fliell ; and efpecially in the reign of Auguftus,
when this kind of luxury reached its greateft height.
“ The Egyptians, according to Mr Bruce, dealt
very largely with the Romans in this elegant article of
commerce. Pliny tells us, that cutting them for ve¬
neering or inlaying, was firft praflifed by Carvilius
Pollio, through which we fhould prefume that the Ro¬
mans were ignorant of the art of feparating the laminae
by a fire placed in the infide of the fhell when the meat
is taken out •, for thefe fcales, though they appear per-
fe£lly diftinft and feparate, do yet adhere, and oftenet
break than fplit, where the mark of feparation may be
feen diftimftly. Martial fays that beds were inlaid with
it. Juvenal, and Apuleius in his tenth book, mentions,
that the Indian bed was all over Aiming with tortoife
(hell on the outfide, and fwelling with fluffing of down
within. The immenfe ufe made of it in Rome may be
guefl'ed at by what we learn from Velleius Paterculus,
who fays, that wjien Alexandria was taken by Julius
%
O L O G Y. Chap. I
Csefar, the magazines or warehoufes were fo full of this Frog,
article, that he propofed to have made it the principal
ornament of his triumph, as he did ivory afterwards,
when triumphing for having happily finifhed the African
war. This too, in more modern times, was a great ar¬
ticle in the trade to China, and I have always been ex¬
ceedingly furprifed, fince near the whole of the Ara¬
bian gulf is comprehended in the charter of the Eaft
India Company, that they do not make an experiment
of fifliing both pearls and tortoifes, the former of which
being fo long abandoned, mult now be in great plenty
and excellence *, and a few fiftiers put on board each
ftiip trading to Jidda, might furely find very lucrative
employment, with a long-boat or pinnace, at the time
the veflels were felling their cargo in the port j and*
while bulled in this gainful occupation, the coafts of
the Red fea might be fully explored.”'
37. Testudo Greeii-Jhelled Turtle. La Tor*
tue Ecaille Verte of Cepede.
Specif. Shell green and variegated.
This fpecies, in general, refembles the common green
turtle, both in appearance and manners J but is diftin-
guifhed from it in having a final 1 rounded head, and
never growing to fo large a fize. It derives its name
from the colour of the fliell, which is of a fine green,
beautifully tranfparent, and although it is thin, may be
applied to many ornamental purpofes.
The green-lhelled turtle is a native of the fouth feas,
and is found near the American rivers within the torrid
zone. It is found particularly in great abundance near
Cape Blanco in New Spain. The flefh is in great efti-
mation, and is even preferred by feme to that of the
green turtle.
38. Trunk Turtle
This fpecies is mentioned by Catefby, who fays that
he never faw it •, but from information he has deferibed
the upper fliell as being more convex than in any other
fpecies. It is faid that it grows to a very large fize,—
The flefh is rank 5 but it yields a great quantity of oil,
on which account only it is valued,
39. Rhinoceros Turtle. Cepede.
This fpecies alfo bears a ftrong refemblance to the
common turtle ; but it is diflinguiflied from it in having
a large foft tubercle on the tip of the fnout, and in this
are placed the noflrils.
This turtle is faid to be a native of the American
feas, within the torrid zone, and is eaten ih the fame
way as the common turtle.
II. RANA, Frog.
This genus has been divided by fome naturalifts int©
three genera ; and undoubtedly there is fome foundation
for this diftinftion, both from the form and ftruftureof
their bodies, and from their manners and habits. 1. The
ranee or frogs-, properly fo called, and by the French
grenoui/les, have light aftive bodies, and are furnifhed
with ftrong limbs, which enable them to perform their
motions by leaping. 2. The hylce, in French rainettes,
or tree-frogs, have (lender limbs, and have foft tubercles
on the toes, by which they can adhere to fmooth fur-
faces,
I. E R P E T
faces, as to the leaves of trees on which many of them
refide. 3. The/oWr or bufones, in French
which conftitute the third genus or divifion, have large
heavy bodies, thick fliort limbs, and a flow crawling mo¬
tion. But without multiplying genera, we fhall confi-
der the whole under one, diftributing them into three
feftions, according to the divifion which we have juft
mentioned.
Se<ft. I. Ran^e, or Frogs.
I. Rana Temporaria, Common Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowilh brown, fpotted with
black } a lengthened brown patch beneath the eyes.
Of all the European fpecies this is the moft common.
The general colour is of an olive brown, variegated on
the upper parts of the body, with irregular blackilh
fpots. The patch beneath each eye, which reaches to
the fetting on of the fore legs, feems to conftitute one
of the principal fpecific diftin&ions. The under part of
the body is of a pale greeniftr colour, and but oblcurely
fpotted. But it ought to be obferved, that the colour
of the frog varies at different feafons of the year, and
perhaps in different places. Towards the end of fum-
mer, for inftance, the colours are much brighter; and
as this fpecies frequently cafts its fldn, the cuticle fall¬
ing off irregularly from different parts of the body,
produces confiderable variations in the intenfity of the
colours.
The frog has a light elegant form, and a lively ap¬
pearance *, the limbs are well calculated for its peculiar
motions, and the hind feet being ftrongly webbed,
enable it to fwim well. The frog, it is faid, does not
reach its full fize till it is five years old, and it lives
from 12 to 15 years. It retires during the heat of fum-
mer to the water, and in winter it becomes torpid, and
is generally found in the foft mud at the bottom of ftag-
nant waters, or in the cavities beneath their banks,
where it remains till the return of fpring.
The frog, as well as many other of the reptile tribe,
is*extremely tenacious of life. It furvives for a confi¬
derable time, the lofs even of feme of its effential or¬
gans, and it has been found to exift for feveral days
O L O G Y.
and pther fmall water plants, with different kinds of _ Frogs. ^
animalcula. *lhe mouth is furnifhed with very minute
teeth, and when the tadpole has reached a certain fize, it
may fometimes be heard gnawing the edges of the leaves
©n which it feeds. By means of a fucker placed be¬
tween the lower jaw, with which the animal in this ftate
is furniflied, it can attach itfelf at pleafure to the under
furface of aquatic plants. When it is very young, it
fometimes hangs from this part by means of a glutinous
thread, fimilar to feme fmall flugs.
The internal ftrufture of the organs of the tadpole Stmaure
is very different from that of the future animal. Inan c &
no refpeft is this difference greater than in the difpofi-
tion of the inteftines, which are coiled in the form of a
flat fpiral, like a cable. The firft change which appears
on the tadpole is at the end of five or fix weeks after it
is hatched. It is about this time that the hind legs firft
appear 5 and gradually increafing in length and fize,
they are fucceeded about two weeks afterwards by the
fore legs. Thefe latter, indeed, are formed at an ear¬
lier period beneath the fkin, and are fometimes protru¬
ded and again drawn back by the animal, through a
fmall hole on each fide of the breaft, before their com¬
plete evolution. The tail now gradually decreafas, and
afterwards more rapidly, fo that in the fpace of a day
or two it is quite obliterated. After this change, the
animal leaves the water, and covers the banks in my¬
riads. The fudden appearance of fuch multitudes of
young frogs, has probably induced the groundlefs but
popular belief, of their having fallen from the clouds
in fhowers. The frog having now arrived at its perfeft
form, it changes entirely the nature of its food. It lived
formerly on vegetables, nowr it depends folely for its ex-
iftence on animal food. Itlives chiefly on fmall fnails,
worms, and infefts. To feize its prey, the ftrufture
and pofition of the tongue are remarkably well fitted.
It is of confiderable length, and it is attached to the
fore part of the mouth, and when at reft it lies back¬
wards. The extremity is bifid, and fecretes a gluti¬
nous matter, fo that in this way it can fecute its prey,
by darting out its tongue with great celerity, and to
fome diftance from the mouth. This it does with fo in-
ftantaneous a motion, that it is fcarcely perceptible to
the eye.
when entirely confined under water.
Hiftory of fr0g Jepofits its fpawn in the month of March.
the Cidpole. q'j1js jscomp0fed 0f a gelatinoustranfparentmafs, includ¬
ing the ova or eggs, in each of which is imbedded the
embryo or tadpole, which has then the appearance of a
round black globule. The period of hatching varies
according to the temperature of the feafon, but it is
commonly about a month or five weeks. In itsprogrefs the
egg becomes gradually larger, and before the tadpole
is excluded, it is feen in motion within the furrounding
gluten. When they are firft hatched, their only food
is the remains of the gluten in which they were includ¬
ed. A few days afterwards, if they are minutely exa¬
mined, a pair of ramified branchiae, or temporary or¬
gans, may be obferved on each fide of the head, which
after a fliort time difappear. The tadpole, which is fo
extremely unlike the animal in its perfeft ftate, feems
to confift only of a head and tail. The head is large,
black, and r.oundifh j the tail is jflender, and margined
with a broad tranfparent fin. The motions of the tad¬
pole are very lively. Its food confifts of duckweed
Vol. VIII. Part I.
2. Rana Esculenta, Green Frog, or Edible Frog of
Pennant.
Specif. Char.—Olive colour, fpotted with black, with
three yellowilh lines on the back j abdomen whitilh.
This is the largeft fpecies of the European frogs.
The general appearance refembles that of the preceding;
but ft is larger in fize, and of an olive-green colour,
ftrongly marked on the upper part of the body with
roundilh black fpots. The limbs are elegantly marked
with tranfverfe bands of the fame colour. Three dif-
tincl pale yellow ftripes run from the tip of the nofe
down the whole length of the back, the middle one be¬
ing (lightly depreffed ; but the two lateral ones are con-
fiderably elevated. The head is proportionally larger
than that of the common frog.
The green frog is rare in England, but is very com¬
mon in France, Italy, and Germany, where it is em¬
ployed as an article of food.
This fpecies, it is obferved by naturalifts, does not
N n leave
lS2
Frogs.
leave its winter retirement till a much later period than
the common frog ; and in thofe countries where it is
ufed as food, it is worth while to attend to this faft,
for if they are pretended to be brought to market at an
earlier period, the common frog, and fometimes even
toads, mud be fubftituted. During the breeding feafon,
the croaking of the male is fo loud, that it may be heard
at a great diftanee 5 and in thofe places where they are
numerous, it becomes lb intolerable to thofe who are un-
accuhomed to hear them, that they are often deprived
of lleep. At this time, too, a large inflated globular
veflcle is protruded from each fide of the head of the
male. The globules of fpawn in the green frog are
proportionally fmaller than in the former fpecies. They
have fomewhat of a yellowifti call. The progrefs of the
tadpole, towards the evolution of the perfe£t animal, is
confiderably flower in this fpecies. The fore legs do
not appear before Oftober, and the animal does not af-
fume its perfect lhape till the beginning of November.
The tail at this time begins to decreafe, and in the
fpace of four days entirely difappears.
This fpecies is extremely voracious, feizing, it is
faid, on young birds of different kinds^ mice, and even
ducklings, and, as it does with the reft of its prey,
fwallowing them whole. At the age of four years it
has reached its full growth. It begins to breed the
year following, and the period of its life is fometimes
extended to fixteen years.
3. Rax a Pifiens, 'Piping Frog.
E R P E T O L O G Y. Chap. I
feen fitting on the edge of the fmall pond formed by Frogs.
the running of the water from the fpring ; and when
they happen to be furprifed, they retreat to the mouth
of the fpring, and, entering it, find themfelves in fafe-
ty. In Virginia, too, a popular opinion prevails, that
they are ufeful in purifying the water of the fpring.
This opinion is greatly in their favour, and faves them
from that perfecution with which the frog and other
reptiles are wantonly and unnecefiarily haraffed in other
countries. But the bull frog being extremely voraci¬
ous, and fometimes devouring young ducks and goflings,
is occafionally devoted to deitruftion.
5. Rana Ocellata, Argus Frog.
Specif. Char.—Feet having each five toes, and urnveb-
bed; toes tuberculated beneath} back fafciated, and
fides ocellated.
This is one of the largeft of the genus, exceeding-
ing, perhaps, the bull frog in the fize of its body,
but having limbs proportionally thicker and ftronger.
It has fometirqes been confounded with the bull frog j
but it is diltinguifhed from it in its general appearance,
and particularly in the form of the feet.
This frog is a native of Pennfylvania, Carolina, and
other parts of North America, frequenting moift places
in the vicinity ot fprings and rivulets. In its manners
and habits it is fuppofed to be nearly the fame with the
bull frog.
Specif Char.—Olive-coloured, with ovate black fpots,
edged with yellow. '
This fpecies is fmaller than the green frog, but in its
general habit bears a confiderable refemblance to that
animal. From the nofe to the tips of the hind feet, it
meafures only five or fix inches. The body and limbs
are of a duiky green, fpotted with black. Two yellow
lines run from the eyes to the rump, and two white
lines from each eye to the nofe. In the living animal
the ears have a bright golden colour.
It is a native of North America. It frequents rivu¬
lets and ditches of water, and is fo ftrong and vigorous,
that it is faid it can leap to the diftance of five or fix
yards. In the fpring and beginning of fummer, it is
fuppofed to indicate the approach of rain, by a peculiar
found which it emits.
4. Rana Catesbeiana, Bull Frog.
Specif Char.—Olive brown, fpotted wTith black ; large
ocellated fpots near the ears) hind feet palmated.
This fpecies grows to a very large fize, meafuring,
it is laid, more than 18 inches from the tip of the nofe
to the end of the hind feet. The upper part of the
body is brownilh, and fomewhat irregularly marked
with numerous fpots of a deeper brown. The under
parts are of a whitilh call, with a lhade of yellowifti
green. They are alfo marked with numerous fpots 5
but thefe are leis bright than thofe of the upper part.
The bull frog is a native of many parts of North A-
merica. It derives its name from the found of its voice,
which refemhles the diftant lowing of cattle. It ufually
frequents fprings •, and in Virginia, where thefe abound
in the fidcs of the hills, a pair of thefe frogs are ufually
6. Rana Virginica, Lineated Frog.
Specif. Char.—Cinereous, fpotted with red ; beneath
yellowifti j back angular, and marked with five pale
ftripes.
This fpecies, in fliape, fize, and ftru&ure of the feet,
refembles the common frog. It is greenilh above, and
paler beneath. The back and limbs are variegated
with dark-brown marks of different fizes.
It is a native of Virginia.
7. Rana Ovalis, Oval Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour brownilh, beneath yellowilh ; the
head beaked, and fcarcely dirtinft from the globofe
body.
The fnout projefting beyond the lower jaw, confti-
tutes the Ipecific charafter. The hind legs are fhort,
the feet unwebbed, and there is a callus at the bafe of
the inner toe. Its native country is unkown.
8. Rana Cyanophlyetis, Studded Frog.
Specif. Char.—Brownilh blue, having a tuberculated
line on each fide ; beneath whitilh, fpotted with
brown
In this fpecies the legs are banded with blackilh blue
and white. In the upper jaw there is a row of thickfet
conical teeth, refembling thofe of lizards. The hind feet
are webbed, and furnilhed with a callus like a fixth toe.
It is a native of India.
9. Rana Spinipes, Spiny-footed Frog.
Specif, Char.—Brown, beneath bluilh j fides fpeckled
with
II ' E R P E T
with an ochreous colour } toes of the fore feet fur-
niihed with fpines.
This fpecies is larger than the common frog. The
feet are unwebbed, and in its habit it approaches to the
toad.
It is a native of New Holland.
io. Rana Cerulea, Blue Frog.
Specif. Char.—Blue, fpeckled, with grayifh beneath ;
feet divided into four toes •, hind feet webbed.
The blue frog is of the fize of the common one.
The toes are not orbiculated ; but in its habit and {len¬
der limbs it approaches fomewhat to the tree frogs.
It is a native of New South Wales.
II. Rana Vespertina, Vefpertine Frog.
Specif. Char.—Cinereous, and tuberculated above 5 a
tranfverfe fpot between the eyes, and forked behind ;
marked with longitudinal, fubconfluent, brown dorfal
fpots, which vary into green.
In this fpecies the head is fliort, and the body is co¬
vered with warts or papillae. It is about the fize of a
toad, having the habit of a frog. It can fcarcely be
faid to leap.
It is a native of Siberia.
12. Rana Ridibunda, Laughing Frog.
Specif. Char.—Cinereous, the body fpotted with brown,
the thighs dulky, with milk-white fpots.
This fpecies is of a very large fize, weighing half a
pound. It has the habit of the common frog, but is
broader.
It is very frequent about the rivers Wolga and Ural,
and the Cafpian fea. It never leaves the water. In
the evening it emits a found, fomewhat refembling a
hoarfe laugh, whence it derives its fpecific name.
O L O G Y. ' 283
15. Rana Ignea, Fire Frog. Rana Bomhina, Lm. i Frog8- ^
Specif. Char.—Olive brown, orange colour beneath,
fpotted with blue.
Th is is the fmalleft of the European frogs, and is not
equal even to the tree frog in fize. It derives its name
of fire frog from the peculiar colour of the under lur-
face of the body ; but this is fubjedt to confiderable va¬
riation.
It is a native of Germany, Italy, and other parts of
Europe, but has not been found in England. It fre¬
quents turbid ftagnant waters, and fcarcely ever appears
on land. It breeds at the age of three years, and may
therefore be fuppofed to live about ten. It depofits its
fpawn in the month of June, and the ova are propor¬
tionally larger than thofe of others. The tadpoles,
which are of a pale yellowith brown colour, are hatch¬
ed towards the end of June. When young, they have
been frequently obferved to hang from the furface of
leaves by means of a glutinous thread, iffuing from the
fmall tube near the lower lip. About the end of Sep¬
tember they are at their full fize. At that time the
tail appears more tlelhy and mufcular, and therefore
proportionally ftronger than in other tadpoles. In the be¬
ginning of October they aflfume their perfedt form.
This is one of the molt adtive and lively of the whole
genus. It leaps and fvvims even with greater celerity
than the common frog, When it is furprifed on the
land, and finds that it cannot efcape, it fquats down
clofe to the ground, turning back its head and limbs in
a fingular manner. If it be farther difturbed, it emits
from the hinder part of the thighs a frothy kind of fluid
which has no difagreeable fmell, but 1'ome degree of
acrimony when it comes in contadt with the eyes and
noflrils. The found emitted by the male of this fpecies
is (harper than that of other frogs, and fomewhat re-
fe’mbles a kind of laugh, or according to fome, the note
of a cuckoo or the tone of a bell. Hence the Linnaean
fpecific name, rana hombina.
13. Rana Sitibunda, Thirjiy Frog.
Specif. Char.—Glaucous gray, variegated with blackifli
green fpots ; beneath whitith 5 the hind feet femipal-
mated, and having the appearance of feven toes.
The body is warted, the head {hurt, and has the ge¬
neral habit of a toad, but is larger. There are two cu¬
rious toes on the hind feet.
It is a native of defert places about the river Ural.
It conceals itfelf during the day.
14. Rana Leveriana, Leverian Frog.
Specif Char.—Dulky blue, whitifh beneath 5 hind feet
palmated, body marked above, with two long and
two fliort white ftripes.
Excepting that the body is plumper, and the limbs
proportionally shorter, this fpecies has the habit of the
common frog. On the back of the head there is a
fmall trifurcated fpot, two upper divifioris of which point
forwards. The lower furface of the body is yellowifli
white and granulated. The fore feet have four toes,
which are {lightly orbiculated at the tips.
Its native country is unknown.
16. Rana Salsa, Saline Frog.
Specif Char.—Colour olive brown, whitifh beneath,
with dulky variegations: all the toes are unweb¬
bed.
When this fpecies is firft taken out of the water, the
brown colour has a {hade of blue ; the back is befet
with tubercles •, the legs are fafeiated with brown, and
the infides of the feet are yellow.
It is a native of the fait marfheSof fome parts of Ger¬
many.
17. Rana Farad ox a, Paradoxical Frog.
Specif Char.—Yellowifli and olive-coloured 5 variegat¬
ed with rufous bands j hind legs obliquely ftriated.
This fpecies refembles in its general form the com¬
mon frog. The oblique longitudinal ftripes on the hind
legs conftitute the principal mark of diftindtion. There
are four toes on the fore feet, and they are unwebbed.
The hind feet have five toes, and are deeply palmated
to the very ends of the toes. Near the ihorteft toe
there is an oblong callus, forming a fpurious one. The
upper jaw is befet with a row of fmall denticulations.
N n 2 This
284
O L O G Y. Chap. I,
is large, the mouth wide, and the tip of the nofe trun- Frogs,
cated. All the toes are furnilhed with a large orbicu-
lar tip ; and beneath each of the joints there is a pro-
cefs or tubercle. The upper parts of the female have
a deeper ihade of violet than thofe of the male.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Surinam.
E R P E T
This fpecies is a native of South America, and is
more common in Surinam than in other places.
Naturalifts have been extremely puzzled with regard
to the real nature of what has been taken for the tad¬
pole of this frog. At one time it w as confxdered by
Linnaeus as a fpecies of lizard, and therefore arranged
by him under the genus Lacerta. At another time he
has placed it under the prefent genus, v ith the fpecific
name pifcis. It was defcribed by Edwards under the
denomination of the frog fijh of Surinam. The ftrufture
of the animal, which has been the fubjeft of fo much
difcuflion, Ihews clearly that it is the larva or tadpole
of a frog*, and it is fuppofed, with no fmall degree of
probability, that the differences in the accounts given
of this animal by naturalifts have arifen from the differ¬
ent ftages of its progrefs in which it has been found.
But as this tadpole is fo much larger in fize, in propor¬
tion to the perfect animal, than any other fpecies yet
known, it may be the larva or tadpole of fume of the
larger fpecies, and not that of the rana paradox a, which
is but a fmall frog.
Sett. II. Tree Frogs.
Tree frogs have flender bodies, long limbs, and
the tip of the toes are flat, orbicular, and dilated.
The fpecies included under this fettion have been
formed according to the arrangement of fome naturalifts,
into a feparate genus, under the name of Hijla; and no
doubt the peculiar ftrutture of the toes, which enables
them to adhere to fmooth bodies, affords a very ftriking
charatter, and in fome meafure warrants the arrange¬
ment.
i 8. Rana Zebra, Zebra Frog. Rana Maxima, Linn.
Specif. Char.—Yellow ifli and rufous, fpotted and fafci-
ated with brown. There are double bands on the
legs, and the feet are palmated.
20. Rana Leucophyllata, White-Leaf Frog.
Specif Char.—Colour rufous, variegated above, with
fnow-white fpots of different ftiapes.
The variegated fpots on the body and limbs are milk-
white, and are obferved to vary greatly in different in¬
dividuals, in number, form, and difpofition. The toes
of the fore feet are flightly webbed at the bafe.
It is a native of America.
21. Rana Quadrilineata, Four-Lined Frog.
Specif Char.—Colour blue, having a double, longitudi¬
nal, yellow line on each fide of the body.
This fpecies bears a near refemblance to the preced¬
ing, but the blue colour above, and the double yellow
line, which runs along each fide of the body, from the
eyes to the vent, fufficiently diftinguifh it.
Its native country is unknown.
22. Rana Castanea, Chefnut Frog.
Specif. Char.—Chefnut-coloured and granulated j whit-
ifh beneath, with a white line on each fide of the
body.
In this fpecies, the whole of the upper furface, both
of body and limbs, is fcattered over with minute warts
or tubercles. On each fhoulder there is a large, long,
white fpot j the fore arms, hind legs and thighs are
barred tranfverfely with white; the feet are unwebbed,
the toes rounded,and all the joints tuberculated beneath.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Surinam.
This fpecies is the largeft of the whole of this fettion,
meafuring about five inches from the nofe to the end of
the body. The colour is an elegant, pale, rufous
brown, beautifully marked on the back and limbs, and
even to the very ends of the toes, w ith tranfverfe chef¬
nut-coloured bands. The head is large, the eyes pro¬
tuberant, and the mouth wide. The fore feet have four
toes, and the hind ones five.
It is a native of Carolina and Virginia.
Two other fpecies have been defcribed by naturalifts,
which more accurate obfervation has fhewn to be nearly
allied to the preceding. The firft is the rana boans,
Linn, in w'hich the difference is fd flight, that as Dr
Shaw obferves, it may depend on a fexual diftinftion.
The other is the rana venulofa, which is fuppofed to be
the fame animal as the zebra frog, before it has arrived
at its full fize.
19. Rana Bicolor, Blue-and-Te/Iow Frog,
Specif. Char.—Colour blue, ochreous beneath ; feet un¬
webbed ; toes flattened and orbicular.
Thiselegant fpecies is of a moderate fize; it meafures
more than four inches in length. The whole of the up¬
per furface is of a beautiful blue, while the under
parts are of a pale orange or ochre colour. The head
23. Rana Fasciata, Fafciated Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour rufefeent, with vhitifli tranf¬
verfe bands.
In this fpecies the colour is pale rufous ; the head,
body, and upper parts of the limbs, are marked with
pale, tranfverfe bands; the eyes are blue, with afilvery
luftre ; the outfide of the arms and legs are of a black-
ifti brown colour.
Its native place is unknown.
24. Rana Arborea, Tree Frog.
Specif Char.—Colour green, whitilh beneath, with a
blackifti lateral line and granulated abdomen ; feet
unwebbed.
This fpecies is of a fmaller fize than any other of the
European frogs. The colour of the upper part of the
body is green; the abdomen is whitifli, and marked with
numerous granules. The under furface of the limbs is
reddifh, and on each fide of the body there is a longi¬
tudinal blackifti or violet-coloured ftreak, which fepa-
rates the green of the upper parts from the white of the
lower. The lower edge of the dark lateral ftripe is
fliaded with yellow*. The hind legs are long and flen¬
der. There are four toes on the fore feet, and five on
I. E R P E T
the hind feet. All of the toes terminate in flat, round,
and dilated tips. It is by means of this peculiar ftruc-
ture that the animal is enabled to hang from the leaves
of trees, or from any fmooth fubftance j for the under
furface of thefe tips or tubercles on the toes is {oft and
glutinous. There is a fimilar fl:ru£ture on the {kin of
the abdomen.
The tree-frog is a native of France, Germany, Italy,
and other parts of Europe. It has never been found
in the Britifli iflands. During the fummer months, it
chiefly frequents the upper parts of trees, and wandering
among the leaves in fearch of infedfls, it feizes them with
extreme celerity. It fteals foftly towards its prey, and
avhen it has reached the proper diftance, it makes a hid¬
den fpring of more than a foot in height. For this it
is peculiarly fitted, from its nimble and aftive move¬
ments. It conceals itfelf beneath the {hade of the
leaves, by attaching itfelf to their under furface by
means of the feet, or abdomen.
On the approach of winter, the tree frog leaves the
woods, and retires to the waters, where it buries itfelf
in the foft mud, or conceals itfelf beneath the banks,
where it remains torpid till the fpring, when it depofits
its fpawn in the water. At this time the throat of the
male is greatly inflated, and the loud {harp croak which
it then emits, is heard at a very confiderable diftance.
The fpawn is depofited in fmall cluftered mafles, about
the end of April, and the tadpoles aflume the form of
the perfect animal about the beginning of Auguft, at
which time they begin to afeend the neighbouring trees,
where they refide ivhile the warm feafon continues. It
has been obferved that they are more noify on the ap¬
proach of rain 5 and the males particularly, if kept in
glafles, and furniflied with food, afford certain indica¬
tions of the changes of the weather.
O L O G Y.
It is of a bright red or ferruginous colour above,
marked longitudinally with a pair of white ftripes.
Thefe at an early age are often crofled with a tranfverfe
ftripe } and indeed the individuals of this fpecies have
been found to vary greatly in the difpofition of the
colours.
It is a native of South America, and inhabits trees.
The Indians employ this fpecies of frog to change
the colour of green parrots. For this purpofe they
pluck the feathers from that part of the parrot on which
they wdfti the new colour to be introduced. They rub
the fkin with the blood of the animal, and the renovated
feathers, inftead of being green as formerly, are yellow
or red.
28. Rax a Alba, White Frog.
Specif. Char.—Entirely of a white colour.
On the upper part of the body there are fome fpots
or patches, which are of a brighter white than the
ground. It is, however, fubjeft to fome variations.
It is a native of the woods in the warmer parts of
North America.
29. Rana Bilixeata, Bi/ineated Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour green, with a ftraight yellow line
on each fide of the body.
The only difference between this fpecies and the
common tree frog is, in the yellow line on each fide of
the body of the former being fomewhat ftraighter, and
without undulations.
It is a native of the tvarmer parts of North America,
inhabiting the woods.
Se£I. III. Toads.
25. Rana Meriana, Merian Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowifli green, variegated with
brown, with conically fliaped, auricular veficles.
This fpecies is three times the fize of the common
tree frog, and on each fide of the neck there is a re¬
markable protuberance like an obtufely conical, inflat¬
ed pouch.
This fpecies is fometimes found on trees, and fome-
times in the wrater, according to the different periods
of its growth. According to Madame Merian’s defcrip-
tion, thefe frogs are found in ftagnant waters. They
have, flie obferves, ears in their heads, and knobs or
balls on their feet, which have been given them by
nature to enable them to pafs eafily over the moraffy
places which they inhabit.
26. Rana Aurantia, Orange Frog.
Specif. Char.—Orange-coloured ; body and limbs very
{lender.
This fpecies is entirely of a reddiffi orange colour,
long-limbed and flender-bodied. It is fmaller than the
European tree frog.
It is a native of South America, inhabiting trees.
27. Rana Tinctoria, Tinging Frog.
Specif. Char.—Of a reddifh colour j the body fafeiated
with white.
30. Rana Bufo, Common Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown, with reddifti brown tu¬
bercles, pale beneath.
The common toad is too well knowm to require any
detailed defeription. The colour is generally of an
obfeure brown above, but much paler, and irregularly
fpotted beneath. It is, however, fubjeft to confider¬
able variations, being fometimes found of an olive caft j
and in the earlier part of fummer, the {boulders and
limbs are marked with reddifh fpots, while the under
parts of the body have a yellowifh tinge. The body is
always covered with puftules or tubercles of a darkifli
green, or bright red colour, and they are of different
lizes in different individuals. The common toad is not
only a native of Europe, but of other countries of the
world.
The common toad ufually frequents ftiady places, in f}jftory 0f
gardens or fields; is found under ftones, or makes its the toad,
way into cellars or other obfeure recefles, anxious, as it
would feem, to conceal itfelf, or, that it may lie pro-
tefted from exceflive cold, and find a fupply of food.
The toad, like the common frog, becomes torpid in
winter j and it would appear, that they fometimes col-
left together in numbers, and take up their habitation
in the fame hole or cavity, with the view' of preferving
and retaining their heat for a greater length of time.
At the return of fpring, the toad leaves its lurking
place, and retires to the waters, where it depofits its
fpawr.w
2 36
Toads.
Age.
"Not poifon-
ous to large
animals.
Error con¬
cerning its
being found
alive en-
clofed in
•folid fub-
ftances.
E R P E T
fpawn. The ova are included In a tranfparent gluten,
u hich is in the form of chains or firings, fomewhat re-
fembling a necklace. The length of thtie firings is
from three to four feet j and through the whole length
the ova, which have the appearance of black globules
or beads, are difpofed in a double feries. Ihe tadpole
is hatched at the end of 14 or 15 days, according to the
temperature of the feafon •, and having burfl from the
furrounding gluten, they fwim about in the water, feed¬
ing on different animalcules, and leaves of water plants.
Early in the autumn they affume the form of the perfect
animal, when they retire from the water, and are fome-
times found in fuch numbers on the ground in its vicini¬
ty, that it has probably given rife to the common opinion
of their having fallen from the clouds in fhowers.
The age of the toad is fuppofed to be about 15 or
20 years, but fometimes they exceed this period. One,
of which Mr Pennant has given an account in his Eritifli
Zoology, lived to the great age of 40 years. This in¬
dividual had been known for that time in a domefncat-
ed ilate. It was kept by a Mr Afcot in Devonfhire,
and had become fo tame, that it left its hole at the ap¬
proach of its matter, to receive food. It grew to a very
large fize, and had become an objeft of fo much curio-
fity, that in fpite of the averfion and horror which this
animal ufually infpires, it was vifited by all, and even
by ladies, who came to the houfe. It was frequently
brought to table, and fed with infers, and without any
degree of embarrsfhnent, or feeining defire to get away,
it feized them with great celerity. Its ufual place of
refidence was under the fteps of the door of the hpufe
which led to the garden. It was unfortunately feized
bv a raven, and feverely wounded, before it could retreat
to its hole •, and although it was liberated from its ene¬
my, and lived for more than a year afterwards, it never
recovered its ufual health and vigour, other wife the pe¬
riod of its life might have been greatly extended.
It has been long fuppofed that the toad, when it is
irritated, fecretes a fluid from its fkin w'hich is of a poifon-
ous quality. This fluid, however, has no effeft what¬
ever, except producing a little irritation, on larger ani¬
mals. A dog, it has been obferved, carrying a load for
a fhort time in his mouth is affeded w'ith a flight fuel¬
ling of the lips, and an increafed difeharge of faliva.
This fluid undoubtedly anfwers fome purpofe in the
economy of the animal, and it is probably intended for
its protection againtt the troublefome attacks of fmaller
animals. This feems to be in fome meafure proved
from the experiments of Laurenti. In thefe experi¬
ments it appeared that fmali lizards which had bitten
the common toad, became difordered, and paralytic, and
even apparently dead. 1 bey were, however, complete¬
ly recovered in the fpace of a few hours.
Many wonderful ilories have been related of the toad
having been found inclofedin the folid fubftance of wood
and ft one, or marble •, and what is Hill more wonder¬
ful, that it has been in fuch circumftances without any
vifible outlet, or the fmalleft- paffage for the accefs of
air, alive, and feemingly uninjured. It is not indeed a
little furprifing, that a fuppofed facl of this kind, fo con¬
trary to the nature of animal exiftenee, fhould even for
a moment have gained any degree of belief-, yet many
fuch ftories have been currently reported, and readily,
we might almoft fay univer-fally, admitted to be true-,
for being eftablilhed on what wras faid to be the moll un-
O L O G Y. Chap. ]
doubted teftimony, they v-ere received and acknowledg- Toad:
ed as fully authenticated. But on clofer inveftigation,
in all cafes where inquiry could be made, it was found
that fome links in the chain of evidence were always
wanting. In no inftance whatever, it may be afferted,
has the faft been afeertained from diredl information,
founded on any credible or refpe&able authority. It
has always been firft communicated by report, or from
a diftance ; eircuruftances which always give room for
miftake and error. Toads may have been found inclof-
ed in wood, or even in Hone, perhaps without having
received any material external injury -, but that they
ftiould have remained in fuch fituations for any great
length of time, as for years, nay, in fome cafes, for
hundreds of years, totally deprived of food, and com¬
pletely excluded from all accefs of air, is not only
highly incredible, but impoflible. But if farther evi¬
dence were neceffary, this fuppoled fa£l is fully difprov-
ed by the experiments of Heriffant, which he perform¬
ed in prefence of the French Academy. It had been
aflerted that a living toad w-ns found in the year ty?1?
in a wall at a feat belonging to the duke, of Orleans.
The wall, which was then pulled down, had been.built
40 years j and its hind feet were found imbedded in the
morter. In Herifiant’s experiments, three toads were
inclofed in feparate boxer., and thefe were immediately
covered with & thick coat of mortar, and kept in the
apartments of the academy. At the end of 18 months
the boxes were opened, and two of the toads were
found living. They w-ere again enclofed ; but being
re-opened after fome months had elapfed, they wero
found dead.
31. Rana Alliacea, Alliaceous Toad.
Specif Char.—Colour pale gray, marked with brow-n,
and having a whitifti dorfal line ; pupils perpendi¬
cular.
This fpecies, excepting in a greater proportional
length of the head, has a confiderable refemblance to
the common toad. It differs from it alfo in being near¬
ly fmeoth. The colour above is a brownifh gray, with
fpots of deep drown, which on the Tides are difpofed in
a reticular form. The eye has a very peculiar ftruc-
ture. The form of a pupil, when the eye is contract¬
ed, is perpendicular, as in the eyes of cats. On the
hind feet there is a fpurious claw-, or horny callus, fi-
tuated beneath the heel.
This animal gives out, when irritated, a peculiar
odour, which refembles that of onions or garlic, and
produces a fimilar acrid effeCt on the eyes. A fmell
like that of the fmoke of gunpowder is alfo fometimes
combined with the garlic Imell.
This fpecies is a native of Germany. It is found in
the neighbourhood of Nuremberg.
It has been already mentioned, that the fpaw n of the
common toad is depoftted in the form of a double firing }
but in this fpecies there is only one firing, which is of
confiderable thieknefs, and the numerous ova are .dif¬
pofed, not in a double row, as in the former, but in a
confluent manner through the length of the Ipawn,
which is fometimes found nearly two feet long.
The tadpole of the alliaceous toad, like the fuppofed
one of the rana paradoxa, is confiderably larger in fize
than the young frog when it has firll afiumed its perfeft
form.
hap. I. E R P E T
loads, form. Indeed it is fo large, that in the vicinity of the
--y—- places where it is found, it is employed as food by the
country people, who confider it as a kind of filh. It
feems alfo to be one of the moft voracious tadpoles.
The alliaceous toad, contrary to the habits of the
common toad, remains almoll conftantly in water,
and but very rarely appears on land. It is alfo more
lively and aftive in its nature, and its motions are per¬
formed by a kind of leaping, rather than by the crawl¬
ing fluggifh pace of the latter.
32, Rana Mephitic a, Mephitic Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour olive, fpotted with drown ; warts
on the Ikin reddifh ; dorfal line fulphur-coloured.
Excepting in the colour, and being of a fmaller fize,
this fpecies greatly relembles the common toad. The
body and limbs are fhnrt and thick ; the fore feet are
furnilhed beneath with a pair of bony proceffes, by
means of which it is enabled to climb up the tides of
walls. The hind feet have no webbed ftruffure. In
its motions it runs fomewhat like a moufe. It comes
out only in the night, from the cavities of walls and
rocks, where it conceals itlelf by day.
This fpeeies is a native of Germany, in fome parts of
which it is known by the name of roerhiing, or reed
frog, becaufe in the fpring it frequents places which are
overgrown with reeds. At this feafon, too, it is w-ell
known by the ftrong and peculiar note or croak which
it utters.
In the month of June, when this fpecies breeds, it
reforts to the water, to depofit its ova. Thefe are emit¬
ted, as is the cafe with the common toad, in double
rows, in a pair of long glutinous ilrings ; and fo rapid
is the progrefs of hatching, that the tadpoles appear in
the fpace of five or fix days, having feparated themfelves
from the fpawn. The hind legs appear about the end
of Auguft, are foon fucceeded by the fore legs, and by
• September or O&ober the animal has affumed its com¬
plete form.
The mephitic toad has derived its name from a moll
ofFenfive fmell which it diffufes when it is irritated. This
odour proceeds from a white acrid tluid which exfudes
from the pores of the Ikin. The animal has the power
of emitting this fluid to the diftance of three or four
feet, and it is faid that if it fall on any part of the room
where the animal is kept, it wull fcarcely be entirely
difiipated for two months afterwards. This odour re-
fembles the fmoke of gunpowder, but is eonfiderably
ftronger j or that of the fumes of arfenic.
Var. The natter-jack of Pennant is, according to
fome, a variety of the above fpecies. It is not, how¬
ever, faid, that, like the mephitic toad, it emits any
peculiarly ofFenfive odour; but its running motions
bear, a near refemblance ; for it does not leap, nor
does it crawl with the fluggifh pace of the common toad.
It is a native of England, and is found in Pul-
teney common, and near Reevefley abbey in Lincoln-
fliire, frequenting dry and fandy places.
33. Rana Viridis, Green Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour pale, varied w ith greenifh fpots j
tubercles reddifh. Rana variability Linn.
In this fpecies the green fpots or patches are bounded
4
O L O G Y. 287
with a black’ih margin, and the whole has fomewhat of Toads,
the appearance of a map. The fpots on the kgs and ‘lJ
thighs are tranfverfe, forming a kind of bars ) the eyes
are remarkable for a be autiful golden colour, and w'hen
the animal is irritated, feem to emit a kind of phofpho-
ric light.
'This fpecies is a native of Germany and other parts
of Europe, and is not unfrequently found about Vienna,
where it inhabits the cavities of walls.
Ibis fpecies, like the mephitic toad, emits a very
flrong odour, which relembles that of garden night-
fhade. It is fo powerful, that it difFufes itfelf through
a large room.
During the breeding feafon this fpecies frequents the
waters, and in winter it retires under ground. Its
croaking is faid to referable the creaking of the hinge
of a door. It would appear, that the fluid which ex¬
fudes from the fkin of this toad, and probably alfo from
that of others, is poifonous to fmall animals ; for it is
faid that the fmaller kinds of the gray lizard, on biting
this toad, became immediately ftrongly convulfed, and
died in a few minutes.
34. Rana Marina, Marine Toad.
Specif. Char—Colour yellowifh brown, with a large
porous prominence over each Ihoulder 5 very large -
fize.
This fpecies even exceeds the bull frog in fize. On
each fhoulder there is a protuberance of a light-brown
colour, which is marked with many pores. Thefe
are the parotid glands, which are peculiarly conlpicu-
ous. The feet have no webs, and there are four
toes on the fore feet, and five on the hind. The
toes are furnifhed with claw's, fomewhat refembling the
human hair. There are fome tubercles at the extremi¬
ty of the body, which are faid to be owing to the fold¬
ing of the fkin, when the animal is placed in a particu¬
lar attitude 5 for thefe difappear when the attitude is
changed.
I iris fpecies is faid to be a native of America ; and, ac¬
cording to fome, is calculated to live both by land and fed.
35. Rana Dubia, Doubtful Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowifh browrn, wrarty, having
a large porous prominence over each fhoulder $ hind
feet fubpalmated and fubhexadadfyle.
In fize this fpecies comes near that of the common
toad ; but it is different in fhape, as it tapers from the
fhoulders to the hind legs like the tree frogs. The up¬
per furface of the body is covered with oval tubercles,
and there are protuberances on the fhoulders like the
rana marina. The under parts of the body are alio be-
fet with fmaller tubercles. The joints of the toes of
the fore feet are tuberculated beneath, and there are
two remarkable protuberances under the foot.
Of the native country of this fpecies, or of its man¬
ners and habits, nothing is yet known.
36. Rana Typhonia, Mitred Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown, dorfal line whitifh ; head
triangular.
This fpecies is about the fize of the common toad ;
the
288 E R P E T
Toads, the thighs are barred with brown, and the (kin of the
' v whole body is covered w ith numerous fmall protuberan¬
ces of a pearly colour. The fides of the head beyond
each eye have fomewhat of an angular appearance, and
from this it has derived the name of mitred toad.
37. Rana Braziliana, Brazilian Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour rufous, with numerous brown
fpots on every part of the body.
In its general appearance this fpecies refembles the
common toad, but is much larger, and the head is pro¬
portionally Ihorter. The fpots or ftripes on the body
are red brown, placed tranfverfely, and are fomewhat
waved.
It is a native of South America ; but, according
to fome, has been found in the ifland of Cuba.
38. Rana Ventricosa, Granulated Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour pale brown j abdomen dilated,
and marked on the fides with blackifh fpots.
In this fpecies the head and eyes are large, the mouth
wide, the body fomewhat depreffed ; the abdomen is
very broad ; the limbs are rather fhort. Ihe upper
furface of the body and limbs is covered with tubercles
of different fizes, pretty diftin&ly arranged.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Brazil.
39. Rana Cornuta, Horned Toad.
Specif. C/for.—Colour cinereous, banded with brown ;
eyelids conical.
In this fpecies a broad \thite band runs along the
back, from the head to the extremity of the body, and
becoming gradually narrower. It is covered wdth fmall
fpecks like pearls. The reft of the body, excepting
the head, is rough, w ith (harp points. The head is
large and thick, and a broad thick tongue appears when
the mouth is opened. It is covered with papillae, and
faftened to the anterior part of the lower jaw. The
gape of the mouth extends almoft half the length of the
body \ the eyes are rather fmall, and are placed nearer
than in other frogs. Each of the upper eyelids rifes up
into a large conical callus, or horn. From this extra¬
ordinary width of the mouth, and Angular ftruflure of
the upper eyelids, this fpecies exhibits the moft deform¬
ed and hideous afpeft of any of the whole tribe.
It is a native of South America.
40. Rana Pipa, Bipa, or Surinam Toad.
Specif Char.—Colour brown j toes of the fore feet qua-
drifid at the extremities.
O L O G Y. Chap I.
the extremity of the body. The nofe in both fexes is Toads,
truncated, and the eyes very fmall. '-““v'—
This Angular fpecies is a native of Surinam.
The economy and habits of the pipa greatly occupied
the attention of naturalifts for a long time after it was
firft knowm to Europeans, which was about the end ofovahatcl
the 17th century. It wfas then fuppofed that the ova ed in a fln
were produced in cells on the back of the animal, with- §ular mat
out being firft excluded, as in the other fpecies of thisner*
tribe, in the form of fpawn. But future obfervershave
added new fafts, and greater accuracy, to the natural
hiftory of this fpecies j and it is now found that the
fpawn being excluded in the ufual manner, is received
into a number of open cells on the back of the animal,
and is there retained till the young have reached fome
degree of maturity. This difcovery is owing to Dr
Fermin, who made his obfervations on the fpot, during
a refidence at Surinam. The female pipa, he obferves,
depofits her fpaw n near ftagnant water. The male col-
lefts the ova, and places them carefully on the back of
the female, where, after being impregnated, they are
preffed into the cells, which are then open to receive
them. The cells clofe over them, and retain them for
near three months, when the young animals, having ar¬
rived at their perfeft ftate, emerge from the back of
the parent. During this period of concealment, it has
been difcovered by other naturalifts, that the ova under¬
go the fame change as in thofe which are hatched out
of the body •, firft affumlng the form of the tadpole, and
then acquiring the complete ftiape before they are ex¬
cluded from the cells. In this mode of hatching its
young, fome naturalifts have ebferved an analogy in
this procefs of nature between the Surinam toad and
the opoffum.
This animal, from the uncouthnefs of its lhape, and
its general appearance, will, by many, be confidered
at firft view as little lefs hideous and deformed than the
horned toad.
41. Rana Breviceps, Short-headed Toad.
Specif Char.—Colour brown, pale beneath 5 body 0-
vate, convex, and marked with a longitudinal, aih-
coloured, dentated band. Rana gihbofa, Linn.
This is a fmall fpecies, and fcarcely exceeds half the
fize of the common toad. The head is very fmall, ob-
tufe, and funk in the thorax. The toes of the fore feet
are unwebbed, have no claws, and are furniftied with
tubercles beneath the joints. The hind feet are fur¬
niftied with fix toes.
It is a native of Senegal, and fome other parts of
Africa.
42. Rana Systoma, IndiJlinEl Toad.
This fpecies is confiderably larger than the common
toad. The body is flattiftr; the head fomewhat trian¬
gular ; the mouth wide, and the corners are furniftied
with a kind of rugged appendage. There are four
long thin toes on the fore feet, and each of the toes is
divided into four diftimft proceffes ; and thefe, when
minutely examined, are found to be ftill farther divid¬
ed. The hind feet have five toes, and are w'ebbed to
the tips. The male is larger than the female, meafu-
ring fometimes feven inches from the tip of the nofe to
Specif Char.—Body fomewhat globofe; head indiftinft,
and mouth fmall.
In its general appearance this fpecies greatly re¬
fembles the preceding. The body is thick and round-
ifti, and the head is fo little diltinguiftied from the bo¬
dy, that the mouth is fcarcely perceptible. Ihe legs
are very ftiort, and the thighs feem enclofed in the
wrinkled fldn of the.fides. 'Ihe whole body is fmooth.
It is a native of the Eaft Indies.
43-
ERPETOLOGY.
43. RaNa AcEPHALA, Headlefs Toad.
48. Rana Lutea, Yellow Toad.
289
Dragons,
Specif. Char.—Colour brownilh, marbled with white •,
head indiftin61, and mouth very fmall, bending
downwards.
Excepting in the colour, which is Very different, and
in the head being ftill lefs diftinguifhed from the body,
this fpecies in appearance comes very near the two for¬
mer. The mouth alfo is fmaller, and is curved down¬
wards at each corner. Its native country is unknown.
44. Rana Lentiginosa, Carolina Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray, freckled with brown j head
fomewhat pointed.
Specif Char.—Colour yellow j feet fubpalmated.
In its general habit this fpecies refemblesythe com¬
mon frog, but is fmaller in fize. The fkin is covered
with warts, and all the feet are fubpalmated.
It is alfo a native of Chili, and frequents the water's.
III. DRACO, Dragon.
Gen. Char.—The body is four-footed, and is furnifhed
with a tail: on each fide there is an expanfile, radi¬
ated, wing-like fkin.
1. Draco Volans, Flying Dragon.
This fpecies in its general appearance greatly re-
fembles the common toad, excepting that the head is
fmaller, and the fnout (harper. The colour is of a
dufky brown, mottled with minute blackifh or dark-
brown fpots. In its motions this fpecies is different
from the common toad, for it leaps rather than crawls.
It is a native of North America, and particularly of
Carolina and Virginia. It is faid to be mod com¬
mon in wet weather, and frequents the higher grounds,
appearing not only in the evening, but even in the hot¬
ted part of the day.
This fpecies, like others of the fame tribe, feeds on
infefts, and feems to be extremely fond of luminous in-
feds, as fire-flies, glow-worms, &c. It is faid that it
will feize a piece of live wood coal, miftaking it for a
luminous infed, and fwallow it, feemingly with impu¬
nity.
45. Rana Semilunata, Crefcent Toad.
Specif Char.—Colour blackifli, paler beneath ; a white
crefcent-fhaped fpot at each ear.
This fpecies is larger than the common toad, and is
particularly diftinguifhed by a large, round, white fpot
behind the parotids. The body is covered above with
tubercles.
46. Rana Melanostica, Black-lipped Toad.
Specif Char.—Colour yellowifh brown ; warts black,
fpeckled ; upper lip and eyelids edged with black j
hind feet fubhexadadylous and femipalmated.
This fpecies is nearly the fize of the common toad,
and refembles it in its general appearance. The fpace
between the eyes is depreffed and fmooth. The edges
«f the projeding orbits of the eyes are black j the up¬
per jaw is furrounded with a fimilar border, and the
tips of the toes and the two tubercles of both hind and
fore feet are alfo black.
It is fuppofed to be a native of China.
47. Rana Arunco, Arunco.
•Specif Char.—Body warted 5 all the feet webbed.
This fpecies is nearly of the fame colour as the com¬
mon frog, but it is larger in fize. The body is wart¬
ed, and all the feet are palraated.
It is a native of Chili.
Vox,, VIII. Part I.
Specif Char.—The fore legs are unconneded with the
wings.
The flying dragon, in many refpeds, both in its
ftrudure and habits, refembles the tribe of lizards4
but on account of the expanfile cutaneous proceffes
with which the fides are furnifhed, Linnaeus has arran¬
ged it under a diftind genus.
The body of this animal is about four inches in
length j but from the tip of the nofe to the extremity
of the tail, it is commonly about nine or ten inches,
and fometimes a foot. The form of the head is very
Angular j it is furniftied beneath with a large triple
pouch or procefs, one part of which hangs beneath the
throat, while the other two projed on each fide. They
are all (harp-pointed, and are more confpicuous, in pro¬
portion to the fize of this animal, than the fame pro¬
ceffes in lizards. The mouth is wide ^ the tongue large
and thick at the bafe ; the teeth are fmall and numer¬
ous 5 the neck is alfo final! $ the body and limbs are
{lender, and entirely covered with fmall pointed fcales.
On the upper part of the body the colour is pale blue,
or blflifh gray •, but the back and tail are marked with
tranfverfe dufky bars. The wings are elegantly (pot¬
ted with patches of black, deep brown, and w hite, of
different forms. The under furface is of a whitifh-
brown colour.
The flying dragon is a native of Afia and Africa,
where it is found frequenting trees $ and for this it is
peculiarly adapted, from the cutaneous proceffes with
which it is furnifhed on each fide. For by means of
thefe lateral membranes, it is enabled to fpring with
more facility from branch to branch, and even to fup-
port itfelf for fome time in the" air, like the bat or fly¬
ing fquirrel. Like the lizard, it feeds on infe&s.
2. Draco Prjefos, American Flying Dragon.
—-Wings united with the arms.
This fpecies is confidered by fome naturalifts only as
a variety of the former. The circumftances in which
it differs are, that the body and neck are more flender,
and the pouch at the throat is Angle.
It is faid to be a native of America.
The real dragon of modern naturalifts, it may be ob-
ferved, is not that terrible and deftrudive monfter, the
mere creatin e of imagination, which exifted only in the
defcriptions of romance, and the older poetry j nor is it
O o the
Specif. Char.
tgo . E R P E T
Lizards, the animal which we find defcribed and figured in fome
of the writings of the older naturalifts. For thefe, it is
now well known, are either entirely fictitious beings, or
have been prepared artificially, by joining together the
limbs of different animals \ and thus producing a mon-
jfer, under the name of dragon, unknown in nature.
This has been done by warping fome fpecies of the
Ikate tribe, into what was fuppoled to be the (hape of a
dragon, and having raifed the fins, and dried them in
this pofition, by adding the legs of birds or other ani¬
mals. Hence have originated the monftrous reprefenta-
tions, which are found in fome of the older naturalifts,
of many-headed dragons, having necks and tails like
thofe of fnakes, and feet like thofe of birds. Deceptions
of this kind, it would appear, have been often fuccefs-
fully praClifedj by which means, not only the vulgar,
but alfo men of fcience, have been milled and impofed
upon. The following is an inftance of this kind, which
happened about the end of the 17th century. It is
quoted by Dr Shaw, and he obferves, is thus comme¬
morated by Dr G rainger from a note of Dr Grey, in his
edition of Hudibras, vol. i. page 125.
“ Mr Smith of Bedford obferves to me on the word
dragon, as follows : Mr Jacob Bobart, botany profeffor
(or rather fuperintendant of the garden) of Oxford, did
about 40 years ago, find a dead rat in the phyfic gar¬
den, which he made to referable the common pifture of
dragons, by altering its head and tail, and thrufting in
taper lharp flicks, which diftended the fkin on each
fide, till it mimicked wings. He let it dry as hard as
poffible. The learned immediately pronounced it a
dragon, and one of them fent an accurate defcription of
it to Dr Magliabechi, librarian to the grand duke of
Tufcany. Several fine copies of verfes were wrote on
fo rare a fubjeft ; but at laft Mr Bobart owned the
cheat j however, it was- looked upon as a mafterpiece
of art, and as fuch depofited in the mufeum or anatomy
fchool, where I faw it fome years after.”
We lhall relate another inftance of an artificial
dragon, with which a fimilar deception was praftifed,
and which was detefted by Linnaeus. This dragon was
in the poffefiion of a merchant at Hamburgh, and was
valued by the proprietor at 10,000 florins. Lin-
nceus, while he was on a vifit to that city, detefled the
cheat, and Ihewed that it was entirely an artificial ani¬
mal, compofed of the Ikins of fnakes, the teeth of
weafels, the claws of birds, &c. It is even faid, that
Linnaeus having made this difcovery, was obliged to
make a precipitate retreat from Hamburgh, to avoid a
profecution which was threatened by the proprietor on
the feore of the reputation and value of his property be¬
ing injured by this difcovery.
IV. LACERTA, Lizard.
Gen. Chav.—The body is four-footed, elongated, and
furnithed with a tail ; there is no fecondary in¬
tegument.
The numerous genus Lacerta includes a great variety
of animals which, although they poffefs many characters
in common, yet they exhibit confiderable differences,
not only in their economy and habits, but alfo in ftruc-
ture and external form. On this account this genus has
been divided by fome naturalifts into a number of di-
O L O G Y. Chap. I,
Hindi genera. We have here, however, according to Lizards,
the Linnsean arrangement, retained the w'hole under 'T—
the fame genus; but we (hall divide the fpecies com¬
prehended under it, as other naturalifts have done, into
different fedlions, as follows: 1. Crocodiles •, 2. Guanas j
3.Cordylesj 4. Lizards proper j 5. Chamelions; 6.
Geckos; 7. Scinks; 8. Salamanders, Newts, or Efts^
9. Snake Lizards.
Sedl. I. Crocodiles.
The charadler of the animals included under this
fedlion is, that they are furnifhed with very ftrong fcales.
1. Lacerta Crocodilus, Common Crocodile, or Croco.
dile of the Nile.
Specif. Char.—Head mailed ; neck carinated ; tail
furnifhed on the upper part with two lateral crefted
proceffes.
The crocodile fometimes arrives at a very great fize.
Individuals of 20 feet long have frequently been feen,
and inftances are mentioned of fome which have exceed¬
ed the length of 30, and even 40 feet. When it is full
grown, the colour of the upper part of the body is
blackifh brown ; beneath it is yellowifh white. The
upper parts of the legs and fides are varied with deep
yellow, and in fome parts tinged with green. The
colour of the younger animal is different; for that
of the upper parts is a mixture of brown and pale yel¬
low, while the under parts are nearly white. The
opening of the mouth is of great width, and exhibits
fomewhat of a flexuous outline. Both jaws are furnifh¬
ed with numerous fharp-pointed teeth ; thofe in the
middle part of the jaw being largeft, and refembling
the canine teeth of viviparous quadrupeds. Each jaw
contains 30 teeth or more, for the number is found to
vary in different individuals, perhaps from the dif¬
ference of age. The difpofition of the teeth is fuch,
that when the mouth is fhut, they alternate with each
other. When the teeth have been taken out, and the
alveoli examined, it has appeared that fmall teeth were
forming beneath, to fupply the lofs of the others when
fhed. The external openings of the ears are placed on
the top of the head, above the eyes; they are of mode¬
rate fize, of an oval form, and covered with a mem¬
brane, in which there is a longitudinal flit, giving them
the appearance of clofed eyes. The eyes are furnifhed
with a nidlitating membrane, or tranfparent moveable
pellicle, fimilar to that of birds. The legs of the cro¬
codile are fhort, ftrong, and mulcular. There are five
toes on the fore feet, and they are unwebbed. On the
hind feet there are only four toes, which, towards the
bafe, are united by means of a ftrong membrane. The
two anterior toes on each of the fore feet, and the in¬
terior one of the hind feet, have no claws; but the
other toes are furniihed with claw's, which are ftrong,
fharp and curved. The tail is long, compreffed on
the fides, and furnilhed above with an upright procefs,
formed by the gradual approach of two elevated crefts
which proceed from the lower part of the back. Ihe
upper part of the body of the crocodile is covered with
ftrong armour ; which, in its ffruflure exhibits the ap¬
pearance of a regular and curious carved work, and is
indeed a moft elaborate piece of mechanifm. It is fo
ftrong
* Trawls,
Ivol. iii.
^ 310-
[. E R P E T
flrong and thick* when the animal has reached its full
growth, that it eafily refills the force of a mulket-ball.
On the lower parts of the body, it is more pliable, and
much thinner, fo that it is in thefe parts only that
wounds can be infli&ed.
The crocodile depolits its eggs in the fand or mud,
in the banks of the rivers which it inhabits ; and as foon
as the young are Jaatched, they proceed to the water.
When the young are firlt excluded, the head is pro¬
portionally much larger than that of the full grown ani¬
mal. The egg of the common crocodile is about the
fize of that of a goofe, and refembles greatly that of a
bird. It is covered with a calcareous Ihell, Avhich is
lined with a membranous fubftance. Various birds,
the ichneumon and other animals, make great havock
among the eggs of the crocodile during the period of
hatching, thus diminilhing the numbers which would
other wife be produced. The eggs of the crocodile,
and indeed the flelh itfelf, are regarded as delicacies
among fome African nations, and compofe a part of
their favourite repalls.
The crocodile is a native of Alia and Africa, but it
feems to be more common in the latter than in the for¬
mer country. It inhabits the large rivers, as the Nile,
the Niger, &c. frequenting the low fand illands of thefe
rivers ; and preys chiefly on filh, although, being ex¬
tremely voracious, it leizes any other animal that comes
within its reach.
The crocodile has been long regarded as one of the
moll formidable animals of the countries which it in¬
habits •, but from the accounts of later naturalills, it
appears, that it is by no means fo ferocious as has
been pretended. Denon, who viflted Egypt along
with the French army, obferves, that many itories are
related of crocodiles, but that he had not any oppor¬
tunity of verifying a Angle one. “ Daring, (fays he)
even to imprudence, our foldiers fet them at defiance.
Even I myfelf bathed daily in the Nile ; for the tran¬
quil nights that I thus obtained, rendered me regard-
lefs of dangers, which we had not as yet verified by a
Angle fadt. If the crocodiles had devoured a few of
the carcafes which the war left at their difpofal, fuch a
food, it might be imagined, would only excite their
appetite, and engage them to purfue, when alive, fo
favourite a prey. And yet we were never once attack¬
ed by them, nor did we ever meet with a Angle croco¬
dile at a dillance from the water. Hence it appears
probable, that they find in the Nile itfelf a fufficient
quantity of eafily procurable food, which they digeft
llowly, being like the lizard and ferpent, cold-blooded,
and of an inadtive ftomach. Befides, having in the
Egyptian part of the Nile no enemies but each other
and man, they would be truly formidable •, if, covered
as they are, w ith an almoft impenetrable defenfive ar¬
mour, they were alert and Ikilful in making ufe of thofe
which nature, has given them for attack*.”
The fame author obferves, that no crocodiles were
feen at Svene on the river Nile, but that they are to be
met with above the cataradls. “ They feem (he fays)
to prefer certain reaches of the river, and particularly
from Tentyra to Ombos •, they abound moil of all near
Hermontes. We here faw' three of them j one much
larger than the reil, was nearly 25 feet long : they were
all afleep, fo that we could approach them within 20
paces, and we had time tqdiftinguifh all the peculiarities
29I
Lizards.
O L O G Y.
which gave them fuch a hideous afpedl. They re-
fembled difmounted cannon. I fired on one w ilh a ^ v"" v
heavy mufket; the ball ftruck him, and rebounded from
his feales. He made a leap of 10 feet, and dived into
the river f.” \ Ibid. 186.
In the large rivers of Africa, vaft fhoals of croco¬
diles are feen fwimming together, when they exhibit
the appearance of the trunks of large trees floating on
the water. It is faid that the negroes venture to at¬
tack, and often fucceed in killing a fingle crocodile,
by ilabbing it with a fliarp inftrument under the belly,
where the fkin is foft and vulnerable. In fome coun¬
tries, we are told, the hunting of the crocodile with
ftrong dogs, is pradlifed for amufement. For this pur-
pofe the dogs are properly trained and inftrudled j and
to protedl them againft the attack of the crocodile, they
are armed with collars furnilhed with fpikes.
It is even faid, that crocodiles are occafionally tamed
in fome parts of Africa, and that they conftitute an ar¬
ticle of royal magnificence with fome of the African
monarchs, in which cafe they are kept in large ponds
or lakes. It is well known that crocodiles were ex¬
hibited by the ancient Romans during their public fpec-
tacles. In the edilefliip of Scaurus, he prefented the peo¬
ple with a fight of five crocodiles in a temporary lake;
and one was introduced by Auguftus in his triumph
over Cleopatra, for their entertainment.
Var.—A variety of the common crocodile, it is faid,
has been found in the river Senegal 5 according to M.
Adanfon, it has a longer fnout, and is almoil entirely
black. It is faid that it is very rapacious, and has only
been obferved in the above river, where the common
crocodiles are very numerous.
2. Lacerta Alligator, the Alligator or American
Crocodile.
Specif. Char.—Head flat, imbricated j neck naked, or
uncarinated 5 tail furnilhed above with two lateral
lines.
The alligator is confidered by fome naturalifls only
as a variety of the crocodile *, any deferences which are
obfervable, they fuppofe, may be aferibed to the effeft
of climate. They have the fame number of teeth, and
their manners and habits are nearly fimilar in the old
and new world •, but the difference, although not at firft
fight obvious, feems to be fully eftabliflied from the
more accurate obfervations of others. The head of the
alligator is fmooth, and is not furnilhed with the rugofi-
ties and hard carinated feales which appear on the head
of the crocodile ; and befides, the fnout of the alligator
is flatter, wuder, and more rounded at the extremity.
The fize of the alligator is little inferior to that of the
crocodile. Individuals have been often feen from 18
to 20 feet long.
Catelby, in his hillory of Carolina, has given a ful¬
ler account of the economy and habits of the alligator,
than any other author. “ Though the largell, fays he,
and greateft numbers of alligators, inhabit the torrid
zone, the continent abounds Avith them io° more
north, particularly as far as the river Neus in North
Carolina. In the latitude of about 330, beyond which
I have never heard of any, Avhich latitude nearly an-
fwers to the northermoft parts of Africa, where they are
likewife found, they-frequent not only fait rivers near
* O o 2 the
.92 E R P EJ
Lizards, the fea, but ftreams of frefli water in the upper parts of
V - the country, and in lakes of fait and Irelh water j on the
banks of which they lie lurking among reeds, to fur-
prife cattle and other animals. In Jamaica, and many
parts of the continent, they are found about 20 feet in
length. They cannot be more terrible in their afpedt
than they are formidable and mifchievous in their na¬
tures, fparing neither man nor beaft they can furprife,
pulling them down underwater’, that being dead, they
may with greater facility, and without ftruggle or re-
fiftance, devour them. As quadrupeds do not fo often
come in their way, they almolt lubfllt on fifli j but as
providence, for the prefervation, or to prevent the ex-
tindlion of defencelefs creatures, hath in many in¬
fiances reftrained the devouring appetites of voracious
animals by fome impediment or other j fo this deftruc-
tive moniler, by the clofe eonnedlion of his vertebrae,
can neither fwim nor run any way but ftraight forward,
and is confequently difabled from turning with that
agility requilue to catch his prey by purfuit; therefore,
they do it by furprife in the water, as well as by land j
for effecting which, nature feems in fome meafure to
have recompenfed their want of agility, by giving them
a power of deceiving and catching their prey by a fa-
gacity peculiar to them, as well as by the outer form
and colour of their body, which on land refembles an old
dirty log or tree, and in the water frequently lies float¬
ing on the furface, and there has the like appearance j
by which, and his filent artifice, fifli, fowl, turtle, and
all other animals are deceived, fuddenly catched, and
devoured.
“ Carnivorous animals get their food with more diffi¬
culty and lefs certainty than others ’, and are often ne-
ceffitated to fail a long time, which a flow coi coftion
enables them to endure : reptiles particularly, by fwal-
lowing what they eat whole, cligell flowly, eat feldom,
and live long without food. Wolves are faid to gorge
themfelves with mud, to fupply the want of better food.
For the like caufe, many alligators fwallow ftones and
other fubitances to diftend and prevent the contraction
of their inteftines when empty, and not to help digef-
tion, which they feem. in no need of. For in the greater
number of many which I have opened, nothing has ap¬
peared but lumps of light wood and pieces of pine-tree
coal, fome of which weighed eight pounds, and were
reduced and worn fo fmooth from their firfl: angular
roughnefs, that they feemed to have remained in them
many months. They lay a great number of eggs at
one time on the Tandy banks of rivers and lakes, which
are hatched by the heat of the fun without further
care of the parents.. The young, as foon as they are
difengaged from their fhells, betake themfelves to the
water, and ffiift for themfelves; but while young, they
ferve as a prey not only to ravenous fifli, but to their
own fpecies. It is to be admired, that fo vaft an am-
"mal fliould at firfl be contained in an egg no better
than, that of a turkey.
“ In South Carolina they are very numerous ; but the
* northern fituation of that country occafions their being
of a fmaller lize than thofe nearer the line ; and tffiy
rarely attack men or cattle, yet are great devourers of
hogs. In Carolina they lie torpid from about October
to March in caverns and hollows in the banks of rivers,
and at their coming out in the fpring, make a hideous
bellowing noife, The hind part of their belly and tail
O L O G Y. Chap. J
are eaten by the. Indians. The flefli is delicately white, Lizards,
but has fo perfumed a talle and fmell, that I never T-»
could reliflr it with pleafure.
“ The alligators of South America, like the turtles,
depofit their eggs at two or three different periods, at
the diftance of feveral days, and from 20 to 24 egga
each time. They have been obferved to raife a fmall
hillock near the banks of the river j and, after hollow¬
ing it out in the middle, to colleft a quantity of leaves
and other vegetable matters, in which they dtpofit
their eggs. Thefe are covered with the leaves, and
are hatched by means of the heat extricated during
their putrefaftion, along with that of the atmofphere.
The alligators about Cayenne depolit their eggs in the
month of April.”
To the account of the alligator which we have new’
given, we add the following particulars concerning its
natural hiffory by Don Uiloa, in his voyage to South
America. 1 he obfervations were made on the river
Guayaquil; and we (hall detail them in his own words,
“ The increafeof fifli, fays he, in this river is greatly
hindered by the prodigious numbers of alligators, an
amphibious creature, living both in the rivers and the
adjacent plains, though it is not often known to go far
from the banks of the river. When tired with fiihing,
they leave the water to balk themfelves in the fun, and
then appear more like logs of half-rotten wood thrown
afliore by the current, than living creatures j but upon
perceiving any veffel near them, they immediately throw
themfelves into the water. Some are of fo monflrous
a fize as to exceed five yards in length. During the
time they lie balking on the fliore, they keep their
huge mouths wide open, till filled with mufquetoes,
flies, and other infers, when they fuddenly fliut their
jaws and fwallow their prey. Whatever may have
been written w ith regard to the fierceriefs and rapacity
of this animal, I, and all our company know from ex¬
perience, they avoid a man, and on the approach of any
one, immediately plunge into the water. Its whole
body is covered with leaks impenetrable to a muiket
ball, unlefs it happens to hit them in the belly near the
fore legs, the only part vulnerable.
“ The alligator is an oviparous creature. The fe¬
male makes a large hole in the fand near the brink of a
river, and there depofits her eggs, which are nearly
equal to thofe of an oftrich, and as white as thofe of a
hen, but much more folid. She generally lays about
a hundred, continuiog in the fame place till they are
all depofited, which is about a day or two. She then
covers them with the fand 5 and the better to conceal
them, rolls herfelf not only over her precious depofitum,
but to a confiderable diflance. After this precaution
fhe returns to the water, till natural inllinif informs
her, that it is time to deliver her young from their
confinement, when ffie comes to the fpot, followed
by the male, and tearing up the fand, begins break¬
ing the eggs, but fo carefully, that fcarce a fingle one
is injured, and a whole fwarm of little alligators are
feen crawling about. The female then takes them on
her neck and back in order to remove them into the
water ; but the watchful gallinazos make ufe of this
opportunity to deprive her of fome •, and even the male
alligator, which indeed comes for no other end, devours
what he can, till the female has reached the water with
the few remaining j for all thofe which either fall from
lhap. r. E R P E T
Lizards, kcr back, or do not fwim, fhe herfelf eats •, fo that of fuch
^ a formidable brood, happily not more than four or five
efcapes.
“ The gallinazos mentioned in our account of Car*
thagena, are the molt inveterate enemies of the alli¬
gators, or rather extremely fond of their eggs, in
finding which they make ufe of uncommon addrefs.
Thefe birds often make it their whole bufinefs to
watch the females during the fummer, the feafon when
they lay their eggs, the lands on the tides of the river
not being then covered with water. The gallinazo
perches in fome tree, where it conceals itfelf among
the branches, and there filently watches the female al¬
ligator till Ihe ha* laid her eggs and retires, pleafed
that Ihe has concealed them beyond difcovery. . But
Ihe is no fooner under the water, than the gallinazo
darts down on the repofitory, and with its beak,
claws and wings, tears up the fand, and devours the
eggs, leaving only the (hells. This banquet would
indeed richly reward its long patience, did not a mul¬
titude of gallinazos, from all parts join the fortunate
difcoverer and lhare in the fpoil. I have often been
entertained with this ftratagem of the gallinazos, in
palling from Guayaquil to the cultom-houfe of Baba-
hoyo j and my curiolity once led me to take lome of
the eggs, which thole who frequent this river, parti¬
cularly the mulattoes, make no difficulty of eating
when frelh. Here we mult remark the methods ufed
by providence in diminilhing the number of thefe de-
ftruftive creatures^ not only by the gallinazos, but
even by the males themfelves. Indeed neither the
river nor the neighbouring fields w'ould otherwife be
fulficient to contain them } for, notwithftanding the
ravages of thefe two infatiable enemies, their numbers
can hardly be imagined.
“ Thefe alligators are the great delfroyers of the
filh in this river, it being their moll fafe and general
food : nor are they wanting in addrefs to fatisfy their
defires, eight or ten, as it were by compaft, draw up
at the" mouth of a river or creek, whillt others of the
fame corps go a confiderable diftance up the river,
and chafe the filh downwards, by which none of any
bignefs efcape them. The alligators being unable to
eat under water, on feizing a fiflr raife their heads
above the furface, and by degrees draw the filh from
their jaws, and chew it for deglutition. After fatisfy-
ing their appetite, they retire- to reft on the banks of
the river.
“ When they cannot find filh to appeafe their hun¬
ger, they betake themfelves to> the - meadows border¬
ing on the banks of the river, and devour calves and
colts ; and in order to be more feeure in feizing their
prey, take the opportunity of the night, that they may
lurprife them in their deep •, a. d it is obfervtd that
thofe alligators which have once tailed tleih, become
fo fond of it, as never to take up .with filh but in cafes
of necefiity. There are even too many melancholy
inftances of their devouring the human fpecies, elpeci-
ally children, who, from the inattention natural to
their age, have been without doors after it is dark j
and though at no great diftance, thefe voracious animals
have dared to attack them, and having once feized
them with their mouth, to make fure of their prey
againft that afliftance which the cries of the viftim never
fail to bring, haften into the. water, where they imise-
O L O G Y. *93
diately drown it, and then return to the furface and Lizard.-. ^
devour it at leifure.
“ Their voracity has alfo been felt by the boatmen,
who, by inconfiderately deeping with one of their arms
or legs hanging over the fide of the boat, thele animals
have feized and drawn the whole body into the wa¬
ter. Alligators who have once feaded on human
delh are known to be the molt dangerous, a,nd be¬
come, as it were, inflamed with an infatiable dedre of
repeating the fame delicious repad. Ihe inhabitants
of thofe places where they abound are very indultrious
in catching and deltroying them. Their ufual method
is by a cafonate, or piece of hard wood diarpened at
both ends, and baited with the lungs of fome animal.
This cafonate they faden to a thong, the end of
which is fecured on the Ihore. The alligator, on fee¬
ing the lungs doating on the water, fnaps at the bait,
and thus both points of wood enter his jaws in fuch a
manner, that he can neither (hut nor open his month.
He is then dragged alhore, where he violently endea¬
vours to refcue himfelf, while the Indians bait him
like a bull, knowing that the greated damage he can
do is to throw down fuch, as for want of care or agility
do not keep out of his reach.
“ The form of this animal fo nearly refembles that
of the lagarto or lizard, that here they are commonly
known by that name •, but there is fome difference in
the drape of the head, which in this creature is long;
and towards the extremity dender, gradually forming
a fnout, like that of a hog, and, when in the river,
is generally above the furface of the water ; a fufficient
demonftration that the refpiration of a purer air is ne-
ceffary to it. The mandibles of this creature have
each a row of very ftrong and pointed teeth, to which
fome writers have attributed particular virtues ; but all
I can fay to" this is, that they are fuch as I and my
companions, notwithdanding all our enquiries to attain
a complete knowledge of every particular, could never
hear any fatisfadlory account of * Vol, h -
p. 300.
3. Lacerta Gangetica, Ganqdie or Indian Croco¬
dile.
Specif. Char,—Jaw fomewhat cylindrical, elongated ;
tail furnilhed above with two crells uniting in one
towards the extremity.
In this fpecies the jaws are long, narrow, and draight;
and the upper mandible is terminated above by an
elevated tubercle. This llrudfure of the fnout is
more remarkable in the young animal. The teeth of
this fpecies are more numerous than in the common cro¬
codile, being nearly double the number, and they are
of equal lize through the whole length of the jaws.
Excepting that the third and fourth toes, both on the
fore and hind feet are connedled tegether by a web $
the itruiture of the feet is the lame as that of the com¬
mon one* 1 he eyes are extremsly prominent; and it
has been obferved, are fo eonllrucled, that they may be
raifed above the water, when the red of the body is
under the furface; by which the animal is enabled to
fee its prey either on the furface of the water, or on
the banks of rivers. In the general form and colour of
the body and limbs, this fpecies refembles the common
crocodile, only the number of tranfverfe bands formed
by the rows of fcales on the back, is greater,
3
It
4
zards.
O L O G Y. Chap, j
they dip the flefh of the guana as they eat it. It is re- Lizards
markable that this fat, which adheres to the infide of v**
the abdomen, imbibes the colour of the fruit the animal
eats laft, which I have frequently feen tinged of a pale
red, yellow, or fometimes of a purple colour 5 which laft
was from eating the prunus maritima, which fruit at
the fame time I took out of them. Though they are
not amphibious, they are faid to keep under water
above an hour. When they fwim, they ufe not their
feet, but clap them clofe to their body, and guide them-
felves with their tails. They fwallow all they eat
whole j they cannot run fall, their holes being a great¬
er fecurity to them than their heels. They are lb im¬
patient of cold, that they rarely appear out of their
holes but when the fun Ihines.”
Dr Browne, in his natural hillory of Jamaica, gives
the following particulars of the guana. “ Like moft
of the tribe, he obferves, it lives a very confiderable
time without food, and changes its colour with the
weather, or the native moifture of its place of refidence.
I have kept a grown guana about the houfe for more
than two months: it was very fierce and ill-natured at
the beginning ■, but after fome days it grew more tame,
and would, at length, pafs the greateft part of the day
upon the bed or couch, but it went out always at night.
I have never obferved it to eat any thing, except what
imperceptible particles it had lapped up in the air j for
it frequently threw out its forked tongue, like the cha-
melion, as it walked along. The tlefh of this creature
is liked by many people, and frequently ferved up in
fricafees at their tables; in which Hate they are often
preferred to the bell fowls. The guana may be eafily
tamed while young, and is both an innocent and beau¬
tiful creature in that ftate.”
Var. Honied guana. This is confidered as a va¬
riety of the former. It is nearly the lame in fize and
general proportion } the back is alfo ferrated, and the
form of the fcales is the fame. It wants, however, the
gular pouch, and there are in front of the head, be¬
tween the eyes and noftrils, four pretty large fcaly
tubercles, behind which there is a bony conical pro-
cefs, which is covered with a fingle fcale.
It is a native of St Domingo, where it is faid to be
very common.
E R P E T
It is a native of India, and is chiefly found in the
Ganges, where it is nearly equal in fize to the common
crocodile^
Se&. II. Guanas.
The animals belonging to this feefion have the back
and tail ferrated or carinated.
4. Lacerta Iguana, Common or Great American
Guana.
Specif. Char.—Tail long and round ; back ferrated j
gular creft denticulated.
The guana, which of all the lizard tribe is of the
moft peculiar form, grows to a confiderable fize. It is
often feen, three, four, and fometimes five feet long.
The general colour is green, (haded with brown. The
back is ftrongly ferrated ; which, as well as the denti-
culations of the pouch at the throat, gives it a formi¬
dable appearance.
The guana is a native of many parts of America,
and the Weft Indies. It is faid alfo that it has been
found in fome parts of the Eaft Indies. It frequents
rocky and woody places, and feeds chiefly on infedls
and vegetables.
The guana itfelf is reckoned very nourifhing and de¬
licate food. The ufual method of taking it, is by call¬
ing a noofe over its head, and then drawing it from its
place j for without making any attempt to efcape, it
(lands with its eyes fixed ftedfaftly at its difeoverer,
while at the fame time it inflates its throat to a very
large fize.
Catelby has given a good account of the guana,
which wre (hall detail in his own words. “ They are,”
he fays, “ of various fizes, from two to five feet in
length} their mouths are furniihed with exceeding
fmall teeth, but their jaw is armed with a long beak,
with which they bite with great ftrength. They inha¬
bit w arm countries only, and are rarely to be met with
anywhere north or fouth of the tropics. Many of the
Bahama iflands abound with them, where they neftle
in hollow rocks and trees. Their eggs have not a
hard (hell like thofe of alligators, but a (kin only like
thofe of a turtle, and are efteemed a good food. They
lay a great number of eggs at a time in the earth, which
are there hatched by the fun’s heat. Thefe guanas are
a great part of the fubfiftence of the inhabitants of the
Bahama iflands, for which purpofe they vifit many of
the remote keys and iflands in their (loops to catch
them, which they do by dogs trained up for that pur¬
pofe, which are fo dexterous as not o'ften to kill them 5
which, if they do, they ferve only for prefent (pending :
if otherwife, they few up their mouths to prevent their
biting, and put them into the hold of their (loop till
they have catched a fufficient number j which they ei¬
ther carry alive for fale to Carolina, or fait and barrel
up for the ufe of their families at home. Thefe guanas
feed wholly on vegetables and fruit, particularly on a
kind of fungus growing at the roots of trees, and on the
fruits of the different kinds of anonas. Their flefti is
eafy of digeftion, delicate, and well tailed. They are
fometimes roafted, but the more common way is to boil
them, taking out the leaves of fat, which are melted
and clarified, and put into a calabaftr or di(h, into which
3
5. Lacerta Amboinensis, Amhoina Guana.
Specif. Char.—Variegated, tail long, tail fin radiated,
dorfal future dentated.
This fpecies, which grows to the length of three
feet, and fometimes more, is at once diftinguiftied by
the Angularity of its appearance, and the beauty of its
colours. The head and neck are green, and variegated
with white tranfverfe undulations. The back and tail
are brown, with a (hade of purple. The (ides aftd
belly are grayilh, or pale brown *, the head is tuber-
culated above, and covered with fmall roundiftt fcales;
the mouth is w ide, and the teeth are (harp and numer¬
ous.
This fpecies is a native of the Eaft Indies, but is
moft frequent in the ifland of Amboina, frequenting
the neighbourhood of rivers and other frefh waters. It
is often feen on the banks of riling grounds, and on
low (hrubs which grow near the water. It does not
Rfcend tall trees. Whenever it is difturbed by the ap-
ERPETOLOGY.
hap- !•
Lizards, proach of men or any animal, it plunges into the water,
■—x 1 and conceals itfelf beneath the rocks or ftones under
the banks. It may be eafily taken, as it does not at¬
tempt to bite or defend itfelf, but feems in fome mea-
fure ftupified.
This fpecies, like others of the tribe, depofits its
eggs in the fand, on the banks of the rivers which it
frequents. The eggs in the body of the animal are
difpofed in two long groups or clufters, and are of a
yellow colour j but when they are excluded, they are
white, and of an oblong fhape. The Amboina guana is
reckoned a more delicate food than the common one ;
its flelh is faid to be white, fweet, and of a penetrating
odour.
6. Lacerta Basiliscus, BafiUJk.
Specif Char.—Tail long j dorfal and caudal fins radiat¬
ed ) occipital creft pointed.
The bafililk is about one foot and a half in length,
of a pale. alh-brown colour, with fome darker variega¬
tions about the upper part of the body. In the young
animal, the dorfal or caudal procefs, and the pointed
occipital crell mentioned in the fpecific defcription, are
lefs diflinft.
The bafililk. is chiefly a native of South America.
It refides principally among trees, and feeds on in¬
fers.
It is faid to be a very a&ive animal, and by means
of its dorfal creft or fin, it is enabled to fpring from
tree to tree. It can alfo fwim with great eafe.
This animal has a very formidable appearance, but
is quite harmlefs j but in the poetical defcriptions of
the ancients, we find that it was confidered to be the
moll malignant of all poifonous animals j even its look
was regarded as fatal. The terrific glance of the bafi¬
lilk in the African deferts, according to the poetical re-
prefentation of Lucan, obliged the reft of the poifonous
tribe to keep at a diftance.
7. Lacerta Calotes, Galeot Li%ard.
Specif. C/zar.—Tail long and round; back dentated on
the fore part, and the head on the hind part.
This fpecies feldom exceeds a foot and a half in
length, from the tip of the nofe to the extremity of the
tail; but otherwife in its general habit and appearance,
it refembles the common guana. It wants, however,
the gular pouch •, in its place there is only a flight
enlargement of the throat. The colour, which occafion-
ally varies, is molt commonly of an elegant bright blue,
variegated with broad, irregular, white, tranfverfe bands
on each fide of the body and tail. The limbs are flen-
der, and this is particularly the cafe with the toes.
Ihis fpecies is a native of the warmer regions of A-
frica, Alia, and many of the Indian iflands. It is very
common in Ceylon. It is faid alfo to be a native of
Spain, where it wanders about the tops of houfes, in
fearch of fpiders. According to fome, it preys on rats,
and, like fome other lizards, attacks fmall ferpents.
8. Lacerta Agama, American Galeot.
Specif Char.—Tail long, round ^ neck above, and head
behind, aculeated ; fcales of the hind head reverfed.
This fpecies in fome refpecls refembles the calotes;
but it wants the ftrong ferratures on the back, in ^
place of which it has only a fmall denticulated Cari¬
na. The head is proportionally larger, and on the back
part is furnilhed with (harp-pointed fcales, fome of which
are reverfed at their extremities. The colour is brow n-
i(h, and varioufly clouded. In the male, the creft on
the back is compofed of longer fpines, and extends to
the lower part.
It is a native of South America, and fome of the
iflands of the Weft Indies.
Var. Lacerta Muricata, Muricated Lizard. Tail
long, round j body grayifli j fcales carinated and (harp-
pointed.
This lizard, which is confidered as a variety of the
preceding, meafures more than a foot in length, and has
even been fometimes found to exceed that fize. The
want of the reverfe fcales on the back part of the head,
conftitutes the principal difference between this and tire
former fpecies.
It is a native of New South Wales.
9. Lacerta Bicarinata, Bicarinated Li%ard.
Specif Char.—Tail of moderate length j four rows of
ftrong carinated fcales on the back.
In its general habit, this fpecies bears fome refem-
blanee to a fmall crocodile, on account of the hard tu-
berculated and carinated fcales on the upper parts of
the body, two rows of which are more prominent than
the reft, and extend from the upper part of the back to
the tail, where they coalefce and form a ferrated creft to
the extremity.
The head is fmall, the mouth wide, and the fiiout.
fomewhat (harp. The colour is reddifti-brown, tinged
in fome parts with various (hades of green.
It is a native of South America, where it is fome¬
times ufed as food. The eggs, it is faid, are alfo greatly
efteemed for the fame purpofe. Woody and marftiy re¬
gions are the ufual places of its refort. One of this
fpecies which was kept alive for fome time by M. de la
Borde, was obferved to remain for hours together in
the water, and when it was diflurbed or alarmed, it con¬
cealed itfelf, but delighted to come out occafionally
and balk in the fun.
Var. A lizard known by the name of ignaruca, and
faid to be a native of Brazil, is confidered as a variety
of the preceding, differing only in the colour, which is
darker, and the claws which are (horter ; but, like it, it
lias fome refemblance to the crooodile, and readily
climbs trees. .
10. Lacerta Monitor, Monitory Lizard. .
Specif Char.—Colour black • tail very long, compref-
fed, carinated; body marked with tranfverfe rows of
white, ocellated.
This is one of the largeft of the whole tribe of lizards.
From the tip of the nofe to the extremity of the tail, it
fometimes meafures no lefs than four or five feet. It is
alfo one of the mod beautiful. The head is fmall, the
fnbut gradually tapers, the limbs are (lender, and the
tail which is laterally compreffed, gradually decreafes
towards the extremity. Indeed the (hape altogether is
(lender and elegant, and although the colours are fimple,
they
295
Lizards.
296 E II P E T
Lizafds, tliey are fo difpofed as to produce an agreeable and
v—'>   pleafing effea. This fpecies is a native of South
America, inhabiting woody and marfhy places.
It is faid that the monitory lizard, from the gentle-
nefs of its difpolition, is remarkable for its attachment
to mankind, warning them of their danger from the alli¬
gator by emitting a peculiar and ftirill found.
Var. Lacerta Vana, Variegated Lizard. Although
this lizard is fomewhat different in colour, and in the
xlifpofition of its variegations, which are rather of a ^ale
yellow than white, yet it is confidered only as a variety
of the preceding. It is a native of New Holland.
ii. Lacerta Acanthura, Spine-tailed Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Throat plaited beneath \ body covered
with minute fcales j tail long and verticillated with
carinated triple-fpined fcales.
The length of this fpecies is: about a foot and a half.
The head is covered with fcales, which are fmall and
nearly lix-fided } it is quite dillinft from the body. Ihe
whole fldn about the neck, throat, and beginning of the
fides, is quite loofe, which in the fpecimen defcribed,
• may have had a pouched appearance. All the other
parts of the body are covered with very fmall fcales.
The tail is very long, and ftrongly marked into nume¬
rous rings, which are compofed of long and ftrongly
carinated fcales, each of which terminates in alengthen-
-ed point, and produces the fpiny appearance. There
are five long toes on each foot j the claws are ftrong
and (harp. The colour on the upper parts of the body
is glaucous, variegated with fmall whitifh clouds and
marblings.
It is defcribed by Dr Shaw from a fpecimen in the
3ritifh Mufeum.
12. Lacerta Lophura, Lizard.
Specif CVwr.—Body covered with diflimilar fcales j
back ferrated ; tail long, and fomewhat comprefied.
This is a very large fpecies ; there are large, rounded,
-and oval fcales fcattered here and there among the
fmaller ones. The tail is long and {harp-pointed ; the
back and tail are ferrated throughout their whole
length.
This fpecies is alfo defcribed by Dr Shaw from a fpe-
cimen in the Britifti Mufeum.
O L O G Y. Chap. I
The general appearance of this fpecies bears fome re- Lizards,
femblance to the guana, and ftill more to the horned Y
guana, in having the appearance of a pair of {harp
pointed horn-like proceffes above and beyond each eye j
between thefe are placed fome aculeated fcales. The
fize of one which has been defcribed, meafures from
I 2 to 16 inches, from the tip of the nofe to the extre¬
mity of the tail.
Tt is a native of Afia, and of fome of the Indian iilands.
15. Lacerta Scut at a, Scutated Lizard.
Specif Char.'—Tail of moderate length, compreffed •,
dorfal future dentated ; two.pointed proceffes on the
back of the head.
This fpecies is diftinguifhed from the former by hav¬
ing a proportionally larger head, and a row of feales
more elevated than the reft, pafting over each eye j and
from thefe a ridge is continued towards the back of the
head, where they unite and extend down the middle of
the back, in form of a ftrort denticulated creft, to the
beginning of the tail. The body is covered with acu¬
minated fcales which are but fmall j the limbs and tail
with larger ones.
It is a native of the ifiand of Ceylon.
16. Lacerta Principalis, Smooth Crefed Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail fubcarinated j gular creft plain
edge j back fmooth.
This fpecies is in general of a (lender form, and fmall,
rarely exceeding eight or nine inches in length, includ¬
ing both the body and tail. The colour is blue, the
head fmall, and the fnout taper.
It is a native of South America.
Var. Jjacerta bimaculata, Linn.
This is confidered as a variety of the former ; the co¬
lour is blue, fpotted here and there with black, with
two larger black fpots over the {boulders.
It is a native of St Euftatia, and is found alfo in
Pennfylvania.
Var. Le Roquet, of Cepede, is confidered by Dr
Shaw alfo as a variety of the fmooth-creftedjizard, as
it refembles it both in fize and habit ^ it is however
deftitute of the gular creft.
It frequents gardens, moving nimbly among treeSj
and devours great multitudes of fmaller infefts.
13. Lacerta Dracaena, Draccena Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Large tail; long and denticulated along
the upper part.
This is one of the largeft fpecies belonging to the
tribe. Not only in the fize of the body, but in the pro¬
portion of the limbs and tail, k exceeds that of the
guana. The colour is brown, with a flight (hade of
chefnut. On the outfides of the limbs there are nume¬
rous fmall pale yellowilh fpots. The head is fmall, and
the fnout tapering.
It is a native of South America, and fome of the
Indian iflands; and it is faid that in fome countries it
is preferred as an article of food to the guana.
14. Lacerta Superciliosa, Supercilious Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail carinated j back and eyebrows ci¬
liated, with upright lanceolated fcales.
17. Lacerta Strumosa, Strumous Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, round ; breaft gibbofe, pro-
jefting.
This is of a fmall fize, has no dorfal ferratures, but
is furniftied with a large flat gular creft, of a pale red
colour ; the reft of the animal is of a pale bluilh gray,
with fome flight {hades of a more dulky hue. Ihe
limbs are {lender.
It is a native of South America.
18. Lacerta Marmorata, Marbled Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail long, round; throat fubereftated,
back fmooth.
This fpecies is of a {lender and elegant form, and
meafures, including the tail, about a foot in length.
The
^hap.
lizards.
I E U P E T
The head Is fmall, tlie fnout taper. The colour is pale
J blue, variegated with undulating tranfverfe bands of a
whitifh fliade. The belly is of a pale rofe colour.
It is a native of America and the Weft Indies.
19. Lacerta Umbra, Umber Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, round j neck fubcreftated a-
bove } hind head callous) back ftriated.
O L O G Y.
24. Lacerta Angulata, Angulaied Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, hexagonal, and furniihed
with carinated and mucronated fcales.
This is a fmall fpecies of a brown colour. Beneath
the throat there are. two large rounded fcales. The tail
is longer than the body, and ftrongly marked with fix
longitudinal ridges.
It is a native of America.
297
Lizards.
This is a fmall fpecies j the body is covered with
fcales, which are carinated and pointed •, the head is
obtufe, and marked on the hind part with a large cal¬
lous bare fpot.
It is a native of North America.
Se&. III. Cordyles.
Having denticulated or fpiny fcales, on the body or
tail, or both.
20. Lacerta Pelluma, 'Pelluma Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, and verticillated with rhom-
boidal fcales.
This lizard is about two feet in its total length, and
is diftinguiftied on the upper parts of its body by a beau¬
tiful variety of green, yellow, blue, and black colours.
The under parts of the body are of a glolfy yellowilh
green.
It is a native of Chili.
2i. Lacerta Azurea, Azure Lizard.
Specif Tail Ihort, verticillated with mucronated
fcales.
This is of a fine blue colour, tranfverfely banded
with black or blue. It is fometimes only a few inches
long, but others are found of a larger fize.
The larger variety is a native of South America, the
fmaller of fome parts of Africa.
22. Lacerta Cordylus, Cordyle Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body fmooth; tail Ihort and verticilla¬
ted with denticulated fcales.
This fpecies, at firft fight, bears a confiderable re-
femblance to the former ; but the fcales which cover
the body, are of an oblong fquare form, and larger, and
the tail is verticillated with rows of large fcales of the
fame form. The colour is fometimes blue, fometimes
a livid brown, and the total length is about ten
inches.
23. Lacerta Stellio, Rough Lizard.
Specif. Char.—-Tail verticillated, with denticulated
fcales j body and head muricated.
The whole upper furface of the body is remarkably
rough, from being covered with proje&ing pointed
Icales. It is of a pale bluifti brown colour, with fome
deeper and lighter tranfverfe variegations. It is about
eight inches long.
I his fpecies is a native of many parts of Africa.
Vol. VIII. Part I.
25. Lacerta Orbicularis, Orbicular Lizard.
Specif. CW.—Body brown, round ; tail fhort, round )
fcales muricated.
The colour of this fpecies is dufky brown, variegated
with different ftiades, the body is large and ventricofe,
and in this refpeft it refembles the toad.
This is a native of South America, but is a rare
fpecies.
Sett. IV. Lizards Proper.
The furface of the body is fmooth, and they are ge¬
nerally furniihed with broad fquare plates or fcales on
the abdomen.
26. Lacerta Agilis, Green Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Of a green colour, with minute dulky
variegations. There is a collar of large fcales be¬
neath the neck j tail long, verticillated.
The length of this fpecies is from 10 to 15 inches )
but it fometimes arrives at fuch a fize as to meafure
more than two feet to the end of the tail. The colour
confifts of a mixture of different fliades of green, with
fpots of yellow, brown, black, and fometimes red. The
head is covered with angular fcales, and the reft of the
upper parts of the body rvith fmall ovate ones. The
tail is longer than the body, and is marked with nume¬
rous rings of oblong fquare fcales.
This fpecies is a native of all the warmer parts of
Europe. It is found in gardens about warm walls,
buildings, Stc. It is a very aftive animal, and purfues
its prey, which confifts of infefts, with great celerity.
When it is caught, it fpon becomes familiar, and may
even in fome meafure be tamed.
Var. The gray lizard, or little brown lizard, which
is alfo a native of many parts of Europe, is confidered
as a variety of the former. It is about fix or eight
inches long, of a greenifh brown, or pale grayifti co¬
lour.
This variety is a native of Britain, and is found on
the fides of dry banks or fand hills, where it is occa-
fionally feen balking during the heat of fummer. It is
alfo found about the roots of trees, old walls, &c.
27. Lacerta Te-guixin, Variegated Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail long, round j fides fomewhat wrink¬
led ; plate under the throat triple.
This fpecies is fometimes larger than the guana.
The head is covered with large leales or plates, and
the body with fmaller and fquare fcales. The colour
is extremely beautiful j it confifts of an elegant variega-
P p tion
£ VC
E R P E T
zards.
tion of black, brown, and purple fpots, on a pale blu-
iih, white, and yellowiib ground.
It is a native of South America.
28. LACERTA ErythROCEPHALA, Red-headed Lizard,,
Specif. Char.—Colour blackilh green, undulations tranf-
verfe and black j abdomen longitudinally banded
with black, white, and blue} bread black} top of
the head red.
This fpecies is a of moderate fize } the fcales on the
head are largeit, and there is a row of tubercles be¬
neath the thighs.
It is a native of the ifland of St Chriftopher.
29. Lacerta Cerulea, Ameiva Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour blue, with black and white va¬
riegations } tail long, verticillated } abdominal fcu-
ta 30.
The ameiva greatly refembles the green lizard, but
it wants the fcaly collar. The fcales on the upper part
of the body are not diitinftly vifible } thofe of the ab¬
domen are compofed of fquare plates, and there is a
row of tubercles beneath each thigh.
It is a native of South America, and it is faid that
it is fometimes found in Africa and Alia.
30. Lacerta Lemniscata, Striped Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour dulky blue } eight white lines
down the back} limbs fpotted with white } tail long,
round.
This is of a fmaller fize than the lad fpecies, but in
its general appearance bears a confiderable refemblance.
The white dripes on the back vary in breadth, and
fometimes in number.
It is a native of Guinea, but is alfo found in fome
parts of India and South America.
31. Lacerta Quadrilineata, Four-friped Lizard.
Specif Char.—Colour blackidi blue} four white or yel-
lowidi lines down the back } tail long, round } fore
feet tetradadlylous.
This is a fmaller fpecies than the lad, but refembles
it greatly. The claws are very fmall.
It is fuppofed to be a native of North America.
3 2. Lacerta Teniolata, Ribband Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body marked above with black and
white dripes} beneath white} tail long and round.
This is a fmall fpecies } the colour above is chefnut
brown, and the fcales on every part of the body are
fmooth, round, and imbricated. From the head to the
middle of the tail there are fix white linear dripes.
The limbs are ftriped longitudinally with black.
It is a native of New Holland.
33. Lacerta Sexlineata, Six-lined Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray brown } fix white lines,
down the back 3 tail long, verticillated.
This is a fmall fpecies. Beneath the throat there is
O L O G Y. Chap. I
a double plate, and a row of tubercles beneath the Lizards,
thighs. The legs are long and the'feet flender 3 the''"““V'-—
tail is carried curved over the back, from which it has
been called the lion lizard.
It is a native of the Wed Indies, where it frequents
the rocks on the fea coad.
34. Lacerta Fasciata, Fafciated Lizard.
Specif. Char,—Colour of the body brown} tail blue and
rather long. There are five yellowilh lines down the
back.
This is a fmall fpecies, rarely exceeding eight inches
in its whole length. The head is diort.
It is a native of Carolina, inhabiting hollow trees.
35. Lacerta Quinquelineata, Five-lined Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour dulky; five whitilh lines dow n
the back; tail round, and of a moderate length.
This is a fmall fpecies. The tail is twice the length
of the body. There are fix dripes on the head. The
abdomen is imbricated with driae.
It is a native of Carolina.
36. Lacerta Interpunctata, F undated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, round ; dorfal lines two, and
yellow, having black fpecks interfperfed.
This is a fmall fpecies 3 the body is fmooth and
gloffy, and the head is covered with large fcales.
It is a native of Alia.
37. Lacerta Bullaris, Red-throated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour green } gular pouch red } tail
long, round.
This fpecies is about fix inches long, of a fliining
grafs-green colour. When it is approached, the throat
fwells into a globular form, and the protruded Ikin be¬
comes of a bright red colour. This is fuppofed to be
a threatening afpeft, but probably without foundation.
This fpecies is a native of Jamaica, where it is com¬
mon about hedges and trees.
Var. Green Carolina lizard.—This refembles the
former in every refpeft, except in the appearance of
the gular pouch. In dry hot weather it appears of a
bright green colour } but in cold weather this changes
to a brown.
It is a native of Carolina, where it is very common
about houfes.
38. Lacerta Cruenta, Red-tailed Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown 3 on the neck there are
feven white dripes, and four on the back. Under
the throat there is a plate } the tail is verticillated
and red beneath.
This is a very fmall fpecies, refembling the lacerta
velox, but differs from it in having a fharper fnout.
The limbs are marked w;ith white round fpots} the tail
is red beneath and white at the tip. There is a row
of tubercles on the thighs.
It is a native of the fouthern parts of Siberia, and is^
found about the fait lakes.
39*
Chap. I. ERPE
lizards. 39. LACERTA LOBATA, Lobe-cheeked Lizard.
> certa Aurata, Lin.
T
La-
O L O G Y. 299
beginning of the tail is broad and dentated. The claws Wizards.
Specif. Char.—Colour brownifh, with a round!dr denti¬
culated lobe on each fide of the neck.
This fpecies is of moderate fize, and in appearance is
fomewhat thick or ventricofe. Body rather depreffed j
the head rounded on each fide. From the corner of the
mouth extending to the fhoulders, there is a flat fe-
miorbicular lobe of a red colour, with ferrated edges.
The whole of the body is rough, with fmall pointed
granules.
It is a native of the fouthern deferts of Siberia, and
is found among the fand hills.
are black.
45. Lacerta Nilotica, Nilotic Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long and triquetrous j body fmooth,
with four lines of fcales down the back.
This likewife is a fmall fpecies.
It is a native of Egypt.
46. Lacerta Tiliguerta, Tiliguerta Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail verticillated, twice the length of
the body, and having eighty abdominal fcuta.
40. Lacerta Helioscopa, Sun-gazing Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour brownifh j head rough, with
calli; a tranfverfe plate beneath the throat •, tail im¬
bricated, thick at the bafe, and fharp at the tip.
This is a fmall fpecies, fcarcely exceeding a fingerV
length. The colour of the upper parts of the body is
gray, with brown and bluifh fpots and linear Breaks.
The neck is often marked above with a red fpot. The
tip of the tail is red beneath.
It is a native of the fouthern parts of Siberia, where
it balks in funny lituations, with its head turned up to¬
wards the fun.
41. Lacerta Turcica,
Specif. Char.—Colour brown j body roughifh j tail of
moderate length, and fomewhat verticillated.
This is a fmall fpecies 5 the head is rather large, and
the body thickifh ) the tail fhort, thick at the bafe, and
pointed at the tip.
It is a native of eaflern countries.
42. Lacerta Platura, Broad-tailed Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray brown, paler beneath 5 body
rough ; tail depreffed, lanceolated, and fpiny on the
margin.
This, like the former, is a fmall fpecies, meafuring
not more than feven or eight inches long. The female
is of a brown, and the male of a green, colour, with
black fpots. It feems to bearfome relation to the green
lizard.
It is a native of Sardinia, where it is to be met with
in fields, about walls, &c.
47. Lacerta Deserti, Defert Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail round, longifh j feet pentada&y-
lous; body black above, and marked with fix longi¬
tudinal white lines.
This is a very fmall fpecies ; the body is white be¬
neath, and the llripes on the back are compofed of ob¬
long fpots.
It is a native of the Uralian defert.
48. Lacerta Arguta, Argute Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail ftiort, verticillated j thick at the
bafe and filiform at the tip j collar marked with ob-
fcure fcales. There is a remarkable double plate
under the neck.
This fpecies is fomewhat fimilar to the green lizard,
but is ftiorter and more ventricofe, and has a {harper
fnout.
It is a native of the fouth of Siberia.
This fpecies is from four to fix inches long, and is
remarkably diftinguilhed by the fingular form of its tail.
The feet are pentadaftylous *, the toes {lender, and the
claws curved.
It is a native of New Holland.
43. Lacerta Plica, Blica Lizard.
Specif Char.—Hind head callous j eyebrows excoriated
above ; neck plated beneath, and warted at the fides j
tail long and round.
I his is a fmall fpecies, not exceeding a finger’s
length. It is entirely covered with conical fcales j
there is a double plate beneath the throat.
It is a native of South America and India.
44- Lacerta Japonica, Japanefe Lizard.
Specif Char.— 1 ail long, round ; feet unguiculated j
fore feet tetradaftylous j a fingle {tripe on the back.
This is a fmall fpecies j the colour above is livid
brown, and the yellow {tripe from the hind head to the
49. Lacerta Algira, Algerine Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail long, verticillated j two yellow
lines on each fide of the body.
This fpecies is about a finger’s length, brown above,
and yellowilh beneath.
It is a native of Algiers.
50. Lacerta Velox, Swift Lizard.
Specif Char.—Tail longilh, verticillated ; fcaly collar
beneath the neck ; body cinereous, with five longitu¬
dinal paler bands, variegated with blaek fpecks j the
Tides fpotted with black, and fpeckled with blue.
This fpeeies is much fmaller and more {lender, but in
other refpeds comes very near to the lacerta agilis.
The hind feet are marked with orbicular fpots.
It is a native of Siberia.
51. Lacerta Uralexsis, Ural Lizard.
Specif. Char.—The tail is long and round j the neqfc
P P 2 pi a fed’
O L O G Y. Chap. I
but is alfo fometiraes met 'with in the wanner parts of Lizards,
Spain and Portugal.
No animal has been more celebrated than the cha¬
meleon, and particularly on account of the power which
it was fuppofed to poffefs of changing its colour. This
account was greatly exaggerated, when it was afferted^
that it could produce this change at pleafure, and aflimi-
late it to that of any particular object. But the more ac¬
curate obfervations of modern natural ills have (hewn, that
this change of colour varies greatly, and feems to de¬
pend on the Hate of the animal’s health, the tempera¬
ture of the weather, and probably feme other unknown
caufes. Another erroneous aflertion with regard to the
chameleon was, that it could live entirely on air. This
no doubt arofe from the long abftinence which this ani¬
mal, as well as many others belonging to theclafs amphu
bia, can endure.
E R P E T
plated beneath ; the feet are pentadaflylous, and the
back is livid, rugofe, and fubverrucofe.
The length of this animal is about four inches •, the
head is roundilh •, the colour of the upper parts is livid
brown, and the fkin is wrinkled and {lightly tubercu-
lated.
It is a native of the defert of Ural, and moves about
with great Iwiftnefs.
52. Lacerta Seps, Seps Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour bluifli brown ; tail longiih, ver-
ticillated } lateral future reflexed 5 fcales fquare.
This is a fmall fpecies, and is eafily known from the
thin lengthened form of its body, and long {lender tail,
as well as from the fquare fcales with which it is en¬
tirely covered. The tail is marked with about 50 di-
vifions.
It is a native of the fouthern parts of Europe.
Seel. V. Chameleons.
Thefe are diilinguilhed by having a granulated Ikin,
a large head, along miflile tongue and cylindrical tail.
53. Lacerta Chameleon, Common Chameleon.,
Specif. Char.—Crown flat \ tail cylindrical and incur-
vated ; toes united by two and three.
The length of the chameleon, from the tip of the
nofe to the beginning of the tail, is about ten inches.
The tail is nearly of the fame length. The {kin on
every part of the animal is granulated. A feries of ob-
feure denticulations runs down the back, and forms a
ridge on that part. There are five toes on each foot,
two and three of which are united by a common {kin,
as far as the claws; the two outward and the three inward
toes (if the fore feet are united, and the two inward and
three outward of the hind feet. The ftrufture of the
tongue of the chameleon is very peculiar ; it is very
long, and furniflied with a dilated fomewhat tubular tip,
by which means it is enabled eafily to feize infetts,
which are its prey, by darting it out and fecuring them
on the tip.
The chameleon, like others of the amphibia, has the
power of inflating its lungs, and retaining the air for a
long time. It is in this w'ay. that it fometimes appears
plump and flefliy, while at other times, when the air is
eje&ed, and the lungs in a collapfed ftate, it exhibits-
nothing but {kin and bone. The natural colour of the
fkin of the chameleon is of a bluifli afli, and the ufual
changes are from this to a green or yellowifli colour,
fpotted unequally with red. When the animal is expo-
fed to full funfhine, the darkened fide appears in a few
minutes of a pale yellow, with large roundiih fpots of
red brown ; but when the animal is turned round, the
reverie takes place. The fide formerly ia the ftiade
appears of a brown or afli colour, and the other fide yel¬
low and red. Thefe changes, however, vary greatly,
both with regard to the difpofition of the fpots and the
in ten fit y of the colours.
The chameleon is a native of Europe, Africa, and
\fia. It is indeed chiefly found in tropical regions j
54. Lacerta Africana, African Chameleon.
Specif. Char.—Colour blackifli 5 crown carinated.
This is one of the largeft yet difeovered. Along the
back to the end of the tail there runs a pure white
ftripe, bounded by a broad blackifli band. The other
parts of the animal are variegated with pale afli-colour*
ed undulations.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Barbary.
55. Lacerta Pumila, Little Chameleon.
Specif. Char.—Body bluifli on each fide, and marked
with two yellowifli lines.
The head of this fpecies is fomewhat flatter than the
former, but ftill elevated in the middle, and edged on
each fide wuth a denticulated margin.
By fome the two latter feem to be confidered only
as varieties.
Seft. VI. Geckos.
In the animals of this divifion the {kin is granulated
or tuberculated ; the feet are lobated, and the toes la-
mellated beneath.
56. Lacerta Gecko, Common Gecko.
Specif Char.—Livid, with brown variegations ; upper
part of the body warted, and the lamellae of the feet
not divided.
This animal is faid to have received the name of
gecko from the peculiar found of its voice, which bears
fome refemblance to that word when uttered in a flirill
tone. Its length, in general, is about a foot or more,
and therefore it ranks among the middle-fized animals
of the lizard tribe. Its form is thicker and {Longer
than the greater part of lizards. Its head is flattifli,
fomewhat triangular and large, with a covering of mi¬
nute fcales ; its mouth is wide, eyes large, teeth fmall,
and its tongue is broad and flat. T he limbs of this ani¬
mal are moderately long, with* broader feet than the
reft of the tribe-, the toes are dilated on the margins,
and beneath are divided into a number of tranfverie la¬
mellae parallel to each other, without any longitudinal
furrow, The general colour of the gecko is a pale.
brown,
lap- T. . ERPET
Liza 'Is. brown, with fome irregular dufky or bluilh variega-
—-v—' tions 5 but this colour becomes much more brilliant in
warmer regions.
It is a native of Afia and Africa, and fome of the
warmer parts of Europe, inhabiting obfcure receffes, ca¬
verns, old walls, &c. It has been fuppoled to be of a
poifonous nature. A fluid exfudes from the lamellae of
the feet, which is (aid to be extremely acrid j and when
any of it has remained on fruit, when it is eaten, it is
faid that it produces troublefome fymptoms. The pe¬
culiar flrufture of the feet enables the animal to attach
itfelf to the fraootheft furfaces.
Var. Tohai.—This, which is confidered as a variety
of the former, is about a foot long. The body is co¬
vered above with a granulated Ikin, varied with red
and blue undulations $ the belly is afh colour, and in-
terfperfed with red fpots; the head is large and trian¬
gular.
This is a native of Siam, where it occaflonally en¬
ters the houfes, and is conlidered as a poifonous animal.
The Indian falamander, defcribed by Bontius, feems
to be of the fame kind; the length is about a foot; the
colour fea-green, fpotted with red } the head large,
and like that of a toad y the body is broad and the tail
long.
It is a native of Java. It is faid that the inhabitants
hold up the animal by the tail to make it difcharge fa-
liva from its mouth, which is colle&ed for the purpofe
of poifoning their arrows.
57. Lacerta Dubia, Geckotte.
Specif. Char —Livid colour; upper furface covered with
pointed warts 3 no femoral papillae.
This fpecies bears fome refemblance to the gecko;
but differs from it in being thicker and fhorter, and in
wanting the papillae under the thighs. The tail in the
young animal is divided into flrongly marked aculeated
rings. Thefe become gradually lefs confpiouous with
the age of the animal, and are at laft totally oblite¬
rated.
It is a native of the fouth of France, where it is
known by the name of tarente, and is regarded as an
innocent animal. It frequents ruins, rvalls, houfes ;
delights greatly in funfhine, and avoids damp fhady
fituations. It remains concealed in the hollows of walls
during winter, not, however, in a torpid, but in an in¬
ert flate.
58. Lacerta Perfoliata, Verfoliated Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour browniih, fmooth above; lamel¬
lae of the feet divided by a furrow; tail frequently
turbinated.
This fpecies is of a thicker form, has fhorter limbs,
and the tubercles on the back are lefs dilfinfl than the
common gecko. It is alfo different in wanting the pa¬
pillae under the thighs. The tail is remarkably fwelled
immediately beyond its origin, and then tapers to the
extremity, fomewhat refembling a young turnip root,
from whence it has been denominated lacerta rapu
Kauda.
Its native country is not mentioned.
4
O L O G Y. 30
59. Lacerta Maijritanica, Mauritania Gecko. Lizards.
Specif Char.—Colour brown, covered above with fliarp
warts ; tail flat, and furnifhed with fcuta beneath ;
lamellae of the feet lunulated and divided.
This fpecies refembles the common one, but is dif¬
ferent from being covered with fpiny or fliarp-pointed
warts on the upper furface. The toes are lamellated
beneath, but are not divided by a middle fulcus.
60. Lacerta Sinensis, Chinefe Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Tail flat, all the toes unguiculated ; face
perforated with feveral pores.
The head is broad and flat; the teeth fmall; the
tongue flat, and emarginated at the tip. About the
fades of the nofe and eyes there are feveral feat, tered pores.
It is a native of China, and is frequently feen in
houfes, running about the walls, and climbing readily
on the fmooth eft furfaces. It preys chiefly on the fmall-
er kind of cock-roach. It is confidered as an innocent
animal.
61. Lacerta Vittata, White-Jlriped Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowifh brown, with a white
dorfal band, which is forked over the head.
This is a fmall fpecies, not exceeding feven or eight
inches in length; the head is large in proportion to the
body ; the toes are lamellated beneath, divided by a ful¬
cus, and terminated by curved claws. The upper furface
is covered with extremely fmall tubercles; they are fo
minute as to be fcarcely perceptible.
This fpecies is faid to be a native of India.
62. Lacerta Fimbriata, Fimbriated Gecko.
Specif Char.—A membranaceous fimbriated border on
each fide of the body ; tail flat; lamella; of the feet
divided by a furrow.
This is a very remarkable fpecies, which, as the
count de Cepede, who deferibes it, obferves, (eems in
fome degree to conne6! the chameleon, the gecko, and
the water-newts. The largeft individual whic h he
examined meafured about eight inches and a half in
length. The head is large and flattened, and its out¬
line feen from above is nearly triangular, as in the cha¬
meleon ; but the triangle is of a longer form, and there
is no riling creft. The moft remarkable part of its
ftruffure is the fringed procefs which commences on
each fide of the head, and is continued along the fides
of the body. The colour of this animal varies as in the
chameleon, exhibiting different fhades of red, yellow,
green, and blue.
It is a native of Madagafcar, where it is pretty com¬
mon. It is a harmlefs animal, and yet is regarded with
great abhorrence by the natives, who confider it as of a
poifonous nature, and run from it with great precipita¬
tion. This popular prejudice is fuppofed to have arifen
from a peculiar habit of the animal, of running with
open mouth towards the fpeftator, infteadof making its
efcape when it is dilcovered. It appears chiefly in rainy- *
weather, moving about with great agility, and fpring-
ER FETOLOGY.
ing from one branch of a tree to another in fearch of
inl'efts, which are its proper food.
63. Lacerta Tetradactyla, Four-toed Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellow, varied with green ; tail
flat; feet tetradaftylous.
This fpecies is about 12 inches long, and is nearly
allied to the preceding fpecies, except that it wants the
fimbriated margin, and the number of the toes on the
fore feet being only four.
It is alfo a native of Madagafcar, and is not held in
lefs abhorrence by the inhabitants than the former. It
lives in the woods, appearing in the rainy feafon during
the night.
64. Lacerta Caudiverbera, Scollop-tailed Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Tail flat, pinnatifid j feet palmated.
✓
This fpecies, which is a very Angular one, is about
16 inches long, and of this the tail meafures above one-
half. The head is large and flat, the body thick, and
the limbs flrort. The fore feet are like the reft of the
fpecies, but the hind feet are ftrongly palmated. The
tail tapers gradually to the tip, but through its whole
length is edged with a broad deep fcolloped fin : this
gradually widens towards the tip, and is confiderably
broader than on the fides. The back is marked with
numerous diftant red tubercles, each of which is fur-
rounded by a circle of fmall white fcales. The webs
of the hind feet, and the finny part of the tail, are of a
bright red.
This fpecies is faid to be a native of Arabia •, but be¬
ing a very rare animal, its natural hiftory is not well
known.
65. Lacerta Schneideriana, Schneiderian Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray \ tail convex above and flat
below ; a black band on each fide of the head j la¬
mellae of the feet lunulated and divided.
The colour of this fpecies is cinereous, with a brown
band on each fide of the head ; on each fide of the body
there is a future or wrinkling of the {kin ; the tail is
edged with a row of lharper and longer fcales than on
the other parts.
66. Lacerta Sparmanniana, Spartnannian Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Body papxllated above j tail lanceola-
ted } fore feet tetrada<ftylous.
This is a fmall fpecies, meafuring not more than three
inches in total length. The colour on the upper part
of the body is variegated with darker and lighter fliades j
on the under part it is whitifli.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, where it
is regarded as a poifonous animal. It is faid that the
fluid fecreted from its pores, as well as the faliva, pro¬
duces inflammatory tumors, and fometimes even gan¬
grenes.
67. Lacerta Sputator, Spitting Gecko.
Specif Char.—Colour gray, marked above with brown
tranfverfe bands} tail round, furnifhed with fcuta
beneath.
Chap. I,
The total length of this fpecies does not exceed four Lizards,
inches, and fometimes it is fmaller. The fcales cn the
whole animal are fmooth and gloffy.
It is a native of the ifland of Euftatia, where it is
found about houfes, walls, &c. When it is alarmed,
it is faid to eje£t from its mouth a black acrid fluid,
which occafions flight inflammation of the Ikin, and is
ufually removed by rubbing the part with camphorated
fpirit of wine,
Se&. VII. Scinks.
The animals of this divifion are covered with round-*
ed fiflr-like fcales.
68. Lacerta Scincus, Officinal Scink.
Specif Char.—Colour a yellowifli brown, with tranf¬
verfe brown bands on the upper part of the body j
tail ihort, comprefied at the tip j upper jaw longeft.
The fcink is from fix to feven inches long, and
fometimes more. The head is rather fmall, the body
thick and round, and the tail in general fhorter than
the body. The furface of the body has a gloffy ap¬
pearance.
This fpecies is a native of many of the eaftern coun¬
tries. It is very common in Libya, Syria, Egypt, and
Arabia, frequenting dry and fandy foils. It was once
in confiderable eftimation as a medicine, in leprous and
fimilar difeafes.
This animal is defcribed under the name of el adda,
by Mr Bruce, and is reprefented as very common in
the province of Atbara in Abyflinia. “ It burrows,
fays he, in the fand, and performs this operation fo
quickly, that it is out of fight in an inftant, and ap¬
pears rather to have found a hole than to have made
one 5 yet it comes Out often in the heat of the day and
balks itfelf in the fun, and, if not very much frighten¬
ed, will take refuge behind ftones, or in the withered
ragged roots of the abfinthium, dried in the fun to nearly
its own colour. Its length is rather more than fix inches ;
though its legs are long it does not make ufe of them
to ftand upright, but creeps with its belly almoft clofe
to the ground. It runs, however, with very great ce¬
lerity. It is very long from its fhoulder to its nofe,
being nearly turo inches : its body is round, having
fcarce any flatnefs in its belly 5 its tail, too, is perfectly
round, having no flatnefs in its lower part ; it is ex¬
ceedingly (harp-pointed, and very eafily broken. Yet I
have feen feveral, where the part broken off has been
renewed, fo as fcarcely to be difcernible. It is the fame
length between the point of the tail and the joint of the
hinder leg, as was between the nofe and the fhoulder of
the fore leg ; its forehead from the occiput is flat; its
fhape conical, not pointed, but rounded at the end, in
fliape of fome fhovels or fpades : the head is darker than
the body, the occiput darker ftill. Its face is covered
with fine black lines, which crofs one another at right
angles like a net j its eyes are fmall, defended with a
number of ftrong black hairs, or eyelaflies. Its upper
jaw is longer, and projects confiderably over the un¬
der. Both its jaws have a number of fhort, fine, but
very feeble teeth •, and when holding it in my hand,
though it ftruggled violently to get loofe, it never at¬
tempted to make ufe of its teeth : indeed it feems to
turn
/
:hap; I*
Jzards. turn its neck with great difficulty. Its ears are large,
-V-' open, and nearly round. Its body is a light yellow, bor¬
dering on draw colour, crofled with eight bands of black,
almoft equally diftant, except the two next the tail.
All thefe decreafe both in breadth and length, from
the middle towards each extremity of the animal. The
fcales are largeft along the back. They are very clofe,
though the divifions are fufficiently apparent. Their
furface is very poliffied, and feems as if varniffied over.
Its legs, from the fhoulder to the middle toe, are near¬
ly an inch and three quarters long. Its feet are com-
pofed of five toes, the extremity of which is armed with
a brown claw of no great ftrength, whofe end is tipped
with black.”
The fame author, fpeaking of the immenfe multi¬
tudes of lizards which are found in eaftern countries,
adds, “ I am pofitive that I can fay, without exagge¬
ration, that the number I faw one day in the great
court of the temple of the fun at Balbec, amounted to
many thoufands. The ground, the walls, and the ftones,
were covered with them *, and the various colours of
which they confided, made a very extraordinary ap¬
pearance, glittering under the fun, in which they lay
lleeping and balking.”
69. Lacerta Rufescens, Greater Scinh.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowilh, rufous 3 feet fliort 3 tail
of moderate length.
This fpecies fometimes exceeds 15 inches in total
length. The head is covered in front with large angu¬
lar fcales 3 the legs are ffiort and thick 3 the feet penta-
daftylous, and furniffied with fmall claws.
It is a native of Arabia and Egypt, living both on
land and in water. It is frequent on the ffiores of the
Nile. It is alfo met with in fome European ifiands,
and particularly in the ifland of Cyprus.
70. Lacerta Longicauda, Long-tailed Scink.
Specif. Char.—Colour olivaceous yellow 3 tail very
long.
The great length of the tail in this animal forms the
fpecific diftinftion 3 the colour, which is greeniffi yellow,
varies in the lhade in different individuals.
It is faid to be a native of America, and frequents
the fea coalfs, where it feeds on fmall crabs and fpi-
ders.
71. Lacerta Mabouya, Mabouya Scink.
Specif Char.—Colour golden yellow 3 fides browniffi 3
jaws equal 3 tail of middling length.
I he length of this fpecies is about eight inches 3 it
greatly refembles the common fcink, but differs from it
in the length of the legs, and the jaws being equal.
It is a native of America, of Jamaica, and fome other
Weft India iflands. It is alfo found in the ifiand of.
Sardinia.
72. Lacerta Occidua, Galliwafp.
Specif Char.—Colour brownifh 3 tranfverfe bands fome-
what waved 3 legs ffiort 3 tail of middling length.
Except being larger, fomewhat thicker, and having
303
a tail proportionally fhorter, this fpecies comes very Lizards,
near the greater fcink. It is about two feet in total
length. The teeth are fmall in front 3 but as they ap¬
proach the back part of the jaws, they gradually increafe
in fize, like the molares teeth of the mammalia.
The galliwafp is a native of the American iftands. It
is very common in woody and marftiy places in Jamaica,
and has been reckoned, but without foundation, a poifo-
nous reptile.
Var. Lacerta fcincoides, auftralafian galliwafp.—
This, although it is of a darker colour, has a longer
tail, and larger fcales, is confidered only as a variety of
the former. On each fide of the neck there is com¬
monly a longitudinal brown fpot.
It is a native of New Holland,
73. Lacerta Guttata, Spotted Scink,
Specif. Char.—Colour gray, fpotted with white 3 tail
long, marked with four tranfverfe black bands, and
black tip.
This fpecies does not exceed three inches in length.
It is a native of the Ural defert.
74. Lacerta Ocellata, Ocellated Scink.
Specif. Char.—Colour greenifti gray, white beneath,
marked above with roundifh ocellated brown fpots,
which have white redtangular difks.
This fpecies is about a fpan long. The body is de-
preffed 3 the feet are ftiort and pentadadlylous. It has
no femoral wrarts.
It is a native of Egypt, and frequents houfes.
Se£t. VIII. Salamanders, Newts or Efts.
The fpecies included under this feftion have foft
fkins, and fome of them are water lizards.
75. Lacerta Salamandra, Salamander.
Specif. Char.—Colour black, fpotted with golden yel¬
low 3 tail round, and of moderate length.
The colours of the falamander afford fufficient marks
of diftinftion. It is of a deep ftiining black, variegated
with large oblong and irregular fpots of bright orange
yellowr. The fides are marked with many large tranf¬
verfe wrinkles. The parotid glands form protuberances
on each fide of the head. On the back and fides of the
body there are feveral large open pores, from which is
exfuded a peculiar fluid, which ferves ta lubricate the
Ikin. This fluid is of an acrid nature 3 and when the
animal is irritated, is copioufly fecreted, and even it is*
fuppofed, ejected to fome diftance for its defence. It is
in general from feven to eight inches in length. Some¬
times it is feen entirely black.
The falamander is a native of many parts of Germany,
Italy, France, and other parts of Europe, delighting in
moift ffiady places, woods, &c. During the winter it
conceals itfelf in receffes under ground, in the cavities
of old w alls, or about the roots of old trees.
This fpecies lives chiefly on infers, fmall fnails, &c.
It is capable of living in waters as w’ell as on land, and
fometimes reforts to ftagnant pools. It fs flow in its
motions, and torpid in its manners.
erpetology.
Th^
3°4-
Lizaids.
^KPETOLOGY. Cha
The falamander is viviparous. The young are pro¬
duced perfectly formed in the iame way as the viper.
It is faid that it retires to the water to depofit its young,
the number of which at one birth amounts to 30 or 40,
and when they are firil excluded, they are furniihed
with branchial fins on each fide of the neck, which are
temporary organs, and are afterwards obliterated like
thole of the tadpole.
Many popular errors concerning the falamander have
long prevailed. One of thefe was, that it was a veno¬
mous animal, and that its poifon is of fo malignant a
nature, as fearcely to admit of any remedy. It is now,
however, found from the obfervations of later naturalifts
to be perfectly innocent, and although the fluid fecreted
from the fkin maybe noxious to fmaller animals, it is in¬
capable of infli&ing either wound or poifon on any large
animal. In an experimentmadeonpurpofe,agray lizard,
which had bitten a falamander, and fwallowed feme of
the fluid fecreted from the fkin, was almoft immediate¬
ly feized with convulfions, and foon after died. It was
another popular error that the falamander could exift:
uninjured in the fire, and that it could even extinguifli
it by means of the fluid fecreted from its fkin. I his
fluid, it is probable, is fecreted in greater abundance
when the animal is expofed to heat, and thus it is pro-
tefted for a fhort time againft the aftion of the fire,
which can produce no efleft till the moifture on the
fkin is evaporated *, and from this circumflance, ‘and
hafty obfervation, has arifen the improbable ftory of its
being able to refill the aflion of fire.
76. Lacerta Vulgaris, Common Neivt.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowifh brown j dorfal line
double j abdomen orange-coloured, fpotted with
brown.
This fpecies is the fmallefl of the Eritifh lizards,
the general length not exceeding three inches and a
half.
It is a native of Europe, and is found in gardens in
the neighbourhood of dunghills, &c. Like the flug
and toad, it makes its way into cellars. It is altogether
a land fpecies, and it feems to be viviparous j for feme
of a very fmall fize, yet perfectly formed, have been dif-
covered at a very great diflance from any water.
77. Lacerta Palustris, Great Water Newt.
Specif. Char.—Colour blackifh ; fides fpeckled with
white } abdomen orange, with irregular black fpots.
This fpecies is fmall in fize, and marked with a
different diftribution of colours, but in its general ap¬
pearance it bears a confiderable refemblance to the fala¬
mander. It is from five to fix inches in length. The
tail is flat, with thin fliarp edges, and terminating in a
point •, on each fide of it in the male there is a filvery
white broad band, accompanied with a bluifh tinge.
This ftripe and the dorfal creft are fometimes wanting
in the female.
It is a native of Europe, but is rare in Britain. It
frequents ftagnant waters it cool fhady places, and lives
entirely on infedls. It is to larger animals quite in¬
noxious ; but the fluid exfuded from its Ikin feems to
a£l as a poifon on fmall animals.
78. Lacerta Aquatica, Common Water Newt. Lizards.
Specif. Char,—Colour olive brown, fpotted with black j
abdomen orange-coloured 3 tail lharp-edged and finu-
ated.
The general length of this fpecies is from three to
four inches. The male is readily diilinguifhed from
the female by a confpicuous dorfal creft, which is more
elevated, and more regularly fituated than that of the
former fpecies. This broad creft is very tranfparcnt,
and when examined with a magnifying glafs, ftiews the
ramifications of the blood veffels and the circulation
of the blood. In the female the dorfal creft is near¬
ly wanting. The colour of the male is olive brown,
marked with numerous round black fpots, which are
largeft on the fides and tail. The female is of a pale
yellowilh brown, and the fpots are much lefs diftindl.
The fore feet are tetradaftylous j the hind feet penta-
dadlylous, and in all the claws are wanting 3 but with
regard to the colour, the breadth of the tail, and that
of the toes, it ought to be obferved, that the water
new t, at different times of the year, different ftates of the
weather, and even in the courfe of the fame day, is fub-
je£l to confiderable variation.
This fpecies is a native of Europe, and is met with
in Britain in all foft ftagnant waters.
This animal breeds early in the Ipring, and depofits
fmall oblong firings or clufters of fpawn. The ova,
according to Spallanzani, are of a kidney fhape, and
the larva are ready formed, becaufe long before they
leave the gluten, their motions are brifk and frequent.
In about 10 days they extricate themfelves from the
gluten. When they are firft excluded, the branchial fins
are diftinflly feen, and foon after the fore legs appear.
After a fortnight the hind legs are vifible, and about
the beginning of September the branchial fins become
obliterated, and the animal affumes its perfefl form.
While the animal remains in the larva Hate, it is fur-
niftied with a triple pair of ramified branchial fins on
each fide of the neck, w hich gives it the appearance of
a fmall fifti.
The water newt frequently caffs its fkin, which
may be occafionally feen floating on the waters which
they frequent, and is fometimes fo perfeft as to reprefent
the whole form of the complete animal. The repro-
duftive power of the water newt is a ftriking circum-
ftance in its natural hiftory. They have been known
to have their legs, tails, and even the eyes, according to
fome, completely reftored, after they were cut off or de-
ftroyed. This animal is alfo remarkable for its tenaci¬
ty of life. Cafes have occurred in w hich the w'ater
newt has been found completely inelofed in a mafs of
ice, in which it mull have remained for weeks, or even
months, and yet, when the ice is melted, the animal
was reftored to its former health and vigour. Yet it is
very readily deftroyed by the application of certain
fubftances. The water newt immerfed in fait water,
foon dies 3 or even by having common fait rubbed on
the back for a fhort time.
79. Leverian Water Newt.
This is a very large fpecies of the water newt, de-
feribed by Dr Shaw, and of which there is a fpecimen in
the Leverian mufeum. The totallength is 17^inches,
and
Chap. T. • E R P E T O L O G Y.
Lizards, and of this the tail meafures 6? inches. The head is
—flattened, the mouth moderately wide, and the upper
jaw is furnifhed in front with two concentric rows of
numerous, fmall, briftly teeth. The under jaw has on¬
ly a fingle row. The eyes are fmall, round, and fituat-
ed on each fide of the front of the head, fo that they
are very remote from each other. The colour is pale
brown, marked in a confluent manner with* darker va¬
riegations. The legs are about one inch in length, and
they are all furnifhed, along their whole length be¬
hind, with a dilated fkinor creft. The tail is like that
of the common water newt, but is fhorter, and lefs deep¬
ly finned.
Its native country, and farther particulars of its na¬
tural hiflory, are unknown.
80. Lacerta MacuLata, Spotted Water Newt.
Specif. Char.—Colour blackifh $ a double row of white
fpots down the back.
The length of this fpecies is about five inches. The
head is large •, there are four toes on the fore feet, and
five on the hind, The colour is deep brown, and the
double row of white fpots, which begins at the top of
the head and continues to the tail, becomes a fingle row
to the end.
It is a native of Carolina, and inhabits ponds, ditches,
and flagnant waters.
Se£h IX. Snake Lizards.
The fpecies belonging to this fe&ion have very long
bodies, and fhort legs.
81. Lacerta Chalcides, C/$tf/czV£\r Lfizar//.
Specif. Char.—Colour ferruginous; feet tetrada&ylous j
body long, and marked with fix brown dorfal lines.
The ufual length of this animal is about eight or nine
inches ; but it is fometimesfound only a few inches long,
and fometimes exceeds a foot. The head is anteriorly
covered with large feales; the fnout is tapering; the
eyes are fmall, and the openings of the ears are very
diflinft. The colour is ferruginous or chefnut brown
above, and yellowifli brown beneath.
This animal is a native of Africa and the warmer
parts of Europe, frequenting moift fhady places. It is
quite inoffenfive, and feeds on infefts, fmall worms, &c.
I he motions of the chalcides are rather flow. It is vi¬
viparous, and is faid to produce a great number of
young.
82. Annulatea Chalcides. Chalcide Cepede.
. This is nearly allied to the former, but differs from
Jtln having fquare feales, and in being marked through
its whole length with a continued feries of annuli or
rings, to the number of 48. The length of the body is
about 24 inches, and is fomewhat fliorter than the tail.
I he feet are fliorter than in the former fpecies, and are
all tetrada&ylous.
The native country of this fpecies is unknown.
83. Lacerta Serpens, Serpent JLvz-ard.
Specif char.—body, and tail cylindrical: feet
Imall, remote, pentada<51ylous.
Vol. VIIL Part L
The length of this fpecies is about 54 inches. The
colour is cinereous or pale ferruginous above, marked
with from 15 to 20 duiky lines : beneath it is afh co¬
loured, with a filvery glofs. It is entirely covered with
imbricated fcalgs.
This animal i« a native of Java.
84. Lacerta Anguina, Snahe Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body long ; tail very long ; feet oval-
fliaped, and without toes.
The body of this fpecies meafures four, the whole
length 15 inches. Ihe colour is brown above, afli-co-
loured on the fides, yellowifh beneath, and the upper
furface is marked throughout its whole length with fe-
veral dark ftripes. The head is fmall; the legs very
fhort, and placed near the head and vent, and feemingly
terminated in one undivided procefs. The whole body
is covered with ovate feales.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and is fre¬
quently found in the water, and about the rocks in
Table bay.
85. LacertTa Apus, Apodal Lizard.
Specif. Char.—This fnake-formed lizard is ferruginous,
has no fore feet, and its hind feet are very Ihort and
*monoda£tylous.
Hhe chalcides itfelf does not approach fo near to
the fnake tribe as this large and Angular fpecies of the
lizard. It meafures almoft three feet in length, and its
general appearance bears fuch a Ariking refemblance to
a large fnake, that it requires a very attentive examina¬
tion to afeertain the difference ; as it has only a pair of
extremely fhort pointed proceffes by way of feet, at a
great diftance from the anterior parts of the body, al¬
moft on either fide of the vent, and without toes. The
head is rathetlarge, and covered with large feales; the
fnout is tapering ; the upper jaw projects a little over
the lower ; the mouth is of a moderate widenefs, and the
ears are very vifible. There is no appearance of a neck,
as the body gradually tapers from the head to the ex¬
tremity of the tail, which is longer than the body, and
terminates in a point. The whole animal is covered
with row's of feales of a moderately large fize, in a lon¬
gitudinal direftion, and emarginated at the tips. From
the head to nearly half the length of the tail, a deep
continued channel runs along each fide of the body. Its
colour is a pale chefnut, and beneath a pale yellow'-
brown.
Two fpecimens of this lizard were brought from
Greece by Dr John Sibthorp, profeffor of botany in the
univerfity of Oxford. It is rather a fingular circum-
ftance that an animal of fuch magnitude fliould have re*
mained fo long unknown to the inquifitiVe naturalift.
It is a native of Greece, of the fouthern parts of
Siberia, and unqueftionably of many other parts both
of Europe and Afia, although the knowledge of it has
been but lately acquired, the firft deferiber of it being
Dr Pallas, by whom it was found in the fouth of Siberia.
It frequents moift and ftiady places, and, as far as is yet
known, is an innocent animal.
86. Lacerta Bipes, Biped Lizard.
Specif. Char,—Long bodied, cylindrical, pale yellow,
Q <1 fpeckled
305
Lizards.
y —mmt
Anatomy.
ER FETOLOGY.
fpeckled with brown, having no fore feet 5 hind feet
very fraall, and didactylous.
This fpecies, which is not larger in diameter than that
of a goofe quill, ineafures about fix inches in length ;
its colour is a pale yellow, fpotted with brown 3 the head
is fmall, body cylindrical, tail fhort and taper 3 on each
fide of the vent there is a fmall fubulated foot, which
is furnilhed with two fmall unequal toes.
It is a native of India and South America.
87. LacERTA Lumbricoides, Lumbriciform Lizard.
Specif Char.—Body cylindrical, two-footed, and annu-
lated with fquare fcales, having a lateral furrow, and
no hind feet.
This is about eight inches long, and half an inch in
diameter. The whole body, including head and tail,
Chap, II
is of the fame diameter, and is covered with rings of Anatomy,
fquare fcales. Along each fide there is a continued
furrow, which feparates the upper and lower furfaces.
The legs are two, very fhort, and placed near the head.
They are divided into five minute toes, which are futv
niihed with claws. The colour of thq living animal is
fuppofed to have been green, and paler beneath.
It is a native of Mexico.
Number of fpecies in each genus, included under the
order Reptilia.
Testudo, 39
Rana, 48 •
Draco, 2
Lacerta, 87
Total 176
CHAP. II. OF THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF REPTILES.
HAVING in the former chapter taken a brief and
comprehenfive view of the claffification, and fuch par¬
ticulars of the natural hiftory of reptiles, as were con-
nedted with the different fpecies, we now proceed to
give a flight fketch of the anatomy and phyfiology of
this order of animals. Thefe fliall be the fubjedls of the
two following fedlions. In the firft we fliall treat of
the anatomy, in the fecond of the phyfiology of reptiles.
Sect. I. Of the Anatomy of Reptiles.
Between this order of animals, and the quadrupeds
belonging to the clafs mammalia, there are many points
of refemblance, making allowances for the difference of
lize 3 and hence they have been denominated ovipa¬
rous quadrupeds. This refemblance, however, only ex¬
tends to external appearance.
The body of reptiles is fupported by four feet, and
thefe form the principal external charafter. They are
difpofed like thofe of the mammalia, two before and
two behind. With the exception of fome animals which
have been arranged under this order, and which have
only two feet, all reptiles are farniflied with four
feet.
The body is furniflied with a tail, which is different
from that of quadrupeds, in having no hair. This is
common to the tortoifes and the whole of the lizard
tribe. The genus rana is an exception to this. All
the fpecies included under it are unprovided with a
tail.
The body is either lengthened, that is, when it is
eonfiderably longer than broad, as is the cafe with
lizards 5 or rounded, that is, when the body, feen from
above, exhibits an orbicular form, as in the tortoife and
fome toads.
With regard to the furface of the body, it is never
covered with hairs, but fometimes with fcales 3 fuch are
reptile* without a tail, the falamanders and fome lizards.
It is fometimes covered with inequalities or afperities,
the whole furface being rough with elevated points,
which referable warts or puffules. This is the cafe with
fame lizards, and feveral frogs and toads. The body is
covered fometimes with a fliell both above and below *
this bony covering protedls the animal from external
injury. With fuch a covering the genus tortoife is
furnilhed.
In the Iketch which we propofe to give of the
anatomy of reptiles, the parts of the body may be di¬
vided into external and internal 3 the external parts
comprehend the head, the trunk, the tail, and the feet.
Under the internal parts are included the Ikelelon, the
mufcles, and the vil'cera.
Externa/ Parts of the Body,
1. The Head.—-The head is that part of the body
which is articulated with the firft vertebra of the neck.
It is rounded, that is, when its external furface is round
in every direction, as is the cafe with tortoifes 3 or flat¬
tened or depreffed, when it is compreffed above and be¬
low, which is the cafe with almoft the whole order 3 or
triangular, when the head, feen from above, reprefents
a triangle, as in fome toads and frogs.
The mouth is femicircular, when the outline forms a
femicircle, as in the genus rana, and in almoft all the
lizard tribe 3 or inferior, when the upper jaw comes
over the lower, fo that the mouth neceffarily occupies
the lower part of the head. This is the cafe with the
tadpole.
The beak or fnout either forms an inclined plane
from the top of the head to the end of the jaws, as in
the chameleon, and many lizards ; or conical, when the
two jaws gradually diminifh, as in the crocodile 3 or
refledfed upwards, when both jaws are flattened and
turned upwards towards the extremity of the beak 3
or rounded, when they are thick and ventricofe to¬
wards the extremity, as in feveral tortoifes 3 or point¬
ed, when the upper jaw terminates like the beak of a
bird.
The jaws are either equal, as in moft part of the
genus rana, in many of the lizards, and falamanders 3
or unequal, as is the cafe with many of the tortoifes and
lizards, in which cafe, the upper jaw is always the
longeft. Among the whole order of reptiles, there is
no
Chap.
Anatomy- no indance of the contrary j that is, of the lower jaw
u-'Y"""' being longed, and perhaps this ftru&ure would be in¬
convenient, or incompatible with the nature of the ani¬
mal, or its habits and mode of life.
A common error long prevailed with regard to the
motion of the jaws of the crocodile. It was afferted,
that this animal only moved its upper jaw 5 but the
more accurate obfervations of later anatomifts have
proved the contrary, and that the articulations of the
head and jaws of this animal are precifely the fame
as in other quadrupeds. The head is articulated with
the laft vertebra of the neck, and the lower jaw is arti¬
culated with the upper, fo that the former, namely the
lower jaw, only has the power of motion.
All the animals belonging to the order of reptiles,
are not furnilhed with teeth. The tortoiles and fome
lizards, have none. All the fpecies belonging to the
genus rana may be conlidered alfo as having none, the
jaws being only crenulated or notched ; but in other
tribes belonging to this order, the teeth are conical,
as thofe of the crocodile, which are hollow, and filled
with a foft fubfiance •, or recurved, when the extremity
of the tooth turns backward towards the throat, as in the
Indian crocodile", or ftraight, as in moil of the lizard
tribe-, comprefled at the fides, as in the guanaj or
notched, when the fummit of the tooth is truncated and
crenulated, as in the horned lizard.
Tongue.—In almoft all the tribes of animals belong¬
ing to this order, the tongue is peculiarly fitted for
feizing their prey. The form of it varies in all the
families. Another error has prevailed with regard
to the tongue of the crocodile. It was faid that it had
no tongue, but in place of it is furnithed with a ftrong
membrane, which adheres to the two edges of the lower
jaw. Even the obfervations of later naturalifts tend to
confirm this error. Denon, who had numerous oppor¬
tunities of feeing the crocodile both dead and alive, in
its native haunts on the borders of the Nile, believes in
this opinion, that the crocodile has no tongue j but it
does not appear that any accurate anatomical infpeftion
was made, to afcertain this point, or indeed that he was
accompanied by any anatomift at all, by whom alone
the truth or falfehood of the opinion could be invefti-
Tongueof gated. This organ of the crocodile, however, is very
the cioco- large, and even proportionally larger than that of the
f*1k. ox, but it is ftrongly connected with the fides of the
lower jaw;.and being thus fixed or tied down, can¬
not be ftretched forwards, as is the cafe with other
animals.
In fome of the animals belonging to this order, the
tongue is nearly of equal length and breadth. This is
the cafe with the tongue of frogs, tortoifes, the falaman-
der, and the guana.
In fome it is very narrow at the bafe, and divided in
two at the extremity, as in mod of the lizard tribe,
which are thus furnifhed with a bifid tongue.
®fthe cha. But the ftrmfiure of the tongue of the chameleon, is
melcoiv perhaps the molt lingular of any belonging to the order.
It is compofed of a white folid flelh, 10 inches long,
and about three broad. It is round, and flattilh to¬
wards the end ; hollow and open, fomewhat refembling
the termination of the trunk of the elephant. The
tongue is attached to the os hyoides by a kind of trunk,
of the lhape of an inteftine, about fix inches long, and a
3°7
line in breadth. This trunk is furnithed externally Anatomy,
with a membrane, and internally with a foft, but folid "" v~~-'
and compaft, nervous fubftance, which is with dif¬
ficulty divided into fibres. It is by means of this trunk
that the tongue, which is attached to it, is projected
from the mouth. This is done by the extenlion ol the
trunk, and it is again drawn back by its contractile
power. Thefe motions are performed by a kind of
cartilaginous fiilus, to which the inverting membrane
is attached, and over which it is plaited like a filk
flocking on the leg. This flilus is an inch long, and
originates from the middle of the bale of the os hyoides.
In eonfequence of this extenfile and retractile powers
which the tongue of the chameleon poffeffes, it has ob¬
tained the epithet of vermiform, becaufe in thole motions
it refembles thofe of an earth-worm.
There is no great peculiarity about the noftrils ofNoftrils.
any of this order of animals. In general, they are al¬
moft always of a round form. In fome, however,
they are lunulated, or Ihaped fomewhat like a crefcent,
the horns of which are turned backwards. This is the
cafe with the noftrils of the crocodile.
The eyes, as in moft other animals, are placed on Eyes,
the fides of the head ; but in fome they are vertical, or
placed on the top of the head, as in feveral of the toads
and the crocodiles j approximating, when the diftance
between the eyes is very fmall; or protuberant, when
the globe of the eye on each fide forms a confiderable
projection, as in thofe belonging to the genus rana, the
crocodiles, and the falamanders.
The nictitating membrane, which is peculiar to fome
birds, belongs alfo to fome of the animals of this order.
By means of extending this membrane over the eye, the
excefiive brightnefs of funthine, to which many of them,
being natives of warm climates, are expofed, is greatly
moderated, and perhaps this membrane may be ufe-
ful to thofe animals of this order which frequent the
water.
The iris of the eye is differently coloured in the ani¬
mals of this order. In many it is red; in the chameleon
it is of a golden yellow colour.
Externally, the ears of reptiles do not exhibit any Ears,
remarkable peculiarity. The opening is more or lefis
round, and it is ufually covered with a membrane.
There is no external ear, by which the vibrations of
the air might be colleCIed, and conveyed to the fenfe
of hearing ; from which it has been concluded, that
this fenfe is more obtufe than in quadrupeds.
2. The Trunk.—The trunk of the body includes
the neck, the breaft, the back, the ribs, the abdomen,
and the anus ; and fome of thefe parts in different rep¬
tiles, prefent confiderable varieties.
The neck, which unites the head with the trunk, is Neck,
very different in the different tribes belonging to this
order. In all thofe included under the genus Rana
the head is fo clofely attached to the trunk, that the
neck is fcarcely to be diftinguilhed. In others, how¬
ever, it is conliderably elongated, and quite diftinCl, as
in the crocodile and the falamander. The neck is alfo .
pretty long in fome of the tortoifes. Sometimes it is
covered with wrinkles or folds, when the Ikin forms
feveral tranfverfe wrinkles, as in the neck of fome of
the tortoifes.
The breaft or thorax is fituated on the anterior partTSjor&x*
s> <12 °f
ERPETOLOGY.
308 E R P E T
Anatomy, of the trunk •, it forms a clofe cavity which is covered
Vj'™"v ' beneath by the fternum, on the Tides by the ribs, and
above by the vertebras at the back bone.
The back is the upper part of the trunk, extending
from the laft vertebra of the neck to the firft of the
tail. In reptiles it is Tometimes convex, fometimes
more or lefs flattened. It is either furnifhed with fcales,
when there extends along the fuperior furface a row of
fcales from the neck to the extremity of the tail, as in
tire guana and horned lizard ; or it is furnifhed with a
toothed future, when the upper extremity of the trunk
terminates in a notched ridge, as in the chameleon of
the Cape $ or is fupplied with a kind of radiated fin,
fomewhat refembling the fin of a fifh, as in the bafilifk j
or it is prote&ed with a ftrong bony covering, known
Calipafh of by the name of calip-i/h. This is the name by which
the turtle. j.]ie bony covering of the turtle is dillinguilhed. This
covering is compofed of different pieces clofely united
to each other, and they are fometimes fmooth and con¬
vex, fometimes ftriated and flat, difpofed in three rows *,
and there are about 24 pieces fituated on the edges of
this covering.
Ribs. The ribs include the lateral parts of the trunk, from
the neck to the anus. In the tortoifes, the ribs are de¬
fended by the edges of the calipafli, which is here unit¬
ed with the inferior (hell, or bony covering.
Abdomen. The abdomen or belly conflitutes the inferior part of
the body, and extends from the extremity of the breaft
or thorax to the anus. In the tortoifes, this part is
compofed of a bony covering } and in fome fpecies be¬
longing to this tribe, there are openings in thofe places
which correfpond to the head, the four feet, and the
tail 5 but in fome other fpecies, as in the ieftudo claufa,
there is no opening whatever, but the bony covering is
tranfverfely divided into two parts, which play on a
kind of hinge, fo that when the animal wifhes to move,
it opens the anterior divifion to put out the head and
the fore feet 5 and in the fame way for the opening be¬
hind. This inferior bony covering is united with the
upper one by means of a cartilage placed near the
middle of the body. This is ufually known by the
Calipee. name of calipee. Sometimes the abdomen is covered
with plates or fcuta, which is the cafe with moft of the
lizards, which have on the inferior furface of the body,
very large plates regularly arranged.
The anus is not only the paffage for the evacuation
of the excrement, but is befides the canal in which are
contained the parts of generation of the male lizards
and tortoifes. The males of the animals belonging to
the genus Rana, which are deftitute of thefe parts, eje£l
by this opening the fluid which impregnates the ova of
the female.
3. The Tail.—This part terminates the trunk. Many
reptiles, as thofe belonging to the genus Rana, have no
tail whatever j but the animals belonging to the other
genera of this order are furniflied with a tail of differ¬
ent lengths. The tail is covered with fcales, as in al-
xnofl all the lizards $ and thefe fcales are fometimes dif¬
pofed in rings or circular bands, as in feveral lizards j
or they are fomewhat elevated, forming a kind of
notched appearance on the upper furface of the tail, as
in the guana.
4. The Feet.—The feet of the animals belonging
to this order greatly refemble thofe of quadrupeds;
their pofition and articulations are nearly the fame, but
O L O G Y. Chap. ]j
they are much {hotter, and placed at a greater diftance Anatomy,
from each other. The feet terminate in a certain num- ''-—-v-—-
her of toes, and thence, according to the number
of the toes, affume different names ; as tridaclylous,
tetradaftylous, &c. The ffrufhire of the toes is fimi-
lar to that of other animals. They are feparated from
each other, as in lizards $ palmated, when united by
means of an intermediate membrane, as in the hind feet
of the frog j furniflied with nails or claws at the extre¬
mity, which are fometimes flat, as in the frogs j or
hooked, as in the lizards j or deftitute of nails or claws,
as in the falamander.
Internal Parts.
Under the internal parts are included the fkeleton,
the mufcles, and the vifeera.
i. The Skeleton.—With regard to the Ikeleton of
reptiles, it may be obferved, that the ftrufture of the
bones is lefs complicated than that of quadrupeds, and
the texture is lefs compact. They poffefs at the fame
time fomewhat of the tranfparency of cartilages. The
bones may be divided into thofe of the head, the neck,
the thorax, the fpine, the tail, and the feet.
The bones of the head are compofed of thofe of the Bones or
cranium, and thofe of the lower jaw. In the greateft the head,
number of reptiles, the cranium confifts of a Angle bone.
The bone of the upper jaw, and that of the forehead,
are completely united in the crocodile, the chameleon,
and fome others. They do not feem to be feparated
by any diftinct future. The lower jaw of the chame¬
leon terminates on each fide in a feparate bone, which
unites on one hand with the region of the temples, and
forms on the other an angular articulation with the
jaw.
The bones of the neck are compofed of a feries of Of the
vertebrae, the number of which varies in the different nec*c*
tribes of this order. The fpecies belonging to the genus
Rana have no cervical vertebras •, but in the other tribes
the number varies, as has been mentioned, as will ap¬
pear from the following table.
Number of Vertebrae,
Chameleon, 2
Moft of the Lizards, 4
Crocodile, 7
Tortoife, 8
The number of proceffes with which the vertebrae
are furnifhed, alio varies. In thofe of the chameleon
there are feven j but in thofe of the crocodile, there
are nine, viz. five above, and four below.
The bones of the thorax comprehend thofe of the of the
vertebral column, correfponding to this cavity, the ribs, rax.
and the fternum. The vertebrae, which correfpond to
the cavity of the thorax, are not the fame in all the in¬
dividuals belonging to this order. In the crocodile
there are only 12, but in the chameleon, the number
amounts to 18. Lach of thefe vertebrae is in general
furniihed with feven proceffes, which are fometimes
fimple, and fometimes fpiny.
The ribs are wanting in the reptiles belonging to^j^
the genus Rana : the falamander alfo is deftitute of ribs.
In the other tribes they are always found, but unequal
in number. In the tortoife there are eight on each
fide) in the crocodile 12; in the chameleon 18. The
ribs
:hap.
Anatomy,
ternum.
pint.
ect.
:apula.
II. E R P E T
, rlbs are articulated with one vertebra only; but in the
; ftruflure and articulations of thefe bones there is a pe¬
culiarity in the crocodile and chameleon. The two
firft and the two laft ribs of the crocodile do not termi¬
nate in the fternum. The cartilages which attach the
other eight are broken, fo that each rib from the verte¬
bra to the fternum is compofed of three parts, one of
which is bony, the other two cartilaginous. In the
chameleon the two firft anterior ribs are not fupported
by the fternum ; the four following are attached to it
by means of appendages which form at the point of
jun&ion an angle with the ribs, and which are not
compofed of a fubftance purely cartilaginous, but as
hard as that of the ribs. The 10 other following ribs
do not reach the fternum. Each is joined to that which
is oppofed to it by a bony appendage, forming an arch
on the middle of the thorax and abdomen. The three
laft are loofe, feparated, and as it wrere truncated in the
middle.
The fternum or breaft bone is a flat bone, placed on
the anterior part of the thorax,, the figure and dimen-
fions of which vary confiderably. In the crocodile
this bone reaches to the third rib ; it is compofed of a
fingle piece, having at its upper part a kind of carti¬
lage which forms a point towards the throat, and which
enlarging at the fides covers the clavicles. The fternum
of the chameleon and the frog is compofed of four
bones, the firft of which is very large.
The back bone comprehends the vertebras which
occupy the upper part of the back, including thofe of
the loins. In the chameleon there are 22; in the cro¬
codile 19, and in the gray lizard 22.
The vertebrae of the tail form the pofterior extremi¬
ty of the fpiral column. Their number is always pro¬
portional to its length. The tail of the chameleon is
furniftied with i;o vertebrae ; that of the crocodile 33,
and that of the gray lizard 60. All thefe vertebrae
are furnifhed with tranfverfe,. oblique, and fpinous pro-
cefles, excepting thofe towards the end of the tail,
which are ufually dettitute of the oblique proceffes.
The bones of the feet bear a conliderable refem-
blance to thofe of other animals. The fore feet are
eompofed of the fcapula, the humerus, the cubitus and
radius, the bones of the carpus and metacarpus, and
the joints of the toes.
The fcapula or fhoulder-blade is fometimes fingle,
and fometimes double, in the animals belonging to this
order. The frog, the chameleon, and the falamander,
have only one; but it is of fuch a length that it ex¬
tends from the dorfal fpine to the fternum, w ith which
it is articulated, anfwering the purpofe of a clavicle.
In the tortoifes and crocodile, there are twm fhoulder-
blades, viz. one on the back, and one placed anteriorly,
and articulated with the fternum. Thefe alio perform
the funclions of the clavicle. The humerus is articu¬
lated on the one hand with the fcapula, and with the
two bones, the cubitus and radius of the arm, on the
other. The two latter bones, the cubitus and radius,
are placed parallel to each other, between the humerus
and the bones of the carpus and metacarpus. Thefe
latter are fituated between the two bones of the fore¬
arm, and the phalanges or joints of the toes.
The hind feet are compofed alfo of the femur or
thigh-bone, the tibia, and the peronea of the leg ; the
bones of the tarfus and metatarfus, and the phalanges
O L O G Y. 309
or joints of the toes. Thefe, excepting that they differ Anatomy,
fomewhat in ftrufture, bear fo near a refemblance to 1
thofe of the fore feet, that it w'ould be quite unnecef-
fary to enumerate or defcribe them particularly.
2. The Muscles.—The mufcles are the inftruments Mufcles of
of motion. The mufcles of the back of the crocodile the back,
take their origin from the vertebrse and ribs, and they
are attached by means of their tendons, to the bands
or rings which are formed by the tubercles of the
back. Thefe tendons act in different, directions; fome
of them pull thefe bands from above downwards, w-hile
others pull them from below upwards. The ufe of
thefe mufcles is apparently to lock together more
ftrongly the rings of which the tubercles of the back
are compofed.
The mufcles of the abdomen in the fame animal, Of the ab~
which are four in number, one external, and one in- domen.
ternal on each fide, are not only different from thofe of
other quadrupeds in number, but alfo in their fituation
and ftrufture. The external mufcle is placed upon the
ribs, and the internal under them, immediately above
all the vifcera, which it embraces in the manner of a
peritoneum. The internal mufcle is attached on one
fide to the bones of the pelvis, and to the tranfverfe
proceffes of the lumbar vertebras ; and on the other it -
terminates in a broad tendon, which envelopes all the
inteftines in the form of a membrane.. The fibres of
thefe two mufcles are difpofed lengthwife.
3. The Viscera.—The parts contained in the three
great cavities of the body are the vifcera. Thefe are
the brain, the heart, the lungs, the ftomach, the intef¬
tines, the liver, the fpleen, and the kidneys.
The brain is fituated within the cavity of the fkull. Brain.
This organ, in reptiles, is in general of fmall fize. The
brain of the chameleon, which is of a reddifhor grayifti
red colour, is not more than a line in diameter. The
fame organ in the crocodile is very fmall, andfimilar to
that of fifties. The cavity within which it is contained,,
does not exceed 14, lines in length, and about 12 in
breadth and depth.
The heart is a ftrong mufcular body, from which pro- Heart,
ceed the great arteries, and in which the great veins
terminate. From the contraftile force of this organ,
the blood receives its firft impulfe. The heart in this
order of animals is fmall.. It has in general been con-
fidered as having only one ventricle and two auricles ;
differing from the heart of the more perfect animals,
which is furniftied wdth two ventricles and tw'o auricles..,
But from the obfervations of later naturalifts, it would
appear that the ftrufture of the heart of reptiles has not
been accurately defcribed ; for, according to fome ana-
tomifts and phyfiologifts, the heart of this order of ani¬
mals is really double ; that is, confifting of two au¬
ricles which have a diredt communication with each
other, and two ventricles, as in other animals.
'T he lungs which conftitute the principal organ of Lungs,
refpiration, are fpongy cellular bodies, in which the
bronchia or air-veffels are ramified. The fubftance of
which the lungs of reptiles are compofed, is not fielhy
and parenchymatous like thofe of quadrupeds, but they
confift of a bundle of veficles divided into tw'o lobes.
The lungs of the turtle are remarkable for a veficle
which adheres to their furface on the left fide, and
which may be contradted and dilated at the pleafure of
the animal. It is conjedlured, that it is by means of
this;
3io
Phyfiology
Stomach.
Inteftincs.
Liver.
Spleen.
Kidneys,
&.C.
E H P E T
tills organ, like the fwimming bladder in fifties, that the
turtle raifes itfelf to the furface of the water.
The ftomach which is deftined to receive the food,
is fituated between the gullet and the inteftinal canal.
This organ in reptiles is very like that of birds. The
ftomach of a crocodile foyr feet long is not larger than
four inches in length, and the fame in breadth •, and al¬
though the fibres of which it is compofed are neither
fo ftrong, nor fo numerous, as thofe of the ftomach of
birds, they form a body which is incapable of extenfion
or enlargement. This renders it extremely difficult to
believe what is faid of the crocodile, of its prodigious
voracity, fwallowing animals of fo conliderable a lize,
fince it is neither furniftied with teeth fit for the mafti-
cation of its food, nor a ftomach of fufficient capacity
to receive fo great a quantity.
The inteftines form a canal compofed of different
convolutions, extending from the ftomach to the anus.
It is quite unneceffary to enter into a minuter defcrip-
tion, than merely to itate, that they are divided, as in
other animals, into great and fmall. In the crocodile
and other reptiles, the inteftines going out from the fto¬
mach, form two great convolutions fimilar to thofe of
birds. They are afterwards convoluted in different
ways, till they reach the bottom of the cavity and ter¬
minate in the anus.
The liver is the organ deftined for the fecretion of
bile. In this order of animals it is large, and divided
into two unequal lobes, between which the heart is fitu¬
ated. The right lobe is fomewhat larger, and the gall
bladder occupies the middle of this lobe.
The fpleen is an organ placed on the left fide. In
this fituation it is expofed to the preffure of the dia¬
phragm and the abdominal mufcles. The fpleen of
frogs is double, and of an oblong form. In the croco¬
dile it is oval, fomewhat oblong and equal at the two
extremities. The fubftance of which this organ is com¬
pofed, confifts of a great number of large whitifti points
on a dark red ground.
The kidneys are bodies of an oval lengthened form,
fituated within the abdomen, and deftined for the fecre¬
tion of urine. In the frog, between the kidneys and
the tefticles, there are certain appendages which re¬
ferable fome kind of leaves. The kidneys are attached
to the back, having at their pofterior extremity the fe-
minal veffels. The urinary bladder is fituated near the
orifice of the anus.
Sect. II. Of the Ph%ftologyy Manners, and Habits
of Reptiles.
We {hall now, according to the arrangement pro-
pofed, make a few obfervations on the phyfiology, man¬
ners and habits of reptiles.
From the fmall proportion of brain, and dull habits
of reptiles, it feems to be juftly concluded that their
fenfes are not very acute.
Sense of Sight.—Of all the fenfes, that of fight is
probably the moft perfeft among reptiles ; but as their
moft common haunts are on the fliores of the ocean, or
the margin of lakes, and of ftagnant waters, and on the
banks of rivers, where the rays of the fun are ftrongly and
inceffantly reflefted, it was neceffary that the eyes of
thefe animals ihould be prote&ed from the too powerful
impreffions of light. For this purpofe the moveable
3
O L O G T.
Chap. I]
eye-lids, and the ni&itating membrane, are peculiarly Phjiioi0g
fitted ; as by their means the animal is enabled to di- "-“v
minifh the quantity of light received into the eye. Theieculla
peculiar power which many of them poffefs alfo of con- ,^n t*l‘
trailing and dilating the pupil at pleafure, like the cat, '
and fome other animals, which feek their prey in the
dark, extends the utility of this organ, and renders it
more fenfible and delicate. From this peculiar ftruc-
ture of the eye, the animal is enabled to fee objedts at
a confiderable diftance, and is thus fitted to purfue its
prey in the dark, or at great depths under the lurface
of the water ; circumftances which are highly necdfary
for the fituation in which many of the tribes of reptiles
are placed, and exadtly accommodated to their habits
and mode of life.
Sense of Hearing.—This fenfe in reptiles is pro-Xotverjl
bably not very acute. The ftrudlure of the internal acute,
ear is conliderably different from that of the more per-
fedt animals. Indeed fome of the parts which feem to
render perception more acute, are wanting in thefe
animals. There is neither cochlea nor fenejlra ovalis,
and the femicircular canals are deftitute of extremities.
The membrane of the tympanum is very thick, and the
bone immediately connedted with it is of a very irre¬
gular figure. But, befides, thefe animals have no ex¬
ternal ear whatever, by which means the vibrations of
the air might be colledted, and condenfed in the feat
of fenfation. In place of thefe external parts, there, are
only very narrow openings, which can admit but a
fmall number of vibratory undulations. As a farther
proof of the dulnefs of this fenfe in thefe animals, few'
of them emit any found, excepting a harfti croaking,
whence it may be concluded, that their perception of
found is very indiftindl, or they are deftitute of the or¬
gans neceflary to expreft it j otherwife, with thefe re-
quifites, the habit of hearing diftindtly Avould very foon
. improve the power of expieflion.
Sense of Smelling.—Almoft all reptiles are fur-Suppofaj
niftied with the external organs of this fenfe. Thet0 m,'j
noftrils of the crocodile are placed in a round fpace,Per^'
filled with a black, foft, and fpongy fubftance } thofe
of the tortoife and lizard occupy the extremity of the
fnout, and confill of two very diftindt openings. It ap¬
pears, indeed, from anatomical infpedlion, that the
nerves which terminate in thefe organs are of a very
large fize, which circumftance leads us to conclude,
that the fenfe of fmelling muft be pretty acute. But
when it is confidered that a great proportion of reptiles
have their abode in the midft of putrid marftres, it
would incline us to fuppofe, that the fenfe of fmelling
is not very acute.
Dr Townfon, in fome experiments which he made
with the water lizard, very juftly concludes, that their
fenfe of fmell is extremely acute. “ I kept, fays he, a
confiderable number of water lizards, in a jar, which I
fed from time to time with worms j if they were in the
greateft ftillnefs, and I dropt in a worm ever fo gent¬
ly, they all immediately began to fight, each attacking
its neighbour and feizing it by the foot or tail This
was not a contention for the worm, which often lay for
a Ihort time unnoticed, but it originated rather from
the acutenefs of their fenfe of fmell, which immediate¬
ly informed them of the prefence of their food, and in
the dullnefs of their difcriminating powers. I his is fi-
rpilar to what I have invariably obferved in frogs and
' toads,
hap,
lyfiology- toads, winch will fuffer their natural food to remain be-
fore them untouched, yet feize it inftantly on the fmall-
eft motion it makes. It was from a knowledge of this
inftinft that I was able in winter to feed my conftant
companion and favourite pet, Mufidora.
“ Before the flies, which were her ufual food, had
difappeared in autumn, I collected a great quantity as
provifion for winter. When I laid them before her, the
took no notice of them j but the moment I moved them
with my breath the fprung and ate them. Once when
flies were fcarce, I cut fome flefli of a tortoife into fmall
pieces, and moved them by the fame means, fhe feized
them, but inflantly rejefted them from her tongue.
After I had obtained her confidence, fire ate from my
fingers dead as well as living flies.
“ Frogs will fly at the moving fhadow of any fmall
objefts, and both frogs and toads will foon become fo
tame as to fit on one’s hand and be carried from one
fide of the room to the other, to catch the flies as they
fettle on the wall. At Gottingen, I made them my
guards for keeping thefe troublefome creatures from my
defert of fruit, and they acquitted themfelves to my fa-
tisfadlion. I have feen the fmall tree-frogs eat humble
bees, not indeed without a battle; they are in general
obliged to reject them, being incommoded by their
flings and hairy roughnefs 5 but at each attempt the bee
is further covered with the vifcid matter from their
tongue, and is then eafily fwallowed.
“ Nothing appears more awkward and ludicrous than
a frog engaged with a large worm or little fnake; for
nature feems tojjiave put a reftraint upon their voracity,
by forming them very inapt to feize and hold their lar¬
ger prey. One of my largeft frogs, whether the rana
temporaria, or efculenta, I forget, fwallowed in my
prefence an anguis fragi/is near a fpan long, which, in
Trails on its ftruggles, frequently got half its body out again j
pf. Hijl. when completely fwallowed, its contortions w’ere very
•ts- vifible in the flaccid fides of the conqueror
iryfee- Sense OF Taste.—If the perception of tafte is to
be taken in proportion to the fenfibility of the organ
which is the feat of it, this fenfe in reptiles muft be
confidered as the feebleit of the whole. The tongue of
moll reptiles is rather to be confidered as an inftrument
for feizing its prey, than as an organ deftined for the
perception of tafte j and for the former purpofe it is re¬
markably fitted, both from itsftruflure and mechanifm,
by which means the animal can projeft it inftanta-
neoufly from its mouth, and alfo from the vifcid fluid
which is fecreted on its furface. We have already de-
fcribed, in fpeaking of the anatomy of reptiles, this
peculiarity of ftru&ure in the tongue of the chame¬
leon.
Sense of Touch.—This fenfe cannot be fuppofed to
be very acute in this order of animals. Moll of them
have the body covered with hard fcales, with large tu¬
bercles, or with a ftrong bony fubftance. In a great
number belonging to this order, the extremities of the
feet even arc furniftied with fcales j and the toes are
fo united together, that they can only be applied with
difficulty to the furface of bodies. And if in fome
lizards it is found that the toes are long, and diftinftly
feparated from each other, the inferior furface is co¬
vered, either with a hard fkin or with very thick
fcales, which muft undoubtedly deprive this part of all
311
fenfibility. The fenfe of touch, therefore, in reptiles,.Phyfiologyt
may, in general, be confidered as dull and imperfeft. ——v~—^
Circulation of the Blood.—In animals which
have been ufually dignified with the name of peifeBy
and which are furniftied with a double heart, the blood
which has been collected from all parts of the body,
returns to the right fide of the heart j is thence con¬
veyed to the lungs *, from the lungs it paffes to the left
fide of the heart, and thence is again diftributed through
the body. But this courfe of the blood can only go on
when the fumftion of refpiration continues without in¬
terruption *, becaufe on the ceflation of the a<ftion of the
lungs, the circulation through them is interrupted j and
therefore, without fome other ftrufture of the heart, the
circulation through the body muft flop, and the death
of the animal enfue.
Many of the animals included under the order of rep- Peculiaru
tiles are diftinguifhtd by a peculiarity of ftru^lure,
w'hich allow’s the circulation to go on during the necef-c'rai*‘ltlcm’
fary interruption of the funftion of refpiration to which
they are fubje&ed. The blood therefore, inftead of
pafling through the lungs, is conveyed through an ob¬
long opening called foramen ovale, lituated between the
two auricles, and is difeharged diredlly from the pul¬
monary artery into the aorta. Hence it is that thefe
animals come under the denomination of cold-blooded.
This diminiihed temperature of the blood is aferibed to
the lefs complicated circulation which goes on in their’
fyltem. For the blood in the courfe of the circulation
being lefs expofed to the aftion of the air in the lungs,
undergoes fewer of thefe changes, on which, according-
to the prefent chemical theory of refpiration, the tem¬
perature of the body, or animal heat, depends.
Respiration.—The function of refpiration exhibits ^efpjratjG&-
one of the greateft peculiarities in the animals belonging'different
to the order of reptiles. For, as in thefe animals the from that
ftrufture of the thorax, and the other parts necefiary to 0^.0t^er
the procefs of refpiration in other animals are quite dif-ai“raaI&
ferent, the means alfo by which it is conduced in them
muft alfo be difterent. It is to Dr Townfoit that we
arc indebted for the elucidation of this part of the phy-
fiology of reptiles. This naturalift, as he himfelf ob-
ferves, at leaft revived a doftrine which had been ac¬
knowledged by former phyfiologifts, to whom it feems
to have been diftin&ly known. Among thefe he men¬
tions Laurenti, who, in his Synopjis Reptilium, has de¬
rived the chara&er of his clafs from the peculiar mode
of refpiration of thefe animals, of which he fays that they
are furnilhed with lungs, but are deftitute of diaphragm
and ribs, but by means of the gular pouch the air is al¬
ternately drawn into this refervoir, and by its contrac¬
tions propelled to the lungs. '
In quadrupeds, Dr Townfon obferves, there are no
perceptible motions in the throat, excepting thofe W'hich
accompany the procefs of deglutition ; but in the frog
tribe, whether they are awake or afleep, if they are not
excluded from the air, there are fome remarkable mo¬
tions of the throat which are quick and conftant; thefe
are the motions which are fubfervient to infpiration.
The bony and mufeular parts, which in hot-blooded Proceft of
animals are the mechanical inftruments of refpiration mfP'ratio%
are entirely wanting in this order of amphibia. It muft
then be by means of fome other contrivance, that they
are enabled to fill the lungs with air. In the hot-
bloodad
E R P E T O L O G Y.
312 E Pi P E T
PhyfioTogy. blooded animals the alternate contraflion and dilatation
' "rr * of the thorax effe&s this, but in this tribe the fame pur-
pofe is accompliihed by the dilatations and contraftions
of the throat. When the cavity of the throat is enlarged
the air rulhes through the noitrils and fills it; the noltrils
being clofed by their proper mufcles, the glottis is open¬
ed j the mufeles defigned for this office contract, diminiffi
the cavity of the throat, and impel the air which is con¬
tained in it into the lungs j and in this way, he adds, is
infpiration performed in thefe animals.
“ When the lungs, fays he, were laid bare, I have ob-
ferved that thefe did not inflate, if the frog, exhaufted
with pain and lofs of blood, or when the noitrils were
covered with it, opened its mouth to take in a greater
fupply of air, till the throat contracted j this, then, was
the immediate confequence. Like wife, if I put a
tube down the throat, the glottis and mouth being by
this kept open, the lungs collapfed, and in thisflate re¬
mained j but as foon as the tube was removed, refpira-
tion immediately recommenced : nothing fimilar to this
is to be obferved in hot-blooded animals.
Of expira- “ Expiration is very eaflly accompliihed ; for, the
non. glottis and the noftrils being open, the lungs by their
own contraction from a ftate of diifention, and by their
own weight, aided by that of fuperincufnbent parts, will
gradually expel the air j but the mufcles which cover
the fides aCt alfoon this occafion, and in their croakings,
(which, in the time of their amours, are heard to a great
diftance), with great force. But in the ordinary ex¬
pirations of thefe animals, no more than in quadrupeds,
do the lungs wholly collapfe ; if not viewed with at¬
tention, no motion is ever perceived in their fides,
though there is a regular contraftion and diftention.
They likewife have the faculty of comprefling one lobe
of the lungs fmgly, by the contraction of the mufcles
of that fide $ this is ealily induced by touching them
gently on the fide with a pin or other fliarp body.
“ As thefe animals are known to be able to live a
much longer time without air than thofe with hot blood,
it has been faid by many that they refpire flower. But
although probably they do not vitiate ib much air, they
refpire very rapidly. Man refpires about twenty times
in a minute : and, according to Forgaro, birds, which
breathe the quickeft of all hot-blooded animals, from
25 to 50 5 but the efculent frog {rana efculenta), re¬
fpires about 70 times in a minute ; the rana variabilis
(a fpecies of toad), about 100, and the tree frog
{rana arberea'), fo rapidly that I could not Veckon the
number of the 'motions of its throat. The contractions
of the throat I have confidered as infpirations ; yet, as
the noftrils do not clofe with each contraction, I cannot
venture to affirm that at each the whole contents of the
throat are driven into the lungs. As there is frequently
one contraction in four or five greater than the reft, it
may be then that the greateft quantity of air is driven
into them. When thefe animals fleep, and in cold wea¬
ther, thele motions are ftow’er and more feeble.
“ According then to the doCtrine which I have ad¬
vanced on the mechanifm of refpiration in the frog tribe,
which may eafily be fubjeCted to experiment, and then
O L O G Y. ' Chap. I;
thrown afide, if it bears not this teft, but candidly re-Phy o!op
ceived if it does, their lungs poffefs no fecret power of
dilatation, any more than thofe of hot-blooded animals.
In both, this organ is inaCIive hi refpiration, which pro-
cefs principally differs in this, that, whilft in the hot.
blooded the air is fucked into the lungs by the ex pa nfon
of the thorax ; it is driven into them, in the frog tribe, by
the motions of the throat.
“ Let us now proceed to examine anatomically theMechanif
mechanifm fubfervient to refpiration-, and when, forre|piu.
the fake of brevity, in fpeaking of the throat, 1 make110"'
ufe of the terms of mufcles of inipiration and expiration,
I mean by the former thofe mufcles which ferve for
forming a vacuum in the throat, and by the latter thofe
which ferve to diminith it.
“ Instruments of Respiration.—When the {kin
is ftripped off from the throat, a broad mufcle comes
into view, which is the mylo-hyoideus. It covers the
whole throat, being extended from the end of the
maxilla to the condyles ; its fibres run tranfverfely, and
are inferted into the maxilla through its whole length.
In the middle, from the point of this bone, it becomes
thin and membranous, but at the condyles thicker j it
is not united with the os hyoides, as in man, but (light¬
ly conne&ed with the Ikin. When the cavity of the
throat is diminiftied, its mufcular fibres are feen evi¬
dently to contraCl, but chiefly at the condyles, where
the mufcle is thickeft. Thus, this mufcle feems well
adapted to affiit in driving the air from the throat
into the lungs ^ neverthelefs, if it be cut away, re¬
fpiration continues.
“ The mylo-hyoideus being cut away, the genio-
hyoidei appear ; and, under thefe, in the middle, is the
mufcle of the tongue ; the mufcle at the point of the
maxilla, the fterno-hyoidei and the coraco-hyoidei are
likewife feen. The genio-hyoidei, which are flit where
the fterno-hyoidei are inferted in the os hyoides, from
their direction and conneftion, ought, one would think,
greatly to affift in drawing the os hyoides forwards, and,
by this means diminifti the cavity of the throat j yet thefe
being cut away, refpiration continues.
“ The fterno-hyoidei are ftrong and powerful 5 they
rife from the whole length of the laft bone of the fter-
num, and are inferted all along the oshyoides. As the
os hyoides is not in the fame direction as the fternutn,
but higher, and its cornua, which are faftened by the
ftylo-hyoidei, likewife higher and oblique, thefe mufdes
in their contractions draw this bone downwards and
backwards, and thus form a cavity in the throat.
Thefe are the principal mufeles ufed in forming this
cavity, and when they are cut refpiration eeafes.
“ I he coraco-hyoidei rife from the inferior fide of
the neck of the fcapula, and are inferted into the os
hyoides near the infertionsof the fterno-hyoidei. They
direCt the movements of the os hyoides, and draw it
downwards ; one being cut, this bone lofes its natural
direClion and inclines to the other fide.
“ If we fearch deeper, we find the ftylo-hyoidei
mufcles, otherwife the conjlriElores mediipharyngn, (b)
of which there are three pairs (c). One pair, which is
ftronger
(B) Either the ftylo-hyoidei or thefe conftriClors arewanting.
(c) In the common toad {Rana Btfo), and in the Rana variabilis, I only found two pairs.
iap. II. . E R P E T
hyfiology. ftronger than the reft, rifes from the pofterior region of
the ear, and is inferted into the points of the cornua of
the os hyoides. The other two pairs have the fame
origin, and are likewife inferted into the cornua of the
fame bone, but more forward. Thefe mufcles are like-
wife of great moment in contrafting the cavity of the
throat, by elevating the os hyoides, and drawing it for¬
ward. I have obferved feme mufcular fibres in the
vicinity of the ftylo-hyoidei, upon the membrane which
lies immediately under the mufcles now defcribed, and
which forms the interior part of the throat: thefe may
aflift likewife as conftriftors.
“ If we take away the mufcles and the membrane of
the throat, leaving only the fterno-hyoidei mufcles, al¬
though refpiration is now totally deftroyed, the motions
ufed in refpiration continue. The os hyoides is ftill
drawn backwards and forwards, and the glottis opens
and feuts, but the lungs remain collapfed 5 if even
all the mufcles which move the os hyoides, are cut
away, the glottis, whofe mufcles remain untouched, con¬
tinues to open and Unit, juft as in hot-blooded animals,
whofe refpiration is deftroyed by a large wound in the
thorax, and efforts to refpire continue, though ineffec¬
tual, to remove the painful fenfation of incipient fuffo-
cation.
“ On expiration little is to be faid *, I have always
found the lungs of thefe animals, whether alive or dead,
to collapfe as foon as the glottis is open •, yet, as I have
already obferved, the oblique mufcles, which extend
from the glottis to the os pubis, and thus envelope the
lungs through their whole extent, have a great pow'er
to eomprefs them, and thus produce expiration. Whe¬
ther I have properly applied tire name of obliques to
thefe mufeles I will not contend, as I have not exa¬
mined them with particular care ; they may probably
be compofed of feveral mufcles, but thus much I have
obferved that their fibres run more or lefs tranfverfe-
ly, and are therefore well adapted to produce this
i Trails oneffed*.”
Vat. Hijl. Propagation of Refliles.—Although reptiles,
' I7' from their fenfes being lefs acute than thnfe of other ani¬
mals, feem in general dull and ftupid ; on the return of
fpring, they exhibit a very different charadfter. As the
warm feafon advances, they become lively and aftive,
and thus Ihew that they are actuated by a new fet of
defires. It is at this time that the frog tribe, which at
no other featbn of the year emits the fmalleft found, be¬
come remarkable for the croaking and difagre-eable
noife, by means of which they exprefs thefe new or
once dormant feelings When thefe feelings acquire
force, even feme of the external parts of feme of the
frog tribe undergo a ch&nge. The fore feet of the male
are then fumilhed with a kind of wart, which is fup-
plied with papillae, that it may more firmly attach itfelf
;fcange on t° ike female. The male then places itielf on the back
lie male of the female, and embraces her fe ftrongly with the
roS’ fore feet, that it can only be feparated by a confiderable
force. In this fituation the two remain together for
about a month. About the end of this time, or fooner
or later, according to the temperature of the feafon, the
female begins to exclude the ova. The eggs form a
kind of firing, and are united together by a vifeid mat¬
ter, and included in a thick glairy fubftance. At the
moment that the ova are excluded by the female, the
male ejefts a fluid with which they ate impregnated,
VOL. VIII. Part I.
G L O G Y. 313
at the fame time giving a peculiar cry during the courfe Phyfunogjv
of this procefs. So ftrongly is the male attached to ““'“'v ‘
the female, that nothing can dilturb or interrupt his
operations. Nay, what will appear ftill more fur-
prifing, in an experiment by Spallanzani, in which the
head of a male frog was cut off in this fituation, the
animal continued for fome time to impregnate the ova
as they were excluded, and died only at the end of four
hours.
When the ovum of the frog is examined with the Ova of tb*
microfeope, a fmall point is diftinguilhed, black on the^°S-
one fide and white on the other, placed in the centre of
a globule, whofe glutinous and tranfparent fubftance is
furrounded with two concentric membranes, which are
analogous to the Ihell of the egg. At the end of a cer¬
tain time, which is longer or ftiorter, according to the
temperature of the feafon, the embryo begins to be de¬
veloped, and is afterwards known by the name of tad¬
pole. Spallanzani has bbferved, that the procefs of in¬
cubation or hatching in the ova of the toad goes on, al¬
though the temperature ef the atmofphere does not ex¬
ceed 6° above zero of Reaumur’s thermometer, which
is equal to about 390 of Fahrenheit.
It is unneceffary to mention, that the ova of the frog
are depofited and hatched in water. It may be obferved
alfo that this procefs is interrupted in the ova of the
toad, which happen to be dropt on the earth, unlefs they
are fupplied with moifture.
The tadpole, as the procefs of incubation proceeds, Progrefs of
and the organs which are deftined to perform the func-tadpole,
tions of life are developed, exhaufts the glutinous mat¬
ter with which it is furrounded 5 this gradually dilates j
and the more it increafes in volume, the lefs is the quan¬
tity of its mafs. It becomes at length only a light and
almoft invifible fubftance, from which the tadpole makes
a fhort occafional excurfion in the water, in making its
fir ft efforts in fwimming j but returns again, finding
itfelf either unable to procure its food, or to fupport it¬
felf long in the water on account of the llvortncfs of the
fins, which have not yet attained their full fize. But as
the I’ttle animal advances in its growth, the glutinous
matter, its former habitation, being entirely diflipated,
it roams at large in the waters.
According to the obfervations of Swammerdam, a
tadpole is about fix lines in length at the end of 15 days
after it has been depofited by the female. The firft
traces of the hind feet may then be leen ; and the place
of the toes is marked with fo many fmall protuberances-.
In this ftage of its progrefs the little animal exhibits a
very different appearance from that which k affumes
after the change it is to undergo. The mouth is not
placed at the anterior part of the head, but on the lower
furface ; and when it wiftus to feize any object for its
prey, or to expel the air from its lungs by expiration,
its motion in turning its body fe fo rapid and inilantane-
ous, that the eye can fcarcely fellow it.
In a tadpole of 36 days old the hind legs are pro¬
truded ; but the fore legs are fome days later, fe that
to fee them at the fam< period the animal muft be open¬
ed, at leaft the external covering which veils in tome
meafure, or difguifes its future form. At laft, at the
end of about two months of confinement, which is about
the middle of June, the young frog having reached its
perfedt form, and acquired fufficient ftrength, burfts
from its prifon. It contrives at firft to contradt its
R r covering
3H
E R IP E t
Phyfio.ogy. covering by elevating its back •, by this the Ikin is
torn near the head of the animal, which pafles through
the opening. That part of the membrane which formed
the mouth of the tadpole is retraced over the body ;
the fore legs are fucceflively unfolded j and the (kin
pulhed to the pofterior extremity of the body, leaves
the whole of it as well as the hind legs and the tail, un¬
covered. The tail then gradually diminilhing in'vo-
lume, at laft entirely difappears, fo that the fmalleft:
trace of it no longer remains in the perfect animal.
According to the fituation of the countries in which
they are found, the temperature of the climate, and the
pe'riod and duration of the rainy feafons in tropical re-
Timeof gions, the time of the turtle depofiting its eggs is regu-
the turtle lated. At this feafon the female quits the ocean, and
varies J °^en» ^ laid, makes a voyage of 300 leagues to find
a fafe and convenient fpot for the reception of the em-
bryons of her future offspring. The male, according
to the accounts of fome naturalifts, accompanies the
female in this expedition, with the view of reconduft-
ing her to their former haunts. We are informed that
they arrive in fuch multitudes on the banks of the
Oroonoko about the beginning of March, that there
is not fufficient fpace on the fliore to contain them, fo
that vaft numbers are feen with their heads above
water, waiting the departure of thofe on land, that they
may occupy their place. When the turtle has reached
the thore, fhe fixes on a fpot covered with fand or
gravel, digs with her fins, in a place beyond the reach
of the tide, one or more holes of about a foot broad and
two feet deep ; and there depofits her eggs to the num¬
ber of more than a hundred. She then covers them
with a little fand, but fo lightly, that the adlion of the
rays of the fun may not be interrupted hatching them.
The turtle depofits her eggs commonly at three different
times, a period of fourteen days intervening between
each time. The danger to which thefe animals are
expofed, when the light of day favours the purfuit of
their enemies, and perhaps alfo, it has been conjeftured,
the fear of fuffering from the burning rays of the fun,
make them almoft always prefer the darknefs and temper¬
ate coolnefs of night to come on fhore for this purpofe.
The period of hatching is longer or fhorter accord¬
ing to the temperature of the climate. In more tem¬
perate regions, it continues about 20 or 25 days. At
the ifland of St Vincent, (one of the Cape de Verd
iilands), this procefs is completed in 17 days; and Gu-
milla the hiflorian of the river Oroonoko afferts, that
three days only are required for hatching on the banks
of this river. He placed, he fays, a flick near the
place where the turtle depofited her eggs, and at the
end of three days, fo great is the influence of the fun
upon the fand, the fmall turtles had made their appear¬
ance.
Travellers who have had opportunities of obferving
the fmall turtles foon after they are hatched, when they
are only about an inch long, inform us, that in this
ftate they do not quit their holes during the day, being
inilinftively warned to prcteft themfelves in this man¬
ner from the heat of the fun, and the voracity of birds
of prey, but they wait till night to make their way to
the ocean. “ I have been often aflonifhed, (fays Gumil-
la), when I have obferved that the place where they
have been hatched, being fometimes half a league dif-
Unt from the river, they direct their courfij towards it
O L O G Y. C hap. II
without any deviation by the fhorteft pofiible way. IPhyfiology
have fometimes carried the young turtle to a great dif- '"“"'r—■
tance from the water. I have covered them up and
made feveral holes for them that they might wander.
But I no fooner left them at liberty, than they took the
diredl courfe to the river, without turning either to the
right hand or to the left.” The inftinft w ith which thefe
little animals are imprefled, conducts them towards the
neareft waters, where they find fafety and proper food.
They move on very flowly, and as yet too feeble to re¬
fill the force of the waves, great numbers are thrown
back by the furge on the fea fhore, where fea fowl, cro¬
codiles, tigers, and other animals are in waiting to de¬
vour them, fo that but a fmall number efcapes the nu¬
merous dangers to which they are conftantly expofed.
It is alfo at the return of the fpring feafon that the of the alii
alligator depofits its eggs. It lays about ico in the gator,
fpace of one or two days ; and in the fame way as the
turtle, covers them with fand, and, it is faid, rolls itfelf
round the place, that it may be the better concealed
from its enemies. Having thus fecured its future off-
fpring, it returns to the water, when the procefs of
hatching goes on by the heat of the fun. About the
time that the necelfary period has elapfed for the evolu¬
tion of the young animal, it is faid that the female re¬
turns, accompanied by the male, fcrapes up the fand,
and uncovering the eggs, breaks the Ihell, to allow the
young animal to efcape. It is faid that the young alli¬
gator, before it leaves the eggs, is at leaf! fix inches
long, and that it is rolled up, having its head placed
in the centre. When the (hell is broken with a Hick,
they bite it furioufly, and fink their teeth in this fub-
flance. This feems not improbable, fince it is recorded
by different naturalifts, that the teeth of the young al¬
ligator are completely formed before it leaves the egg.
The mode of propagation, fo far as it has been ob¬
ferved among the tribe of lizards, is fimilar to that of
the frog. The male remains for fome time on the back
of the female, embracing her clofely. This does not
prevent them from running about, or leaping from
branch to branch. When the female is about to de-
pofit her eggs, (he makes a hole in the earth of about
two inches deep, at the foot of a tree or a wall; in that
the egg is dropped and covered with earth, and, as
in the other tribes, the procefs of incubation is accom-
plifhed by the heat of the fun.
But fome fpecies of lizards are viviparous. This is
confidered by naturalifts as exaftly the fame mode of
ptopagation as in the others which are produced from
eggs, with this difference only, that the procefs of in¬
cubation goes on in the former within the body of the
female, and the young are excluded completely form¬
ed.
The Eggs of Reptiles.—The fize of the eggs ofSize of tM
this order of animals is always proportioned to that ofeggs*
the female by whom they are produced. From the
fmalleft (peeies of lizard to the huge crocodile, they
may be found of every fize. The fmalleft are fcarcely
more than two lines in diameter, while the larged are
three inches long.
T he covering of thefe eggs is different in the differ¬
ent tribes. In the greateft number, but efpecially in
the eggs of the turtle, it is flexible, foft, and fimilar to
moiftened parchment. The eggs of the crocodile, and
uf fome large lizards^ are covered with a ftiell of a hard,
calcareous
Chap. n. . E R P E T
hhyfwlogy calcareous fubftance, like tkat of the eggs of birds. It
is, however, confiderably thicker, and confequently lefs
brittle.
thed as In India and America, thefe eggs are very much
food. fought after, and are efteemed by the natives a very
rich and delicate food. About the time that the turtle
depofits its eggs on the banks of the Oroonoko, the
neighbouring inhabitants repair to the banks of that
river with their families, for the purpofe of collecting
them ; and they not only live upon them at this time
of the year, but dry them, that they may carry them
home to be laid up in ftore for their future fuften-
ance.
It is faid that the Indians are extremely fond of the
eggs of the alligator, which they fearch out with great
induftry, and rejoice when they difcover the place,
where they have been depofited. They bake them when
they prepare them for food, and although the young
animal has begun to be evolved, or i^ nearly formed,
they are not lefs fcrupulous in eating them.
Food of Reptiles.—It is only in extraordinary
cafes that reptiles abftain from food for any length of
time. When they are at perfeft liberty, and find that
kind of food which is fuited to their nature, they in ge-
j;,(e(i "oefa_ neral indulge in it voracioufly. Frogs and lizards feed
cioufly. on leeches, worms, fnails, beetles, and different fpecies of
winged infe£ls. Some of the toads live on aquatic plants j
the turtles find in the water or on the land, vegetables
and fhell-fifh ; the crocodile is carnivorous, and devours,
greedily, fillies, fea-fowl, and turtles; and when pref-
fed by hunger, attacks men, but efpecially, it is faid,
the negro race, whom he prefers to others. This lat¬
ter fa6t has probably no foundation whatever. The
very largeft crocodiles, which are more eafily feen and
avoided, it is faid, employ fome artifice in feizing their
prey. They watch about the margin of ftagnant wa¬
ters, and lie there covered with mud, like a fallen tree,
remain immoveable, and patiently wait the favourable
moment to feize fome unfufpedling animal. Sometimes
when they fwim down any large river, they flop at the
mod frequented places, and raife only the upper part of
their head above the furface of the water. In this atti¬
tude, which leaves the eyes at liberty, they furprife the
animals which come to cool themfelves, or to drink in
the river. As foon as they perceive any one, they
plunge under the water, fwim towards it, and feize it
by the limbs, drag it along to drown it, and afterwards
make it their prey.
Abode of Reptiles.—Reptiles, like plants, are
profufely dillributed over the whole furface of the
globe } but from their nature and habits are more abun¬
dant and numerous in fome places than in others. Some
tribes live entirely on dry land, while others are con¬
fined to the bottom of the water. Others may be con-
lidered as intermediate tribes, living on the confines of
the two elements, exhibiting in them the degrees and
lhades of different habits, which refult from the diver-
different fity of forms. Among thofe which have their abode on
Jt reptiles ^ as many °f the tortoifes, molt of the lizards,
m different chameleons, fome prefer dry and elevated fituations,
fauations. while others dw'ell in caverns or in the holes of rocks;
and as thefe are different in their economy and habits,
fo we find that they are different in their motions j
while the one is lluggilh and inactive, moving flowly,
the others fpring or creep rapidly among the branches
0 L O G Y. . 315
of trees. Almoft all of them, however, take the water, Phyfiology.
and fwim with great facility *, but they are obliged, as ■'V—-'
well as the reptiles which remain conftantly in the wa¬
ter, to come to the furface from time to time to refpire
the air of the atmofphere. The intermediate tribes, or
fuch as have their ufual haunts on the limits of the land
and wrater, can only exift in climates which correfpond
to their temperament. And thus they are found in in¬
numerable multitudes in the immenfe extent of morafs
in the deluged favannahs of the new continent, where
the moifture of the atmofphere and the temperature of
the climate are favourable to their reprodudlion.
In Kamtfchatka, where the cold of winter is fo rigo¬
rous, no fpecies of toad, of frog, or even of ferpent, is
ever feen. Lizards, however, are very numerous,
which are regarded by the inhabitants with a fuperfti-
tious horror. They fuppofe that they are fent by fome
evil deity, as fpies on their adlions, or to predidt their
death 5 and hence it is that they ufe every precaution
to fecure themfelves againft their mifchievous effects.
Wherever they find them they cut them to pieces, that
they may not be able to return to the malignant being
by whom they have been fent, to witnefs againft them.
Should the animal accidently make its efcape, they
are feized with the moft violent grief and defpair. They
expeft every moment the approach of death, and fome-
times bring on, by their fears and terror, what they f©
much dread. All this contributes ftill more to in-
creafe and ftrengthen this ridiculous and groundlefs fu~
perdition.
Reproductive Power of Reptiles.—Many of the
animals belonging to the order of reptiles undergo very
confiderable changes, in the reprodudtion of different
parts of the body, either in the ordinary proceffes of
nature, or when they are deprived of them by accident.
The calling of the Ikin, and its reproduction in differ¬
ent reptiles, as in the toad and newt, may be regarded
as a natural operation, in fome way neceffary to the
econofny of thefe animals. It is obferved, that the
water-newts frequently call their {kins j and thefe are
occafionally feen floating in the waters w'hich they in¬
habit. The Ikin is fometimes fo perfeCt, that it exhi¬
bits the whole form of the complete animal.
The follow ing account of this procefs by Bonnet,
will, we doubt not, be interefting to the reader.
“ When, fays he, the period of change approaches, Cafting'tk*
the fine Ikin is obferved detaching from the body. The^in-
head firft lofes it 5 then the reft of the anterior part j
next the middle, and the pofterior part. Sometimes
the fpoil, call by the head, forms like a gauze collar or
cravat around the neck ; or it is adjufted on the head,
like a capuchin or head-drefs.
“ The commencement of reparation, from the back
and belly, is difeovered by viewing the newt obliquely
from one fide, in a ftrong light. The Ikin of the
belly is further detached, becaufe it falls down by its
own weight.
“ Approaching fpoliation is recognifed by confpicu-
ous and unequivocal fytnptoms. The back, viewed
obliquely, appears whitifti, and as if covered with a
fpider’s web. This is the effeft of the fpoil beginning
to feparate. If clofely examined with the naked eye,
or a magnifier of fmall power, it feems compofed of
minute feales covering the callofities or tubercles, which
ftiagreen the body of the newt. But, w hen examined
R r z w ith
316 E R P E T
Phyfio’ogy, '(vith more attention, and in a favourable light, this
1 -i. ]s difcovered to be a beautiful reticulation,
the mefhes of which are vifible to the naked eye.
<f Many obfervations could be made on the texture
of this delicate membrane ; and thefe might greatly
tend to elucidate the nature and origin of the epider¬
mis, which, notwithftanding all the refearches of phy-
fiologifts, are fo little known 5 and newts would afford
frequent opportunities for deeply invelligating the
point.
“ From particular attention to the newts in my pof-
feflion, I have obferved, that there is not the fmalleft
refemblance between this operation and what is exhi¬
bited by caterpillars, and many other infefts. The
Ikin is detached here and there, and often in different
fized plates ; and the change is flow, for it occupies
one or two days, and I have even known it take three.
During fpoliatiorr, the newt continues moving about in
the water, with all the ufual motions of newts that un¬
dergo none j therefore it is no difeafe, and it does not
affedt them as it does infedls. While the change is
going on, the animal darts on its prey, holds and de¬
vours it.,
M Sometimes fpoliation is difficult to be accomplilh-
ed 5 but, in thefe cafes, the newt knows to praftife
certain manoeuvres,, to facilitate the operation, which I
have often beheld with pleafure. It alternately raifes
and depreffes the right arm and left leg at the fame
time, with gentle vibrations of the whole body. It fre¬
quently darts fuddenly towards the furface of the water,
and the next moment precipitates itfelf to the bottom y
and thefe manoeuvres I have feen continued above half
an hour. But the hidden exertion, in all its motions,
indicated that the newt was impatient at the tedioufnefs
of the change.
“ When moft: of the fpoil is thrown off, and the anh
mal, to difengage itfelf from the reft, rapidly rifes to
the furface, it feems carried along in a cloud y for the
whitenefs, finenefs, and femitranfparency of the fpoil,
floating around it, is no imperfed reprefentation of a
cloud.
“ I never obferved-the fingers employed in detach¬
ing the fpoil. Both young newts and thofe full grown
call feveral fucceffive Ikins: fome of large fize are in
my poffeffion, that have done fo before me. Reprodu¬
cing limbs throw off the epidermis as well as the ori¬
ginal.
“ I have feen the Ikin of the head, which formed
like a collar or cravat round the neck, gradually come
down the belly of a large newt that had loft the arms,
and faften like, a tight girdle,
“ Nothing can accurately be faid of the number and
interval of mutations. Between the 14th of July and
the 7th of September, a newt has changed its fldn 11
times.
^ Spallan
xa/ii’s
Trails, ii
368. Dal
ill c
2d
3d
4th
hangt
14th July. 6th change, 9th Auguft.
17th 7th —
2Gth 8 th 19th
24th 9th 24th
30th 10th 26th
ixth 6th Sept,
Zf U's Trav, colour
“ Spoliation fometimes makes a flight change in the
OLOGY- Chap, ir
1 he manner in which toads throw off the old cuticle PhyiioW
is quoted by Dr Shaw, as related by Mr Schneider
from Grignon, who was an eye witnefs of it. “ The
fkin fplits or cracks in a longitudinal dire&ion, both
above and below, and the animal pulls off that of the
left fide with its left foot, and, delivering it into the
right foot, applies it to its mouth and fwallows it. It
then performs the fame procefs on the right fide, and
delivering the cuticle into the left foot, fwallows’it like
the former.”
But the moft remarkable circumftance in the econo,
my of thefe animals is the reprodu&ion of mutilated
limbs, fuch as the legs, the tail, and even the eyes. The
completeft fet of experiments to afcertain thefe curious-
fadls, were made by Spallanzani and Bonnet. The
following is an account of fome of thefe experiments
in the words of the author.
“ Experiment. The right arm and left leg of a nevet
amputated.—On the 6th of June, I cut the right arm.
and left leg off a large newt, very near the body. A
ftream of florid blood fpouted a minute and a half from
each wound ; however, the veffels foon clofed, and the
new t was apparently as w ell as thofe unmutilated. But
it will eafily occur that it did not fwim with equal fa¬
cility.
“ When about a month had elapfed, I began to per¬
ceive a papilla, of a violet gray colour, near the edge
of the trunk or fedtion. This was the origin of a new
arm and leg, which gradually increafed 5 and-.ffom the
14th of July, the two papillae continued growing on the
fubfequent days, but more in length than thicknefs.
They became minute flumps 5 and, on. the firft of Au¬
guft, wereabout two lines long. A kind of cleft, hard¬
ly perceptible, announces the appearance of two toes,
which nature labours to produce,, or rather to expand,
on the new foot. No cleft appears on the originating
a The two toes were eafily recognifed on the 7th*.
They were real miniatures, and truly moft minute. The
flump of the arm continued nearly as it was on the firft
of the month, but is now fomewhat larger j but as yet'
there is no indication of fingers.
“It is pleafing to obferve the little hand fully un¬
folding, while only three fingers of unequal length are
vifible : the middle one is the longeft. The arm has
made no fenfible progrefs. The new foot had four toes-
alfo of unequal length, the firft and fecond of which
are longeft j other two only begin to appear j the fourth
is fcarcely perceptible. One can never tire contem¬
plating thefe miniatures, and admiring the wonders of
the organic kingdom.
Evolution advanced every day. On the 22d of Leg and
Auguft, the regenerated members began to deepen marrarePrC*
colour, fo that the line, diferiminating the old parts <luced‘
from the new, was no longer fo confpicuousj but the
black fpecks on the toes of unmutilated newts were ftill
imperceptible.
I continued my- obfervations on the daily evolution
of the members ; and the following were their dimen-
hons in length, on the 2pth of September.
Old Members,
Arm> 4 lines.
Cubit,, 3*
3
New Members,
Arm,
Cubit,
Thigh,
2f
•Leg,
t
E R P E T
I'g.
Longeft finger, ij
Longelt toe, i
Even in the beginning of O&ober, the fifth toe of
the new foot was not vifible.
“ Experiment.— ,4 newt deprived of the right arm
and left hand. On the r 2th of June, I cut the left hand
and right arm off a newt: my chief objedf in this ex¬
periment was to verify Sig. Spallanzani’s affertion, that
nature reproduces exactly the portion amputated, which
was a faff of the utmoft importance in the theory of
animal reproductions, and could not be too well elta-
bliihed
“ Towards one fide of the feCtion, a little conical
nipple began to appear about the 7th or 8th of July, of
a violet gray colour. An incipient cleft, indiitmCtly
feen with the naked eye, was perceptible near themid-
dk of July : the papilla feemed ready to divide in two *,
and the cleft was the origin of two fingers.
“ In two or three days, I remarked a new cleft at
the upper extremity of the papilla, which was the be¬
ginning of a new finger: the third, in its turn, appeared
on the 19th. The conical papilla had then difappear-
ed ; and in its place was feen a final] open hand with
four fingers, ft ill very minute, but quite well (haped.
“ On the 3d of Auguft, the cone began to divide,
that is, two fingers became evident.
“ On the glh, a hand extremely minute, but the moft
beautilui objeft imaginable, was obferved at the ex¬
tremity of the arm. The fingers, all of unequal length,
were diftinguilhed, the fmalleft being juft perceptible.
The trunk, or part of the original arm, connected to the
body, may be reeognifed by the brown colour, and
from being covered with white points. The new arm
is of a lighter and uniform colour. Four fingers of the
hand are vifible: the largeft not above half a line in
length.
“ The hand of the left arm had made confiderable
progrefson the 21ft : it had expanded, and nearly ac¬
quired the figure peculiar to the newt’s hand. The
fingers alfo had extended, and become thicker in pro¬
portion. The whole hand began to colour, and brown
fpecks were diftinguilhable on different parts; they
were more evident on the back of the hand than on
the fingers.
“ On the 21 ft, the hand has already affumed its na¬
tural ihape, and the rapid progrefs of evolution is fuf-
pended. Colouring of the arm begins near the trunk :
but all the xeft is of a mixed gray and violet colour.
f I hough 1 have not hitherto exprefsly faid fo, it
will obvioufiy be prefumed, that there is a kind offemi-
tranfparency in the reproduced parts, which the origi¬
nal members have not, d'his continues long, and changes
llowly as the reproduftions colour. The tranfpa-
rency is evidently greater on the edges of the fingers
than elfewhere j if examined with a magnifier, they feem
mclofed in a fine diaphanous envelope : but nothing of
this is evident in the old fingers. Parts beginning to
unfold naturally have a degree of tranfpareneywvanting
in thofe further advanced, or fully expanded, becaufe,
with the progrefs of evolution, the calibre of the veffels
increafes, which allows admiffion to more grofs and co-
louiing particles. Whitenefs and tranfparence appa¬
rently coaftitute the primitive ftate of organic bodies.
yfioiogy. Leg, 4 lines-,
-w—' Longeft finger, 34
Longeft toe, 4^-
O L O L Y. 31-
It is this primitive ftate which we defign by the word Phyfiology.
germ ; and w hich we can comprehend, when the orga- u““,'v ~ f
nic whole is expanded to a certain extent. But there
is here a term beyond which wre cannot afeend j for the
organic whole either becomes fo minute or fo tranfpa-
rent, that it efcapes all refearch and our moft perfedt
inftruments.
“ The dimenfions of the old and new members, in
length, were as follows, on the 2d of September.
Old Members.
New Members,
Arm, 3|- lines, Arm, 2^.
Cubit, 3f Cubit, 2|
Longeft finger, Longeft finger, i4-fezW.ii.37*,
“ Experiment.—The tail of a newt amputated tranf-
verfely. Something important would have been want¬
ing, had I negledted amputation of the tail, which is a
very intricate great organic fubitance. It is formed of
a feries of minute vertebrae, with arteries, veins, and
nerves; and it is covered with mufcles and flefli.
“ The tail of a large newt is more than two inches
long, and about half an inch thick, formed like an oar,
and terminated by a foft point. Much might be faid
of the figure, proportions, and pofition of this organ,
and with refpedt to the fundtions it has to exercife j but
thefe would be details foreign to any purpofe : I only
mean to confirm what Sig. Spallanzani has advanced
concerning the admirable reprodudlion of the mem¬
bers.
“ When the tails of large newTs were amputated near
the origin, I never fucceeded in obtaining reprodudlion 5
the whole died in a certain time y and for feveral wrecks
preceding death, a kind of whitilh cotton mould grew
on the wounds, the filaments of which were feveral lines
in length. Neverthelefs, I cannot think that this af-
fedted the animal’s life, for I had feen fimilar mould, or
cottony filaments, on wounds occafioned by amputating
the arms and legs. Thefe filaments gradually difap-
peared, and unequivocal figns’of reprodudtion foon be¬
came vifible. Thus a good obfervation was never ob¬
tained, unlefs the tail was divided about the middle,
and by a fedtion perpendicular to the axis,; A ftreara
of blood, as thick as a hog’s briflle, always fpouted from
the wound. The large veffel, from w'hich it flows, is
fituated near the vertebrae, and its orifice is vifible by-
the naked eye y it immediately elofes y and the orifice
is diftinguithed by a reddifti or brownifh point.
“ The tail of newts is very fenfible, which is particu¬
larly evident in the flendereft part. A portion cut off
will retain life, and move whole hours j and when life
feems entirely extindf, we have only to prick the point-
ed extremity, that motion may be renewed; it rifesand
falls alternately, and with greater force, according to
the period that has elapfed finee the operation. The
motion of this feparated part bears great refemblance
to that which is peculiar to certain apodal worms; it iV
undulatory, and evidently depends on irritability, which
is extremely aftive in fo mufcular an organ.
“ Immediately after the operation, the area of the cut
exhibits a very long ellipfe; the two extremities almoft
terminating in a point. The fmalleft diameter is a-
bout a line acrofs, and the largeft five or fix. In the
centre are the vertebrae, or biood-veffels ; the reft o£
the area feems full of Lnall oblong dear white fub-
fiance^ -
Tail rege.
nerated.
* Ibid, ii,
33i.
318 E R P E T
Phyfidogr fla,lccSi
one would fuppofe pieces of fat, or
glands. The furface (lowly contradls ; the oppofite
(ides approach j the colour of the fubltances becomes
fainter, and in a certain time, which is according to
the feafon, new fle(h appears, and it daily increafes.
Then we obferve one or two crofs brown lines, occupy¬
ing the middle of the new tail, which indicate the fite
of the vertebrae and the vefiels. In a tail which had
been divided on the 1 ith of July ; on the 14th of Au-
guft the reproduced part was about three lines and a
half long, and four and a half in diameter, at the bafe.
“ The new portion was ten lines in length, 20th
September, and (liaped exaftly like the tail of a newt.
I could obferve no difference between the motions of
this regenerated tail, and thofe of tails unmutilated.
Thofe of the regenerated part only had a peculiar tranf-
parency, wanting in the reft of the tail*.
“ Experiment.—Whether reproduced members pof-
JeJs the fame fources of reproduction as thofe amputated.
I cut the left arm and right thigh off a large newt, 2d
June 1778. In the beginning of July, a newrarm and
thigh began to reproduce. They were (till in minia¬
ture, but the fingers and toes fufficiently formed, and
Very diftimft,
“On the nth of July, I made an experiment, which
was moft important in the theory of animal repro¬
ductions. The objeCt was to difcover whether the mem¬
bers now reproducing, w hich in reality w ere miniatures,
contained the fame fources of reparation as the original j
that is, whether they were, in new limbs, germs contain¬
ing members in miniature, fimilar to thofe amputated.
With this view, I cut off the regenerated hand and foot.
“ At the extremity of the reproduced leg, on the
2lft, appeared two new toes extremely minute, but eafily
recognifable by the naked eye* : and, on the 24th, an
originating hand, with three well-fhaped fingers, appear¬
ed at the extremity of the new arm.
“ The foot, now reproduced, exhibited four very dif-
tinft toes. Both thefe and the fingers were yet only
ene-fourth, or one-third, of a line long.
“ Therefore it is proved, by this firft experiment,
that the reproduced limbs of a newt can make new pro¬
ductions, in the fame manner as the old ones can, and
give birth to members which, in their effential parts, re-
femble thofe amputated, and are different only in fize,
confiftence, and colour: for, as wras remarked in my former
memoir, the new members are of more delicate texture,
and of a much lighter colour than the old.
“ It was undoubtedly moft interefting to afcertain
how far the refources of nature extended 3 and whether,
after feveral fucceftive mutilations of the reproduced
member, a new' one would ftill regenerate.
“ On the 31ft of July, for the fecond time, I cut off
the reproduced hand and foot of my newt 3 the fingers
and toes being then about a line long.
“ Two new fingers and toes appeared at the extremity
of the limbs, 13th Auguft, therefore a hand and foot
had begun to regenerate. On the 15th, there were
three fingers and toes already well formed, though very
fmall.
“ Both the hand and foot feemed quite repaired on the
24th, though ftill of extreme minutenefs. All the fin¬
gers had grown, but only four toes. And it may now
regenerated jje that the appearance of the fifth toe is con-
ftantly later j ofterfMt does not unfold.
Reproduc
ed mem¬
bers alfo
O L O G Y. Chap, if
“ On the fame day, 24th Auguft, I amputated the PhyfioU.
reproduced hand andarm thethirdtime; andon the 13th
OCIober, performed the fourth operation : the limbs be¬
ing then in the fame ftate as thofe mutilated by the third
amputation.
“ Thus it is fully eftablifhed, that every member,
fucceftively reproduced, contains new fources of repara¬
tion 3 and that they are aftually exifting, though the
member is extremely minute.
“ From thefe fucceflive mutilations of reproduced
members, I have thought the extremity of the leg and
arm became a little thicker than ufual, as if from a re¬
flux of the nutritive fluids into the extremity, by fuch
repeated amputations.
“ This feafon w as particularly favourable to my expe¬
riments, being always dry and warm. A mercurial
thermometer, in the (hade, completely ifolated, on a
large terrace, flood at 90° and 930, on the 14th and 15th
of Auguft. Moft of fummer it flood between 790 and
8i° 3 and the temperature of the apartment, where the
newt was kept, differed very little from that of the
open air.
“ Experiment.—When a large new t was treated as
has juft been related, I made another experiment on
one of fimilar fize, to obtain comparative refults.
“ The left arm and thigh were fevered 2d June 1778.
Reproduction of new members commenced in the be¬
ginning of July : two well-fliaped toes were then on
the foot. On the nth, new limbs had replaced the
old 3 they feemed completely repaired : ftill they were
only miniatures of moft delicate texture. This day I
amputated the reproduced hand and foot.
“ A new foot, with tw'o diftind: toes, was perceptible
on the 2 2d; and thfee were vifible on the 24th. But the
new hand had not appeared 3 at leaft there was no evi¬
dence of originating fingers. The thermometer now
flood about 84°. However, a new hand, with three per-
eCt fingers, was feen on the 29th.
“ The reproduced hand and foot being a full line long
on the 31ft, I then cut them off. Both appeared again,
Auguft 15th, with three well-fhaped fingers and toes.
On the 24th, the hand had acquired its four fingers,
and the foot five toes, all vifible, though exceflively
fmall.
“ I then cut off the hand and foot for the third time.
The fingers and toes were a full line long 13th QCtober3
four of which appeared, but the fifth toe was yet imper¬
ceptible.
“ Next I performed a fourth amputation : it alfo
was followed by reproductions. Various occupations
having interrupted me, a fifth amputation was not made
before 26th Auguft 1779.
“ T he longeft finger was then about one line and a third,
the longeft toe one and a half in length, deep coloured,
and very (lender. The hand had four fingers 3 the firft
and fourth imperfeCt. The foot had only three toes,
more diftant from each other than ufual. Both the
fingers were as imperfeCt 30th OCtober 1780: the fourth
(carcely vifible, and confiding only of a (harp point 3
and no more than three toes on the foot. T he newt
had then diminiftied greatly in fize, and was very brown.
It ate little, and feldom : it remained long at the (ur-
face, unable to get to the bottom of the water 3 and its
belly was almoft always very much inflated.
“ Thefe are two experiments, therefore, which concur
in
(up
I fiology.
II. E R P E T
. In eilabliiliing the fame fact, viz. that the reproduced
^ 1 members of a newt, though ftill in miniature, are equal¬
ly provided with reparatory germs as the old limbs \
and that they begin to unfold after the new members
* Hi. are cut off*.”
>' To thefe curious experiments we fhall only add the
account of another, concerning the reproduction of the
eyes of newts.
“ Experiment.—On the eyes of newts. This is a cruel
experiment •, and fenfible minds wrill hardly pardon the
obferver’s cruelty, though it arifes from an evident defire
to difcover new fadts and enlarge our knowledge of the
animal economy. Therefore, I fear the compaflionate
reader will revolt further ftill at what is yet to be re¬
lated. But I beg he will confider, that animals, which,
after lofing one, or even feveral limbs, continue greedi¬
ly devouring the prey prefented, undoubtedly cannot
experience the fenfation of pain to the excefs which our
own fenfations lead us to imagine. We are very infuffi-
cient judges of what paffes within an animal fo remote
from us in the fcale of living beings. Let it not be
thought, that by thefe redeftions, I mean to leffen the
natural repugnance of every humane mind to make ani¬
mals fuffer. The benignity of nature itfelf will infpire
man with this precious fentiment to prevent the enor¬
mous abufe that his power might exert over the animals
which fhe has fubjedted to his dominion. Yet let me
afk, whether a rational perion abufes his empire over
animals, by making them fufFer only for his own in-
ftruflion, or that of his fellow creatures.
“ With a fcalpel, I extracted the right eye of a large
newt, September 13. 1779 j but I did not obtain the
globe without much injury to the tunics. It was the
firft time of performing the operation, and before I had
acquired the peculiar dexterity neceffary for fuccefs, and
afterwards learned by experience. Thus the utmofl
diforder enfued in the eye, and the cryftalline lens dart¬
ed out on my nail. This is a beautiful objeft j no
larger than a millet feed, and quite tranfparent. I
thought that I beheld one of the fpherical lenfes with
which Leeuwenhoeck difcovered fo many wonders. But
contact of the air foon tarnifhed the minute lens j it
dried and became disfigured.
H A deep bloody wound in the focket of the eye was
the confequence of this cruel operation. And the read¬
er will not be furprifed if I hardly expedted any thing
from it, and that the newt would probably remain blind
for ever. How great was my aftonifliment, therefore,
when, on the 3 ill of May 1780, I faw a new eye
formed by nature. The iris and cornea were already
well fiiaped, but the latter wanted its peculiar tranfpa-
rency, which is very confiderable in thefe animals. Im¬
patience to arrive at the moft important part of the pro¬
digy has induced me to omit the progrefs of it ; and
obferve that nature certainly began with clofing the
wound.
' “ Ihe eye was completely repaired ill September.
I he cornea was nearly as tranfparent as that of the
other eye, with which it was frequently compared. The
ins had alfo, acquired the yellow gilded colour, which
charadterifes this fpecies of newt. In Ihort, the eye
was fo perfedtly renewed, that no veftige exitted of the
uncommon operation that the animal had undergone.
Baring the remainder of this and the following-month,
the cornea always became more tranfparent 3 and now,
rcge-
ed.
O L O G Y 319
when I write thefe remarks, 8th November 1780, it is Phyfiology.
equally perfedt as the other 3 but the reproduced eye *—
feems a little fmaller than the entire one 3 and the iris,
or golden circle, goes only half round the ball.
“ It would Hill be neceffary to extradf the reprodu¬
ced eye, to afcertain, by diffedlion, whether it contains
a cryftalline lens fimilar to the original. But I confefs,
that, as yet, I have not had refolution to fubjedt the
newt to the moft: barbarous of all operations) and I
ftiall probably await its death for fatisfying my cu-
riofity * Ibid. ii.
Hybernation or Torpidity of Reptiles.—The 43r*
Jieat of the atmolphere is neceffary to animals, that
when the periodical return of the feafons reduces the
heat of the countries in the neighbourhood of the equa¬
tor to the cool temperatures of places fituated in higher p]aCes to
latitudes, reptiles lofe their adlivity, the heat of their which they
blood diminifhes 3 their ftrength decreafes 3 they retire relire iu
into obfcure retreats, in holes of rocks, in the mud at winter‘
the bottom of lakes, or elfe they feek thelter among
the roots of plants which grow on the banks of rivers:
but the cold increafing, they fall-into a ftate like that of
profound deep 3 and this torpor is fo great, that no noife
difturbs or aw akens them. They feem alike infenfible
to violent blows or fevere wounds. Reptiles are fub-
jedt to this ftate of torpidity only in thofe countries
where the variations of temperature at different feafons
of the year is confiderable ; and indeed it feems to be
a wife regulation of nature, that fome of the animals
fundlions (hould be fufpended during that period of the
year when the fupply of food is cut off. This is the
cafe with reptiles which inhabit countries diftant from
the equator, whofe food confifting of infedls, worms,
&c. can only be obtained in the warmer feafon of the
year. Accordingly, about the end of autumn, the rep¬
tiles which have been vigorous and adtive in the fum-
mer, conceal themfelves in the earth, or under the wa¬
ter, where they remain in the torpid ftate till the re¬
turn of the genial warmth of fpring. In Britain, frogs
are found at the bottom of ftagnant water, or in marftiy
places, where the water of fprings iffues from the earth,
the temperature of which continues uniform through
the whole year.
In this ftate of torpor and inadlion, nothing of the
animal remains but the form, and thofe fundtions only
go on, which are effentially neceffary to exiftence dur¬
ing this long period of torpidity, which fometimes con¬
tinues more than fix months. The total mafs of the
body of reptiles fuftains only fmall lofs of fubftance, but
the external parts, fuch as are expofed to the adtion of
the cold, and more diftant from the centre of heat, un¬
dergo in the moft of animals a confiderable change.
But even in countries where the change of feafons
is fo great, and the diminution of temperature fuch as
to oblige the animals belonging to this order to retire
during that fealbn, there are in particular circumftances
fome remarkable exceptions. One of thefe is mentioned
by Townfon in his Travels in Hungary : “ The town
of Gran (he fays) is favoured with a fine fpring of
tepid water, of more ufe, I believe, to the frogs than to
its other inhabitants. My Ciceroni affured me that this
animal is not torpid here during the winter, but is then
feen in numbers in the pond in the town which receives
its water from this fpring. This is uncommon (con¬
tinues the fame author), but not furprifing. For thefe
three
320
Phyfiology.
E R PET
'Hyberna¬
tion dif
ferent from
€eep.
P. 60.
Abftinence
of the cro¬
codile and
the turtle.
*Ofthe toad,
three years, I have kept a favourite tree frog, which is
as gay in winter as in fummer, provided fhe has warmth
and enough to eat. The German itoves, which keep
the room warm all night, have been very favourable to
her. In this, hybernation differs from deep, that, where¬
as the latter admits of little variation, and can never be
laid afide, or through art receive a fubftitute j the
former greatly varies, and may be fupplied by warmth
and food. The Alpine marmot, in fome high valleys
in Savoy hybernates, I am told, eight or ten months in
the year. In other parts of the Alps, it does not hy-
bernate half that time j and when kept warm, and well
fed, its annual fleep entirely forfakes it, but not its diur¬
nal. The fame warmth that keeps alive the frog, keeps
alive the infedts on which it feeds, which in their turn
will find food from the vegetable w orld, the mediate or
immediate fupport of every living being kept in vege¬
tation by the fame caufe*.”
Abstinence of Reptiles — The Angular inftances
of abftinence which have been recorded of many of the
animals belonging to this order, are not the leaft of thp
peculiarities by which they are diftinguifhed. It is
conjedtured by fome pbyfiologifts, that the texture of
the Ikin, which has few pores, and from which confe-
quently the wafte by perfpiration is very fmall, enables
them to endure long abftinence. The turtle and the
crocodile can live two months without any kind of nou-
riftiment. It is no unufual crrcumftance to keep turtle
on the decks of (hips, during a paffage of feven or eight
weeks, from the \Veft Indies, without Rny food what¬
ever, only occaftonally moiftening the eyes with fait
water.
The toad has lived eighteen months entirely deprived
of food, and excluded from the air j lo that the func¬
tions of digeftion and refpiration, fo neceffary and ef-
fential to animal exiftence in general, muft have been
totally fufpended. We have already mentioned, in the
natural hiftory of the toad, Heriffant’s experiments on
this fubjedt before the French academy ; and it would
be fuperfluous to repeat the account of them here.
In the fame place we have alfo given our opinion of
the extreme improbability of toads, or indeed, it may
be added, any animal whatever, having exifted for any
length of time inclofed in wood or ftone, according to
the vague ftories which have been propagated of fuch
having been difcovered. The experiments of Herif-
fant, above alluded to, afford a diredl proof of the con-
trary.
Tenacity of Life.—Many of the tribes of reptiles
are not lefs remarkable for being extremely tenacious
of life. They not only live when deprived of their
limbs and are otherwife mutilated, but abfolutely Jeem
to be little iniured when fome of the organs effential to
life in other animals, and without which they could not
exift for a moment, have been removed. Ihe experi¬
ments of Redi on the land tortoife, which we have re¬
lated in the natural hiftory of that animal, in p. 271.
are a proof of this fa£l.
Age of Reptiles.—Of the age of reptiles not
much is known. But, from the few well-authenticated
jnftances which are recorded, it may be fairly pre¬
fumed, that the period of the life of many tribes is very
long. This, indeed, might have been concluded to
be the cafe with cold-blooded animals, which can fuf-
tain total abftinence for fuch a length of time, are fo
O L O G Y. Chap. I]
extremely tenacious of life, and repair fo eafily the lofs Phyfiolog,
of different parts of the body : but, on the other hand, 
when it is confidered that they have no fixed haunts
where they can remain always undifturbed, that from
their amphibious nature they live alternately on the land
and in the water, and that they are conftantly expofed
to the viciflitudes of the feafons, it is not poflible to
conceive but thefe changes from wet to dry, and from
hot to cold, muft greatly affeft the animal frame, and
limit the period of exiftence.
But without entering into any train of reafoning on
the fubjedt, the fadts which have been recorded, and
fome of which we have related, clearly Ihew, that indi¬
viduals among reptiles arrive at a very great age. The Age of th-
age of the land tortoife which was kept in Lambeth tonoife a:
gardens, and which we have mentioned in p. 271. wasthetoad*
at leaft 12Q years. The common toad, of which the
hiftory of one kept by Mr Afcot in Devonlhire, that
lived to the age of 40 years, is given in p. 286. is an
inftance of the remarkable length of life of fo fmall an
animal.
Some fpecies of the turtle do not reach their full fize The turtl
till they are 20 years old 5 and it is faid that they live
more than a century.
The age of the crocodile can only be conjedtured. It0fthe
is fuppofed that this animal, which does not reach its erocodite
full fize of 25 feet long in lefs time than 32 years, may
live feven times this period, fo that the age of the cro¬
codile has been calculated at 200 years.
Manners, &c. of Reptiles.—There are probably
fewf animals which difcover fo much tranquillity and
compofure in their manners and habits, in general, as
reptiles. Lefs agitated within by violent paffions, and
lefs affedled from external objedls than other ani¬
mals, they are calm, mild, and peaceable. And if the
crocodile, which of all the animals belonging to this
order is the moft voracious and deftrudlive, is to be re¬
garded as an exception, the ferocious habits for which
he is diftinguiftied, are owing to the great fize of body
which he murt fupport j and, befides, how many tribes
may be oppofed to this fanguinary family, whofe cha-
radter is quite the reverfe. Let us only compare the
charadler of the crocodile with the gentle habits of the
fmall gray lizard, or with the manners of the frog.
But notwithftanding this favourable charadter of rep¬
tiles, which may be confidered in fome meafure as ne¬
gative, it is to be obferved, that, in their manners and
habits, they never difcover that choice of means, that
feries of combinations, or that kind of forefight, which
in many other animals we behold with wonder and ad¬
miration. If fometimes they affemble together in great
numbers, this by no means exhibits the charadler of
that focial union which takes place among gregarious
animals, for it difcovers no forefight or order. This
bond of union is founded on no connedlion with each
other, on providing no mea s for their mutual iafety or
protedlion. They produce no common work; they do not
join together in fearch of prey, nor are they united in
making any general attack on their enemies. Like the
beaver, birds, or bees, they conftrudt no permanent
afylum ; but when they fix on any particular place of
abode on the ftiores, in the clefts of rocks, or in the
hollow of trees, it is not a commodious habitation
which they prepare for a certain number of individuals,
and which they endeavour to appropriate to difierent
purpoies,
n
hap. II. E R P E T
,yfiology.\purpofes, it is rather a retreat for concealment on which
<—y-*"' they make no change, and which they occupy equally,
whether it be only fufficient for a fingle individual, or
contain an extent of fpace to admit many. If they af-
fociate together, it has been obferved, for the purpofe
of purfuing their prey either on the land or in the wa¬
ter, it is becaufe they are equally attrafted by the fame
obje£t; if they make a joint attack, it is becaufe they
have the fame prey in view. If they feem to unite for
the common defence, it is becaufe they are attacked at
the fame time j and if any individual among them has
ever faved the whole party, by warning it by its cries,
it is not as has been faid of monkeys and tome other
quadrupeds, that they have been left to watch for the
common fafety, but only proceeds from the impreflions
of fear which every animal poffeffes, and which renders
it conftantly attentive to its own prefervation.
It has been commonly fuppofed that reptiles have
none of thofe tender afteftions, with which the care for
the prefervation of their offspring infpires other ani¬
mals. Their whole concern about their progeny, it is
thought, extends no farther than depofiting their eggs
in proper places, and covering them with fand and
leaves. The offspring is not indebted to the parent for
its food, for any of its habits, or for affiftance or pro¬
tection of any kind. It is true, that in general, the
moral affeCtions owe much of their force to the repeat¬
ed impreffions on the fenfes, and that thefe impreflions,
recurring diftinftly to the memory, and modified by
the imagination, cherifh thefe feelings j whence it fol¬
lows, that the females of reptiles, which do not hatch
their young, and which never fee them till after the
procefs of incubation is completed, muft have very fee¬
ble impreflions of maternal tendernefs, or perhaps none
at all. The few obfervations, however, which have been
made with regard to the attachment of the crocodile
to its offspring, fhew that fome of them are not entirely
deftitute of that feeling, which almoft univerfally per¬
vades the animated crealion. “ At Surinam (fays M.
de la Borde_) the female of the crocodile remains always
at a certain diftance from her eggs, which the watches
and protefts with a kind of fury when any animal ap¬
proaches them. On the banks of the Oroonoko, when
the alligators are hatched, the mother places them on
her back and returns to the river. “ But, adds Gu-
milla, the male eats as many as he can, and the female
herfelf devours all thofe which feparate from her, or
which are unable to follow her j fo that fcarcely five or
fix, of the whole number, remain.” This faCt, which
is by no means probable, even in fo voracious an ani¬
mal as the crocodile, is not incompatible with what is
certainly known of many other animals devouring their
own offspring. But it feems extremely doubtful, that
W'hat is mentioned above of the crocodile watching its
eggs, as recorded by de la Borde, is an obfervation
founded in truth.
Enemies of Reptiles.—The earth would foon be
covered with immenfe fwarms of reptiles, if nature had
not made forne provifion to retard their increafe, and
raifed up a crowd of enemies which deftroy their eggs
and their offspring, and preferve the proper balance
Vol. VIII. Part I.
0 L O L ¥. 321
which is eftabliflied among the different orders of am- Phyfiology.
mals. Fortunately, a great number of frogs, toads, Y ^
lizards, and crocodiles, are deftroyed before they are
hatched. Many quadrupeds, as feveral fpecies of
monkeys, the ichneumon, and other animals, as V'ell as
feveral fpecies of aquatic birds, fearch for their eggs on
the fliores, and feed on them with avidity. All the
fmall reptiles, which live in the water, which crawl in
the mud of marfhes, or creep on the earth, become
the prey of fifties, of ferpents, of birds, and of qua¬
drupeds.
The tiger attacks the crocodile, and is fometimes
fuccefsful in feizing its prey. The hippopotamus is a
terrible enemy to the fame animal; and is the more to
be dreaded, as from his habits, he is enabled to purfue
it to the bottom of the water. The cougar, although
a lefs ferocious animal than the tiger, deftroys many
alligators. He waits in ambufti on the banks of the
great rivers for the approach of the young ones, and at
the moment they raife their head above the water, he
feizes them and tears them to pieces* But when he
attacks thofe that are large and vigorous, he often
meets with a bold and effeftual refiftance. It is in vain
that he fallens his talons in their eyes j thefe huge rep¬
tiles drag him to the bottom of the water and devour
him.
But man is perhaps the moft dangerous enemy of the
crocodile 5 fometimes he attacks him by open force, and
fometimes by means of ftratagem. The Africans, as
foon as they perceive one of thefe animals on the bank
of a river, advance tow-ards him, having only in their
hand a flick of very hard wood, or an iron rod about
eight or ten inches long, and well fliarpened at the ends j
they hold this feeble inftrument by the middle, and
when the reptile, w-hich advances towards them, opens
his wide mouth, they introduce the rod of iron, w hich
they turn with dexterity, fo that the monfler finds thal
he is unable to clofe his jaws. The pain from the
wound, and inflindl to reach a place of fafety, make him
retreat into the water, wdiere Ire foon perifhes by fufib-
cation and the lofs of blood. It is faid, that fome ne¬
groes are fo bold and dexterous, as to fwim under the
body of the crocodile, and to pierce him in the fkin of
the belly ; which is almofl the only place on which a
wound can be inflifled.
In fome countries the natives employ flratagem to
take this dreaded animal. In Egypt, they dig a deep
ditch in the path which he follows in proceeding from
the river. This is covered with branches of trees, and
with a fmall quantity of earth ; they then fet up loud
fhouts, at which the crocodile is terrified, and returning
the fame way to the water, he paffes over the ditch,
falls into it, and is either killed or taken in fnares.
The Indians fuccefsfully employ another mode of de-
flroying the crocodile. They introduce into the body
of a fmall animal, newly killed, a quantity of arfenic or
quicklime, fo fecured, that the moifture cannot reach
it *, and this animal is expofed to the view of the croco¬
dile. This is undoubtedly the moft certain, and the
leaft dangerous expedient.
Sf
EXPLANATION
322
E R P E T O L O G Y.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Index.
Plate CCVIL
Fig. T. Teftudo Grseca, Common land Tortoife,
page 270.
Fig. 2. Teftudo Mydas, Green Turtle, page 278.
Fig. 3. Rana Efculenta, Green or Eatable Frog,
page 281.
Fig. 4. Rana Arborea, I'm- Frog, page 284.
Fig. 5. Rana Pipa, Surinam Toad, female, page
288.
Fig. 6. Draco Volans, Flying Dragon, page 289.
Plate CCVIII.
Fig. 7. Lacerta Crocodilus, Common Crocodile, page
290.
Fig. 8. Lacerta Alligator, Alligator or American
Crocodile, page 291.
Fig. 9. The Young Alligator proceeding from the
egg*
Fig. 10. Lacerta Chamaeleon, Common Chameleon,
page 300.
Fig. 11. Lacerta Salamandra, Salamander, page 303.
Plate CCIX.
Fig. 12. Skeleton of the Turtle.
Fig. 13. Skeleton of the Frog.
Fig. 14. Skeleton of the Crocodile.
Fig. 15. Skeleton of the Gray Lizard.
Fig. 16. Skeleton of the Chameleon.
INDEX.
A
Abdomen, p. 3o8
Abjlmence of reptiles, 320
of the toad, ib.
Age of reptiles, ib.
toad and tortoife, ib.
turtle, ib.
crocodile, ib.
Alligator, 291
hiftory of, by Catelby, ib.
by Ulloa, 292
Anatomy of reptiles, 306
Anus, 308
includes the parts of genera¬
tion,
Apodal lizard,
Arms of newt regenerated,
B
BaJiliJ'k, fpecies of lizard,
error concerning,
Biped lizard,
Breeding time of frog,
turtle,
alligator,
Bullfrog,
Angular for the found
its voice,
popular notion of,
ib.
3°5
316
of
295
ib.
305
313
S'f
ib.
282
ib.
ib.
C
Calipofh of the turtle,
Calipee,
Chalcides lizards,
annulated,
Chameleon, divifion of,
hiftory of,
tongue, ftru&ure of,
culiar,
changes of colour.
308
ib.
3°J
ib.
300
ib.
pe-
ib.
ib.
Chameleon, errors concerning this
change, and its abfti-
nence, p. 300
CharaBers, generic, 269
Circulation of the blood in reptiles, 311
its peculiarity, ib.
ClaJJification of different naturalifts, 269
Common frog, 281
hiftory of, ib.
Cordyles, divifion of, 297
lizard, ib.
Crocodile, common, 290
hiftory of, ib.
lefs formidable than repre-
fented, 291
hunted with dogs, ib.
kept by the African mo-
narchs, ib.
exhibited by the Romans, ib.
American, or alligator, ib.
hiftory of, ib. and 293
Gangetic or Indian, 291
D
Draco, 289
volans, ib.
praepos, ib.
Dragon, flying, ib.
hiftory of, ib.
American, ib.
a fiftitious monftef, 290
hiftory of an artificial one,
at Oxford, ib.
one at Hamburgh, ib.
E
Ears of reptiles,
Eatable frog,
hiftory of.
3°7
281
ib.
Eft, divifton of,
Eggs, fize of,
coverings,
of turtle ufed as food,
of alligator alfo as food,
Enemies of reptiles,
Erpeto/ogy, introduction to,
ftudy of, important,
Expiration, procefs of,
Eyes of reptiles,
newts regenerated,
F
V-PS
ib.
315
ib,
ill
267
268
212
3°7
319
Feet of reptiles refemble thofe of
quadrupeds, 308
are furnilhed with toes, ib.
bones of, 309
Frog, common, 281
hiftory and changes of, ib,
tadpole, the larva of, ib.
ftrufture of, ib.
food of, ib.
green, or eatable, ib.,
employed as food, tb.
bull, 282
remarkable for the founds
it emits, ib-
popular notion of, in Ame¬
rica, ib>
paradoxical, 283
tadpole, lingular appearance of, 28^
tree, ib>
peculiar ftrudture and eco¬
nomy, 283
changes on, and habits of, in
breeding feafon,
ova, defcription of, ^
G
Galeot lizard,
295
Galeot^
WArcfzil’ald Sezz/p.
ERPETOLOGY.
PLATE CCVU
PLATE ccvni
J"ci/If.'. r
Index.
Galeot, American, P- 295
Gecko, divifum of 300
Green orefculent turtle, hifloryof, 278, 279
2 ^1
employed as food, ib.
hiftory of, 282
Guana, divifion of, _ 294
great American, to.
hiftory of, ib.
H
Uayokjbill turtle, hiftory of, _ 279
yields tortoife ftiell, 280
method of obtaining
and preparing, ib.
Head, form of, 3°6
Heart, ftrufture of, not a diferimina-
ting chara&er 268
Hibernation of reptiles, 319
different from fleep, 320
Jaw, lower, never longeft, 307
Jaws of reptiles equal, 306
Infpiration, proeefs of, 311
K
Kamtfchatka, no reptiles but lizards in, 315
fuperftition of natives in, ib.
Lacerta,
crocodilus
alligator,
gangetica,
iguana,
amboinenlis,
bafilifeus,
calotes,
agama,
bicarinata,
monitor,
acanthura,
lophura,
dracaena,
fuperciliofa,
feutata,
principalis,
itrumofa,
marmorata,
umbra,
pelluma,
azurea,
eordylus,
ftellio,
angulata,
orbicularis,
agiHs,
tegmxin,
erythrocepliala,
cemlea,
lemnifeata,
quadi iiineata,
teniolata,
290
ib.
291
293
294
ib.
295
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
296
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
297
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
298
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
erpetology.
Lacerta fexlineata, p. 298
fafeiata, ib.
quinquelineata, ib.
interpunftata, ib.
bullaris, ib.
cruenta, ib.
lobata, 299
heliofcopa, ib.
turcica, ib.
platura, ib.
plica, ib.
japonica, ib.
nilotica, ib.
tiliguerta, ib.
deferti, ib.
arguta, ib.
algira, ib.
velox, ib.
uralenfis, ib.
feps, 300
chamaeleon, ib.
africana, ib.
pumila, ib.
gecko, ib.
dubia, 301
perfoliata, ib.
mauritanica, ib.
finenfis, ib.
vittata, ib.
fimbriata, ib.
tetrada&yla, 302
caudiverbera, ib.
fchneideriana, ib.
fparmanniana, ib.
fpeftator, ib.
fcincus, ib.
rufefeens, 303
longicauda, ib.
mabouya, ib.
occidua, ib.
guttata, ib.
ocellata, ib.
falamandra, . ib.
vulgaris, 304
paluftris, ib.
aquatica, ib.
maculata, 305
chalcides, ib.
ferpens, ib.
anguina, ib.
apus, ib.
bipes, ib.
lumbricoides, 306
Legs of newt regenerated, 316, 317
Life, tenacity of, in reptiles, 320
Lizards proper, divifion of, 297
green, ib.
monitory, 295
prodigious number of, at
JBalbec, 303
fome viviparous, 314
fuperftition of the natives of
Kamtfchatka concerning, 315
Loggerhead turtle, _ 279
323
Loggerhead turtle, great ftrength and
fiercenefs of, p. 279
yields lamp oil, ib.
M
of reptiles, 320
calm and compofed, ib.
Monitory lizard, 295
extremely beautiful, ib.
N
Natter-jach, a fpecies of the toad, 287
Newt, divifion of, 3C3
common, hiftory of, 304
is viviparous, ib,
great water, tb.
common water, ib.
hiftory of, ib.
cafts its Ikin, ib.
fpotted water, 305
hiftory of calling its Ikin, 316
number of times, ib.
arm and leg, regenerated, ib.
progrefs of, ib.
another experi¬
ment, 317
tail of, regenerated, ib.
eyes of, regenerated, 319
O
Oviparous quadrupeds, reptiles fo de¬
nominated, 268
Pipa, or Surinam toad, 288
hiftory of, fingular, ib.
Phyjio/ogy of reptiles, 306
R
Rana, 280
divided into three feclions, ib.
temporaria, 281
efculenta, ib.
pipiens, 282
catelbeiana, ib.
ocellata, ib.
virginica, ib.
ovalis, ib,
cyanophlyetis, ib.
fpinipes, N ib.
cerulea, 283
vefpertina, ib.
ridibunda, ib.
fitibunda, ib.
leveriana, ib.
ignea, ib.
fa) fa, ib.
paradoxa, ib.
zebra, 284
bicolor, ib.
leucophyllata, ib.
quadriiineata, ib.
caitanea, ib.
faJciata, ib,
arborea, ib.
S f 2 Rang,
324
Rana meriana,
aurantia,
tindloria,
alba,
bilineata,
bufo,
alliacea,
mephitica,
viridis,
marina,
dubia,
typbonia,
braziliana,
ventricofa,
cornuta,
pipa,
breviceps,
fyftoma,
acephala,
lentiginofa,
femilunata,
melanoftifta,
arunco.
285
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
286
287
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
288
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
289
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
lutea, ib.
Reproduced members regenerated, 318
Reproductive ex of reptiles, 315
Reptile properly applied to thefe animals, 268
Reptiles, anatomy of, 306
have not all teeth, 307
claflification, 269
generic chara&ers, ib.
abftinence of, 320
the toad, ib.
food of, 315
are extremely voracious, ib.
habits in watching for prey, ib.
charafter of, in different fi-
tuations, ib.
none but lizards in Kamtf-
chatka, ib.
fuperftition of the natives
concerning, ib.
abode, ib.
reprodu£tive power of, ib.
enemies . 321
Refpiration, procefs of, 3x1
infpiration, ib.
expiration, 312
mechanifm, ib.
Ribs, ^308
S
Salamander, divificn of, 303
hiftory of, ib.
is viviparous, 304
popular errors concerning, ib.
Scapula, ~ 309
Scinks, divifion of, 302
hiftory of, ib.
Serpent lizard, 305
Shn of reptiles renovated, 315
hiftory and progrefs of, ib.
Snake lizards, divifion of, 305
\ hiftory of, ib.
Species, number of, in the order, 306
EREPTOLOGY.
X
Tadpole, p. 281
hiftory of, tb.
ftrufture and changes of, ib.
lingular one, 284
changes and evolution of, 313
Tail of reptiles, 308
not in all, ib.
of newt regenerated, 317
Tejludo, claflification of, 270
from number of claws
infufticient, ib.
into land and fea tortoifes, ib.
graeca, ib.
marginata, 272
geometrica, ib.
radiata, 273
indica, ib.
rugofa, ib.
europea, ib.
lutaria, ib.
carinata, 274
Carolina, ib.
fulcata, ib.
tabulata, ib.
concentrica, 275
pifta, ib,
guttata, ib.
elegans, ib.
areolata, ib.
ferrata, ib.
pufilla, ib.
tricarinata, ib.
fcabra, 276
feripta, ib.
galeata, ib.
denticulata, ib,
pennfylvanica, ib.
longicollis, ib.
cafpica, ib.
ferox, ib.
granulata, 277
fimbriata, ib.
ferpentina, ib.
fquamata, ib.
coriacea, ib.
my das, 278
caretta, - 279
imbricata, ib.
Toad, common, 285
hiftory of, ib.
age, 286
not poifonous, ib.
error concerning, ib.
alliaceous, ib.
emits a peculiar fmell, ib.
tadpole of, voracious, 287
ufed as food, ib.
Surinam, 288
economy of, in hatch¬
ing ova, ib.
calls its fkin, 316
Tongue, an inftrument for feizing the
prey, 307
Index.
Tongue, error fuppofing the crocodile
has none, p>
ftrufture of the chameleon,
Torpidity of reptiles,1
Tortoife, common land,
defeription of
native country,
great age,
tenacious of life,
abftinence,
hiftory of one,
marginated,
geometrica,
319
270
ib.
ib.
ib.
271
ib.
ib.
272
ib.
terrapin of Dampier, 273
radiated,
Indian,
wrinkled,
fpeckled,
employed as food,
mud,
carinated,
clofe,
peculiar ftrufture of,
of prodigious ftrength,
fulcated,
tabular,
concentric,
is a delicate food,
painted,
fpotted,
elegant,
areolated,
fer rated,
little,
. tricarinated,
rough,
lettered,
galeated,
denticulated,
pennfylvanian, ,
long-necked,
Cafpian,
fierce,
lhagreened,
fimbriated,
fnake,
fcaly,
Ihell got from the hawklbill
turtle,
mode of obtaining and
preparing,
employed as ornaments
by the Greeks and
Romans,
an article of trade,
Townjbn, Dr, on refpiration
illuftration or proof,
Tree-frog,
peculiar ftrufture and eco¬
nomy,
Trunk of the body,
Turtle diftinguilhed from tortoifes,
coriaceous,
prodigious fize of,
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
274
ib,
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
*7J
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib,
ib.
ib.
276
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
277
ib.
ib.
ib.
280
ib.
ib.
ib.
311
312
284
285
307
277
ib.
278
Turtle,
r
ndex.
urtle, green, p. 278
molt commonly eaten, z&.
a very delicious food, z$.
mode of taking, ib.
eggs depolited in the
fand, ib.
hatched by the fun, 279
introduced into Europe, ib.
loggerhead, a large fpecies, ib.
flelh coarfe and rank, ib.
ERPETOLOGY.
Turtle, loggerhead, yields lamp oil, p. 279
very ftrong and fierce, ib.
hawkfbill, or imbricated, ib.
yields tortoife Ihell, 280
mode of obtaining it, ib.
procefs of its prepa¬
ration, ib.
ufed by the Greeks
and Romans for
ornaments, ib.
325
Turtle, hawkfbill, trade with the Egyp¬
tians, p. 280
and to China, ib.
green-lhelled, ib.
trunk, ib.
rhinoceros, ib.'
breeding feafon of, 314
varies according to circumftan-
ces, ib.
ERR
Errat;c ERRATIC, in general, fomething that wanders,
|| or is not regular : hence it is the planets are called er-
Error. ratio fiars.
ERRHINES, in Pharmacy, medicines which when
fnuffed up the nofe promote a difcharge of mucus from
that part. See Materia Medica Index.
Errhines prepared of .cephalic herbs are of Angular
fervice in oppreflive pains-of the head, a hemicrania,
lethargic diforders, weakneffes of memory, ftuffings of
the head, and coryza, mucous defluxions of the eyes,
drowfinefs, vertigoes, and in cafes where the malignant
humours generated by the lues venerea are lodged in the
membranes of the noftrils.
ERROR, in Philofophy, a miftake of our judgment,
giving affent to that which is not true.
Mr Locke reduces the caufes of error to thefe four j
firft, want of proofs j fecondly, want of ability to ufe
them j thirdly, want of will to ufe them j and, fourth¬
ly, wrong meafures of probability.
He obferves upon the firfl of thefe caufes of error,
that the greatefl: part of mankind want conveniences
and opportunities of making experiments and obferva-
tions themfelves, or of colle&ing the teftimony of o-
thers, being prevented by the neceflity of their condi¬
tion. Upon the fecond of thefe caufes, he obferves,
that there are many, who, from the ftate of their con¬
dition, might beftow time in collefting proofs, but yet
are not able to carry a train of confequences in their
heads, nor weigh exaftly the preponderancy of con¬
trary proofs and teftimonies, merely from the differ¬
ence in men’s underftandings, apprehenfions and rea-
fonings. Thirdly, he remarks, that though forae have
opportunities and leifure enough, and want neither
parts, learning, nor other helps, that they never come
to the knowledge of feveral truths within their reach,
either upon account of their attachment to pleafure or
bufinefs j or otherwife becaufe of their lazinefs or a-
verfion to fludy. The fourth caufe of error, viz. wrong
meafures of probability, he imputes, 1. To the prac¬
tice of taking for principles propofitions that are not
in themfelves certain and evident, but, on the contrary,
doubtful and falfe. 2. To received hypothefes. 3. To
predominant paflions or inclinations. And, 4. To au¬
thority, or the giving up our affent to the common re¬
ceived opinions either of our friends or party, neigh¬
bours or country.
i he caufes of error in philofophy, or the reafons
*’hy all former philofophers have through fo many ages
erred, according to Lord Bacon, are thefe following.
E R U
I. Want of time fuited to learning. 2. The little Error
labour beftowed upon natural philofophy. 3. Few en- II ’
tirely addi&ed to natural philofophy. 4. The end of. Ervum* ^
the fciences wrong fixed. 5. A wrong way chofen. ’
6. The negleft of experiments. 7. Regard to anti¬
quity and authority. 8. Admiration of the works in
ufe. 9. The artifice of teachers and writers in the
fciences. 10. Oftentatious promifes of the moderns.
II. Want of propofing worthy talks. 12. Superfti-
tion and zeal being oppofite to natural philofophy, as
thinking philofophy dangerous, on account of the
fchool theology ; from the opinion that deep natural
inquiries fhould fubvert religion. 13. Schools and aca¬
demies proving unfavourable to philofophy. 14. Want
of rewards. And, 15. Defpair, and the fuppofition of
impoflibility.
ERROR Loci. Boerhaave is faid to have introduced
the term, from the opinion that the veffels were of
different fizes for the circulation of blood, ferum, and
lymph j and that when the large-fized globules were
forced into the leffer veffels by an error of place, they
were obftrufted. But this opinion does not feem well
grounded.
ERUCA, in general, denotes caterpillars of all kinds.
The caterpillar ftate is that through which infefts
pafs before they arrive at perfection. See Larva, En¬
tomology Index.
ERUDITION, denotes learning or knowledge j
and chiefly that of hiftory and antiquity, of languages
and of books, which is the refult of hard ftudy and ex-
tenfive reading. The Scaligers were men of deep eru¬
dition j the writings of M. Launoy, a prieft of the Ora¬
tory, are full of erudition.
_ Mr Locke fays, it is of more ufe to fill the head
with reflections than with points of erudition. If the
mind be not juft and right, ignorance is better than
erudition, which only produces confufion and obfcurity.
M. Balzac calls a heap of ill-chofen erudition the lug¬
gage of antiquity.
ERUPTION, in Medicine, a hidden and copious
excretion of humours, as pus or blood : it fignifies alfo
the fame with exanthema, any breaking out, as the pu-
ftules of the plague, fmall-pox, meafles, &c.
Eruption of Volcanoes. See ./Etna, Vesuvius
and Volcano, Geology Index.
ERVUM, the Lentil j a genus of plants, belong¬
ing to the diadelphfa clafs j and in the natural method
ranking under the 3 2d order, See Botany
Index,
ERYMANTHUS,
E R Y [ 326 ] ESC
Eryman- ERYMANTHUS, a mountain, river, and town of
tflls Arcadia, where Hercules killed a prodigious boar,
Eryx. which he carried on his {boulders to Euryftheus j who
——Y——* w as fo terrified at the fight, that he hid himlelf in a
brazen veffel.
ERYNGIUM, Sea-holly, or Eryngo; a genus
of plants, belonging to the pentandria clals, and in the
natural method ranking under the 45th order, Umbel-
latce. See Botany Index.
ERYSIMUM, Hedge mustard ; a genus of
plants, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs, and in the
natural method ranking under the 29th order, Sihquojce.
See Botany Index.
ERYSIPELAS, in Medicine, an eruption of a fiery
or acrid humour, from which no part of the body is
exempted, though it chiefly attacks the face. See Me¬
dicine Index.
ERYTHEA, or Erythia, an ifland adjoining, ac-
• cording to the ancients, either to or a part of Gades j
nowhere now to be found by the defcription given of
it by ancient authors. The poets feign this to be the
habitation of the fabulous Geryon, difarmed by Her¬
cules, who drove away his cattle.
ERYTHRiE, in Ancient Geography, a port-town of
iEtolia, on the Corinthian bay. Another Erythrae of
Boeotia, near Platcea and Mount Cithaeron. A third
Erythrae, a toivn of Ionia in the Hither Alia, fituated
inthepeninfula, at its extremity, with a cognominal port.
The Erythrseans laid claim to the Sibyl Herophile, as
their countrywoman, furnamed thence Erythrcea. Ery¬
thrae was famous for an ancient temple of Hercules.
ERYTHRAE.A, a town of Crete, fituated in the
fouth-eaft of the ifland, at the promontory Erythraeum.
ERYTHRAEUM MARE, erroneoufly called Rubrum
by the Romans. Thus the ocean that wafhes Arabia
and Perfia, and extends a great way farther, is denomi¬
nated. Hence it is, Herodotus fays, that the Euphrates
and Tigris fall into the Mare Erythrseum. He alfo
calls it the South Sea, on which the Perfians dwell. It
takes its name, not from its colour, the error of the
Romans, who tranflated Erythrceum “ Rubrum but
from Erythras, fon of Perfeus and Andromeda, whofe
kingdom lay on the confines of that fea j whence its
name Erythrceum.
ERYTHRINA, Coral Tree ; a genus of plants,
belonging to the diadelphia clafs; and in the natu¬
ral method ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilionacece.
See Botany Index.
ERYTHRINUS, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Spa-
rus. See Ichthyology Index.
ERYTHROIDES, in Anatomy, the firfl: of the pro¬
per tunics or coats w hich cover the tefticles.
ERYTHRONIUM, Dog’s-tooth Violet; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the hexandria clafs ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 11th order, Sar-
mentacece. See Botany Index.
ERYTHROXYLON, a genus of plants, belonging
to the decandria clafs. See Botany Index.
ERYX, a fon of Butes and Venus, who relying up¬
on his Itrength, challenged all ftrangers to fight with
him in the combat of the ceftus. Hercules accepted
his challenge after many had yielded to his fuperior
dexterity ; and Eryx was killed in the combat, and
buried on the mountain, where he had built a temple
to Venus. Virg. yEn. 5. v. 402. A mountain of Sicily
near Drepanum, which received its name from Eryx, Ery*
who was buried there. This mountain was fo fteep, that II
the houfes which were built upon it feemed every mo-, ^(,-alatk.
meht ready to fall. Daedalus had enlarged the top,
and inclofed it with a ftrong wall. He alfo confecra-
ted there to Venus Erycina a golden heifer, which re-
fembled life fo much, that it feemed to exceed the power
of art.
ERZERUM, or Erzeron, a city of Turkey in Afia,
and capital of Armenia, or Turcomania. It is a pretty
large town, five days journey irom the Black fea, and
ten from the frontiers of Ptifia. It {lands in a delight¬
ful plain, at the foot of a chain of mountains, which
hinder the Frat, or Euphrates, from tailing into the
Black fea. A neighbouring hill fupplies very fine
fprings, which not only water the fields, but the tlrects
of the town. Erzerum is furrounded with double
wralls, defended by pentagonal towers ; but the ditches
are neither deep nor well kept up. The beglerbeg, or
bafliaw of the province, lives in the feraglio, which is
very ill built. They reckon that there are i8,oco Turks
at Erzerum, 6000 Armenians, and 10,000 Greeks.
The Armenians have a bithop and twro churches; and
the Greeks have alfo a bifliop, but the church is a mi-
ferable place. The laft are moftly braziers, inhabiting
the fuburbs, who work the copper brought from the
neighbouring mountain. They drive a great trade in
copper utenfils and furs, particularly martins fkins.
Five or fix days journey from the town there are oaks
that produce plenty of gall-nuts, w hich are brought
hither. This place is the thoroughfare and refting
place of all the merchants trading to the Indies, Spe¬
cially when the Arabs are watching for their prey
round Aleppo and Bagdad. E. Long. 40. 50. N. Lat.
29. 46.
ESARHADDON, the fon of Sennacherib, and his
fucceffor in the kingdom of Affyria. He is faid to
have reigned 29 years at Nineveh, from the year 3294
to 3322; befides which he reigned 13 years at Baby¬
lon, in all 42 years. He died in the year of the world
3336, and was fucceeded by Saofduchinus. Efarhad-
don, in the opinion of Sir Ifaac Newton, feems to be
the Sardanapalus who died, as Cledlarchus fays, of old
age, after the revolt of Syria; the name Sardanapalus
being derived from yljferliadon Pul.
ESCALADE, or Scalade, a furious attack of a
wall or a rampart, carried on with ladders, to pafs the
ditch or mount the rampart; without proceeding in
form, breaking ground, or carrying on regular works
to fecure the men.
When the troops are prepared to pafs the ditch,
either with the afliflance of boards, hurdles, and faf-
cines, when it is mudy, or with fmall boats of tin, or
balkets covered with fkins or oil cloth, when it is deep
and filled with water, a party muft be placed on the
counterfcarp, oppofite to the landing-place, ready to
fire at the garrifon if they are alarmed, and oppofe the
mounting on the rampart. If the ditch is dry, the
ladders are fixed in fome place fartheft diftant from the
centry ; and as foon as they get upon the rampart,
they put themfelves in order to receive the enemy ; if
the centry flrould be furprifed and filently overcome,
the detachment haftens to break open the gate, and to
let in the reft of the party. If the ditch is wet, the
rampart high, and provided with a revetement, it will
e s e
Efcalade be difficult to furprife the town in this way j but if
I! there is no revetement, the troops may hide themfelves
Efcheat. aiong the outfide of the rampart till all are over.
u 'r“~> Since the invention and ufe of gunpowder, and the
walls of cities have been flanked, they are feldom taken
by efcalade.
ESCALLONIA, a genus of plants, belonging to
the pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
ESCAPE, in Law ; a violent or privy evafion out of
fome lawful reflraint, without being delivered by due
courfe of law. There are two forts of efcapes, volun¬
tary and negligent. Voluntary, when a man arrefts
another for felony, or other crime, and afterwards lets
him go freely by confent; in which cafe, the party
that permits fuch efcape is held guilty, committed,
and muil: anfwer for it. Negligent efcape, on the con¬
trary, is where one is arrefted, and afterwards efcapes
againlt the will of the perfon that arrefted him, and is
not purfued with frefh fuit, and retaken before the
perfon purfuing hath loft fight of him. By flat. 8 and
9 Will. III. c. 26. the keepers of prifons conniving
at efcapes fhall forfeit 500I.; and in civil cafes the fhe-
riff is anfwerable for the debt,
ESCHALO P, or Shallot. See Allium.
ESCHAR, in Surgery, the cruft or fcab occafioned
by burns or cauftic medicines.
> ESCHARA, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a fpe-
cies of coralline, &c. the charatters of w'hich are thefe :
they are of a ftony or coral-like hardnefs, and refemble
a woven cloth in their texture; and the microfcope
informs us, that they confift of arrangements of very
fmall cells, whofe furfaces appear much in that form.
Linnaeus makes it a fpecjes of millepora, in the cl-afs
of lithophytes.
ESCHEAT, in Law, fignifies any land or tene¬
ments that cafually fall to a lord within his manor.
It is one of the confequences of tenure in chivalry :
(See Feodal Syjfem, Knight Service, and Tenure).
It is the determination of the tenure or diffolution
of the mutual bond between the lord and tenant, from
the extinction of the blood of the latter by either na¬
tural or civil means: if he died without heirs of his
blood, or if his blood was corrupted and ftained by
commiffion of treafon or felony ; whereby every inhe¬
ritable quality was entirely blotted out and abolilhed.
In fuch cafes the land efcheated or fell back to the
lord of the fee ; that is, the tenure was determined by
breach of the original condition, expreffed or implied
in the feodal donation. In the one cafe, there were
no heirs fubfifting of the blood of the firft feudatory
, or purchafer, to which heirs alone the grant of the
feud extended : to the other, the tenant, by perpe¬
trating an atrocious crime, {bowed that he was no
longer to be trufted as a vaffal, having forgotten his duty
as a fubjeft; and therefore forfeited his feud, which he
held under the implied condition that he (hould not be
a traitor or a felon. The c.mfequence of which in both
cafes was, that the gift being determined, refulted back
to the lord who gave it.
, "ord efcheat is fometimes ufed for the place or
circuit within which the king or other lord is intitled
to efeheats; alfo for a wrrit to recover the fame from
the perfon in pofleffion after the tenant’s death.
EscHEATj in Scots Law: is that forfeiture which is
f 327 1
ESC
Efculer.t.
incurred upon a perfon’s being denounced a rebel. See Efcheat
Law, Part III. N° clxvi. 12.
ESCHEVIN, or Echevin (Scabinus),m the French
and Dutch polity, a magiftrate defied by the inhabi¬
tants of a city, to take care of their common concerns',
the good order, conveniency, and decoration of the
city, &c.
_ At Paris there were formerly a prevot and four efche-
vins; in moft other cities a mayor and efchevins. In Lan¬
guedoc, Provence, and Dauphine, they were called con-
Jh/s ; at Pouloufe, capitouls ; and jurats at Bourdeaux.
Anciently the efchevins w^ere the afleffors and coun-
fellors of the comites or judges of cities j on which ac¬
count they were called in fome places pairs, pares ; they
even took cognizance of petty caufes themfelves.
Du Cange obferves, that the judges and their af-
feffors, who were chofen by the inhabitants, were calL-
edfcabini', “ efchevins,” and their college fcabinagium or
c< efchevinage.”
In Holland, the /cabins or efchevins judge of all
civil affairs at firft hand. _L hey alfo take cognizance
of criminal matters : and if the criminal confefs himfelf
guilty, they can fee their fentence executed without
appeal. They can even give torture. The number
is not the fame in all cities j at Amfterdam there are
nine, at Rotterdam feven, &c.
ESCHRAKITES, or Esrakites, a fefl of philo-
fophers, among the Mahometans, who adhere to the
doftrines and opinions of Plato. The word is derived
from the Arabic jm fchraca, which in the fourth con¬
jugation af hraca, fignifies “ to ffiine, glitter like the
fun,” fo that Efchrokite feems to import “ illumined.”
The. Ffchrakites, or Mahometan Platonifts, place-
their higheft good and happinefs in the contemplation
of the Divine Majefty ; defpifing the grofs imagina¬
tions of the Alcoran touching paradife. They are very
careful in avoiding all vice ; they preferve an equal
and eafy temper, love mufic, and divert themfelves with
compofing little poems or fpiritual fongs. The lhaeicks
or priefts, and the chief among the preachers of the im¬
perial mofques, are Efchraki^es.
ESCLAIRCISSEMENI', a French term adopted
into our language, lignifying the explaining or clear¬
ing up of fome difficulty or obfcurity.,
ESCORT, a French term, fometimes ufed in Eng-
lilh authors to denote a convoy or company of armed
men, attending fome perfon or thing, in a journey or
voyage, to defend or fecure it from infults. Some de¬
rive the word from the Latin colors.
ESCOUADE, or Squad, is ufually the third or
fourth part of a company of foot; fo divided for mount¬
ing guards, and for the more convenient relieving of
one another. It is equivalent to brigade of a troop of
horfe. See Brigade.
ESCUAGE, in our old cuftoms, a kind of knHht-
fervice, called fervice of the field, by which the tenant
was bound to follow his lord to the wars at his own
charge. See the articles Chivalry, Feodal Syflem
and KNIGHT-Service.
ESCULAPIUS. See Hisculapius.
ESCULENT, an appellation given to fuch plants,
or the roots of them, as may be eaten : fuch are beets|
carrots, artichokes, leeks, onions, parfnips, potatoes, ra!
diihes, fcorzonera, &c.
ESCURIAL^
4
ESC
F. S C
[ 328 ]
. Efcum!.
ESCURIAL, a royal refidence of Spain, fituated
about 15 miles north-weft of Madrid. It is the largeft
and moft fuperb ftru&ure in the whole kingdom, and
perhaps one of the fineft in Europe. The w-ord is A-
rabic, meaning “ a place full of rocks.” It is built in
a dry barren fpot, furrounded with rugged mountains,
infomuch that every thing which grows there is
to art. This place w'as chofen, it is laid, for the lake
of the ftone wherewith the fabric was built, which is
got from a mountain juft by, and is very durable ^ and
the defign of ere&ing it was to commemorate a vidtory
which Philip II. obtained over the Trench (but by the
afliftance of the Englilh forces) at St Quintm, on
St Laurence’s day, in the year 1557- Spanilh
defcription of this ftru&ure forms a fizeable quarto
volume, and it is faid that its founder expended upon
it fix millions of ducats. The apartments are deco¬
rated with an aftonilhing variety of paintings, fculp-
ture, tapeftry, ornaments of gold and filver, marble,
jafper, gems, and other curious ftones, furpafling all
imagination. This building, befides its palace, c0'1-
tains a church, large and richly ornamented a maufo-
leum } cloifters j a convent j a college •, and a library,
containing about 30,000 volumes; befides large apart¬
ments for all kinds of artifts and mechanics, noble
walks, with extenfive parks and gardens, beautified with
fountains and coftly ornaments. The fathers that live
in the convent are 200, and they have an annual re¬
venue of 12,000!. It wTas begun by Philip in 1562,
five years after the battle ; and completed in 22 years.
It confifts of feveral courts and quadrangles, which al¬
together are difpofed in the Ihape of a gridiron, the in-
ftrument of the martyrdom of St Laurence; the
apartments where the king refides form the handle.
The building is a long fquare of 640 by an<^
height up to the roof is all round 60 feet, except on
the garden fide, where the ground is more taken away.
At each angle is a fquare tower 200 feet high. ^ T he
number of windows in the weft front is 200 ; in the
eaft front 366. The orders employed are Doric and
Ionic. There are three doors in the principal front.
Over the grand entrance are the arms of Spain, carved
in ftone ; and a little higher in a niche, a ftatue of St
Laurence in a deacon’s habit, with a gilt gridiron in
his right hand, and a book in his left. Direftly over
the door is a baffo-relievo of two enormous gridirons in
ftone. This vaft ftrudlure, however, with its narrow
high towers, fmall windows, and fteep hoping roof, ex¬
hibits a very uncouth ftyle of architecture : at the fame
time that the domes, and the immenfe extent of its
fronts, render it a wonderfully grand objeCt from every
point of view. The church, which is in the centre of
all, is large, awful, and richly but not affeCtedly orna¬
mented. The cupola is bold and light. The high al¬
tar is compofed of rich marbles, agates, and jafpers of
great rarity, the produce of this kingdom. I wro mag¬
nificent catafalques fill up the fide arcades of this fanc-
tuary: on one the empferor Charles V. his wife, daugh¬
ter, and two fitters, are reprefented in bronze, larger
than life, kneeling; oppofite are the effigies of Philip II.
nnd of his three wives, of the fame materials, and in the
fame devout attitude. Underneath is the burial-place
«f the royal family, called the Pantheon. Twenty-five
fteps lead down to this vault, over the door of which
is,an infeription denoting, that
Hie locus, facer mortalitatis exuviis Catholicorum Re.
gutn, &c.
was intended by Charles the emperor; refolved upon
by Philip II. begun by Philip III. and completed by
Philip IV. The maufoleum is circular, 36 feet dia¬
meter, incrufted with fine marbles in an elegant tafte.
The bodies of the kings and queens lie in tombs of
marble, in niches, one above the other. . The plan of
thefe fepulchres is grand, and executed with a princely
magnificence; but, as a modern traveller obferves,
in a ftyle rather too gay, too light, and too deli¬
cately fitted up, for the idea we are apt to form of
a chapel deftined for the reception of the dead. The
collection of pictures difperfed about various parts of
the church, facrifty, and convent, has been confider-
ed as equal, if not fuperior, to any gallery in Europe,
except that of Drefden. hormed out of the fpoils of
Italy, and the wafted cabinet of that unfortunate di¬
lettante Charles I. of England, it contains fome of the
moft capital works of the greateft painters that have
flourilhed fince the revival of the art. In the facrifty
is an altar called La fanta forma : this is a kind of ta¬
bernacle or cufioda of gems, marbles, woods, and other
precious materials, inlaid in gilt bronze ; in which,
rather than in the excellence of the workmanlhip or
tafte of the defign, confifts the merit of this rock of
riches. Before it hangs a curtain, on which Coello
has reprefented Charles II. and all his court in pro-
ceffion, coming to place this Forma. This is efteemed
one of the moft curious colleftions of portraits in
the world; for all the perfons are drawn with the
greateft ftrength of colour and truth of impreffion, and
are faid to be perfect refemblances not only of the mo*
narch and grandees, but even of the monks, fervants,
and guards. The ftatues, butts, and medallions of the
Efcurial, are not in any great number, or very re¬
markable for their excellence : but the library con¬
tains a moft precious collefHon of manuferipts, many
fine drawings, and other curiofities. Notwithftanding
the coldnefs of the expofure, the late king, for the fake
of hunting, ufed to pafs here feveral months in the
year ; and to make the place lefs inconvenient to his
attendants and to the nobility, he built an entire new
town adjoining to it.
ESCUTCHEON, or Scutcheon, in Heraldry, is
derived from the French efeuffon, and that from the
Latin feutum, and fignifies the ffiield whereon coats of
arms are reprefented.
Moft nations of the remoteft antiquity were wont
to have their fhields diftinguiftied by certain marks
painted on them; and to have fuch on their ffiields was
a token of honour, none being permitted to have them
till they had performed fome honourable aftion.
The efcutcheon, as ufed at prefent, is fquare, only
rounded off at the bottom.
ESDRAS, a Jewifh prieft, and do&or.of the law.
Artaxerxes Longimnnus fent him with rich prefents
for the ufe and ornament of the temple at Jerufalem,
rebuilt under Zerubbabel ; the king alfo ordered the
neighbouring governors to provide him with what con¬
duced to the pomp of the Jewifh religion, and to ex¬
empt the priefts from paying taxes. He is fuppofed to
be the colleftor of the Canon of Scriptuie; and that,
by divine infpiration, he added fome things which hap-
Eanrial
II
Efctras.
Elk
Efne.
'Trav.'
M.
ESN
petted after the deaths of the authors,
he wrote the Chronicles, befides thofe books which
bear his name, the two laft of which are exploded even
by the church of Rome.
ESK, the natne of feveral rivers both in England
and Scotland, particularly of one which forms part of
the boundary between the two kingdoms. It runs from
north eaft to fouth-weft, and gives name to the diftrifl
of Elkdale.
ESKI-HISSAR. See Stratonicea.
ESKIMAUX. See Esquimaux.
ESNE, or EsNeh, a coniiderable fea-port town of
Upper Egypt. It is governed by an Arabian prince,
and by a cachef, dependant on the bey of Girze. The
Mahometans have feveral mofques here, and thb Coptis
a church ferved by two priefts. “ Efne (fays Abul-
feda), remarkable for its public baths and its com-
rrierce, is built on the weftward of the Nile, between
Affouan and Cous, but nearer to this latter. It ac¬
knowledges, adds the geographer of Nubia, the Coptis
for founders. Its well cultivated territory abounds in
grain and palm-trees. It is furrounded by gardens
filled with fruit-trees. One admires here feveral an¬
cient monuments conftrufted by the Coptis, and fu-
perb ruins.” This defcription arifwers to Efne in our
time, which is fituated on the edge of a rich country,
and ihaded by groves of orange trees loaded with fruits
and flowers. This town, formerly called Latopolis, re¬
vered Minerva and the filh Lotus (Strabo). It con¬
tains within its boundary an antique temple ; thick
walls inclofe it on three fides. Six large fluted columns,
clowned by a capital ornamented with the palm leaf,
form the facade of it", 18 others fupport the roof, which
is compofed of large fquares of marble *, the building is
furrounded by a frieze, and innumerable hieroglyphics
cover its exterior afpedts.
A little to the fouth of the town are feen the ruitis
of a monaftery founded by St Helena, and near it the
burying-place of the martyrs, adorned with tombs
crowned by cupolas, fupported by arcades. The inha¬
bitants of Efne having revolted againft the perfecutioii
of Dioclefian, that emperor defiroyed this town and
put them to the fword. This place, confecrated by re¬
ligion, is become a celebrated pilgrimage among the
Coptis. They repair thither from the moft diflant pro¬
vinces of the kingdom. In the chain of mountains which
ftretches to the eaftward of the Nile, and nearly oppo-
fite Efne, are quarries of a foft (tone, called Earam. It
is made ufe of for kitchen utenfils. It hardens in the
fire, and forms excellent kettles and pans, which give
no bad tafte to the vifruals. This ftone is probably the
lapis cl/aris) or poi-Jlone.
“ Efne (fays Denon*) is the ancient Latopolis. Some
remains are ftill vifible of its port or quay on the bank
of the Nile, which has been often repaired ; but, not-
withftanding all that has been done for it, ft ill remains
in a very miferable condition. This town alfo contains
the portico of a temple, which appears to me to be the
molt perfe£l monument of ancient architeflure* It is
fituated near the bazar in the great fquare, and would
make an incomparable ornament to this fpot, if the in¬
habitants had any idea of its merit; but inftead of this
they have deformed it by the moft miferable ruined ho¬
vels, and have devoted it to the vileft purpofes. The
portico is very well preserved, and poffelles a great
You VIII. Part I.
[ 329 1 ESP
It is guefled richnefs of fculpture : it is compofed of eighteen co* Eftic
  lumns with broad capitals; thefe columns are noble and £f
elegant, though they now appear in the moft difadvan-
tageous light: the rubbilh fliould be cleared to find if
any part of the cello remains.
“ The hieroglyphics in relief) with which it is cOi
vered within and without, are executed with great care;
they contain-) among other fubje&s, a zodiac, and large
figures of men with crocodiles heads: the capitals^
though all different, have a very fine eftefl ; and as art
additional proof that the Egyptians borrowed nothing
froitl other people, we may remark, that they have ta¬
ken all the ornaments, of which thefe capitals are com¬
pofed, from the produftions of their own country, fuch
as the lotus, the palm-tree, the vine, the rufti, &c.
&c ”
ESOX, a genus of fifties belonging to the order of
abdominales. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
ESPALIERS, in Gardening, are rows of trees
planted about a whole garden or plantation, or in
hedges, in fuch a manner as to enclofe quarters or fe-
parate parts of a garden ; and are trained up regularly
to a lattice of wood-work in a clofe hedge, for the de-
fence of tender plants againft the injuries of wind and
weather. They are of admirable ufe and beauty in a
kitchen-garden, ferving not only to fhelter the tender
plants, but fcreen them from the fight of perfons in
the walks.
The trees chiefly planted for efpaliers, are apples,
pears) and fome plums : fome plant apples grafted up¬
on paradife flocks ; but as thefe are of ftiort duration,
it is better to plant thofe grafted upon crabftock, or
upon what the gardeners call Dutch Jlochs ; which will
both caufe them to bear fooner, and prevent their grow¬
ing too luxuriant. The belt kinds of apple for this pur-
pofe, are the golden pippen, nonpareil, renette, &c.
and the belt forts of pear, are the jargonelle, blanquett,
&c. Thefe laft, if deftgned for a ftrong moift foil,
fliould be grafted upon quince flocks; but if for a dry
foil, upon free flocks.
While the trees are young, it will be fufficient to
drive a few flakes into the ground on each fide of them;
faftening the branches to thefe in a horizontal pofi-
tion, as they are produced. This method will do for
the three firft years ; after which an efpalier ftiould be
made of afti-poles, whereof there muft be two forts,
larger and fmaller; the former to be driven upright
into the ground a foot afunder, and the latter, or {len¬
der poles, to be nailed acrofs thefe, at about nine
inches. Some prefer to this another fort of efpalier,
made of fquare timber cut to any fize ; thefe are, in¬
deed, more lightly, but withal vaftly more expenfive.
When the efpalier is thus framed, the branches are
to be faftened to it with ofier-twigs ; obferving to train
them in a horizontal pofition, and at equal diftances.
Fruit trees thus managed are preferable to any others;
not only as bearing bettCr-tafted fruit, but as taking up
very little room in a garden, fo as to be lefs hurtful to
plants uhich grow in the quarters
ESPLANADE, in Fortification, the floping of the
parapet of the covered-way towards the champaign.
ESPLEES, in Law, the general produces which,
lands yield, or the profit or commodity that is to be
taken or made of a thing.
ESPOUSALS, in Law, fignify a Contract or pro-
T t ini&
ESQ
.Ejpeufals mire made between a man and a woman to marry each
ll . other ; and in cafes where marriages may be confum-
L.-fl1 “ , mated, efpoufals go before. Marriage is termed an ef-
potifal cle prefenti.
The efpoufals among the Jews were either by writ¬
ing, or by a piece of filver given and received, or by
cohabitation. Amongft the Greeks, after the parents
and friends of the young couple had finilhed their ne-
gociation, the couple themfelves pledged ttaeir faith to
each other, the man fwearing that he would be con-
ftant and true, the woman that flie would marry him,
and make him mafter of all (lie had. Then they rati¬
fied their agreement by a kifs and joining right hands.
Amongft the Romans the efpoufals confifted in an
engagement of friends on both fides, whether abfent or
prefent, in public or without witneffes. But the com¬
mon way was by writings drawn up by common con-
fent, and fealed by both parties : befides this, the man
lent a ring to the woman, confifting of iron and with¬
out a ftone.
ESQUILI/E, in Ancient Geography, one of the
feven hills of Rome, which Varro will have to be two,
viz. Cifpias and Oppius ; alfo Mons Efquilinus, foften-
ed from Exquilinus ; and this again from Excubinus,
the watch or guard Romulus kept here, from a jealoufy
he entertained of his colleague Titus Tatius. On the
eaft fide it reached the city walls } on the fouth, the
Via Lavicana •, on the weft, the wide valley between
Mount Coelius and the Palatine 5 on the north, the
Mons Viminalis ; on the eaft fide was the Porta Efqui-
lina. This hill by fome of the ancients was called Su-
burranus, from the ftreet Suburra to the north of it:
by the poets, Efqui/ius.
ESQUIMAUX, a people of North America, inha¬
biting all that vaft trad! of land known by the name of
Labrador, or New Britain. They differ very confider-
ably, both in afpedl and manners, from the other Ame¬
rican nations *, agreeing in moft refpedts with the inha¬
bitants of Weft Greenland. See New BRITAIN and
Greenland.
ESQUIRE (from the French efcu, and the La¬
tin fcutum, in Greek crjtvrds, which fignifies a hide,
of which ftiields were anciently made, and after¬
wards covered $ for, in the time of the Anglo-
Saxons, the thields had a covering of leather), was
originally he who, attending a knight in time of war,
did carry his Ihield ; whence he was called efcuier
in French, and fcutifer, or armiger, i. e. armour-
bearer, in Latin. Hotoman fays, that thofe whom the
French call efquires, were a military kind of vaffals,
having jus fcuti, viz. liberty to bear a ftiield, and in
it the enfigns of their family, in token of their genti¬
lity or dignity. But this addition hath not of long
time had any relation to the office or employment of
the perfon to whom it hath been attributed, as to car¬
rying of arms, &c. but hath been merely a title of
dignity, and next in degree to a knight. For thofe
to whom this title is now due, fee the article Com-
JIONALTY. Officers of the king’s courts, and of the
king’s houfehold, councilors at law, juftices of the
peace, are only efquires in reputation ; and he who is
a juftice of peace has this title only during the time he
is in commiffion, and no longer, if he is not otherwife
qualified to bear. A theriff of a county being a
fnperior officer, bears the title of efquire during his
ESS
life j in refpefl of the great truft he has in the com- EfqnfreJ_
monwealth. The chiefs of fome ancient families are |]
efquires by prefcription j and in late afls of parliament Effen«.
for poll money, many wealthy perfons commonly re-
puted to be fuch, were ranked among the efquires of
this kingdom.
There is a general opinion, that every gentleman of
landed property Avho has 300I. a-year, is an efquire :
which is a vulgar error : for no money whatfoever, or
landed property, will give a man properly this title, un-
lefs he comes within one of the above rules: and no
perfon can afcribe this title where it is not due, unlefs
he pleafes ; there being no difficulty in drawing the line
by the accounts given above and in the article Com¬
monalty : but the meaner ranks of people, who know
no better, do often bafely proftitute this title j and,
to the great confufion of all rank and precedence, every ’
man who makes a decent appearance, far from think¬
ing himfelf any way ridiculed by finding the fuperfcrip-
tion of his letters thus decorated, is fully gratified by
fuch an addrefs.
ESQUIRES of the king, are fuch as have that title by
creation, wherein there is fome formality ufed, as the
putting about their necks a collar of 8S. and beftowing
on them a pair of filver fpurs, &c.
ESRAKITES. See Eschrakites.
ESSAY, a trial or experiment for proving the qua¬
lity of any thing *, or an attempt to learn, whether or
not any invention will fucceed.
Essay, in literature, a peculiar kind of compofition,
the charafter whereof is to be free, eafy, and natural ,
not tied to ftrift order or method, nor worked up and
finiffied like a formal fyftem.
ESSAYING, or Assaying, in Chemiflry and Me¬
tallurgy, fignifies the examination of a fmall quantity
of any ore or mineral by fire, in order to difcover the
quantity of metal it contains. This is very necelfary for
thofe who intend to deal largely in metallurgic opera¬
tions, in order to avoid unneceffary expence, by be¬
coming previoufiy acquainted with the nature of the ore.
See Chemistry Index; and Ores, ReduElion of.
ESSAY-Hatch, is the miners term for a little trench
or hole, which they dig to fearch for ftioad or ore.
ESSEDARII, a fort of gladiators, mentioned by
Seneca, Suetonius, and Tully, who on fome occafions
engaged one another out of chariots called effeda. The
effedum was a fort of heavy chariot from which the
Gauls and Britons engaged the Romans. See Gla¬
diator.
ESSENCE, in Metaphyfcs, that which conftitutes
the particular nature of each genus or kind, and di-
ftinguiflies it from all others : being nothing but that
abftradl idea to which this name is affixed, fo that
every thing contained in it is effential to that particu¬
lar kind.
This Mr Locke calls the nominal effence ; in contra-
diftinftion to the real effence, or eonftitution of fub-
ftances on which this nominal effence depends. Thus
the nominal effence of gold is that complex idea the
word gold ftands for ; let it be, for inftance, a body,
yellow, weighty, malleable, fufible, and fixed : but its
real effence is the conftitution of its infenfible parts, on
which thefe qualities and all its other properties de¬
pend, which is wholly unknown to us.
ESSENES, or Essenians, in Jewiffi antiquity,
one
[ 330 ]
1,
ESS [33
EITenes one of the three ancient feds among that people.
Efl'ex. They allowed a future date, but denied a refurre&ion
—-v from the dead. Their way of life was very Angular:
they did not marry j but adopted the children of others,
vrhom they bred up in the mftitutions of their fed :
they defpifed riches, and had all things in common,
and never changed their clothes till they were entirely
worn out. When initiated, they were ftriftly bound
not to communicate the myfteries of their fe6t to others ;
and if any of their members were found guilty of enor¬
mous crimes, they v'ere expelled.
Pliny tells us, that they dwelt on the w^eft fide of
the lake of Afphaltites 5 and that they were a folitary
kind of men, living without women or money, and
feeding upon the fruit of the palm-tree : he adds, that
they were conftantly recruited by new-comers, whom
the furges of ill fortune had made weary of the world ;
in which manner the feft was kept up for feveral
thoufands of years, without any being born among
them. The reafon why we find no mention made of
them in the New Tefiament, may be their reclufe and
retired way of life, no lefs than their great fimplicity
and honefty, whereby they lay open to no cenfure or
reproof.
ESSENTIAL, fomething neceffarily belonging to
a thing, from which it cannot be conceived diitinci •
thus the primary qualities of bodies, as extenfion, figure,
number, Sec. are effential or infeparable from them in
all their changes and alterations.
ESSENTIAL Oils are fuch as are really contained in a
plant, and are drawn from it by diftillation in an
alembic with water : they are thus called, in contra-
diftinftion to empyreumatic oils, which are raifed by a
naked fire without water.
ESSEX, a county of England, bounded on the north
by the Stour, which feparates it from Suffolk and
Cambridgefiiire $ on the eaft, by the German fea } on
the weft, by Hertfordfhire and Middlesex; and on the
fouth by the river Thames. It extends 46 miles in
length from eaft to weft and about 4^ in breadth from
north to fouth, and 200 in circuit. This county is in
the diocefe of London, and gives the title of earl to
the family of Capel. The county of Effex is divided
into nineteen hundreds, and contains twenty-feven
market-towns, 415 parilhes, 125 vicarages, and iico
villages. It fends eight members to parliament 5
namely, two for the county, and two for Colchef-
ter, Harwich, and Malden. The air in the inland
parts is healthy 5 but in the marlhes near the fea it
produces agues, particularly in the part called the
Hundreds. However, the fertility of the unwhole-
fome part is very great, and even the higher grounds
of this county are very fruitful. About Saffron Wal¬
den, the earth, after bearing faffron three years, it is
faid, will produce good barley for 18 years fucceffively
without any manure. Its produce, which is very plen¬
tiful, confifts of corn, moft excellent faftron, cattle,
fowl, fiflr, and particularly oyfters. The chief manu-
fadlures of this county are cloth, fluffs, and particulai ly
baize. The principal rivers, befides the 1 hames,
are the Stour, which falls into the German fea at Har¬
wich j the Lea, its weftern boundary, tails into the
Thames below Stratford } the Blackwater runs through
the heart of the county, and palling by Chelmsford is
1 ] E S T '
ioined by the Chelmer, and from thence runs into the
German fea •, the Coin runs by Halfted to Colchefter,
and fo into the fea. The Roding which riles north- ^
wards, near Dunmow, runs into the Thames near
Barking. AH thefe rivers abound in moft forts of
^In the year 1801, the total number of inhabitants in
the county of Effex amounted to 226,437 perfons. Of
thefe 111,3 56 are males, and 115,081 are females. They
are divided into 46*7^4 occupying 3^?37*
houfes. Thenumber employed in agriculture is 65,i74>
and in trade manufactures, &c. 25,283.
ESTATE, in ftgnifies the title or intereft that
a perfon has in lands, tenements, or other effects j com¬
prehending the whole in which a perfon hath any pro¬
perty, and will pafs the fame. _ .
Eftates are either real or perfonal; otherwife diftm-
guiftied into FREEHOLDS, which defeend to heirs $ or
CHATTELS, that go to executors or adminiftrators.
A fee-fimple is the ampleft eftate our law admits of.
See Fee.
Ertates are obtained feveral ways j as, by defeent
from a father to a fon j by conveyance or grant from
one perfon to another ; by gift or purchafe } or by deed
or will. See Descent, Succession, Tenure, &c.
Estates, in a political fenfe, is ufed either to de¬
note the dominions of fome prince, or the general claffes
into which the people are divided.
In Britain, the eftates are the king, lords, and com¬
mons j or rather the lords and commons, who meet
the king in parliament, for reforming abufes, and en-
afting good and wholefome laws,
ESTHER, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment } containing the hiftory of a Jewifti virgin, dwell¬
ing with her uncle Mordecai at Shulhan, in the reign
of Ahafuerus, one of the kings of Perfia.
The great beauty of this maid raifed her to the
throne of Perfia; whereby ftie had an opportunity to
fave her countrymen, whofe deftruClion was plotted by
Haman, a favourite of that prince.
The learned are not agreed who this Ahafuerus was.
Archbiftiop Ulher fuppofes him to be Darius Hyftafpes,
and Artyftona to be Either. Scaliger makes him
the fame with Xerxes, and his queen Haneftris to be
Either. Jofephus, on the contrary, pofitively afferts,
that the Ahafuerus of the feriptures, is the Artaxerxes
Longimanus of profane ftory ; and the Septuagint,
throughout the whole book of Either, tranflate Aha¬
fuerus by Artaxerxes. Molt people fubferibe to this
lalt opinion; and indeed the extraordinary kindnefs
ftiowed by Artaxerxes to the Jews, can fcarcely be
accounted for otherwife than by fuppoiing that they
had fo powerful an advocate as Either to folicit foe
them.
ESTOILE'E, or Cross Estoille'e, in Heraldry, a
ftar with only four long rays in form of a crofs;,andt
accordingly, broad in the centre, and terminating in
{harp points.
ESTONIA, is a province of the Ruffian empire,
and part of Livonia. It is bounded on the ealt by the
Baltic fea, on the north by the gulf of Finland, on
the weft by Ingria, and on the louth by Lettonia. It
is divided into fix diftridts : 1. Harden •, 2. Wireland ;
3. Alentakin ; 4. Wich ; 5. Jerven ; and, 6. Odepoa.
T t 2 Th®
Efiex
II
Etfonia.
E S T [ 332 ] ETC
Sfthoma The principal towns are, Revel, Weifenberg, Borch-
Eftrenia- ^0^m* Narva, Nyflot, Habfal, Derpt, St Elin, Pernau,
dura. and Roderfwick.
V——- In former times the inhabitants of this country car¬
ried on a good trade in corn, which was dried in ftoves :
but wars have much depopulated the country, infomuch
that not a fourth part of it is inhabited, and a great num¬
ber of gentlemen’s feats lie in ruins.
ESTOPPEL (formed of the French eftouper, oppi-
tare, objiipare, “ to ftop, or block up”), in Law, an
impediment or bar of action, arifing from a man’s
own aft or deed ; againft which a man is forbidden,
by law, to fpeak, though it be to fay the truth.
ES L OVERS, in Law, is ufed, by Brafton, for that
full enance which a man, committed for felony, is to
have out of his lands or goods for himfelf and his
fam ly during imprifonment. In Hat. 6 Edw. I. it is
ufed for an allowance in meet or clothes. In fome
manors, the tenants have common of ejlovers ; that is,
neeeflary botes or allowances out of the lord’s wood :
in which laft fenfe, eftovers comprehends houfe-bote,
hay-bote, and plow-bote} fo that if a man have in
his grant thefe general words, de ratwnabili efoverio in
bofcis, &c. he may thereby claim all three.
Eilovers is alio ufed for alimony, which, if the huf-
band refufes to pay, there is, befides the ordinary pro-
cefs of excommunication, a writ at common law, de ejio-
venis habendis, in order to recover it.
ESTRAY, nr Stray, fignifies any tame bead:, as
Iheep, oxen, fwine, and horfes, or fwans, found with¬
in a lordfhip, and not owned by any man ; in which
cafe being cried, according to law, in the church, and
two market towns adjoining, if it be not claimed by
the owner within a year and a day, it becomes the
lord’s of the foil where found. If the owner claims
it within the year and day, he muft pay the charges of
finding, keeping, and proclaiming them ; and he may
feize it, without telling the marks or proving his proper¬
ty, which may be done at the trial if contefted. If the
bead dray within the year to another lordfhip, the fird
lord cannot retake it. An edray mud be fed and kept,
uninjured, and without labour, till it is reclaimed or the
limited time expires.
ESTREAT, Extractum, in Law, is ufed for the
true copy or duplicate of fome original writing, efpe-
tially of amercements or penalties fet down in the rolls
of a court, to be levied by the bailiff or other officer, on
every offender.
ESPREMADURA, a province of Spain, has New
Cadile on the ead, Leon on the north,. Andalufia on
the fouth, and Portugal on the wed. It is 175 miles
in length, and 100 in breadth 5 and its principal towns
sre Calatrava, IVIenda, and Badajoz, on the river
Guadiana 5 Alcantara, on the Tajoj and Cona and
Placentia, to the north of this river.
This province enjoys a very pure and healthful air,
and its mountains are full of avild and tame animals ;
they having woods and foreds for the one fort, and pa-
dures for the other. The fields are planted with fruit-
trees, which bear all kinds of delicious fruit. The vine¬
yards produce excellent wines of all colours, and the
fields yield plenty of corn.
EstREmadura, a province of Portugal, near the
mouth of the Ragus or lajo, bounded on (lie north
Beira, on the ead and fouth by Akntejo, and on
2
the wed by the Atlantic ocean. It is about 8S miles Eftrenw.
in length, and 45 in breadth. This province is di-
vided into fix comarcas, viz. Litria, Lilbon, Tomar £tch“>g.
Santaren, and Alanquar, to the north of the Tagus j
and that of Setubal, to the fouth of this river. Thefe
are likewife the principal toAvns. Edremadura is
equal, if not preferable, to any other province in Spain
or Portugal. The didricl of Santaren produces fuch
plenty of corn, and feeds fo many docks of Iheep,
that it may enter into competition with Sicily. The
fruits and the wines are all excellent ; and it was here
that the fweet oranges brought from China were
fird planted, and of which there are large quantities
transported to foreign parts, with the wines and other-
fruits. The fields are covered with dowers aimed all
the year, from Avhich the bees colled large quantities
of fine honey. The olive-tree are numerous, from
which they have excellent oil. The rivers abound
with good fiffi, and the mountains have quarries of fede¬
ral kinds.
E1CHING, a method of engraving on copper, in
which the lines or drokes, indead of being cut with a
tool or graver, are eaten in with aquafortis. See Ex-
GRAVING.
Etching is of a later invention, though not very-
modern, than engraving with the tool j of which it
was at fird only an imitation, that was pradifed by
painters and other artids, who could much fooner
form their hands to, and attain a faculty of, working
in this way, than with the graver. But being then
neverthelefs confidered as a counterfeit kind of engra¬
ving, and therefore inferior to the other, it was culti¬
vated in a very confined manner j the clofenefs of the
refemblance of the work to that performed by the
tool, being made the ted of its merit, and confequent-
ly the principal objed of aim in thofe who purfued it.
This fervile confinement of the art of etching to the
imitation of the original kind of engraving, was a-
great caufe of retarding its advancement towards per-
fedion, as many of the mod able maders cramped
their talents with the obfervanee of it : this may be
feen in the indances of Sadclers, Swaneberg, Villa-
mena, and particularly Le Boffe j who, in his treatife
on engraving, has laid down as a principle, that the
perfedion of this kind corifids in the dole fimilitude
of the work with that done by the tool. This abl'urd,
prepoffeffion has been fince worn out: and the method (if
working Avith aquafortis has been fo far improved, that
indead of being noAv deemed a fpurious kind of engra¬
ving, it evidently appears, in many modern works, the
foundation of ao excellence that could never ha\’e
been produced without it : fince, though the neatnefs
and uniformity of the hatches, which attend the ufe
of the tool, is more advantageous with refped to por¬
traits ; yet the liberty and facility of the other manner
give a much greater opportunity to exercife the force
of genius and fancy in hidory-engraving ; where the
effed of the whole, and not the minute exadnefs in
fin idling all the parts, conditutes the principal value.
There are Iavo methods prqdifed of engraving in this
Avay ; the one with a hard varnidi or ground, the other
with a foft. The fird w-as formerly much uffd, being
better accommodated to the intention of imitating the
engraving with the toolas the firmnefs of the body
of the vamilh gave more opportunity of retouching the
lines,
ETC [ 3.33 ] ETC
Etching- Hives, or enlarging them Avith the oval-pointed needles,
_ t— called by the French echoppes, as was praftifed by Le
Boffe and others for that purpofe. The latter has now
almoil wholly fuperfeded the ufe of the other, by the
free manner of working it admits of j which affords
a power of expreffion incompatible with the great¬
er inflexibility of the hard varnifli, that confines the
lines and hatches to fuch a regularity and famenefs, as
gives a fliffnefs of manner and coldnefs of effeft to the
work.
The combination of the ufe of the tool and aquafor¬
tis, which are now both employed in many cafes, has,
however, given that perfection to engraving which it
poffeffes at prefent. The truth and fpirit of the outline
that the method of working with aquafortis affords, and
the variety of ftiades which the different kinds of black
produce in this way, as well as other means of expref-
fing the peculiar appearance and charafter of particu¬
lar fubjefts, furnilh what was defective in the foie ufe
of the tool \ while, on the other hand, the exaftnefs and
regularity of the lines, which are required for finifliing
many kinds of defigns, are fupplied by the graver •, and
by a judicious application of both, that complete finifli¬
ing is obtained, which either of them alone muff ne-
Ceffarily want.
The manner by which this art is performed, is the
covering the furface of the plate with a proper varniih
or ground, as it is called, which is capable of refifting
aquafortis; and then fcoring or fcratching away, by
inftruments refembling needles, the parts of this var¬
nifli or ground, in the places where the ftrokes or
hatches of the engraving are intended to be *, then^
the plate being covered with aquafortis, the parts
that are laid naked and expofed by removing the
ground or varnith, are corroded or eaten away by it *,
while the reft, being fecured and defended, remain un¬
touched.
There are two methods of etching, as has been al¬
ready obferved j the difference of which from each
other confifts, as well in the difference of the varnifli or
ground, as in that of the aquafortis, adapted to each
kind ; but the general methods of performing them
are alike in both. Thefe varniflies or grounds are dif-
tinguiflied by the names of hard zr\d. foft: for in their
confiftence, or the refiftance they give to the needles,
lies their effential variation from each other. The
hard varniih, it is with good reafon conjectured, was
not the firft in ufe : but foon took place of the other 5
and was, for fome time, the moft received in practice,
on account of its admitting the work to be made more
like that of the graver j the foft has, however, fince,
in its turn, prevailed to the exclufion of it in lome de¬
gree, except in the cafe of particular fubje&s ; but not
fb entirely as to take away the expedience of fhowfng
how it is performed: The manner of etchings with the
foft varnifli is now, however, one of the moft import¬
ant obje&s of the art of engraving-1, and it is at pre¬
fent in univerfal ufe, fometimes alone, but more- fre¬
quently intermixed with the work of the tool, and
in fome cafes with great advantage, even where the
whole is intended to pafs for being performed by the
graver.
Preparation of the foft varniJJ) ; according to Mr Law¬
rence, an eminent Eng/ifh engraver at Paris. “ Take
•f virgin wax and afphaltum, each two ounces j of
black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each half an ounce. Etching.
Melt the wax and pitch in a new earthen-ware glazed
pot 5 and add to them by degrees, the afphaltum fine¬
ly powdered. Let the whole boil till fuch time as that,
taking a drop upon a plate, it will break v-hen it is
cold, on bending it double two or three times betwixt
the fingers. The varnifli being then enough boiled,
muft be taken off the fire j and letting it cool a little,
muft be poured into warm water, that it may work the
more eafily with the hands, fo as to be formed into
balls j which muft be rolled up, and put into a piece of
taffety for ufe.”
It muft be obferved, firft, that the fire be not too
violent, for fear of burning the ingredients y a flight
fimmering will be fufticient : fecondly, that while the
afphaltum is putting in, and even after it is mixed
wfith them, the ingredients ftiould be ftirred continual¬
ly with the fpatula ; and thirdly, that the water, in¬
to which this eompofition is thrown, fhould be near¬
ly of the fame degree of Warmth w ith it, to prevent a
kind of cracking that happens when the water is too
cold.
The varnifli ought always to be harder in fummer
than in winter j and it will become fo if it be fuffered
to boil longer, or if a greater proportion of the aiphal-
tum or brown refin be ufed. The experiment above
mentioned, of the drop fuffered to cool, will determine
the degree of hardnefs or foftnefs that may be fuitable
to the feafon when it is ufed;
Preparation of the hard varnijh ufed by Callot, common¬
ly called the Florence varnifli. Take four ounces of fat
oil very clear, and made of good linfeed oil, like that
ufed by painters : heat it in a clean pot of glazed
earthen-w are, and afterwards put to it four ounces-of
maftich well powdered $ and ftir the mixture brifkly
till the whole be well melted y then pafs the whole mafs
through a piece of fine linen into a glafs bottle with a
long neck, that can be flopped very fecurely j and keep
it for the ufe that will be below explained.
Method of applying the foft varnijh to the plate, and of
blackening it. The plate being well poliftied and bur-
niflied, as alfo cleanfed from all greafinefs by chalk or
Spaniih white, fix a hand-vice on the edge of the plate
where no work is intended to be, to ferve as a handle
for managing it when warm : then put it upon a chaf¬
ing-d I fh, in which there is a moderate fire 5 obferving
to hold it fo that it may melt : then cover the whole
plate equally with a thin coat of the varnifh y and
while the plate is warm, and the varnifh upon it in a
fluid ftate, beat every part of the varnifh gently with a
fmall ball or dauber made of cotton tied up in taft’ety y
which operation fmooths and diftributes the vamifh
equally over the plate.
When the plate is thus uniformly and thinly cover¬
ed with the varnifh, it muft be blackened by a piece of
flambeau, or of a large candle which affords a copious
fmoke j fometimes two, or even four, fuch candles arc
ufed together for the fake of difpatch, that the varnifli
may not grow- cold : which if it does during the ope¬
ration, the plate muft then be heated again, that it may
be in a melted ftate when that operation is performed :
but great care muft be taken not to burn it j which,
when it happens, may be eafily perceived by the var-
nifh appearing burnt and lofing its glofs The follow¬
ing expedient is made ufe of for-the more commodioufly
' blackening
/
Etc
[ 334 ]
E T E
Etching, blackening the. varnifh, being particularly neceffary
v ' '" where the plates are large : Fix a ftrong hook in the
roof of the room, through rvhich pafs four pieces of
cord of equal length, at the end of which are fixed four
iron rings of about four inches diameter, for iupport-
ing the corners of the plate. The plate being thus fuf-
pended in the air, with the varnifhed fide downwards,
may be blackened with great convenience : but this is
not, however, abfolutely requifite, except in the cafe
of large plates that could not, without difficulty, be
held up, unlefs this or fome other fuch contrivance
were made ufe of.
It is proper to be very cautious in keeping the flam¬
beau or candle at a due diftance from the plate, left the
wuck touch the varniffi, which w’ould both fully and
mark it. If it appear that the fmoke has not penetra¬
ted the varnilh, the plate muft be again placed for fome
little time over the chafing-diffi j and it will be found,
that, in proportion as the plate grows hot, the varniffi
will melt and incorporate with the black which lay
above it, in fuch a manner that the whole will be equal¬
ly pervaded by it.
Above all things, the greateft caution fliould be ufed
in this operation, to keep all the time a moderate fire j
and to move frequently the plate, and change the place
of all the parts of it, that the varniffi may be alike
melted everywhere, and kept from burning. Care
muft alfo be taken, that during this time, and even till
the varniffi be entirely cold, no filth, fparks, or dull, fly
on it; for they would then ftick fart, and fpoil the
work.
Method of applying the hard varnijh. This is precifely
the fame as for the foft •, being fpread equally over the
warm plate with the taffety-ball, and frnoked in the fame
manner : only after it is fmoked, it muft be baked, or
dried over a gentle fire of charcoal, till the fmoke from
the varniffi begins to decreafe *, taking care not to over¬
heat the plate, which would both (often it and burn
the varniffi.
The plate being thus prepared, and an exaft draw¬
ing of the outlines of the defign made upon thin pa¬
per, the other fide of the paper muft be well rubbed
with chalk or Spaniffi whitening, or, which is bet¬
ter, with red chalk fcraped to a powder *, and the
loofe chalk is cleared off with a linen rag : then the
ftained fide of the paper is laid upon the varniffi, fix¬
ing the corners to the plate with wax or wafers, to
prevent its ffiuffling ; and with a blunted needle or
pointer the drawing is (lightly traced, and communi¬
cates to the varniffi an exadl outline of the defign to be
etched.
A variety of pointers is neceffary for the work.
Thofe ufeft for the broad large ftrokes ought to be
very blunt, exceeding round, and well poliffied at the
point the foie of a (hoe anfwers very well for poliffi-
ing the points. The fineft ought to be as (harp as a
needle. If any fcratches or falfe ftrokes happen in the
working, they are to be flopped up with a hair-pencil
dipped in Venetian varniffi, mixed with lamp black, by
which means thefe places will be defended from the ac¬
tion of the aquafortis.
The next operation is that of eating or corroding
the plate with aquafortis j in order to which, a border
of foft wax (being a compofition of bees wax melted
and tempered with a little Venice turpentine and tal-
3
low) muft be faftened round the plate about an inch Etdiin
high, in the form of a little wall or rampart, to contain Eteoclc
the aquafortis. At one of the corners of this border
a gutter is ufually made, which ferves for pouring com-
modioufly the aquafortis off the plate. The plate be-
ing thus bordered, take a due quantity of the refiners
aquafortis •, mix it with half its quantity of common
water ; and pour it gently on, till it rife above a fin¬
ger’s breadth above the furface of the plate j when, if all
things have been rightly conduced, it will be feen that
the aquafortis will foon exert its a&ion in the hatches
which have been ftrongly touched $ but thofe more
weakly engraved will appear at firft clear, and of the
colour of the copper. The menftruum muft therefore
be fuffered to continue on the plate till its effe&s be¬
come vifible on the more tender parts : then the aqua¬
fortis ffiould be poured off, the plate waffied with clean
water, and dried before the fire : then take a fmall
pencil dipped into the Venetian varniffi, and cover with
it the lighter parts of the plate. This being done, the
aquafortis muft again be poured bn, and fuffered to
continue a longer or ffiorter time, according to the
ftrength of the menftruum, or the nature of the en¬
graving j when it muft be again poured off as before,
and the plate immediately waffied with water.
It may not be improper to obferve, that, when the
aquafortis is on the plate, a feather ffiould be ufed to
cleanfe away the foulnefs of the verdegris that gathers
in the hatches when the aquafortis operates on them,
and to give it more room to exert its aftion j for by
moving the aquafortis to and fro on the plate by the
feather, and bruftung away the black faline matter
where it appears to be formed, the hatches will be
cleanfed, and the aquafortis exert its whole force equal¬
ly on every part.
The plate being thus fufficiently corroded by the
aquafortis, and well waffied with water, it muft be
warmed at the fire, and the border of wax removed;
after which it muft be made hotter till the varniffi
melt j then it muft be well wiped with a linen cloth,
and afterwards rubbed well with oil of olives ; when
it will be ready to be retouched and finiffied by the
graver. See the article ENGRAVING.
ETEOCLES, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Oedipus
and Joc^fta. After his father’s death, it was agreed
between him and his brother Polynices, that they ffiould
both (hare the royalty, and reign alternately each a
year. Eteocles by right of feniority firft afcended the
throne ; but after the firft year of his reign had expired
he refufed to give up the crown to his brother, accord¬
ing to their mutual agreement. Polynices, refolved to
punilh fuch an open violation of a folemn engagement,
went to implore the afliftance of Adraftus king of Ar¬
gos. He received that king’s daughter in marriage,
and W'as foon after aflifted with a ftrong army headed
by feven famous generals. Thefe hoftile preparations
were feen by Eteocles, who on his part did not remain
ina£tive. He chofe feven brave chiefs to oppofe the
feven leaders of the Argives, and ftationed them at the
feven gates of the city. He placed himfelf againfl his
brother Polynices, and he oppofed Menalippus to Ty-
deus, Polyphontes to Capaneus, Megareus to Eteocles,
Hyperbius to Parthenopaeus, and Lafthenes to Amphia-
raus. Much blood was (bed in light and unavailing
(kirmiffies, and it was at laft agreed between the two
brothers
E T T
t 335 ]
E T H
-odes brothers that the war (hould be decided by Tingle com¬
bat. They both fell in an engagement condufted with
the moll inveterate fury on either fide 5 and it is even
' faid that the allies of thefe two brothers, who had been
fo inimical one to the other, feparated themfelves on the
burning pile, as if fenfible of refentment, and hoftile to
reconciliation.
ETERNITY, an attribute of God, exprefling his
infinite or endlefs duration. See Logic and Meta¬
physics.
Eternity, in Mythology, a divinity among the Ro¬
mans, who had neither temples nor altars. They re-
prefented it under the figure of a woman, who held the
fun in one hand and the moon in the other : her fym-
bols were a phoenix, globe, and elephant.
ETESI^E, or Etesian winds, are fuch as blow at
Hated times of the year, from what part foever of the
compafs they come. They are fo called from the Greek,
word e]«f, “ year,” being yearly or anniverfary winds,
fuch as our feamen call monfoons and trade-winds, which
in fome parts of the world continue conilantly blowing
for certain Hated feafons of the year. Thus, the north
winds, which, during the dog-days, conflantly blow
upon the coafts of Egypt, and hinder all {hips from
failing out of Alexandria for that feafon, are called
ete/ice in Caefar’s Commentaries. In other authors, the
weft and eaft winds are called etefice, when they conti¬
nue blowing for certain feafons of the year.
Cellarius endeavours to prove that thofe winds are
properly etefian which blow from that part of the hori¬
zon which is between the north and weft about the time
of the folftice. In ancient writers, they are reprefent-
ed as of a very mild and gentle nature j and were cal¬
led by mariners fomniculoji and delicati, from their lleep-
ing or ceafing to blow in the night.
ETFU, a town of Upper Egypt, celebrated on ac¬
count of the fublime temple of Apollinopolis, which,
. Denon obferves,*' is “ the moft beautiful of all Egypt,
and, next to thofe of Thebes, the largeft. Being built
(he adds) at a period when the arts and feiences had ac¬
quired all their fplendour, the workmanlhip of every
part is equally beautiful, the hieroglyphics are admira¬
bly executed, the figures more varied, and the archi-
tefture of a higher order than in the Theban edifices,
the building of which muft be referred to an earlier
age. My firft care was to take a general plan of the
building.
“ Nothing can be more limply beautiful than thefe
outlines j nothing more piflurefque than the effefl pro¬
duced in the elevation, by the various dimenfions be¬
longing to each member of the harmonious whole.
This fuperb edifice is feated on a riling ground, fo as to
overlook not only its immediate vicinity, but the whole
valley ; and at the foot*of this greater teipple, but on
a confiderably lower level, is a fmaller one, at prefent
almoft buried. The only part Hill vifible is in a hol¬
low furrounded with rubbilh, where may be feen a little
portico of two columns, and as many pilafters, a peri-
ftyle, and the famftuary of the temple inclofed within
a pilaftered gallery. A fingle column, wijth its capital
riling from the ruins, to the height of forty feet above
the portico, and the angle of a wall 100 feet beyond,
ihew that there formerly exifted a court in the front of
the temple. It is remarkable of this monument, not-
withftanding the Ikill difplayed in its conftru&ion, that
the gates are not exactly in the middle of the fides. It
Teems to have been dedicated to the evil genius, for the
figure of Typhon is feen in relief on the four Tides of the
plinth, which furmounts each of the capitals. Ihe
whole frieze, and all the paintings within, appear de-
fcriptive of Ills defending herfelf againft the attacks of
this monfter.”
ETHELBALD,
ETHELBERT,
ETHELRED,
ETHELWOLF,
ETHER,
J
kings of
England.
{
See
(Hiftory of)
England.
See JEther.
ETHERIAL, }
ETHERIDGE, Sir George, a celebrated wit and
comic genius in thereignsof Charles II. and James II.
defcended from an ancient family in Oxfordlhire, and
born in 1636. He travelled in his youth j and, not
being able to confine himfelf to the ftudy of the law,
devoted himfelf to the gayer accomplilhments. His
firft dramatic performance, the Comical Revenge, or
Love in a Tub, appeared in 1664, and introduced hiim
to the leading wits of the time : in 1668, he produced
a comedy called She would if Ihe could j and, in 1676,
he publilhed his lart comedy, called the Man of Mode,
or Sir Fopling Flutter j which is perhaps the moft ele¬
gant comedy, and contains more of the real manners
of high life than any one the Englilh ftage was ever
adorned with. This piece he dedicated to the beauti¬
ful duchefs of York, in whofe fervice he then was j and
who had fo high a regard for him, that when, on the
acceflion of James II. lire came to be queen, Ihe procu¬
red his being fent ambaffador firft to Hamburgh, and
afterwards to Ratilbon, where he continued till after
his majefty quitted the kingdom. Our author being
addicled to certain gay extravagances, had greatly im¬
paired his fortune j to repair which, he paid his ad-
dreffes to a rich widow; but Ihe, being an ambitious
woman, had determined not to condefcend to a mar¬
riage with any man who could not bellow a title upon
her j on which account he was obliged to purchafe a
knighthood. None of the writers have exadtly fixed
the period of Sir George’s death, though all Teem to
place it not long after the Revolution. Some fay, that
on this event he followed his mailer King James into
France, and died there j but the authors of the Bio-
graphia Britannica mention a report, that he came to
an untimely death by an unlucky accident at Ratilbon ^
for that after having treated fome company with a libe¬
ral entertainment at his houfe there, where he had ta¬
ken his glafs too freely, and being, through his great
complaifance, too forward in waiting on his guefts at
their departure, flulhed as he was, he tumbled down
Hairs and broke his neck, and fo fell a martyr to mirth
and jollity. As to Sir George’s literary charafler, he
certainly was born a poet, and feems to have been pof-
fefled of a genius whofe vivacity needed no cultivation
for we have no proofs of his having been a fcholar.
His works, however, have not efcaped cenfure on ac¬
count of that licentioufnefs which in general runs
through them, which renders them dangerous to young
unguarded minds 5 and the more fo, for the lively and
genuine wit with which it is gilded over, and which
has therefore juftly banilhed them from the purity of
the prefent ftage.
ETHICS, the do&rine of manners, or the fcience
Etfa
n
Ethics,
E T M r 336 1 E T 0
Ethics
II
Etmuiler.
of moral 'pliilofophy. The word is formed from
mores, “ manners $” becaufe it is the objeft of
, ethics to inveftigate the manners or conduft of man.
See Moral PhilofopJuj.
ETHIOPIA, an extenlive region of Africa. See
Abyssinia.
ETHIOPS, ANTIMONIAL, MARTIAL, and MINE¬
RAL See Chemistry Index.
ETHMOIDES, in Anatomy, a bone fituated in the
middle-of the balls of the forehead or os frontis, and at
the top of the root of the nofe, filling almoft the whole
cavity of the noftrils. It has its name from efyts;, cri-
brum, “ fieve,” and “ form,” becaufe all fpongy
and porous. See Anatomy Index.
ETHNARCHA, Ethnarch, (formed of“na¬
tion,” and wgxs, “ command),” a governor or ruler of
a nation.
There are fome medals of Herod I. furnamed the
Great, on one fide whereof is found eH^ov, and on the
other E6»x£x,6v, q. d. Herod the Ethnarch. After the
battle of Philippi, we read that Antony, palling over
into Syria, conftituted Herod and Phafael his brother
tetrarchs, and in that quality committed to them the
adminiftration of the affairs of Judea, (Jof. Ant. lib.
xiv. cap. 23.) Herod therefore had the government of
the province before ever the Parthians entered Syria,
or before Antigonus’s invafion, which did not happen
till fix or feven years after Herod was commander in
Galilee, (Jof. lib. xiv. cap. 24, 25.) Confequently,
Herod was then truly ethnarch, for he can be no other-
wife denominated ; lb that it muft have been in that
fpace of time that the medals were ftruck, which only
give him this title : which medals are a confirmation
of what we read in hiftory of the government which
that prince w as intrufted w ith before he w as raifed to the
royalty.
Jofephus gives Herod the appellation of tetrarch in
lieu of that of ethnarch; but the two terms come fo near
to each other, that it is eafy to confound them together.
Though Herod the Great left by will to Archelaus
all Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, yet Jofephus tells us
he was then only called ethnarch.
ETHNOPHRONES, in antiquityj a fe£I of here¬
tics in the feventh century, who made a profeflion of
Chriftianity, but joined thereto all the ceremonies and
follies of Pagaijifm, as judicial aftrology, fortileges, au¬
guries, and other divinations.
ETIQUETTE, a French term, primarily denoting
A ticket or title affixed to a bag or bundle of papers ex-
preffing its contents. It is alfo ufed, when applied to the
Spanilh and fome other courts, to fignify a particular
account of what is to be done daily in the king’s houfe-
hold, and in the chief ceremonies relating to it. It like-
wife denotes thofe forms that regulate the decorum of
conduct towards perfons of various ranks and Rations.
ETMULLER, Michael, a moft eminent phyfi-
cian, born at Leipfic in 1646. After having travelled
through the greateft part of Europe, he became profef-
for of botany, chemiftry, and anatomy, at Leipfic, w here
he died in 1683. He was a very voluminous writer,
his works making no lefs than 5 vols folio, as printed
at Naples in 1728. His fon Michael Erneft Etmuller
was alfo an ingenious phyfician, who publiflied feveral
pieces, and died in 1732.
ETNA, or ^Etna, a famous burning mountain of
Sicily, and the largeft in Europe^ See Aitna.
ETOLIA, a country of ancient Greece, compre¬
hending all that traft now called the Defpotat, or Little
Greece. It was parted on the eaft by the river Events,
now the Fidari, from the Locrenfes Ozolee4 on the
weft, from Acarnania by the Aehelous j on the north,
it; bordered on the country of the Dorians and part of
Epirus j and, on the fouth, extended to the bay of
Corinth.
The Etolians wrere a reftlefs and turbulent people j
feldom at peace among themfelves, and ever at war
with their neighbours ; utter ftrangers to all fenfe of
friendffiip or principles of honour j ready to betray
their friends upon the leaft profpeft of reaping any ad¬
vantage from their treachery : ih {hurt, they were look¬
ed upon by the other Rates of Greece no otherwife than
as outlaws and public robbers. On the other hand,
they were bold and enterprifing in war j inured to la¬
bour and hardftiips; undaunted in the greateft dan¬
gers j jealous defenders of their liberties, for which
they were, on all occaftons, willing to venture their
lives, and facrifice all that was moft dear to them.
They diftinguiffied themfelves above all the other na¬
tions ©f Greece, in oppofing the ambitious defigns of
the Macedonian princes ; who, after having reduced
moft of the other ftates, were forced to grant them a
peace upon very honourable terms* The conftitution
of the Etolian republic W’as copied from that of the
AchaeaUs, and with a view to form, as it were, a coun¬
ter alliance ; for the Etolians bore an irreconcileable
hatred to the Achaeans, and had conceived no fmall
jealoufy at the growing power of that ftate. The
Cleomenic war, and that of the allies, called the facial
war, were kindled by the Etolians in the heart of Pe-
loponnefus, with no other view1 but to humble their
antagonifts the Achseans. In the latter, they held out,
with the affiftance only of the Eleans and Lacedemo¬
nians, for the fpace of three years, againft the united
forces of Achaia and Macedon ; but were obliged at
laft to purchafe a peace, by yielding up to Philip all
Acarnania. As they parted w ith this province much
againft their will, they watched all opportunities of
wrefting it again out of the Macedonian’s hands; for
which reafoh they entered into an alliance with Rome
againft; him, and proved of great fervice to the Ro¬
mans in their war with him: but grow ing infolent
upon account of their fervices, they made war upon
the Romans themfelves. By that warlike nation they
were overcome, and granted a peace on the following
feVere terms: I. The majefty of the Romah people
{hall be revered in all Etolia. 2. Etolia ftiall not buf¬
fer the armies of fuch as are at war with Rome to pafs
through her territories, and the enemies of Rome ffiall
be likewife the enemies of Etolia. 3. She lLall, in
the fpace of 10O days, put into the hands of the ma-
giftrates of Corcyra all the prifoners and deferters {he
has, whether of the Romans or their allies, except
fuch as have been taken twice, or during her alliance
with Rome. 4. The Etolians ftiall pay down in ready
money, to the Roman general in Etolia, 200 Euboic
talents, of the fame value as the Athenian talents, and
engage to pay 50 talents more within the fix years fol¬
lowing. 5. They ftiall put into the hands of the con-
Etolia.
*
E T O [3
ful 40 fuch lioflages as he fliall choofe j none of whom
/hall be under 12, or above 40 years of age j the prae¬
tor, the general of the horfe, and fuch as have been
already hoftages at Rome, are excepted out of this
number. 6. Etolia /hall renounce all pretenfions to
the cities and territories which the Romans have
conquered, though thofe cities and territories had
formerly belonged to the Etolians. 7. The city of
Oenis, and its diftridl, /hall be fubjeft to the Acar-
nanians.
After the conqueft of Macedon by Paulu's iEmilius,
they were reduced to a much worfe condition *, for not
only thofe among them, who had openly declared for
Perfeus, but fuch as were only fufpe&ed to have fa¬
voured him in their hearts, were fent to Rome, in or¬
der to clear themfelves before thefenate. There they
were detained, and never afterwards fu/Fered to return
into their native country. Five hundred and fifty of
the chief men of the nation were barbaroufly affaffi-
nated by the partizans of Rome, for no other crime
but that of being fufpedted to wilh well to Perfeus.
The Etolians appeared before Paulus ALmilius in
mourning habits, and made loud complaints of fuch
inhuman treatment •, but could obtain no redrefs : nay,
ten commiffioners, who had been fent by the fenate to
fettle the affairs of Greece, enabled a decree, declaring,
that thofe who were killed had fuffered ju/tly, fince it
appeared to them that they had favoured the Macedo¬
nian party. From this time thofe only were raifed to
the chief honours and employments in the Etolian re¬
public who were known to prefer the interelf of Rome
to that of their country} and as thefe alone were
countenanced at Rome, all the magiftrates of Etolia
were the creatures and mere tools of the Roman fenate.
In thisftate of fervile fubjeftioa they continued till the
deltruction of Corinth, and the diffolution of the A-
chtean league*, when Etolia, with the other free Hates
of Greece, was reduced to a Roman province, com¬
monly called the province o f Achaia. Neverthelefs, each
Hate and city was governed by its own laws, under the
fuperintendency of the praetor whom Rome fent annual¬
ly into Achaia. The whole nation paid a certain tri¬
bute, and the rich were forbidden to poflefs lands any¬
where but in their own country.
In this Hate, with little alteration, Etolia continued
under the emperors, till the reign of Conflantine the
Great, who, in his new partition of the provinces of
the empire, divided the weftern parts of Greece from
the rell, calli g them Nevo Epirus, and fubjedHng the
whole country to the prcefecius prcetoru for Illyricum.
Under the fucceflors of Conftantine, Greece was par¬
celled out into feveral principalities, efpecially after
the taking of Conllantinople by the Weftern princes.
At that time, Theodorus Angelus, a noble Grecian,
of the imperial family, feized on E'olia and Epirus.
The former ho left to Michael his fon *, who maintain¬
ed it againft Michael Paleologus, the firft emperor of
the Greeks, after the expulfion of the Latins. Charles,
the laft prince of this family, dying in 1430 without
lawful iifue, bequeathed Etolia to his brother’s fon,
named alfo Charles ; and Acarnania to his natural fons,
Memnon. Turnus, and Hercules. But, great difputes
arifing about this divifion, Amurath II. after the reduc¬
tion of Theffalonica, laid hold of fo favourable an op¬
portunity, and drove them all out in 1432. The Bla-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
37 3 E T o
hometans were afterwards difpolTefted of this country by
the famous prince of Epirus, George Caftriot, common¬
ly called Scanderheg i who, with a fmall army, oppofed
the whole power of the Ottoman empire, and defeated
thofe barbarians in 22 pitched battles. That hero, at
his death, left great part of Etolia to the Venetians ;
but, they not being able to make head againft fuch
a mighty power, the whole country was loon re¬
duced by Mahomet II. whofe fucceffors hold it to this
day.
ETON, a town of Bucks, fituated on the river
Thames, acrofs which there is a bridge leading ta
Windfor. Eton has been long celebrated for its fchool
and college, which were founded by Henry VI. j and
King’s college in the univerfity of Cambridge admits
none into the number of its fellows, who have not b#en
brought Up at Eton. It lies weft from London, at the
diftance of about 20 miles.
The fcholars of Eton fchool have a fefiival which
has been celebrated from time immemorial, called the
Montetn, the obfervance of which w as at firft biennial,
but is now triennial, on the Whit Tuejday in every third
year. It commences by a number of the older boys
taking poll on the bridges, and guarding every other
avenue around Windfor and Eton, as foon as the day
begins to dawn.
They are generally fele£ted on account of their fine
figures and fuperior a£livity. Their drefies are all fan¬
ciful, compofed of filks, fatins, &c. fome of them very
richly embroidered, and chiefiy in the appearance of
running footmen, having poles in their hands, a .d de¬
nominated falt-bearers, who demand fait of every paf-
fenger they meet, by which they mean a contribution,
and peremptorily iniit on receiving it. The contribu¬
tion being given, which confilts of w hatever the perlon
pleafes to beftow', a printed paper is delivered, contain¬
ing their motto, together with the date of the year j
and this being produced to any other falt-bearer, ex¬
empts the paffenger from the payment of any farther
contributions during that day. The motto'k,
“ P/ •0 more et monte.
Vivant rex et regina.”
They continue levying contributions in this manner
from the dawn of day till about three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon, at which time the proceflion clofes. It com¬
mences at noon, and confifts of the queen’s and other
bands of mufic j—feveral ftandards carried by different
ftudents ;—all the boys of Eton, twp and two, drefled
in the uniform of officers j thole belonging to the king’s
foundation, wear blue, the reft fearlet uniform, fwords,
&c.—the grand ftandard bearer ;—the captain or head
boy of Eton fchool;—the lieutenant, er fecond boy
his majefty, attended by the prince of Wales, and other
male branches of the royal family on horfeback, with
their fuite;—the queen and princeffes in coaches, attend¬
ed by their fuite *,—band of mufic, followed by a great
concourfe of the nobility and gentry in their carriages,
and on horfeback.
The proceffion begins in the great fquare at Eton
proceeding through Eton to Slough, and round to Salt-
hill, where the w hole of the boys pafs in review before
the king and queen, and afcend the montem, where an
oration is delivered, and the grand ftandard is difplay-
ed with much aftivity and grace by the ftandard-bear-
U u er,
E T Y t 338 ] EVA
Eton er, who is commonly fehcled from among the elder
jgt ‘*1 boys. Two extraordinary falt-bearers are chofen to
> , ' . wait, upon their majefties, dreffed in fanciful habits, and
decorated in the moft fuperb manner, carrying an em¬
broidered bag, not only for the purpofe of receiving
what is denominated the royal fait, but alfo what may
be collected by the other falt-bearers in different quar¬
ters. The donation of the king is 50 guineas, the
queen’s is the fame fum *, that of the prince of Wales
is 30, and that of the other princes and princeffes is 20
guineas each. This ceremony being over, the royal
family return to Windfor. A fumptuous entertainment
is provided for the boys at the tavern at Salt-hill, and
the beautiful gardens are laid out for ladies and gentle¬
men to take refrelhments, where bands of mufic are
conttantly performing.
At fix o’clock in the evening, the boys return in the
fame order of proceflion as in the morning (but without
the royal family), and after marching round the great
fquare, are difmiffed. After this the captain pays his
refpeifls to the royal family at the queen’s lodge, Wind¬
for, prior to his departure for King’s college, Cam¬
bridge j to defray the expences of which, he is prefent-
ed with the produce of the montem, which in the year
1796 amounted to more than 1000 guint ,s.
This joyful day is terminated by a brilliant exhibi¬
tion of beauty, rank, and falhion ; a promenade on the
terrace of Windfor $ bands of mufic performing, &c. :
and the fcene is rendered flill more interefting and de¬
lightful by the humble, affable deportment of the royal
family, who readily mingle with the company, and
walk on the terrace till it is almofl dark.
ETRURIA. See Hetruria.
ETYMOLOGY, that part of grammar which con-
fiders and explains the origin and derivation of words,
in order to arrive at their firfl and primary figmfica-
tion, whence Quintilian calls it originatio.—The word
is formed of the Greek, verus, “ true,” and
Atyoi, dico, “ 1 fpeak j” whence Aey«*, difcourfe, &c.
and thence Cicero calls the etymology notatio and
veriloquium; though Quintilian choofes rather to call
it originatio.
A judicious inquiry into etymologies is thought
by fome of confiderable ufe ; becaufe nations, who va¬
lue themfelves upon their antiquity, have always look¬
ed on the antiquity of their language as one of the beft
titles they could plead ; and the etymologift, by feek-
ing the true and original reafon of the notions and
ideas fixed to each word and expreffion, may often
furnifh an argument of antiquity, from the traces re¬
maining thereof, compared with the ancient ufes. Add,
that etymologies are neceffary for the thorough under-
itanding of a language. For, to explain a term pre-
cifely, there feems a neceffity for recurring to its firft
impofition, in order to fpeak juftly and fatisfa&orily
thereof. The force and extent of a word is generally
better conceived when a perfon knows its origin and
etymology.
It is objected, however, that the art is arbitrary, and
built altogether on conjectures and appearances j and
the etymologifts are charged with deriving their words
from where they pleafe. And indeed it is no eafy
matter to go back into the ancient Britifh and Gaulifh
ages, and to follow, as it were, by the track, the va¬
rious imperceptible alterations a language has under¬
gone from age to age; and as thofe alterations have EtymoW
fometimes been merely owing to caprice, it is eafy to 1) S
take a mere imagination or conje&ure for a regular a-Evangtli(h
nalogy: fp that it is no wonder the public fhould be'
prejudiced ag ain ft a fcience which feems to Hand on lb
precarious a footing. It muft certainly be owned, that
etymologies are frequently fo far fetched, that one can
fcarcely fee any refemblance or correfpondence therein.
Quintilian has Ihown, that the ancient etymologifts,
notwithftanding all their learning, fell into very ridi¬
culous derivations.
The etymologies of our Englilh words have been de¬
rived from the Saxon, Welch, Walloon, Danilh, La¬
tin, Greek, &c.
In the prefent work the etymologies of terms are
generally noted, where their obvioufnefs does not ren¬
der it unneceflary, or their dubiety or unimportance
ufelefs.
EVACUANTS, in Pharmacy, are properly fuch
medicines as diminilh the animal fluids, by throwing
out fome morbid or redundant humour j or fuch as
thin, attenuate, and promote the motion and circula¬
tion thereof.
EVACUATION, in Medicine, the art of diminifh-
ing, emptying, or attenuating, the humours of the
body.
EVAGRIUS scholasticus, a famous hiftorian,
born at Epiphania, about the year 536. He pra&i-
fed the profeflion of an advocate, from which he was
called Scholaficus, which name was then given to the
pleaders at the bar. He was alfo tribune and keeper
of the prefect’s difpatches. He wrote an ecclefiaftical
hiftory, which begins where Socrates and Theodoret
ended theirs $ and other works, for which he was re¬
warded by the emperors Tiberius and Mauricius. M.
de Valois publilhed at Paris a good edition of Eva-
grius’s ecclefiaftical hiftory, in folio ; and it was re-
publiftied at Cambridge in 1620, in folio, by William
Reading, with additional notes of various authors.
EVANDER, a famous Arcadian chief, called the
fon of Mercury, on account of his eloquence, brought
a colony of his people into Italy, about 60 years be¬
fore the taking of Troy ; when Faunus, who then
reigned over the Aborigines, gave him a large extent
of country, in which he fettled with his friends. He
is faid to have taught the Latins the ufe of letters, and
the art of hulhandry. He kindly received Hercules
w hen he returned from the conqueft of Geryon, and he
was the firft who raifed him altars. He gave ./Eneas
afliftance againft the Rutuli, and diftinguilhed himfelf
by his hofpitality. It is faid that he firft brought the
Greek alphabet into Italy, and introduced there the
worfliip of the Greek deities. He was honoured as a
god after death, and his fubjetts raifed him an altar
on Mount Aventine.
EVANGELISTS, the infpired authors of the go-
fpels. I he word is derived from the Greek ivccyfeAtor,
formed of iv, bene, “ well,” and ayfe/o?, “ angel or
meflenger.”
The denomination evangeli/ls was likewife given in
the ancient church to fuch as preached the gofpel up
and down, without being attached to any particular
church, being either commiflioned by the apoftles to
inftrudt the nations, or of their own accord abandoning
every worldly attachment, and confecrating themfelves
to
E U C [ 3
yangellftsto the facred office of preaching the gofpel; _ In which
^ U fenfe fome interpreters think it is that St Philip, who was
ucharift. one 0f feven deacons, is called the evangeli/f, in the
2lft chapter of the Adis of the Apoftles, verfe 8.
Again, St Paul writing to Timothy, ep. ii. cap. iv.
ver. 5. bids him do the work of an evangelift. The
fame apoftle, Eph. iv. 11. ranks the evangeliils after
the apoftles and prophets.
EVANID, a name given by fome authors to fuch
colours as are of no long duration, as thofe in the
rainbow, in clouds before and after funfet, &c.
Evanid colours are alfo called fantajlical and empha-
tical colours.
EVANTES, in antiquity, the prieftefles of Bac¬
chus, thus called, becaufe in celebrating the orgia they
ran about as if diftradted, crying, Evan, evan, ohe evan.
See Bacchanalia.
EVAPORATION, in Natural Philofophy, lignifies
the converfion of fluids into vapour, fo that it becomes
fpecifically lighter than the atmofphere. See Che¬
mistry and Meteorology Index.
EVASION, in Law, is ufed for any fubtle endea¬
vour to fet afide truth, or to efcape the puniftrment of
the law, which will not be endured. Thus, if a per-
fon fays to another that he will not ftrike him, but will
give him a pot of ale to ftrike him firft, and according¬
ly he ftrikes, the returning of it is puniftrable j for no
man fhall evade the juftice of the law by fuch a pretence
to cover his malice.
EVATES, a branch or divifton of the druids, or
ancient Celtic philofophers. Strabo divides the Britilh
and Gaulifti philofophers into three fedls j bards, evates,
and druids. He adds, that the bards were the poets
and muficians ; the evates, the priefts and naturaljfts ;
and the druids were moralifts as well as naturalifts :
But Marcellus and Hornius reduce them all to two
fe£ls, viz. the Bards and Druids.
EUBAGES, an order of priefts or philofophers
among the ancient Celtae or Gauls: fome will have the
cubages to be the fame with the druids and faronidae
ef Diodorus; and others, that they were the fame with
what Strabo calls Evates.
EUBOEA, m. Ancient Geography, an oblong ifland,
ftretching out between Attica and Theffaly, oppofite to
Boeotia; from which it is feparated by a narrow ftrait
called Euripus. This ifland, never exceeding 40, nor
ever falling ffiort of two miles in breadth, is in length
150 miles, and in compafs 365, according to Pliny.
Now Negropont, from its principal town, which was
anciently called Chalcis.
EUCHARIST, thefacrament of the Lord’s fupper,
properly {ignifiesi§7,yz«£'J^J»&J'.——The word in its original
Greek, Ev**^*, literally imports thank [giving; being
formed of iv, bene, “ well,” and gratia, “ thanks.”
This facrament was inftituted by Chrift himfelf j and
the participation of it is called communion.
As to the manner of celebrating the eucharift among
the ancient Chriftians, after the cuftomary oblations
were made, the deacon brought wrater to the bilhops
and prelbyters, Handing round the table, to wafti
their hands •, according to that of the pfalmift, “ I will
W’afli my hands in innocency, and fo will I compafs
thy altar, O Lord.” Then the deacon cried out aloud,
“ Mutually embrace and kifs each other which be¬
ing done, the whole congregation prayed for the uni-
39 ] E U C
verfal peace and welfare of the church, for the trail- Eucl.anft
quillity and repofe of the world, for the profperity of Euc||olo_
the age, for wholefome weather, and for all ranks and giumi
degrees of men. After this followed mutual fajuta- —^ 
tions of the minifter and people ; and then the bifliop
or prelbyter having fanftified the elements by a folemn
benediftion, he brake the bread, and delivered it to the
deacon, who diftributed it to the communicants, and
after that the cup. Their facramental wine was ufually
diluted or mixed with water. During the time of ad-
miniftration, they fang hymns and pfalms; and having
concluded with prayer and thankfgiving, the people
faluted each other with a kifs of peace, and fo the af-
fembly broke up.
EUCH1TES, or Euchit^e, a fea of ancient he¬
retics, who were firft formed into a religious body to¬
wards the end of the fourth century, though their doc¬
trine and difeipline fubfifted in Syria, Egypt, and
other eaftern countries, before the birth of Chrift; they
v'ere thus called becaufe they prayed without ceafing,
imagining that prayer alone was fufficient to lave them.
Their great foundation were thofe words of St Paul,
(Theflalonians, v. 17.), Pray without ceafing. The word
is formed of the Greek, ivy/i, prayer, whence ivyjiui,
the fame with the Latin, precatores, “ prayers.” They
were alfo called Enthujiajls and MeJJalians; a term of
Hebrew origin, denoting the fame as Euchites.
The Euchites were a fort of myftics, who imagined,
according to the oriental notion, that two fouls refided
in man, the one good and the other evil ; and who
wrere zealous in expelling the evil foul or demon, and
haftening the return of the good fpirit of God, by
contemplation, prayer, and finging of hymns. They
alfo embraced the opinions nearly refembling the Ma-
nichean dodlrine, and which they derived from the te¬
nets of the oriental philofophy. The fame denomina¬
tion was ufed in the 1 2th century, to denote certain
fanatics who infefted the Greek and eaftern churches,
and who wrere charged with believing a double Trinity,
rejefling wedlock, abftaining from flefli, treating with
contempt the facraments of baptifm and the Lord’s
fupper, and the various branches of external worfhip,
and placing the effence of religion folely in external
prayer, and maintaining the efficacy of perpetual fup-
plications to the fupreme Being for expelling an evil
being or genius, which dwelt in the breaft of every
mortal. This fe£l is faid to have been founded by a
perfon called Lucopetrus, whofe chief difciple was named
Tychicus. By degrees it became a general and invidious
appellation for perfons of eminent piety and zeal for
genuine Chriftianity, who oppofed the vicious prac¬
tices and infolent tyranny of the priefthood •, much in
the fame manner as the Latins comprehended all the
adverfaries of the Roman pontiff under the general
terms of Waldenses and Albicenses.
St Cyril of Alexandria, in one of his letters, takes
occafion to cenfure feveral monks in Egypt, who, un¬
der pretence of refigning themfelves wholly to prayer,
led a lazy, fcandalous life. A cenfure likewife appli¬
cable to monafteries in general.
EUCHOLOGIUM, Ev^oAeywv, a Greek term, fig-
nifying literally a difeourfe on prayer. The word is form¬
ed of prayer, and ^oye?, difeourfe.
The Euchologium is properly the Greek ritual,
wherein are preferibed the order and manner ef every
U u 2 thing
E U D
hucholo- thing relating to the order and adminiitration of their
^U||m ceremonies, facraments, ordinations, &c.
Eudofia. F* Goar has given us an edition of the Greek Eu-
”f chologium in Greek and Latin, with notes, at Paris.
EUCLID o/'Megara, a celebrated philofopher and
logician, flouriflied about 400 B. C. The Athenians
having prohibited the Megareans from entering their
city on pain of death, this philofopher difguifed himfelf
in women’s clothes to attend the leftures of Socrates.
After the death of Socrates, Plato and other philofo-
phers went to Euclid at Megara, to ihelter themfelves
from the tyrants who governed Athens. Euclid admit¬
ted but one chief good ; which he fometimes called
■ God, fometimes Spirit, and fometimes Providence.
Euclid of Alexandria, the celebrated mathemati¬
cian, rtouriflied in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, about
277 B. C. He reduced all the fundamental principles
of pure mathematics, which had been delivered down
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and other mathema¬
ticians before him, into regularity and order, and add¬
ed many others of his own difcovering *, on which ac¬
count he is faid to be the firft who reduced arithmetic
and geometry into the form of a fcience. He likewife
applied himfelf to the lludy of mixed mathematics, and
efpecially to alfronomy, in which he alfo excelled. The
moft celebrated of his works is his Elements of Geome-
try, of which there have been a great number of edi¬
tions in all languages ; and a fine edition of all his
works was printed in 1703, by David Gregory, Savi-
lian profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford.
EUCKASY, (of iv, well, and xgxtris, temperature'),
in Medicine, an agreeable well-proportioned mixture of
qualities, whereby a body is faid to be in good order,
and difpofed for a good Hate of health.
EUDIOMETER,an inftrumentfor afcertaining the
purity of the atmofpherical air, or the quantity of pure
oxygen or vital air contained in it, chiefly by means of
its diminution, or the abforption of it by expofing cer¬
tain fubllances to its aftion. Several kinds of eudiome¬
ters have been invented. See Chemistry Index.
EUD9SIA, (Athenia, before her converfion to
Chriftianity), a celebrated lady, the daughter of Leon¬
tius, a philofopher of Athens ; who gave her fuch a
learned education, that at his death, he left her only a
fmall legacy, faying (he was capable to make her own
fortune : but pleading at Athens without fuccefs againft
her two brothers, for a {hare in her father’s eftate, {lie
carried her caufe perfonally by appeal to Conftantino-
ple ; recommended herfelf to Pulcheria, the filler of
the emperor Theodofius the younger ; embraced Chrif¬
tianity, was baptized by the name of Eudojia, and
foon after married to the emperor. Their union lalled
a confiderable time : but a difference at laft taking
place, on account of the emperor’s jealoufy, excited by
Chryfapius the eunuch, {he retired to Jerufalem, where
{he fpent many years in building and adorning
churches and in relieving the poor. Dupin fays, that
{lie did not return thence till after the emperor’s
death . but Cave tells us, that {he was reconciled to
him, returned toConilantinople, and continued with him
till his death •, after which fire w'ent again to Paleftin£
where the fpent the remainder of her life in pious
works. She died in the year 460, according to Du¬
pin ; or 459, according to Cave : the latter obferves,
that on her deathbed Iks took a folemii oathj by which
[ 340 ] EVE
ihe declared herfelf entirely free from any Rains of un-
ehaftity. She was the author of a paraphrafe on the
eight firft books of the Old Teftament in heroic verfe •
and of a great number of poems, which are loft.
EUDOXIANS, a party or left of heretics in the
fourth century, fo denominated from their leader Eu-
doxius, patriarch of Antioch and Conftantinople, a
great defender of the Arian doftrine. The Eudoxi-
ans adhered to the errors of the Arians and Euno-
maintaining, that the Son was created out of
nothing; that he had a will diltinft and different from
that of the Father, &c.
EVE. See Vigil.
Eve, the mother of all mankind; who being deluded
by the ferpent, occafioned the fall, and all its difmal
confequences. See Adam.
EVELYN, John, a moft learned and ingenious
writer and natural philofopher, was born at Wotton in
Surry, the feat of his father, in 1620. After making
the tour of Europe, he returned to England about the
year 1651, and lived very retired at his rural retreat,
Say’s Court, near Deptford in Kent; where his difguft
at the violence and confufion of the times operated fo
far upon his ftudious difpofition, that he aftually pro-
pofed to Mr Boyle the eftablilhing a kind of college
for perfons of the fame turn of mind, where they
might affociate together without care or interruption.
It was owing to Mr Evelyn’s gratitude to the place
of his education, that Oxford became poffeffed of the
famous Arundelian marbles; which he perfuaded the
Lord Henry Howard to bellow on that univerfity
He was very aftiduous in tranfmitting to the Royal So¬
ciety whatever fell within the compafsof his inquiries;
and ufed humbly to ftyle himfelf a pioneer in the fervice.
When the number of books he publilhed is conlidered,
the many he left behind him unfiniflied and unpublifti-
ed, and the variety of fubjefts on which he employed
his time, his indultry and application are allonilhing.
“ His life (fays the honourable Mr Walpole) was a
courfe of inquiry, ftudy, curiofity, inftruftion, and be¬
nevolence. The works of the Creator, and the mimic
labours of the creature, were all objefts of his purfuit.
He unfolded the perfeftions of the one, and aflilled the
imperfeftions of the other. He adored from examina¬
tion ; was a courtier that flattered only by informing
his prince, and by pointing out what was worthy for
him to countenance ; and was really the neighbour of
the Gofpel, for there was no man that might not have
been the better for him. He was one of the firft pro¬
moters of the Royal Society, a patron of the ingenious
and indigent, a d peculiarly ferviceable to the lettered
world ; for, befides his writings and difeoveries, he ob¬
tained the Arundelian marbles for the univerfity of Ox¬
ford, and the Arundelian library for the Royal Society t
nor is it the leaft part of his praife, that he who pro-
pofed to Mr Boyle the ereftion of a philofophic col¬
lege for retired and fpeculative perfons, had the honefty
to w'rite in defence of aftive life againft Sir George
Mackenzie’s Effay on Solitude, He knew that retire¬
ment in his own hands w as induftry and benefit to man¬
kind ; but in thofe of others, lazinefs and inutility.’*
S here are five fmall prints of this gentleman’s journey
from Rome to Naples, drawn and etched by him; and
among his publiftied works are, \. A Charafter of
England 5 2, The State of France ; 3. An Effay on
tho
EVE r 341 ] E V I
ftve] n t}je firft book of Lucretius De rerum natura : 4. The
V|l French gardener ; 5. A Panegyric on King Charles I I.’s
Evefh*"1 coronation *, 6. Fumifugum, or the inconvenience of
the air and fmoke of London diflipated ) 7. The Hi-
ftcry and Art of Engraving on Copper 5 8. A parallel
between the ancient architefture and the modern *,
9. Sylva, or a difcourfe of foreft trees ; and feveral
others. This amiable gentleman died, full of age and
honour, in 1706. His fon John Evelyn, born in 1654,
ditlinguilhed himfelf by his elegant tranflations and
poems : He was one of the commiffioners of the re¬
venue in Ireland 5 but died early in life, in 1698.
EVERGETES, a furname fignifying gi¬
ven to Philiu of Macedon, and to Antigonus Dolon,
and Ptolemy of Egypt. It was alfo commonly given
to the kings of Syria and Pontus, and we often fee
among the former an Alexander Evergetes, and among
the latter a Mithridates Evergetes. Some of the Ro¬
man emperors alfo claimed that epithet of Benevolent
and Humane.
EVERGREEN, in Gardening, a fpecies of peren¬
nials, which continue their verdure, leaves, &c. all the
year-: fuch are hollies, phillyreas, lauriftinufes, bays,
pines, fir«, cedars of Lebanon, &c.
EVERLASTING pea. See Lathyrus, Botany
Index.
EVES DROPPERS, See EAVES-Droppers.
EVE ■'HAM, or Evesholm, commonly called E-
famy a town of Worcefterihire, feated on a gentle afeent
from the river Avon, over which there is a bridge qf
feven arches. It is 95 miles from London, 14 miles
from Worceder, and has a harbour for barges. It is
an old borough, reckoned the (econd in the county j
and fends two members to parliament. It had former¬
ly an abbey with a mitred abbot 5 which abbey when
itanding was one of the largeft and molt ftately of any
in the kingdom. It was governed by a bailiff, till
King James I. at the requefl of h's fon Prince Henry,
gave it a charter for a mayor, 7 aldermen, 12 capital
burgefles, a recorder, and chamberlain, who are all of
the common council, with 24 other burgefles called
afliftants. Four of the aldermen, and the mayor for
the time being, are juftices of the peace ; and of oyer
and terminer, and of gaol delivery, for all offences in
the corporation, except high treafon •, and the corpo¬
ration has power to try and execute felons within the
borough. Here are two pari !-churches; but the bells
of both have been removed to a beautiful old tower
which was one of the gates of the abbey. 'I he town
is noted for the great viRory obtained near it by Prince
Edward, afterwards King Edward I. over Simon Mont-
fort, the great earl of Leicefler, who was killed in the
battle. L here is an open profpeft from hence of the
fpaeious valley called the vaie of Eve [ham or vale of
Gloucefler, which fo abounds with the bell: of corn, as
well as paflure for fheep, that it is reckoned the gra¬
nary of all thefe parts. The vale runs all along the
banks of the Avon, from Tewkefbury to Perfhore,
and Stratford in Warwickfhire, and the river is fo
far navigable. It has a weekly market and four fairs.
The market-houfe built by Sir Edward Hobby has its
upper apartments ufed by the corporation for a feflions-
houfe, and formerly for the aflizes of the county. There
are eonfiderable garden grounds around the place, the
produce of which fupplies the adjacent towns.
4
EUGENE, Francis, prince of Savoy, defeended Eugene
from Carignan, one of the three branches of the houfe ^
of Savoy, and fon of Eugene Maurice, general of the V‘dacho .
Swifs and Grifons, governor of Champagne, and earl Wp—y—
of Soiffons, was born in 1663. Louis XIV. to whom
he became afterwards fo formidable an enemy, thought
him fo unpromifing a youth, that he refufed him pre¬
ferment both in the church and the date, thinking him
too much addicted to pleafure to be ufeful in either.
Prince Eugene, in dilguit, quitted France j and, retir¬
ing to Vienna, devoted himfelf to the Imperial fervice.
The war between the emperor aad the l urks afforded
the firit opportunity of exerting his military talents j
and every campaign proved a new ftep in his advance¬
ment to the higheft offices in the army. He gave the
Turks a memorable defeat at Zenta •, commanded the
German forces in Italy, where h foiled Marffial Vil<-
leroy in every engagement, and at length took him
prifoner. Our limits do not allow a detail of his cam¬
paigns j but Prince Eugene didinguiffied himfelf greatly,
when the emperor and Queen Anne united againd the
exorbitant power of Louis XIV. He died at Vienna in
the year 1736; and was as remarkable for his modedy and
liberality, as for his abilities in the field and the cabinet.
EUGENIA, the Yamboo ; a genus of plants, be¬
longing to the icofandria clafs j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 19th order, Hefpsrideae, Sec
Botany Index.
EVICTION, in Lav:, fignifies a recovery of lands
or tenements by law.
EVIDENCE, that perception of truth which arifes
either from the tedimony of the fenfes or from an in¬
duction of reafon.
Evidence, in Laxt*, fignifies feme proof by tedimony
of men upon oath, or by writings or records. It is
called evidence, becaufe thereby the point in iffue in a
caufe to be tried is to be made evident to the jury ;
■ for probationer debent effe evidentes et perfpicuce. The
fydem of evidence, as now edablidied in our courts of
common law, is very full, comprehenfive, and refined j
far different from, and fuperior to, any thing known
in the middle ages4—as far fuperior in that as in all
other improvements and refinements in feience, arts,
and manners.
The nature of evidence during the ages of ignorance
was extremely imperfeCt, and the people were inca¬
pable of making any rational improvement. Thus it
was the imperfeCtion of human reafon that caufed the
invention and introduction of the ordeal, as an appeal
to the Supreme Being. As men are unable to com¬
prehend the manner in which the Deity carries on the
government of the univerfe, by equal, fixed, and ge¬
neral laws, they are apt to imagine, that in every cafe
which their padions or intered render important in
their own eyes, the Supreme Ruler of all ought vilibly
to difplay his power in vindicating innocence, and pu¬
micing vice.
EVIL, in Pbi/ofop/u/, &c. is either moral or natu¬
ral. Moral evil is the difagreement between the ac»
tions of a moral agent, and the rule of thofe aCtions,
whatever it is*.—Natural evil is, whatever dedrovs or *See Afo*
any way didurbs the perfection of natural beings: fuch ^ Phila,
as blindnefs, difeales, death, &c. Mty.
King's Evil, or Scrophula. See Medicine Index.
EVlirMeiodaclif the fon and fucceffor of Nebuchad-
nezzas
E U L
^ Evil- nezzar the great, king of Babylon, fucceeded to the
EukrC ^ crown *n year °f the n’orld 3443 ; but governed
> the kingdom during the indifpofition of his father,
who, after feven years, having recovered his underftand-
ing, once more afcended the throne ; and, as feme be¬
lieve, imprifoned his fon Evil-Merodach. In this con¬
finement it is fuppofed that Evil-Merodach made an
acquaintance and friendthip with Jehoiachim king of
Judah, who had been carried to Babylon by Nebu¬
chadnezzar. However that was, it is certain, that,
foon after his fucceflion to the throne, he delivered the
king of Judah out of prifon, after a confinement of 37
years, heaped many favours on him, and placed him
above all the other kings who were at the court
of Babylon, (2 Kings xxv. 27. Jer. Hi. 31.). Evil-
Merodach reigned but one year, according to the
chronology of Archbilhop Ufherj but Dr Prideaux
will have him to have reigned two years j and was fuc¬
ceeded by Nerigliffar his fitter’s hulband, who having
been at the head of a confpiracy that put him to
death, reigned in his ftead. Others will have it, that
this prince was immediately fucceeded by his fon Bel¬
shazzar.
EULER, Leonard, profefibr of mathematics,
member of the imperial academy of Peteriburgh, an¬
cient diredtor of the royal academy of Berlin, and fel¬
low of the royal fociety of London, as alfo correfpond-
ent member of the royal academy of fciences at Paris,
was born at Bafil, April 15. 1707, of reputable pa¬
rents. The years of his infancy were patted in a rural
retreat at the village of Richen, of which place his
father was minifter.—Being fent to the univerfity of
Bafil, he attended regularly the different profeifors.
As his memory was prodigious, he performed his aca¬
demical talks with uncommon rapidity 5 and all the
time he gained by this was confecrated to geometry,
which foon became his favourite ftudy. The early pro-
grefs he made in this fcience, only added new ardour
to his application ; and thus he obtained a diftinguilhed
place in the attention and efteem of Profeffor John Ber-
nouilli, who was at that time one of the firft mathe¬
maticians in Europe. In 1723, M. Euler took his de¬
gree as matter of arts *, and delivered on that occafion
a Latin difeourfe, in which he drew a comparifon be¬
tween the philofophy of Newton and the Cartefian fyf-
tem, which was received with the greateft applaufe.
He afterwards, at his father’s defire, applied himfelf
to the ftudy of theology, and the oriental languages.
Though thefe ftudies were foreign to his predominant
propenfity, his fuccefs was coniiderable even in this
line: however, with his father’s confent, he returned
to geometry as his principal objeft. He continued to
avail himfelf of the counfels and inftruftions of M.
Bernouilli; he contra&ed an intimate friendlhip with
his two fons Nicholas and Daniel j and it w as in con-
fequence of thefe connexions that he became after¬
wards the principal ornament of the academy of Peterf-
burgh. The projeft of erefting this academy, which had
been formed by Peter the Great, was executed by
Catherine I. j and the two young Bernouillis being in¬
vited to Peterfburgh in 1725, promifed Euler, who was
defirous of following them, that they would ufe their
utmoft endeavours to procure for him an advantageous
fettlement in that city. In the mean time, by their
advice, he applied hinafelf with ardour to the ftudy of
[ 342 ]
E U L
phyfiology, to which he made a happy application of
his mathematical knowledge ; and he attended the me¬
dical lettures of the moft eminent profeffors of Bafil.
This ftudy, however, did not wholly engrofs his time •
it did not even relax the activity of his vaft and com-
prehenfive mind in the cultivation of other branches of
natural fcience. For while he was keenly engaged in
phyfiological refearches, he compofed A Differtation on
the Nature and Propagation of Sound, and an anfwer
to a prize queftion concerning the matting of Ihips;
to which the academy of fciences adjudged the accejjit,
or fecond rank, in the year 1727. From this latter
difeourfe, and other circumftances, it appears that
Euler had early embarked in the curious and important
ftudy of navigation, w hich he afterwards enriched with
fo many valuable difeoveries.
M. Euler’s merit would have given him an eafy ad-
miflion to honourable preferment, either in the magif-
tracy or univerfity of his native city, if both civil and
academical honours had not been there diftributed by
lot. The lot being againft him in a certain promo¬
tion, he left his country, fet out for Peteriburgh, and
was made joint profeffor with his countrymen Meffrs
Hermann and Daniel Bernouilli in the univerfity of
that city. At his firft fetting out in his new career,
he enriched the academical celleftion with many me¬
moirs, w'hich excited a noble emulation between him
and the Bernouillis 5 and this emulation always con¬
tinued, wJthout either degenerating into a felfilh jea-
loufy, or producing the leaft alteration in their friend¬
lhip. It was at this time that he carried to new de¬
grees of perfection the integral calculus, invented the
calculation of finufes, reduced analytical operations to
a greater fimplicity, and thus was enabled to throwr
new light on all the parts of mathematical fcience. In
1730, he was promoted to the profefforlhip of natural
philofophy 5 and in 1733 he fucceeded his friend D.
Bernouilli in the mathematical chair. In 1735, a pro¬
blem was prepofed by the academy which required
expedition, and for the folution of which feveral emi¬
nent mathematicians had demanded the fpace of fome
months. The problem wras folved by Euler in three
days, to the great aftonilhment of the academy : but
the violent and laborious efforts it coft him threw him
into a fever, which endangered his life, and deprived
him of the ufe of his right eye. The academy of
fciences at Paris, which in 1738 had adjudged the prize
to his memoir Concerning the Nature and Properties
of Fire, propofed for the year 1740 the important fub-
jeft of the fea tides j a problem whofe folution required
the moft arduous calculations, and comprehended the
theory of the folar fyftem. Euler’s difeourfe on this
queftion was adjudged a mafterpiece of analyfis and
geometry j and it was more honourable for him to ftiare
the academical prize with fuch illuftrious competitors
as Colin Maclaurin and Daniel Bernouilli, than to have
carried it away from rivals of lefs magnitude. Rarely,
if ever, did fuch a brilliant competition adorn the an¬
nals of the academy 5 and no fubje<ft, perhaps, propo¬
fed by that learned body was ever treated with fuch
accuracy of inveftigation and force of genius, as that
which here difplayed the philofophical powers of thefe
three extraordinary men.
In the year 1731, M. Euler was invited to Berlin
to augment the luftre of the academy, that was there
rifing
E U L t 343 ] E U L
,uier. rifing into fame. He enriched the laft volume of
c-y—the mifcellanies of Berlin with five me¬
moirs, which make an eminent, perhaps the principal,
figure in that colleftion. Thefe were followed with an
aitoniihing rapidity by a great number of important
refearches, which are fcattered through the memoirs
of the Pruflian academy ; of which a volume has been
regularly publilhed every year fince its eftabliihment
in 1744* The labours of Euler will appear more efpe-
cially aftonilhing, when it is Qonfidered, that while
he was enriching the academy of Berlin with a prodi¬
gious number of memoirs, on the deepeft parts of ma¬
thematical fcience, containing always fome new points
of view, often fublime truths, and fometimes difcove-
ries of great importance; he did not difcontinue his
philofophical contributions to the academy of Peterf-
burgh, which granted him a penfion in 1742, and
whofe memoirs difplay the marvellous fecundity of Eu¬
ler’s genius. It was with much difficulty that this
great man obtained, in 1766, permiffion from the king
of Pruffia to return to Peterlburgh, where he defired
to pafs the reft of his days. Soon after his return,
which was gracioully rewarded by the munificence of
Catherine II. he was feized with a violent diforder,
which terminated in the total lofs of his fight. A ca¬
taract, formed in his left eye, which had been effen-
tially damaged by a too ardent application to ftudy,
deprived him entirely of the ufe of that organ. It was
in this diftreffing fituation that he dictated to his fer-
vant, a tailor’s apprentice, who was abfolutely devoid
of mathematical knowledge, his elements of algebra ;
which by their intrinfical merit, in point of perlpicuity
and method, and the unhappy circumftances in which
they w ere compofed, have equally excited applaufe and
aftoniffiment. This work, though purely elementary,
difcovers the palpable charaCteriftics of an inventive
genius j and it is here alone that we meet with a com¬
plete theory of the analyfis of Diophantus.
About this time M. Euler was honoured by the
Academy of Sciences at Paris with the place of one of
the foreign members of that learned body ; and, after
this, the academical prize was adjudged to three of
his memoirs, Concerning the Inequalities in the Motions
of the Planets. The two prize queftions propofed by
the fame academy for 1770 and 1772 were defigned to
obtain from the labours of aftronomers a more perfeCt
theory of the moon. M. Euler, affifted by his eldeft
fon, was a competitor for thefe prizes, and obtained
them both. In this laft memoir, he referved for far¬
ther confideration feveral inequalities of the moon’s
motion, which he could not determine in his firft theo¬
ry, on account of the complicated calculations in which
the method he then employed had engaged him. He
had the courage afterward to review' his whole theory,
■with the affiftance of his fon and Meffrs Krafft and
Lexell, and to purfue his refearches until he had con-
ftrufted the new tables, which appeared, together with
the great work, in 1772. Inftead of confining him-
felf as before, to the fruitlefs integration of three dif¬
ferential equations of the fecond degree, which are
furnifhed by mathematical principles, he reduced them
to the three ordinates, which determine the place of
the moon •, he divided into clafles all the inequalities
of that planet, as far as they depend either on the elon¬
gation of the fun and moon, or upon the ^eccentri-
city, or the parallax, or the inclination of the lunar Euler,
orbit. All thefe means of inveftigation, employ- '“■"’V""
ed with fuch art and dexterity as could only be ex-
pefted from analytical genius of the firft order, were
attended with the greateft fuccefs; and it is impof-
lible to obferve, without admiration, fuch immenfe
calculations on the one hand, and on the other the
ingenious methods employed by this great man to a-
bridge them, and to facilitate their application to the
real motion of the moon. But this admiration will be¬
come aftoniffiment, when we confider at what period
and in what circumftances all this was efteftuated by
M. Euler. It was when he w'as totally blind, and con-
fequently obliged to arrange all his computations by
the foie powers of his memory and his ^enius. It
was when he was embarraffed in his domeitic circum¬
ftances by a dreadful fire, that had confumed great
part of his fubftance, and forced him to quit a ruined
houfe, of which every corner w as known to him by
habit, which, in fome meafure, fupplied the place of
fight. It was in thefe circumftances that Euler com¬
pofed a work, which, alone, was fufficient to render his
name immortal. The heroic patience and tranquillity
of mind which he difplayed here, need no defcrip-
tion : and he derived them not only from the love of
fcience, but from the power of religion. His philo-
fophy was too genuine and fublime to ftop its analyfis
at mechanical caufes j it led him to that divine philo-
fophy of religion which ennobles human nature, and
can alone form a habit of true magnanimity and pa¬
tience in fuffering.
Some time after this, the famous Wenzell, by
couching the cataraft, reftored M. Euler’s fight j but
the fatisfa&ion and joy that this fuccefsftil operation
produced, were of ftiort duration. Some inftances of
negligence on the part of his furgeons, and his ow'n
impatience to ufe an organ, whofe cure was not com¬
pletely finiflied, deprived him of his fight a fecond
time; and this relapfe was accompanied with torment¬
ing pain. He, however, with the affiftance of his fons,
and of Meffrs Krafft and Lexell, continued his labours ;
neither the lofs of his fight, nor the infirmities of
an advanced age could damp the ardour of his genius.
He had engaged to furniffi the academy of Peterf-
burgh with as many memoirs as would be fufficient to
complete its afts for 20 years after his death. In
the fpace of feven years he tranfmitted to the academy
by Mr Golfwin, above 70 memoirs, and above 200
more, which were reviled and completed by the au¬
thor of this paper. Such of thefe memoirs as were of
ancient date were feparated from the reft, and form
a colleftion that w as publiffied in the year 1783, under
the title of Analytical Works.
Euler’s knowledge was more univerfal than could be
well expefted in one who had purfued wdth fuch un¬
remitting ardour mathematics and aftronomy as his
favourite ftudies. He had made a very confiderable
progrefs in medical, botanical, and chemical fcience.
What was ftill more extraordinary, he was an excel¬
lent fcholar, and poffeffed what is generally called eru¬
dition in a very high degree. He had read, with at¬
tention and tafte, the moft eminent writers of ancient
Rome; the civil and literary hiftory of all ages and all
nations were familiar to him ; and foreigners, who were
only acquainted with his works, were aftoniffied to
find.
SUM [ 344 ] E IT M
itler Jn t]ie converfation of a man, whofe long life
Eunlenes ^eeme<^ ^lely occupied in mathematical and phyfical
J-  refearches and difctiveries, fuch an extenfive acquaint¬
ance with the moll intereiling branches of literature.
In this refpeft, no doubt, he was much indebted to a
very uncommon memory, which feemed to retain every
idea that was conveyed to it, either from reading or
from meditation. He could repeat the i^Eneid of
Virgil, from the beginning to the end, without heli-
tation, and indicate the firit and latt line of every page
of the edition he ufed.
Several attacks of a vertigo, in the beginning of
September 1783, which did not prevent his calculating
the motions of the aeroflatical globes, were, neverthe-
lefs, the forerunners of his mild and happy palfage
from this fcene to a better. While he was amufing
himfelf at tea with one of his grandchildren, he was
ftruck with an apoplexy, which terminated his illuf-
trious career at the age of 76 His eonftitution was
uncommonly ftrong and vigorous *, his health was good j
and the evening of his long life was calm and ferene,
fweetened by the fame that follows genius, the public
efteem and refpedl that are never withheld from ex¬
emplary virtue, and feveral domeftic comforts which
he was capable of feeling and therefore deferved to
enjoy.
EULOGY, EuloGia, in church hiftory. When
the Greeks have cut a loaf or piece of bread to con-
fecrate it, they break the reft into little bits, and diftri-
bute it among the perfons w'ho have not yet communi¬
cated, or fend it to perfons that are abfent; and thefe
pieces of bread are what they call eulogies. The word
is Greek, ivXeytx, formed of ev, bene, “well,” and Xiyu,
dico, “ I fay, fpeak j” q. d. beneditlum, “ bleffed.”
The Latin church has had fomething like eulogies
for a great many agesj and thence arofe the ufe of their
holy bread.
The name enlo^xj vras likewife given to loaves or cakes
brought to church by the faithful to have them bleffed.
Laftly, The ufe of the term paffed hence to mere pre-
fents made to a perfon w ithout any benediction. See
the Jefuit Gretfer, in his treatife de BenediBionibus et~
MnlediBionibus, lib. ii. cap. 22, 24, &p. where he
treats of eulogies thoroughly.
From a paffage in Bolandus, on the life of St Me-
laine, cap. 4. it appears, that eulogies were not only
of bread, but any kind of meat bleffed and hallowed
for that purpofe. Add, that almoft every body blef¬
fed and diftributed eulogies; not only bilhops and
priefts, but even hermits, though laymen, made a
praCtice of it. Women alfo would fometimes fend
eulogies.
The wine fent as a prefent was alfo held an eulogy.
Bolandus remarks farther, that the eucharift itfelf w as
alfo called eulogy.
Eulogy, likewife means an encomium on any per¬
fon, on account of fome virtue or good quality.
EUM ABIDES, of tvfix^Yi5, “ eafy,” among the an¬
cients, a kind of {hoes common to men and women.—
The eumarides were ufed for pomp and delicacy, being
neat, and painted with various colours.
EUMENES, a Greek officer in the army of Alex¬
ander, fon of a charioteer. He w as the moft worthy
<of all the officers of Alexander to fucceed after the
death of his mafter, He conquered Paphlagonia. and
Cappadocia, of which he obtained the government, till Eumenes
the power and jealoufy of Antigonus obliged him to
retire. He joined his forces to thofe of Perdiccas
and defeated Craterus and Neoptolemus. Neoptole-
mus perifhed by the hands of Eumenes. When Cra¬
terus had been killed during the war, his remains re¬
ceived an honourable funeral from the hand of the con.
queror *, and Eumenes, after w eeping over the afhes of a
man who was once his deareft friend, fent his remains
to his relations in Macedonia. Eumenes fought againft
Antipater and conquered him 3 and after the death of
Perdiccas his ally, his arms were direfted againft An¬
tigonus, by whom he was conquered A. U. C. 433,
chiefly by the treacherous conduft of his officers. This
fatal battle obliged him to difband the greateft part of
his army to fecure himfelf a retreat 3 and he fled w ith
only 700 faithful attendants to a fortified place on the
confines of Cappadocia, called Nora, where he was foon
befieged by the conqueror, He fupported the fiege
for a year with courage and refolution, but fome dif*
advantageous {kirmiffves fo reduced him, that his fol-
diers, grow n defperate, and bribed by the offers of the
enemy, had the infidelity to betray him into the hands
of Antigohus. The conqueror, from fhame or re-
morfe, had not the courage to vifit Eumenes 3 but when
he was alked by his officers, in what manner he wiftied
him to be kept, he anfwered, keep him as carefully as
you would keep a lion. This fevere command was
obeyed 3 but the afperity of Antigonus vanifhed in a
few days, and Eumenes, delivered from the weight of
chains, was permitted to enjoy the company of his
friends. Even Antigonus hefitated whether he ftiould
not reitore to his liberty a man with whom he had
lived in the greateft intimacy while both fubfervient to
the command of Alexander 3 and thefe fecret emotions
of pity and humanity were not a little increafed by the
petitions of his fon Demetrius for the releafe of Eu¬
menes. But the calls of ambition prevailed ; and
when Antigonus recollefled what an aftive enemy he
had in his power, he ordered Eumenes to be put
to death in the prifon. His bloody commands were
executed 315 years before the Chriftian era. Such was
the end of a man who raifed himfelf to power by merit
alone. His {kill in public exercifes firft recommended
him to the notice of Philip 3 and under Alexander, hU
attachment and fidelity to the royal perfon, and
particularly his military accomplifhments, promoted
him to the rank of a general. Even his enemies re¬
vered him 3 and Antigonus, by whofe orders he pe-
riftied, honoured his remains with a fplendid funeral,
and conveyed his afhes to his wife and family in Cap¬
padocia. It has been obferved, that Eumenes had
fuch a univerfal influence over the fucceffors of Alex¬
ander, that none during his lifetime dared to affume the
title of king.
Eumenes I. king of Pergamus, who fucceeded his
uncle Philetrerus about 264 years before Chrift. He
made war againft Antiochus the fon of Seleucus, and
enlarged his poffeflions by feizing upon many of the
cities of the kings of Syria. He lived in alliance w ith
the Romans, and made war againft Prufias king of
Bithynia. He was a great patron of learning 3 but
being much given to wine, he died of an excels in
drinking, after a reign of 22 years. He was lucceed-
ed by Attalus.
Eumenes
E U M
[ 345 ]
E U N
Pumenes EuMEKES II. fucceeded his father Attalus on the
|j throne of Afia and Pergamus. His kingdom was fmall
jumolpiffes arij p00r> ]ie rendered it powerful and opulent} and
—'r~~J his alliance with the Romans did not a little con¬
tribute to the increafe of his dominions after the victo¬
ries obtained over Antiochus the-Great. He carried
his arms againfl: Prufias and Antigonus } and died 160
years before Chriit, after a reign of 40 years, leaving
the kingdom to his fon Attalus II. He has been ad¬
mired for his benevolence and magnanimity 5 and his
love of learning greatly entiched the famous library of
Pergamus, which had been founded by his predeceflbrs
in imitation of the Alexandrian collection of the Ptole¬
mies. His brothers were fo attached to him and de¬
voted to his intereft, that they enlifted among his body
guards to (how their fraternal fidelity.
EumENES, a celebrated orator of Athens about the
beginning of the fourth century. Some of his harangues
and orations are extant. An hiftorical writer in Alex¬
ander’s army.
EUMENIDES, a name given to the Furies by the
ancients. They fprang from the blood of the wound
which Coelus received from his fon Saturn. According
to others, they were daughters of Earth, and conceived
from the blood of Saturn. Some make them daugh¬
ters of Acheron and Night, or Pluto and Proferpine.
According to the more received opinions, they were
three in number, Tifiphone, Megara, and AleCto,*to
which feme add Nemefis. Plutarch mentions only one
called Adrajhi, daughter of Jupiter and Neceflity.
They were fuppofed to be the miniflersof the vengeance
of the gods. They wrere Hern and inexorable } and
were always employed in puni(hing the guilty upon
earth, as well as in the infernal regions. They inflict¬
ed their vengeance upon earth by wars, peftilence, and
difienfions, and by the fecret flings of confcience ; and
in hell they punbhed the guilty by continual flagella¬
tion and torments. They were alfo called Turice and
Erinnys. Their worfliip was almoft univerfal} and
people dared not to mention their names or fix their
eyes upon their temples. They were honoured with fa-
crifices and libations} and in Achaia they had a temple,
which when entered by any one guilty of a crime, fud-
denly rendered him furious and deprived him of the ufe
of his reafon. In the facrifices the Votaries ufed branch¬
es of cedar and of alder, hawthorn, faffron, and juni¬
per ; and the victims were generally turtle doves and
iheep, with libations of wine and honey. They were
lifually reprefented with a grim and frightful afpeft,
with a black and bloody garment, and^ with ferpents
writhing round their heads inftead of hair, ihey held
a burning torch in one hand, and a whip of fcorpions
in the other; and were always attended by 1 error,
Rage," Palenefs, and Death. In hell they were feated
around Pluto’s throne, as the minifters of his ven¬
geance.
EUMENIDIA, feftivals in honour of the Eumetti-
des, called by the Athenians o-ipyxi 0s«», “ Venerable
goddefles.” They were celebrated once every year,
with facrifices of pregnant ewes, with offerings of cakes
made by the moft eminent youths, and libations of ho¬
ney and wine. At Athens none but freeborn citizens
were admitted, fuch as had led a life the moft virtuous
and unfullied.
EUMOLPIDES, the piiefts of Ceres at the cele-
Vol, VIII. Part I,
bration of her fefiivals at Eleufis. They were defcend- Eumolpfiej
ed from Eumolpus, a king of Thrace, who was ni^e EunomW.
pnefl of Ceres by Erechtheus king ot Athens. He ^
became fo powerful after his appointment to the prieft-
hoed, that he maintained a war againfl Erechtheus.
This war proved fatal to both. Erechtheus and Eu¬
molpus were both killed, and peace was re-eftabli(hed
among their defeendants, on condition that the priefl-
hood ever remained in the houfe of Eumolpus, and the
regal power in the family of Erechtheus. I. he priefl-
hood remained in the family of Eumolpus for 1200
years ; and this is ftill more remarkable, becauie he who
was once appointed to the holy office was obliged to
remain in perpetual celibacy.
EUMOLPUS, a king of Thrace, fon of Neptune
and Chione. He was thrown into the fea by his mo¬
ther, who wifhed to conceal her fhame from her father.
Neptune faved his life and carried him into ./Ethiopia,
where he was brought up by a woman, one of whofe
daughters he married. An aft of violence to his fifter-
in-law obliged him to leave ./Ethiopia, and he fled to
Thrace wbth his fon Ifmarus, where he married^ the
daughter of Tegyrius the king of the country. _ This
connexion to the royal family rendered him ambitious}
he confpired againft his father-in-law, and fled, when
the confpiracy was difeovered, to Attica, w here he w as
initiated in the myfteries of Ceres of Eleufis, and made
hierophantes or high prieft. He vus afterwards recon¬
ciled to Tegyrius, and inherited his kingdom. He
made war againfl: Erechtheus king of Athens, w ho had
appointed him to the office of high prieft, and perifhed
it! battle about 1380 years before the Chriftian era.
His defeendants were alfo invefted with the prieft-
hood, which remained for about 1200 years in that fa¬
mily.
EUNAPIUS, a native of Sardis in Lydia, a cele¬
brated fophift, phyfician, and hiftorian, who flourifhed
in the 4th century, under the emperors Valentinian,
Valens, and Gratian. He wrote “ The lives of the
Philofophers and Sophifts,” in which he frequently
fhows himfelf a bitter enemy to the Chriftians : alio a
“ Hiftory of the Ctefars,” which he deduced from the
reign of Claudius where Herodian left off, down to that
of Arcadius and Honorius. JLhe hiftory is loft } but
we have the fubftance of it in Zofimus, who is fuppo¬
fed to have done little more than copy it.
EUNOMIANS, in church hiftory, Chriftian here¬
tics in the 4th century. They were a branch of A-
rians, and took their name from Eunomius bifliop of
Cyzicus, whofe confeffion of faith here follows, ex-
trafted from Cave’s HJloria Liter aria, vol. i. p. 223.
“ There is one God, uncreated and without beginning }
who has nothing exifting before him, for nothing can
exift before what is uncreated } nor with him, for what
is uncreated muft be one } nor in him, for God is a
Ample and uncompounded being This one Ample and
eternal being is God, the creator and ordainer of all
things *, firrt indeed and principally of his only-begot-
ter Son } and then, through him, of all other things.
For God begot, created, and made, the Son, only by
his direft operation and power, before all things, and
every other creature } not producing, however, any be¬
ing like himfelf, or imparting any of his own proper
fubftance to the Son : For God is immortal, uniform,
indivifible } and therefore cannot communicate any part
X x of
E U N [3
Eunomians 0f own proper fubRance to another. He alone is
Eurv'ch un^eg0,-ten 5 anfi it is impoffible that any other being
i v- ' fhould be formed of an unbegotten fubftance. He did
not ufe his own lubllance in begetting the Son, but
his will only : nor did he beget him in the likenefs of
his fubftance, but according to his own good pleafure.
He then created the Holy Spirit, the firft and greateft:
of all fpirits, by his own power indeed and operation
mediately, yet by the immediate power and operation
of the Son. After the Holy Spirit he created all other
things in heaven and in earth, viiible and invifible, cor¬
poreal and incorporeal, mediately by himfelf, by the
power and operation of the Son,” &c,
EUNOM1US, a famous herefiarch of the 4th cen¬
tury, the difciple of Elius, but abundantly more fubtile
than his maftcr, as well as more bold in propagating
the opinions of his feft, who after him are called Eu-
nomians. He was ordained bilhop of Cyzicus; but
gave fo much difturbance by the intemperance of his
zeal, that he was depofed more than once. At laft,
tired with being tolled about, he petitioned to retreat
to the place of his birth, Dacora in Cappadocia*, where
he died very old about the year 374, after experiencing
a variety of fufferings. The greateft: part of his works
are loft. There is, however, befides two or three fmall
pieces, a confeflion of his faith remaining, which Cave
inferted in his Hiftoria Literaria, from a manufeript in
Archbifhop Tennifon’slibrary. See the preceding article.
EUNUCH, a caftrated perfon. See the article Ca¬
stration.—The word is formed from ivvw i%u, q. d.
/e£ii curam habet, u guardian or keeper of the bed.”
In Britain, France, &c. eunuchs are never made but
upon occafion of fome difeafe, which renders fuch an
operation necelfary *, but in Italy they make great num¬
bers of children, from one to three years of age, eu¬
nuchs, every year, to fupply the operas and theatres of
all Europe with lingers. M. de la Lande, in his Fo//-
ege d^Italie, afferts, that there are public (hops at Na¬
ples where this cruel operation is performed, and that
over the door of thefe (hops is inferibed cajlrano
ragazzi. But Dr Burney informs us, that he was not
only utterly unable to fee or hear of any fuch (hops du¬
ring his refidence in that city, but was conftantly told,
both by the natives and Englifh fettled there, that the
laws againft fuch a practice were fo numerous and fe-
vere, that it was never performed but with the utmoft
fecrecy.
In the eaftern parts of the world, they make eunuchs
in order to be guards or attendants on their women.
The feraglios of the eaftern emperors are chiefly ferved
and guarded by eunuchs *, and yet, from good autho¬
rity, we learn, that the rich eunuchs in Perfta and
other countries keep feraglios for their own ufe. Thofe
who, out of an imprudent zeal to guard themfelves from
fenfual pleafures, made themfelves eunuchs, were, by
the council of Nice, condemned and excluded from holy
orders. There are feveral fevere prohibitions in Ger¬
many againft the making of eunuchs; and in France
an eunuch muft not marry, not even with the confent
of the woman.
Though the prattice of caftration is deteftable in
every point of view, yet there appears no'real founda¬
tion for the injurious opinion generally entertained of
eunuchs, viz. that they are all cowards, and devoid of
genius for literature or any folid ftudy. “ As to genius
46 ] E V O
(fays the author laft quoted), I never found thofe of the £lIm,,
firft clafs in mufic deficient in intelleaual abilities for ||
more ferious ftudies. Indeed I have feen real genius Evocati,
and difpofitions for literary purfuits, in more than one
great opera finger j and as for eompofition, and the
theory of mufic, not only the beft fingers of the pope’s
chapel ever fince the beginning of the laft century, but
the beft compofers, are among the foprani in that fer-
vice.” With refpeft to the operation affecting the mind
fo much as to deprive it of all fortitude in times of dan¬
ger, there is great reafon to doubt the fa£t: moft of the
generals of eaftern monarchs having been at all times
of this clafs j and the braveft ftand that ever was made
againft Alexander the Great was at Gaza, under the com¬
mand of one of Darius’s generals, who was an eunuch.
Ammianus Marcellinus gives an account of Menophilus
a eunuch, to whom Mithridates intrufted his daughter-
which proves the pofiibility of fuch unfortunate perfons
poflefling a heroifm equal to that of the moft determined
Stoic.
It is very certain, that the ancients never fuppofed
eunuchs to have been men of inferior intelle&s, or that
they poffefled lefs vigour of mind than other men. At
leaft the Perfians were not of this opinion ; for Hero¬
dotus * relates, that when they had taken poffeflion of* :
fome Ionian cities, Traces titus sv ly-Xiye/uwoi$2 p. 4^
i^iTxy,vov, xxt iTrotivv ccvlt wxi ivotyixs It is cer- Ed. Wefltli
tain, however, Herodotus f, in relating the melancholy’T
ftory of Hermotimus, fays, that vec^x rein fixfixocun, tj!,
acri si swuftoi, Trtcr'uct; smw.x waciTTjf,
“ among the barbarians, the eunuchs are more valued
than other men, on account of their univerfal fidelity.”
It appears from this pafifage of Herodotus, that in Per-
fia eunuchs were far from being objects of contempt j
and were even frequently promoted to the higheft ho¬
nours. 1 his was indeed the cale with Hermotimus.
We find in Agathias, who was one of the Byzantine
hiftorians, that a general in the Roman army, named
Earfes, was a eunuch. This was in the latter ages.
In Plutarch’s Life of Ariftides, I hemiftocles is related
to have chofen an eunuch, whole name was vdrnaces,
from among his priloners, to fend on a fecret embaliy
to Xerxes. This furely may ferve to fhow, that mental
imbecility was not fuppofed by the Greeks to be the
charafteriftic of eunuchifm. 1 he fame ftory of the con¬
fidence placed in Arnaces, who was one of the Perfian
king’s eunuchs, is related alfo in the life of Themifto-
cles. Ariftotle paid fuch high relpeft to Hermias, who
was a eunuch and governor of Atarnea, which is in
Myfia, that he even offered facrifiees in honour of him *,
as Lucian informs us in his Dialogue entitled Eunuchus,
i his regard of Ariftotle for Hermias has been often
celebrated, and is mentioned by Suidas, Harpocration,
and others.
Eunuchs, in church hiftory, a fefl of heretics in the
third century, who were mad enough to caftrate, not
only thofe of their own perfuafion, but even all others
they could lay hold of. They took their rife from the
example of Origen, who, milunderftanding the folloiv-
ing words of our Saviour, “ and eunuchs who made
themfelves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven,” caftra¬
ted himfelf.
EVOCATI, foldiers among the Romans, who hav- /
ing ferved their full time in the army, went afterwards
volunteers at the requeft of fome favourite general*, on
which
E U P C 347 1 E U P
ivocati which account they were called by the honourable
11 names of Emeriti and Beneficiarii,
.patrnte. EVOCATION (Evocatio), among the Romans, a
^ ' religious ceremony always obierved by them at the un¬
dertaking a fiege, wherein they folemnly called upon
the gods and goddeffes of the place to forfake it and
come over to them. Without the performance of this
ceremony, they either thought that the place could not
be taken, or that it would be a facrilege to take the
gods prifoners. They always took it for granted that
their prayer was heard, and that the gods had defected
the place and come over to them, provided they were
able to make themfelves mailers of it.
EUODIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the te-
trandria clafs. See Botany Index,
EVOLUTION, in Algebra, the unfolding or open¬
ing of a curve, and making it defcribe an evolvent.—
The word evolutio is formed of the prepolition <?, “ out
and vo/vo, “ I roll, or wind j” q. d. an unwinding, or
unrolling.
The equable evolution of the periphery of a circle,
or other curve, is fuch a gradual approach of the cir¬
cumference to re&itude, as that its parts do all concur
and equally evolve or unbend \ fo that the fame line
becomes fucceflively a lefs arc of a reciprocally greater
circle j till at lalt they change into a ilraight line. In
the Phil. Tranf. N° 260. a new quadratrix to the circle
is found by this means, being the curve defcribed by
the equable evolution of its periphery.
Evolution, is alfo ufed for the extra£lion of roots
out of powers ; in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to in¬
volution. See Algebra.
Evolution, in the art of war, the motion made by
a body of troops, when they are obliged to change their
form and difpofition, in order to preferve a poll or oc¬
cupy another, to attack an enemy with more advantage,
or to be in a condition of defending themfelves the
better.
It conlifts in doublings, counter-marches, converfions,
See. A battalion doubles the ranks, when attacked in
front or rear, to prevent its being flanked or furround-
ed $ for then a battalion fights with a larger front. The
files are doubled, either to accommodate themfelves to
the neceflity of a narrow ground, or to refill an enemy
that attacks them in flank. But if the ground will al¬
low it, converfion is much preferable; becaufe, after
converfion, the battalion is in its firft form, and oppofes
the file-leaders, which are generally the bell men, to
the enemy j and likewife, becaufe doubling the files in
a new or not well-difciplined regiment, they may hap¬
pen to fall into diforder. See Doubling.
EVOLVULUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentaudria clafs j and in the natural method ranking
under the 29th order, Campanacece. See Botany
Index, .
EUGNYMUS, the Spindle Tree j a genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria clafs $ and in the
natural method ranking under the 43d order, Dumojic.
See Botany Index,
EUPATORIUM, Hemp Agrimony ; a genus of
plants belonging to the fyngenefia clafs $ and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 49th order, Compojitce,
See Botan* Index,
EUPATIUD/E, in antiquity, a name given by
Thefeus to the nobility of Athens, as dillinguiflied from
the Geomori and Demiurgi. The Eupatridae, by The- Eupatridae
feus’s eftablithment, had the right of choofing magi- il
Urates, teaching and difpenfing the laws, and interpre- ^ I.
ting holy and religious mylleries. The whole city, in
all other matters, was reduced to an equality. The
Geomori were hulbandmen, and inferior to the Eupa¬
tridae in point of fortune ; the Demiurgi were artificers,
and fell ihort of the Eupatridae in number.
EUPHONY, in Grammar, aneafinefs, fmonthnefs,
and elegance of pronunciation. The word is formed
of iv, bene, “ well and vox, “ voice.” (Quin¬
tilian calls euphonia, “ vocalitasScaliger, “ jacilis
pronunciation
Euphonia is properly a kind of figure whereby we
fupprefs a too harlh letter, or convert it into a fmooth-
er, contrary to the ordinary rules. There are examples
enough in all languages.
EUPHYMISM. See Oratory.
EUPHORBIA, Spurge j a genus of plants be¬
longing to the dodecandria clafs; and in the natural
method ranking under the 38th order, Tricoccce. See
Botany Index.
EUPHORBIUM, in the Materia Medico, a gum-
mi-reiinous fubtlance, which exudes from a large orien¬
tal tree, (Euphorbia officinarum). See Materia
Medica Index,
EUPHORBUS, a famous Trojan, fon of Panthous.
He was the firft who wounded Patroclus, whom Hec¬
tor killed. He periftied by the hand of Menelaus, who
hung his ftiield in the temple of Juno at Argos. Py¬
thagoras, the founder of the doblrine of the metem-
pfyehofis or tranfmigration of fouls, affirmed that he had
been once Euphorbus, and that his. foul recolledted
many exploits which had been done while it animated
that Trojan’s body. As a further proof of his affertion,
he ffiowed at firft fight the thield of Euphorbus in tha
temple of Juno.
EUPHORION of Chalcis, a poet and hiftorian,
born in the 126th Olympiad. Suetonius fays that Ti¬
berius compofed verfes in imitation of Euphorion, Ria-
nius and Parthenius; with whom he was charmed to
fuch a degree, that he ordered their writings and their
pictures to be kept in all the public libraries, among the
ancient and celebrated authors.
EUPHRASIA, Eye-bright ; a genus of plants
bolonging to the didynamia clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 40th order, Perfonatw. See
Botany Index.
EUPHRATES, a river univerfally allowed to take
its rife in Armenia Major ; but in what particular fpot,
or in what diredion it afterwards lhapesits courfe, there
is the greateft difagreement. Strabo fays, that the Eu¬
phrates rifes in Mount Abus, which he joins with, or
accounts a part of, Mount Taurusthat Hs beginning
b on the north fide of Mount Taurus; and that run¬
ning, firft weft ward through Armenia, then Itrikin-. if
to the fouth, it forces its way through the mountain j
and thus it rifes in the fouth of Armenia, Mourn Tau¬
rus being the boundary on that fide ; and runs through
its fouth part, quite to Cappadocia, conterminal with
Armenia Minor; or quite to this lail, or to its touth
limit; to reach which, it muft bend its weft courfe a
little north ; becaufe Taurus, from which it rofe, lies
lower, or more to the fouth, and alrnoft parallel with
Melitene; and that then it turns to the fouth, in order
X x 2
E V R
[
Euphrates to break tbrough Taurus, and efcape to Syria, and then
Evremond a new t>er1^ t° Babylonia. To this account of
^ t Strabo, Pliny runs quite counter j adducing eye-wit-
neffes, who carry the Euphrates from north to fouth in
a right line, till it meets Mount Taurus $ placing the
fprings to the ealt, as Strabo does $ whence, he fays, it
runs in a long courfe w'eftward, before it bends fouth j
and that it rites not from Mount Taurus, but far to the
north of it j and he makes it run ftraight weft from its
rife, then turn fouth fpontaneoufly, without any inter-
pofing obftacle, in a manner quite different from Strabo,
Mela, and others, who make Taurus the caufe of this
turn. '1 he Euphrates naturally divides into two chan¬
nels, one through Babylon, and the other through Se-
leucia, befides the feveral artificial cuts made between
it and the Tigris about Babylon : and thefe cuts or
trenches are what the Pfalmift calls the livers of Baby¬
lon, on the willows of which the captives hung their
harps. It is probable, that the Euphrates naturally
poured into the fea at one particular mouth, before thefe
cuts were made. A thing appearing fo evident to the
ancients, that Pliny has fet down the diftanee between
the mouths of the Euphrates and the Tigris ; and he
fays, feme made it 25, and others 7, miles ; but that the
Euphrates being for a long time back intercepted in
its courfe by cuts, made for watering the fields, only
the branch called the Pajitigris fell into the fea, the
reft of it into the Tigris, and both together into the
Perfian gulf. Overflowing the country through which
it runs, at ftated times of the year, like the Nile, it
renders it fertile.
EUPOL1S, an Athenian comic poet, flourilhed
about the 8jth Olympiad. He took the freedom of
the ancient comedy in lathing the vices of the people.
He loft h is life in a fea fight between the Athenians
and Lacedaemonians; and his fate w as fo much lament¬
ed, that after his death it was enabled that no poet
fhould ferve in the wars. Some fay Aleibiades put
him to death for his fatirical freedom.
EVREMOND, Charles de st Denis, a polite
fcholar and foldier, was born at St Denis le Guaft in
Lower Normandy in 1613. He was intended for the
profeffion of the law, and entered on the ftudy j but
he foon quitted it, and was made an enfign before he
•was 16. A military life did not hinder him from cul¬
tivating polite literature; and he fignalized himfelf by
his poliienefs and wit as much as by his bravery. The
king made him a marefchal de camp, and gave him a
penfion of 3000 livres per annum- He ferved under
the duke of Candale in the war of Guienne ; and in
Flanders, till the fulpenfio of arm1; was agreed on be¬
tween France and Spain : he afterwards accompanied
Cardinal Mazarine when he went to conclude the
peace with Don Lewis de Haro, the king of Spain’s
firft minifter. He wrote, as he had promifed, a long
letter to the marquis de Crequi, of this negotiation ;
in which he {bowed, that the cardinal had facrificed
the honour of France to his own private intereft, a: d
rallied him in a very fatirical manner. This letter fall¬
ing into the hands of the cardinal’s creatures fome time
after his death, was represented as a fiate c rime, and he
was obliged to fiy to Holland, He had too many
friends in England (whither he had taken a tour the
year before with the count de Soiffons, lent to com¬
pliment Charles II. upon his reiteration) to make any
348 ] EUR
long ftay in Holland ; and therefore paffed over into Evremor,)
England, where he was received with great refpeft, and Euripides’
admitted into intimate fricndftiip with feveral perfons '""’“V
of diftineftion. The king gave him a penfion of 300I.
a-year. He had a great defire to return to his native
country ; and, after the peace of Nimeguen, wrote a
letter in verle to the king of France to alk leave, but
in vain. Upon the death of King Charles, he loft his
penfion. He did not rely much on King James, though
that prince had (hown himfelf extremely kind to him.
The Revolution w’as advantageous to him. King Wil¬
liam, who had known him in Holland, gave him fub-
ftantial marks of his favour. He died of a ftran-
gury in 1703, aged 90; and was interred in Weft-
minfter abbey, where a monument is erefted to his me¬
mory. His behaviour was engaging, his humour
cheerful, and he had a ftrong diipofition to fatire : he
profeffed the Roman religion, in which he was born ;
but at the bottom was certainly a freethinker. He
always fpoke of his difgrace with the refolution of a
gentleman ; and whatever ftrong defire he had to re¬
turn to his country, he never folicited the favour with
meannefs ; therefore, when this leave was fignified to
him unexpectedly in the decline of his life, he re¬
plied, that the infirmities of age did not permit him to
leave a country where he lived agreeably. There have
been many editions of his works : but the beft is that
of Amfierdam in 1726, in 5 vols. i2mo, to which is
prefixed his life by DoCtor Des Maizeaux ; who has
alfo given an accurate Englifh tranflation of them in
3 vols. 8vo.
EURIPIDES, one of the Greek poets who excel¬
led in tragedy, was born about 468 B. C. in the ille
of Salamis, whither his father and mother had retired
a little before Xerxes entered Attica. He learnt rhe¬
toric under Prodicus, morality under Socrates, and na¬
tural philofophy under Anaxagoras; but at 18 years
of age abandoned philofophy, in order to apply him¬
felf to dramatic poetry. He ufed to ihut himfelf up
in a cave to compofe his tragedies, which were ex¬
tremely applauded by the Greeks. The Athenian ar¬
my, commanded by Nicias, being defeated in Sicily,
the foldiers purchafed their lives and liberties by re¬
citing the verfes of Euripides ; fuch efteem and vene¬
ration had the Sicilians for the pieces wrote by this ex¬
cellent poet. Socrates, the wifeft of the philofophers,
fet fueh a value upon them, that they were the only
tragedies he went to fee aCled : and yet his perform¬
ances feldom gained the prize. Euripides frequently
interfperfes through them moral fentences, and fe-
vere refleftions on the fair fex ; whence he was called
the Woman-hater. He was, neverthelefs, married : but
the fcandalous lives of his two wives drew upon him the
raillery of Ariftophanes, and other comic poets ; which
occafioned his retiring to the court of Archelaus, king
of Macedon, where he was well received. That prince
was fond of learned men,, and drew them to him by his
liberality. If w'e may believe Solinus, he made Euri¬
pides his minifter of ftate, and gave him other extra¬
ordinary proofs of his efteem. He had, however, paf¬
fed but a few years there, when an unhappy accident
put an end to his life. He was walking in a wood, and,
according to his ufual manner, in deep meditation ;
when, unfortunately happening upon Archelaus’shounds,
he was by them torn in pieces. It is not certain whe¬
ther
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£iiopW«5 ther his death happened by chance, or through envy of*
P fome of the great courtiers. However, Archelaus bu-
Earo'ly- rje(j with great magnificence; and the Athenians
< . were fo much afflicted at his death, that the whole city
went into mourning. Of 92 tragedies which he com-
pofed, only 19 are remaining : the moft valuable edi¬
tions of which are thofe of Aldus in 1503, 8vo •, of
Plantin, in 1570, fexefimo ; of Comelin, in 1 597, 8vo j
of Paul Stevens, in 1604, 4to 5 and of Jolhua Barnes,
1694, folio.
EURIPUS, a canal or ftrait which divides the
ifland of Euboea, now Negropwnt, from the continent
of Greece. In one place it is fo narrow, that a galley
can fcarcely pafs through it. The agitations of the
Euripus were much fpoken of by the ancients. Some
fay that the canal has a flux and reflux fix times in 24
hours*, others, that it ebbs and flows feven times a day;
but Livy does not allow this flux and reflux to be fo
regular. Father Babin, a Jefuit of great learning, who
made many obfervations on the fpot during his long
abode in the ifland of Negropont, tells us, that the
Euripus is regular in its ebbing and flowing the firfl
eight days of the moon : the fame regularity he ob-
ferved from the 14th to the 20th day inclufive, and
in the three laft days: but in the other days of the
lunar month, it is not fo regular; for it fometimes ebbs
and flows 11, 12, 13. and 14 times in the fpace of a
natural day. In this place, as the ftory commonly goes,
Ariftotle drowned himfelf out of chagrin, for not being
able to account for fo unufual a motion.
Euripus has fince become a general name for all
ftraits, where the v’ater is in great motion and agi¬
tation.
The ancient circufes had their euripi, which were
no other than pits or ditches on each fide of the courfe,
into which it was very dangerous falling with their
horfes and chariots as they ran races. The term eu¬
ripus was more particularly applied by the Romans to
three canals or ditches which encompaffed the circus
on three fides, and which wrere filled occafionally to
reprefent naumachiae or fea battles. The fame people
called their fmaller fountains or canals in their gardens
suripufes; and their largefl, as eafcades, &c. nUes.
EUROCLYDON, (of Evgef, enfl wind, and
wave,) is a fpecies of wind, of which we have an ac¬
count only in Afts xxvii. 14. and concerning the nature
of which critics have been much divided. Bochart,
Grotius, Bentley, and others fubftitute another read¬
ing, fupported by the Alexandrian MS. and the Vul¬
gate, viz. Ev^etKvXm, or F.uro-aquilo; but Mr Bryant
defends the common reading, and confiders-the Eurocfy-
don, i. e. as an eafl wind that caufes a deep
fea or vait inundation. He maintains, in oppofition
to Dr Bentley’s reafoning, who fuppofes that the ma¬
riners in the drip, the voyage of which is recited in
this paffage, were Romans, that they were Greeks of
Alexandria, and that the flrip was an Alexandrian (hip
employed in the traffic of carrying corn to Italy - and
therefore, that the mariners had a name in their own
language for the particular typhonic or fiormy wind
here mentioned. He alwaysfliows from the paflage itfelr,
that the tempeftuous w ind called Euroch/don, beat (x«t’
upon the ifland of Crete ; and therefore, as this
is a relative expreffion referring to the fituation of the
perfon who fpeakj of it, who w as at that time to the
2
windward or fouth of it, the wind blew upon flrore, and Ewrocly-
muft have come from the fouth or fouth-eaft •, which,
he adds, is fully warranted by the point where the fliip Europe-
was, and the direction it ran in afterwards, which was 1 -
towards the north and north-weft.
EUROPA, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of Age-
nor king of Phoenicia and Telephaffa. She w as fo beau¬
tiful that Jupiter became enamoured of her ; and the
better to feduce her, he aflumed the ffiape of a bull and
mingled with the herds of Agenor, while Europa, w ith
her female attendants, were gathering flowers in the
meadows. Europa carefled the beautiful animal j and
at laft had the courage to fit upon his back. The god
took advantage of her fituation •, and with precipitate
fteps retired towards the ffiore, crofted the fea with
Europa on his back, and arrived fafe in Crete. Here
he aflumed his original ffiape and declared his love.
The nymph confented, though fhe had once made vowts ■
of perpetual celibacy; and the became mother of Minos,
Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthus. After this diftinguifti-
ed amour w ith Jupiter, fhe married Afterius, king of
Crete. This monarch feeing himfelf without children
by Europa, adopted the fruit of her amours with Ju¬
piter, and always efteemed Minos, Sarpedon, and Rha¬
damanthus, as his own children. Some fuppofe, that
Europa lived about 1552 years before the Chriftian era.
EUROPE, one of the four quarters of the world.
This is confiderably the fmalleft of the four grand
divifions of the terraqueous globe. Its length, from
eaft to weft, according to the moft authentic accounts,
meafures about 3300 miles Britiffi meafure, and its
breadth 23 i^o. The continental part of it is bounded
on the fouth by the Mediterranean fea, on the weft
by the Atlantic ocean, comprehending the moft dif-
tant ifle of Europe, viz. that of Iceland, for Green¬
land is now confidered as conftituting a part of North
America. Many geographers of eminence have given
the Azores to Europe^ from their greater proximity
to Portugal than to any other continental country,
and have confidered the Madeiras as a conftituent part
of Africa for a fimilar reafon. Europe is bounded on
the north by the Arctic ocean and the new land j
while its eaftern limits appear to be more uncertain in
the eftimation of geographers. It appears evident,
however, that a very natural limit might be afcertain-
ed by tracing the river Oufa from its fource to its con¬
fluence with the Belaia 5 - and thence from the Rama
to the Volga, which would make its divilion extremely
natural to the town of Sarepta •, it requiring only an
imaginary line of very final 1 extent from that place to
the river Don, which would fatisfadlorily afcertain its
weftern boundary.
The weftern and fouthern parts of Europe anciently
confifted of the people called Celts ; the Fins occupied
the north-eaft, and the Laplanders, a people equally di¬
minutive with the Samoieds of Afia, pofiefled its remoteft
parts towards the north, .who rendered their own lan¬
guage lefs uncouth and barbarous by affimilitating it
to that of the Fins. The Goths from Afia feem to
have driven thofe ancient inhabitants towards the eaft
a d north, whofe defeendants occupy the greater part
of Europe. From the Sclavonic tribes, who alfo came
from Afia, the Poles, Ruffians, &c. were defeended,
Thefe were accompanied by the Heruli, who made ufe
of what is now denominated the Lettic fpeech, to be
met
EUR [ 350 1 EUR
Europe, met witli in Courland, Livonia, Lithuatiia, Pruflia, and
Samogitia, and nearly alliejd to the Sclavonic language,
according to the account of Tooke in his view of Ruf-
fia. At an early period the colony of Iberi and nor¬
thern Mauritani, came over into Spain ; and at a later
period both the Hungarians and Turks emigrated from
Afia.
Notwithftanding the high eharafter of d’Anville as
a geographer, we believe that his opinion refpefting the
geographical knowledge of the ancients is greatly ex-
aggerated. It appears evident that nothing more of
Scandinavia was known to the ancients than the fouth-
ern part as far as the lakes of Weter and Wener. It is
no doubt true that the Romans, by means of their Ihip-
ping, even in the imperfect {fate of navigation at that
period, traverfed the fouthern (hores of the Baltic, as
far as to the river Rubo, afcertaining the names of va¬
rious tribes along that coaft ; but if the maps of Ptole¬
my are admitted as decifive proofs in this cafe, it is cer¬
tain that they were wholly unacquainted with the inte¬
rior of Germany $ and confequently the tribes of which
he makes mention, may rather be confidered as having
dwelt along the northern {hores of the Baltic, or the
fouthern parts on the left of the Danube. They were
no doubt acquainted with the Carpathian mountains ;
but their knowledge of Europe towards the north-eaft
was undoubtedly circumlcribed by the 50th or 5?.d de¬
gree of north latitude.
In many barbarous languages, the fame word was of¬
ten ufed indifcriminately either for a mountain or a fo-
reft, the want of attention to which has frequently been
the prolific fource of error, and placed mountains of the
greateft confequence where the hand of nature had
planted trees. It has been fuppofed that the Riphcean
mountains were the Uralian chain, of which the an¬
cients knew nothing, inftead of a foreft of prodigious
extent from eaft to weft. It is alfo well known that
the Venedici Montes of Ptolemy have no exiftence up¬
on earth, and therefore muft once have been a very ex-
tenfive foreft with which the moderns are unacquaint¬
ed, and perhaps no traces of it are now anywhere to
be met with,
Chriftianity is the predominant religion all over Eu¬
rope, except in Turkey j and even there it has been
computed, that about one-half of the inhabitants are
members of the Greek church. The Chriftian religion
has always been accompanied in its progrefs with the
diffufion of knowledge, the extenfion of induftry, and
the civilization of manners, whereas the barbarous tribes
in the northern parts of Europe advanced by very flow
degrees, and the Scandinavians continued in a ftate of
pagan ignorance till the eleventh century. Some tribes
of Sclavonia to the fouth of the Baltic, were not con¬
verted to Chriftianity till the thirteenth century, and
of courfe W'ere for many ages in a ftate little fuperior to
brutality $ and the people of Lapland were not convert¬
ed to the Chriftian faith till about a century ago, by
means of miflionaries fent from Denmark. The people
of Europe, as to matters of religion, are divided into
catholics and proteftants, the former being chiefly con¬
fined to the fouthern parts of it, where the imagination
requires the gratifications arifing from external pomp
and parade *, and the latter in the northern parts of it,
the fimplicity of which is much better calculated to
pleafe the predominant exercife of the judgment. The
3
Chriftian religion being thus diffufed all over Europe, Europe,
that divifion of the globe has hence become a kind of y~-’
republic in relptft of literature, every fcientific inven¬
tion and difcovery being tranimitted from one portion
of it to another with the utmoft difpatcb. For this rea-
fon Europe has been fometimes compared to ancient
Greece, and it is to be hoped that Ruflia will never
prove another Macedoc
The greater part of this quarter of the globe lies
within the northern temperate zone, a diftimftion which
is now nearly annihilated by the interefting diicoveries
of modern geography. Climate is found to depend
very frequently on caufes which are purely local, {ince
the Alps in a fouthern latitude, exhibit mountains of
ice which are not known even in Lapland, while the
torrid zone is plentifully fupplied with w ater and habi¬
tations, and for any thing which can be determined to
the contrary, it may contain mountains which are cover¬
ed with fnow. As it is happily delivered from thofe
intenfe heats which are peculiar to Afia and Africa, the
inhabitants are in general bleffed with greater bodily
vigour and intelleftual ftrength.
One of the raoft ftriking features of Europe in a ge¬
neral point of view is its inland feas which give it a
decided fuperiority over the other more extenfive divi-
fions of the earth, and contribute powerfully to the ex¬
tenfion of its induftry, commerce, and civilization. If
fuch blefiings had been enjoyed by Africa, it is more
than probable that the confequences of her induftry
would have been diffufed far and wdde. Of theie in¬
land feas, the Mediterranean holds the moft diftinguifti-
ed place, as the centre of civilization both to the an¬
cient and modern inhabitants of Europe. It is about
2000 miles in length to its fartheft extremity in Syria,
but the maps of antiquity make it 500 more. The
gulfs of Venice and the Archipelago open on its nor¬
thern fide, formerly denominated the Adriatic and
Egean feas, from the laft of which there is a communi¬
cation with the fea of Marmora, or the Propontis, by
means of the Hellefpont; and the ftrait of Conftanti-
nople leads into the Black fea, to the north of which is
the fea of Azof, (Palus Moeotis), or utmoft maritime
boundary of Europe in that diredtion. This vaft ex-
panfe of water is beautifully ornamented wdth numerous
iflands and an opulent fea coaft, exhibiting delightful
fpecimens of almoft every thing in nature which is iub-
lime and beautiful. Tides cannot be perceived except
in ftraits of very fmall dimenfions, although naturalifts
have obferved, that a current fets along the ihores of
Italy from weft to eaft, while its diredtion is from eaft
to weft towards the coaft of Africa. In the gulf of
Venice the current runs along Dalmatia in a north-weft
diredlion, and returns by the oppofite (bore of Italy.
There is abundance of fifti to be met with in the Me¬
diterranean, fome of which are but rarely to be found
in more northern latitudes. This fea in particular
abounds with coral, now certainly know n to be the pro-
dudlion of marine infedls. This imaginary plant is
tri-coloured, compofed of red, vermilion and white, and
does not exceed eleven inches in height. It is hard in
the fea, and in this refpedl undergoes not the irnalleft
change by expofure to the air 5 and the nets made ufa
of for procuring it, meafure from 60 to 125 feet. From
the colour of its rocks or perilous navigation, the Black
fea is laid to have derived its name, As the lea of
Azof
f
f.
Cd
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Azof almoft always exhibits a muddy appearance, it
was for that reafon denominated Pahs by the ancients,
and it is united to the Euxine or Black fea by the ftrait
of Caffa.
The next inland fea of Europe is the Baltic, to which
the Germans have given the name of the Eaftern fea,
which accounts for the people denominated Eajier/ings
in the hiftory of England, who undoubtedly came from
the fhores of the Baltic. It opens from the German
fea by a gulf trending north-eaft, known by the name
of the Singer Rack, from whence it paffes fouthward in
the Cattegat, to the fouth-ead of which we meet with
the found of Elfinore, where velfels become in feme de¬
gree tributary to the king of Denmark. It is after¬
wards divided into two branches of great extent, called
the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, both of which are
covered with ice for nearly five months in the year.
The greateft depth of the Baltic is laid not to exceed
50 fathoms; and according to the opinion of naturalifts,
its extent fuffers a diminution of four feet every century.
It has been affirmed that its waters do not contain above
one-thirtieth of fait, while other fea-waters frequently
contain one-tenth, which has been afcribed to the vail
quantity of ice ; and when the north wind blows, thefe
waters, it is alfo faid, may be employed for the purpofes
of domeftic economy. 'There are no tides in the Bal¬
tic, and but very few fifh.
The White fea, in the northern parts of Ruffia, is
the lad inland fea of Europe, which was well known to
the Engliffi in particular, before the commerce of Arch¬
angel was transferred to Peterfburgh. It went by the
name of ^uen fea in the reign of Alfred the Great; and
the writers of Iceland called it the fea of Ganviick, on
the fhores of which Hood their Biarmia. There are a
number of iflands in the White fea, but the accounts
which geographers have hitherto given us, are neither
circumftantial nor fatisfaftory.
The German fea deferves to be mentioned among
the other maritime divifions of Europe, which has re¬
ceived the appellation becaufe it waters the wejlern
fhores of ancient Germany, from the Rhine to the far-
theft boundary of Jutland. It may properly be regard¬
ed as conllituting a part of the Atlantic ocean, ending
at the ftraits of Dover, from whence the Britifh chan¬
nel extends to the weft. ' Another extenfive inlet of the
Atlantic is the bay of Bifcay ; for the Britilh channel
is rather to be confidered as the wide frith of the Se¬
vern. St George’s channel lies on the fouth between
Great Britain and Ireland, and the Irifh fea leading to
the North channel, is fituated in the centre. What the
ancients called the Deucaledonian fea, lies to the north
of Scotland, which was likewife denominated the Sar-
matian, as extending throughout the Baltic.
The Ar&ic ocean lies to the north of Europe, the.
difinal receptacle of countle-fs miles of ice, piled up in
mountains, the hoary majefty of which, while it capti-
.vates the eye, can fcarcely fail to ftrike terror into the
heart of the mariner, Yet from thofe dreary regions,
which at firft appear only as a prodigious wafte in the
works of creation, the benevolent Parent of theuniverfe
diTufes innumerable millions of herrings for the ule of
man. This is worthy of the divine being whofe good-
nef- is whifpered to us in every breeze, which glows in
the Harry firmament of heaven, and is diftuied through
the whole creation.
The Goodwin funds in the vicinity of the Kentifh Tmjop^-
coaft, are as dangerous to the mariner as uninviting tOg ,j'n?ira
the fiftier ; but excellent fifti are to be found on many v__A-v~—o
banks on the coaft of Holland, among which may be
ranked the cod, the foal, and the plaice. What are
called the filverpits of the mariners, lying between the
Dogger and Well bank, fupply the London market
Avjth cod, which difcovers a predileftion for the deep
waters in the vicinity of the banks. The Hornriff, a
narrow ftrip extending to Jutland, is fituated towards "
the north eaft of the Dogger bank. The Juttfriff ex¬
tends from the mouth of the Baltic to the German fea,
in the form of a crefcent.
The Mar bank takes its rife oppofite to Berwick,
which is little more than 15 miles in length. To the
eaftvvard of this lies the Long Forties, extending from
Buchannefs to Newcaftle, and from between 40 and
IOO miles from the ftiore ; and a bank reaches acrofg
the German fea towards Juttfriff, from the coaft of Bu¬
chan. It was thought neceffary, in this eoncife account
of Europe, to mention fome of the moft confiderable
banks or comparative ftioals, which have often been re¬
garded as the fummits of lofty mountains beneath the
furface of the deep; and which, as the haunts of fifties
of different fpecies, have arretted the attention of nation¬
al induftry.
A dcfcription of the principal rivers of Europe will
be given in our account of the countries through which
they refpe£tively flow. The greater part of the Wolga
is confidered as belonging to Europe ; the next highly
celebrated river is the Danube, after which we may
rank the Nieper, the Rhine, and the Elbe. The Alps
are the loftieft mountains; next the Pyrenees; and that
vaft ridge by which Norway is divided from Sweden.
The Carpathian mountains, the chain called Emineh,
and the Apennines, are of inferior magnitude.
The European ftates and kingdoms may properly be
divided into three clafles ; 1. Defpotic monarchies, of
which Ruffia and Turkey may ferve as fpecimens. 2.
Abfolutemonarchies, fuch as Spain and Denmark. And
3. Thofe of a limited nature, as the Germanic empire,
and the kingdom of Great Britain. Since the govern¬
ments of Venice, Switzerland and Holland w ere fub-
verted by the French, few, if any traces of a perma¬
nent ariftocracy are to be met with, or any government
in the hands of hereditary nobility. In fome of the
Swifs cantons we may perhaps find the ftiadow of de¬
mocracy; and France is at prelent a military defpotifm
called an empire, the right of fucceflion being heredi¬
tary indefeafible.
It is cuftomary with fome geographers to divide the
conftituent parts of Europe into firft, fecond, and third
orders, according to their political importance ; the
firft order including the united kingdoms of Great Britain
and Ireland, France, Ruffia, the Auftrian dominions,
Pruffia, Spain, Turkey. In ihe fecond order ftand the
United Provinces, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal and
Svs itzeiland ; and the chief ftates of Germany and Italy
conftitute the third, a detailed account of which our
readers will find in this work under their proper names.
EURYALE, in Mythology, one of the Gorgons,
daughter- of Phorcys, and filler of Medufa ; fhe was
fubjeft neither to old age nor death.
EURIANDRA, a genus of plants belonging to
the poiyandria clafs. See Botany Index.
EURYDICEj
E U S ' [35
Eufjdice EURYDICE, in fabulous hillory, tlie wife of Or-
Eufebians P^eus> "ho, flying from Ariflaeus that endeavoured to
i 1- raviflr her, was flain by a ferpent. Her hufband went
down to the (hades, and by the force of his muflc per-
fuaded Pluto and Proferpine to give him leave to carry
back his wife ; which they granted, provided he did not
look on her till he came to the light! but he breaking
the condition, was forced to leave her behind him.
See Orpheus.
EURYMEDON, in Ancient Geography, a noble
•river running through the middle of Pamphylia ; famous
for a fea and land fight on the fame day, in which the
Athenians under Cimon the fon of Miltiades, defeated
the Perlians. The fea fight happened firft in the fea of
Pamphylia, towards Cyprus j the land engagement, the
following night on the Eurymedon. Cimon, after de¬
feating the Perfian fleet, armed his men with the ar¬
mour of the captives, and fet fail for the enemy, who
lay on the banks of the Eurymedon, in the fhips taken
from the Perfians 5 who on feeing their own fliips and
their own people in appearance, were off their guard,
and thus became an eafy conqueft.
EURYSTHEUS, a king of Argos and Mycente,
fon of Sthenelus and Nicippe the daughter of Pelops.
Juno haftened his birth by two months, that he might
come into the world before Hercules the fon of Alctne-
«a, as the younger of the two was doomed by order of
Jupiter to be fubfervient to the will of the other. (See
Alcmena). This natural right was cruelly exercifed
by Euryftheus, who was jealous of the fame of Her¬
cules ; and who to deftroy fo powerful a relation, im-
pofed upon him the mod dangerous and uncommon en-
terprifes, well known by the name of \h.Q, twelve labours
of Hercules. The fuccefs of Hercules in atchieving thofe
perilous labours alarmed Euryfiheus in a greater degree,
and he furnifhed himfelf with a brazen veffel, where he
might fecure himfelf a fafe retreat in cafe of danger.
After the death of Hercules, Euryftheus renew ed his
cruelties againft his children, and made w-ar againft
Ceyx king of Trachinia, becaufe he had given them
fupport, and treated them with hofpitality. He was
killed in the profecution of this war by Hyllus the fon
of Hercules. His head was fent to Alcmena the mo¬
ther of Hercules *, w ho, mindful of the cruelties which
her fon had fuffered, infulted it, and tore out the eyes
with the moft inveterate fury. Euryftheus w as fucceed-
ed on the throne of Argos by Atreus his nephew. The
death of Euryftheus happened about thirty years before
the Trojan W'ar.
EURYTHMY, in ArcluteElure, Painting, and
Sculpture, is a certain majefty, elegance, and eafinefs,
appearing in the compofition^ of divers members or parts
of a body, painting, or fculpture, and refulting from
the fine proportion of it.
EUSDEN, Laurence, an Irifti clergyman, reiRor
of Conefby in Lincolnfhire, and poet laureat after the
nleath of Mr Rowe. His firft patron was the eminent
Lord Halifax ; w hofe poem, on the battle of the Boyne,
he tranflated into Latin, and dedicated to his lordlhip.
He w-as efteemed by the duke of Newcaftle, who re¬
warded an epithalamium he wrote on his marriage with
the place of poet laureat. He w as the author of many
poetical pieces, though but little known before his pre¬
ferment : he died in 1730.
EUSEBIANS, a denomination given to the fe£t of
2 ] E U S
Arians, on account -of the favour and countenance
which Eufebius, bilhop of Csefaria, ftiowed and pro¬
cured for them at their firft rile. See Arians and
Eusebius.
EUSEBIUS, furnamed Pamphieus, a celebrated
biihop of Caefarea in Paleftine, and one of the moft
learned men of his time, was born in Paleftine about
the latter end of the reign of Gallienus. He was the
intimate friend of Pamphilus the Martyr •, and, after his
death, took his name in honour to his memory. He
was ordained bilhop of Csefarea in 313. He had a con-
fiderable {hare in the contell relating to Arius; whofe
caufe he, as well as feveral other bilhops of Paleftine,
defended, being perfuaded that Arius had been on-
juftly perfecuted by Alexander bilhop of Alexandria,
He aflifted at the council of Nice in 3255 when he
made a fpeech to the emperor Conftantine on his coming
to the council, and wras placed next him on his right
hand. He was prefent at the council of Antioch, in
which Ehftathius biftiop of that city w'as depofed ; but
though he was chofen by the bilhop and people of
Antioch to fucceed him, he abfolutely refufed it. In
335, he aflifted at the council of Tyre held againft
Athanafius; and at the aflembly of bilhops at Jerufa-
lem, at the time of the dedication of the church there.
By thefe biftiops he was fent to the emperor Conftan¬
tine to defend what they had done againft Athanafius;
when he pronounced the panegyric made on that em¬
peror during the public rejoicings in the beginning of
the 30th year of his reign, which was the laft of his
life. Eufebius furvived the emperor but a fhort time,
for he died in 338. He wrote, I. An Ecclefiaftical
Hiftory, of which Valetius has given a good edition in
Greek and Latin j 2. The life of Conftantine; 3. A
treatife againft Hierocles ; 4. Chronicon; 5. Prepara-
tiones Evangelicec ; 6. Dc demonjlratione Evangelica, of
which there are but 10 books extant out of 20 j and
feveral other w'orks, fome of which are loft.
EUSTACHIUS, Bartholomew, phyfician and
anatomift at Rome, flourilhed about the year I550.
His anatomical plates were difeovered there in 1712,
and publifhed in 1714.
EUSTATHIANS, a name given to the Catholics
of Antioch in the 4th century, on occafion of their re-
fufal to acknowledge any other bithop befide St Eufta-
thius, depofed by the Arians.
The denomination was given them during the epif*
copate of Paulinus, whom the Arians fubftituted to St
Euftathius, about the year 330, when they began to
hold their affemblies apart. About the year 350,
Leontius of Phrygia, called the eunuch, who was an
Arian, and was put in the fee of Antioch, defired the
Euftathians to perform their fervice in his church ;
which they accepting, the church of Antioch ferved
indifferently both the Arians and Catholics.
This, we are told, gave occafion to two inftitutions,
which have fubfifted in the church ever fince. The firft
was pfalmody in two choirs ; though M. Baillet thinks,
that if they inftituted an alternate pfalmody between
two choirs, it was between two Catholic choirs, and
not by way of refponfe to an Arian choir. The fe-
cond was the doxology, Glont be to the Father, and the
Son, and the Holy Ghojf. See DOXOLOGY.
This conduft, which feemed to imply a kii d of com¬
munion with the Arians, gave great offence to abun¬
dance
E U S t 353 ] E U S
.jftathians dance'of Catholics, who be^an to hold feparate meet-
11 ingsj and this formed the fchifm of Antioch. Upon
Euftatia. this, the reft, who continued to meet in the church,
ceafed to be called Eujiathians, and that appellation be¬
came reftrained to the diflenting party. St Flavianus,
biftiop of Antioch in 381, and one of his fucceflbrs,
Alexander, in 482, brought to pafs a coalition, or re¬
union, between the Euftathians and the body of the
church of Antioch, defcribed with much folemnity by
Theodoret, Eccl. lib. iii. c. 2.
Eustathians were alfo a feil of heretics in the
fourth century, denominated from their founder Euf-
tathius, a monk fo fooliflily fond of his oAvn profeflion,
that he condemned all other conditions of life. Whe¬
ther this Euftathius was the fame with the biftiop of
Sebaftia and chief of the Semi-Arians, is not eafy to
determine.
He excluded married people from falvation ; prohi¬
bited his followers from praying in their houfes} and
obliged them to quit all they had, as incompatible
with the hopes of heaven. He drew them out of the
other affemblies of Chriftians to hold fecret ones with
him, and made them wear a particular habit 5 he ap¬
pointed them to fall; on Sundays ; and taught them,
that the ordinary fafts of the church were needlefs-, af¬
ter they had attained to a certain degree of purity
which he pretended to. He ftiowed great horror for
chapels built in honour of martyrs, and the affemblies
held therein. Several women leduced by his reafons,
forfook their hufbands, and abundance of flaves defert-
ed their mafters houfes. He wras condemned at the
council of Gangra in Paphlagonia, held between the
years 326 and 341,
EUSTATHIUS, biftiop of Theffalonica, in the
12th century, under the reigns of the emperors Ema¬
nuel, Alexander, and Andronicus Comnenus. He was
a very eminent grammarian 5 and V'rote commentaries
upon Homer, and Dionyfius the geographer. The
beft edition of his Commentaries on Homer is that of
Home, printed in Greek, in 1542, in four volumes
folio. His Commentaries on the Periegefis of Diony¬
fius were printed by Mr Hudfon at Oxford, in 1697,
8vo. Euftathius appears to have been alive in the
year 1194.
EUSTATIA, St Eustatia, or Eujlatius, one of
the Caribbee iflands, belonging to the Dutch, and fi-
tuated in W. Long. 62. 56. N. Lat. 17. 29. It is lit¬
tle elfe than a huge mountain, which formerly has, in
all probability, been a volcano. Its fituation is fo
ftrong, that it has but one landing place ; and that is
fortified in fuch a manner as to be alrtioft impregnable.
Tobacco is the chief produft of the ifland ; and it is
cultivated to the very top of the pyramid, which termi¬
nates in a large plain furrounded with woods, but ha¬
ving a hollow in the middle, which ferves as a large
den for wild beafts. No fewer than 5000 white people
and 15,000 negroes fubfift on this fpot, where they
rear hogs, kids, rabbits, and all kinds of poultry, in
fuch abundance, that they can fupply their neighbours,
after having ferved themfelves.
The firft Dutch colony fent to this ifland confifted
of about 1600 people. They were difpoffeffed by the
Englith from Jamaica in 1665. Soon after, the Dutch
and French becoming confederates, the Englifli were
expelled in their turn. The French continuing to hold
Vol. VIII. Part L
a garrifon in the iftand till the treaty of ISreda, when
it was reftored to the Dutch. Soon after the revolu¬
tion, the French drove out the Dutch, and were in
their turn driven out by the Englith under Sir Timo¬
thy Thornhill, with the lofs of no more than eight men
killed and wounded, though the fort they took mount¬
ed 16 guns, and w'as in every other refpeft very ftrong.
Sir Timothy found it neceffary for the protection of
the Dutch, to leave a fmall Englifli garrifon in the
fort j but he granted the French no terms of capitula¬
tion, except for their lives and baggage. By the peace
of Kyfwick, the entire property of this itland was refto¬
red to the Dutch.
This ifland was reduced by the Britifli in the year
1781. Though not -20 miles in circumference, it
abounded at that time with riches, by reafon of the
vaft conflux of trade from every other ifland in thefe
feas. Being a free port, it was open to all the fub-
jefts of the belligerent powers j and thus a communi¬
cation was eftabliftied among them, through which
they w'ere enabled to carry on a commercial corre-
fpondence, which greatly mitigated the inconveniences
of war. The greateft benefit, however, was reaped by
the Dutch ; who, by tranfafting all trading bufinefs
for other nations, were thus intrufted with numberlefs
commiflions, and likewife enjoyed vaft profits from
the fale of the merchandifes to which they were en¬
titled. At the time the attack was made upon them,
they were fo little under the apprehenfions of fueh an
event, that their warehoufes were not fufticient to con¬
tain the quantity of commercial articles imported for
fale, and the beach and ftreets were covered with
hogtheads of tobacco and fugan Irt this fituation,
Admiral Rodney having received orders to commence
hoftilities againft the Dutch, fuddenly appeared before
the ifland with fuch an armament of fea and land
forces, as in its defencelefs fituation was not only ufe-
lefs but ridiculous. The governor could fcarcely credit
the officer who fummoned him to furrender j but be¬
ing convinced how matters flood, the only poffibk ftep
was taken, namely, to furrender the whole ifland and
every thing in it, at difcretion. Along with the ifland
there fell into the hands of the captors a ftiip of 60
guns, with 250 fail of merchantmen, while the value
of property on the iftand was eftimated at no lefs than
four millions fterling. This capture became afterwards
a fubjedl of difcuffion in parliament, where the conduct
of the Britifti commanders was feverely Icfutinized by
Mr Burke. The admiral and general made their de¬
fence in perfon : but the minority at that time were
far from being fatisfied 5 and it was fuppofed that or!
the change of miniftry a rigid inquiry would have been
fet on foot, bad not the fplendour of Admiral Rodney’s
vidlory over de Graffe put an end to all thoughts ofi
that nature.
The iftand of St Euftatius is naturally of fueh difti-*
cult accefs, as already obfi rved, that it is almoft impof-
fible for an enemy to effeft a landing if prope r care is
taken by thofe who are in pofieflion of it. This very
circumftance proved the ruin of the ntw poffeffors. The
Britifli, feeure in their inacceflible fituation, conduced
thimlelve? in fuch a manner as induced thi Maiquis de
Bouille to make an attempt to regain it. Having fail¬
ed from Martinico at the head of 20 o men, he arrived
on the 26th of November 1781, off one of the landing
Y y places
fcuftatia.
E U T f 354 ] E U T
Suftatia places of tlie ifland, which was deemed fo inaceefliblethat
jl . it had been left without a guard. With much lofs and
Amopius. however, he landed here with four or five
hundred of his people during the night. The appear¬
ance of day put an end to his landing any more j and
he now faw himfelf obliged either to relinquifh the en-
terprife or to attack the garrifon, which was almoft
double the number of thofe he had on the ifland. He
chofe the latter ; and wras favoured in his enterprife by
the extreme negligence of his antagonifts. A difficult
pafs, which a few men might have occupied with fuc-
cefs againfi: a great number, was left unguarded, which
the marquis fecured in time, and then puffied forward
wdth the utmoft. expedition. The Britiih, mittaking
a body of Irifli troops which attended the French
commander for their own comrades, fuffered them to
approach without thinking of oppofing them. I hey
were then exercifing on the parade j but were foon
made fenfible of their fatal miftake by a dole difeharge
from their fuppofed friends, by which many were killed
and wounded. The furprife occafioned by this hidden
attack was fo great, that no refinance could be made ;
efpecially as their commanding officer, Colonel Cock-
burn, wrho happened at that inftant to come upon the
parade, was made prifoner. A number of them, how¬
ever, haftened to the fort with a view of making head
againfl; the enemy j but the French had already taken
pofieffion of the gate, and prevented the drawbridge
from being raifed. They entered the fort j which,
being furrendered by thofe who had taken flielter in it,
the reft of the garrifon, difperfed in various places, and
imagining the number of the enemy to be much greater
than it really was, fubmitted without any oppofition.
The French commander took this opportunity of
fhowing his difintereftednefs in pecuniary matters. A-
mong the fpoils that fell into his hands a large fum of
money was claimed by the Britifli commanding officer
as being his private property, which was generoufly
reftored to him : in like manner the property of the
Dutch inhabitants was referved to them, and nothing
was allowed to be feized but the produce arifing from
the fale of prizes that had been taken by the Engliffi
when they captured the ifland.
EUSTYLE, in Architecture, a fort of building in
Y'hich the pillars are placed at the molt convenient di¬
stance one from another, the intercolumniations being
juft two diameters and a quarter of the column, except
thofe in the middle of the face, before and behind,
which are three diameters diftant.
EUTERPE, one of the Mufes, daughter of Jupiter
and Mnemofyne. She preftded over mufic, and was
looked upon as the i ventrefs of the flute. She is re-
prefented as crowned with flowers and holding a flute
in her hands: Some mythologifts attributed to her the
■invention of tragedy, more commonly fuppofefl to be
the produflion of Melpomene.
EUTHYMIA, among the Greeks, fignified fuch a
difpofition or ftate of the mind, as could not be ruffled
either by good or bad fortune, by ficknefs or health,
good or evil.
EUTROP1US, Flavius, a Latin author, in the
4th century, w'as fecretary to Conftantine the Great,
and afterwards bore arms under the emperor Julian,
and followed that prince in his expedition againft the
Perfians. He wrote an Abridgement of the Roman
3
Hiftory, from the foundation of Rome to the reign Eutrepfu
ofValensj the beft edition of which is that of Mifs Euty‘-hiaI
Le Fevre, afterwards Madame Dacier, publiftied at ^
Paris for the ufe of the Dauphin, in 4to, in the year
1683.
EUTYCHIANS, ancient heretics, who denied the
duplicity of natures in Chrift j thus denominated from
Eutyches, the archimandrite, or abbot of a monaltery
at Conftantinople, who began to propagate his opinion
A. D. 448. He did not, however, teem quite Heady
and confident in his fentiments : for he appeared to al¬
low of two natures, even before the union } which was
apparently a confiquence he dn w from the principles
of the Platonic philofophy, which fuppofes a pre-exift-
ence of fouls : accordingly, he believed that the foul of
Jefus Chrift had been united to the divinity before the
incarnation *, but then be allowed no diftimftion of na¬
tures in Jtfus Chrift fince his incarnation. This herefy
was firft condemned in a fynod held at Conftantinople
by Flavian, in 448, approved by the council of Ephe-
fus, called curve Aus latronum, in 449, and re-ex; mi¬
ned, and fulminated, in the general council of Chaice-
fion in 451. The legates of Pope Leo, who afliited at
it, maintained, that it was not enough to define, that
there were two natures in Jefus Chrift; but infifted ftre-
nuoufly, that, to n move all equivocations, they muft
add thefe terms, without being changed, or confound¬
ed, or divided.
The herefy of the Eutychians, which made a very
great progrefs throughout the eaft, at length became
dividt d into feveral branches. Nicephorus makes men¬
tion of no fewer than tw elve : fome called Schematici, or
j4pf>arentes, as only attributing to Jefus Chrift a phantom
or appearance of flefti, and no real flefli : others, Theo~
efqfians, from Theodofius bifhop of Alexandria : others,
Jacobites, from one James {Jacobus'), of Syria j which
branch eftabiifhed itfelf principally in Armenia, where
it ftill fubfifts. Others were called Aciphaii, q. d,
without head •, and Severians, from a monk called Se-
verus, who feized on the fee of Antioch in 513. Thefe
laft were fubdivided into five factions, viz. SsgnoeUe,
who attributed fome ignorance to Jefus Chrift ; the fol¬
lowers of Paul } MeXsfnw, that is, the black Angelites,
thus called from the place where they were afiembled j
and laftly, Adrites and Cationites.
Eutychians was alfo the name of another fedl, half
Arian half Eunomian j which arofe at Conftantinople
in the fourth century.
It being then a matter of mighty controverfy among
the Eunomians at Conftantinople, whether or not the
Son of God knew the laft day and hour of the world,
particularly with regard to that pafiage in the gofpel
of St Matthew, chap. xxiv. ver. 36. or rather that in
St Mark, xiii. 32. where it is exprefled, that the Son
did not knew it, but the Father only j Eutychius made
no fcruple to maintain, even in writing, that the Son
did not know it ; which fentiment difpleafing the lead¬
ers of the Eunomian party, he feparated from them,
and made a journey to Eunomius, who was then in
exile. 'J hat heretic acquieiced fully in Eutychius’s
doctrine, and admitted him to his communion. Euno¬
mius dying foon after, the chief of the Eunomians at
Conftantinople refuied to admit Eutychius ; who, up¬
on this, firmed a particular fe£t of fuch as adhered to
him, called Eutychians*
Thb
EX [ 355 ] E X A
^tvchians This, fame Eutychms, with one Theopronius, as was
U f-(M in Sozomen’s lime, were the occafions of all the
'changes made by the Eunomians in the admiuiiiration
--v— 0f baptifm j which confifted, according to Nicephorus,
in only ufmg one immerfion, and not doing it in the
name of the Trinity, but in memory of the death of
Jefus Chrift. Nicephorus calls the chief of that fed,
not Eutt/chius, but Eupfychius, and his followers Euno-
tn'aupfy chians.
EUTYCHIUS, patriarch of Alexandria, lived a-
bout the ninth age ; and wrote annals in the Arabic
language, printed at Oxford in 1658, with a Latin ver-
fion by Mr Pococke. Selden had printed fomething of
his before.
EUXINE or Black Sea, forms part of the boun¬
dary betwixt Europe and Alia. It receives the Nieper,
the Danube, and other large rivers •, and extends from
28 to 40 degrees of E. Long, and from .40 to 46 of
N. Lat. The ancients imagined this fea to have been
originally only a lake or ilanding pool which broke firll
into the Propontis, and then into the Egean, walhing
away by degrees the earth which firft kept it within
bounds, and formed the two channels of the Bofphorus
Thracius and Hellefpont, now the Dardanelles.—It
was anciently called the Axenus, fuppofed to be from
AUtkenaz the fon of Gome.r, who is faid to have fettled
near it. This original being forgot in length of time,
the Greeks explained it by inhofp table, which the word
Axenos literally fignihesj and therefore, when they
C-ame to confider the inhabit ants of thefe coarts as more
civilized and hospitable, they changed the name into
Euxinus, which it ft ill retains.
EWE, the Englifh name of a female Iheep. See
Ovis, Mammalia Index,
EWERY, in the Britifh cuftoms, an office in the
king’s houfehold, to which belongs the care of the table-
linen, of laying the cloth, and ferving up water in fil-
ver ewers after dinner.
EX, a river that rifes in a barren traftof land, cal¬
led Exmore, in Somerfetffiire •, and after being joined
by feveral little ftreams, runs by Tiverton, where there
is a ftone bridge over the river. About nine miles be¬
low Tiverton, it is joined by a pretty large ftream cal¬
led \.\\a Co/omhton; and about two miles lower, by an¬
other ftream formed by the jun&km of the Horton
and Credy. With th fe additions, it walhes the walls
of Exeter. At Topfttam, above four miles below Exe¬
ter, it receives another conftderahle addition to its
ftream; two miles farther, it is joined by the Ken j
and falls into the ocean at Exmouth, after a courfe of
about 43 miles. -Ships of great burden go up to
Topfham, from whence veflels of 1 50 tons are convey¬
ed to the quay at Exeter, by means of an artificial ca¬
nal, The Ex is navigable for veflels of confiderable
burden to Toplham. The paflage, however, at the
mouth of the river is but narrow, having rocks on the
eatt fide and broad fands on the weft ; nor is the water
on the bar more than fix or feven feet deep at low wa¬
ter, but the tide riles 14 or 15 feet, lb that it is deep
enough at high water. When ftiips are vithin ihe
bar they may ride afloat at a place called Starerofs, a-
bout a mile and 0 half from the river’s mouth •, but
thofe that go to Toplham lie aground on the ooze at
low water,
EX oiFtcio, among lawyers, fignifies the power
a perfon has, by virtue of his office, to do certain a£h Ex
without being applied to. Thus a juftice of Peace
may, ex officio, at his diferetion, take lurety of the  ii
peace, -without complaint made by any perfon whatfo-
ever.
There was formerly an oath ex officio, whereby a fup¬
pofed offender was compelled in the ecclefiaftical court
to confefs, accufe, or clear himfelf of a crime j but this
law is repealed.
Ex Poji FaBo, in Law, fomething done after ano¬
ther : thus an eftate granted may be good by matter
ex pojl faEio, that was not fo at firft, as in cafe of elec¬
tion.
EXACERBATION. See Paroxysm.
EX AC 1'ION, in Law, a wrong done by an officer,
or a perfon in pretended authority, in taking a reward
or fee that is not allowed by law.
A perfon guilty of exadtion may be fined and impri-
foned. It is often confounded with Extortion.
EXACUM, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria cla^ j and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 20th order, Rotacece, See Botany Index,
EXAERESIS, in Surgery, the operation of extract¬
ing or taking away fomething that is hurtful to the hu¬
man body.
EXAGGERATION, in Rhetoric, a kind of hy¬
perbole, whereby things are augmented or amplified
by faying more than the truth, either as to good or
bad.
Exaggeration, in Fainting, a method by which
the artiit, in reprefenting things, changes them too
much, or makes them too ftrong, either in refpedt of
the defign or colouring. It differs from caruatunng,
in that the latter perverts or gives a turn to the fea¬
tures of a face, &c. which they had not, whereas ex-
aggeration only heightens or improves what they had.
EXALTATION, or Elevation, is chiefly ufed
in a figurative fenie, for the raifing or advancing a
perfon to fome ecclefiaftical dignity j and particularly
to the papacy,
EXALTATION of the Crofs is a feaft of the Rnmilh
church, held on the 14th of September ; in memory,
as is generally fuppofed, of this, that the emperor He-
raclius brought back the true ciols of Jefus Chrift on
his {boulders, to the place on Mount Calvary from
which it had been carried away 14 years before by
Cofroes king of Perfia, at his taking of Jerufak m, un-
d< r the reign of the emperor PhoCas. The crofs was
del vered up by a treaty of peace made with Siroe,
Cofroe’s fon. The inftitution of this treaty is com¬
monly faid to have been fignalized by a miradej in
that Heraclius could not ftir out of Jerufalem with the
crofs while he had the imperial vt ftme ts on enriched -
with gold and precious ftones, but bore it with eafe in
a common dreft.
But long before the reign of Heraclius there had
been a feaft of the fame denomination obferved both
in the Greek and Latin churches, on occafion of what
our Saviour faid in St John xiii, 32. And l, if I be ex¬
alted, or lifted up. w H drew all m n unto me. And
again, in chap, vm, ver. 28. When you have >xoltcd, ‘
or lifted up the Son of Man, then jhatl ye know that I
am he.
The feaft of the dedication of the temple built by
Conitantiue was held, fays Nicephorus, on the iAh of
Y y 2 September,
E- X A
Exaltation September, the day on which the temple had been con-
Example ^ecra^e^) ^ie year 335 j and this feaft was alfo call-
» ^ _ ed the exaltation of the crofs, becaufe it was a cere¬
mony therein, for the bifhop of Jerufalem to afcend a
high place, built by Conifantine for that purpofe, in
manner of a pulpit, called by the Greeks the facred
my tier us of God, or the hohnefs cf God, and there hoi It
up the crofs for all the people to fee it.
Exaltation, in Phyfcs, denotes the aft, or opera¬
tion, of elevating, purifying, fubtilizing, or perfecting
any natural body, its principles and parts ; alfo the
quality or difpofition which bodies acquire by fuch ope¬
ration. The term exaltation has been peculiarly affeft-
ed by the chemilts and alchemilts ; who imagining it
to have fome extraordinary emphafis, are employing it
on every occafion.
Exaltation, in Afrology, is a dignity which a
planet acquires in certain figns or parts of the zodiac ;
which dignity is fuppofed to give it an extraordinary
virtue, efficacy, and influence. The oppofite fign, or
part of the zodiac, is called the dejeftion of the planet.
Thus the i 5th degree of Cancer is the exaltation of
Jupiter, according to Albumazor, becaufe it was the
afcendant of that planet at the time of the creation ;
that of the fun is in ihe 19th degree of Aries, and its
dejeftion in Libra ; that of the moon is in Taurus,
&c. Ptolemy gives the reafon of this in his firft book
De Quadrup.
EXAMINATION, an exaCI and careful fearch or
inquiry, in order to difcover the truth or falfehood of
a thing.
Self-Ex A MINAT10N, is a point much infilled on by
divines, and particularly the ancient fathers, by way of
preparation to repentance St Ignatius reduces it to
five points 5 viz. I. A returning thanks to God for his
benefits. 2. A begging of grace and light, to know
and diftinguifh our fins. 3 A running over all our
aClions, occupations, thoughts, and words, in order to
learn what has been offenfive to God. 4. A begging
of pardon, and conceiving a fincere forrow for having
difpleafed him. And, 5. Making a firm refolution
not to offend him any more 5 and taking the neceffary
precautions to preferve ourfelves from it.
EXAMINERS, in chancery, two officers of that
court, who examine, upon oath, witneffes produced in
eaufes depending there, by either the complainant or
defendant, where the witneffes live in London or near
it. Sometimes parties themfelves, by particular order,
are examined. In the country, above 20 miles from
London, on the parties joining in commiffion, w'itneffes
are examined by commiffioners, being ufually counfel-
lors or attorneys not concerned in the caufe.
EXAMPLE, in a general fenfe, denotes a copy or
pattern,
Example, in a moral fenfe, is either taken for a
type, inllance, or precedent, for our admonition, that
we may be cautioned againft the faults or crimes which
others have committed, by the bad confequences which
have enfued from, them 5 or example is taken for a
pattern for our imitation, or a model for us to copy
after
That examples have a peculiar power above the naked
precept, to difpofe us to the practice of virtue and ho-
linels, may appear by confidering, 1. That they molt
clearly exprefs to us the nature of our duties in their
2
[ 356 ]
E X A
fubjefts and fenfible effetts. General precepts form
abilraft ideas of virtue •, but in examples, virtues are
moll vifible in all their circumftances. 2. Precepts
initruft us in what things are our duty ; but examples
allure us that they are poflible. When we fee men
like ourfelves, who are united to frail flelh, and in the
fame condition with us, to command their paffions, to
overcome the mod glorious and glittering temptations,
we are encouraged in our fpiritual warfare. 3. Ex¬
amples, by fecret and lively incentive, urge us to imi¬
tation. We are touched in another manner by the
vifible practice of good men, which reproaches our de¬
feats, and obliges us to the fame zeal which laws,
though wife and good, wdll not effeft.
Ihe example of our Saviour is molt proper to form
us to holinefs j it being abfolutely perfect, and accom¬
modated to our prefent Hate. There is no example of
a mere man that is to be followed without limitation :
But the example of Chrilt is abfolutely perfect *, his
converfation was a living law : “ He was holy, harm-
lefs, undefiled, and feparate from finners.”
Example, in Rhetoric, denotes an imperfect kind of
induction or argumentation ; whereby it is proved, that
a thing which happened on fome other occafiun will
happen again on the prefent one, from the fimilitude
of the cafes. As, “ The war of the Thebans, againft
their neighbours the Phocians, was ruinous 3 confequent-
ly, that of the Athenians againft their neighbours,
will likewife be fatal.”
EXANTHEMA, among Phyfcians, denotes any
kind of efflorefcence or eruption, as the mealies, purple
fpots in the plague, or malignant fevers, &c.
EXARCH, in antiquity, an appellation given, by
the emperors of the eaft, to certain officers fent into
Italy, in quality of vicars, or rather prefects, to defend
that part of Italy which was yet under their obedience,
particularly the city of Ravenna, againft the Lombards,
who had made themfelves matters of the greateft part
of the reft.
The refidence of the exarch was at Ravenna 3 which
city, with that of Rome, was all that was left the
emperors. The firft exarch was the patrician Boetius,
famous for his treatife, De Confolatione Philofophire 3
appointed in 568 by the younger Juftin. The ex¬
archs fubfitted about 185 years, and ended in Euty-
chius : under whofe exarchate the city of Ravenna
was taken by the Lombard king Aftulphus, or Ailol-
phus.
The emperor Frederic created Heraclius, archbilhop
of Lyons, a defeendant of the illuilrious houfe of
Montboiffier, exarch of the whole kingdom of Bur¬
gundy 3 a dignity till that time unknown anywhere
but in Italy, particularly in the city of Ravenna.
Homer, Philo, and other ancient authors, give like¬
wife the name exarchus to the choragus or mailer of
the fingers, in the ancient chorufes, or him who fung
firft : the word or fignifying equally to
begin, and to commend.
EXARCH of a Dtocefe was, anciently, the fame with
primate. I his dignity was inferior to the patriarchal,
yet greater than the metropolitan.
Exarch alfo denotes an officer, Hill fubfifting in
the Greek church 3 being a kind of deputy or legate
a latere of the patriarch, whofe office it i- to vifit the
provinces allotted him, in order to inform himfclf of
the
E X C [ 357 ] E X C
Exnch the lives and manners of the clergy j take cognizance all their exceptions to the record at one time, and be- Except loir
'*‘jl 0f ecclefiaftical caufes ; the manner of celebrating di- fore the court has delivered any opinion of it. Exchanae.
Exception. • fervice; the adminiftration of the facraments, EXCERPT, in matters of literature. See Ex-
particularly confeflion *, the obfervance of the canons ;
monaftic difcipline •, affairs of marriages, divorces, &c.
but above all, to take an account of the feveral reve¬
nues which the patriarch receives from feveral churches j
and particularly, as to what regards the collecting the
fame.
The exarch, after having greatly enriched himfelf
in his port, frequently rifes to the patriarchate itfelf.
Exarch is alfo ufed, in the eaftern church antiqui¬
ty, for a general or fuperior over feveral monaiteries j
the fame that we otherwife call archimandrite 5 being
exempted, by the patriarch of Conftantinople, from
the jurifdiction of the bifliops j as are now the gene¬
rals of the Romhh monaftic orders.
EXAUCTOR VITO, in the Roman military dif¬
cipline, differed from the miflio, which was a full dif-
charge, and took place after they had ferved in the
army 20 years j whereas the exauftoratio was only a
partial difcharge : they loft their pay indeed, but ftill
kept under their colours or vexil/a, though not under
the nqui/a (or eagle), which was the ftandard of the
legion : whence, inftead of Legionarii, they were, cal¬
led Subfignani, and were retained till they had either
ferved their full time or had lands affigned them.
The exaudoratio took place after they had ferved 17
years.
EXCALCEATION, among the Hebrews, was
a particular law, whereby a widow, whom her hut-
band’s brother refufed to marry, had a right to fum-
mon him to a court of juftice •, and, upon his refufal,
might excalceate him, that is, pull off one of his fhoes,
and fpit in his face ; both of them addons of great igno¬
miny.
EXCELLENCY, a title anciently given to kings
and emperors, but now to ambafladors, generals, and
other per tons who are not qualified for that of high-
nefs, and yet are to be elevated above the other inte¬
rior dignities.
EXCENTRIC, in Geometry, a term applied to
circles and fpheres which have not the fame centre,
and confequently are not parallel} in oppofition to
concentric, where they are parallel, having one com¬
mon centre.
EXCENTRICITY, in AJironomy, is the diftance
of the centre of the orbit of a planet from the centre
of the fun ; that is, the diftance between the centre of
the ellipfis and the focus thereof.
EXCEPTION, fomething referved, or fet afide,
and not included in a rule.
It is become proverbial, that there is no rule w ith¬
out an exception ; intimating, that it is impoflible to
comprehend all the particular cafes, under one and the
fame maxim. But it is dangerous following the ex¬
ception preferably to the rule.
Exception, in Law, det otes a flop or ftay to an
ad ion j and is either dilatory or peremptory, in pro¬
ceedings at common law ; but in chancery it is what
the plaintiff alleges againft the fufficiency of an an-
fwer, &c.
An exception is no more than the denial of what
is taken to be good by the other party, either in point
of law or pleading. The counfel in a caufe are to take
TRACT.
EXCESS, in Arithmetic and Geometry, is the dif¬
ference between any two unequal numbers or quanti¬
ties, or that which is left after the leffer is taken from
or out of the greater.
EXCHANGE, in a general fenfe, a con trad: or
agreement, whereby one thing is given or exchanged
for another.
Exchange, in commerce, is the receiving or paying
of money in one country for the like fum in another,
by means of bills of exchange.
The fecurity which merchants commonly take from
one another when they circulate their bufinefs, is a bill
of exchange, or a note of hand : thefe are looked upon
as payment. See Bill, and Mercantile Laws.
The punduality of acquitting thefe obligations is ef-
fential to commerce j and no fooner is a merchant’s
accepted bill protefted, than he is eonfidered as a bank¬
rupt. For this reafon, the laws of moft nations have
given very extraordinary privileges to bills of exehange.
The fecurity of trade is efi'ential to every fociety ; and
were the claims of merchants to linger under the for¬
malities of courts of law when liquidated by bills of
exchange, faith, confidence, and punduality would
quickly difappear, and the great engine of commerce
would be totally deftroyed.
A regular bill of exchange is a mercantile contrad,
in which four perfons are concerned, viz. 1. The
drawer, who receives the value : 2. His debtor, in a
diftant place, upon whom the bill is drawn, and who
muff accept and pay it: 3. The perfon who gives va¬
lue for the bill, to whofe order it is to be paid : and,
4. The perfon to whom it is ordered to be paid, credi¬
tor to the third.
By this operation, reciprocal debts, due in two dif¬
tant parts, are paid by a fort of transfer, or permuta¬
tion of debtors and creditors.
(A) in London is creditor to (B) in Paris, value
100I. (C) again in London is debtor to (D) in Paris
for a like lum. By the operation of the bill of ex¬
change, the London creditor is paid by the London
debtor •, and the Paris creditor is paid by the Paris
debtor j confequently the two debts are paid, and no
money is fent from London to Paris nor from Paris
to London.
In this example, (A) is the drawer, (B) is the ac¬
cepter, (C) is the purchafer of the bill, and (D) re¬
ceives the money. Two perfons here receive the mo¬
ney, (A) and (D) ; and two pay the money, (B) and
(C) •, which is juft what muff be done when two debt¬
ors and two creditors clear accounts.
This is the plain principle of a bill of exchange.
From which it appears, that reciprocal and equal debts
only can be acquitted by them.
When it therefore happens, that the reciprocal debts
of London and Paris (to ule the fame example) are
not equal, there arilcs a balance on one fide. Suppofe
London to owe Paris a balance, value lool. How can
this be paid ? Anfwer, it may either be done with or
without the intervention of a bill.
With a bill, if an exchanger, finding a demand for
a bill upon Paris for the value of xooL when Paris
owes
e x c r .I-
ow«*s no more to London, fends laol. to his eorrefpond-
ent at Paris in coin, at the exponas (i’uppofe) of )!,
and then, having become creditor orj Paris, he can
give a bill for the value of i col upon his being repaid
bis expence, and pah! for his rilk apd trouble.
Or it may be p lid without a Ivil, if the London
debtor fends the coin himfelf to his Paris creditor, with*
. put employing an exchanger.
'■ l his laft example thews of what little ufe bills are in
ti e payment of balances. As far as the debts are equal,
nothing can be more uf ful than bills of exchange ; but
the more they are ufeful in this eafy way of bufim fs, the
lefs profit there is to any perfon to make a trade of ex¬
change, when he is not himfelf concerned either as
debtor or creditor.
When merchants have oceafion to draw and remit
hills for the liquidation of their own debts, active and
paffive, in didant parts, they meet upon ’Change; where,
to purfue the former examples, the creditors upon Paris,
when they want money for bills, look out for thofe who
are debtors to it. The debtors to Paris again, when
they want Tils for money, feck for thofe who are credi¬
tors upon it.
This market is eonflantly attended by brokers, who
relieve the merchant of the trouble of fearching for
thofe he wants. To the broker every one communi¬
cates bis wants, fo far as he finds it prudent; and by
going about among all the merchants, the broker dif-
covers the fide upon which the greater demand lies,
for money or for bills.
He who is the demander in any bargain, has eon-
itantly the djfadvantage in dealing with him of whom
he demands This is nowhere fo much the cafe as in
exchange, and renders fecrecy very effential to indivi¬
duals among the merchants. If the London merchants
want to pay their debts to Paris, when there is a ba¬
lance again!! London, it is their inter el! to conceal
,their debts, and cipecially the neceffity they may be
under to pay them ; from the fear that thofe who are
creditors upon Paris would demand too high a price
for the exchange over and above par.
On the other hand, thofe who are creditors upon
Paris, when Pads owes a balance to London, are as
careful in concealing what is owing to them by Paris,
from the fear that thofe who are debtors to Paris would
avail themfelves of the competition among the Pariscre-
dilors, in order to obtain bills for their money, below
the value of them, when at par, A creditor upon Pa.
fis, who is greatly p re fifed for money at London, will
willingly abate fomerhing of his debt, in order to get
one who will give him money for it,
From thr operation carried on among merchants up-
#n 'Change, we may difeover the confequenee of their
feparate and jurrin intereils. They are conftantly in-
terefted in the Hate of the balance, Thofe who are
creditors on Paris, fear the balance due to London ;
thofe who are debtors to Paris, dread a balance duo
to Paris, The Ltereft of the firft is to difiemble what
they fear; that of the laft, to exaggerate what they
Wjlh. The brokers are thofe who determine the -
tour e of the day ; and the moil intelligent merchants
are thofe. who defpatch their bufinefs before the faf! is
known,
IMow, how is trade in general interefted in the que-
8 1 E X C
ftion, Who {hall outwit, and who thall be outwitted Excl
in this complicated operation of exchange among nwr-
chants ?
The interefi of trade and of the nation is principal¬
ly concerned in the proper method of paying and re."
eeiving the balances. It is alio concerned in preferv-
irg a juil equality of profit and lofs among ^all the
merchants, relative to the real Hate of the balance.
Unequal competition among men engaged in the fame
purfuit, conftantly draws along with it bad confequen«
ces to the general undertaking ; and fecrecy in trade
will be found, upon examination, tube much more ufa.
ful to merchants in their private capacity, than to the
trade thev are carrying on.
M rchants endeavour to fimplify their bufinefs as
much as pofiible 5 and commit to brokers many opera,
tions which require no peculiar talents to execute. This
of exchange is of fuch a nature, that it is hardly pof.
fible for a merchant to carry on the bufinefs of his bills
without their a Hi ft a nee, upon many oeeafions. When
merchants come upon ’Change, they are fo full of fear
and jealoufies, that they will not open themfelves to one
another, left they ^hould difeover what they want to
conceal. The broker is a confidential man, in fume de¬
gree, between parties, and brings them together.
Befides the merchants who circulate among them-
felves their reciprocal debts and credits arifing from
their importation and exportation of goods, there is
another fet of merchants who deal in exchange;
which is the importation and exportation of money and
bills.
Were there never any balance on the trade of na¬
tions, exchangers and brokers would find little employ*
ment ; reciprocal and equal debts would eafily be tranf-
a£led openly between the parties themfelves. No man
feigns and diflembles, except when he thinks he has an
intereft in fo doing.
But when balances eome to be paid, exchange be¬
comes intricate ; and merchants are fo much employed
in particular branches of bufinefs, that they are obliged
to leave the liquidation of their debts to a particular
fet of men, who make it turn out to the heft advantage
to themfelves.
Whenever a balance is to be paid, that payment
cofts, as we have feen, an additional expence to thofe
of the place who owe it, over and above the value of
the debt,
If, therefore, this expenee be a lofs to the trading
man, he muft either be repaid this lofs by thofe whom
he ferves, that is, by the nation ; or the trade he caj>
ries on will become lefs profitable.
Every one will agree, that the expence of high ex«
change upon paying a balance is a lofs to a people,
no way to be compenfated by the advantages they reap
from enrichmg the few individuals among them who
gain by contriving methods to pay it off; and if an ar¬
gument is neceflary to prove this propofition? it may
be drawn from this principle, vi«, whatever renders
the profit upon trade precarious or uncertain, is a
lo's to trade in general; this lofa is the confequenc©
of high exchange ; and although a profit does re-
lult bom it upon one branch of trade, the exchango
bufineL, yet that cannot compenfate the lofs upon
every other.
We
E X C
ixrJiange, We may, therefore, here repeat what we have faid
•"''v"’—''above, that the more difficulty is found in paying a ba¬
lance, the greater is the lofs to a nation.
The Cowfe of Exchange,
♦
The courfe of exchange is the current price betwixt
two places, which is always fluctuating and unfettled,
being foraetimes above and fometimes below par, ac¬
cording to the circumfiances of trade.
When the courfe of exchange rifes above par, the
country where it rifes may conclude for certain that
the balance of trade runs againft them. The truth of
£his will appear, if we fuppofe Britain to import from
r 359 1
E X C
any foreign place goods to the value of ioo,ocol. at Exchange
par, and export only to the value of 8o,oocl. In this ^
cafe, bills on the faid foreign place will be fcarce in
Britain, and confequently will rife in value j and after
the So.ocpl. is paid, bills muft be procured from other
places at a high rate to pay the remainder, fo that per¬
haps i?o,oool. may be paid for bills to difcharge a
debt of i oo,oool.
Though the courfe of exchange be in a pe-petua]
flux, and rifes or falls according to the circumilances of
trade ; yet the exchanges of London, Holland, Ham¬
burgh, and Venice, in a great meafure regulate thoffi.
of all other places in LuropeJ
I. Exchange with Holland,
MONEY TABLE.
8 Pennings, or 2 duytes,
2 Groats, or *6 pennings,
6 Stivers, or i 2 pence,
20 Schillings,
20 Stivers, or 40 pence,
6 Guilders, or florin1-,
2-2- Guilders, or florins,
In Holland there are two forts of money, bank and
current. The bank is reckoned good fecurity ; de¬
mands on the bank - are readily anfwered; and hence
bank money is generally rated from 3 to 6 per cent.
better than the current. The difference between the
bank and current money is called the ag:o.
Bills on Holland aie always drawn in bank money;
and if accounts be fent over from Holland to Britain in
current money, the Britiffi merchant paysthefe accounts
by bills, and in this cafe has the benefit of the agio.
ProB. I. Lo redu e banh t?ionry to current money.
Rule. As loo to too-f-agio, fo the given guilders
to the anfw'er.
Examp. What will 2210 guilders in bank money
amount to in Holland currency, the agio being 5 ' *>er
Gn'ld,
As ico ; 103-3- 2210
8 8 825
800 825 110 50
4420
17680
 Guild, /.
Sjoo) 18 232150(2279 1
16... 20
pen.'
4 cur.
22 io|oo(
16 8
63 2
5616
72 32
Par in Sterling.
1 groat or penny
1 (liver
1 fchilling
j pound Flemifh
i gilder or florin
1 pound Flemiffi
1 rixdoliar
s,
o
o
o
10
I
10
4
d.
<M4
1.09
6.5b
11.18
9.86
11.18
6.66
Or, by praftice.
50)2210
44.2 = 1 per cent-
2 2.1 — I per cent.
2.7625 — per cent.
2279.. 6 >5
If the agio only be required, make the agio the.
middle term, thus;
Guil. Jl. pen.
As ico : 3-J- :: 2210 : 69 i 4 agio. Or work by
praiflice as above.
Pros. II. To reduce current money lo bank money.
Rule. As loc-j-agio to loo, fo the given guilder*!
to the anfwer.
_ Example. What will 2279 guilders 1 (liver 4 pen-
nings, Holland currency, amount to in bank money,,
the agio being 3^ per cent ?
Guild. Guild j Guild. Jl. pen.
As iol| : 100 :: 2279 1 4
S k 8 20
825 800 45581
20
16
16 ,'00
16
99c
165
273 90
45.^1
729300 .
8co
8) 264000
3)33
11
8)58344 jooa -
3) 7 29 3 c
>1)24310(2210 bank.
A a
E X C [ 360
'Exchange. An Amflerdam, Rotterdam, Middleburgli, See.books
and accounts are kept by feme in guilders, ftivers, and
pennings, and by others in pounds, (hillings, and pence
Flemifh,
Britain gives il. (lerling for an uncertain number
of' drillings and pence Flemifh. The par il. fter-
ling for 36.59s. Flemidr j that is, il. 16s. 7.o8d.
Flemidi.
When the Flemidi rate rifes above par, Britain gains
and Holland lofes by the exchange, and vice verfa.
Sterling money is changed into Flemidi, by faying,
As xl. derling to the given rate,
So is the given derling to the Flemidi fought.
Or, the Flemidi money may be cad up by pra&ice.
Dutch money, whether pounds, (hillings, pence Fle¬
midi, or guilders, divers, pennings, may be changed in¬
to derling, by faying.
As the given rate to il. derling.
So the given Dutch to the derling fought.
Example I. A merchant in Britain draws on Am-
ilerdam for 782l. derling: How many pounds Flemidi,
and how many guilders, will that amount to, exchange
at 34s. 8d. per pound derling ?
Decimally.
L.
If 1
s. d.
34 8 :
12
L.
782
416
782
832
3328
2912
12)325312
210)2710! 9 4
L- 1355 9 4 F/em-
L.
If 1
344*
782
Z.
782
&9Z
*1133
242666
2)0)271 o{9.3
Z. 1355 9 4 F/e/n.
By praflice.
10s. =£
4s.
8d. = £
Z.
782
391
I5^
26
I4S. —xo
8d.=
Or thus:
Z. x.
782
547 8
26 1
To
d.
1355 9
1355 9 4F/.
Multiply the Flemidi pounds and (hillings by 6, and
the produft Mrill be guilders and divers; and if there
be any pence, multiply them by 8 for pennings : or,
divide the Flemidi pence by 40, and the quot will be
guilders, and the half of the remainder, if there by any,
will be divers, and one penny odd will be half a diver,
yr 8 pennings, as follows :
Z.
*355
d.
9 4
6
F/em. pence.
4\0)3253I\2(32rem-
Flcm,
s. d.
If 37 6
Sier.
Z.
: 1 :
X
F/em.
z.
s.
591 5
20
5)75
4)I5
1x825
2
~ 5)23650
5) 4730
3) 946
Z.
3IS
d.
8 Ster.
3lSi
If
5)Z.
i<875
Decimally.
Z. 5) z.
1 :: 591.25
5)
5)
-375
•■-75
.015
•015)
5)h8.25
5) 23 65
4-73(313*3
45
23
J5
80
75
50
45
Holland exchanges with other nations as follows*
viz. with
F/em. d.
Hamburgh, on the dollar, =: 66y
France, on the crown,
Spain, on the ducat,
Portugal, on the crufade,
Venice, on the ducat,
Genoa, on the pezzo,
Leghorn, on the piadre,
Florence, on the crown,
Naples, on the ducat,
Rome, on the crow-n
Milan, on the ducat,
Bologna, on the dollar,
Exchange between Britain and Antwerp, as alfo the
Audrian Netherlands, is negotiated the fame way as
with Holland ; only the par is fomewhat different, as
will be deferibed in article 2d, following.
54
1094
50
93
100
100
120
74t
136
*102
94?
Guild. 8131 16 Jliv. Guild. 8132 16 J/iv.
2. Change 591k 5S‘ Flemidi into derling money,
exchange at 37s. 6d. Flemidi perl. Sterling.
12
16
2
II. Exchange with Hamburgh.
Money Table.
Par in Sterling. s.
fchilling lub =r o
mark = I
1 dollar — 3
rixdollar 4
ducat s: 9
Phenning
Schilling-lubs
Marks
Marks
Marks
U 11
iB
j
1;
d.
It
6
o
6
4v
Books
E X C [ 3S1
Books and accounts are kept at the bank, and by
moft people in the city, in marks, fchilling-lubs,.and
phennings •, but fome keep them in pounds, fchillings,
and groots Flemilh.
The agio at Hamburgh runs between 20 and 40
per cent. All bills are paid in bank money.
Hamburgh exchanges with Britain by giving an un¬
certain number of fchillings and groots Flemilh for the
pound fterling. The groot or penny Flemifh here, as
alfo at Antwerp, is worth !4 of a penny fterling ; and
fo fomething better than in Holland, where it is only
xrod. fterling.
b/emijh.
6 Phennings 'I f I groot or penny
6 Schilling-lubs |
l Schilling-lub J> makes ^
I Mark
74-Mark.s J
The par with Hamburgh, and alfo with Antwerp, is
35s. 6|d. Flemilh for il. fterling.
Examples, i. How many marks muft be received
at Hamburgh for 300I. fterling, exchange at 35s. 3d,
Flemilh per 1. fterling ?
L. s. d. L.
If 1 : 35 3 :: 300
1 ichilling
2 pence or groots
j 3 2 pence or groots
^ 1 pound.
] E X G
2. Flow much fterling money will a bill of 39^5 ^xc*i!!r!of"
marks 10 fchilling-lubs amount to, exchange at 35s. 3d. ',n“‘
Flemilh per pound fterling ?
FL s. d. L.St. Mks. fch.
If35 3 : 1 :: 3965 ^
12 32 2
423
793°
ii897
2od.
423)126900(300!. fter.
1269
Decimally.
4 : J-5 ” 35-25
J-5
17625
2225
4)52-875(13.21875
13.21875)3965.62300(3001. fter.
3965625
III. Exchange with France.
12
423
300
  m. fch.
32)126900(3965 10
96*'•
3°9
288
210
192
180
160
(20)
16
)32°
32
ip)
Decimally.
Flew. j. Marks. F/em. s.
If 20 : 7.5 :: 35.25
4 : J-5 - 35-25
 M
17625
2525
4)52-875
Marks in xl. fterling 13.21875
300
Marks in 300I. fterling 3963.62500
16
375°
62?
Sc^illing-lubs 10.000
Vol. VIII. Part I.
Money Table.
Par in Ster. s. d.
12 Deniersl f 1 fol — o o||-
20 Sols > make -j 1 livre =09!
3 Livres J (.1 crowm — 2 5^
At Paris, Rouen, Lyons, &c. books and accounts
are kept in livres, fols, and deniers j and the exchange
with Britain is on the crown, or ecu, of 3 livres, or 60
fols Tournois. Britain gives for the crown an uncer¬
tain number of pence, commonly between 30 and 34,
the par, as mentioned above, being 29^.
Example I. What fterling money muft be paid in
London to receive in Paris 1978 crowns 25 fols, ex¬
change at 31-fd. per crown ?
So/s. d. Cr. fols.
Jf 60 : 314 :: 1978 25
  60
253  
118705
253
356115
593525
237410
610)3003236)5 Rem.
8)S0°5-9 3
12)62567 11
2lo^5?ii3 13
L. 260 13 \\\ dnf.
wL'i
By
E X G
By Practice,
Cr. Sols,
1978 25, at3!|d.
[ ]
Sols.
d,
30 — ^
1 — 1
— TS-
t  1
20 = |
5 — ^
247
1 2
1
o
o
o
3
li
1°-*
260 13
If you work decimally, fay,
Cr. d Ster. Cr. d. Strr,
As 1 : 31.625 :: 1978.416 : 62567.42708,3.
2 How many French llvres will L.121 : 18 : 6 Her.
ling amount to, exchange at 32-jd. per crown ?
d. Liv.
327 : 3
   8
865 —
24
Z.
121
20
2438
12
r.
18
d.
6
29262
24
117048
58524
    " Liv. fols. den.
263)702288(2670 5 11 Anf.
Rem. (78235 fols 11 deniers.
IV. Exchange with Portugal.
Money Table,
400 reesT_ ma].e T 1 crufade
1000 reesj 1 millree
Rees.
If 1000
8
d.
65t
8000 507
S7Qciz
413580
Rem.
8000)4 19?7o.i 20 2
^2)5242! — 5d.
20) 4368 — 8s.
L. 218 8 5^ Anf.
E X C
By Pra&ice.
Rees,
d.
60= i
3 =:wV
2.    I
^  TT
827.160, at 63-yd.
206.790
io*3395
.861625
.4308125
218.4219375
The rees being thoufondth-parts of the millrees, arc
annexed to the integer, and the operation proceeds ex.
addly as in decimals.
2. How many rces of Portugal will 500I. fterling a-
mount to, exchange at 5s. 4-fd. per mi^ree ?
d.
If 644
5*7
Pees.
1000
8
8000
Z.
500
20
10000
12
120000
8oco
Rees.
517)960000000(1856.866 Anf,
V. Exchange with Spain.
Money Table.
Par in Ster. s. d. f.
1 ree ~ o O 0.27
2 3
5
In Lilhon, Oporto, &c. books and accounts are ge¬
nerally kept in rees and millrees; and the millrees
are diltinguilhed from the rees by a mark fet between
them thus, 485 ^3725 that is, 485 millrees and 372
rees.
Britain, as well as other nations, exchanges with
Portugal on the millree 5 the par, as in the table, be- 'v.! '1
ing 6718. fterling. The courfe with Britain runs from Piaitre ■
63d. to 68d. fterling per millree.
Example i. How much fterling money will pay a
bill of 827 160 rees, exchange at 63|d. fterling per
millree ?
Rees.
827.160
5°7
Par. in Ster.
rial rr
piaftre ~
ducat tz
rar. ;
T I ria
] 1 Pi£
L I du
d.
5i
7
n4
35 mervadiesT
8 rials > make
375 mervadiesj
In Madrid, Bilboa, Cadiz, Malaga, Seville, and moft
of the principal places, books and accounts are kept in
piaftres, called alfo dollars, rials, and mervadies 5 and
they exchange with Britain generally on the piaftre,
and fometimes on the ducat. The courfe runs from
35d. to 45d. fterling for a piaftre or dollar of 8 rials.
Examp. i. London imports from Cadiz goods to the
value of 2163 piaftres and 4 rials : How much fterling
will this amount to, exchange at 384 fterling per
d.
24 =
12 —
2 =
¥ —
4 =
Piajl.
2163
Rials.
4 at 3S|d.
216
108
18
2
I
Rials,
4 =
d.
384 each,
*9yV
c-i-
345
*7
1
if
7tw
L. 345 18 8,^ Anf.
2. London remits to Cadiz. 345I. 18s. 8-j^d. How
much Spamfh money will this amount to, exchange at
384d. fterling per piaftre ?
If
E X
^rhaag*- (1- L. s, d.
—r—' If sH : i :: 345 *8 8XV
   20
3°7
2
614
6918
1 2
83024
16
498149
83024
Carried up 13 28389
Pin ft. Rials.
Anf. 2163 4
614)1328389(2163 piafters.
1228 •* *
614)2456(4 rials.
2456
[ ^3 1 ' E X C
2. How many ducats at Venice are equal to 3*5^*, c iaa£e*,
12s. 6d. flerling, exchange at 4s. qd. per ducat ?
L. Due. L.
If .310: 1 :: 385.625
.210)385.625
21 385.625
   — Due.
*95)347o62-5(i779*8 Anf*
195 '
1520
1365
1556
j365
1912
*755
:50fd. fterling.
2918
7295
</. 75868
{ = 729*
2 — 364!
76962!-
47ff
     Rem.
12)77010(66.
den.
Sols.
10 =r 4:
5 = 4-
2 = 3-
I = i
i =A
d.
52-!: rate.
i3i
5l
2f
o-g-
47l
2(0)64117( 17s.
L.320 17 6 fierling. Anf.
VI. Exchange with Venice.
Money Table.
5* Soldi 7 , C I gros
24 Gros ^ \ i ducat—5c Jd. fterling.
The money of Venice is of three forts, viz, two of
bank money and the picoli money. One of the banks
deals in banco money, and the other in banco current.
The bank money is 20 per cent, better than the banco
current, and the banco current 20 per cent, better than
the picoli money. Exchanges are always negociated
by the ducat banco, the par being 4s. 2xcl. fterling, as
in the table.
Though the ducat be commonly divided into 24 gros,
yet bankers and negociators, for facility of computation,
ufually divide it as follows, ,and keep their books and
accounts accordingly.
12 Deniers d’or 1 1 t* 1 fol d’o
MSoIscPor lmak£t. ducat:
The courfe of exchange is from 456. to 556. fterling
per ducat.
Examp. i. How much fterling money is equal to
1459 ducats 18 fols x denier, bank money of Venice,
exchange at 52-]; fterling per ducat ?
Due. d. Due. fol. den.
If 1 :,52^ :: 1459 18 1
524:
J575
1560
05)
Bank money is reduced to current money, by allow-,
ing for the agio, as was done in exchange with Hol¬
land •, viz. fay, As 100 to 120, or as 10 to 12, or as
5 to 6, fo the given bank money to the current fought.
And current money is reduced to bank money by re-
verftng the operation. And in like manner may picoli
money be reduced to current or to bank money, and the
contrary.
100 ducats banco of Venice.
In Leghorn—73 pezzos I In Lucca ;r 77 crowns
In Rome —684-crowns J In Frankfort =139^florins
VII. Exchange with Genoa.
Money Table,
Denarii r-.Y 1 f°Wi s. d.
Soldi J ma C (. 1 pezzo = 46 fterling.
Books and accounts are generally kept in pezzos,
foldi and denari ; but fome keep them in livres, foldi,
and denari j and 12 fuch denari make 1 fold], and
20 foldi make 1 lire.
The pezzo of exchange is equal to 54 lires; and,
confequently exchange money is 5! times better than
the lire money. The courfe of exchange runs from 476.
to 586. fterling per pezzo.
Examp. How much fterling money is equivalent ts
3390 pezzos 16 foldi of Genoa, exchange at yi^d. fter¬
ling per pezzo ?
Soldi. d. Pe%. fordi.
If 20 : 5I|:: 3390 16
8 ——- 20
12
20
j6o
4!5
67816
4i5
339080
67816
271264
d.
L.
d.
160)28143640(175897!:=:732 18 iA
z z 2 . If
E X C [ 364
a,.'ichange.^ If flerling money be given, it may be reduced or
changed into pezzos of Genoa, by reverfing the former
operation.
Exchange money is reduced to lire money, by being
multiplied by 5^, as follows :
Pex. foldi.
3390 16
5i
I --
^  
16054
1695
847
o
8
I4
Lires 19497
Decimally.
3390-8
S-1S
169540
237356
169540
Lires 19497.100
And lire money is reduced to exchange money by
dividing it by 5^
In Milan, 1 crown =: So
In Naples, 1 ducat 86
In Leghorn, 1 piaftre rr 20
In Sicily, 1 crown rz: 1273-
VIII. Exchange with Leghorn,
Money Table.
L. s. a\
0 6 I ■y
3 ¥
E X C
Par in Sterling,
Rome 1 crown
Naples, i ducat =
Florence, 1 crown or
Milan, 1 ducat =
Bologna, 1 dollar rr
Sicily, 1 crown rr
Vienna, 1 rixdollar rr o
Auglburgh, 1 florin — o
Francfort, 1 florin n o
Bremen^ 1 rixdollar rr o
Breflau, 1 rixdollar r: o
Berlin,, 1 rixdollar rr o
Stetin, 1 mark rr o
Embden, 1 rixdollar rr o
Bolfenna, 1 rixdollar rr o
Dantzic 134- florins rr I
Stockholm, 344 dollars — x
Ruflia, 1 ruble rr o
Turkey, 1 afper rr o
The following places, viz. Switzerland, Nurem-
burgh, Leipfic, Drefden, Ofnaburgh, Brunfwic, Co.
l°gne, Liege, Strafburgh, Cracow, Denmark, Nor.
way, Riga, Revel, Narva, exchange with Britain, when
direft exchange is made, upon the rixdollar, the par
being 4s. 6d. fterling.
o
0 5
o 4
o 4
0 5
4
3
3
3
3
4
1
3
3
o
o
4
4
4l
7
3
o
8
IT
O
6
3
o
&
6
8
o
o.
£
6
12 Denari
20 Soldi
1 foldi
I piaflrerr
r.
4
d. Ster.
6
Books and accounts are kept in piaftres, foldi, and
denari. The piaftre here confilts of 6 lires, and the lire
contains 20 foldi, and the foldi 12 denari 5 and confe-
quently exchange money is 6 times better than lire mo¬
ney- The courfe of exchange is from 478. to 5 8d. fter¬
ling per piaftre.
Example. What is the fterling value of 731 piaftres
at 554d each ?
IX. Exchange with America and the Wejl Indies,
In North America and the Weft Indies, accounts,
as in Britain, are kept in pounds, {hillings, and pence.
In North America they have few coins circulating
among them, and on that account have been obliged to
fubftitute a paper currency for a medium of their com¬
merce } which having no intrinfic value, is fubjedted to
many difad vantages, and generally fuffers a great dif-
count. In the Weft Indies coins are more frequent,
owing to their commercial intercourfe with the Spa.-
nith fettlements.
j. d.
4 or 48=1
6=|
T A i
* a —— a
731 piaftres, at 55id.
146 4
18 56
4 11 4i
L. 169 o 1 of Anf.
Sterling money is reduced to money of Leghorn, by
reverfing the former operation •, and exchange money is
reduced to lire money by multiplying by 6, and lire
money to exchange money by dividing by 6.
100 piaftres of Leghorn are
In Naples =134 ducats | In Geneva =r 1854 crowns.
Soldi of Leghorn.
In Sicily, 1 crown — 1334
In Sardinia, 1 dollar rr 954-
The above are the chief places in Europe with which
.Britain exchanges direftly; the exchanges with other
places are generally made ’^y bills on Hamburgh, Hol¬
land, or Venice. We ftiall here, however, fubjoin the
par of exchange betwixt Britain and moft of the other
places in Europe with which (lie has any commercial
intercourfe.
Exchange betwixt Britain and America, or the Weft
Indies, may be computed as in the following examples :
I. The neat proceeds of a cargo from Britain to
Bofton amount to 845I. 17s. 6d. currency: How
much is that in fterling money, exchange at 80 per
cent. ?
If 180 : 100
18 : xo L. s. d.
9 : 5 :: 845 17 6
5
9J4229 7 6
L. 469 18 74- Ster. Anf,
2. Bofton remits to Britain a bill of 469I. 18s. 7fd.
fterling : How much currency was paid for the bill at
Bofton, exchange at 80 per cent. ?
If 100 : 180 Z. r. d,
5 : 9 :: 469 18 7f
9
5)4229 7 6
845 I7 6 currency. Anf.
3 How much fterling money will 1780I. Jamaica
currency amount to, exchange at 40 per cent. ?
If
Exchange.
—/ '
E X C
If 140 : 100
14 : 10 L.
7 : 5 :: l7So
7)8900
[ 365 3 E X C
for a fmall premium in favour of London *} fuch as; Exchange...
J} 1 > &c. per cent. The premium is more or lefs, ac-
cording to the demand for bills.
Examp. Edinburgh draws on London for 860I. ex-
change at i| per cent. : How much money muft be
paid at Edinburgh for the bill ?
1271 8 6|; Ster.
Bills of exchange from America, the rate being high,
is an expenfive way of remitting money to Britain *, and
therefore merchants in Britain generally choofe to have
the debts due to them remitted home in fugar, rum, or
other produce.
X. Exchange with Ireland.
At Dublin, and all over Ireland, books and accounts
are kept in pounds, {hillings, and pence, as in Britain 5
and they exchange on the ipol. fterling.
The par of one {lulling {lerling is one {hilling and
one penny Irifli *, and fo the par of look fterling is
108I. 6s. 8d. Iriilv. The courfe of exchange runs
from 6 to 15 per cent.
Examp. i. London remits to Dublin 58^* 10s.
fterling : How much Irifli money will that amount to,,
exchange at per cent.
L.
If 100 : 1094 : : 586.5
8 877.
800 : 877 41055
41055
46920
per cent.
I — too
* —— *
*5* — T
1   1
L.
860
8 12
11 16 6 premium.
871 16 6 paid for the bill.
To avoid paying the premium, it is an ufual prac¬
tice to take the bill payable at London a certain
number of days after date : and in this way of doing,
73 days is equivalent to 1 per cent.
X II. Arbitration of Exchanges.
The courfe of exchange betwixt nation and nation
naturally rifes or falls according as the circumftances
and balance of trade happen to vary. Now, to draw
upon and remit to foreign places, in this fluftuating
ftate of exchange, in the way that will turn out moft
profitable, is the defign of arbitration. Which is
either Ample or compound.
I. Simple Arbitration.
800)514360.5
Anf. 64 2l. 19s. Irifli.
642.950625
By practice..
586.5.
p. cent.
IO = To
2 = T
8 =
4 —
T —
58.65
11,75 fub.'
9i
46.92
5.865
2.9325
.733125
156.450625 add.
642.950625
2. How much fterling will 625I. Irifti amount to,
exchange at 104 per cent. ?
If 1104 : 100 : : 625
8 800
883 800583)500000(566 5 04 Ster./4«/(
XI. Exchange betwixt London and other places in
Britain.
The feveral towns in Britain exchange with London
In Ample arbitration the rates or prices of exchange
from one place to other two are given ; whereby is
found the correfpondent price between the faid two
places, called the arbitrated price, or par of arbitration ;
and hence is derived a method of drawing and remit¬
ting to the beft advantage.
Examp i. If exchange from London to Amfter-
dam be 33s. pd. per pound fterling ; and if exchange
from London to Paris be 32d. per crown ; what muft
be the rate of exchange from Amfterdam to Paris, in
order to be put on a par with the other two ?
Ster. Elem. Ster.
s. s. d. d.
If 20 : 33 9 : : 32
12 12
230 405
32
810
1215,
24o)i296o(54d. Flem. per crown. Anf.
2. If exchange from Paris to London be 32d. fter¬
ling per crown; and if exchange from Paris to Amfter¬
dam be 548. Flemifli per crown: what muft be the rate
of exchange between London and Amfterdara, in order
to be on a par with the other two ?
If
Exchange,
E X
Sfer. Flem. Stc-r,
C
[ 36<5 ]
E X C
  12 s. d,
32) 12960(405 (33 9 Flem. per 1. Ster.
From thefe operations it appears, that if any fum of
money be remitted, at the rates of exchange mention¬
ed, from any one of the three places to the 1’econd, and
from the fecond to the third, and again from the third
to the firfl, the fum fo remitted will come home entire,
without increafe or diminution.
From the par of arbitration thus found, and the
courfe of exchange given, is deduced a jnethod of
drawing and remitting to advantage, as in the follow¬
ing example.
3. If exchange from London to Paris be 3 2d. fter-
ling per crown, and to Amfterdam 4050!. Flemiih per
pound fttrling: and if, by advice from Holland to
France, the courfe of exchange betw een Paris and Am¬
fterdam is fallen to 52d. Flemiih per crown j what may
be gained per cent- by drawing on Paris, and remitting
to Amfterdam r1
The par of arbitration between Paris and Amfter¬
dam in this cafe by Ex. 1. is J4d. Flemilh per crown.
Work as under.
d. St Cr. L. St.
If 32
Cr.
If 1 :
: 1 :
d.F/.
52
d.F/. L.St.
If 405 : 1 : :
Cr.
100 : 750 debit at Paris.
C. d.F/.
750 : 39000 credit at Amfterdam.
d.Ft. L. s. d. Ster.
39000
: 96
100
5 ti-P to be remitted.
3 I4 cf
But if the courfe of exchange between Paris and
Amfterdam, inftcad of falling below, rife about the par
of arbitration, fuppofe to 56d. Flemiih per crown j in
this cafe if you propofe to gain by the negotiation, you
muft draw on Amfterdam, and remit to Paris. The
computation follows:
JOC
L.St. d.F I. L.St.
If I : 40 C
d.F/. Cr.
If *6 : 1
Cr. d. St.
If 1 : 3 2 :
d.F/.
40500 debit at Amfterdam.
d.F/. Cr.
■ •• 4° 5 9°
Cr.
723xk :
7 23-!^credit at Paris.
L.
96
IGO
j-. d. Ster.
8 65 to be remitted.
3 11 54- gained per cent.
In negotiations of this fort, a fum for remittance is
afforded out of the fum you receive for the draught •,
and your credit at the one foreign place pays your debt
at the other. '
II. Compound Arbitration.
In compound arbhrati n the rate or price of ex¬
change* betw een three, four, or more places, is given,
3
in order to find how much a remittance pafling through
them all will amount to at the lalt place ; or to find
the arbitrated price, or par of arbitration, between the
nrft place and the lalt. And this may be done by the
following
Rules. I. Diftinguilh the given rates or prices in¬
to antecedents and confequents; place the antecedents
in one column, and the coni'equents in another on the
right, fronting one another by way of equation.
II. i he firft antecedent, and the laft confequent to
which an antecedent is required, muft always be of the
fame kind.
IIP The fecond antecedent muft be of the fame kind
vuth the firft confequent, and the third antecedent of
the fame kind with the fecond confequent, &c.
IV. If to any of the numbers a fraction be annexed,
both the antecedent and its confequent muft be multi¬
plied into the denominator.
V. To facilitate the operation, terms that happen to
be equal or the fame in both columns, may be dropped
or rejected, and other terms may be abridged.
VI. Multiply the antecedents continually for adivi-
for, and the confequents continually for a dividend,
and the quot will be the anfwer or antecedent re¬
quired.
Examp. i. If London remit 1000I. fterlingto Spain,
by way of Hollandf at 35s. Flemifti per pound fterling j
thence to France, at 58d. Flemifti per crown j thence
to Venice, at 100 crowns per 60 ducats : and thence
to Spain, at 360 mervadies per ducat ; how many
piaftres, of 272 mervadies, will the loocl. fterling a-
mount to in Spain ?
Exctiar
Antecedents,
Confequents.
35s. or 4200. FI.
I crown France
60 ducats Venice
Abridged.
I ~ 210
29:
I
I :
J7
t
30
45
1
10
il. Sterling —
58d. Flemifti ~
100 crowns France rr
x ducat Venice 360 mervadies Spain
272 mervadies rr 1 piaftre
How many piaftres =r xoool. fterling
In order to abridge the terms, divide 58 and 420 by
2, and you have the new antecedent 29, and the new
confequent 210 j rejeft two ciphers in 100 and icoo;
divide 272 and 360 by 8, and you have 34 and 45 :
divide 34 and 60 by 2, and you have 17 and 305 and
the whole will ftand abridged as above.
Then, 29 x 17 = 493 divifor j and 210 X 30X45
X 10=. 2835000dividend j and, 493) 2835000(5750^
piaftres. AjiJ.
^ Or, the confequents may be connefted with the fign
of multiplication, and placed over a line by w ay of nu¬
merator \ and the antecedents, connected in the fame
manner, may be placed under the line, by w ay of de¬
nominator ^ and then abridged as follows :
420 X 60 X 360 X ICO
58 X IOC X 272
 21 o x 6o X 45 X 10
~ 29X34
210 x6o x 360 X 10
29 X
210 X 30
I X 272
X 45 X 10
__ 2835000
29 X 17
493
And, 493)2835000(5750! piaftres. Anf
The placing the terms by w ay of antecedent and con¬
fequent,
E X C
[ 367 1
. fequent working as the rules direft, faves fo many
Ratings of the rule of three, and greatly ihortens the
operation. The proportions at large for the above
quelHon would be ftated as under.
L St.
If 1 :
d. FI.
If 58
Cr.
If 100
Due.
If I
Mer.
If 272
d. FI.
420
Cr.
l
Due.
: 60
Mer.
\ 360
Piq/l.
: 1
L. St.
1000 :
d.F.
420000 :
Cr.
7 241H
Due.
4344t|-
Mer
i5641374i
d. FI.
4 20000
Cr.
72414*-
Duc.
43444#
Mer.
1564‘37##
PiaJ}.
575°##t
Antecedents.
644. Her.
400 rees
E X G
Confluents,
lood. Flem.
60 ducats
I crown
How many d. Flem.
1000 X 50 X t oo X 56 X 240
— 1000 rees.
— 5od. Flem,
~ \ ducat.
— 100 crowns,
rr !,6d. Flem.
zr 240 Her. ?
Eicehang*.’
.875
• r*
and
64 X 400 X 100x60
2)875C437id-—36s* 5^d- Fiem- Per l- Anf>
Or the arbitrated price may be found from the anfwer
to the queftion, by faying
d. Ster. d. Flem. d. St.
If we fuppofe the courfe of direct exchange to Spain
to be 4244. fterling per piaftre, the 1000I. remitted
would only amount to 55474- piaftres •, and, confequent-
ly, j 03 pialtres are gained by the negociation ; that is,
about 2 per cent.
2. A banker in Amfterdam remits to London 400I.
Fie mi Hi ; firft to France at 56d. Flemilh per crown 5
from France to V nice, at 100 crowns per 60 ducats j
from Venice to Hamburgh, at lood. Flemifh per du¬
cat *, from Hamburgh to Lilbon, at 5od. Flemifh per
crufade of 400 rees ) and, laltly, from Lifbon to Lon¬
don at 644. fterling per millree : How much fterling
money will the remittance amount to 5 and howr much
will be gained or faved, fuppoling the direft exchange
from Holland to London at 36s. led. Flemifh per
pound fterling ?
Antecedents. Confquents.
36d. Flem. = 1 crown.
100 crowns — 60 ducats,
1 ducat = lood. Flem.
5od. Flem. rr 400 rees.
IOOO rees rr 6^d. fterling.
How many d. fter. “ 402!. or 960004. Flemifli ?
This, in the fraftional form, will ftand as follows.
60 X too X402 X 64X 96ooo_ 368640
—67x 100x50 X 1000 ’
7)368640(5266244. Her.—219I. 8s. 64d. fter. Anf.
To find how much the exchange from Amderdam
direflly to London, at 36s. lod. Flemifh perl, fterling,
will amount to, fay,
s. d. d. F . L. St, d. FI. I. s. d. St
36 10 If 442 ; 1 :: 96000 : 217 3 io-J
12 ' 219 8 6|
442 Gained or faved, 2 4
In the above example, the par of arbitration, or the
arbitrated price, between London and Amfterdam,
viz. the number of Flemifh pence given for ll. fterling,
may be found thus:
Make 644. fterling, the price of the millree, the
firft antecedent; then all the former confequents will
become antecedents, and all the antecedents will be¬
come confequents. Place 240, the pence in ll. fter-
linS, as the laft confequent, and then proceed as taught
above, viz, ' ^
If 3 40 . 96300 240
7
672 300
24O
2688
*344
■ ' —   d. s, d. Fiem.
368640)16128oooo(4374-=36 54-as before.
The work may be proved by the arbitrated price
thus : As il. fterling to 36s. 544. Flemiih, fo 219I. 8s,
6fd. fterling to 400I. Flemifh.
The arbitrated price compared with the direct courfe
fhowrs whether the direht or circular remittance will be
molt advantageous, and how much. Thus the banker
at Amfterdam will think it better exchange to receive
ll. fterling for 36s. 5-44. Flemith, than for 36s. iodr
Flemiih.
Exchange, fignifies alfoa place in moft confxdcrable
trading cities, wherein the merchants, negotiants, a-
gents, bankers, brokers, interpreters, and other perfons
concerned in commerce, meet on certain days, and at
certain times thereof, to confer and treat together of
matters relating to exchanges, remittances, payments,
adventures, aifurances, freightments, and other mercan¬
tile negoeiations, both by lea and land.
In Flanders, Holland, and feveral cities of France,
thefe places are called burfes ; at Paris and Lyons,places
de change ; and in the Hanfe towns, colleges of merchants,
Thefe aiTemblies are held with fo much exactnefs, and
merchants and negotiants are fo indifpenfably required
to attend at them, that a perfon’s abience alone makes
him to be fufpe&ed of a failure or bankruptcy. The
moft confiderable exchanges in Europe, are that of
Amfterdam j and that of London, called the Royal
Exchange.
Even in the time of the dneient Romans, there were-
places for the merchants to meet, in moft of the conli-
derable cities of the empire. 1 hat faid by fome to
have been built at Rome in the year of the city 259,
493 years before our Saviour, under the confulate of
Appius Claudius and Publius Scrvilius, w’as called col¬
legium mercatorum ; wherefore it is pretended there are
ftill fome remains, called by the modern Romans toggia,
the lodg*-' •, and now ufually the place of St George,
This notion of a Roman exchange is fuppoied to be
founded
E X C [ 368 1 EXE
hangr. founded on tlie authority of Livy, whole words are
as follows: viz. Certamenconfuhbus mcidtrat. uterdedica-
ret Mercurii cedem, ■Seriatin' d fe rem adpopulum rejicit:
utn eorurn dedicatio jujfu popuii data ejfet, earn prceejje an-
noncr, mercatorum collegium ivflituerejujjit. Liv. lib. 11.
But it nmft be here remarked, that collegium never fig-
nified a building for a focieiy in the purer ages of the
Latin tongue } fo that collegium mercatorum injlituere
mult not be rendered to build an exchange for the mer¬
chants, but to incorporate the merchants into a company.
As Mercury was the god of traffick, this cedes Mercurii
feems to have been chiefly defigned for the devotions of
this company or corporation.
Exchange, Bills of. The following information
concerning the origin of bills of exchange is extracted
from Beckmann’s Hiltory of Inventions.
“ I (hall not here repeat (fays he) what has been
collected by many learned men refpedting the important
hi (lory of this noble invention, but only lay before my
readers an ordinance of the year 1394, concerning the
acceptance of bills of exchange, and alfo two bills of
the year 1404, as they may ferve to illuftrate farther
what has been before faid on the fubjeft by others.
Thefe documents are, indeed, more modern than thofe
found by Raphael de Turre in the writings of the jurift
Baldus, which are dated March the 9th 1328 j but
they are attended withfuch circumftances as fufficiently
prove that the method of tranfafting bulinefs by bills
of exchange was fully eftablilhed fo early as the four¬
teenth century ; and that the prefent form and terms
were even then ufed. For this important imformation
I am indebted to Mr Von Martens, who found it in a
book which, as far as I know, has never been noticed
in any literary journal, though it is much more deferv-
ing of attention than many others better known. It is
a hiltory, writen in Spanifh, of the maritime trade
and other branches of commerce at Barcelona, taken
entirely from the archives of that city, and accompa¬
nied with documents from the fame fource, which a-
bound with matter highly interefling (a).
“ Among thefe is an ordinance iflued by the city of
Barcelona in the year 1394, that bills of exchange
fhould be accepted within twenty-four hours after they
were prefented j and that the acceptance (hould be
written on the back of the bill.
“ In the year 1404, the magiftrates of Bruges, in
Flanders, requefted the magiftrates of Barcelona to in¬
form them what was the common practice, in regard
to bills of exchange, when the perfon who prefented a
bill raifed money on it in an unufual manner, in the
cafe of its not being paid, and by thefe.means increafed
the expences fo much that the drawer would not con-
fent to fuftain the lofs. The bill which gave occafion Exchange
to this queftion is inftried in the memorial. It is writ--v—-a
ten in the ftiort form ftill ufed •, which certainly feems
to imply great antiquity. It fpeaks of ufance ; and it
appears that firft and iecond bills were at that time
drawn, and that when bills were not accepted, it was
cuftomary to proteft them.
“ As this article is of great importance I lhall here
tranferibe it, from vol. ii. p. 203 “ Cum de menftbus
Aprilis et Maii ultimo elapfis Antonius Quarti, mcrea¬
tor Lucanus reddens in villa Brugenfi, a Joanne Colom,
mercatore civitatis Barchinonae, etiam refidente in pite-
didfta villa Brugenfl, duo millia feutorum Philippi, quo-
libet feuto pro xxii groflis computato, folvendi per Fran-
eifeum de Prato mercatorem Florentiae, more folito, in
Barchinona, mediatim Petro Gilberto et Petro Olivo,
et mediatim Pttro Scorp, et fupradidlo Petro Gilberto,
mercatoribus Cardonae : prout de dictis cambiis ap-
paret quatuor litteris papireis, quarum tenores fub-
fequuntur.
“ Superfcriptio autem primse litteraefuit talis: Franc,
do Prato et comp, d Barjelona, Tenor vero eiufdem ad
intra fuit talis : Al name di Dio, Amen, d di xxviii.
Aprile 1404. Pagate per quejla prima di camb, d ufan%a
d Piero Gilberto, e Piero Oiivd feuti mille a fold. x. Bar-
feloneji per feuto, i qua li feuti mi lie fono per cambio die
con Giovani Colombo d gro/Ji xxii. di g. feuto : et pag. d
nofro conto, et Chri/lo vi guard/. Subtus vero erat ferip-
tum : Antonio ^piarti Sal de Bruggias.
“ Superfcriptio vero fecundae littene fuit talis: Fran-
eifeo de Prato et comp, d Barf dona. Et ab intra fle
habebatur : Al name de Dio, Amen, d di xviii. di Magio
1404. Pagate per qtiefa prima di camb. d ifan%a d
Piero Gilberto et d P. de Scorpo feuti mille de Felippo d
fold. x. Barfeloneji per feuto : t quati feuti mille fono per
camb. die con Giov. Colombo d groffi xxii. dig. feuto : et
pag. d nojlro conto : et Chriflo vi guardi.- Subtus vero
erat fie feriptum : Ant. Hfuadn Sal de Bruggias*A -
Bills of exchange are juftly confldered as of thep ^5^
greateft importance to the intereft of commerce j but
feveral queries have been propofed refpefting them,
which do not as yet appear to have received a fatisfac-
tory folution. It ftill feems to be a difputed point,
whether the law ought to confider them as nothing more
than a depofit belonging to the drawer, and fucceflive-
ly confided to the remittees ; or as property capable of
being transferred, and entirely veiled in the holder at
all times,, who ihould be alone refponfible for neglect¬
ing it, when its value is vitiated.
Profeffor Bufch of Hamburgh thought that bills of
exchange ftiould always be viewed as the exclufive pro¬
perty of the perfon holding them, which, in a work
publilhed
(a) “ Memorial hforicas fobre la marina commercio y artes de la antiqua ciudad de Barcelona, por D. Antonio
de Cap many y de Mpntpa/au. Madrid 1799, 2 vol. qto. As a proof of what I have faid above, I lhall mention
the following important article, which may be found in this work. A cuftom-houfe tariff, written in Latin, of
the year 1221, in which occur a great number of remarkable names and articles of merchandife not explained.
Another of the like kind in the year 1 252. Letters of power to appoint coirfuls in diftant countries, fuch as Sy¬
ria, Egypt, &c. dated in the years 1266, x 268, and 1321. An ordinance of the year 14 q 8, refpefting infu-
rances, which required that underwriting fbould be done in the prefence of a notary, and d clared polices d
feriptures privades to be null and void. A privilegium of the emperor Andronicus II. to the merchants of Bar-
celona, written in Greek and Spaniftr, in 1290. Account of the old Spanifh trade with wool, {ilk, fait, and faf-
fron } and of the oldeft guilds or incorporated focieties of tradefmen at Barcelona,” &c.
E X G
[ 3% 1
E X G
Exchange, publiftied in 1792, is defended by a number of plaufible
Exchequer argUments. This theory was applied to the difficult
and flu&uating cafe of the holder of a bill which has
feveral indorfements, where the drawer, the drawee,
and perfons early indorling it, have all become bank¬
rupts. Should the perfon holding it under each bank¬
ruptcy prove the entire amount of faid bill, it is mani-
fell that he muft receive much more than he can in
juftice claim as his due. It feems moft equitable that
he ffiould be forced to prove his debt againft none but
his immediate predeceffor, the affignees of iuch prcde-
ceffor being allowed a fimilar proof up to the drawer.
To fuch as are frequently in the habit of difcounting
bills, from their commercial lituations in life, this be¬
comes a matter of the utmoft confequence ; for farther
information concerning which, we refer our readers to
the ingenious work of Profeffor Bufch already alluded
to, and to Additions to the Theoretical and Practical
Delineation of Commerce, publilhed in 179^ (B)*
EXCHEQUER, in the Britilh juri(prudence, an
ancient court of record, in which all caufes concern¬
ing the revenues and rights of the crown are heard
and determined, and where the crown revenues are re¬
ceived. It took this name from the cloth that covered
the table of the court, which was party-coloured, or
chequered.
This court is faid to have been ere£led by William
the Conqueror, its model being taken from a like court
eftabliffied in Normandy long before that time. An¬
ciently its authority w'as fo great, that it was held in
the king’s palace, and the ails thereof were not to be
examined or controlled in any otheY of the king’s
courtsbut, at prefent, it is the laft of the four courts
at Weftminfter.
In the exchequer, fome reckon feven courts, viz.
thofe of pleas, accounts, receipts, exchequer-chamber
(which is an alfembly of all the judges on difficult mat¬
ters in law), errors in the exchequer, errors in the
king’s bench, and, laftly, the court of equity in the
exchequer.
But the exchequer, for the difpatch of bufmefs, is
generally divided into two parts j otieof which is chiefly
converfant in the judicial hearing and deciding of all
caufes relating to the king’s coffers, formerly termed
the exchequer of accounts: the other is called \h.e receipt
of the exchequer, as being principally employed in re¬
ceiving and paving of money.
Vol. VIII. Part I.
a court both
held in the
of common
the plaintiff
Officers of the receipt may take one penny in the Exchequer,
pound, as their fee, for (urns iffued out \ and they are
obliged, without delay, to receive the money brought
thither; and the money received is to be put into cheiis
under three different locks and keys, kept by three fe¬
veral officers. All fhenffs, bailiffs, &e. are to account
in the exchequer ; and in the lower part, termed the
receipt, the debtors of the king, and perions in debt to
them, the king’s tenants, and the officers and minifters
of the court, are privileged to iue one another, or any
ft ranger, and to be iued in the like abtions as are
brought in the courts of king’s bench and common
pleas.
The judicial part of the exchequer, is
of law and equity. The court of law is
office of pleas, according to the courfe
law, before the barons : in this court,
ought to be a debtor or accountant to the king ; and
the leading procefs is either a writ of fubpcena, or quo
minus, which laft goes into Wales, where no procefs
out of courts of law ought to run, except a capias utla-
gatum.
The court of equity if' held in the exchequer cham¬
ber, before the treafurer, chancellor, and barons; but
generally, before the barons only : the lord chief ba¬
ron being the chief judge to hear and determine all
caufes. The proceedings of this part of the exche¬
quer are by Engliffi bill and anfwer, according to the
pradlice of the court of chancery ; with this difference
that the plaintiff here muft fet forth, that he is a debtor
to the king, whether he be fo or not. It is in this
court of equity that the clergy exhibit bills for the re¬
covery of their tithes, &c. Here too the attorney-
general exhibits bills for any matters concerning the
crown ■, and a bill may be exhibited againft the king’s
attorney by any perfon aggrieved in any caufe profe-
cuted againft him on behalf of the king, to be relieved
therein ; in which cafe the plaintiff is to attend on the
attorney general, with a copy of the bill, and procure
him to give an anfwer thereto ; in the making of which
he may call in any perfon interefted in the caufe, or
any officer, or others, to inftrudl him, that the king be
not prejudiced thereby j .and his anfwer is to be put in
without oath.
But, belides the bufmefs relating to debtors, farm¬
ers, receivers, accountants, &c. all penal punilhments,
intrufion, and forfeitures upon popular aftions, are mat-
3 A ters
(lU In Vol. III. P- 613. under the article Bill, the old duty on ftamps is mentioned, and the new entirely
omitted.
The following are the duties on fuch ftamps for the year 1805. The duty on promiffory notes for the payment
of money to the bearer on demand, for a fum not exceeding il. is. is 3d. For a fum exceeding il. is. and not
2l. 2s. ; 6d. For a fum exceeding 2I. 2s. and not 5I. 5s. •, qd. For a fum exceeding 5I. 5s. and not 20I. ; is.
Promiffory notes by the Bank or Royal Bank of Scotland, or the Britifti Linen Company, payable to the bearer
on demand, which may within three years after the date bereiffued afterpayment, when the fum amounts to, and
{hall not exceed tool. ; 5s.
Bill of exchange, draft, order, or promiffory or other note, payable to the bearer on demand, for 40s and • ot
exceeding 5I. 3s.4 8d—Otherwife than to the bearer-on demand, when the fum {hall amount to 40s. and ihall
not exceed jl. 5s. ; is.
Bilk of exchange, draft, order, or promiffory note for the payment of money, where the fum fiiall exceed 5I. 5s.
and not 30I is. 6d. Exceeding 30I, and not 50I. j 2s. Above 50! and not look j 33. Above 100I. and not
200I.; 4 , Above 200I. and not 500I. ; js Above an<^ ROt- 7s'
F f ign bills of exchange drawn in fets? where the lum (hall not exceed lool. for each bill in each fet, is.
Exceeding i&cl. and not 200I. j 2s. Exceeding 200I. and not ? 3s' Exceeding jooh n<ft i-ool. j 4s*
E X C
Exchequer, ters
Excife. alfo
like^’ife cognizable by this court j where there
fits a puifne-baron, who adminifters the oaths to
high fheriffs, bailiffs, auditors, receivers, colleftors,
comptrollers, furveyors, and fearchers of all the cuf-
toms, &c.
The exchequer in Scotland has the fame privileges
and jurifdi&ion as that of England j and all matters
competent to the one are likewife competent to the
other.
Black Book of the EXCHEQUER^ is a book under the
keeping of the two chamberlains of the exchequer ;
faid to have been compofed in 1175 by Gervais of
Tilbury, nephew of King Henry II. and divided into
feveral chapters. Herein is contained a defeription of
the court of England, as it then flood, its officers, their
ranks, privileges, wages, perquifites, power, and jurif-
didtion ; and the revenues of the crown, both in money,
grain, and cattle. Here we find, that for one {billing,
as much bread might be bought as would ferve 100
men a whole day j that the price of a fat bullock was
only 12 {hillings, and a iheep four, &.c.
Chancellor of the Exchequer. See Chancellor.
Exchequer Bills. By ftat^te 5 Ann. c. 13. the lord
treafurers may caufe exchequer bills to be made of any
fums not exceeding 1,500,000!. for the ufe of the war ;
and the duties upon houfes were made chargeable with
4I. I Os. per cent, per annum to the bank for circulating
them. The bank not paying the bills, adtions to be
brought againft the Company, and the money and da¬
mages recovered : and if any exchequer bills be loft,
upon affidavit of it before a baron of the exchequer, and
certificate from fuch baron, and fecurity to pay the fame
if found, duplicates are to be made out: alfo when bills
are defaced, new ones {hall be delivered. The king,
or his officers in the exchequer, by former ftatutes,
might borrow money upon the credit of bills, payable
on demand, with intereft after the rate of 3d. per diem
for every icol. bill. And by 8 and 9 W. III. c. 20.
an intereft of 3d. a day was allowed for every 100I.
But 12 W. III. c. 1. lowered the intereft on thefe bills
to qd. a-day per cent. And by 12 Ann. c. 11. it is
funk to 2d. a-day. Forging exchequer bills, or the in-
dorfements thereof, is felony.
EXCISE, (from the Belgic tributum, 11 tri¬
bute,”) an inland duty or impofition, paid fometimes
upon the confumption of the commodity, or frequently
upon the wholefale, which is the laft ftage before the
confumption. This is doubtlefs, impartially fpeaking,
the moft economical way of taxing the fubjeft ; the
charges of levying, colle&ing, and managing the ex¬
cife duties, being confiderably lefs in proportion than
in other branches of the revenue. It alfo renders the
commodity cheaper to the confumer, than charging it
with cuftoms to the fame amount would do; for the
reafon juft now given, becaufe generally paid in a much
later ftage of it. But, at the fame time, the rigour
and arbitrary proceedings of excife laws feem hardly
compatible with the temper of a free nation. For the
frauds that might be committed in this branch of the
revenue, unlefs a ftriiff: watch is kept, make it neceffary,
wherever it is eftabliftied, to give the officers a power
of entering and fearching the houfes of fuch as deal
in excifeable commodities, at any hour of the day,
and, in. many cafes, of the night likewife. And the
proceedings, in cafe of tranfgreffions, are fo fummary
[ 37° 1
E X C
and hidden, that a man may be convi&ed in two days
time in the penalty of many thoufand pounds, by two
commiffioners or juftices of the peace j to the total ex-
clufion of the trial by jury, and difregard of the com¬
mon law. For which reafon, though Lord Clarendon
tells us, that to his knowledge the earl of Bedford
(who was made lord treafurer by King Charles I. to
oblige his parliament) intended to have fet up the ex¬
cife in England, yet it never made a part of that un¬
fortunate prince’s revenue ; being firft introduced, on
the model of the Dutch prototype, by the parliament
itfelf after its rupture with the crown. Yet fuch was
the opinion of its general unpopularity, that when in
1642 “ afperfions were caft by malignant perfons upon
the houfe of commons, that they intended to introduce
excifes, the houfe for its vindication therein did de¬
clare, that thefe rumours were falfe and fcandalous,
and that their authors ftiould be apprehended and
brought to condign punilhment.” Its original efta-
blifliment was in 1643, anc^ progrefs was gradual j
being at firft laid upon thofe perfons and commodities
where it was fuppofed the hardftrip would be leaft per¬
ceivable, viz. the makers and venders of beer, ale,
cyder, and perry ; and the royalifts at Oxford foon
followed the example of their brethren at Weftminfter,
by impofing a fimilar duty : both Tides protefting that
it ftiould be continued no longer than to the end of the
war, and then be utterly aboliftied. But the parlia¬
ment at Weftminfter foon after impofed it on flefti,
wine, tobacco, fugar, and fuch a multitude of other
commodities, that it might be fairly denominated gene¬
ral: in purfuance of the plan laid down by Mr Pymme
(who feems to have been the father of the excife), in
his letter to Sir John Hotham, fignifying, “ that they
had proceeded in the excife to many particulars, and
intended to go on farther ; but that it w'ould be ne¬
ceffary to ufe the people to it by little and little.” 
And afterwards, when the nation had been accuftomed
to it for a feries of years, the fucceeding champions of
liberty boldly and openly declared “ the impoft of ex¬
cife to be the moft eafy and indifferent levy that could
be laid upon the people j” and accordingly continued
it during the whole ufurpation. Upon King Charles’s
return, it having then been long eftabliftied, and its
produce well known, fome part of it was given to the
crown, in 12 Car. II. by way of purchafe for the feudal
tenures and other oppreflive parts of the hereditary re¬
venue. But, from its firft original to the prefent time,
its very name has been odious to the people. It has,
neverthelefs, been impofed on abundance of other com¬
modities in the reigns of King William III. and every
fucceeding prince, to fupport the enormous expences
occafioned by our wars on the continent. Thus bran¬
dies and other fpirits are now excifed at the diflillery ;
printed filks and linens, at the printers j ftarch and
hair powder, at the makers j gold and filver wire, at
the wiredrawers; all plate whatfoever, firft in the hands
of the vender, who.pays yearly for a licenfe to fell it,
and afterwards in the hands of the occupier, who alfo
pays an annual duty for having it in his cuftody; and
coaches and other wheel-carriages, for which the occu¬
pier is excifed 5 though not with the fame circumftances
of arbitrary ftriftnefs with regard to plate and coaches
as in the other inftances. To thefe we may add coffee
and tea, chocolate and cocoa pafte, for which the du¬
ty
Exeife.
E X C
[ 37i 1
E X C
Exeife ty is paid by the retailer j all artificial wines, com¬
il monly called fvueets; paper and pafteboard, firft when
Excommii- macjej an(l again if ftained or printed; malt, as before
nlcatl0!l, , mentioned j vinegars j and the manufacture of glafs j
"T for all which the duty is paid by the manufacturer ;
hops, for which the perfon that gathers them is an-
fvverable j candles and foap, which are paid for at the
makers ; malt liquors brewed for fale, which are ex-
cifed at the brewery j cyder and perry at the ven¬
ders ; leather and Ikins, at the tanner’s j and, lately,
tobacco, at the manufacturer’s : A lift, which no
friend to his country would wifh to fee farther in-
creafed.
The excife was formerly farmed out: but is now
managed for the king by commiffioners in both king¬
doms, who receive the whole produCt of the excife, and
pay it into the exchequer. Thefe commiflioners are
nine in number in England, and five in Scotland. The
former have a falary of 1000I. a-year, the latter 600I.
They are obliged by oath to take no fee or reward but
from the king himfelf; and from them there lies an
appeal to five other commiffioners called commijjioners
of appeals.
EXCISION, in Surgery, the cutting out, or cutting
off, any part of the body.
Excision, in a fcripture fenfe, means the cutting off
of a perfon from his people, by way of puniffiment for
fome fin by him committed. The Jews, Selden in¬
forms us, reckon 36 crimes, to which they pretend
this punilhment is due. The Rabbins reckon three
kinds of excifion j one, which deftroys only the body *,
another, which deftroys the foul only ; and a third,
which deftroys both body and foul. The firft kind of
excifion they pretend is an untimely death ; the fecond
is an utter extin&ion of the foul j and the third, a com¬
pound of the two former : thus, making the foul mortal
or immortal, fays Selden, according to the degrees of
mifbehaviour and wickednefs of the people.
EXCLAMATION. See Oratory, N° 85.
EXCLUSION, or Bill of Exclusion, a bill pro-
pofed about the clofe of the reign of King Charles II.
for excluding the duke of York, the king’s brother,
from the throne, on account of his being a Papift.
EXCLUSIVE, is fometimes ufed adjeftively, thus j
patent carries with it an exclujive privilege. Some¬
times adverbially : as, He fent him all the numbers from
N° 145 to N° 247 exclujive ; that is, all between thefe
two numbers, which themfelves were excepted.
EXCOECARIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the dioecia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 38th order, Tricoccce. See Botany Index.
EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclefiaftical penal¬
ty or cenfure, whereby fuch perfons as are guilty of
any notorious crime or offence, are feparated from the
communion of the church, and deprived of all fpiritual
advantages.
Excommunication is founded on a natural right
which all focieties have, of excluding out of their body
fuch as violate the law's thereof; and it was originally
inftituted for preferving the purity of the church *, but
ambitious ecclefiaftics converted it by degrees into an
engine for promoting their own power, and inflifted it
on the moft frivolous occafions.
The power of excommunication, as well as other
a£ts of ecclefiaftical difcipline, wTas lodged in the hands
of the clergy, who diftinguilhed it into the greater and Excomrau-
leffer. The leffer excommunication, fimply called, nicatU)1»-
aphorifmos, “ feparation or fufpenfion,” confifted in "" ""v_
excluding men from the participation of the eucharift,
and the prayers of the faithful. But they were not
expelled the church ; for they had the privilege of be¬
ing prefent at the reading of the Scriptures, the fer-
mons, and the prayers of the catechumens and peni¬
tents. This excommunication was inflidled for leffer
crimes j fuch as neglefting to attend the fervice of the
church, mifbehaviour in it, and the like.
The greater excommunication, called panteles apho^
rifmos, “ total feparation and anathema,” confifted in
an abfolute and entire exclufion from the church and
the participation of all its rites. When any perfon was
thus excommunicated, notice of it was given by circu¬
lar letters to the moft eminent churches all over the
world, that they might all confirm this ad of difcipline,
by refufing to admit the delinquent to their commu¬
nion. The confequences of this latter excommunica¬
tion wrere very terrible. The excommunicated perfon
was avoided in civil commerce and outward converfa-
tion. No one was to receive him into his houfe, nor
eat at the fame table wdth him j and when dead, he
V'as denied the folemn rites of burial.
The Romifh pontifical takes notice of three kinds of
excommunication. 1. The minor, incurred by thofe
who have any correfpondence with an excommunica¬
ted perfon. 2. The major, which falls upon thofe who
difobey the commands of the holy fee, or refufe to fub-
mit to certain points of difcipline 3 in confequence of
which they are excluded from the church militant and
triumphant, and delivered over to the devil and his an¬
gels. 3. Anathema, which is properly that pronoun¬
ced by the pope againft heretical princes and countries.
In former ages, thefe papal fulminations were moft ter¬
rible things ; but at prefent, they are formidable to
none but a few petty ftates of Italy.
Excommunication, in the Greek church, cuts off the
offender from all communion with the 318 fathers of
the firft council of Nice, and with the faints 3 configns
him over to the devil and the traitor Judas 3 and con¬
demns his body to remain after death as hard as a Hint
or piece of fleel, unlefs he humbles himfelf and makes
atonement for his fins by a fincere repentance. The
form abounds with dreadful imprecations 3 and the
Greeks affert, that if a perfon dies excommunicated,
the devil enters into the lifelefs corpfe 3 and therefore,
in order to prevent it, the relations of the deceafed cut
his body in pieces, and boil them in wine. It is a cuf-
tom for the patriarch of Jerufalem annually to excom¬
municate the pope and the church of Rome 3 on which
occafion, together with a great deal of idle ceremony,
he drives a nail into the ground with a hammer, as a
mark of malediction.
The form of excommunication in the church of Eng¬
land anciently ran thus : By the authority of God
the Father Almighty, the Son and Holy Ghoft, and
of Mary the bleffed mother of God, we excommuni¬
cate, anathematize, and fequefter from the pale of
holy' mother church,” &c. The eaufes of excommu¬
nication in England are, contempt of the bilhop’s
court, herefy, negleft of public Worftnp and the facra-
ments, incontinency, adultery, fimony, &c. It is de-
fcribed to be twofold. The lefs is an ecclefiaftical cen-
3 A 2 fure,
E X C
Sxsommu. fare, excluding the party from the participation of the
^nication, facraments : the greater proceeds farther, and excludes
him not only from thefe, but from the company of all
Chriftians. But if the judge of any fpiritual court
excommunicates a man for a caufe of which he hath
not the legal cognizance, the party may have an ac¬
tion againit him at common law, and he is alfo liable
to be indidhed at the fuit of the king.
Heavy as the penalty of excommunication is, confi-
dered in a ferious light, there are, notwithllanding,
many obilinate or profligate men, who would defpife
the brut uni futmen of mere eccleliaftical cenfures, efpe-
cially when pronounced by a petty furrogate in the
country, for railing or contumelious words, for non¬
payment of fees or cofts, or other trivial caufe. The
common law, therefore, compaflionately fteps in to
their aid, and kindly lends a fupporting hand to an
otherwife tottering authority. Imitating herein the
policy of the ancient Britons, among whom, according
to Caefar, whoever were interdifted by the druids from
their facrifices, “ In numero impiorum ac fceleratorum
habentur : ab iis omnes decedunt, aditum eorum fermo-
nemque defugiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi
accipiant: neque t is petentibus jus redditur, neque ho-
nos ullus communicatur.” Audio with us, by the com¬
mon law, an excommunicated perion is dilabled to do
any abt that is required to be done by one that is probus
et It$rai' ( homo. He cannot erve upon juries j cannot be
a witnefs in any court j and, which is the word of all,
canno; bring an action, either real or perfonal, to reco¬
ver lands or money due to him. Nor is this tht whole :
for if, within 40 days after the fenlence has been pub-
lifhed in the church, the offender does not fubmit and
abide by the fentence of the spiritual court, the bifliop
may certify fuch contempt to the king in chancery.
Upon which there iffues out a writ to the flaeriff of the
county, called from the biihop’s certificate a fignifica-
vit; ov from its effeft, a writ de excommunicato capi¬
endo: and the Iheriff fliall thereupon take the often-
er and imprifon him in the county jail, till he is re¬
conciled to the church, and inch reconciliation certifi¬
ed by the bilhop; upon which another writ de excom¬
municato de/iberondo, iffues out of chancery to deliver
and releafe hbn.
Excommunication was alfo pra&ifed among the
Jews, who uled to expel from their fynagogue fuch as
had committed any grievous crime. See the Gofpel
according to St John, ix. 22. xii. 42. xvi. 2. And
Jofeph. Antiq. Jud. lib. ix. cap. 22. and lib. xvi. cap. 2.
Godwyn, in his Mofes and Aaron, diftinguithes three
degrees, -or kinds, of excommunication among the
Jews. The firfl he finds intimated in John ix. 22.
The fecond in 1 Cor. v. 5. And the third in 1 Cor.
xvi. 22. See Niddui.
The rule of the Benedi&ines gives the name excom¬
munication to the being excluded from the oratory, and
the common table of the houle, in our inns of court
called difcotnmomng. This was the puniflrment of fuch
monks as came too late.
Excommunication, or a being fecluded from a
participation in the myfttries of religion, was alio in
ufe under paganifm.
Such as were thus excommunicated were forbidden to
aflift or attend at the Ed ifices, or to enter within the
templesj and were afterwards delivered over to the
[ 37* 1
E X C
demons and furies of hell, wdth certain imprecations 5 Excoidibb.
which was called among the Romans diris devovere. nication
See Execration. ||
The Druids among the ancient Britons and Gauls,
likewife, made ufe of excommunication again!! rebels • vr^J
and interdicted the communion of their myfferies to
fuch as refufed to acquiefce in their decifions. See
Druids.
EXCORIATION, in Medicine and Surgery, the
galling or rubbing off the cuticle, efpecially of the
parts between the thighs and about the anus. In adults,
it is occafioned by riding, much walking, or other ve¬
hement exercife, and may be cured by vulnerary ap¬
plications. In children there is often an excoriation,
not only of the parts near the pudenda, chiefly of the
groin and ferotum, but likewife in the wrinkles of the
neck, under the arms, and in other places; proceeding
from the acrimony of urine and fweat ; and occafioning
itching pains, crying, watching, reftleffnefs, &.c. To
remedy this, the parts atfe&ed may be often walked
with warm water, and fprinkled wnth drying powders
as chalk, hartihorn, but efpecially tutty, lapis calami-
naris, and cerufs, which may be tied loofely in a rag,
and the pou der fhook out on the parts.
EXCREMENT, whatever is dilcharged out of the
body of animals after digeffion j or the fibrous part of
the aliment, mixed with the bile, faliva, and other fluids.
Urine and the feces are the grofs excrements that are
difeharged out of the bladder or belly. Other excre
mints are the various humours that are fecreted from
the blood through the different drainers in the body,
and which ferve for fevtral ufes j inch as the fabva,
fweat, bile, the pancreatic juice, lymph, the femen,
nails, the hair, the horns and hoofs of animals
Alchemifts, who have fought everywhere for their
great work, as they called it, have particularly operat¬
ed much on the excrements of men and other animals;
but philofopbical chemiftry has acquired no know'-
ledgc from all thefe alchemical labours, fiom the nb»
feurity with which their authors have delcribed them.
The philofophic chejnifts hare not much examined ani¬
mal excrements. Of thefe Homberg is the only one
who has particularly analyzed and examined human
ordure; and this was done to fatisry an alchemical
projeft of one of his friends, who pretended that fiom
this matter a white oil could be obtained, without
fmell, and capable of fixing mercury into filver. The
oil w as found by Homberg, but mercury w as not fixed
by it.
The labours of this able ehemift W'ere not, however,
ufelefs, like thofe of the alehemifts ; becaufe he has
clearly related the experiments he made on this matter,
in the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences. Thefe
experiments are -curious, and teach feveral effential
things concerning the nature of excrements. The re-
fult of thefe experiments is as follows : Frelh human
feces, being diitilled to dryi efs in a water bath, fur-
nifti a clear, watery, infipid liquor, of a dil’agreeable
fmell, but which contains no volatile alkali ; which is
a proof that this matter, although nearly in a putrefac¬
tive ftate, is not however putrefied ; for all iubftames
ready putrid furnifh with this degree of heat a ma-
nifeft volatile alkali *. 1 he dry refiduum of ihe fore- * gee
going experiment, being diflilled in a retort with aUejaam-
graduated fire, furnilhes a volatile alkaline fpirit and
fait,
Exeat.
E X E
Esrrement fait, a fetid oil, and leaves a refiduous coal.
II the fame fubftances which are obtained from all animal
matters.
Human feces, diluted and lixiviated in wafer, fur-
nilh by filtration and evaporation of the water an oily
fait of a nitrous nature, which deflagrates like nitre
upon ardent coals, and which inflames in clofe veffels
when heated to a certain degree. The fame matter
yielded to Homberg, who treated it by a complete
fermentation or putrefaction, excited by a digeition
during 40 days in a gentle water-bath heat, and who
afterwards diftilled it, an oil without colour, and with¬
out bad fmell, and fuch as he endeavoured to find;
but which did not, as we faid before, fix mercury into
filver.
EXCRESCENCE, in Surgery, denotes every pre¬
ternatural tumour which arifes upon the fkin, either in
the form of a wart or tubercle. If they are born with
a perfon, as they frequently are, they are called navi
tnaterni, or marks from the mother; but if the tu¬
mour is large, fo as to depend from the fkin, like a
flefliy mafs, it is then called a farcoma. See Surgery.
EXCRETION, or Secretion, in Medicine, a fe-
paration of tome fluid, mixed with the blood, by means
of the glandsr Excretions, by which w^e mean thofe
that evacuate fuperfluous and heterogeneous humours,
purify the mafs of blood ; the humours which are ge¬
nerated in the blood are exert ted by the glands, and
are replaced by a fufficient quantity of aliment.
EXCRETORY, in Anatomy, a term applied to
certain little duds or veffels, deilined for the recep¬
tion of a fluid, fecreted in certain glandules, and other
vifeera, for the excretion of it in the appropriated
places.
EXCUBIiE, in antiquity, the watches and guards
kept in the day by the Roman foldiers. They are
contradiflinguiihed horn the viguice which were kept
in the , ight. The excubice were placed either at the
gates and intrenchments or in the camp ; for the lat¬
ter there was allowed a whole mawpuius to attend be¬
fore the preetorium, and four foldiers to the tent of
every tribune. 1'he excubice at the gates of the camp,
and at the intrenchments, were properly called/fa//o«er.
One company of foot and one troop of horfe were af-
figned to each of the four gates every day. To de-
fert their poft, or abandon their corps of guards, was an
u: pardonable crime.
The triarii, as the moft honourable order of foldiers,
were excufed from the ordinary watches ; yet being
placed oppofite to the equites, they were obliged to have
an eve over them.
Letters of EXCULPATION, in Scots Law, a
writ or fummons iflued by authority of the court of
judiciary, at the inftance of a pannel, for citing vvit-
neifes to prove his defences, or his objeftions to any of
the jury or witmfles cited again!! him.
EXCUSATI, in church hiflory, a term ufed to de¬
note Haves, who flying to any church for fanduary,
were excufed and pardoned by their mailers ; but thefe
wert obliged to take an oath to that purpofe before
they could have them again ; and, if they broke the
oath, they were punifhed and fined as perfons guilty
of perjury.
EXEAT, in church difeipline, a Latin term, ufed
for a permilhon which a biihop grants a prieil to go
[ 373 1
Thefe are out of his
E X E
diocefe ; or an abbot to a religious to go Exeat
out of his monaftery. # Execution.
EXECRATION, in antiquity, a kind of.pumih- ^/
ment, coniifting of direful curfes and marks of infamy :
fuch was that ufed again!! Philip king of Macedon
by the Athenians. A general ailembly of the people
being called, they made a decree, that all the llatues
and images of that king, and of all his anceftors, fhould
be demoliihed, and their very name razed ; that all
the feftivals, facred rites, priefts, and whatever elfe had
been inilituted in honour of him, ftiould be profaned ;
that the very places wEere there had been any monu¬
ment or infeription to his honour, fliould be deteftable ;
that nothing fliould be fet up, or dedicated in them,
which could be done in clean places; and, lailly, that
the priefts, as often as they prayed for the Athenian
people, allies, armies, and fleets, ihould as many times
deteft and execrate Philip, his children, kingdom, land
and fea forces, and the whole race and name of the
Macedonians.
At the taking and demoliflring of cities, it w'as
ufual among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, to pro¬
nounce curfes upon, and load W'ith direful execrations,
the rebuilders of them.
EXECUTION, in a general fenfe, the aft of ac-
complilhing, finiftiing, or achieving any thing.
Execution, in Law, the completing or finiftiing
fome aft, as of judgment, deed, &c. and it ufually fig-
nifies the obtaining poffeflion of any thing recovered
by judgment of.law. .
Sir Edward Coke obferves, that* there are twro forts
of executions : the one final; and the other a quoufque,
that tends to an end. An execution final is that which
makes money of the defendant’s goods, or extends to
his lands and delivers them to the plaintiff-, who ac¬
cepts the fame in fatisfaftion ; and this is the end of
the fuit, and the whole that the king’s writ requires to
be done. The w’rit of execution wfith a quoufque;
though it tends to an end, yet is not final, as in the cafe
{■ap as ad fattsfac. where the defendant’s body is to be
taken, in order that the plaintiff may be fatisfied for
his debt See Capias.
Executions are either in perfonal, real, or mixed ac¬
tions. In a perfonal aftion, the execution may be made
three w-ays, viz. by the w rits of capias adfatisfaciendam,
aijainft the body of the defendant ; fieri facias, again!!
his goods ; or ele^it, again!! his lands. See FIERI Facias
and Elegit.
In a rval and mixed aftion, the execution is by writ
of habere facias fajimm, and habere pojfejjionem*. Writs * See
of execution bind the property of goods only from the^em
time of delivery of the writ to the ftieriff; but the
land is bound from the day of the judgment obtained :
and here the fale of any goods for valuable conlidera-
tion, after a judgment, and before the execution award¬
ed. will be good. It is otherwife as to lands, of which
execution may be made, even on a purchafe after the
judgment, though the defendant fell fuch land before
execution. Likewife, theriffs may deliver in execution
all the lands whereof others ftiall be ieized in trull for
him again!! whom execution is had on a judgment,
&c.
When any judgment is figned, the execution may
be taken out immediately thereon ; but if it be not if-
fued within a year and a day after, where there is no
fault
■EX E f 374 ] £ X E
EaecBtiQn. ‘fault in the defendant, as in the cafe of an injunction, otherwife, the time and place of execution are by law .
writ of error, &c. there muft be a fcire facias, to re- no part of the judgment. It has been well obfeived
Mve the magment^ though, if the plaintiff lues out that it is of great importance that the punilhment
any writ of execution within the year,_ he may continue Ihould follow the crime as early as poffible : that the
^ j6 exPjre^* After judgment againft profpedt oT gratification or advantage, which tempts a
the defendant, in an adtion wherein fpecial bail is given, man to commit the crime, fliould inftantly awake the
the plaintift is at liberty to have execution againft fuch attendant idea of punifliment. Delay of execution
defendant, or againft his bail: but this is underftood ferves only to feparate thefe ideas ; and then the exe
where the defendant does not render himfelf, accord- cution itfelf affedls the minds of the fpeftators rather
' InS to law> m Safeguard of the bail; and execution as a terrible fight, than as the neceffary confequence
may not. regularly be fued forth againft a bail, till a of tranfgreflion,
default is returned againft the principal: alfo if the The llieriff cannot alter the manner of the execution
plaintiff takes the bail, he ftiaH never take the principaL by fubftituting one death for another, without bein w
It is held that an execution may be executed after the guilty of felony himfelf.' It is held alfo by Sir Ed-
death of the defendant : for his executor, being privy ward Coke and Sir Matthew Hale, that even the king
thereto, is liable, as well as the teftator. The execu- cannot change the punifhment of the law, by altering
tor is an entire thing, fo that he who begins muft end the hanging or burning into beheading j though when
it j therefore, a new fheriff may diftrain an old one, to beheading is part of the fentence, the king may remit
fell the goods feized on a diftringas, and to bring the the reft. And, notwithftanding fome examples to the
money into court . . . contrary, Sir Edward Coke ftrongly maintains, that>-
■S-Spp ^ r i. Ji,XECUTI.0N> m criminal cafes, the completion of dicandum ef legibus, none exeniplis. But others have
menu S' hu™a.n pumlhment. .This follows judgment fj and thought, and more juftly, that this prerogative, being
muft in all cafes, capital as well as otherwife, be per- founded in mercy, and immemorially exercifed by the
formed, by the legal officer, the flieriff or his deputy; crown, is part of the common law. For hitherto in
whole warrant for fo doing was anciently.by precept every inftance, all thefe exchanges have been for more
u"der. ^hand and'eal the judges,asitisftillprac- merciful kinds of death 5 and how far this may alio
tiled in the court of the lord high fteward, upon the fall within the king’s power of granting conditional
execution of a peer : though, in the court of. the peers pardons (viz. by remitting a fevere kind of death, on
111 parliament, it is done by writ from the king. Af- condition that the criminal fubmits to a milder) is a
Comment !"eij"ards lt was cffablifhed, that in cafe of life, the matter that may bear confideration. It is obfervable
judge may command execution to be done without any that when Lord Stafford was executed for the popilh
writ. And now the ufage is, for the judge to.fign the plot in the reign of King Charles II. the then fheriffs
kalendar or lift of all the prifoners names, with their of London, having received the king’s writ for behead-
feparate judgments in the margin, which is left with ing him, petitioned the houfe of lords, for a command
the Iheriff. As, for a capital felony, it is written op- or order from their lordlhips, how the faid judgment
ponte to the prifoner’s name, let him be hanged by fhould be executed: for, he being profecuted by im-
the neck formerly in the days of Latin and abbre- peachment, they entertained a notion (which is faid to
vation, per col.'1'1 for “fufpendatur per co//um.',', have been countenanced by Lord Ruffel), that the king
And this is the only warrant that the flieriff has for could not pardon any part of the fentence. The lords
*° 10Serial aij aft as taking away the life of another, refolved, that the fcruples of the fheriffs were unnecef-
t may certainly afford matter of fpeculation, that in fary j and declared, that the king’s writ ought to be
civil caufes there ftiould be fuch a variety of writs of obeyed. Difappointed of raifing a flame in that affem-
execution to recover a trifling debt, iffued in the king’s bly, they immediately fignified to the houfe of corn-
name, and under the feal of the court, without which mons by one of the members, that they were not fatis-
the fheriff cannot legally ftir one ftep j and yet that the fied as to the power of the faid writ. That houfe took
execution of a man, the moft important and terrible two days to confider of it; and then fullenly refolved,
taflc of any, fhould depend.upon a marginal note. that the houfe was content that the fheriff do execute
1 he fheriff, upon receipt of his warrant, is to do Lord Stafford by fevering his head from his body. It
execution within a convenient time : which in the coun- is farther related, that when afterwards the fame Lord
try is alfo left at large. In London, indeed, a more Ruffel was condemned for high treafon upon indiftment,
olemn and becoming exaftnefs is ufed, both as to the the king, while he remitted the ignominious part of the
warrant of execution and the time of executing there- fentence, obferved, “ That his lordfhip would now' find
of. for the recorder, after reporting to the king in he was poffeffed of that prerogative, which in the cafe
perfon the cafe of the feveral prifoners, and receiving of Lord Stafford he had denied him.” One can hardly
his royal pleafure, that the. law muft take its courfe, determine (at this diftance from thofe turbulent times),
limes his warrant to the fheriffs, direfting them to do which moft to difapprove of, the indecent and fangui-
execution on the day and at the place afligned. And nary zeal of the fubjeft, or the cool and cruel farcafm
m the court of king’s bench, if the prifoner be tried of the fovereign.
at the bar, or brought there.by habeas corpus, a rule To conclude: It is clear, that if, upon judgment to
is made for his execution; either fpecifying the time be hanged by the neck till he is dead, the criminal be
and place, or leaving it. to the difcretion of the Iheriff. not thoroughly killed, but revives, the flieriff muft hang
And, throughout the kingdom, by ftatute 25 Geo. II. him again. For the former hanging was no execution
c. 37.. it is enafted that, in cafe of murder, the judge of the fentence; and, if a falfe tendernefs were to be in-
fhall in his fentence direft execution to be performed dulged in fuch cafes, a multitude of collufions might
on the next day but one after fentence palled. But, enfue. Nay, even while abjurations were in force, fuch
1 * a
E X E
ixecatwn a criminal, fo reviving, was not allowed to take fane-
tl tuary and abjure the realm j but his fleeing to fanftuary
Exemplar. AVas ]ley an efcape in the officer.
Execution, in the law of Scotland. See Law/«*/<?#.
Execution, in the French mufic, is ufed to denote
the manner of tinging, or of the performance of a fong.
“ As to the manner of linging, called in France execu¬
tion, no nation may, with any probability difpute it
with the French. If the French, by their commerce
with the Italians have gained a bolder competition, the
Italians have made their advantage of the French, in
learning of them a more polite, moving, and exquifite
execution.” St Evremond.
EXECUTIVE power. The fupreme executive
power of thefs kingdoms is vetted by our laws in a
tingle perfon, the king or queen for the time being.
See the article King.
The executive power, in this ftate, hath a right to
a negative in parliament, i. e. to refufe affent to any
a£ts offered 3 otherwife the two other branches of legi-
flative power v'ould, or might, become defpotic.
EXECUI OR, a perfon nominated by a teftator, to
take care to fee his will and teftament executed or per¬
formed, and his effects difpofed of according to the te¬
nor of the will. See Law.
Executor, in Scots Law, fignifies either the perfon
entitled tofucceed to the moveable eftate of onedeceafed,
or who by law or fpecial appointment is intrufted with
the adminiftration of it.
EXECUTORY, in Law, is where an eftate in fee,
that is, made by deed or fine, is to be executed after¬
wards by entry, livery, or writ. Leafe for years, an¬
nuities, conditions, &c. are termed inheritances execu¬
tory.
EXECUTRY, in Scots Law, is the moveable eftate
falling to the executor. Under executry, or moveables,
is comprehended every thing that moves itfelf, or can
be moved 3 fuch as corns, cattle, furniture, ready mo¬
ney, &c.
EXEDRiE, in antiquity, denoted halls with many
feats, vffiere the philofophers, rhetoricians, and men of
learning, met for difeourfe and deputation. The word
occurs in ecclefiaftical writers as a general name for
fuch buildings as were diftinft from the main body of
the churches, and yet within the limits of the church
taken in its largeft fenfe. Among the exedrae the chief
was the Baptistery.
EXEGESIS, a difeourfe by way of explanation or
comment upon any fubjedt. In the Scotch univerfities,
there is an exercife among the Undents in divinity, call¬
ed an exegejis, in which a queftion is ftated by the re-
fpondent, who is then oppofed by two or three other
lludents in their turns 3 during which time the profef-
h>r moderates, and folves the difficulties which the re-
ipondent cannot overcome.
EXEGETES, (formed of i^yioyxi, “ I explain,”)
among the Athenians, perfons learned in the laws,
whom the judges ufed to confult in capital jeaufes.
EXEGEiICA, in Algebra, the art of finding, ei¬
ther in numbers or lines, the roots of the equation of a
problem, according as the problem is either numerical
or geometrical.
EXEMPLAR, a model, or original, to be imitated,
or copied. See Model.
Exemplar alfo denotes the idea, or image, conceived
E X E
or formed in the mind of the artift, whereby he con- Exemplar
dufts his work. Such is the idea of Caefar, which a E N..
painter has in his mind when he goes to make a pidture . *e a e‘
of Cmfar. '
EXEMPLIFICATION of Letters Patent, denotes
an examplar, or copy of letters patent, made from the
enrolment thereof, and foaled with the great foal of
England. Such Exemplifications are as effedtual to be
ftiowed or pleaded, as the letters patent themfelves.
EXEMPTION, in Law, a privilege to be free from
fome fervice or appearance : thus, barons and peers of
the realm are, on account of their dignity, exempted
from being fworn upon inquefts 3 and knights, clergy¬
men, and others, from appearing at the ffieriff’s turn.
Perfons of *70 years of age, apothecaries, &c. are alfo
by law exempted from ferving on juries 3 and juftices of
the peace, attorneys, &c. from parifh offices.
EXERCISE, among phyficians, fuch an agitation
of the body as produces falutary effedfs in the animal
economy.
Exercife may be faid to be either adtive or paffive.
The adtive is walking, hunting, dancing, playing at
bowls, and the like 3 as alfo fpeaking and other la¬
bour of the body and mind. The paffive is riding in
a coach, on ho'rfeback, or in any other manner. Ex¬
ercife may be continued to a beginning of wearinefs,
and ought to be uled before dinner in a pure light
air 3 for which reafon, journeys, and going into the
country, contribute greatly to preferve and re-eftabliffi
health.
Exercife increafes the circulation of the blood, atte¬
nuates and divides the fluids, and promotes a regular
perfpiration, as well as a due focretion of all the hu¬
mours 3 for it accelerates the animal fpirits, and facili¬
tates their diftribution into all the fibres of the body,
ftrengthens the parts, creates an appetite, and helps di-
geftion. Whence it arifes, that thofe who accuftom
themfelves to exercife are generally very robuft,and fel-
dom fubjeft to difeafes.
Boerhaave recommends bodily exercife in difeafes of
a weak and lax fibre. By riding on horfeback, fays
his commentator, the pendulous vifeera of the abdo¬
men are Ihaken every moment, and gently rubbed as
it were one againft another, while in the mean time the
pure air afts on the lungs with greater force. But it is
to be obferved that a w'eak man ftiould not ride with a
full ftomach, but either before dinner, or after the di-
geftion is nearly finiftied 3 for when the ftomach is di-
ftended, weak people do not bear thefe concuffions of
the horfe without difficulty ; but when the primae vice
are nearly empty, the remaining feces are difehargedby
this concuffion. Sailing in a (hip is alfo an exercife of
great ufe to weak people. If the veffel moves with an
even motion, by increafing perfpiration it ufually ex¬
cites a wonderful alacrity, creates an appetite, and pro¬
motes digeftion. Thefe exercifes are more efpecially
ferviceable to weak people 3 but, in order to ftrengthen
the body by mufeular motion, running and bodily ex¬
ercifes are to be ufed. In thefe we ftiould begin with
the molt gentle, fuch as walking, and increafe it by de¬
grees till we come to running. Thofe exercifos of the
body are more efpecially ferviceable which give delight
to the mind at the fame time, as tennis, fencing, &c. 5
for which reafon, the wifdom of antiquity appointed
rewards for thofe who excelled in thefe gymnaftic ex¬
ercifes,
375
EXE [ 376
Sxercife. ercifes, tliat by this means the bodies of their youth
  ' might be hardened for warlike toils.
As nothing is more conducive to health than mode¬
rate exercife, fo violent exercife dillipates the Ipirits,
•weakens the body, deftroys the elailicity of the fibres,
and exhauds the fluid parts of the blood. No wonder,
then, that acute and mortal fevers often arife from too
violent exercife of the body; for the motion of the
venous blood towards the heart being quickened by the
contra&ion of the mufcles, and the veins being thus
depleted, the arteries more eafily propel their contain¬
ed humours through the fmallell extremities into the
now lefs refilling veins \ and therefore the velocity of
the circulation will be increafed through all the veflels.
But this cannot be performed without applying the
humours oftener, or in a greater quantity, to the fecre-
tory organs in the fame time, whence the more fluid
parts of the blood will be diflipated, and what remains
will be infpiflated j and by the greater aftion of the
veflels upon their contained fluids, and of the reading
fluids upon the veffels, the blood acquires an inflamma¬
tory denfity. Add to this, that by the violent attri¬
tion of the folids and fluids, together with the heat
thence arifing, all the humours will incline to a greater
acrimony, and the falts and oils of the blood will be¬
come more acrid and volatile. Hence, fays Boerhaave,
thofe fevers which arife from too much exercife or mo¬
tion, are cured by reft of body and mind, with fuch ali¬
ments and medicines as moiften, dilute, and foften or
allay acrimony.
The exercife of a foldier in camp, confidered as con¬
ducive to health, Dr Pringle diftinguiflies into three
heads: the firft relating to his duty, the fecond to his
living more commodioufly, and the third to his diver-
fions. The firft, confifting chiefly in the exercife of
his arms, will be no lefs the means of preferving health
than of making him -expert in his duty : and frequent
returns of this, early, and before the fun grow's hot,
will be made more advantageous than repeating it fel-
dom, and flaying out long at a time j for a camp af¬
fording little convenience for refrefhment, all unnecef-
fary fatigue is to be avoided. As to the fecond article,
cutting boughs for (hading the tents, making trenches
round them for carrying off the water, airing the ftraw,
cleaning their clothes and accoutrements, and aflifting
in the bufinefs of the mefs, ought tube nodifagreeable
exercife to the men for fome part of the day. Laftly,
As to diverfions, the men muft be encouraged to them
either by the example of their officers, or by Imall pre¬
miums to thofe who (hall excel in any kind of fports
as ffiall be judged moft conducive to health : but herein
great caution is neceflary, not to allow them to fatigue
themfelves too much, efpecially in hot weather or fick-
ly times ; but above all, that their clothes be kept dry,
wet clothes being the moft frequent caufes of camp dif-
eafes.
Exercise, in military affairs, is the ranging a body
of foldiers in form of battle, and making tin m perform
thefeveral motions and military evolutions n ith different
management of their arms, in order to make them ex¬
pert therein. See alfo Words of Command.
Exercise, in the royal nav\, is the preparatory
practice of managing the artillery and fmrll arms, in
oitder to make the Ihip’s crew perfectly (killed therein,
]
EXE
fo as to dire£l its execution fuccefsfully in the time of ExercY
battle.
The exercife of the great guns was formerly very
complicated, and abounding with fuperfluities, in our
navy, as well as all others. The following method was,
it is faid, fuccefsfuliy introduced by an officer of diftin-
guiilied abilities.
ill, Silence.
2d, Cart loofe your guns.
3d, Level your guns.
4th, 't ake out your tompions.
5th, Run out your guns.
6th, P, ime.
7th, Point your guns.
8th, Fire.
9th, Sponge your guns.
loth, Load with cartridge.
nth, Shot your guns.
12th, Put in your tompions.
13th, Houfe your guns.
14th, Secure your guns.
Upon beat to arms (every body having immediately-
repaired to their quarters) the midffiipman command¬
ing a number of guns, is to fee that they ate not w ith¬
out every neceffary article, as (at every gun) a fponge,
powder horn, with its priming wires, and a fufficient
quantity of powder, crow, handfpike, bed, quoin,
train tackle, &c. fending without delay for a fupply of
any thing that may be wanting; and for the greater
certainty of not overlooking any deficiency, he is to
give drift orders to each captain under him, to make
the like examination at his refpeftive gun, and to take
care that every requifite is in a ferviceable condition,
which he is to report accordingly. And (befides the
other advantages of this regulation) for the dill more
certain and fpeedy account being taken upon tbefe oc-
cafions, the midftiipman is to give each man liis charge
at quarters (as expreffed in the form of the monthly re¬
port), who is to fearch for his particular implements,
and, not finding them, is immediately to acquaint his
captain, that, upon his report to the midfliipman, they
may be replaced.
The man who takes care of the pow der is to place
himfelf on the oppofite fide of the deck from shat
where we engage, except when fighting both fides at
once, when he is to be amid (hips. He is not to fuf-
fer any other man to take a cartridge from him but
he who is appointed to ferve the gun with that article,
either in time of a real engagement or at exercife.
Lanthorns are not to be brought to quarters in the
night, until the midfliipman gives his orders for fo do¬
ing to the perfon he charges with that article. Every
thing being in its place, and not the lead lumber in the
way of the guns, the exercife begins w ith,
1. “ Silence.” At this word everyone is to obferve
a filent attention to the officers.
2. “ Call loofe your guns.” The muzzle ladling
is to be taken off from the guns, and (being coiled op
in a ftnall compa:s) is to be made faff to the eye-bolt
above the port. The ladling tackles at the lame time
to be call loofe, and middle of the breeching feized to
the thimble of the pomillion The fponge to be taken
down and, with the crow, handlpike, &.c. laid upon
the deck by the gun. N. B. When prepared for en-
gaging
Exerdfe.
EXE [ 377 J - EXE
gag!ng an enemy, the feiziug within the clinch of the
breeching is to be cut, that the gun may come fuffi-
ciently within board for loading, and that the force of
the recoil may be more fpent before it afts upon the
breeching.
3. “ Level your guns.” The breech of your me¬
tal is to be raifed fo as to admit the foot of the bed’s
being placed upon the axletree of the carriage, with
the quoin upon the bed, both their ends being even one
with the other. N. B. When levelled for firing, the
bed is to laflied to the bolt which fupports the inner
end of it, that it may not be thrown out of its place
by the violence of the gun’s motion when hot with fre¬
quent difcharges.
4. “ Take out your tompions.” The tompion is
to be taken out of the gun’s mouth, and left hanging
by its laniard.
5. “ Run out your guns.” With the tackles hook¬
ed to the upper bolts of the carriage, the gun is to be
bowfed out as clofe as poflible, without the afliftance
of crows or handfpikes ; taking care at the fame time
to keep the breeching clear of the trucks, by hauling
it through the rings; it is then to be bent fo as to run
clear when the gun is fired. When the gun is out,
the tacklefalls are to be laid alongfide the carriages in
neat fakes, that, when the gun by recoiling overhauls
them, they may not be fubjed to get foul, as they
would if in a common coil.
6. “ Prime.” If the cartridge is to be pierced
with the priming wire, and the vent filled with powder,
the pan alfo is to be filled j and the flat fpace having a
fcore through it at the end of the pan, is to be covered,
and this part of the priming is to be bruifed with the
round part of the horn. The apron is to be laid over,
and the horn hung up out of danger from the flafti of
the priming.
7. “ Point your guns.” At this command the gun
is, in the firft place, to be elevated to the height of
the object, by means of the fide fights •, and then the
perfon pointing is to direct his fire by the upper fight,
having a crow on one fide and a handfpike on the other,
to heave the gun by his direction till he catches the
object.
N. B. The men who heave the gun for pointing are
to ftand between the (hip’s fide and their crows or
handfpikes, to efcape the injury they might otherwife
receive from their being (truck againit them, or fplin-
tered by a (hot ; and the man who attends the captain
with a match is to bring it at the word, “ Point your
guns,” and kneeling upon one knee oppofite the train-
truck of the carriage, and at fuch a diuance as to be
able to touch the priming, is to turn his head from the
gun, and keep blowing gently upon the lighted match
to keep it clear from aihes. And as the mifling of an
enemy in a£b'on, by negleft or want of coolnefs, is
mod inexcufable, it is particularly recommended to
have the people thoroughly inftrufted in pointing wrell,
and taught to know the ill confequences of not tak¬
ing proper means to hit their mark 5 wherefore they
(hould be made to elevate their guns to the utmoit
nicety, and then to point w ith the fame exaftnefs. Hav¬
ing caught the objett through the upper fight, at the
word,
8. “ Fire,” The match is inftantly to be put to the
bruifed part of the priming j and when the gun is dif-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
charged, the vent is to be clofed, in order to Another
any (park of fire that may remain in the chamber of the '
gun •, and the man w ho fponges is immediately to place
himfelf by the muzzle of the gun in readine(s j when,
at the next word,
9. “ Sponge your guns,” The fponge is to be ram¬
med down to the bottom of the chamber, and then
twilled round, to extinguifh effedually any remains of
fire j and, when drawn out, to be (truck againfi: the
outfide of the muzzle, to (hake off’ any fparks or fcraps
of the cartridge that may have come out with it j and
next, its end is to be drifted ready for loading j and
while this is doing, the man appointed to provide a
cartridge is to go to the box, and by the time the
fponge is out of the gun, he is to have it ready; and
at the word,
10. “ Load with cartridge,” The cartridge (with
the bottom-end firft, feam downwards, and a wad after
it) is to be put into the gun, and thruft a little w ay
within the .mouth, wheru^he rammer is to be entered :
the cartridge is then to be forcibly rammed doum $
and the captain at the fame time is to keep his priming-
wire in the vent, and feeling the cartridge, is to give
the word home, when the rammer is to be drawn, and
not before. While this is doing, the man appointed
to provide a (hot is to provide one (or tw'o, according
to the order at that time) ready at the muzzle, with a
wad likewife ; and when the rammer is drawm, at the
word,
11. “ Shot your guns,” The (hot and wad upon it
are to be put into the gun, and thruft a little way down,
when the rammer is to be entered as before. The (hot
and wad are to be rammed down to the cartridge, and
there have a couple of forcible ftrokes j when the ram¬
mer is to be drawn, and laid out of the way of the guns
and tackles, if the exercife or action is continued ; but
if it is over, the fponge is to be fecured in the place it
is at all times kept in.
12. “ Put in your tompions.” The tompions to be
put into the muzzle of the cannon.
13. “ lioufe your guns.” The feizing is to be
put on again upon the clinched end of the breeching,
leaving it no flacker than to admit' of the gun’s being
houfed with eafe. The quoin is to be taken from un¬
der the breech of the gun, and the bed, dill refting
upon the bolt within the carriage, thruft under, till
the foot of it fails off the axletree, leaving it to reft
upon the end which projects out from the foot. The
metal is to be let down upon this. The gun is to be
placed exa£lly fquare 5 and the muzzle is to be clofe
to the Avood, in its proper place for pafling the muzzle-
laftiings.
14. “ Secure your guns.” The muzzie-lafhings
muft firft be made fecure, and then with one tackle
(having all its parts equally taught with the breech¬
ing) the gun is to be laflied. The other tackle is to
be bowfed taught, and by itfelf made fail, that it may
be ready to call off for ladling a fecund breeching.
N. B. Care muft be taken to hook the firft tackle to
the upper bolt of the carriage, that it may not other-
wife obftruft the reeving of the fecond breeching, and
to give the greater length to the end part of the fall.
No pains muft be (pared in bowling the ladling very
taught, that the gun may have the lead play that is
poflible, as their being loofe may be productive of very
3 B dangerous
Exercife.
 ,  
EXE f 378 ] E X E
Exercife, dangefous confequences. The quoin, crow, and hand-
. xuuks. fpjjce are t0 j-jg pUt un(jer ^g gun, the powder-horn
hung up in its place, &c.
Being engaged at any time when there is a large
fvvell, a rough fea or in fqually weather, &c. as the
{hip may be liable to be luddenly much heeled, the
port-tackle fall is to be kept clear, and (whenever the
working of the gun will admit of it) the man charged
with that office is to keep it in his hand; at the fame
time the muzzle-laffiing is to be kept fail to the ring
of the port, and being hauled taught, is to be fatten¬
ed to the eye-bolt over the port-hole, fo as to be out
of the gun’s way in firing, in order to haul it in at any
time of danger.
This precaution is not to be omitted, when enga¬
ging to the windward, any more than when to the lee¬
ward, thofe fituations being very fubjeft to alter at too
fliort a warning.
A train tackle is always to be made ufe of with the
lee guns; and the man ftatimied to attend it is to be
very careful in preventing guns running out at an
improper time.
h.XERClSE, may alfo be applied with propriety to
the forming our fleets into orders of failing, lines of
battle, &c. an art which the French have termed evo¬
lution*, or ta&iques. In this fenfe exercife may be de¬
fined, the execution of the movements which the dif¬
ferent orders and difpofition of fleets occafionally re¬
quire, and which the feveral fhips are directed to per¬
form by means of fignals. See Tactics.
Exercises, are alfo underftood of what young
gentlemen learn in the academies and riding fchools,
iuch as fencing, drawing, riding the great horfe, &c.
How ufeful, how agreeable foever, ftudy may be to
the mind, it is very far from being equally falutary to
the body. Every one obferves, that the Creator has
formed an intimate connexion between the body and
the mind •, a perpetual aftion and rea&ion, by which
the body inftantly feels the diforders of the mind, and
the mind thofe of the body. The delicate fprings of
our frail machines lofe their activity and become ener¬
vated, and the veffels are choked by obftruftions, when
we totally defift from exercife, and the confequences
neceflarily affeft the brain ; a more ftudious and fe-
dentary life is therefore equally prejudicial to the body
and the mind. The limbs likewife become ftiff; we
contraft an awkward conrtrained manner $ a certain
difguttful air attends all our actions, and we are very
near being as difagreeable to ourfelves as toothers. An
inclination to itudy is highly commendable 5 but it
ought not, however, to infpire us with an averfion to
lociety The natural lot of man is to live among his
fellows : and whatever may be the condition of our
birth, or our fituation in life, there are a thoufand oc-
cafions where a man mutt naturally defire to render
himfelf agreeable j to be aftive and adroit; to dance
with a grace j to command the fiery deed j to defend
himfelf againft a brutal enemy *, to preferve his life by
dexterity, as by leaping, fwimming, &c. Many ra¬
tional canfes have therefore given rife to the pradlice
of particular exercifes ”, and the moft fagacious and be¬
nevolent legittators have inftituted, in their academies
and univerfities, proper methods of enabling youth,
who devote themfelves to ftudy, to become expert alfo
in laudable exercifes.
EXERCITOR, in Scots Law, he who employs a Exercito*
{hip in trade, whether he be owner, or only freights li
her from the owner. t Exeter.
EXERGESIA. See Oratory, N° 90.
EXERGUM, among antiquarians, a little (pace
around or without the figures of a medal, left for the
infeription, cipher, device, date, &c.
EXETER, the capital city of Devonffiire, fituated
on the river Ex, ten miles north of the Britiffi chan¬
nel : W. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat, 50. 44. Anciently the
name of this city was Ifex, and IJia Dumnoniorutn. The
prefent name is a contra&ion of Excejier, that is, a
city upon the Ex. It is large, populous, and wealthy,
with gates, walls, and fuburbs : the circumference of
the whole is about three miles. It is the fee of a
biffiop, transferred hither from Crediton, by Edward
the Confeffor j and is one of the principal cities in the
kingdom, for its buildings, wealth, and number of its
inhabitants. It had fix gates, befides many turrets,
feveral of which are now pulled down. It had
formerly fo many convents, that it was called Monk-
town, till King Athelftan changed its name to Exeter,
about the year 940 j at which time he alfo fortified
the city (which had before been only enclofed with a
ditch and a fence of timber) with circular walls, em~
battlements, towers, and turrets of fquared ftone, en¬
circling the whole, except the weftern fide, with a
deep moat. Befides chapels and five large meeting
houfes, there are now 15 churches within the walls, and
four without. St Peter’s, the cathedral, is a magnificent
pile ; though little now remains of the ancient fabric
of the church, except that part which is called Our
Lady's Chapel. It has a ring of 12 bells, reckoned
the largeft ring of the largeft bells in England 5 as is
alfo its organ, whofe largeft pipes are I 5 inches in dia¬
meter. In 1763 the cathedral was repaired, beauti¬
fied, and new paved \ when, in removing the old pave¬
ment, was found the leaden coffin of Biftiop Bitton,
who died in 1307 j the top of which, being decayed,
afforded an opportunity of viewing the Ikeleton lying
in its proper form : near the bones of the finger was
found a fapphire ring fet in gold j the ftone con-
fiderably large, but of no great value, on account
of feveral flaws in it. Near this flood a fmall neat
chalice and patten of filver gilt, but the damp had de-
ftroyed the greateft part of the gilding. In the centre
of the patten was engraved a hand, with the two fore¬
fingers extended in the attitude of benediftion. The
top of the crozier was alfo found, but totally decayed.
A moft; beautiful modern painted glafs window has been
lately eredted at the weftern end of the cathedral, the
eaftern end having before a remarkable fine antique one.
In the other windows there is much fine ancient paint¬
ed glafs. The altar is remarkable for its beautiful de-
fign and execution. On the left hand fide of it there
yet exifts the feat where Edward the Confeffor and
his queen fat and inftalled Leofricus, his chancellor, the
firft biffiop of Exeter j and in the fourth crofs aiile is
the monument of the fame Leofricus, who died 1073,
which at the time of his interment was a part of the
churchyard, but by the enlarging of the church by
his fucceffors, became nearly the middle of the build¬
ing. The grand weftern end of the church is moft;
magnificently adorned with the ftatues of the pa¬
triarchs, &e. The chapter houfe was built in 1439.
E X E
[ 379 ]
E X E
Exeter. The beautiful throne for the bilhop was conftru&ed
—'V-—'' about 1466, and is faid to be the grandeft of the kind
in Britain. The great north tower was completed in
1485, which contains a bell, that weighs 12,500 pounds j
and exceeds the great Tom of Lincoln by 2500 pounds.
This city has had divers charters granted, or con¬
firmed by molt of our kings •, but it was made a mayor
town in the reign of King John, and a county of itfelf
by King Henry VIII. It is governed by a mayor, 24
aldermen, four bailiffs, a recorder, chamberlain, (heritf,
town-clerk, &c. They have a fword-bearer, and four
ftewards, four ferjeants at mace wearing gowns, and
ftalf-bearers in liveries with filver badges. It had an¬
ciently a mint j and in the reigns of King William III.
and Queen Anne, many pieces of filver money were
coined here, which have the letter E under the bull.
Here are 12 or 13 incorporate city companies. All
pleas and civil caufes are tried by the mayor, recorder,
aldermen, and common council j but criminal caufes,
and thofe relating to the peace, are determined by eight
aldermen, who are juftices of the peace. Here are four
principal ftreets, all entering in the middle of the city,
which is therefore called Carfox, from the old Norman
word Quatre voix, i. e. the four ways. Near it is a
conduit, lately removed from the centre to the fide of
the principal ftreet, v'hich was firft erefted by Wil¬
liam Duke, mayor of the city, in the reign of Ed¬
ward IV. and there are others well fupplied with wa¬
ter brought in pipes from the neighbourhood. There
is an old caftle in the north-eaft part of the city, call¬
ed Rougemont, from the red foil it {lands on ; from
thence there is a pleafant profpeft from the w-alls.
It is fuppofed to have been built by the Weft Saxon
kings, and that they refided here, as did afterwards
the earls and dukes of Cornwall. This caftle w?s re¬
markably ilrong both by nature and art. The gate
which originally led into it, was walled up by order
of William the Conqueror, in token of his having re¬
duced it to his obedience after a very obftinate refift-
ance } and clofe by it an inferior gate was made in the
wall in which ftate they both remain. The outward
ftone facing is kept in tolerable repair j but the infide
being but earth, is gradually crumbled down. Here
yet remains the ancient chapel, built in 1260, and
kept in good repair, where prayers are read, and a
fermon preached in feflxons weeks. The city itfelf
is healthy, and pleafantly fituated on the fides of a
hill, having other hills to its N. W. and S. by which
it is (heltered from the force of ftorms. The bank
which fuftained the ditch that in a great part furround-
ed the caftle, is planted and gravelled, and accommo¬
dated with feats, it being the place of refort for walk¬
ing for the inhabitants ; and the ditch between it and
the caftle being filled up, is now thickly planted with
elms, which form a delightful grove. The old palace
is now entirely demoliihed, and an elegant feflions
houfe erefted, where the affixes, quarter-feffions, and
county courts are held. In the city and fuburbs are
prifons both for debtors and raalefadlors 5 a workhoufe,
alms houfes, and charity fchools j an hofpital for the
fick and lame poor of the city and county, upon the
model of the infirmaries of London and Weftminfter 5
and two free grammar-fchools. It has markets on
Wednefdays and Fridays *, and four fairs in the year.
Great trade is carried on here in ferges, perpetuanas,
long ells, and other woollen goods, in which it is com¬
puted that at lea ft 6oo,OOol. a year is traded for: yet '
no markets were eroded here for wool, yarn, and ker-
feys, till the 30th of Henry VIII. Before that time
the merchants drove a confiderable trade to Spain and
France : they were incorporated in the reign of Queen
Mary I. by the name of “ The Governor, Confuls, and
Society of Merchant-adventurers, trading to France.”
Here is alfo a weekly ferge market, the greateft in
England, next to the Brigg market at Leeds in York-
ffiire. It is faid that fome weeks as many lergts have
been fold here as amount to 80,cool, or ioo,oool. •, for
befides the vaft quantities of their woollen goods {hip¬
ped for Portugal, Spain, and Italy, the Dutch give
large commiffions for buying up ferges, perpetuanas,
&c. for Holland and Germany It is particularly re¬
marked of this city, that it is almoft as full of gentry as
of tradefmen ; and that more of its mayors, and bailiffs
have defeended from, or given rife to good families, than
in any other city of its bignefs in the kingdom : for the
great trade and flourilhing ftate of this city tempted
gentlemen to fettle their fons in it, contrary to the prac¬
tice of many of the inland as well as northern counties,
where, according to the vain and ruinous notion of the
Normans, trade was defpifed by the gentry, as fit for
only mechanics and the vulgar. This city w as under
the jurifdiftion of the Romans, whofe coins have been
frequently dug up in and about it. After they left
England, the Saxons drove the Britons out of it into
Cornwall, and encompaffed it with a ditch, befides bul¬
warks. The Danes attacked and fpoiled it in 875 ; and
afterwards in revenge of the general maffacre of the
Danes by the Englilh, Sweyn one of their kings, came
hither with a great force, put the men to the {word, ra-
viftied the vromen,maffaered the children, burnt the city,
and defaced the w alls. A long time after this, juft as it
was reviving, William the Conqueror befieged and took
it ; and it was again befieged in the reigns of King
Stephen and Edward IV. In the reign of Henry VII.
it w as again befieged by Perkin Warbeck, and batter¬
ed furioufly : but the citizens forced him to raife the
fiege ; which fb pleafed the king, that he came hither,
and prefented a cap of maintena xe to the city, and
gave the very fword from his fide to be borne always
before the mayor. In the reign of Edward VI. in
July 1 544, it was fmartly cannonaded by the rebels of
Cornwall and Devon, who almoft ftarved it by break¬
ing down its bridges, cutting off its water, and {lop¬
ping up all paffages •, but it held out till the lord John
Ruffel came with a force and raifed the fiege on the
6th of Auguft, which w as then appointed as an anni
verfary day of thankfgiving by the city, and is ftill ob-
ferved as fuch. King Charles I.’s queen, to whom this
city gave {belter in the civil wars, was here delivered
of Henrietta, afterwards duchefs of Orleans; whofe
pitffure is in its guildhall, as are alfo General Monk’s
and George I.’s, &c. In the fouth-eaft quarter of the
city was a houfe called Bedford houfe, wherein the above
queen was delivered of the princefs. This having lately
been taken down, an elegant circus is built on the
fpot, with a theatre adjoining it; and for the con-
veniency of the inhabitants, a paffage has been made
through the town wall to Southern Hay, cr which
green {lands the county hofpital, already fpoke. of,
befides a confiderable number of new buildings. There
3 B 2 are
Exeter.
E X H [ 380 ] E X I
Exeter are remains of feveral ancient ftructures, which are
, II daily giving way to modern ereftionsj among the reft,
^xiau 10R- an building, faid to have been a palace of King
Athelftan. The guildhall is a fpacious and convenient
building, whofe front or portico projefts a great way
into the ftreet, and was firft erected in 1330, to which
its prefent front wras rebuilt in 1593, and repaired in
1720. An arm of the fea formerly flowed nearly up
to the city’s wall, till 1316, W'hen Hugh Courtenay
earl of Devon, in revenge for an affront, ruined the
navigation, by conftrudting wears and dams in the river 5
but to remedy it, in 1539, an a£t of parliament paffed
for making a navigable canal, for the better convey¬
ance of goods in barges to and from the city to Top-
fham. This was carried into execution in 1581, but
not completed till 1675 j nor was it after all found
fufficient, till the prefent haven was conftrufted in x 697,
when it w7as rendered capable of bringing fhips of 150
tons quite to the quay, conftrudted near the v'alls of
the city. In {hurt, Exeter, by a conftant adherence
to its motto, Semper Jicjelis, has been applauded by all
hiftorians for its inviolable fidelity to its fovereigns,
whether they held their crown by hereditary or parlia¬
mentary right. The city fends two members to par¬
liament 5 and gives title of earl to the Cecils.--The
number ot houies in Exeter, according to the return
ordered by ad of parliament in 1801, was 2836, and
the number of inhabitants amounted to 17,388.—The
fee of Exeter was once one of the molt wealthy in the
kingdom-, but its revenues were molt ftiamefully wafted
by Bilhop Voyfey, who alienated its lands. What
little he left w'as fo much encumbered, that the fee has
never been able to recover its former grandeur; and fo
fraall are its prefent revenues, that it has been found
neceffary for the bilhop to hold fome other preferment
for the better fupport of his dignity and rank. The
diocefe contains the entire counties of Devonlhire and
Cornwall, wherein are 634 parifhes, whereof 239 are
impropriate. It hath four archdeacons, viz. of Corn-
wall, Exeter, Barnftable, and Totnefs. The diocefe
was formerly valued in the king’s books at 1556!. 14s.
6d.; but, lince Bilhop Voyfey’s time, it is low-ered to
500I. and is computed to be worth annually 2700I.
The clergy’s tenth is 1200I. 15s. 2|d. To the cathe¬
dral belong a bilhop, a dean, four archdeacons, a chan¬
cellor, a treafurer, a chantor, 24 prebendaries, and
other inferior officers and fervants.
EXFOLIATTON, a term ufed by furgeons for the
fealing of a bone, or the feparation of the dead part of
a bone from the living part.
EXHALATION, a general term for all effluvia or
fleams railed from the furface of the earth in form of
vapour.
EXHAUSTIONS, in Mathematics. Method of
exhauftions, is a way of proving the equality of two
magnitudes, by a reduEho ad abfurdum; ffiowing, that
if one be fuppofed either greater or lefs than the other,
there will arife a contradiction.
The method of exhauftions was of frequent ufe
among the ancient mathematicians ; as Euclid, Archi¬
medes, &c. It is founded on what Euclid lays in his
tenth book ; viz. that thofe quantities whofe difference is
lefs than any affignable quantity, are equal; for if they
were unequal, be the difference never fo fmall, yet it
way be fo multiplied, as to become greater than either
of them ; if not fo, then it is really nothing. This heExliauftiCJU
affumes in the proof of Prob. I. book x. which imports, II
that if, from the greater of two quantities, you take ExiSenters-
more than its half, and from the remainder more than 'i~'~
its half, and fo continually, there will, at length, re¬
main a quantity lefs than either of thofe propoled. On
this foundation it is demonftrated, that if a regular po¬
lygon of infinite fides be inferibed in, or circumfcribed
about, a circle ; the fpace, wffiich is the difference be¬
tween the circle and the polygon, will, by degrees, be
quite exhaufted, and the circle become equal to the
polygon.
EXHEREDATION, in the civil law, with us or¬
dinarily called dijinhenting, is the father’s excluding
his fons from inheriting his eftate.
Ihere are 14 caufes of exheredation, expreffed in
Juftinian’s Novellae; without fome one of which caufes,
he decrees the exheredation null, and the teftament in¬
officious, as the civilians call it. Indeed, by the an¬
cient Roman law-, the father might pronounce exhere¬
dation without any caufe ; but the rigour of this law
was reftrained and moderated by Juftinian.
EXHIBIT , in Law, is where a deed, or other w'rit-
ing, being produced in a chancery fuit to be proved
by witneffes, the examiner, or commiffioner appointed
for the examination of any fuch, certifies on the back
of the deed or writing, that the fame was (hewn to the
witnefs at the time of his examination, and by him
fworn to.
EXHIBITION, in Law, a producing, or (hewing,
of titles, authorities, and other proofs, of a matter in
conteft.
Anciently they ufed the phrafe, exhibition of a tra¬
gedy, comedy, or the like ; but now we fay reprefen*
tat ion in lieu thereof.
Exhibition, in our old writers, is ufed for an al¬
lowance of meat and drink, fuch as was cuftomary
among the religious appropriators of churches, who
ufually made it to the depending vicar. The benefac¬
tions fettled for the maintaining of fcholars in the uni-
verfities, not depending on the foundation, are alfo call¬
ed exhibitions.
EXHORTATION, in Rhetoric, differs only from
fuafon, in that the latter principally endeavours to con¬
vince the underftanding, and the former to work on
the affeftions.
EXHUMATION, (of exy “ out of,” and humus,
“ ground”), the aft of digging up a body interred in
holy ground, by the authority of the judge. In
France, the exhumation of a dead body is ordered, up¬
on proof that he was killed in a duel. By the French
laws a parfon has a right to demand the exhumation
of the body of one of his parifhioners, when interred
out of the parilh without his confent.
EXIGENCE, or Exigency, that which a thing
requires, or which is expedient and fuitable thereto.
EX1GEN T, in Law, a writ which lies where the
defendant in a perlonal aftion cannot be found, nor any
effefts of his within the county, by which he might be
attached or diftrained.
EXIGENTERS, four officers in the court of com¬
mon pleas, who make all exigents and proclamations,
in all aflions where procefs of outlawry lies. Writs of
fuperfedeas, as well as the prothonotaries, upon exi¬
gents, are likewife drawn up in their office.
EXILE,
Esiie
E X O [
EXILE. See Banishment..
„ Among the Romans, the word ex ilium properly fig-
Exorcifm- n;ge(i an interdiftion or exclufion from water and fire j
t]ie neceffary confequence of which was, that the inter-
ditled perfon muft betake himfelf into fome other coun¬
try, fince there was no living without fire and water.—
Thus Cicero, ad Herenn. obferves, that the form of the
fentence did not exprefs exihum, but only aqitce et ignis
interdi&io. The fame author remarks, that exile was
not properly a punilhment, but a voluntarily flying or
avoiding the punifhment decreed: Exilium non ejfe
fupplicium, fedperfugium, partufque fupplicii. He adds,
that there was no crime among the Romans, as among
other nations, punifhed with exile ; but exile was a re-
fource to which people flew voluntarily, in order to
avoid chains, ignominy, ftarving, &c.
The Athenians frequently fent their generals and
great men into exile, out of envy of their merits, or
diftrufl: of their too great authority. See Ostracism.
EXISTENCE, that whereby any thing has an ac¬
tual effence, or is faid to be. See the article Meta¬
physics.
EXIT, properly expreffes the departure of a player
from off the ftage, when he has a&ed his part. The
word is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe, to exprefs any
kind of departure, even death.
EXITERIA, in antiquity, oblations or prayers to
any of the gods for a profperous expedition or journey.
There were alfo feafts under this denomination, which
were celebrated by the Greeks with facrifices and
prayers, when their generals undertook expeditions
againft an enemy.
EXOCOETUS, the Flying Fish, a genus of fifties
belonging to the order of abdominales. See Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
EXODIARY, in the ancient Roman tragedy, was
the perfon who, after the drama or play was ended,
fung the Exodium.
EXODIUM, in the ancient Greek drama, one of
the four parts or divifions of tragedy, being fo much
of the piece as included the cataftrophe and unravel¬
ling of the plot, and anfwering nearly to our fourth
and fifth afts.
Exodium, among the Romans, confifted of certain
humorous verfes rehearfed by the exodiary at the end
of the Fabulae Atellanm.
Exodium, in the Septuagint, fignifies the end or
conclufion of a feaft. Particularly, it is ufed for the
eighth day of the feaft of tabernacles, which, it is faid,
had a fpecial view to the commemoration of the exodus
or departure out of Egypt.
EXODUS, a canonical book of the Old Teftament;
being the fecond of the Pentateuch, or five books of
Mofes.
It is fo called from the Greek the “ go¬
ing out1’ or departure of the children of llrael from the
land of Egypt j the hiftory of w'hich is delivered in this
book, together with the many miracles wrought on
that occafion.
EXOMPHALUS, in called alfo omphalo¬
cele and hernia umbilicahs, is a preternatural tumor or
the abdomen, at the navel, from a rupture or diiteniion
of the parts which inveft that cavity.
EXORCISM, the expelling of devils from perfons
pofleffed, by means of conjurations and prayers. I he
381 ] E x O
Jews made great pretences to this pow'er. Jofephus
tells feveral wonderful tales of the great fuccefs of feve-
ral exorcifts. One Eleazer, a Jew', cured many dsemo- ^
niacs, he fays, by means of a root fet in a ring. This
root, with the ring, was held under the patient’s nofe,
and the devil was forthwith evacuated. T he moft part
of conjurors of this clals were imj eftoxs, each pretend¬
ing to a fecret noftrum or charm which was an over¬
match for the devil. Our Saviour communicated to
his difciples a real pow'er over daemons, or perhaps over
the difeafes faid to be occafioned by daemons. See
Demoniac.
Exoreifm makes a confiderable part of the fuper-
ftition of the church of Rome, the rituals of which for¬
bid the exorcifing any perfon without the biftiop’s leave.
The ceremony is performed at the lower end of the
church, towards the door. The exorcift firft figns the
pofleffed perfon with the fign of the crols, makes him
kneel, and fprinkles him with holy water. Then fol¬
low the litanies, pfams, and prayer 5 after which the
exorcift afks the devil his name, and adjures him by
the myfteries of the Chriftian religion not toafflift the
perfon any more : then, laying his right hand on the
daemoniac’s head, he repeats the form of exorcifm,
which is this : “ I exorcife thee, unclean fpirit, in the
name of Jefus Chrift : tremble, O Satan ! thou enemy
of the faith, thou foe of mankind, who haft brought
death into the w'orld j who haft deprived men of life,
and haft rebelled againft juftice: thou feducer of man¬
kind, thou root of evil, thou fource of avarice, difeord,
and envy.” The Romanifts like wife exorcife houfes
and other places, fuppofed to be haunted by unclean
fpirits ; and the ceremony is much the fame with that
for perfons poffeffed.
EXORCISTS, in church hiftory, an order of men,
in the ancient church, whofe employment it was to ex¬
orcife or call out devils. See the preceding article.
EXORDIUM, in Oratory, is the preamble or be¬
ginning, ferving to prepare the audience for the reft of
the difeourfe.
Exordiums are of two kinds •, either juft and formal,
or vehement and abrupt. The laft are more fuitable
on occafions of extraordinary joy, indignation, or the
like. See Oratory, N° 26.
EXOSTOSIS (from i\, out, and a bone), in
Anatomy, an acute eminence or excreicence, pulhing
preternaturally above the bone.
EXOTERIC and Esoteric, are terms denoting
external and internal, and applied to the double doc¬
trine of the ancient philofophers: the one was public
or exoteric; the other fecret, or efoteric. The firft was
that which they openly profeffed and taught to the
world ; the latter was confined to a fmall number of
chofen difciples. This method was derived originally
from the Egyptians j who, according to the united
teftimony of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo,
Plutarch, &c. had a twofold philofophy, one fecret
and facred, another public and common. The fame
pradlice alfo obtained among the Perfian Magi, the
Druids of the Gauls, and the Brachmans of India.
The Egyptian priefts, with whom it originated, fuf-
tained the charadter of judges and magiftrates, and
probably introduced this diftindlion with a view to the
public welfare, and to ferve the purpofe of legiflation
and eoverment. Clement of Alexandria informs us,
6 that
EXP [ 382 ] EXP
t::otenc that they communicated their myfteries principally to
Exp'da- t^°^e w^° were concerned in the adminittration of the
tion. ftate j and Plutarch confirms the fame declaration.
——V"- However, others have fuppofed that they invented the
fabl es of their gods and heroes, and the other external
ceremonies of their religion, to difguife and conceal
natural and moral truths j but whatever was the mo¬
tive of their pradtice, it was certainly applied to politi¬
cal purpofes.
EXOTIC, a term properly fignifyingyore/jpz or ex¬
traneous, i. e. brought from a remote or ftrange coun¬
try. In which fenfe we fometimes fay exotic or barba¬
rous terms or •words, &c. The word is derived from
the Greek extra, “ without, on the outfide.”
Exotic, is chiefly applied to plants which are na¬
tives of foreign countries, particularly thofe brought
from the Eaft and Weft Indies, and which do not na¬
turally grow in Europe.
The generality of exotics, or exotic plants, do not
thrive in England without fome peculiar care and cul¬
ture : they require the warmth of their own climates j
whence the ufe of hot beds, glafs frames, green houfes,
&c. See Gardening Index.
EXPANSION, among metaphyficians, denotes the
idea which we have of lafting diltance, all whofe parts
exift together.
Expansion, in Phyjics, the enlargement or in-
creafe of bulk in bodies, chiefly by means of heat.
This is one of the moft general effedts of that fubtile
principle, being common to all bodies whatever, whe¬
ther folid or fluid. In fome few cafes, indeed, bodies
feem to expand as they grow cold, as water in the adt
of freezing : but this is found to be owing to a new
arrangement of the particles, or to cryftallization j and
is not at all a regular and gradual expanfion like that
of metals, or any other folid or fluid fubftance by means
of heat. In certain metals alfo, an expanfion takes
place when they pafs from a fluid to a folid ftate : but
this too is not to be accounted any proper effedt of cold,
but of the arrangement of the parts of the metal in a
peculiar manner j and is therefore to be afcribed to a
kind of cryftallization.
The expanfion of bodies by heat is very various, and
in folids does not feem to be guided by any certain
rule. In the 48th volume of the Phil. Tranf. Mr
Smeaton has given a table of the expanfions of many
different fubftances. See Chemistry Index.
EXPECTANCY, ESTATES in, are of two forts;
one created by adt of the parties, called a remainder;
the other, by adt of law, called reverjion.
EXPECTATION, in .he dodtrine of chances, is
applied to any contingent event, and is capable of be¬
ing reduced to the rules of computation. Thus a fum
of money in expediation when a particular event hap¬
pens, has a determinate value before that event hap¬
pens; fo that if a perf n is to receive any fum, e gr.
lol when an event takes place which has an equal
probability of happening and failing, the value of the
expedtation is half that fum or 5!.; and in all cafes the
expedtation of obtaining any fum is eftimated by mul¬
tiplying the value of the fum expedted by the fradtion
which reprefents the probability of obtaining it. The
expediation of a perfon who has three chances in five
of obtaining 100I. is equal to ^ x JOO or 60I. and the
4
probability of obtaining 100I. in this cafe is equal Expefl*.
1° To'tion
Expectation of Life, fignifies, in the doctrine of„ II
life annuities, that (hare or number of the years of hn.. petienc8j
man life, which a perfon of any given age may expedt
to enjoy on an equality of chance.
According to Mr Simpfon, by the expe&ation of life
\\ e are not to underftand that period which a perlon
may have an equal chance of furviving, which is a dif¬
ferent a.id'more fimple confideration ; but the number
of years at which the purchafe of an annuity ought to
be valued, granted on it without difcount of money.
There will be a greater or lefs difference in this number
of years, in proportion to the various degrees of mor¬
tality to which the different ftages of human life are
expofed. 1 bus, it is more than an equal chance that
an intant juft come into the ivorld, will not reach the
age of 10 years ; yet the expediation of life, or fliare of
exilfence due to it, is almoft 20 years upon an average.
1 he realon of this vail difference is the excels of the
probability of death in the firit tender years of exift-
ence above that which refpedts the more advanced fta¬
ges. If the numbers of thofe who die at every aflign-
able period were always found to be on an equality, the
two quantities already mentioned would be the fame;
but when thefe numbers conftantly become lefs and lefs,
the expedlatiqn muft of confequence become the greater
of the two.
EXPECTORANTS , in medicines w hich
promote Expectoration. See Materia Medica
Index.
EXPECTORATION, the adl of evacuating or
bringing up phlegm or other matters out of the tra¬
chea, lungs, &c. by coughing, hauking, fpitting, &c.
EXPEDITATION, in the foreft laws, fignifies a
cutting out the balls of a dog’s fore feet for the pre-
fervation of the king’s game.
Every one that keeps any great dog not expeditated
forfeits three (hillings and fourpence to the king. In
maftiffs, not the ball of the feet, but the three claws,
are to.be cut to the Ikin. Inftit, Part VI. p. 308.
1 his expeditation was to be performed once in every
three years, and was done to ev< ry man’s dog who lived
near the foreft, and even the dogs of the forefters
themfelves.
EXPEDITION, the march of an army to fomedi-
ftant place, with a view of hoftilities. Such were the
expeditions of Cyrusagainft Artaxerxes, and of Bacchus
and Alexander into the Indies.
Expeditions for the recovery of the Holy Land were
called croifades.
EXPERIENCE, a kind of knowledge acquired by
long ufe without any teacher. It confifts in the ideas
of things we have feen or read, which the judgment
has reHedted on, to form for itfelfa rule or mediod.
Authors make three kinds of experience : The firft
is the fimple ufes of the external fenfes, whereby wre
perceive the phenomena of natural things without any
diredt attention thereto, or making any application
thereof. I he tecond is, when we premeditately and
defignedly make trials of various things, or obferve
thofe done by others, attending clofely to all effedts
and circumftances. The third is that preceded by a
foreknowledge, or at leaft an apprehenfion of the event,
and
EXP r 383 1 EXP
sperienee, and determines whether ihe apprehenfion were true or
xperiment faife . which two latter kinds, efpecially the third, are
of great fervice in philofophy.
EXPERIMENT, in Phi/ofophy, is the trial of the
refu] t or effeft of the applications and motions of cer-Experiment
tain natural bodies, in order to difeover fomething of ——v—
their motions and relations, by which feme of their
phenomena or caufes may be afcertained.
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY,
IS that which has its foundation in experience, where¬
in nothing is affumed as a truth but what is found¬
ed upon ocular demonftration, or which cannot be de¬
nied without violating the common fenfe and percep¬
tions of all mankind.
In former times philofophers, when reafoning about
natural things, inftead of following this method, af¬
fumed fuch principles as they imagined fufficient for
explaining the phenomena, without confidering whe¬
ther thefe principles were, juft or not. Hence for a
great number of ages no progrefs was made in fcience ;
but fyftems were heaped upon fyftems, having neither
conliftency with one another nor with themfelves. No
proper explanations indeed were given of any thing j for
all thefe fyftems, when narrowly examined, were found
to confift merely in changes of words, which were often
very abfurd and barbarous. The firft who deviated
from this method of philofophizing, if we may call it
by that name, was Friar Bacon, who lived in the 13th
century, and who fpent 2000I. (an immenfe fum in
thofe days) in making experiments. The Admirable
Crichton, who flourithed about the year 1 580, not only
difputed againft the philofophy of Ariftotle, which
had for fo long been in vogue, but wrote a book a-
gainft it. Cotemporary with this celebrated perfonage
was Francis Bacon lord chancellor of England, who is
looked upon to be the founder of the prefent mode of
philofophizing by experiments. But though others
might lay the foundation, Sir Ifaac Newton is juftly
allowed to have brought this kind of philofophy to
perfedftion j and to him we are certainly indebted for
the greateft pa»rt of it. Unfortunately, however, nei¬
ther Lord Bacon nor Sir Ifaac Newton had an oppor¬
tunity of knowing many important fa&s relating to
the principles of fire and ele&ricity, which have fince
been brought to light. Hence all their philofophy
was merely mechanical, or derived from the vifible
operations of folid bodies, or of the groffer fluids, upon
one another. In fuch cafes, therefore, where the more
fubtile and aCtive fluids were concerned, they fell
into miftakes, or were obliged to deny the exiftence
of the principles altogether, and to make ufe of terms
which were equally unintelligible and incapable of
conveying any information with thofe of their prede-
ceffors. A remarkable inftance of the errors into which
they were thus betrayed, we have in the doctrine of
projedtiles, where the moft enormous deviations from
truth were fanCtified by the greateft namea of the laft
century, merely by reafoning from the refiftance of the
air to bodies moving flowly and vifibly, to its refiftance
to the fame bodies when moved with high degrees of
Gun- velocity f In other cafes they were reduced to make
'y- ufe of words to exprefs immechanieal powers, as attrac¬
tion, repulfion, rarefaCiion, Stc. which have fince tend¬
ed in no fmall degree toembarrafs and confound fcience
by the difputes that have taken place concerning them.
The foundations of the prefent fyftem of experimental
philofophy are as follow's :—
I. All the material fubftances of which the univerfe
is compofed are called natural bodies. What w'e per¬
ceive uniform and invariable in thefe fubftances we calF
their properties. Some of thefe are general and com¬
mon to all matter, as extenfion 5 others are proper to
particular fubftances, for inftance fluidity ; while fome
appear to be compounded of general and particular
properties, and thus belong to a ftill fmaller number $
as the properties of air, which are derived from the ge¬
neral property of extenfion combined with thofe of
fluidity, elafticity, &c.
II. In taking a particular review of the properties
of bodies we naturally begin with that of extenjion.
This manifefts itfelf by the three dimenfions of length,
breadth, and thicknefs. Hence proceeds the divifibility
of matter j which the prefent fyftem fuppofes to reach
even to infinity : but though this propofition be fup-
ported by mathematical demonftrations, it is impoffible
we can either have any diftinft idea of it, or of the op-
pofite doftrine, which teaches that matter is compofed
of exceflively minute particles called atoms, which can¬
not be divided into fmaller ones. The fubtility indeed ,
to which folid bodies maybe reduced by mechanical
means is very furprifing ; and in fome cafes is fo great,
that wre might be tempted to fuppofe that a farther di-
vifion is impofiible. 'I hus, in grinding a fpeculum,
the inequalities of its furface are fo effeftually worn off,
that the whole becomes in a certain degree invifible,
fliowing not itfelf by the light which falls upon it, but
the image of other bodies $ but the fmalleft fcratch
which difturbs the equality of the furface is at once dif-
tin&ly vifible.
III. From the arrangement of thefe ultimate parti¬
cles of matter, whatever we fuppofe them to be, arife
the various figures of bodies: and hence figure is a
property of all bodies no lefs univerfal than extenfion,
unlefs w'e choofe to fpeak of the ultimate particles of
matter, which, as they are fuppofed to be deflitute of
parts, muft confequently be equally deftitute of figure ;
and the fame confequenee will follow whether we adopt
this fuppofition or the other. The figures of bodies are
fo extremely various and diflimilar, that it is impoflible
to find any two perfectly alike. It is indeed the next
thing to impoflible to find two in which the diflimila-
rity may not be perceived by the naked eye j but if any
fuch fhould be found, the microfcope will quickly dif¬
eover the imbecility of our fenfes in this refpefl. Soli¬
dity is another property efiential to all matter. By this
w'e mean that property which one quantity of matter
has of excluding any other from the fpace which itlelf
occupies
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
occupies at that time. Hence arifes what we call re-
JiJlance, which is always an indication of folidity ; and
no lefs fo in thofe bodies which we call fluid than in
thofe which are the moft folid. This may at firft feem
to be a contradiction \ but fluids yield only when they
can get away from the preffure 5 in all other cafes they
refill as violently as the molt folid bodies. Thus water
confined in a tube will as effectually refill the impreflion
of a pilton thruft down upon it as though it were the
molt folid fubltance. Air indeed will yield for a certain
time } but this, as appears from feveral experiments,
is entirely owing to a more fubtile fluid, viz. that of ele¬
mentary fire, being prelfed out from among its particles.
As long as this fluid can be forced out, either from
among the particles of air, water, or any other more
grofs fluid fubllance, the latter will be found compref-
fible, as a heap of wet fand would be by fqueezing the
water out from it \ but when we come to the molt fub¬
tile of all elements, fueh as we fuppofe that of fire to
be, there cannot be any poflibiiity of comprefling it,
even though we had a vefiel fo clofe as to prevent it
from efcaping through its fides ; becaufe its parts are
already as near each other as they can be.
IV. The diltance of the parts of bodies from each
other is what we call their porofity, and was formerly
fuppofed to be owing to a vacuum interfperfed betvreen
them \ but now it is generally allow'ed that the pores
of folid bodies as well as of fluids are filled with an ex¬
tremely fubtile matter which pervades all nature. The
porofity of bodies with regard to one another may be
thus explained. Wood or a fponge is porous with re¬
gard to water : but water itfelf is porous with regard to
air, which it abforbs in confiderable quantity. But air
and water are porous with regard to the element of fire,
which produces very confiderable changes upon them,
according to the quantity of it they contain, or the
manner it a£ts in their pores. This element itfelf,
however, is not porous with regard to any other fub-
itance. Its pores, therefore, if it has any, muft be ab-
folute vacuities, dellitute of any matter whatever. Va¬
cuities of this kind indeed are fuppofed to be abfolutely
neceflary to motion : for though we may fay, matter
being divifible almoft ad infinitum, that a body or fub-
ftance more folid may move in another fubitance that is
more fubtile, and that will give way to its motion, we
mult neverthelefs have recourfe to a lalt refort, and ad¬
mit of an ultimate vacuum, which will give room fuffi-
cient to the leaft corpufcle, that its part A may take
the place of its part B without the leaft refiltance :
befides, it is not to be imagined, that nature, in fa£t,
admits of that infinite divifibility which our imagina¬
tion can conceive, and that every thing which is pofli-
ble in idea, is at all times prafticable. All that
exifls is poflible, but all that is poflible does not how¬
ever exift. By denfity, is underitood the proportion
between the extenfion and folidity of a body ; one body
therefore is more denfe than another, when, under the
fame degree of extenfion, it contains more folid mat¬
ter : and this quality arifes from condenfation and com-
preflion. Elallicity is nothing more than that effort
by which certain bodies, when compreffed, endeavour
to reftore themfelves to their former Hate \ and this pro¬
perty fuppofes them compreflible. As all thefe natural
properties of bodies are of great utility in explaining
the piinciples of phyfics and in applying them to all the
I
arts, experimental philofophy proves their reality by a
thoufand examples.
V. We difeover ft ill'other properties in bodies ; fuch
as mobility, which we muft not here confound with
motion. This mobility arifes from certain difpofitions
which are not in an equal degree in all bodies : from
whence it comes that fome are more eafily movedjhan
others : and this proceeds from the refiltance to mo¬
tion which is perceived in all bodies, having regard
merely to their maffes j and this refiftance is called vh
inertice, or inert force. A body is faid to be in motion
when it is actually moving from one place to another :
or, whenever a body changes its fituation with regard
to the objects that furround it, either nearly or remote¬
ly, it is faid to be in motion. There are three principal
matters to be confidered in a moving body j its direc¬
tion, its velocity, and the quantity of its motion : and
here phyfics explains the force or moving powrer ; it
likewife diftinguifhes between fimple and compound mo¬
tion. Simple motion is that which arifes from only one
force, or which tends to one point only. It deferibes
the laws, and explains the refiftance, of mediums ; the
refiftance of friction ; the difficulties of a perpetual mo¬
tion *, the alteration of diredtion occafioned by the op-
pofition of a fluid matter \ reflected or reverberated mo¬
tion ; the communication of motion by the (hock of
bodies, &c. Compound motion is that of a body im¬
pelled to move by feveral caufes or powers which adt
according to their different diredtions. Phyfics here
likew ife inveftigates the laws of motion ; and is particu¬
larly applied to the explaining, under this head, w’hat
are called the central forces, which produce a motion
that is either circular or in a curve line, and which in-
ceffantly urge the moving body either to approach or
recede from the centre. To diftinguifh thefe from each
other, the former is called the centripetal force, and the
latter the centrifugalforce. See Dynamics.
VI. By gravity, or ponderofity, is to be underftood
that force which occafions bodies to pafs from a higher
to a lower place, when nothing oppofes their courfe,
or when the obftacles are not fuffieient to flop them.
Speculative phiiofophy inveftigates its caufe, and per¬
haps in vain. Experimental philofophy contents itfelf
with deferibing the phenomena, and teaching the laws
of gravity, which are thoroughly eftablifhed by a thou¬
fand reiterated experiments. In order properly to un-
derftand this fubjedt, we muft take care not to confound
the term gravity with that of weight. By the former,
we underftand that force which urges bodies to defeend
through a certain fpace in a given time. By the latter,
is meant the quantity of a heavy body that is contain¬
ed under the fame bulk. The phenomena are explain¬
ed by the experiments themfelves, and by inferences
deduced from them.
VII. Hydroftatics is a fcience of which the object is
the gravity and equilibrium of fluids in particular.
Though the gravity of thefe bodies is the fame with
that of others, and is fubjedt to the fame laws, yet
their ftate of fluidity gives rife to particular pheno¬
mena, which it is of confequence to know. But as hy¬
droftatics cannot be fuccefsfully treated without the
afliftance of calculation, it has been ranked among the
mathematical fciences.
VIII. We fay the fame with r; ga d to mechanics 5
which is the art of employing,.a#,the aid of machmes,
the
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
the motion of bodies, in conformity to its properties
and laws, as well with regard to folxds as fluids, either
more commodioufly or more advantageoufly.
IX. After it has made the moll accurate experi¬
ments, and themoft judicious obfervations, on all thefe
different fubje&s, and the properties of bodies in par¬
ticular, Experimental Philofophy paffes to the exami¬
nation of the air, the water, fire, the wind, colours,
&.c. The air is a fluid with which we are furrounded
from the inflant of our birth, and without which we
cannot exift. It is by the properties and the influences
of the air, that nature gives increafe and perfection to
all that it produces for our wants and conveniences :
it is the fpirit of navigation : found, voice, fpeech it-
felf, are nothing more than percuflions of the air :
this globe that we inhabit is completely furrounded by
air 5 and this kind of coverture, which is commonly
called the atmo/phere, has fuch remarkable functions,
that it evidently appears to concur to the mechanifm
of nature. Experimental phyfics, therefore, confiders
the air, i. Of itfelf, independent of its bulk, and the
figure of its whole body : it examines its effential pro¬
perties ; as its gravity, denfity, fpring, &c. The air-
pump is here of indifpenfable ufe ; and by this ma¬
chine phyfics examines in what manner fpace, or a va¬
cuum, is made. It likewife fhoWs the neceflity of air to
the prefervation of animal life $ the effeCt it has on
found, fire, and gunpowder, in vacuo ; and a hundred
other experiments of various degrees of curiofity. 2. It
confiders the air as the terreftrial atmofphere, fome-
times as a fluid at reft, and fometimes as in motion.
And by thefe means it accounts for the variation of the
mercury in the barometer, and why it finks in propor¬
tion as the height of the atmofphere diminifhes ; as alfo
for the figure, the extent, and weight of the atmofphere :
it (hows the method of determining the height of moun¬
tains, the nature of found in general, of its propagation,
and of fonorous bodies. The late difcoveries have add¬
ed greatly to experimental philofophy, of which an ac¬
count is given under the article Chemistry, &c.
X. It is here alfo, that experimental philofophy con¬
fiders the nature of the wind j which is nothing more
than agitated air, a portion of the atmofphere that
moves like a current, with a certain velocity and deter¬
minate direftion. This fluid, witli regard to its direc¬
tion, takes different names according to the different
points of the horizon from whence it comes, as eaft,
weft, north, and fouth. Winds are likewife diftinguifh-
ed into three forts j one of which is called general or
ronftant, as the trade winds which continually blow be¬
tween the tropics: another is the peric-iical, which al¬
ways begin and end within a certain time of the year,
or a certain hour of the day, as the monfoons, the land
breezes and fea breezes, which arife conftantly in the
morning and evening *, and laftly, fuch as are variable,
as well with regard to their diredtion as their velocity
and duration.
M. Mariotte computes the velocity of the moft impe¬
tuous wind to be at the rate of 32 feet in a fecond, and
Mr Derham makes it 66 feet in the fame time. The
firft, doubtlefs, meant the wind of the greateft velocity
that had then come to his knowledge. The invention
of aeroftatic machines has tended more to ftiow the real
velocity of the wind than any other invention as yet
made public : but all of them move flower than the
Vol. VIII. Part I,
aerial current j fo that the real velocity of the wind re¬
mains yet undetermined.
XL The force of the wind, like that of other bodies,
depends on its velocity and mafs : that is, the quan¬
tity of air which is in motion ; fo the fame wind has
more or lefs force on any obftacle that oppofes it, in
proportion as that obftacle prefonts a greater or a lefs
furface : for which reafon it is that they (preadthe fails
of a veffel more or lefs, and place the w ings of a wind¬
mill in different diredtions. The machines by which
the winds are meafured, are called anemometers. They
ftiow the diredtio', the velocity, and the duration of
w inds. It is by the agitations of the winds that the air
is purified •, that the feeds of trees and herbs are convey¬
ed through the forefts and fit Ids; that (hips are driven
from one pole to the other ; that our milis turn upon
their axles, &c. : and art, by imitating nature, lome-
times procures us artificial winds, by which we re-
frelh our bodies, invigorate our fires, purify our corn,
&c. '
XII. Water is an univerfal agent, which nature em¬
ploys in all her productions. It may be confidered as
in three ftates : 1. As a liquid; 2. As a vapour; 3. As
ice. Thefe three different ftates do not in any man¬
ner change its offence, but make it proper to anfvver
different ends. The natural ftate of water would be
that of a folid body, as fat, wax, and all thole other
bodies which are only fluid ivhen heated to a certain
degree ; for water would be conftantly ice, if the par¬
ticles of fire, by which it is penetrated in the tempe¬
rate climates, did not render it fluid, by producing a
reciprocal motion among its parts ; and, in a country
where the cold is continually ftrong enough to main¬
tain the congelation, the afliftance of art is neceffary
to make it fluid in the fame manner as we do lead, &c.
Water, w hen not in ice, is a fluid that is infipid, tranfpa-
rent, without colour and without fmell, and that eafily
adheres to the furface of feme bodies, that penetrates
many, and extinguilhes fire. Experimental philofophy
inveftigates the origin of fountains ; the caufe of the
faltnefs of the foa ; the means of purifying water ; what
is its weight, and w hat are its efte&s when heated, &c.
It likewife examines this fluid in the ftate of vapour;
and finds that a drop of water, when in vapour, occu¬
pies a fpace vaftly greater than it did before. It
explains the ceolipile and its effe&s ; fire engines ; and
the force of vapour that gives motion to immenfe ma¬
chines in mines and elfewhere. Sec. And laftly, It eon-
fiders w-ater in the ftate of ice. Ice confequently is
more cold than water ; and its coldnefs increafes if it
continue to lofe that matter, already too rare, or too
little a&ive, to rendef it fluid. Experimental phyfics
endeavours to inveftigate the caufes of the congelation
of water, and why ice is lighter than water ; from
whence it derives that expanfive force by which it breaks
the containing veffel ; the difference there is between
the congelation of rivers and that of Handing w aters ;
why ice becomes more cold by the mixture of falts ;
and many other fimilar phenomena.
XIII. The nature of fire is yet very much unknown
to the moft learned philofophers. As objects when at a
great diftance are not perceptible to our fonfes, fo when
we examine them too nearly, we difeern them but con-
fufedly. It is ftill difputed whether fire be a homogene,
unalterable matter, defigned, by its prefence, or by its
3 C a&ion,
386 EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
action, to produce heat, inflammation, and diffolution,
in bodies ; or if its offence confifts in motion only, or
in the fermentation of thofe particles which ve call in¬
flammable, and which enter as principles, in greater or
lefs qua' tities, in the c-ompofition of mixed bodies.
The moft learned inquirers into nature incline to the
former opinion •, and to have recourse to a matter
which they regard as the principle of fire. They fup-
pofe that there is in nature a fluid adapted to this pur-
pofe, created fuch from the beginning, and that no¬
thing more is neceffary than to put it in aft-ion. '1 he
numberlefs experiments which are daily made in elec¬
tricity feem to favour this opinion, and to prove that
this matter, this fluid, this elementary fire, is diffufed
through all nature, and in all bodies, even ice itfelf.
We cannot fay to what important knowledge this great
difcovery of eleftricity may lead if we continue our
inquiries concerning it. It appears, however, that
we may believe, without any inconvenience or ah-
furdity, that fire and light, confideied in their firfit
principle, are one and the fame fubftance differently
modified.
XIV. Be this matter however as it may, experi¬
mental philofophy is employed in making the moft in¬
genious and mofl ufeful refearches concerning the na¬
ture of fire, its propagation, and the means by which
its power may be excited or augmented ^ concerning
the phosphorus and its inflammation ; fire excited by
the refleftion of the fun’s rays from a mirror j and on
the effefts of fire i.; general ; concerning lightning and
its effefts $ the fufion of metals •, gunpowder and its
explofion ; flame and the aliments of fire j and an in¬
finity of like objefts which it explains, or concerning
which it makes new difcoveries, by the aid of experi¬
ments.
XV. By the word light, we under flan d that agent
by which nature affefts the eye with that lively and
almoft conftantly pleafing fenfation, which we call fee¬
ing, and by which we difeern the fize, figure, colour,
and fituation of objefts, when at a convenient diftance.
All philofophers agree, that the light which is diffufed
in any place, is a real body. But what this body is,
and by w'hat means it enters that place where it is per¬
ceived, is a queftion about which philofophers are di¬
vided.
XVI. Experimental philofophy is applied in difco-
vering or proving, by an infinity of experiments, what
is the nature of light, in what manner it is propagated,
what its velocity and progrefllve motion. It alfo invtf,
ligates and explains the principles of optics properly
fo called, and {hows the direftions which light ob«
ferves in its motions. From thence it proceeds to the
examen of the principles of catoptrics, and deicribes
the laws and effefts of rellefted light. It next treats
of the principles of dioptrics, and explains the laws of
refrafted lightand laftly, it teaches, from the princi¬
ples of natural and artificial vifion, the conftruftion of
optical inftruments, as lenfes, concave mirrors, prifms,
telefcopes, &c. &c. and the ufts to which they are ap¬
plied.
XVII. By refolving or feparating the rays of light,
philofophy has obtained true and clear difeoverits of the
nature of colours. We are naturally led to imagine that
colours, and their different degrees, make a part of the
bodies that prefent them to our fight ; that white is
inherent in fnow, green in leaves and grab, and red in
a fluff dyed of that colour. But this is far from being
true. If an objeft, which prefents any colour to our
fight, be not illuminated, it prefents no colour what-
foever. In the night all is black. Colours therefore
depend on light ; for w ithout that we could form no
idea of them j but they depend alfo on bodies ; for of
feveral objefts prefented to the fame light, feme appear
white, others red, blue, &c. But all thefe matters
being feparate from our own bodies, we fliould never
acquire any ideas of them, if the light, tranfmitted or
reflefted by thefe objefts, did not make them fenfible
to us, by firiking upon the organs of our fight, and if
thefe impreflions did not revive in us thofe ideas which
we have been ufed to exprefs by certain terms. For
thefe reafons philofophy confiders colours from three
points of view-, I. As in the light j 2. In bodies, as be¬
ing coloured j and, 3. From the relation they have
to our vifual faculties, which they particularly affeft,
and by which we are enabled to difting-uiih them.
It is unneceffary in this place to fay more either on
colour in particular or experimental philofophy in ge¬
neral. The different fubjefts of this colltftive article
are particularly treated under their proper names, in
the order of the alphabet : the reader will therefore
turn, as he has oceafion, to Acoustics, Catoptrics,
Chromatics,Dioptrics,Hydrodynamics, Mecha¬
nics, Optics, Pneumatics, Electricity, Magne¬
tism, &e. &c. &c. Alfo, Aerostation, Atmo¬
sphere, Buhning Glaffj Chemistry, &c. &c.
EXP
Expenmen- EXPERIMENTUM CRUCis, a capital, leading,
or decifive experiment ; thus termed, either on account
Expiation. *ts being like a crofs, or direftion-poft placed in
y—..the meeting of feveral roads, guiding men to the true
knowledge of the nature of that thing they are inquir¬
ing after : or, on account of its being a kind of tor¬
ture, whereby the nature of the thing is as it were ex¬
torted by force.
EXPHORESIS. See Oratory, N° 85.
EXPIATION, a religious aft, by which fatisfa-c-
E X P
lion or atonement is made for the commiffum of fome Expiatic
crime, the guilt done away, and the obligation to pu- —"V
niftnnent cancelled.
Expiations among the Heathens, were of feveral
kinds 5 as facrifiees and religious wafhings. They were
u’fed for effacing a crime, averting any calamity, and
on numberlefs other oecafions, as purifying towns,
temple^, and facred places, and armies before and after
battle. And they were performed fgr whole cities as
well as particular perfons.
The
EXP
[ 3S7 1
EXP
Expiation
II
Exploiions.
Difference
between
esplofion
and expan-
fion.
General
caufes of
expiolions.
The rfjethed of expiation among the Jens was chief¬
ly by facrifice, whether for fins of ignorance, or to puri*
fy themfelves from certain pollutions.
Teojl of EXPIATION, among the Jews, called by our
tranllators the day of atonement, was held on the tenth
day of Tifri, or the feventh month of the Jewilh year,
anfwering to part of our September and October. It
was inftituted by God himfelf, Levit. xxiii. 27, &.c.
On that day the high-prieft, the figure or type of Je-
fus Chriti, entered into the molt holy place, and con-
felfed his fins ; and, after feveral ceremonies, made an
atonement for all the people, to wafh them from their
fins. Lev. chap. xvi. See SCAPE-Goat,
Expiation, in a figurative fenfe, is applied by di¬
vines to the pardon procured to the fins of the peni¬
tent by the merit of Chriit’s death. See the article
Christianity.
EXPIRATION, in Medicine. See Exspiration.
Expiration, is alfo ufed figuratively, for the end
of a term of time granted, agreed on, or adjudged.
EXPLICIT, in the fehools, fomething clear, di-
ftindt, formal, and unfolded.
EXPLOSION, in NaturalPhi/ofophy, a hidden and
violent expanfion of an aerial or other elaitic fluid, by
which it inilantly throws off any obltacle that happens
to be in the way, fometimes with incredible force, and
in fuch a manner as to produce the moft altoniftiing ef¬
fects upon the neighbouring objects.
Explofion differs from expanfion, in that the latter
is a gradual and continued power, acting uniformly for
fome time, whereas the former is always hidden, and
only of momentary duration. The expanfions of folid
fubilances do not terminate in violent explosions, on ac¬
count of their flownefs, and the fmall fipace through
which the metal, or other expanding tubftance, moves ;
though their rtrength may be equally great with that
of the molt active aerial fluids. Thus we find, that
though wedges of wood, when wetted, will cleave lo-
lid blocks of hone, they never throw them to any dif-
tance, as is the cafe with gunpowder. On the other
hand, it is feldom that the expanfion of any elaltic
fluid burfts a folid fubftance without throwing the
fragments of it to a confiderable diitance, the effefts
of which are often very terrible. The reafotvs of this
may be comprifed in the two following particulars :
I. The immenfe velocity with which the aerial fluids
expand, when affefted by a confiderable degree of
heat ; and, 2. Their celerity in acquiring heat and
being affedted by it, which is much fuperior to that of
folid fubftances. Thus air, heated as much as iron
when brought to a white heat, is expanded to four
times its bulk 5 but the metal itfelf will not be expand¬
ed the 500th part of the fpace. In the cafe of gun¬
powder, which is a violent and well known explofive
fubltanee, the velocity with which the flame moves is
calculated by Mr Robins, in his Treatife upon Gunnery,
to be no lefs than 7000 feet in a fecond, or little lefs
than 79 miles per minute. Hence the impulfe of the
fluid is inconceivably great, and the obflacles on which
it flrikes are hurried off with vaft velocity, though
much lefs than that juft mentioned •, for a cannon bul¬
let, with the greateft charge of powder that can be con¬
veniently given, does not move at a greater rate than
2400 feet per fecond, or little more than 27 miles per
minute. The velocity of the bullet again is promoted
by the fudden propagation of the heat through the
whole body of air, as foon as it is extricated from the v_
materials of which the gunpowder is made ; lo that it
is enabled to ftrike all at once, and thus greatly to aug¬
ment the momentum of the ball. It is evident that
this contributes very much to the force of the explo¬
fion, by what happens when powder is wetted or mixed
with any fubftance, which prevents it Irom taking fire
all at once. In this cafe the force of the explofion,
even when the fame quantity of powder is made uie of*
cannot be compared to that of dry powder.
Upon thefe principles we may conclude that the
force of an explofion depends, 1. On the quantity of
elaftic fluid to be expanded 3 2. On the velocity it ac*
quires by a certain degree of heat j and, 3. On the
celerity with which the degree of heat affedts the
whole of the expanfive fluid. Thefe three take place ^e(^n'c ^
in the greateft perfedftion where the eledtric fluid is
concerned j as in cafes of lightning, earthquakes,- and^
volcanoes. This fluid, as is ftiown in many parts of
this work, differs not from elementary fire or the light
of the fun ; it pervades the whole fyftem of nature j its
expanfion is nothing elfe than its motion from a centre
towards a circumference, for it does not feem capable
of any proper expanfion by a feparation of its parts
like any other fluid. Hence, when it begins to expand
in this manner, the motion is propagated through it
with a velocity far exceeding that of any other fluid
whatever. Thus, even when the quantity is exceflively
fmall, as when an eleftric {'park is lent through a glafs
full of water or of oil, the expanfion is fo violent as
to diflxpate the glafs into innumerable fragments with
great danger to the byftanders, as is obferved under
the article Electricity. In violent lightning, where
the eledlric fluid collects itfelf into balls, the ftrength
of the explofion is proportionable to the quantity.
Every one has heard of the prodigious eftedts ef light¬
ning when it happens to ftrike buildings, trees, or even
the moft folid rocks j and in fome cafes, where the
quantity of electricity is ftill greater than in any flalli .
of lightning, we hear of ftill more tremendous eonfe-
quences enluing. Dr Prieftley gives an inftance of a
large fire ball (undoubtedly a quantity of eledtric mat¬
ter) rolling on the furface of the fea, which after rif-
ing up to the top-maft of a ftiip of war, burft with
fuch violence that the explofion refembled the dif-
charge of hundreds of cannon fired at once. Great da¬
mage was done by it j but there is not the leait doubt
that moft of its force was {pent on the air, or carried
down to the fea by the mail and iron work of the ftiip.
Indeed, confidering that in all cafes a great part of
the force of electric explofions is diffipated in this man¬
ner, it may juftly be doubted whether they can be
meafured by any method applicable to the menfuration
of other forces. Even in artificial eledtricity the force
is prodigiuuily great j infomuch that Dr Van Marurn
calculated that of the great battery belonging to the
machine in Teyler’s rnufeum to be upwards of 900
pounds.
In thofe cafes where the eledtrical matter adls like Volcanic
common fire, the force of the txplofions, though ex-e'Pio!10ns
ceedingly great, is capable of menfuration by compar-^^
ing the diftances to which the bodies are thrown with c
their weight. This is moft evident in volcanoes, where
the projedtions or the burning rocks and lava manifeft
3 C 2 the
Explofion
In what
manner ae
rial explo-
fions take
{lace.
EXP
fixplofion
of gunpow¬
der explain¬
ed.
See the
article Gun
ncry.
pulvis
fulminans,
&.C.
the greatnefs of the power, at the fame time that they
afford a method of meafuring it. Thefe explofions, as
is fhown under the article Volcano, are owing to ex¬
trication of aerial vapours, and their rarefaction by in-
tenfe heat. In all of them the air is originally in a
ftate of decompofition, viz. its invifible and folid part
is joined with fome terreftrial fubllances. Thus, when
fixed air, for inifance, is expofed to any pure earth
which attraCIs it, as calcined magnefia, a decompofi¬
tion inftantly takes place. All thefe vapours are
compofed of elementary fire and fome invifible fub-
Itance capable of affuming a folid form. The decom¬
pofition juit mentioned is therefore eafily explained j the
folid part of the air joins itfelf to the magnefia, while the
elementary fire or latent heat is diflipated, and paffes
through the fides of the vefifel. Were it now in our
pow’er fuddenly to reftore the latent heat to the whole
of the fixed air, fo that it would at once affume its for¬
mer expanfion, a violent explofion would follow. This
feems to be precifely the cafe with the volcanic explo¬
fions. An immenfe quantity of the fixed part of dif¬
ferent aerial fluids is united to the various fubftances
found below the furface of the earth. By means of the
eleClric fire which kindles the volcanoes, the aerial fluids
are fuddenly reftered to their elaftic flate •, and not only
fo, but their natural elaflicity is greatly augmented, fo
that the explolions take place with great violence. The
cafe is the fame wuth gunpowder ; only that the con-
denfed air in this cafe is at firft of the dephlogillicated
kind, but is quickly phlogiflicated by reafon of the
combuftible matters mixed with the nitre, while the
heat produced by the inflammation augments the elaf-
ticity of the generated air to four times what it ufually
is, fo that the whole force of the explofion is calculated
at iooo times the prelfure of the common atmofphere*.
•Thus the explofions of gunpowder and of volcanoes
are efTentially the fame. The reafon of the extreme
quicknefs of thofe of gunpowder is, that it takes fire fo
readily by the intimate mixture and combuftibility of
all the materials. In volcanoes the explofions likewife
follow one another very quickly, and are by no means
inferior in ftrength to thofe of gunpowder : but here
the quantity of vapour makes up for the comparative
flownefs with which it is affe&ed by the heat. Thus,
though w'e could not by any means contrive to fire can¬
non in quick fucceflion by means of calcareous earth as
we can do with gunpowder, yet in the huge furnace of
a volcano the elafiic matter is fupplied in fuch quanti¬
ties, that the explofions are in a manner unremit¬
ting 5 that even in ordinary experiments the confine¬
ment of aerial vapours has often occafioned violent ex¬
plofions in chemical veffels. In one cafe too the ex¬
trication of fixed air adds exceffively to the force of an
explofion, viz. in that of pulvis fulminans This is
compounded of fulphur, faltpetre, and fait of tartar.
The latter we know contains much fixed air : and it is
prohaWe that the violence of the explofion is occafioned
by this air 5 for the greater quantity of it that the alka¬
line fait contains, the greater force does it explode
with. Fulminating gold emits a quantity of phlogifti-
cated air, to which its explofive power is fuppofed to be
owing, as is explained under the article Chemistry j
but that of fulminating filver is fo extraordinary, that
fcarce any force of aerial vapour that can be extricated
2
t 388 ]
EXP
is likely to produce it, and it feems probable that elec- ExplofioJ
tricity itfelf is concerned. y—J
Next in ftrength to the aerial vapours are thofe of ExploficJ
aqueous and other liquids. The moft remarkable ef- b> aqaeou|j
feds of thefe are obferved in fteam engines ; but there vaPours'
is one particular cafe from which it has been inferred
that aqueous fleam is vaftly ftronger than the flame of
gunpowder. This is when water is throw n upon melted Violent ex
copper ; for here the explofion is fo ftrong as almoft I>lu('iori of
to exceed imagination ; and the moft terrible accidents
have been known to happen from fuch a flight caufe asptr.^ C°f
one of the workmen fpitting in the furnace where cop¬
per was melting. Here, however, it is moft probable Prohably
that a decompofition of the water takes place. ThatowinStoa
this element can be decompofed, or refolved into elaftie^00111^*
vapours, has been completely eftabliflied by the moft fa-
tisfadory experiments, and is now, we believe, univer-
fally admitted by chemical philofophers. See Water,
Chemistry Index. The pofition is indeed denied by
the phlogiftians ; but their arguments appear not to be
conclufive; nor is it a fad which militates in the It aft
againft their principles. On the fuppofition that the
water is decompofed in the prefent cafe, however, the
phenomenon in queftion is eafily folved. The water be- Particular:
ing thrown in fubftanee upon the melted copper, isde-^ exPlain-
compofed by the violent heat; and one part of it adheres ed*
to the metal, thus converting it into a calx, or oxide,
while the other is converted into inflammable air, or
hydrogen gas, which expanding fuddenly, throws the
melted metal all about with the greateit violence by
means of its readion.
To underftand the manner in which this is accom-
plilhed, we muft confider fome of the principles of
Gunnery laid down by Mr Robins, and related un¬
der that article. _ One of thefe is, that though the
air, in cafes of ordinary velocity, makes no great re¬
finance, it is far otherwife where the velocity of the
moving body becomes very great. In all cafes of ex-
plofion alfo there is in the firft inftance a refilling va¬
cuum made by the exploding fluid j and confequently the
weight of the atmofphere is to be overcome, which a-
mounts to about 14 pounds on every fquare inch of fur-
face. Suppofing the furface of the exploding fluid, then,
on that of melted copper, to contain an area of 4 fquare
inches, it meets with a refiftance of 60 pounds from the
atmofphere, and confequently communicates an equal
preffure to the fluid metal. Even this muft of confe-
quence throw' it about, unlefs the fame preflure was
exadly diflufed over every part of the furface. But
much more muft this effed be increafed by the immenfe
velocity with which the fluid moves, and by which the
refiftance of the atmofphere is augmented in a prodi¬
gious degree, as is explained under the article Gun¬
nery. I he elaftic fluid generated is then confined not
only by the fluid metal and fides of the furnace, but by
the air itfelf, which cannot get out of the way 5 fo
that the whole refembles a cannon clofed at the mouth,
and filled with inflamed gunpowder. Hence not only
the melted metal, but the furnace itfelf and the adjacent
walls of the building, are hurried off as they wwuld be by
the firing of a great quantity of gunpowder in a fmall fpace,
and which is well knowm to produce analogous effefls.
In explaining the phenomenon in queftion, Dr Black
fuppofes that the mere heat of the metal applied to the
aqueous
EXP
[ 389 ]
EXP
aqueous
fteam in-
tenfely
heated.
other me.
tals.
gxplolion. aqueous fleam produces the explofion j and in proof of
^ ^3 alleges, that copper imbibes a greater quantity of
Is notow- jiea(. dm-jng fuflon than any other metal. Aqueous
ing t0 meie fleam, however, feems to be too flow for producing fuch
fudden and violent effeffs. Explofions, it is true, will
be occaiioned by it, but then it muft be confined for a
very confiderable time •, whereas the effe&s of water
thrown upon melted copper are inftantaneous.
It may now be alked, Why fuch explofions do not
Sfions take place with any other metal, iron for inftance, when
do not take water is thrown upon its furface in fufion ? In anfwer
place with to We muft obferve, That though water is decom-
pofed by being applied to red-hot iron in the form of
fleam, yet there is a poflibility, that when the fame ele¬
ment is applied in fubftance to the fluid metal, no
decompolition may enfue. Something like this in¬
deed happens with copper itfelf 5 for, notwithftanding
the violent effects which take place on the contaft of
water in fubitance with the melted metal, no explo-
fion happens though aqueous fleam be blown upon its
furface. On the contrary, the upper part of the metal
is thus cooled, and forms itfelf into cakes, which are
afterwards taken off, and new ones formed in the fame
manner; neither does aqueous fleam affe£l red-hot cop¬
per in the manner that it does iron in the fame ftate.
A decifive proof that the explofion is notoccafioned by
the mere heat of the aqueous fleam may be deduced
from the example of melted glafs, which produces no
explofion though we pour water upon it in that ftate ;
and yet the heat of melted glafs is undoubtedly equal
at leaft to that of melted copper. It muft be obferved,
when heat- however, that in all cafes where a very hot body is
ed fubftan- thrown upon a fmall quantity of water in fubftance, an
explofion will follow ; but here the water is confined
and fuddenly rarefied into fleam, which cannot get
away without throwing off the body which confines it.
Examples of this kind frequently occur where mafons
or other mechanics are employed in fattening cramps of
iron into ftones where, if there happens to be a little
water in the hole into which the lead is poured, the
latter will fly out in fuch a manner as fometimes to
burn them feverely. Terrible accidents of this kind
have fometimes happened in founderies, when large
quantities of melted metal have been poured into wet
moulds.. In thefe cafes, the fudden expanfion of the
aqueous fleam has thrown out the metal with violence y
and if any decornpofition has taken place at the fame
time, fo as to convert the aqueous into an aerial vapour,
the explofion muft be ftill greater.
By pourin<r ro laft }c’ind of explofion we muft refer that
fold water5 which takes place on pouring cold water into boiling
into boiling or burning oil or tallow. Here the cafe is much the
fame whether we pour the oil on the water, or the
water on the oil. In the former cafe,, the water which
lies at the bottom is rarefied into fleam, and explodes 5
in the latter, it finks down through the oil by its fupe-
rior fpecific gravity, and explodes as it paffes along.
In either cafe, however, the quantity of aqueous fluid
mutt be but fmall in proportion to that of the oil : a
very great quantity would put out the dame, or deitroy
the heat, in whatever way we applied it.
Explofions Another kind of explofion is that which takes place
in folk! Cub-in folid fubftances, where we can fcarcely fuppofe either
it.mces ex aqueous or aerial vapours to be concerned. The moft
plained, remarkable of thefe are the volcanic bombs mentioned
Explofions
I ces are
1! thrown up
on fmall
quantities
<if water.
by Sir William Hamilton in the great eruption of Ve- .Explofiorv
fuvius in 1779. They were large pieces of lava which '~v"lf<
burl! in pieces like bombs as they fell to the ground ;
but he does not inform us whether their burfting was
attended with any great violence or not. Indeed, amidit
fuch feenes of horror, and the continual tremendous
explofions of the volcano, fmaller phenomena of this
kind would probably be overlooked. Other examples
are the GLASS Tears, of which an account is given un¬
der that article; the burfting of electrical globes, when
put in motion ; of other glafs veffels fpontaneoufly,
and feemingly without anycaufe; and laftly, the burft¬
ing of large call metal veffels in the aftisof cooling.
Thefe are all fo fimilar to one another, that it is pro-,
bable they depend on one general caufe. All of them
agree in this refpeft, that the extreme parts of them
are oonfiderably cooled, while the internal remain very
hot. Thus, in the volcanic bombs, the current of air,
formed by their fwift paffage through it in falling, ne-
ceffarily carries off a great quantity of heat from the
parts which are in contaft with it, while the reft are
fcarce at ail cooled. The glafs tears are artificially
cooled on the outfide by dropping them upon water ;
and in confequence of this, their explofion is probably
more violent in proportion to their bulk than that of
the volcanic bombs. Glafs veffels only burft fponta¬
neoufly when they have not been well annealed ; and
we know that this bad annealing confifts only in ap¬
plying cold too fuddenly to the outfide. Something
like this probably takes place when caft-iron veffels ex¬
plode ; and we are certain it does fo with eleftrical
globes, for thefe laft are not apt to burft if they have
been well annealed. In all cafes, therefore, there is a
remarkable contraction of the outward furface by the
cold, while the internal parts remain as much expand¬
ed as ever. In this cafe there muft be a continual ef¬
fort of that fubtile fluid called elementary fire, from the
internal to the external part, as the contraction gra¬
dually proceeds the contrary way. Thus, when a vol¬
canic bomb, for inftance, is cooled on the outfide, its
parts are confolidated fo that the internal fluid has not
fuch an eafy paffage through it as is neceffary. In con¬
fequence of this it makes a greater effort, which is ftill
farther augmented by the cooling and contraction of
the internal parts fqueezing the fluid out from among
themfelves, and forcing it to recoil upon that in the
centre, as well as to exert itfelf againft the external
part; from which united operation the effect already
mentioned at laft takes place. This explanation, how¬
ever, does not hold with refpeCt to eleCtrical globes,
glafs tears, or ill annealed glafs : but in order to ac¬
commodate it to all thefe, we have only to remember,
that fire, and the eleCtric fluid aCling. from a centre
to a circumference, are not in the leaft different ; fo
that from whatever caufe the eleClric matter is dil’pof-
ed to aCt in this manner, the fame efFeCt will follow',
i. e. an explofion will take place if the fubftance does
not afford an equally ready paffage through all its
parts, and that whether any fenfible heat is felt in it
or not.
The only other kind of explofion we have to take no- Explofio.n
tice of is that produced by inflammable and dephlogifti- of hydrogen
cated air, or oxygen and hydrogen gafes, when mixed and ox^€ri
together and fet on fire. This differs from any of thofe
hitherto conlidered,, becaufe in reality there is an abfo-
lute
Explofm
Sineular
phenome¬
non obfer-
ved by Ur
PrielUey.
TJfes to
which ex-
plofions are
applied.
Attempts
to fuper-
lede the
ufe of gun¬
powder.
EXP [ 390
lute condenfation rather than an eypanfion throughout
the whole of the operation 5 and the refultis the forma¬
tion of water ; and could the airs be made to take tire
throughout th ir whole fubftance abfolutely at the fame
inftant, there would be no explolion, but only a ludden
production of heat. From this caufe alfo is derived a
very fingular phenomenon taken notice of by Dr Prielt-
ley in his experiments on that fubjeCt, recorded in the
Phil. Tranf. Having enclofed feveral quantities of in¬
flammable and dephlogiftieated air in a copper veffel,
firing them afterwards by the electric fparks, he found
that the force of the explofion was directed more to¬
wards one part of the veffel than another; leatt on that
part where the eleCtrical difcharge was made, and mofi;
upon that which was fartheft from it. This inequality
was very confiderable j infomuch that he could not re¬
peat his experiments any number of times without inju¬
ring the veffel in that part which was farthefl: from the
difcharge. The reafon he gives for this is, that the
mixture was not fired at the fame inftant, but firil at
the place where the difcharge was made. This firft ex¬
plofion would have afled equally upon all parts of the
veffel, had it not been for the intervention of the air.
By the firft momentary explofion, however, the air in
the fartheft part of the veffl was condenfed, fo that the
next explofion was made ftronger, while the copper in
the fore part of the veffel had the whole of this flrong
explofion to refift, the hinder part being but little con¬
cerned, as the air in it was condenfed and reduced al-
moft to a vacuum.
Though the phenomena of explofions are fometimes
very deffruftive, they are likewife of confiderable ufe
in life, by removing obftacles which could fcarcely be
got the better of by any mechanical power whatever.
The principal of thefe are the blowing up of rocks, the
fepavating of (tones in quarries, and other purpofes of
that kind. The deitruCtion occafioned by them in times
of war, and the machines formed upon the principle of
explofion for the deltruction of the human race, are
well known •, and if we cannot call thefe ufeful, we
muff allow them at lead to be neceffary evils. For the
produftion of explofions. gunpowder is the only fub¬
ftance that has yet been found to anfwer ; neverthelefs,
as its ufe is attended with confiderable expence, feveral
attempts have been made to find out a cheap fubftitute
for it. One of the moft remarkable of thefe was by
mixing fmall quantities of water, enclofed in little blad¬
ders or fome eafily deftruftibie vehicles, along with a
charge of powder. By this contrivance it was hoped
that the water being converted into vapour when the
powder was inflamed, would augment the force of the
explofion: but inftead of this, it was found greatly to
diminifh it. The reafon was evident, viz. that the con-
verfion of the water into fleam required fo much of the
latent heat of the inflamed gunpowder, that enough was
not left to give the neceffary expansion to the aerial
fluid produced. A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
gafes has alfo been tried ; but the explofion here has
always been found too weak. In mines, indeed, very
terrible effedls are produced by fuch a mixture, but in
thefe the quantity is immenfe ; fo that the comparative
weaknefs of the mixture cannot be difeovered. Elec¬
tricity therefore feems to be the only refource we have 5
except by adding ingredients to gunpowder which may
increafe the ftrength of it. There can be no doubt in-
1 EXP
deed that the cleftric fluid is poffeffed of fufficient Exploit
ftrength to perform every thing we could defire j and li
eleftricians have fuppofed, perhaps juftly enough, that
a annon charged with water might, by means of elec- 1 tlon'
tricity, become more dangerous than one charged with
gunpowder : but this fluid is fo exceedingly capricious
fo imperceptible and unmanageable, that the ufe of it
cannot as yet be thought prafticable, nor in all proba¬
bility ever will be fo.
The effefts of explofions, when violent, are felt at a EfTetfs of
confiderable diftance, by reafon of the concuflions they cvilofioiK
give to the atmofphere j for, as has been already hint-011 ,he aU
ed, all of them act upon the atmofpherical fluid with
the very fame force they exert upon terrertrial fubftan- tnic-fluii
ces fubjefted to their aftion. Sir William Hamilton
relates, that at the explofions of Vefuvius in 1767, the
doors and windows of the houfes at Naples flew open if
unbolted, and one door was burft open though it had
been locked. A great quantity of gunpowder being
put into the ditch of a fortified city, and fet on fire) de¬
ft royed part of the wall, and broke down one of the
gates. Ihe blowing up of powder magazines or pow¬
der mills will deftroy buildings and kill people, though
certainly without the reach of the flame, and untouched
by any part of the {battered magazine or mill. But the
moft curious efteft is, that they eleftrify the air, and
even glafs windows, at a confiderable diftance. This is
always obfervable in firing the guns of the Tower at
London j and fome years ago, after an explofion of
fome powder mills in the neighbourhood of that city, a
great number of people were alarmed by a rattling and
breaking of their china ware ; which by the vulgar was
taken for a fupernatural phenomenon, but undoubtedly
was owing to fome commotion in the eleftrical fluid
from the violent concuffion of the atmofphere. In this
refpeft, however, the effefts of eleftrical explofions
themfelves are moft remarkable, though not in the un¬
common way juft mentioned j but it is certain, that the
influence of a flafli of lightning is diffufed for a great
way round the place where the explofion happens, pro¬
ducing many very perceptible changes both on the ani¬
mal and vegetable creation.
EXPONEN T, in Algebra, the fame with index.
See Algebra.
Exponent is alfo ufed in arithmetic, in the fame
fenfe as index or logarithm.
EXPONENTIAL Calculus, the method of differencing,
or finding the fluxions of exponential quantities, and
of fumming up thole differences, or finding their'
fluents.
EXPONENTIAL Curve, is that whofe nature is defined
or expreffed by an exponential equation 3 as the curve
denoted by ax—y, or by *x—y.
EXPONENTIAL Equation, is one in which is contain¬
ed an exponential quantity 3 as the equation a^—b, or
xx—ab, Sec.
Exponential Quantity, is that whofe power is a
variable quantity 3 as the expreflion ax, or aB Expo¬
nential quantities are of feveral degrees and orders, ac¬
cording to the number of exponents or powers, one
over another.
EX PORI A I ION, the {hipping and carrying out
of the kingdom wares and commodities for other coun¬
tries. See the articles Commerce, T rade, and Ship-
flNG.
EXPOSING,
EXP [ 39i ] EXT
E flng EXPOSING, the aft of fettmg a thing to public EX-post-facto, in Z<m>, denotes fomcthing done Exvpoit.
i view. In the Romifh church, the facrament is laid to after another thing that was committed before. An ‘‘j: J
Expofiwr pe eXf)0fecI when it is thown in public uncovered on fef- eitate granted may be made good by matter ex-po/l-fa£lo, £xterfor,
tival days, and during the time of plenary indul- that was not fo at firft by election, &c.
ces> " EXPOSTULATION, in Rhetoric, a warm addrefs
Exposing is alfo ufed with a farther latitude', thus to a perfon who has done another fome injury, repre-
we lay, It is prohibited to expofe falfe and clipped mo- fenting the wrong in the Rrongcit terms, and demand-
ney. Such a houfe ftands very high, and has a delici- ing redrefs.
ous profped •, but it is expofed to all the four winds. EXPOSURE, in Garden;rig, the fituation of a gar-
Such a city being on the frontiers, and not fortified, is den wall, or the like, with relpedt to the points of the
expofed to the infults of every party offerees. compafs, as fouth or eaft. S’ e GARDENING.
EXPOSING of Children, a barbarous cuftom pradlifed EXPRESSED OILS, fueh oils as are obtained from
by moil of the ancients excepting the Thebans, who bodies only by preffing. See CHEMISTRY and MaTE-
had an exprels law to the contrary, whereby it was ria MeDICA Index.
made capital to expofe children; ordaining at the fame EXPRESSION, in Rle'oric, the elocution, didlion,
time that fuch as were not in a condition to educate or choice of words in a difeourle. See Language,
them Ihould bring them to the magiitrates, in order to
be brought up at the public expence. Among the
other Greeks, when a child was born, it was laid on
the ground and if the father defigned to educate his
child, he immediately took it up ; but if he forbore to
do tlis, the child was carried away and expofed. The
Lacedaemonians indeed had a different cuftom ; for
with them all new-born children were brought before
certain triers, who were fome of the gravel! men in
their own tribe, by whom the infants were carefully
viewed*, and if they were found lufty and well favour¬
ed, they gave orders for their education, and allotted a
certain proportion of land for their maintenance ; but if
weakly or deformed, they ordered them to be call into
a deep cavern in the earth, near the mountain Tayg-e-
tus, as thinking it neither for the good of the children
themfelves nor for the public intereft, that defective
children fhould be brought up. Many perfons expofed
their children only becaufe they were not in a condition
to educate them, having no intention that they thould
perifti. It was the unhappy fate of daughters efpecially
to be thus treated, as requiring more charges to educate
and fettle them in the world than fens.
The p rents frequently tied jewels and rings to the
children they expofed, or any other thing whereby
they might afterwards difeover them, if Providence
took care for their fafety. Another defign in adorn¬
ing thefe infants was either to encourage fuch as found
them to nouriftr and educate them, if alive, or to give
them human burial if dead. The places where it was
ufual to expofe children were fuch as people frequented
jnoft. This was done in order that they might be
found, and taken up by compaflionate per lorn who
were in circumftances to he at the expence of their
education. With this intention the Egyptians and Ro¬
mans chofe the banks of rivers, and the Greeks the
high-ways.
EXPOSITION, in general, denotes the felting a
thing open to public view. See Exposing.
Exposition, in a literary fenfe, the explaining an
author, paffage, writing, or the like, and fetting their
meaning in an obvious and clear light.
EXPOSITOR, or Expository, a title which fome
waiters have given to a lefler kind of dictionaries or vo¬
cabularies, ferving to expound or explain the meaning
of the obfeure or difficult words of a language It is
alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with commentary and para¬
phrase.
Oratory, and Poetry.
Expression, in Mujic. See Composition.
Expression, in Painting, a natural and lively re-
pvefentation of the fubjoft, or of the feveral objects in¬
tended to be fhown.
The expreffion confifts chiefly in reprefenting the hu- •
man body and all its parts, in the action fuitable to it:
in exhibiting in the face the feveral paflions proper to
the figures, and obferving the motions they imprefs on
the external parts. See Painting.
Expression, Theatrical. See Declamation, Ar¬
ticle iv.
EXPRESSION, in Medicine, Chemijlry, See. the
a£t of expreffion or extrafting the juices or oils of plants,
fruits, or other matters, by iqueezing, wringing, or
preffing them in a prefs. After having let the herbs
infufe a due time, their juice muft be drawn by expref¬
fion in a linen cloth or by a prefs.
EXPULSION, in a general fenfe, the a£I of vio¬
lently diiving a perfon out of any city, ioeiety, &c.
Expulsion, in Medicine, the ad whereby any thing
is forcibly driven out of the place in which it is : thus
we fay, the expulfion of the fetus in delivery.
EXSICCATION, (formed of ex andfetus, “ dry,”)
in Chew fry, &c. the ad of drying up or evaporating
the moifture of a thing.
EXSPIRATION, in Phyjic, that part of refpira-
tion by which the air is txpelltd or driven out of the
lungs. See Anatomy Index and Respiration.
E.XSUDAT10N, or Exudation, the ad of fweat-
ing out. In which manner, gums, balfams, &c. are
ufually produced from trees.
EXTANT, fomething that ft ill fubfifts, or is in be¬
ing. It is but part of the hiftory of Livy, of the writ¬
ings of Cicero, Caefar, &c. that are extant, the reft are
loft. We have nothing extant of Socrates, though he
wrote a great deal.
EXTASY, a tranfport which fiffipends the fund ion
of the fenfes, by the intenie contemplation of fome ex¬
traordinary or fupernatural objed.
Extasy, in Medicine, a fpecies of catalepfy, when
a perfon perfedly remembers, after the paroxyim is
over, the ideas he conceived during the time it lafted.
EXTENSION, in Pb ofophy, one of the common
and effential properties of body ; or that by which it
pofii fles or takes up fome part of univerfal fpace, which
is called the pfece of that body. See Metaphysics.
EXTENSOR, an appellation given to feveral
mufeies, .
EXT
^xT-'nfor rnu'*cles, from their extending or ftfetcliing the parts
i itr n '-0 ^hich they belong. See Anatomy, 'Iable of the
t. J " Mufcies.
EX1 EN I, in Law, is ufed in a double fenfe* Some¬
times it hgnifies a writ or command to the (heriff for
the valuing of lands or tenements j and fometimes the
a6t of the flieriff, or other commiffioner, upon this
writ.
Old and New EXTENT, in Scots Law. See Law
Index.
EX I ENUATION, the aft of diminilhing or lef-
fening the bulk or fubftance of a thing, efpecially of
the human body. Fevers, agues, long abftinences, See.
occallon great extenuations or emaciations.
Extenuation, is alfo a figure in rhetoric, oppofite
to the hyperbole. The Greeks call it Xileln.
EXTERIOR, or External. See External.
EXTERMINATION, in general, the extirpating
or deftroying fomething.
Extermination or Exterminating, in Algebra,
is ufed for taking away. . Thus algebraifts fpeak of ex¬
terminating furds, fraftions, and unknown quantities
out of equations. See Maclaur. Algebr. Part I. Chap.
12 where we have fome general theorems for the exter¬
minating unknown quantities in given equations.
EXiERNAL, a term of relation applied to the
furface or outfide of a body, or that part which appears
or prefents itfelf to the eye, touch, &c. in contradiitinc-
tion to internal.
External is alfo ufed to fignify any thing that is
without fide a man, or that is not within himfelf, par¬
ticularly in his mind j in which fenfe we fay, external
objefts, &c.
EXTINCTION, in general, denotes the putting
out or deftroying fomething, as a fire or flame. See
Extinguijhing of FlRE.
EXT INGUISHMENT, in Law, is a confolidation
or union, as where one has due to him a yearly rent out
of lands, and afterwards purchafes the lands out of
which the rent arifes j in this cafe, both the property
and the rent being united in one polTeffbr, the rent is
faid to be extinguifhed.
EXTIRPATION (formed of ex and Jllrps,
li root,”) the aft of pulling up or deftroying a thing
to the very roots. Among the prayers of the Romiftr
jubilee, there is one for the extirpation of herefy.
Extirpation is alio ufed, \i\ Surgery, for cutting off
any part entirely 5 as a wen, &c. or the eating it aw ay,
as a wart, &c. by corrofive medicines.
EX1ISPEX, in antiquity, the perfon who drew
prefages from viewing the entrails of animals offered in
facrifice.
EXTORTION, \n Law, is an illegal manner of
wrefting any thing from a man, either by force, me¬
nace, or authority. It is alfo the exaftion of unlawful
ufury, winning by unlawful games, and taking more than
is due under pretence of right, as exceflive tolls in mil¬
lers, &c.
At the. common law, extortion is punifliable by fine
and imprifonment; and the ftatute of 3 Eliz. i.c. 30.
has enafted, that officers of juftice guilty of extortion
for the expedition of bufinefs, &c. fhall render to the
party treble value. There are likewife divers other fta-
tutes for punifhing extortions of fheriffs, bailiffs, gaolers,
C 392 1
EXT
clerks of the aflize and of the peace, attorneys, folici-
tors, &c.
EXTRACT, in Pharmacy, is a folution of the
purer parts.of a mixed body infpiffated, by diftillation
or evaporation, nearly to the confiftence of honey.
Extract, in matters of literature, is fomething co¬
pied or collefted from a book or paper.
EX I RAC 1 ION, in Chemifry and Pharmacy, the
operation by which effences, tinftures, &c. are drawn
from natural bodies.
Extraction, in Surgery, is the draw ing any foreign
matter out of the body by the hand, or by the help o£
inftruments. See Surgery.
Extraction, in genealogy, implies the ftock or
family from which a perfon is defeended. See De¬
scent.
E A TRACI ION of Roots, in Algebra and Arithmetic,
the methods of finding the roots of given numbers or
quantities. See Algebra and Arithmetic.
EX 1 RAC I OR, in Midwifery, an inftrument or
forceps for extrafting children by the head.
EXIRAJUDICIAL, fomething done out of the
proper court, or the ordinary courfe of law. As when
judgment is given in a caufe, or cafe, not depending in
in that court where fuch judgment is given, or wherein
the judge has no jurifdiftion.
EXERAORDINARII, amongft the Romans, was
a body of men confiding of a third part of the foreign
horfe and a fifth of the foot, which was feparated from
the reft of the forces borrowed from the confederate
dates with great policy and caution, to prevent any
defign that they might poffibly entertain againft the
natural forces. A. more choice body of men w’ere
drawn from among the extraordinarii under the name
of ableEii, See Ablecti.
EX J RAORDINARY, fomething out of the com¬
mon courfe.
Ex iRAORDINAR 2 Couriers, are thofe fent exprefs on
fome urgent occafion.
EXTRAORDINAR T Ambaffador, or envoy, is fuch a
one as is fent to treat or negotiate fome fpecial and im-
portantjaffair, as a marriage, a treaty, confederacy, &c.
or even on occafion of fome ceremony, as condolence,
congratulation, &c.
A gazette, journal, or other newfpaper extraordinary,
is that publifhed after fome great and notable event^
containing, the detail or particulars thereof, which are
not found in the ordinary papers.
EXfRAVAGANTES, thofe decretal epiftles
which were publifhed after the Clementines.
. They were fo called, becaufe at firft they w^ere not
digefted or ranged with the other papal conftitutions,
but leemed to be, as it were, detached from the canon
law. They continued to be called by the fame name
when they were afterwards inferted in the body of the
canon law. The firft extravagantes are thofe of John
XXII. fucceffor of Clement V. The laft colleftion
was brought down to the year 1483, and was called
the common extravagantes, notwithftanding that they
were likewife incorporated .with the reft of the canon
law.
EX 1RAVASATION, in contufions, fiffures, de-
preflions, fraftures, and other accidents of the cranium,
is when one or more of the blood-veflels, that are di-
ftributed
Extort lor.
p II
Extravafa
tion.
E X U [ ] E Y M
^‘ravafa- Hributcd in the dura mater, is broken dr divided, where-
tion by there is fuch a difcharge of blood as greatly oppreI'¬
ll fes the brain, and difturbs its office frequently bring-
^XUYig', Jng on violent pains and other mifchiefs j and at length
death itfelf, unlefs the patient is timely relieved, bee
Surgery and Medicine Index.
EXTREME, is applied to the laft and outermoft
part of any thing j or that which finiffies and terminates
it on that fide.
Extremes, in Logic, denote the two extreme terms
of the conclufion of a fyllogifm ; viz. the predicate and
lubjeft. They are called extremes, from their relation
to another term, w'hich is a medium or mean between
them. The predicate, as being likewife had in the
firlt propofition, is called the mnjus extremum, greater
extreme 5 and the fubjeft, as being put in the fecond
or minor propofition, is called the minus extremum, lef-
fer extreme. Thus, in the fyllogifm, man is an ani¬
mal \ Peter is a man, therefore Peter is an animal j the
word animal is the greater extreme, Peter the lefs ex¬
treme, and man the medium. See Syllogism.
EXTREME and mean proportion, in Geometry, is when
a line is fo divided, that the whole line is to the greater
fegment, as that fegment is to the other : Or, as it is
expreffed by Euclid, when the line is fo divided that
the reflangle under the whole line, and the lefler feg¬
ment, is equal to the fquare of the greater fegment.
Extreme. UnBion. See Unction.
'EXTREMITIES of figures, in Painting, is ufed
for the head, hands, and feet. Thefe ffiould be drawn
with more nicety and exaftnefs, or more terminated
than other parts j and thus help to render the aftion
more expreffive.
EXTRINSIC, among metaphyficians, is taken in
various fenfes. Sometimes it fignifies a thing’s not be¬
longing to the eflence of another ; in which fenfe the
efficient caufe and end of a thing are faid to be extrin-
fic. Sometimes itfigniftes a thing’s not being contained
within the capacity of another •, in which fenfe, thofe
caufes are called extrinfic which introduce fomething
into a fubjedd from without, as when a fire introduces
heat. Sometimes it fignifies a thing added or applied
to another } in which fenfe accidents and adherents
are faid to be extrinfic to the fubjedte to which they
adhere. Sometimes the viiion is faid to be extrinfic
from fome form which does not ex ill in that thing,
but is adjacent to it, or by fome means or other with-
cut it.
EXTUBERANCES, in Medicine, are fuellings or
tilings up in the flefli or other parts of the body.
EXUBERANCE, (compounded of ex and uber,
ti plentiful”), in Rhetoric, a redundancy. See Re¬
dundance and Pleonasm.
EXUDATION. See Exsudation.
EXVERRiE, in antiquity, a kind of brufh ufed in
vleanfing houfes, out of which a dead perfon had been
carried.
EXULCERATION, in Medicine, the aft of
caufing or producing ulcers. Thus, arfenic exculce-
rates the intetlines 5 corrofive humours exulcerate the
Ikin.
Exulceration is fometimes alfo ufed for an ulcer
itfelf} but more generally for thofe beginning erofions
which wear away the fublfance, and form ulcers.
EXUVIAE, among naturaliifs, denote the call off
Vol. VIII. Part I.
parts or coverings -of animals, as the fkins of .ferpents, Exavi*
caterpillars and other infefts. Jinth
Exu viae is alfo ufed for fome fliells and other marine 1:'yrn°u a’.
bodies, frequently found in the bowels of the earth ;
fuppofed to have been depofited there at the deluge j
as being the real fpoils of once living creatures. See
Deluge, Conchology, and Geology.
EY, in our old writers, the fame with infula, u an
ifiand j” from which comes eyet, a fmall ifland or ifiet,
vulgarly called eyght.
EYCK. See Bruges, John of.
EYE, in Anatomy. See Anatomy Index.
A new born child ftiall be obferved, perhaps, never to
keep its eyes fixed on any one objeft, but continually
changing from one to another, and if you put your
hand before them, the child will not wink. Hence fome
have thought, that new-born infants have no fight:
but this is a miftake 5 and the true reafon why their
eyes are in perpetual motion is, that they have not yet
acquired the habit of examining one thing at once with
their eyes j their not winking at the approach of the
hand, arifes from their want of experience how eafily
their eyes may be hurt •, but in a few days they get the
habit of winking, fo that aftenvards their eyes do it ^
fpontaneoufly at the approach of danger.
Artificial eyes are made of concave plates of gold,
filver, or glafs, and are ftained fo as to referable the
natural eye. They muft, when fixed in the orbit, be
taken out and cleaned every night, and replaced in the
morning. If no more of a difeafed eye is removed than
what is preternaturally projefted, or if enough is left to
preferve the mufcles unhurt, the artificial eye will have
a little motion from the mufcles that remain. If the
eye does not fit well, it irritates and inflames the other
eye j in which cafe lay it afide, until one can be had
that fits better.
BuAs Eye, in Afronomy. See Aldebaran.
EYE of a Bloch, in naval affairs, that part of the rope-
ftrop which is faflened to fome neceffary place in the
fliip : the ftrop is a fort of wreath or rope formed inte
a ring, and fixed round the block for the double com
venience of flrengthening the block and faftening it in
any place where it is wanted.
Eye, in Agriculture and Gardening, fignifies a little
hud or (hoot, inserted into a tree by way of graft. See
Engrafting.
Eye of a Tree, a fmall pointed knot to which the
leaves flick, and from wffiich the {hoots or fprigs pro¬
ceed. See Gemma.
Eye, a town of Suffolk, 22 miles from Ipfwich
and 91 from London. It may be called an ifland, be-
oaufe it is fur rounded by a brook near the borders of Nor¬
folk, in the road between Ipfwich and Norwich. It
was incorporated by King John j has two bailiffs, 10
principal burgeffes, 24 common council, a recorder, and
town clerk. It is a mean-built place, with narrow
ftreets. The chief manufafture is bone-lace and fpin-
nin,g. Here is, however, a large handfome churchy
and near it are the ruinous walls of an ancient caftie
and monaftery. The market is on Saturday, the fair
on Whit-Monday. It has only femt members to par¬
liament flnee the reign of Edward IV.
EYE-Bright. See Euphrasia, Botany Index.
EYMOUTH, a town of Scotland in the county of
Berwick, formerly fortified to curb the garrifon of Ber-
3 D wick.
Eymouth
!!
Ezekiel.
E Z E
wick, from which place it is diftant fix miles.
I. 50. N. Lat. 55. 50. It gave title of baron in the
, kingdom of Scotland to Churchill, afterwards the great
duke of Marlborough ; but he having no male iffue, it
became extinft.
. EYRAC, or Irac, Arabia, a province of Turkey
in Afia, 345 miles in length, and 190 in breadth j of
which Bagdad is the capital.
Etrac Agem:, the principal province of Perfia, an¬
ciently called Part/tia. ,
EYRE, or Eire, in Law, the court of itinerant
juftices. See Assize.
EYRIE, in Falconry, a brood or neft, a place where
Jiawks build and hatch their young.
EZEKIEL, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
referring chiefly to the degenerate manners and corrup¬
tions of the Jews «f thofe times. It abounds with fine
fentences and rich companions, and difcovers a good
deal of learning in profane matters.
Ezekiel was carried captive to Babylon with Jehoi-
achin, and began his prophecies in the fifth year of the
captivity. He was cotemporary with Jeremiah, W’ho
[ 394 1 E Z R
W. Long, prophefied at the fame time in Judea. He foretold
many events, particularly the deftru&ion of the temple,
the fatal cataltrophe of thofe who revolted from Baby¬
lon to Egypt, and the happy return of the Jews to their
own land.
EZION-gaber. See Asiongaber.
EZRA, a canonical book of the Old Teftament;
comprehending the hiftory of the Jews from the time
of Cyrus’s edict for their return, to the 20th year of
Artaxerxco Longimanus. It fpecifies the number of
Jews who returned, and Cyrus’s proclamation for the
rebuilding the temple, together with the laying its
foundation, the obftruftion it met with, and the finilh-
ing thereof in the reign of Darius.
The illuftrious author of this book was alfo the re-
ftorer and publilher of the canon of the Old Teftament.
See Bible.
The books of Ezra, called in the Englifti verfion the
Fir/} and Second Book of Efdras, though held by fome,
particularly the Greeks, for canonical, are thrown by
the Englilh church into the number of apocryphal
books, being only extant in Greek.
Ezekiel
II
Ezra.
F.
F. ’T THE fourth confonant, and fixth letter of the
"V—- 9 alphabet. The letter F is borrowed from the
digamma or double gamma of the iEolians, as is evi¬
dent from the infcription on the pedeftal of the Colof-
fus at Delos ; and was undoubtedly formed from the
old Hebrew vau: and though this letter is not found in
the modern Greek alphabet, yet it was in the ancient
one, from whence the Latins received it and tranfmit-
ted it to, us.
It is formed by a ftrong expreftion of the breath, and
joining at the fame time the upper teeth and under
lip. It has but one fort of found, which has a great
affinity with v and jb/t, the latter being written for it
by us in all Greek words, as phiiofophy, &c. though
the Italians write it filofofia.
The Romans for fome time ufed an inverted F, j,
inftead of V confonant, which had no peculiar figure
in [heir alphabet. Thus, in infcriptions we meet with
TERMINAjIT, DIjI, &c. Lipfius and others fay,
that it was the emperor Claudius who introduced the
ufe of the inverted digamma, or j[ : but it did not
long fubfift after his death ; for (Quintilian obferves,
that it was not ufed in his time.
F, or fa, in Mufic, is the fourth note in rifing in this
order of the gamut, ut, re, mi, fa. It likewife de¬
notes one of the Greek keys in mufic, deftined for the
bafs.
F, in phyfical prefcription, Hands for Fiat, or
** Let it be done.” Thus f. s. a. fignifiesfiat fecundum
artem.
F, was alfo a numeral letter fignifying 40 $ accord¬
ing to the verfe.
Sexta quaterdenos gcrit qucc difiat ab alpha. p
And when a dalh was added at top, thus F, it figni- rJL-
fied forty thoufand.
F, in the civil law. Two f’s joined together thus,^
fignify the Pande&s. See Pandects.
F, in the civil law, a ftigma or brand put upon fe¬
lons with a hot iron, on their being admitted to the be¬
nefit of clergy •, by flat. 4 Hen. VII. c. 13.
FAB A, See Vicia, Botany Index.
FABAGO, a fpecies of bean-caper. See Zygo-
phyllum, Botany Index.
FABER. See Zeus, Ichthyology Index.
FABIAN, Robert, an alderman of the city of
London, and ftieriff in the year 1494, was a perfon of
learning for the time he lived in, a good poet, and
author of a Chronicle of England and France, entitled
I he Concordance of Stones, in two volumes folio, be¬
ginning with Brute, and ending with the 20th of
Henry VII. 1504* It contains feveral curious parti¬
culars relative to the city of London, not elfewhere to
be found. Stow calls it “ a painful labour, to the
great honour of the city and of the whole realm We
are told that Cardinal Wolfey cauled as many copies
of this book as he could procure to be burned, be-
caufe the author had made too clear a difcovery of
the large revenues of the clergy. Fabian died in
1512.
FABII, a noble and powerful family at Rome, who
derived their name from faba, a bean, becaufe fome of
their anceftors cultivated th s pulfe. They were once
fo numerous that they took upon themfelves to wage
a
Fabii,
Fabius.
FAB [ 395 ] FAB
a war againft the Veientes. They came to a general
engagement near the Cremera, in which all the family
confifting of 306 men, were totally {lain, in the year of
Home 277. There only remained one whofe tender
age had detained him at Rome, and from him arofe
the noble Fabii in the following ages.
FABIUS Maximus Hullianus, was the firft of the
Fabii who obtained the furname of Maximus, for lef-
fening the power of the populace at eleftions. He
was mailer of horfe : and his vidlory over the Samnites
in that capacity nearly coft him his life, becaufe he
engaged the enemy without the command of the dic¬
tator. He was five times conful, twice dictator, and
once cenfor. He triumphed over feven different na¬
tions in the neighbourhood of Home, and rendered him-
felf illullrious by his patriotifm.
Fabius Ruflicus, an hiftorian in the age of Claudius
and Nero. He was intimate with Seneca •, and the
encomiums which Tacitus palled upon his ftyle, make
us regret the lofs of his competitions.
£). Fabius Maximus, a celebrated Roman, who
from a dull and inaftive childhood w’as raifed to the
higheft offices of the ftate. In his firft confulfhip he
obtained a vifloryover Liguria ; and the fatal battle of
Thrafymenus occafioned his eleftion to the diftator-
ftiip. In this important office he began to oppofe
Hannibal, not by fighting him in the open field, like
his predeceffors, but he continually haraffed his army
by countermarches and ambufeades, from which he re¬
ceived the furname of Cunciator or Delayer. Hannibal
fent him word, “ That if he was as great a captain as
he would be thought, he ought to come into the plain
and give him battle.” But Fabius coldly replied,
“ That if he was as great a captain as he wmuld be
thought, he would do well to force him to fight.”
Such operations for the commander of the Roman ar¬
mies gave offence to fome j and Fabius w as even accuf-
ed of cowardice. He, however, continued firm in his
firft refolutions; and patiently bore to fee his mafter of
horfe raifed to ffiare the dictatorial dignity with him-
felf by means of his enemies at home. When he had
laid down his office of diflator, his fucceffors for a
while followed his plan ; but the rafhnels of Varro, and
his contempt for the operations of Fabius, occafioned
the fatal battle of Canute. Tarentum was obliged to
furrender to his arms after the battle of Cannae j and
on that occafion the Carthaginian army obferved that
Fabius was the Hannibal of Rome. When he had
made an agreement with Hannibal for the ranfom of
the captives, which was totally difapproved by the
Roman fenate, he fold all his eftates to pay the mo¬
ney, rather than forfeit his word to the enemy. The
bold propofal of young Scipio to go and carry the
war from Italy to Africa, was rejected by Fabius as
chimerical and dangerous. He did not, however, live
to fee the fuccefs of the Roman arms under Scipio,
and the conqueft of Carthage by meafures w'hich he
treated with contempt and heard with indignation.
He died in the 100th year of his age, after he had
been five times conful, and twice honoured with a
triumph. The Romans were fo fenfible of his great
merit and fervices, that the expences of his funeral
were defrayed from the public treafury. Flis fon bore
the ’ame name, and {hewed himfelf worthy of his noble
father’s virtues. During his confullhip he received a
vifit from his father on horfeback in the camp. The
fon ordered his father to difmount •, and the old man
cheerfully obeyed, embracing his fon, and faying, “ I
wiftied to know whether you knew what it is to be
conful.” Fie died before his father, and Cunftator
with the moderation of a philofopher delivered a fune¬
ral oration over the dead body of his Ion.
Fabius, Ityled Piclor, a Roman general and hifto¬
rian. He firft introduced painting at Rome; and hav¬
ing caufed the walls of the temple of Health to be
painted, fome authors have erroneoufly reckoned him
a painter. He died about 216 B. C.
Fable, a tale, or feigned narration, defigned either
to inftrudl or divert, difguiled under the allegory of an
aftion, &e.
Fables were the firft pieces of wit that made their
appearance in the world \ and have continued to be
highly valued, not only in times of the greateft fimpli-
city, but in the moft polite ages of the world. Jo-
tham’s fable of the trees is the oldeft that is extant,
and as beautiful as any that have been made fince.
Nathan’s fable of the poor man is next in antiquity.
We find Hi fop in the moft diftant ages of Greece j and
in the early days of the Roman commonwealth, we read
of a mutiny appealed by the fable of the belly and the
members. As fables had their rife in the very infancy
of learning, they never flourifhed more than when
learning was at its greateft height j witnefs Horace,
Boileau, and Fontaine.
Fable is the fineft way of giving counfel, and moft
univerfally pleafing, becaufe lead: {hocking j for, in the
reading of a fable, a man thinks he is direfling himfelf,
w’hi 1ft he is following the didlates of another, and con-
fequently is not fenfible of that which is the moft un-
pleafing circumftance in advice. Befides, the mind is
never fo much pleafed as when fhe exerts herfelf in any
aftion that gives her an idea of her own abilities; this
natural pride of the foul is very much gratified in the
reading of fable.
Fable, is alfo ufed for the plot of an epic or dra¬
matic poem j and is, according to Ariftotle, the prin¬
cipal part, and, as it were, the foul of the poem. Sue
Poetry.
FABRI, Honorius, a laborious Jefuit, born in the
diocefe of Bellay, diftinguiftred himfelf by his {kill in
philofophy and the mathematics, and by writing a
great number of books 5 the moft curious of which
treat of geometry, optics, the loadftone, the motion of
the earth, the ebbing and {lowing of the fea, &c. He
died at Rome in i 688.
FABRIANO, Gektile da, painter of hiftory, was
born at Verona in 1312, and became a difciple o Gio¬
vanni da Fiefole. In that early age of painting he
rendered himfelf very famous, and was employed to
adorn a great number of churches and palaces at Flo¬
rence, Urbino, Siena, Perufia, and Rome, but parti¬
cularly in the Vatican j and one picture of his, re; re-
fenting the Virgin and Child, attended by Jufeph,
which is preferved in the church of S. Maria Maggiore,
was highly commended by Michael Angelo. By or¬
der of the doge and fenate of Venice, he painted a
picture in the great council chamber, which was con-
fidered as fo extraordinary a performance, that his em¬
ployers granted him a penfion for life, and conferred on
him the higheft honour of their ftate, which was .he
3 D 2 privilege
Falitus
!)
Fabii a no.
FAB
Fabriano
Fabricius.
privilege of wearing the habit of a noble Venetian
He died in 1412.
FABRIC, in general, denotes the ftrufhire or con-
liruftion of any thing j but particularly of buildings,
as a church, hall, houfe, &d. See Architecture.
FABRIC Lands, thofe formerly given towards re*
building and repairing of cathedrals and other churches j
for anciently almoft every body gave more or lefs, by
his will, to the fabric of the parilh church where he
dwelt.
FABRICIUS, C. a celebrated Roman, who in his
firft confullhip, year of Rome 470, obtained feveral
viftories over the Samnites and Lucanians, and Avas
honoured with a triumph. The riches which were ac¬
quired in thofe battles were immenfe, the foldiers were
liberally rewarded by the conful, and the treafury was
enriched with 400 talents. Two years after, Fabri¬
cius went as ambaffador to Pyrrhus, and refufed with
contempt prefents, and heard with indignation offers,
Avhich might have corrupted the fidelity of a left vir¬
tuous citizen. Pyrrhus had occafion to admire the
magnanimity of Fabricius j but his aftonilhment was
more powerfully awakened when he faw him make a
difeovery of the perfidious offers of his phyfician, rvho
pledged himfelf to the Roman general for a fum of
money to poifon his royal mailer. To this greatneft
of foul was added the moll confummate knowledge of
military affairs, and the greatell fimplicity of manners.
Fabricius never ufed rich plate at his table. A fmall
falt-celler, the feet of which were of horn, was the only
filver veffel which appeared in his houfe. This contempt
fflf luxury and ufeleft ornaments Fabricius Avilhed to in-
fpire among the people ; and during his cenforlhip he
banilhed from the fenate Cornelius Rufhnus, Avho had
been twice conful and dictator, becaufe he kept in his
houfe more than ten pounds Aveight of filver plate.
Such w'ere the manners of the conqueror of Pyrrhus,
who obferved that he Avilhed rather to command thole
that had money, than pofleft it himfelf. He lived and
died in the greatell poverty. His body was buried at
the public charge, and the Roman people Avere obliged
to give a dowry to his twro daughters Avhen they had
arrived at years of maturity.
Fabricius, George, a learned German, born at
Chemnitz in Mifnia, in 1516. After a liberal edu¬
cation, he Aulited Italy in quality of tutor to a young
nobleman ; and, examining all the remains of antiqui¬
ty Avith great accuracy, compared them with their de-
feriptions in Latin writers. The refult of thefe obfer-
vations was his work entitled Roma, containing a de-
feription of that city. He aftenvards fettled at Mife-
num, Avhere he conduced a great fchool to the time of
his death in 1571. He was alfo the author of a great
number of facred Latin poems, wrote feven books of
the Annals of M'tfnia, three of the Annals of Meiffen,
and Travels.
Fabricius, Jerom, a celebrated phyfician in the
latter end of tire 16th century (furnamed Aquapendente,
from the place of his birth), rvas the difciple and luc-
•effor of Fallopius. He chiefly applied himfelf to for¬
gery and anatomy, which he profeffed at Padua for 40
years with extraordinary reputation. The republic of
Venice fettled a large penfion upon him, and honoured
him, with a gold chain and a ftatue. He died in 1603 }
[ 30 1
FAC
leaving behind him feveralworks Avhich are much ef-
teemed.
Fabricius, John Albert, one of the moll learned
and laborious men of his age, was born at Leipfic in
1668. He was chofen profeffor of eloquence at Ham¬
burgh in 1699, and was made doftor of divinity at
Kiel. His Avorks are numerous : and he died at Ham¬
burgh in 1736, after a life fpent in the feverelt literary
application to colledl and publifh valuable remains of
ancient learning.
Fabricius, Vincent, born at Hamburgh in 1613,
Avas a good poet, a great orator, an able phyfician, and
a learned civilian. He was for fome time counfellor
to the bilhop of Lubec, and afterward burgomalter and
fyndic of the city of Dantzic ; from Avhenee he was
13 times fent deputy into Poland, where he died at
WarfaAv in 1657, during the diet of that kingdom.
The moll complete edition of F'abricius’s poems and
other works was publilhed at Leipfic in 1685, under
the diredion of his fon Frederic Fabricius.
Fabricius, Baron, one of the finell gentlemen of
his time, and knoAvn to the public by his letters rela¬
ting to the tranfadions of Charles XII. of Sweden du¬
ring bis refidence in the Ottoman empire, Avas defeend-
ed from a good family in Germany. He was taken
early into the fervice of the court of Holllein 5 and was
fent in a public charader to the king of Sweden Avhilft
he was at Bender j where he foon acquired the good
graces of that prince. He accompanied him in his
exercifes ; gave him a turn for reading ; and it Avas
out of his hand Charles {hatched Boileau’s fatires, when
he tore out thofe that reprefented Alexander the Great
as a madman. Fabricius was alfo in favour Avith Sta-
niilaus, and with our King George I. Avhom he accom¬
panied in his lalt journey to Hanover, and Avas with
him when he died. A tranllation of his letters Avas
publilhed in London 1761.
FABROT, Charles Hannibal, one of the molt
celebrated civilians of his time, Avas born at Aix in
1681 j and acquired an extraordinary Ikill in the civil
and canon law, and in the belles lettres. He publilh¬
ed the Baflicce, or Conllitutions of the Emperors of the
Eail, in Greek and Latin, with learned notes, in feven
Amis, folio j and editions of Cedrenus, Nicetas, Anajlafius
Bibliothecarius, Qonflantine ManaJJes, and Cujas, with
learned and curious notes.
F'ABULOUS, fomething confilling of, or connefl-
ed with, a fable.
Fabulous Age, among ancient hillorians. See
Age.
FACE, the fur face, or firll fide which a body pre¬
fents to the eye. We fay, the face of the earth, of the
Avaters, &c. Polyhedrons have feveral faces. A die,
or cube, has fix faces.
Face, is particularly ufed for the vifage of an ani¬
mal, and efpecially of man ; and comprehends, in the
latter, all that part of the head which is not covered
Avith the common long hair. The Latins call it facies,
vultus, OS, &.C.
The human face is called the image of the foul, as
being the feat of the principal organs of fenfe ; and the
place Avhere the ideas, emotions, &c. of the foul are-
chiefly fet to view. Pride and difdain are lliown in the
eyebrows, modelly on the cheeks, majelly in the fore¬
head,.
Fabricius
dL.
FAC [ 397 1 FAC
head, &c. It is the face ftiows the fex, age, tempera¬
ment, health,,or difeafe, &e.
The face, confidered as the index of the paffions,
habits, Sic. of the perfon, makes the fubjeft of phy-
iiognomy. See Physiognomy.
Face,, among painters and artifts, is ufed to denote
a certain dimeniion of the human body, adopted for de¬
termining the proportion which the feveral parts fhould
bear to one another. See Drawing.
Face,, in the military art, a word of command, in¬
timating to turn about : thus, face to the right, is to
turn upon the left heel a quarter-round to the right \
and, face to the left, is to turn upon the right heel a-
quarter-round to the left.
FACIES Hipfocratica, in Medicine, is when the
noftrils are iliarp, the eyes hollow, the temples low,
the tips of the ears conlrafted and cold, the forehead
dry and wrinkled, and the complexion pale or livid.—
The Hippocratic face is chiefly obferved towards the
period of phthifis pulmonalis, and other confumptions,
and is held a fure prognoltic of death. If it appear
within three days after the attack of an acute dii'eafe,
it is deemed to indicate death.
FACTION, a cabal or party formed in a Hate, city,
or company.
Faction, in antiquity, a name given to the differ¬
ent companies of combatants in the circus. They were
four, viz. the white, the red, the green, and the blue j
to which the Domitian added another of purple colour.
They were fo denominated from the colour of the live¬
ries they wore j and were dedicated, according to M.
Aur. Cafliodorus, to the four feafons of the year} the
green being confecrated to fpring, the blue to winter,
the red to fummer, and the white to autumn. It ap¬
pears from ancient infcriptions, that each faction had
its procurators and phyfician j and from hiftory, that
party rage ran fo high among them, that in a diffen-
fion between two factions, in the time of Juftinian, al-
moft 40,coo men loft their lives in the quarrel.
FACTITIOUS, any thing made by art, in oppoft-
tion to what is the production of nature. Thus, facti¬
tious cinnabar is oppofed to native cinnabar.
FACTOR, in commerce, is an agent employed by
merchants refiding at other places, to buy or fell goods,
or negotiate bills, or tranfaft any kind of bufinefs on
their account} and entitled to a certain allowance for
his trouble.
A fupercargo differs from a faCtor in this : The bu¬
finefs of the former is limited to the care of a particu¬
lar cargo *, he goes along with it, and generally re¬
turns when his bufinefs is completed : the latter has a
fixed refidence abroad, and executes bufinefs for differ¬
ent merchants. But their duties, and the circumftan-
ees for which they are accountable, are the lame.
The duty of a faCtor is to procure the beft intelli¬
gence of the ftate of trade at his place of refidence ; of
the courfe of exchange 5 of the quantity and quality
of goods at market, their prefent price, and the pro¬
bability that it may rife or fall : to pay exaCt obedience
to the orders of his employers j to eonfult their advan¬
tage in matters referred to his di reft ion ; to execute
their bufinefs with all the difpatch that circumftances
admit •, to be early in his intelligence, diftinft in his
accounts, and punftual in his eorrefpondence.
Afaftor’s power is cither abfolute or limited. Though
intrufted with ample diferetionary powers, he is not
warranted to take unreafonable or unufual meafures, or
do any thing contrary to his employer’s intereft j but
it is incumbent on the employer, if he challenge Iun
proceedings, to prove that he could have done better,
and was guilty of wilful mifmanagement.
When a faftor’s power is limited, he muft adhere
ftriftly to his orders. If he exceeds his power, though
with a view to his employer’s intereft, he is liable for
the confequence. For example, if he gives credit when
not empowered, or longer credit il not empowered, for
the fake of a better price, and the buyer proves infol-
vent, he is liable for the debt. A faftor has no power
to give credit unlefs authorized : But if the goods
configned be generally fold on credit at the place of
confignation, the faftor will be vindicated for felling at
the ufual credit, unlefs exprefsly reftrifted.
Although opinion will never juftify the faftor for
departing from orders, neceffity fometimes will. If he
be limited not to fell goods under a certain price, and
the goods be perifhable, and not in a fituation for be¬
ing kept, he may fell them, to prevent their deftruftion,
even under the price limited.
A faftor is never warranted to deal on truft, ex¬
cept with perfons in good credit at the time. If the
employer challenge the debtors,, it is incumbent on
him to prove that their bad circumftances were known
at the time of fale ; and the faftor will be vindicated,
if he trufted them at the fame time for goods of his
own.
If the faftor fells his employer’s goods on truft, and,
after the day of payment is elapfed, receive payment
from the purchafer for a debt of his own, he becomes
liable in equity for the debt.
In cafe of bankruptcy, the faftor ought immediately
to lay attachments, and advife his employers ; and he
cannot withdraw his attachments, nor compound debts,
Without orders.
If a faftor fells goods belonging to different mer¬
chants to the fame perfon, and the buyer proves, infol-
vent, they ftiall bear the lofs in equal proportions $
and if the buyer has paid part before his infolvency,
without fpecifying for which, the payment ought to
be diftributed in equal proportions j but, if the days
of payment be fixed, and part of the debts only due,
the payment ought to be applied, in the firft place, to
fuch debts as were due.
If he makes a wrong entry at the cuftom-houfe, and
the goods be feized in confequence thereof, he mull;
bear the lofs, unlefs the error be occafioned by a mif-
take in the invoice, or letter of advice.
The owner bears the lofs of goods feized when at¬
tempted to be fmuggled by his orders 5 but the faftor
complying with an unlawful order is liable in fuch pe¬
nalties as the laws exaft.
If a faftor faves the duty of goods due to a foreign
prince, he thall have the benefit j for, if detefted, he
bears the lofs.
If a faftor fells goods bought by his employer’s
orders for his own advantage, the employer may reco¬
ver the benefit, and the faftor fhall be amerced for the
fame.
If a faftor receives bad money in payment, he bears
the lofs ; but if the value of the money be leffened by
the government, the employer bears the the lofs.
A'.
FAC r 398 1 FAG
A faftor Is not liable for goods fpoiled, robbed, or
Faculty ^eftroye<i by fire.
' If a fadlor receives counterfeit jewels from his em¬
ployer, and fells them, the employer is liable to indem¬
nify him for any penalties he may incur.
If a faftor be ordered to make infurance, and ne-
gleft it, and the fubjeft be loft, he is liable to make it
good, providing he'had effefts in his hands.
If a faftor buys goods for his employer, his bargain
fhall be binding on the employer.
In cafe of a factor’s infolvency, the owner may re¬
claim his goods ; and, if they be fold on truft, the
owner (and not the faftor’s creditors) fliall recover pay¬
ment of the debts..
Factor, in multiplication, a name given to the mul¬
tiplier and multiplicand, becaufe they eonftitute the
produft. See Arithmetic.
FACTORAGE, called 2\[q commijjion^ is the al¬
lowance given to fadlors by the merchant who employs
them.
A fa&or’s commiflion in Britain, on moft kinds of
goods, is 2f per cent. •, on lead, and fome other ar¬
ticles, 2 per cent. ; in Italy, per cent.; in France,
Holland, Spain, Portugal, Hamburgh, and Dantzic,
2 per cent.: in Turkey, 3 per cent. 5 in North Ameri¬
ca, 5 per cent, on fales, and 3 per cent, on returns j in
the Weft Indies, 8 per cent, for commiflion and ftorage.
In fome places, it is cuftomary for the factors to enfure
the debts for an additional alkvwance, generally if per
cent. In that cafe, they are accountable for the debt
"when the ufual term of credit is expired.
Faftorage on goods is fometimes charged at a cer¬
tain rate per calk, or other package, meafure, or weight,
efpecially when the fadtor is only employed to receive
or. deliver them.
FACTORY is a place where a confiderable number
of faftors refide, to negotiate for their mafters or em¬
ployers. See Factor.
The moft confiderable factories belonging to the
Britifti are thofe eftabliftied in the Eaft Indies, Portu¬
gal, Turkey, &c. There are alfo Englifh faftories
eftabliftied at Hamburgh, Peterlburgh, Dantzic, and in
Holland ; all endowed with certain privileges.
FACTUM, in Arithmetic, the produft of two quan¬
tities multiplied by each other.
FACUL/E, in AJlronomy, certain bright and Ihining
parts, which the modern aftronomers have, bv means of
telefcopes, obferved upon or about the furface of the
iun } tney are but feldom feen.— I he word is pure
Latin •, being a diminutive of fax, “ torch and fup-
pofed to be here applied from their appearing and dif-
appearing by turns.
FACULI Y, in Law, a privilege granted to a per-
fon, by favour and indulgence, of doing what, by law,
he ought not to do.
For granting thefe privileges, there is a court under
the archbithop of Canterbury, called the court of the
faculties. The chief officer of this court is ftyled mafer
of the faculties, and has a power of granting difpenfa-
tions in divers cafes: as to marry without the bans be¬
ing firft publiftved, to eat flefti on days prohibited, to
ordain a deacon under age, for a fon to fucceed his fa¬
ther in his benefice, a clerk to hold two or more liv¬
ings, &e.
Faculty, in the fohools, a term applied to the dif-
1 4
ferent members of an univerfity, divided according to
the arts and fciences taught there : thus in moft univer-
fities there are four faculties, viz. 1. Of arts, which
include humanity and philofophy. 2. Of theology.
3. Of phyfic. And, 4. Of civil law.
Faculty of Advocates. See Advocates.
Iaculty is alfo ufed to denote the powers of the hu¬
man mind, viz. underftanding, will, memory, and ima¬
gination. See Metaphysics.
FAECES, in Chetniflry, the grofs matter, or fedi-
ment, that fettles at the bottom after diftillation, fer¬
mentation, and the like.*—I he freces of wine are com¬
monly called Lees.
Faxes, in Medicine, the excrements voided by ftook
See Excrements.
FyECULENT, in general, is applied to things
abounding with feces or dregs: thus the blood and
other humours of the human body are faid to be fe¬
culent, when without that purity which is neceffary to
health.
FAENSA, a city and bilhop’s fee of Italy, fituated
in the pope’s territories, about 30 miles eaft of Bolog¬
na. E. Long. 12. 38. and N. Lat. 44. 30.
FAENZA, a city of Romagna in Italy with a bi-
ftiop’s fee. It is an ancient place, and has undergone
various revolutions. The river Amona wafties its walls,
and pafles between the city and the fuburbs, which are
joined by a ftone bridge defended by two good towers.
The city is remarkable for its earthen ware, which is
the beft in all Italy.
FAERNUS, Gabriel, a native of Cremona in Ita¬
ly, was an excellent Latin poet and critic of the 16th
century. He was fo fkilled in all parts of polite lite¬
rature, that the cardinal de Medicis, afterward Pope
Pius IV. was particularly fond of him. He was the
author of fome Latin elegies 5 of 100 Latin fables, fe-
lefted from the ancients, written in iambic verfe 5 and
of feveral pieces of criticifm, as Cenfura emendationum
Livianarum, De Metris Comicis, &c. He was re¬
markably happy in deciphering manufcripts, and re-
ftoring ancient authors to their purity : he took fuch
pains with Terence in particular, that Bentley has
adopted all his notes in the edition he gave of that
writer. He died at Rome in 1561; and Thuanus,
who wrote his eloge, fays that the learned world was
greatly obliged to him ; yet had been ftill more fo, if,
inftead of fupprefling the then unknown fables of Phse-
drus, for fear of lelfening the value of his own Latin
fables, written in imitation of YEfop, he had been con¬
tent with imitating them. M. Perrault, however, who
tranflated Faernus’s fables into French, has defended
him from this imputation, by affirming that the firft
MS. of Phsedrus’s fables, found in the dull of an old
library, was not difcovered till about 30 years after
Faernus’s death.
FA GAR A, Iron Wood •, a genusofplantsbelonging
to the tetrandria clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 43d < rder, Dumofe. See Botany Index.
FAGE, Raimond dp. la, an excellent defigner and
engraver, highly efteemed by Carlo Maratti, was bom
at Fouloufe in 1648 He applied himfelf to dtfign-
ing, through inclination, in fpite of his parents 5 and
had no mafter nor any affiftance : but his fuperior ta¬
lents fupplicd the want of them, and he became one of
the beft defigners in Europe j his performances on li¬
centious
Faculty
FAG ' [ 399 ] F A I
page centious fubje&s are the moft efteemed. It is reported
1| of this artift, that he never made ufe of money, but
Fagus- contrafted debts •, and when the accounts were brought
-'v " him, he made fome defign upon the back of the bills,
and bid the owners fell the drawings to connoifleurs for
the amount, by which they were generally great gainers.
Several of thole drawings are yet in the cabinets of the
curious. He led a loofe, depraved life ; and his re¬
peated debaucheries put an end to it at the age of 42.
FAGGOT, in times of Popery here, was a badge
worn on the lleeve of the upper garment of fuch per-
fons as had recanted or abjured what was then termed
herefy ; being put on after the perfon had carried a fag¬
got, by way of penance, to lome appointed place of
folemnity. The leaving off the wear of this badge w as
fometimes interpreted a lign of apoflafy.
Faggots, among military men, perfons hired by
officers, whofe companies are not full, to muffer and
hide the deficiencies of the company \ by which means
they cheat the king of fo much money.
FAG1US, Paul, alias Buchlin, a learned Protef-
tant minilter, born at Rheinzabem in Germany in
1504. He was a fchoolmafter at Ifna j but afterwards
became a zealous preacher, and wrote many books.
The perfecution in Germany menacing danger to all
who did not profefs the Romifh doctrines, he and Bu-
cer came over to England in 1549, at the invitation of
Archbilhop Cranmer, to perfedt a new tranflation of the
Scriptures. Fagius took the Old Teftament, and Bu-
cer the New, for their refpedlive parts •, but the defign
was at that time fruftrated by the hidden deaths of
both. Fagius died in Fli0* an<^ Bu er did not live
above a year after Their bodies were dug up and
burned in the reign of Queen Mary.
FAGONIA, a genus of plants belonging to thede-
candria clals, and in the natural method ranking under
the 14th order, Gruinales. See Botany Index
FAGOPYRUM, or Buck Wheat. See Poly-
goxum, Botany Index.
FAGUS, the Beech Tree*, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the monoecia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 50th order, Amentacece. See
Botany Index.
The chefnut tree, one of the fpecies belonging to this
genus, fometimes grows to an immenfe fize. The lar-
geft in the known world are thofe which grow upon
Mount ./Etna in Sicily. At Tortworth in Gloueef-
terlhire, is a chefnut tree 52 feet round. It is proved
to have flood there ever fince the year 1150, and
was then fo remarkable that it was called the great
chefnut of Tortworth. It fixes the boundary of the ma¬
nor, and is probably near 1000 years old. As an orna¬
mental, the ehefnut, though unequal to the oak, the
beech, and the efculus, has a degree ofgreatnefs belong¬
ing to it which recommends it ftrongly to the gardener’s
attention. Its ufes have been highly extolled *, and it
may deferve a confiderable lhare of the praife which
has been given it. As a fubftitute for the oak, it is
preferable to the elm. For door-jambs, window-
frames, and fome other purpofes of the houfe carpen¬
ter, it is nearly equal to oak itfelf j but it is very apt
to be lhakey, and there is a deceitful brittlenefs in it
which renders it unfafe to be ufed as beams, or in any
other fituation where an uncertain load is required to
be borne. It is univcrfally allowed to be excellent for
liquor calks) as not being liable to flirink nor to Fagus
change the colour of the liquor it contains j it is alfo ^li.^
ftrongly recommended as an underwood for hop-poles,
ftakes, &c. Its fruit too is valuable, not only for
fwine and deer, but as a human food : Bread is laid to
have been made of it. Upon the whole, the chefnut,
whether in the light of ornament or ufe, is undoubted¬
ly an objeft of the planter’s notice.
FAINT action, in Law, a feigned acftion, or fuch
as, although the words of the writ are true j yet for
certain caufes, the plaintiff has no title to recover
thereby.
FAINT Pleader, in Law, a covinous, falfe, or col-
lufory manner of pleading, to the deceit of a third per¬
fon.
FAINTING. See Lipothymia, Medicine Index.
F ANTS, in the diftillery, the weak fpintuous li¬
quor that runs from the ftill in rectifying the low wines
after the proof-fpirit is taken off.
Faints are alfo thelaft runnings of all diftilled fpirits.
The clearing the worm of thele is fo eflential a point in
order to the obtaining a pure fpirit by the fublequent
diftillation, that all others are fruitlefs without it.
FAIR, a greater kind of market, granted to a
town, by privilege, for the more Ipeedy a.id commo¬
dious providing of fuch things as the place ftands in
need of.
The w’ord fair, is formed from the French foire,
which fignifies the fame thing ; and foire is by lome
derived from the Latin forum, “ market *,” by others
from the Latin feme, becaufe anciently fairs were al¬
ways held in the places where the wakes, or feafts of
the dedications of churches, called fence, were held.
See Ferine.
It is incident to a fair, that perfons ihould be free from
being arrefted in it for any other debt or contract than
what ivas contracted in the fame; or, at leait, promi-
fed to be paid there. Thefe fairs are generally kept
once or twice a-year : and, by ftatute, they lhail not be
held longer than they ought by the lords thereof, on
pain of their being feized into the king’s hands, &c.
Alfo proclamation is to be made, how long they arc
to continue ; and no perfon ftiall fell any goods after
the time of the fair is ended, on forfeiture of double'
the value, one-fourth to the profecutor and the re . to'
the king. There is a toll uiually paid in fairs on the'
fale of things, and for ftallage, picage, &c.
Fairs abroad are either free, or charged with toll
and impoft. The privileges of free fairs confift chief¬
ly, fir ft, in that all traders, &c. whether natives
or foreigners, are allowed to enter the kingdom, and
are under the royal protection, exempt from duties, im-
pofitions, tolls, &c. Secondly, that merchants, in go¬
ing or returning, cannot be molefted or arrefted, or
their goods flopped. They are eftablifhed by letters-
patent from the prince. Fairs, particularly free fairs,
make a very confiderable article in the commerce of
Europe, efpecially that of the Mediterranean, and in¬
land parts of Germany, 8cc.
The moft; celebrated fairs in Europe are thofe,
1. Of Francfort, held twice a-year, in fpring and
autumn: the firft commencing the Sunday before
Palm-Sunday, and the other on the Sunday before
the eighth of September. Each lafis 14 days, or two
weeks; the firft of which is called the week of accep¬
tance^
F A I [ 4°° 1 F A I
tance, and'the fecond the xveek of payment. They are
famous for the fale of all kinds of commodities ; but
particularly for the immenfe quantity of curious books
•nowhere elfe to be found, and whence the bookfellers
throughout all Europe ufed to furniih themfelves. Be¬
fore each fair, there is a catalogue of all the books to
be fold thereat, printed and difperfed, to call together
purchafers : though the learned complain of divers un¬
fair pradlices therein; as fictitious titles, names of
books purely imaginary, &c. befide great faults in the
names of the authors, and the titles of the real books.
—2. The fairs of Leipfic, which are held thrice a-
year *, one beginning on the firft of January j another
three weeks after Eafter ; and a third after Michael¬
mas. They hold 12 days a-piece •, and are at leaft
as confiderable as thofe of Francfort. 3. The fairs
of Novi, a little city in the Milanefe, under the do¬
minion of the republic of Genoa. There are four in
the year, commencing on the fecond of February, the
fecond of May, the firrt of Auguft, and fecond of
September. Though the commodities bought and
fold here be very confiderable 5 yet, what chiefly con¬
tributes to render them fo famous, is the vaft con-
courfe of the mofl confiderable merchants and nego¬
tiants of the neighbouring kingdoms, for the tranfaft-
ing of affairs and fettling accounts. 4. The fairs of
Riga, whereof there are two in the year 5 one in May,
and the other in September. They are much fre¬
quented by the Englifh, Dutch, and French (hips, as
alfo from all parts of the Baltic. The beft time for
the fale of goods at Riga is during the fairs. Since
the building of the famous city of Peterfburgh, thefe
fairs have fuffered fome diminution. 5. Fair of Arch¬
angel, during which all the trade foreigners have with
that city is managed. It holds a month, or fix w'eeks
at moft, commencing from the middle of Auguff.
The Mufcovite merchants attend here from all parts
of that vaft empire •, and the Englifh, Dutch, French,
Swedifh, Danilh, and other ftiips in the port of that
city, on this occafion, ordinarily amount to 300. But
this is no free fair as the reft are : The duties of ex¬
portation and importation are very ftriftly paid, and
on a very high footing. 6. The fair of St Germain,
one of the fuburbs of Paris, commencing on the third
of February, and holding till Eafter ; though it is
only free for the firft 15 days. The fairs of Lyons,
which Monf. du Chefne, in his antiquity of cities,
would infinuate, from a paffage in Strabo, were efta-
blilhed by the Romans j though it is certain, the fairs
as they now ftand, are of a much later date. There
are three in the year, each lalting 2o days, and free
for ever. They begin on Eafter Monday, the 26th
of July, and the firrt of December. 8. Fair of Guibray,
a luburbof the city of Falaife, in the Imwer Normandy.
It is faid to have been eftablifhed by our William the
Conqueror, in confideration of his being born at Falaife.
It commences on the 16th of Auguft; and holds 15
days free by charter, and longer by cuftom. 9. Fair of
Beau^aire, held partly in a city of that name, in Lan¬
guedoc, and partly in the open country, under tents,
&c. It commences on the 2 2d of July, and only holds
for three days ; yet it is the greateft and moft celebrat¬
ed of all the fairs in that part of Europe, both for the
concourfe of ftrangers from all parts of the world, and
for the traffic of all kinds of goods : the money return-
1
ed in thefe three days amounting fame times to above fix
millions of livres.
The fairs of Porto-Bello, Vera Cruz, and the Ha-
vannah, are the moft confiderable of all thofe in Ame¬
rica. The two firft laft as long as the flota and gal¬
leons continue in thofe ports; and the laft is opened as
foon as the flota or galleons arrive there upon their re¬
turn for Spain ; this being the place where the two
fleets join. See Flota and Galleons.
The principal Britilh fairs are, 1. Sturbridge fair,
near Cambridge, by far the greateft in Britain, and
perhaps in the world. 2. Briftol has two fairs, verv
near as great as that of Sturbridge. 3. Exeter. 4.
Weft Chefter. 5. Edinburgh. 6. Wheyhill; and,
7. Burford fair; both for Iheep. 8. Pancras fair,
in Staffordftiire, for faddle-horfes. 9. Bartholomew-
fair, at London, for lean and Wellh black cattle.
10. St Faith’s, in Norfolk, for Scotch runts. 11.
Yarmouth filhing fair for herrings ; the only fifliing fair
in Great Britain. 12. Ipfwich butter fair. 13. Wood-
borough-hill, in Dorfetlhire, for weft country manufac¬
tures, as kerfeys, druggets, &c. 14. Two cheefe fairs
at Chipping Norton : with innumerable other fairs, be-
fides weekly markets, for all forts of goods, as well our
own as of foreign growth.
Fair, in fea-language, is ufed for the difpofition of
the wind, when it is favourable to a thip’s courfe, in op-
pofition to that which is contrary or foul. The term
fair is more comprehenfive than iarge, and includes a-
bout 16 or 18 points of the compafs; whereas large is
confined to the beam or quarter, that is, to a wind
which croffes the keel at right angles, or obliquely from
the ftern, but never to one right a-ftern.
Fair Ifle, a fmall ifland lying between Orkney and
Shetland, 10 or 12 leagues E. N. E. from the former ;
and feven, eight, or 10 leagues S. W. from the latter.
It is three miles long, and fcarely half a mile broad,
very craggy, with three high rocks which are vifible
both from Orkney and Shetland. It contains a fmall
quantity of arable land, which is very fruitful and well
manured ; excellent pafturage for fheep ; and affords
great plenty of fea and water fowl, and all kinds of fifh
upon the coafts. There is in efteft no port, though
they have two that are nominally fo: one at the fouth
end, which is full of rocks, where only fmall boats can
lie ; the other at the north-eaft end, larger and fafer in
fummer, fo that it ferves commodioully enough for
their filhery. The duke of Medina Sidonia, when com¬
mander of the famous Spanifh armada in 1 ;88, was
wrecked on the eaft coaft of this ifland. The fhip
broke to pieces, but the duke and 200 made their ef-
cape. They lived here fo long, that both they and the
inhabitants were almoft famiihed. . At length the duke
and the poor remains of his people were carried over to
the main land of Shetland, and then to Dunkirk, by
one Andrew Humphry, for which fervice Andrew was
rewarded with 3000 merks. This ifland produced to
its former proprietor between 50 and 60I. fterling. It
was fold at Edinburgh in 1766, for about 8.5OL to
James Stewart of Burgh, Efq.
FAlR-curve, is a winding line, ufed in delineating
ftiips, whofe ftiape is varied, according to the part of
the ftiip which it is intend to deferibe.
FAIR-way, in fea language, the path or channel of
a narrow bay, river, or haven, in which Ihips ufually
advance
F A I [ 401 ] F A I
advance in their paflage up and down ; fo that if any
vefiels are anchored therein, they are faid to lie in the
fair-way.
FAIRFAX, Edward, natural fon of Sir Thomas
Fairfax, was an Englifli poet who lived in the reigns
of Elizabeth and James I. He wrote feveral poetical
pieces, and was an accomplilhed genius. Dryden in¬
troduces Fairfax with Spenfer, as the leading writers
of the times ■, and even feems to give the preference
to the former in the way of harmony, when he obferves
that Waller owned himlelf indebted for the harmony
of his numbers to Fairfax’s Godfrey of Boulogne. He
died about the year 1632, at his own houfe called New-
hall, in the parifh of Fuyllon, between Denton and
Knarefborough, and lies under a marble ftone.
Fairfax, Sir Thomas, general of the parliamen¬
tary forces againft Charles I. in 1644. See [Hiflory
of) Britain, N° 127. ct feq. He refigned in 1650 j
after which he lived privately, till he was invited by
General Monk to affift him againft Lambert’s army.
He cheerfully embraced the occafion ; and, on the
third of December 1659, appeared at the head of a
body of gentlemen of Yorklhire ; when, upon the
reputation of his name, a body of 12,000 men for-
fook Lambert and joined him. He was at the head
of the committee appointed by the houfe of commons
to attend King Charles II. at tb* Hague, to defire
him fpeedily to return to England •, and having rea¬
dily aflifted in his reftoration, returned again to his
feat in the country j where he lived in a private man¬
ner till his death, which happened in 1671, in the
60th year of his age.—He wrote, fays Mr Walpole,
Memorials of Thomas Lord Fairfax, printed in 1699 j
and was not only an hiftorian, but a poet. In Mr
Thorefby’s mufeum were preferved in manufcript the
following pieces : The Pfalms of David, the Can¬
ticles, the Songs of Mofes, and other parts of Scrip¬
ture, verfified ; a poem on Solitude; Notes of Ser¬
mons, by his lordfhip, by his lady daughter of Ho¬
race Lord Vere, and by their daughter Mary the wife
of George fecond duke of Buckingham ; and a Trea-
tife on the Shortnefs of Life. But of all Lord Fairfax’s
works, fays Mr Walpole, the moft remarkable were
the verfes he wrote on the horfe on which Charles II.
rode to his coronation, and which had been bred and
prefented to the king by his lordlhip. How muft that
merry monarch, unapt to keep his countenance on more
ferious occafions, have fmiled at this awkivard homage
from the old vidlorious hero of republicanifm and the
covenant ! He gave a colledtion of manufcripts to the
Bodleian library.
FAIRFORD, a town in Glouceflerftiire, with a
market on Thurfdays. It is remarkable for the church,
which has curious painted glafs windows. 1 bey are
faid to have been taken in a ftiip by John Tame,
Efq. towards the end of the 15th century, who built
the church for their fake. They are preferved entire,
and the figures are extremely well drawn and coloured.
They reprefent the moft remarkable hiftories in the
Old and New Teftament. They are frequently vifited
by travellers, and many go on purpofe to view them,
as one of the greateft curiofities in England. The
painter was Albert Durer. W. Long. i. 46. N. Lat.
51. 42.
FAIRY, in ancient traditions and romances, fig-
Vol. VIII. Part IL
nifies a fort of deity, or imaginary genius, converfant
on the earth, and diflinguifhed by a variety of fantal- '
tical actions either good or bad.
They were moft ufually imagined to be women of
an order fuperior to human nature, yet iubjeft to wants,
paflions, accidents, and even death ; Iprigbtly and be¬
nevolent while young and handfome •, moroie, peevifh,
and malignant, if ugly, or in the decline of their beau¬
ty ; fond of appearing in white, whence they are often
called the white ladies.
Concerning thefe imaginary being=, no lefs a perfon
than Jervaife of Tilleberry, marihal of the kingdom
of Arles, who lived in the beginning of the 13th cen¬
tury, writes thus in a work infcribed to the emperor
Otho IV. “ It has been aflerted by perfons of un¬
exceptionable credit, that fairies ufed to choole them*
felves gallants from among men, and rewarded their
attachment with an affluence of worldly goods ; but
if they married, or boafted of a fairy’s favours, they
as feverely fmarted for fuch indifcretion.” The like
tales ftill go current in Languedoc j and throughout
the whole province, there is not a village without fome
ancient feat or cavern which had the honour of being
a fairy’s refidence, or at leaft fome fpring where a
fairy ufed to bathe. This idea of fairies has a near
affinity with that of the Greeks and Romans, concern¬
ing the nymphs of the woods, mountains, and fprings j
and an ancient fcholiaft on Theocritus fays, “ The
nymphs are demons which appear on the mountains in
the figure of women and what is more furprifing, the
Arabs and other orientals have their ginn and peri, of
whom they entertain the like notions.
But fairies have been likewife defcribed as of either
fex, and generally as of minute ftature, though capable
of afluming various forms and dimenfions. The moft
charming reprefentation imaginable of thefe children
of romantic fancy, is in the Midfummer Night"1 s Dream
of Shakefpeare j in referring to which, we no doubt
have been anticipated by the recolleflion of almoft every
Fairy.
reader.
Spenfer’s Faery Queene is an epic poem, under the
perfons and charadters of fairies. This fort of poetry
raifes a pleafing kind of horror in the mind of the read¬
er, and atriufes his imagination with the ftrangenefs
and novelty of the perfons who are reprefented in it;
but, as a vehicle of inftruftion, the judicious object to
it, as not having probability enough to make any moral
impreffion.
The belief of fairies ftill fubfifts in many parts of eur
own country. The
“ Swart fairy of the mine”
(of German extraction), has fcarce yet quitted our fub-
terraneous works; {vid. next article). Puck, or Ro¬
bin Good-Fellow, ftill haunts many of our villages.
And in many parts of Scotland, new born children
are watched till the chriftening is over, left they ftiould
be ftolen or changed by fome of thefe fantaftical exif-
tences.
FAIRY of theMine; an imaginary being, aninhabitant
of mines. The Germans believed in two fpecies ; one
fierce and malevolent: the other a gentle race, appear¬
ing like little old men dreffed like the miners, and not
much above two feet high. Thefe wander about the
drifts and chambers of the works j feem perpetually
3 E employed.
* A I [ 402 1 F A K
employed, yet do nothing j fome feem to cut the ore,
or fling what is cut into veflels, or turn the windlafs :
but never do any harm to the miners, unlefs provoked j
as the fenfible Agricola, in this point credulous, relates
in his book de Aniinantibus Subterraneis.
FAlRT Circle or Ring, a phenomenon pretty fre¬
quent in the fields, &c. fuppofed by the vulgar to be
traced by the fairies in their dances. There are two
kinds of it j one of about feven yards in diameter, con¬
taining a round bare path, a foot broad, with green
grafs in the middle of it. The other is of different
bignefs, encompaffed with a circumference of grafs.
Meff. Jeffop and Walker, in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, afcribe them to lightning ; which is thought to
be confirmed by their being moft frequently produced
after ftorms of that kind, as well as by the colour and
brittlenefs of the grafs roots when firft obferved. Light-
ning, like all other fires, moves round, and burns more
in the extremity than in the middle : the fecond circle
arifes from the firft, the grafs burnt up growing very
plentifully afterwards. Others maintain that thefe
circles are made by ants, which are frequently found
in great numbers therein.—Mr Cavallo, in his treatife
on elefhicity, does not think that lightning is at all
Concerned in the formation of them : “ They are not
(fays he) always of a circular figure ; and, as I am in¬
formed, they feem to be rather beds of muftirooms than
the effects of lightning.
We have frequently obferved beds of mufhrooms ar¬
ranged in a circular form like what are called fairy
rings j but it will be difficult to account for the mufti-
room feed being difpofed in this manner. It is pro¬
bable that the feed is difperfed over the whole field, and
remains dormant till it is afted on by fome ftimulus to
excite its vegetating powers. Perhaps this ftimulus is
atmofpheric eledlricity, which adfing on particular fpots
only, produces on them an abundant crop of muftirooms,
while none appear in other places.
FAITH, in Phi/ofopky and Theology, that affent
which we give to a propofition advanced by another,
the truth of which we do not immediately perceive from
our own reafon or experience $ or it is a judgment or
affent of the mind, the motive whereof is not any in-
trinfic evidence, but the authority or teftimony of fome
other who reveals or relates it. Hence, as there are
two kinds of authorities and teftimonies, the one of
God, and the other of man, faith becomes diftinguiftied
into divine and human.
Divine FAITH, is that founded on the authority of
God j or it is that affent we give to what is revealed by
God.
The objefts of this faith, therefore, are matters of re¬
velation. See Revelation and Religion.
Human FAITH, is that whereby we believe what is
told us by men. The object hereof is matter of human
teftimony and evidence. See Metaphysics.
Faith, in practical theology, makes the firfl of the
theological virtues or graces.
Faith in God, in this fenfe, denotes fuch a convic¬
tion of his being, perfeftions, chara&er, and govern¬
ment, as produces love, truft, worftiip, obedience, and
refignation.
Faith in Chrift, as it has been defined by fome, is a
mere affent to the gofpel as true j according to others,
it fignifies fuch a perfuafion that he is the Mefliah, and
fuch a defire and expeftation of the bleffings which he
has promifed in his gofpel to his fincere difciples, as
engage the mind to fix its dependence upon him, and
fubjed itfelf to him in all the ways of holy obedience
See Theology.
_ Faith, likewife, in refpeft to futurity, is a moral prin¬
ciple, implying fuch a conviaion of the reality and im¬
portance of a future ftate, as is fufficient to regulate the
temper and condua.
. Faith, or Fidelity (Fides), was deified by the an¬
cient Romans, and had a temple in the Capitol confe-
crated to her by Attilius Catalinus. Her priefts wore
white veils : unbloody facrifices were offered to her
and the greateft oaths were taken in her name. Ho¬
race clothes her in white, places her in the retinue of
Fortune, and makes her the filter of Juftice, Od. 24,
35. 1. i. Public Faith is reprefented in a great number
of medals ; fometimes with a balket of fruit in one
hand, and fome ears of corn in the other ; and fome¬
times holding a turtle-dove. But the moft dual fym-
bol is two hands joined together. The infcriptions are
generally, Tides Augufti, Fides Exercitus, or Tides Mi.
litum, &c.
FAITHFUL, an appellation affumed by the Ma¬
hometans. See Mahometans.
FAI1HORN, William, an ingenious Englilh ar-
tift, a native of London, was the difciple of Peak the
painter, and worked with him three or four years.
At the breaking out of the civil war, Peak efpoufed
the caufe of his fovereign : and Faithorn, who ac¬
companied his mafter, was taken prifoner by the re¬
bels at Baringhoufe, from whence he was fent to Lon¬
don, and confined in Alderfgate. In this uncomfort¬
able fituation he exercifed his graver ; and a fmall
head of the firft Villars duke of Buckingham, in the
ftyle of Melan, is reckoned among his performances at
that time. The felicitations of his friends in his fa¬
vour at laft prevailed j and he was releafed from pri-
fon, with permiffion to retire to the continent. In
France he found encouragement and protedlion from
the Abbe de Marolles ; and it was at this time that
he formed an acquaintance with Nanteuil, from whofe
inftrudftions he derived very confiderable advantages.
About the year 1650 he returned to England, and
foon after married the filler of a Captain Ground.
By her he had too fons ; Henry, who was a bookfel-
ler, and William an engraver in mezzotinto. Fai¬
thorn opened a Ihop near Temple-Bar, where he fold
not only his own engravings, but thofe of other Eng¬
lilh artifts, and imported a confiderable number of
prints from Holland, France, and Italy. About tho
year 1680, he retired from his Ihop, and refided in
Printing-Houfe Yard j but he ftill continued to work
for the bookfellers, efpecially Royfton, Martin, and
Peak the younger, his former mailer’s brother. He
painted portraits from the life in crayons; which art
he learned of Nanteuil during his abode in France.
He alfo painted in miniature ; and his performances
in both thefe ftyles were much efteemed. His fpirits
were broken by the indiferetion and diffipation of his
fon William ; and a lingering confumption put an end
to his life in 1691. He wrote a book Upon Drawing,
Graving, and Etching, for which he was celebrated by
his friend Thomas Flatman the poet.
FAKIRS, Indian monks or friars. They outdo
the
F A L [ 403 ] F A L
the feverlty and mortification of the ancient Anchorets
Falaflia. or Solitaries. Some of them make a vow of continu-
—"r^ing all their lifetime in one pofture, and keep it effec¬
tually. Others never lie down ; but continue in a
ftanding pofture all their lives, fupported only by a
ftick, or rope under their arm pits. Some mangle
their bodies with fcourges and knives. They look
upon themfelves to have conquered every paflion, and
triumphed over the world 5 and accordingly fcruple
not, as if in a ftate of innocence, to appear entirely
naked in public.
The common people of Eaft India are thoroughly
perfuaded of the virtue and innocence of the fakirs $
notwitbftanding which, they are accufed of committing
the moft enormous crimes in private.
They have alfo another kind of fakirs, who do not
praftife fuch feverities: thefe flock together in com¬
panies, and go from village to village ; prophefying,
and telling fortunes. They are wicked villains, and it
is dangerous for a man to meet them in a lone place':
neverthelefs the Indian idolaters have them in the ut-
tnoft veneration. They make ufe of drums, trumpets,
and other mufical inftruments, to roufe their fouls, and
work themfelves up to an artificial eeftafy, the better
to publifh their pretended prophecies.
Some of the votaries of thefe fages moft devoutly
kifs their privy parts; and they receive this monftrous
declaration of refpeft with a kind of ecftatic pleafure.
The moft fober and difcreet Indians confult them in
this prepofterous attitude ; and their female votaries
converfe with them a confiderable time Avith the moft
indecent freedom.
The fire they burn is made of cows dung, dried in
the fun. When they are difpofed to fleep, they repofe
themfelves on cows dung, and fometimes on ordure
itfelf. They are fo indulgent towards every living
creature, that they fuffer themfelves to be overrun with
vermine, or ftung by infers, without the leeft relue-
tancy or complaint.
It is more than probable, thofe Indian friars have
fome fecret art to lull their fenfes afleep, in order to
render themfelves in a great meafnre infenfible of the
exceflive torments they voluntarily undergo. Oving-
ton affures us, that “ as he was one day in an aflem-
bly of fakirs, he obferved, that they drank opiates in-
fufed in water ; the intoxicating virtue thereof was
enough to turn their brain.”
The garment of the chief fakirs confifts of three or
four yards of orange-coloured linen, which they tie
round them, and a tiger’s fkin, which hangs over their
ftioulders. Their hair is woven in treffes, and forms a
kind of turban. The fuperior of the fakirs is diftin-
guilhed from the reft by having a greater number of
pieces in his garment, and by a chain of iron, two yards
long, tied to his leg. When he defigns to reft in any
place, a garment is fpread upon the ground ; on which
he fits and gives audience, whilft his difciples publifti
his virtues.
_ Some perfons of quality in India have become fa¬
kirs : among others, five great lords belonging to the
court of Schah Gehan, Mogul of the Indies. It is faid,
there are about two millions of fakirs in the Eaft In¬
dies.
FALASHA, a people of Abyflinia, of Jewifh ori¬
gin, defcribed by Mr Bruce, who was at great pains to
acquaint himfelf with their hiftory by cultivating the Falafla.
friendftlip of the moft learned perfons among them he —y—•i*
could meet with.
According to the accounts received from them, the
Falaftia are the defcendants of thofe Jews who came
from Paledine into Ethiopia, as attendants of Menilek
the fon of the queen of Sheba or Saba by Solomon.
They agree in the relation given by the Abyflinians
of that princefs, but deny that the pofterity of thofe
who came with Menilek ever embraced the Chriftian
religion, as the Abyflinians fay they did. They fay,
that at the decline of the Jewith commerce, when the
ports of the Red fea fell into the hands of other na¬
tions, and no intercourfe took place betwixt them and
Jerufalem, the Jewifti inhabitants quitted the fea coafts
and retired into the province of Dcmbea. While they
remained in the cities on the Red fea, they exercifed
the trades of brick and tile making, pottery, thatching
houfes, &c. and after leaving thefe coafts, they chofe
the country of Dembea on account of the plenty of
materials it afforded for exercifing the trades they pro-
feffed. Here they carried the art of pottery to a
great degree of perfetlion, multiplied exceedingly,
and became very numerous and powerful about the
time that the Abyflinians were converted to Chriftia-
nity. As this event was accounted by them an apof-
tafy from the true religion, they now feparated them¬
felves from the Abyflinians, and declared one Phineas,
of the line of Solomon, their king. Thus they fay,
they have ftill a prince of the. houfe of Judah for their
fovereign, though their affertion is treated with con¬
tempt, and a nickname bellowed on the Falaftian fa¬
mily by the other Abyflinians. About the year 960
the queen of this people, after extirpating the Abyfli-
nian princes on the rock Damo, affumed the fove-
reignty of the whole empire, which they retained for
fome time ; but their power being by degrees reduced,
they w'ere obliged to take up their relidence among the
rugged mountains of Samen ; one of which they chofe
for their capital, and which has ever fince been called
the Jew's Rock. About the year 1600, they were al-
moft entirely ruined by an overthrow from the Abyfli¬
nians, in which both their king and queen were [lain ;
fince which time they have been in fubjeftion to the
emperors of that country, but are ftill governed by their
own princes. When Mr Bruce was in Abyflinia they
were fuppofed to amount to about 100,000 effedtive
men. Gideon and Judith were the names of the king
and queen at that time ; and thefe, according to our
author, feem to be preferred to others for the royal
family.
The language ©f this people is very different from
the Hebrew, Samaritan, or any other which the Jews
ever fpoke in their own country. On being interro¬
gated concerning it by Mr Bruce, they faid, that it
was probably one of thofe fpoken by the nations on the
Red fea, among whom they had fettled at their firft
coming. They arrived in Abyflinia, fpeaking Hebrew,
and with the advantage of having books in that lan¬
guage ; but had now forgot it, which indeed is not to
be wondered at, as they had loft their Hebrew books,
and were entirely ignorant of the art of writing. At
the lime of their leaving Jerufalem, they were in pof-
feflion both of the Hebrew and Samaritan copies of
the law ; but when their fleet was deftroyed in the
3 E 2 time
F A L [ 404 ] F A L
Faladia
11
Falcon.
* See
Falco.
time of Rehoboam, and no farther communication with
Jerufalem took place, they were obliged to ufe tranf-
lations of the Scriptures, or thofe copies which were
in poffeflion of the (hepherds, who, they fay, were-all
Jews before the time of Solomon. On being afked,
however, where the {hepherds got their copy, and
being told, that, notwithftanding the invafion of Egypt
by Nebuchadnezzar, there was flill a communication
with Jerufalem by means of the Khmaelite Arabs
through Arabia, they frankly acknowledged that they
could not tell : neither had they any memorials of the
hiftory either of their own or any other country ; all
that they believed in this cafe being derived from mere
tradition, their hiftories, if any exifted, having been
deftroyed by the famous Moorifh captain Gragne.
They fay that the firft book of Scripture they received
was that of Enoch ; and they place that of Job imme¬
diately after it, fuppofing that patriarch to have lived
foon after the flood. They have no copy of the Old
Teftament in the Falafha language, what they make
uie of being in that of Geez. This is f^d to them by
the Aby(Tinian Chriftians, who are the only fcribes in
that country. No difference takes place about cor¬
ruptions of the text; nor do the Falaflia know any
thing of the Jewifli Talmud, Targum, or Cabala. See
Abyssinia.
FALCADE, in the manege, the motion of a horfe
when he throws himfelf upon his haunches two or three
times, as in very quick curvets j which is done in form¬
ing a flop and half flop. See Stop.
FALCATED, fomething in the form of a fickle:
thus the moon is laid to be falcated when flie appears
horned.
FALCO, the eagle and hawk, a genus of birds be¬
longing to the order of accipitres. See Ornithology
Index.
FALCON, or Faucon, a bird of prey of the hawk
kind, fuperior to all others for courage, docility, gen-
tlenefs, and noblenefs of nature *. Several authors
take the name falon to have been occafioned by its
crooked talons or pounces, which refemble a falx or
fickle. Giraldus derives it d falcandoy becaufe it flies
in a curve.
The falcon, or falcon gentle, is both for the fill and
for the lure. In the choice, take one that has wide
noftrils, high and large eyelids, a large black eye ; a
round head, fomewhat full on the top ; barb feathers
on the clap of the beaks, which {hould be (hort, thick,
and of an azure colour ; the bread large, round and
flefhy; and the thighs, legs, and feet, large and ftrong,
with the fear of the foot foft and bluifli : the pounces
ihould be black, with wings long and eroding the train,
which fliould be {hort and very pliable.
The name falcon is refirained to the female : for the
male is much fmaller, weaker, and lefs courageous
than the female ; and therefore is denominated taffel,
or tircelet. The falcon is excellent at the river, brook,
and even field ; and flies chiefly at the larger game, as
wild goofe, kite, crow, heron, crane, pye, {hoveler,
&c. For further particulars, fee Falconry and
Hawking.
The cuftom of carrying a falcon extended to many
countries, and was efteemed a diftinflion of a man of
rank. The Welfti had a faying, That you may know
a gentleman by his hawk, horfe, and greyhound. In
%
fa£t, a perfon of rank feldom went without one on Ins *alcon
hand. Harold, afterwards king of England, is paint- * y
ed going on a moft important embaffy, with a hawk on Falconry,
his hand and a dog under his arm. Henry VI. is re- '—■—'v'"'"*'
prefented at his nuptials, attended by a nobleman and
his falcon. Even the ladies were not without them in
earlier times; for in an ancient fculpture in the church
of Milton Abbas, in Dorfetfliire, appears the ccnfort
of King Athelftan with a falcon on her royal fill tear¬
ing a bird.
FALCONER, a perfon who brings up, tames, and
makes, that is, tutors and manages, birds of prey ; as
falcons, hawks, &c. See Falconry.
The grand fignior, it is faid, ufually keeps 6000 fal¬
coners in his fervice.—The French king had formerly
a grand falconer, which was an office difmembered from
that of great hunter, grand veneur. Hiftorians take
notice of this poll as early as the year 1250.
A falconer fliould be well acquainted with the qua¬
lity and mettle of his hawks, that he may know which
of them to fly early and which late. Every night after
flying he fliould give them calling *, one while plumage,
fometimes pellets of cotton, and at another time phyfic,
as he finds neceffary. Fie ought alfo every evening to
make the place clean under the perch, that by her call¬
ing he may know whether the wants fcouring upwards
or downwards. Nor mull he forget to water his hawk
every evening, except on fuch days as (lie has bathed j
after which, at night, flie fliould be put into a warm
room, having a candle burning by her, where ffie is to
fit unhooded, if flie be not ramage, that flie may pick
and prune herfelf.—A falconer {hould always carry
proper medicines into the field, as hawks frequently
meet with accidents there. Neither muft he forget to
take with him any of his hawking implements j and it
is neceffary he fliould be fldlful in making lures, hoods
of all forts, jeffes, bewets, and other furniture. Neither
ought he to be without his coping irons, to cope his
hawk’s beak when overgrown, and to cut her pounces
and talons as there fliall be occafion 1 nor {hould his
cauterizing irons be wanting.
Falconer, William, an ingenious Scots failor, who,
about the year 1762,03010 up to London with a pretty
pathetic poem, called the Shipwreck, founded on a dif-
after of his own experience. The publication of this
piece recommended him to the late duke of York ; and
he would in all probability have been fuitably prefer-,
red, if a fecond fhipwreck, as may be fuppofed, had not
proved fatal to him, and to many gentlemen of rank
and fortune with whom he failed. In 1770, he went
out a volunteer in the Aurora frigate, fent to carry
Meffrs Vanfittart, Scrafton, and Ford, the fupervifors
appointed to regulate our Eall India fettlements; which
veffel, after it had touched at the Cape of Good Hope,
was never more heard of. Before his departure, he
publiflied a very ufeful Marine Di6lionary, in one vof
lume qto.
FALCONRY, a kind of fport or amufement, re-
fpedling the antiquity of which different opinions have
been entertained by the learned. It is denied by
Blondus, Laurentius Valla, and others, that the an¬
cient Greeks knew any thing about falconry ; but the
learned Profeffor Beckmann, on the moll unequivocal
authority, maintains that they did. He admits that
they might be ignorant of the art of hawking, or of
chafing
F A jL [ 40c ] F A L
Falconry, chafing game with birds trained for that purpofe ; but
-Y——' he contends that they employed fome fpecies of the
moft rapacious of the winged tribe in hunting and fowl¬
ing. In the days of Ctefias, the Indians hunted hares
and foxes by means of rapacious birds j and Ariftotle
fays exprefsly, “ In Thrace, the men go out to catch
birds with hawks. They beat the reeds and bulhes
which grow in marfliy places, in order to raife the fmall
birds, which the hawks purfue and drive to the ground,
where the fowlers kill them with poles.” /
Refpefting Thrace, which is fituated above Amphi-
polis, a wonderful circumftance is related, which to
many may appear almoft incredible. We are informed
that boys went into the fields, and purfued birds by the
afiiftance of hawks. When they found a convenient
place for their purpofe, they called their hawks by their
particular names, which came immediately on hearing
their voices, and purfued the birds into the bufhes, where
the boys killed them with flicks, and thus made them
their prey. When the hawks themfelves laid hold of
any birds, they threw them to the fowlers, and recei¬
ved, for their fidelity, a {hare of the game. If we add
the fpaniel, now employed to find out the game, the
hood placed upon the head of the hawk, and the thong
for holding it, we may clearly perceive in thefe ancient
accounts the pra&ice of modern times. Falconers ftill
give a portion of the game to the hawk, as was the
ufual practice of the boys at Thrace.
According to the teftimony of Philo, Pliny, /Elian,
and others, the birds were fometimes driven into nets
by the hawks employed in thefe fports. From India
and Thrace, therefore, it feems manifefl, that the
Greeks obtained their firft information as to the method
of fowling with birds of prey ; but they themfelves do
not appear to have adopted the pra&ice at a very early
period. In Italy, however, it muft have been extremely
well underftoad, fince it is mentioned by Martial and
Apuleius as a thing everywhere known. After be¬
ing once known, it was never totally foH>otten ; but it
(hared the fate of other inventions in this rcfpeft, that
it was originally admired, and afterwards much neglect¬
ed, by which means it received no material improve¬
ments for a confiderable time •, yet it was at length
brought to the utmoft perfection. We find mention
made of this fport in the Roman laws, and in many
authors of the fourth and fubfequent century. In the
time of Conftantine the Great, Julius Firmicus Mater-
nus aflures us, according to the fuperftitious notions of
that period, that fuch as are born under certain figns,
will become great fportfmen, and keep hounds and fal¬
cons. Sidonius, who flouriflied about the end of the
fifth century, praifes Herdicius, the brother of his wife,
becaufe he was the firft in his territories who praCtifed
hunting and fowling with dogs and hawks.
Falconry appears to have been carried to the greateft
perfedion, and to have been much efteemed at the chief
courts of Europe, fo early as the I2th century, for
which reafon fome have afcribed the invention to the
emperor Frederic I. whereas he appears to have been
only the firft who introduced the pra&ice into Italy,
according to the teftimony of Rodericus and Collenuc-
oio ; and Frederic II. wrote a book entitled, De arte
venandi cum avibus, to which the praClice has been
much indebted. Falconry has had a number of admi¬
rers among the fair fex, perhaps in a fuperior degree to
any other fport or amufement whatever of a fimilar na- Falconry,
ture ; but their attachment was deftroyed by the inven- ^——7-—*
tion of gunpowder, which was accompanied both with
alarm and danger. We conclude our remarks on the
hiftory of falconry with an obfervation of Demetrius,
who flourifhed in the 13th century, and who exprefsly
wrote at large on this fubjeft. He defires fportfmen
to fay their prayers (Tev S-sev swoca/ss-avrsj) before they
go out to the field, which appears wholly incompatible
with the pradlice of modern times, and feems as impi¬
ous as to crave afliftance of God when preparing for a
piratical expedition.
Falconry, the art of training all manner of hawks,
but more efpecially the larger ones called falcons, to the
exercife of hawking. See Hawking.
When a falcon is taken, (he muft be feeled in fuch
a manner, that, as the feeling flackens, (he may fee what
provifion lies before her j but care ought to be taken,
not to feel her too hard. A falcon or hawk newly ta¬
ken ftiould have all new furniture, as new jefles of good
leather, mailled leafties with buttons at the end, and
new bewets. There ftiould alfo be provided a fmall
round flick, to ftroke the hawk 5 becaufe, the oftener
this is done, the fooner and better will (he be manned.
She muft alfo have two good bells, that (he may be
found when (he fcattereth. Her hood ftiould be well
fathioned, raifed, and embofled againft her eyes, deep,
and yet ftrait enough beneath, that it may fallen about
her head without hurting her; and her beak and talons
muft be a little coped, but not fo near as to make them
bleed.
If it be a foar-falcon, which had already paffed the
feas, (he will indeed be harder to reclaim, but will prove
the beft of falcons. Her food muft be good and warm,
and given her twice or thrice a-day till fhe be full gor¬
ged : the bed for this purpofe is pigeons, larks, or other
live birds 5 becaufe flie muft be broken off by degrees
from her accuftomed feeding. When fhe is fed, you
muft hoop and lure, as you do when you call a hawk,
that (lie may know when you intend to give her meat.
On this occafion fhe muft be unhooded gently 5 and
after giving her two or three bits, her hood muft be
put on again, when (he is to get two or three bits more.
Care muft be taken that fhe be clofe feeled j and after
three or four days, her diet may be lefftned : the falco¬
ner fetting her every night to perch by him, that he
may awaken her often in the night. In this manner
he muft proceed, till he find her to grow tame and
gentle j and when fhe begins to feed eagerly, he may
give her a fheep’s heart. Fie may now begin to unhood
her in the day time ; but it muft be far from company,
firft giving her a bit or turn, then hooding her gently,
and giving her as much more. When (lie is (harp fet,
he may now unhood her, and give her fome meat juft
againft his face and eyes, which will make her lefs a-
fraid of the countenance of others. She muft be borne
continually on the fift, till fhe is properly-manned, cau-
fing her to feed in company, giving her in the morning,
about funrife, the wing of a pullet 5 and in the evening,
the foot of a hare or coney, cut off above the joint,
flayed and laid in water, which being fqueezed, is to
be given her with the pinion of a hen’s wing. For two
or three days give her rvafhed meat, and then plumage in
more or lefs quantity as flic is thought to be more or
lefs foul within. After this, being hooded again, fhe
F A L
Falconry, is to get nothing till (he has gleamed and cafl:, when a
Falerii. little hot meat may be given her in company j and, to-
v—»._■ vvar(js evening, (he may be allowed to plume a hen’s
wing in company alfo. CJeanfe the feathers of her catt¬
ing, if foul and (limy j if (he be clean within, give her
gentle caftings; and when (he is reclaimed, manned,
and made eager and (harp fet, he may venture to feed
her on the lure.
However, three things are to be confidered before
the lure be (liowed her ; I. That (he be bold and fami¬
liar in company, and not afraid of dogs and horfes.
2. Sharp fet and hungry, having regard to the hour
of morning and evening, when you would lure her.
3. Clean within, and the lure well garnifhed with meat
on both (ides ; and when you intend to give her the
length of a lea(h, you mud: abfcond yourfelf.
She mud alfo be unhooded, and have a bit or .two
given her on the lure as die fits on your fid ; afterwards
take the lure from her, and hide it that (he may not
fee it j and when (he is unfeeled, cad the lure fo near
her, that die may catch it within the length of her
leafh, and as foon as die has feized it, ufe your voice as
falconers do, feeding her upon the lure, on the ground,
with the heart and warm thigh of a pullet.
Having fo lured your falcon, give her but little meat
in the evening ; and let this luring be fo timely, that
you may give her plumage, and a juck of a joint next
morning on your fid. When die has cad and gleamed,
give her a little reaching of warm meat. About noon,
tie a creance to her leafli j and going into the field,
there give her a bit or two upon her lure : then unwind
the creance, and draw it after you a good way ; and
let him who has the bird hold his right hand on the
talTel of her hood, ready to unhood her as foon as you
begin to lure 5 to which if (he come well, doop round¬
ly upon it, and hadilyfeize it, let her cad two or three
bits thereon. Then, unfeizing and taking her off the
lure, hood her and give her to the man again ; and,
going farther off, lure and feed her as before.
In this manner is the falconer to proceed, luring her
every day farther and farther elf, till (he is accudomed
to come freely and eagerly to the lure 5 after which (he
may be lured in company, taking care that nothing af¬
fright her. When (lie is ufed to the lure on foot, die
is to be lured on horfeback 5 which may be effe&ed the
fooner, by caufing horfemen to be about her when (he
is lured on foot.
' When (he has grown familiar t® this way, let fome-
body on foot hold the hawk, and he on horfeback mud
call and cad the lure about his head, the holder taking
off the hood by the ta(fel j and if (he feize eagerly on
the lure without fear of man or horfe, then take off
the creance, and lure her at a greater didance. And
if you would have her love dogs as well as the lure, call
dogs when you give her her living or plumage. See
Hawking.
FALERII, in Ancient Geography, a town of Etru¬
ria, on the wed or right fide of the Tiber ; Falifci, the
people of the town and territory. The territory was
famous for its rich padures ; hence the gramen Falifcum
in authors. Eutropius and Frontinus call the town Fa¬
lifci; which, according to the lad, was furnamed Co/o-
nia Junonia. The Falifci are called JEqui by Virgil j
becaufe they afforded fupplemental laws to the 12 ta-
3
[ 406 ]
F A L
bles, (Servius). Here they made an excellent faufage,
called Venter Falifcus (Martial).
When the Falifci were befieged by Camillus, a
fchoolmader went out of the gates of the city with his
pupils, and propofed to betray them into the hands of
the Roman enemy, that by fuch a poffedion he might
eafily oblige the place to furrender. Camillus heard
the propofal with indignation, and ordered the- man to
be (tripped naked, and whipped back to the town by
thofe whom his perfidy wiflred to betray. This indance
of generofity operated upon the people fo powerfully
that they furrendered to the Romans.
IALERNUS, Mans MaJJicus fo called, (Martial) ;
Falernus ager, a didrift at the foot of Mount Ma(ficus
in Campania ^ famous for its generous wines, (Horace,
Pliny). Now called Monte MaJJico.
FALISCI. See Falerii.
FALKIA, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria clafs. See Botany Index.
FALKIRK, a town of Stirlingdiire in Scotland,
fituated in W. Long. 3. 48. N. Lat. 56. 20. It is a
large ill-built place, and is fupported by great fairs
for black cattle from the Highlands, it being comput¬
ed that 24,000 head are annually fold there. A great
deal of money is alfo got here by the carriage of goods
landed at Carron wharf to Glafgow. This town is re¬
markable for a battle fought in its neighbourhood
between Edward I. of England, and the Scots com¬
manded by the' deward of Scotland, Cummin of Ba-
denoch, and Sir William Wallace. The latter had
been inveded with the fupreme command j but perceiv¬
ing that this gave umbrage to the nobility, he refigned
his power into the hands of the noblemen above men¬
tioned, referving to himfelf only the command of a
fmall body who refufed to follow another leader. The
Scots generals placed their pikemen along the front,
and lined the intervals between the three bodies of which
their army was compofed, with archers ; and dreading
the great fuperiority of the Englidi cavalry, endeavour¬
ed to fecure their front by pallifadoes tied together with
ropes. The battle was fought on the 22d of July 1298.
The king of England divided his army likewife into
three bodies ; and by the fuperiority of his archers, de¬
feated the Scots with great llaughter. Wallace alone
preferved entire the troops he commanded j and retiring
behind the Carron, marched leifurely along the banks
of that river, which prote&ed him from the enemy.
In this battle fell John de Graham, a gentleman much
celebrated for his valour, and ftyled the right hand of
the gallant Wallace. His epitaph is ftill to be feen on
a plain (lone in the churchyard of Falkirk. On the
18th of January 1746, a battle was fought here between
the king’s forces commanded by General Hawley, and
the Highlanders headed by Charles Stuart. The for¬
mer was feized with a panic, and fled : but Colonel
Hulk with two regiments, who kept their ground, pre¬
vented the Highlanders from purfuing their vidlory.
Extenfive ruins are perceived in the neighbourhood of
this town, fuppofed by fome antiquarians to have been
the capital of the Piflifii government ; but others be¬
lieve them to be the remains of fome Roman (lations.
FALKLAND, a fmall town of Fifeftiire in Scot¬
land, made a royal burgh by James II. in 1458. Here
flood one of the feats of the Macduffs earls of Fife. On
the
Faleriv
1!
Falkland.
F A L [ 407 ] F A L
Falkland, the attainder of Munro Stewart, the 17th earl, it be-
Fall. came forfeited to the crown in 1424. James V. who
"Y—grew very fond of the place, enlarged and improved it.
The remains evince its former magnificence and ele¬
gance, and the fine tafte of the princely architeft. The
gateway is placed between two fine round towers j on
the right hand joins the chapel, whofe roof is of wood,
handfomely gilt and painted, but in a moft ruinous con¬
dition. Beneath are feveral apartments. The front
next to the court was beautifully adorned with flatues,
heads in bafs relief, and elegant columns not reducible
to any order, but of fine proportion, with capitals ap¬
proaching the Ionic feroll. Beneath fome of thefe pil¬
lars was infcribed I. R. M. G. 1537* or Jacobus Rex,
Maria de Guife.—This place was alfo a favourite refi-
dence of James VI. on account of the fine park and
plenty of deer. The eaft fide was accidentally burnt
in the time of Charles II. and the park ruined during
Cromwell’s ufurpation, when the fine oaks were cut
down in order to build the fort at Perth.—This place
gives title of vifcount to the Englilk family of Carey j
Sir Henry Carey being fo created by James VI. 1620.
His fon was the celebrated Lucius, who facrificed his
life in a fit of loyal defpair at the battle of Newbury,
and from whom the prefent family is lineally de-
fcended.
Falkland, Lord. See Carey.
FALL, the defcent of a heavy body towards the
centre of the earth. It is alfo the name of a meafure
of length ufed in Scotland, containing fix ells.
FALL of Man, in facred hiftory, that terrible event
by which fin and death were introduced into the world.
See Adam, and Antediluvians, and Original Sin.
The account which Mofes gives of this tranfaflion is
extremely brief and concife. The ferpent, he informs
us, being more fubtile than any beaft of the field, alked
the woman, whether it was true that God had not
granted her and her hufband leave to eat of every tree
in the garden ? She anfwered, That God had allowed
them to eat of all, except only the fruit of the tree
in the midft of the garden ; which he commanded they
fhould not tafte, nor fo much as touch, left they ftiould
die. The ferpent replied, That they ftiould not die ;
for God knew the virtue of the tree j and that fo foon
as they ate of it, their eyes would be opened, and they
would become like gods, knowing good and evil.
Eve, feeing the fruit tempting to the view, took of
the fruit and ate j and gave alfo to her hufband of it,
and he did eat. Immediately the eyes of both rvere
opened ; when perceiving they were naked, they fewed
fig leaves together and made themfelves aprons. Adam
and Eve, hearing the voice of God walking in the
garden in the cool of the day, hid themfelves among
the trees ; but, on God’s calling for Adam, he excuf-
ed himfelf for not appearing, becaufe he was naked.
God demanded of him, who it was that told him he
was naked ; and whether he had difobeyed his com¬
mand in eating the forbidden fruit ? Adam confeffed
that the woman had offered him the fruit, and he had
tailed it. She being examined likewife, acknow¬
ledged what fhe had done ; but faid, the ferpent had
feduced and deceived her. God then proceeded to
judgment j he firft curfed the ferpent above all beafis,
and condemned him to go on his belly, and eat the
duft } adding, that he would put enmity between him Fall,
and the woman, and their offspring j that the feed of^—
the woman fhould bruife the ferpent’s head, who fhould
bruife the other’s heel. The woman was fubjedted to
the pains of childbirth, as well as the dominion of
her hufband $ and as to the man, God curfed the
■ ground for his fake, declaring that it ftiould bring
forth thorns and thiftles, and he fhould earn his bread
by the fweat of his brow, till he returned to the duft,
from whence he was taken. At laft, having clothed
them both with fkins, he turned them out of the gar¬
den, left they fhould take of the tree of life, and eat,
and live for ever: then, to prevent any attempt to re¬
turn to their former habitation, he placed cherubims at
the eaft of the garden, and a flaming fword which turn¬
ed every way, to guard the paffage to the tree of life.
This concife account being, at firft view, encumber¬
ed with fome difficulties, ieveral learned and pious
men have been inclined to believe the whole ought to
be taken in an allegorical fenfe, and not according to
the ftriflnefs of the letter : they allege, that the an¬
cients, and particularly the eaftern nations, had two
different ways of delivering their divinity and philofo-
phy, one popular, and the other myfterious; that the
Scripture ufes both occafionally •, fometimes accommo¬
dating itfelf to the capacities of the people, and at
other times to the real but more veiled truth j and that,
to obviate the many difficulties which occur in the literal
hiftory of this fad cataftrophe, the fafeft way is to un-
derftand it as a parabolical ftory, under which the real
circumftances are difguifed and concealed, as a myf-
tery not fit to be more explicitly declared.
Though it cannot be denied that fome of the an¬
cient philofophers affe&ed fuch an allegorical way of
writing, to conceal their notions from the vulgar, and
keep their learning within the bounds of their own
fchool; yet it is apparent Mofes had no fuch defign j
and as he pretends only to relate matters of fa61:, juft
as they happened, without art or difguife, it cannot be
fuppofed but that this hiftory of the fall is to be taken
in a literal fenfe, as well as the reft of his writings. It
is generally agreed, that the ferpent which tempted
Eve was the devil, who envying the privileges of man
in innocence, tempted him, and was the caufe of his
forfeiting all thofe advantages which he had received
from God at his creation ; and that to this end he af-
fumed the form of a ferpent. Thefe interpretations
are fupported by many paffages of Scripture, where
the devil is called the ferpent, and the old ferpent, (See
John viii. 44. 2 Cor. xi. 3, and Rev. xii. 9 ). Some be¬
lieve that the ferpent had then the ufe of fpeech, and
converfed familiarly with the woman, rvithout her con¬
ceiving any diftruft in him ; and that God, to punifti
the malice with which he had abufed Eve, deprived
him of the ufe of fpeech. Others maintain, that a
real ferpent having eaten of the forbidden fruit, Eve
from thence concluded, that ffie too might eat of it
without danger; that in eft'edt ffie did eat of it, and
incurred the difpleafure of God by her difobedience.
This, fay thefe laft authors, is the plain matter of fa£l
which Mofes would relate under the allegorical repre-
fentation of the ferpent converfing with Eve.
The opinion of fuch as believe this was not a real
ferpent, but only the devil under that name, is no lefs
liablo
F A L T 408 1 F A L
* Pall liable to exception than any of the reft. For though
ll16 devil is frequently ftyled in Scripture the ferpent
p -niopian. ancj jjjg Qi^ yet wj1y he fhould be called the
tnojl fubtile beaft of the field, we cannot conceive ; nei¬
ther will the puniftiment inflidled on the ferpent fuffer
us to doubt, but that a ferpent’s body at leaft was em¬
ployed in the tranfadlion.
The nature of the forbidden fruit is another circum-
ftance in this relation that has occafioned no lefs va¬
riety of conjettures. The Rabbins believe it was the
vine 5 others that it was wheat; and others, from the
circumdance of Adam and Eve’s covering themfelves
with fig leaves immediately after their tranfgreftion,
tell us, that this fruit muft have been the fig j fome
think it was the cherry ; and the generality of the
Latins will have it to be the apple.
Thofe who admire allegorical interpretations, will
have the forbidden fruit to have been no other than the
fenfual aft of generation, for which the punilhment in-
flifted on the woman was the pain of child-bearing.
But this opinion has not the leaft foundation in the
words of Mofes, efpecially if we confider that Adam
knew not his wife till after their expulfion out of Pa-
rad ife.
Many have been the fuppofitions and conjeftures
upon this fubjeft in general; and fome have fo far in¬
dulged their fancy in the circumftances of the fall,
that they have perverted the whole narration of Mofes
into a fable full of the moft ftiameful extravagances.
FALLACY, a deception, fraud, or falfe appear¬
ance.
The Epicureans deny that there is any fuch thing
as a fallacy of the fenfes : for according to them, all our
fenfations and perceptions, both of fenfe and phantafy,
are true j whence they make fenfe the primary criteri¬
on of truth.
The Cartefians, on the other hand, maintain, that
we fhould fufpeft as falfe, or at moft as dubious, every
thing that prefents itfelf to us by means only of the
external fenfes, becaufe they frequently deceive us.
They add, that our fenfes, as being fallacious, were
never given us by nature for the difcovery of truth, or
the contemplation of the principles of things j but only
for pointing out to us what things are convenient or
hurtful to our bodies.
The Peripatetics keep a middle courfe. They fay,
that if a fenfible objeft be taken in its common or ge-
nerakview, the fenfe cannot be deceived about it 5 but
that if the objeft be taken under its fpecific view, the
fenfe may be miftaken about it, from the want of the
difpofitions neceffary to a juft fenfation, as a difor-
der in the organ, or any thing uncommon in the me¬
dium : thus, in fome diforders of the eye, all objefts
appear yellow $ a flick in water appears broken or
crooked, &c.
FALLING sickness, or Epilepsy. See Medi¬
cine Index.
Falling-Stars. See Star.
FALLOPIAN tubes, in Anatomy, tivo dufts arif-
ing Irom the womb, one on each fide of the fundus,
and thence extended to the ovaries, having a confider-
able lhare in conception. They are called tubae, from
their form, which bears fome refemblance to a trum¬
pet; and their denomination Tadlopiance, they take
from Gabriel Fallopius, mentioned in the next article.
See Anatomy Index. " ||P
P ALLOPIUS, Gabriel, a moft celebrated phyfi-^
cian and anatomift, was born at Modena in Italy, in
the year 1523, and defcended of a noble family. He
made feveral difcoveries in anatomy, one of which was
that of the tubes, called from him the Fallopian tubes.
He travelled through the greateft part of Europe, and
obtained the charafter of being one of the ableft: phy-
ficians of his age. He was made profeflbr of anatomy
at Pifa in the year 1548, and at Padua in the year
1551 : here he died in 1562, aged 39. His writings,
which are numerous, were firft printed feparately, and
afterwards collefted under the title of “ Opera genui-
na omnia, tarn praftiea quam theoretica, in tres to-
mos diftributa.” They were printed at Venice in 1585
and in 1606, at Francfort in 1600, cwn operum ap~
pendice ; and in 1606, in folio.
FALLOW, a pale red-colour like that of brick,
half burnt", fuch is that of a fallow deer.
FALLOW Field, ox Fallow ground; land laid up, or
that has been untilled for a confiderable time.
FALLOWING o/'Land, a particular method of
improving land. See Agriculture Index.
FALMOUTH, a port town of Cornwall in Eng¬
land, fituated in W. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 50. 15. on
a fine bay on the Englifti channel. It is the richeft:
and moft; trading town in the county, and larger than
any three of its boroughs that fend members to parlia¬
ment. It is fo commodious a harbour, that (hips of the
greateft burden come up to its quay. It is guarded by
the caftle of St Mawes and Pendennis, on a high rock
at the entrance : and there is fuch ftielter in the many
creeks belonging to it, that the whole royal navy may
ride fafe here in any wind, it being next to Plymouth
and Milford-Haven, the beft road for (hipping in Great
Britain. It is well-built 5 and its trade is confider-
ably increafed fince the eftabliftiment of the packet-
boats here for Spain, Portugal, and the Weft Indies,
which not only bring vaft quantities of gold in fpecie
and in bars, on account of the merchants in London ;
but the Falmouth merchants trade with the Portuguefe
in (hips of their own, and they have a great (hare alfo
in the gainful pilchard trade. The cuftom-houfe for
moft of the Cornifti towns, as well as the head collec¬
tor, is fettled here, where the duties, including thofe
of the other ports, are very confiderable. The num¬
ber of houfes in 1664 amounted to 200 $ in 1801, they
amounted to 468 *, and the number of inhabitants was
then dated at 3684 perfons.
FALSE, in general, fomething contrary to truth,
or not what it ought to be : thus we fay a falfe ac¬
tion, falfe weights, falfe claim, 8tc.
FALSE ABion, if brought againft one whereby he is
caft into prifon, and dies pending the fuit, the law
gives no remedy in this cafe, becaufe the truth or
falfehood of the matter cannot appear before it is tried ;
and if the plaintiff is barred, or non-fuited at com¬
mon law, regularly all the puniftiment is amerce¬
ment.
FALSE Imprifonment, is a trefpafs committed againft
a perfon, by arrefting and imprifoning him without
juft caufe, contrary to law j or where a man is un¬
lawfully detained without legal procefs: and it is al¬
fo
F A M [ 400 ] F A M
pa]fe fo ufed for a writ which is brought for this trefpafs. If
|| a perfon be any way unlawfully detained, it is falfe im-
Fama. prifonment ; and confiderable damages are recoverable
jn t.]H)fe aflions.
False News,fpreadwg of, in order to make difcord
between the king and nobility, or concerning any great
man of the realm, is punifhable by common law with
fine and irnprifonment ; which is confirmed by fiatutes
Weftm. I. 3 Edw. I. cap. 34. 2 Rich. II. fiat. I. cap.
5. and 12 Rich. II. cap. II.
False Oath. See Perjury.
False Prophecy. See Prophecy.
False Quarter, in Farriery. See QUARTERS, FaR-
RiERY Index.
FALSE Bay, a bay lying to the eaftward of the Cape
of Good Hope ; frequented by veffels during the pre¬
valence of the north-wefierly winds, which begin to
exert their influence in May, and render it dangerous
to remain in Table bay. It is terminated to the eaft-
ward by Falfe Cape, and to the we Award by the Cape
of Good Hope. It is 18 miles wide at its entrance,
and the two capes bear due eaft and weft from each
other.
FALSI CRIMEN, in the civil law, is fraudulent fub-
ornation or concealment, with defign to darken or hide
the truth, and make things appear otherwife than they
are. The crimen falfi is committed, 1. By words, as
when a witnefs fwears falfely. 2. By writing, as when
a man antedates a contrad!, or the like. 3. By deed,
as when he fells by falfe weights and meafures.
FALSIFY, in Law, is ufed for proving any thing
to be falfe. Hence we find,
Falsifying a record, for (bowing it to be erroneous.
Thus lawyers teach, that a perfon purchafing land of
another, who is afterwards outlawed of felony, &c. may
falfify the record, not only as to the time wherein the
felony is fuppofed to have been committed, but alfo as
to the point of the offence. But where a man is found
guilty by verdi£t, a purchafer cannot falfify as to the
offencs $ though he may for the time, where the party
is found guilty generally in the indictment, becaufo the
time is not material upon evidence.
FALSTAFF. See Fastolff.
FALX, in Anatomy, a part of the dura mater, de¬
fending between the two heraifpheres of the brain, and
feparating the fore part from the hinder. It is called
faix, i. e. “ fickle,” becaufe of its curvature, occafioned
by the convexity of the brain. It divides the brain as
low as the corpus callofum.
FAMA clamosa, in the judicial procedure of the
church of Scotland, a ground of aCtion before a preiby-
tery againft one of its members, independent of any
regular complaint by a particular accufer. See Pres¬
bytery.
Any perfon who is of a good charaCIer, may give
to the prefbytery a complaint againft one of their
members \ but the prefbytery is not to proceed to the
citation of the perfon accufed, until the accufer under
his hand gives in the complaint, with fome account of
its probability, and undertakes to make out the libel,
under the pain of being confidered as a flanderer. When
fuch an accufation is brought before them, they are
obliged candidly to examine the affair. But, befides
this, the prefbytery confiders itfelf obliged to proceed
againft any of its members, if a fama clamofa of the
Vol. VIII. Part II.
fcandal is fo great that they cannot be vindicated un- Famtt
lefs they begin the procefs. This they can do with- }j
out any particular accufer, after they have inquired Familiars.
into the rife, occafion, and authors, of this report. It
is a maxim of the kirk of Scotland, that religion muft
fuffer if the fcandalous or immoral aftions of a mini-
fter are not correded. And wherever a minifter is re¬
puted guilty of any immorality (although before th»
moft popular preacher in the kingdom), none almoft
will attend upon his miniftry. Therefore the prefbyte-
ry, for the fake of religion, is obliged to proceed againft
a minifter in cafe of a fama clamofa. This, however,
is generally done with great tendernefs. After they
have confidered the report raifed againft him, then
they order him to be cited, draw out a full copy of
what is reported, with a lift of the witneffes names to
be led for proving this allegation. He is now to be
formally fummoned to appear before them ; and he
has warning given him, at leaft 10 days before the
time of his compearance, to give in his anfwers to
what is termed the libel; and the names of the witneffes
ought alfo to be fent him. If at the time appointed
the minifter appear, the libel is to be read to him,
and his anfvvers are alfo to be read. If the libel be
found relevant, then the preflbytery is to endeavour to
bring him to a confeflion. If the matter confeffed be
of a fcandalous nature, fuch as uncleannefs, the prefby¬
tery generally depofe him from his office, and ap¬
point him in due time to appear before the congrega¬
tion where the fcandal was given, and to make public
confeflion of his crime and repentance. If a minifter
abfent himfelf by leaving the place, and be contuma¬
cious, without making any relevant excufe, a new ci¬
tation is given him, and intimation is made at his own
church W’hen the congregation is met, that he is to
be holden as confeffed, fince he refufed to appear be¬
fore them j and accordingly he is depofed from his of¬
fice.
FAME, a heathen goddefs, celebrated chiefly by the
poets. She is feigned to have been the laff of the race
of Titans produced by the earth, to have her palace in
the air, and to have a vaft number of eyes, ears, and
tongues. She is mentioned by Hefiod, and particular¬
ly deferibed by Ovid and Virgil.
FAMES canina. See Bulimia, Medicine Index,
FAMIA, or Afamia, the modern name of one of
the ancient Apameas. See Apamea.
FAMILIARS of the Inquisition, perfons who
aflift in apprehending fuch as are accufed, and carry¬
ing them to prifon. They are affiftants to tha inquifi-
tor, and called familiars, becaufe they belong to his
family. In fome provinces of Italy they are called
crofs-bearers, and in others \\\e,Scholars of St Peter the
martyr ; and they wore a crofs before them on the out-
fide garment. They are properly bailiffs of the inqui-
fition 3 and the vile office is efteemed fo honourable,
that noblemen in the kingdom of Portugal have been
ambitious of belonging to it. Nor is this furprifing,
when it is confidered that Innocent III. granted'very
large indulgencies and privileges to thefe familiars 3 and
that the fame plenary indulgence is granted by the
pope to every fingle exercife of this office, as was
granted by the Lateran council to thofe who fuccour-
ed the Holy Land. When feveral perfons are to be
taken up at the fame time, thefe familiars are com-
3 F manded
FAN [ 4i
manded to order matters, that they may know nothing
of one another’s being apprehended y and it is related,
that a father and his three fons, and three daughters,
who lived together in the fame houfe, were carried pri¬
soners to the inquilition without knowing any thing of
one another’s being there till feven years afterwards,
when they that were alive were releafed by an aft of
faith.
FAMILY denotes the perfons that live together
in one houfe, under the direftion of one head or chief
manager. It alfo fignifies the kindred or lineage of a
perfon ; and is ufed by old writers for a hide or por¬
tion of land fufficient to maintain one family. See
Hide.
Family, in Natural Hl/Iory, a term ufed to exprefs
any order of animals, or other natural produftions,
which exhibit certain affinities, or the fame charafters,
FAMINE, dearth, or fcarcity of food. For pre-
fervatives againft hunger in times of famine, fee the
article Hunger.
FAN, a machine ufed to raife wind, and cool the
air by agitating it.
That the ufe of the fan was known to the ancients
is very evident from what Terence fays,
Cape hoc flabellum, et ventu/um huic Jic facito ;
and from Ovid, Art. Amand. I. 161.
Profuit ct tenues ventos moviffe flabello.
The fans of the ancients were made of different ma¬
terials ; but the moft elegant were compofed of pea¬
cocks feathers, or perhaps painted fo as to reprefent
a peacock’s feather.
The cullom which now prevails among the ladies, of
wearing fans, was borrowed from the eaft, where the
hot climate renders the ufe of fans and umbrellas almoft
indifpenfable.
In the eaft they chiefly ufe large fans made of fea¬
thers, to keep off the fun and the flies. In Italy and
Spain they have a large fort of fquare fans, fufpended
in the middle of their apartments, and particularly over
the tables : thefe, by a motion at firft given them, and
which they retain a long time on account of their per¬
pendicular fufpenfion, help to cool the air and drive
off flies.
In the Greek church, a fan is put into the hands of
the deacons in the ceremony of their ordination, in al¬
ia non to a part of the deacon’s office in that church,
which is to keep the flies off the priefts during the ce¬
lebration of the facrament.
What is called a fan amongft us and throughout the
chief parts of Europe, is a thin fkin, or piece of pa¬
per, taffety, or other light fluff, cut femicircularly,
and mounted on feveral little flicks of wood, ivory,
tortoifelhell, or the like. If the paper be Angle, the
flicks of the mounting are pafted on the leaft ornament¬
ed Ade : if double, the flicks are placed between them.
Before they proceed to place the flicks, which they
call mounting the fan, the paper is to be plaited in fuch
a manner, as that the plaits may be alternately inward
and outward.
It is in the middle of each plait, which is ufually
about half an inch broad, that the flicks are to be
pafted ; and thefe again are to be all joined and ri-
vetted together at the other end they are very thin^
O ] FAN
and fcarcely exceed one-third of an inch in breadtli j and paB,
where they are pafted to the paper, are ftill narrower, ||
continuing thus to the extremity of the paper. The Fanfliaw
two outer ones are bigger and ftronger than the others.
The number of flicks rarely exceeds 22. The flicks
are ufually provided by the cabinet-makers or toy¬
men 5 the fan-painters plait the papers, paint* and
mount them.
I he common painting is either in colours or gold
leaf, applied on a Alvered ground, both prepared by
the goldbeaters. Sometimes they paint on a gold
ground, but it is rarely j true gold being too dear,
and falfe too paltry. To apply the Alver leaves on the
paper, they ufe a compoAtion, which they pretend is
a great fecret, but which appears to be no other than
gum arable, fugar-candy, and a little honey, melted
in common water, and mixed with a little brandy.
This compoAtion is laid on with a fponge 5 then lay¬
ing the Alver leaves thereon, and preffing them gently
down with a linen ball fluffed with cotton, they catch
hold, and adhere together. When, inftead of Alver,
gold ground is laid, the fame method isobferved. The-
ground being well dried, a number of the papers are
well beaten together on a block, and by this means
the Alver or gold get a luftre as if they had been bur-
niffied.
Fan is alfo an inftrument to winnow corn. The-
machine ufed for this purpofe by the ancients feems to
have been of a form Amilar to ours. The fan, which
Virgil calls mijfhca vannus lucchi, was ufed at initiations
into the myfteries of the ancients: For as the perfons
who were initiated into any of the myfteries, were to-
be particularly good, this inftrument, which feparates
the wheat from the chaff, was the fltteft emblem that
could be of fetting apart the good and virtuous from
the vicious and ufelefs part of mankind. It is flgu-.
ratively applied in a Amilar manner in Lake iii. 17.
FANATICS, wild, enthuAaftic, viAonary perfons,
who pretend to revelation and infpiration.
The ancients called thofe fanatici who paffed their
time in temples ffanaf and being often feized with-
a kind of enthuAafm, as if infpired by the divinity,
fhowed wild and antic geftures. Prudentius reprefents
them as cutting and flaftffng their arms with knives..
Shaking the head was alfo common among the fana¬
tic! ; for Larapridlus informs us, that the emperor
Heliogabalus was arrived at that pitch of madnefs, as
to ffiake his head with the gaffied fanatics. Hence the
word was applied among us to the Anabaptifts, Qua¬
kers, &c. at their Arft rife, and is now an epithet given
to the modern prophets, Muggletoniam, &c.
FANCY, or imagination. See Imagination.
FANIONS, in the military art, fmall flags carried
along with the baggage.
FANNERS, a machine for winnowing corn, or for
feparating the chaff from the grain. See, for its de-
ferintion, MECHANICS.
FANSHAW, Sir Richard, famous for his em-
baffies and writings, was the tenth and youngeft fon
of Sir Plenry Fanffiaw of Ware Park in Hertfordflrire,
where it is fuppofed he was born about the year 1607.
He diftinguiflred himfelf fo early by his abilities, that
in 1635 he was taken into government employments
by King Charles I. and fent reAdent to the court of
Spain| whence being recalled in tke beginning of the
troubles
FAR [411] FAR
Fanlhaw troubles in 1641, he adhered to the royal intereft, and
II was employed in feveral important matters of date.
Farce- j)Unn^ his vacant hours he wrote divers poems, and
v made leveral trandations. At the Reftoration it was
expefled he would have been made one of the fecreta-
ries of date : however, he was made mader of the re-
queds j a daiion in thofe times of confiderable profit.
Afterwards, on account of his fkill in the Latin lan¬
guage, he was made fecretary for that tongue. In
1661, he was fent envoy to the king of Portugal. In
1662, he was again fent to that court with the title of
ambafflidor, and negotiated the marriage of his mader
King Charles II. with the infanta Donna Catherina.
Upon his return he was made one of the privy coun¬
cil. In 1664, he was fent ambaffador to both the
courts of Spain and Portugal ; at which time the foun¬
dation of peace betwixt thofe crowns and England was
laid by him. His condusd during his former employ¬
ments in thofe courts gained him fuch high edeem
there, that his reception was magnificent, exceeding
all that were before, which thofe kings declared was
not to be a precedent to fucceeding ambaffadors. He
died at Madrid in 1666, on the very day he had fix¬
ed for fetting out on his return to England. Eefides
fome original poems, and other tranflations, he pnb-
liflied a tranflation of Bathilla Guarini’s Pnjlor Fido,
and another of the Lujiad of Camoens. Among his-
potlhumous publications are, “ Letters during his
embaflies in Spain and Portugal 5 with his life pre¬
fixed.
FANTASIA, in the Italian mafic, fignifies fancy;
and is ufed for a compofition, wherein the compofer
ties himfelf to no particular time, but ranges accord¬
ing as his fancy leads, amidft various movements, dif¬
ferent airs, &o. This is otherwife called the capricious
fyle: before fonatas were ufed, there were many of
this kind, fome of which remain even now.
FANUM, among the Romans, a temple or place
confecrated to fome deity. The deified men and wo¬
men among the heathens had like wife their fana; even
the great philefopher Cicero ere£ted one to his daugh¬
ter Tullia.
FaNVM Vacunce, in Ancient Geography, a village of
the Sabines, fituated between Cures and Mandela ;
"where flood the temple of Vacuna, goddefs of the idle
or unemployed, in an old decayed ftate : and hence the
epithet ufed by Horace. Now called Vocone, in
the Ecclefiaflic State.
FARANDMAN, a traveller, or merchant ftran-
ger, to whom, by the laws of Scotland, juftice ought
to be done with all expedition, that his bufinefs or
journey be not hindered.
FARCE, was originally a droll, petty (how, or en¬
tertainment, exhibited by charletans, and their buf¬
foons, in the open flreet, to gather the crowd together.
—The word is French, and fignifies literally, “ force¬
meat or fluffing.” It was applied on this occafion, no
doubt, on account of the variety of jefts, gibes, tricks,
&c. wherewith the entertainment was interlarded.
Some authors derive farce from the Latin facetia ; o-
thers from the Celtic “ mockery j” others from
.the Latin farcire, “ to fluff.”
At prefent it is removed from the flreet to the
theatre : and inftead of being performed by merry-
andrews to amufe the rabble, is a&ed by comedians,
and become the entertainment of a polite audience.
Poets have reformed the wildnefs of the primitive far¬
ces, and brought them to the tafte and manner of co-
me.dy. The difference between the two on our ftage
is, that comedy keeps to nature and probability, and
therefore is confined to certain laws preferibed by an¬
cient critics ; whereas farce difallows of all laws, or ra¬
ther fets them afide on occafion. Its end is purely to
make merry ; and it flicks at nothing which may con¬
tribute thereto, however wild and extravagant. Hence
the dialogue is ufually low, the perfons of inferior
rank, the fable or adtion trivial or ridiculous, and na.
ture and truth everywhere heightened and exaggerated
to afford the more palpable ridicule.
FARCIN, or Farcy, a difeafe in horfes, and fomfe-
times in oxen, &c. fomewhat of the nature of a fca-
bies or mange. See Farriery Index.
FARDING-deal, the fourth part of an acre of
land. See Acre.
FARE, mofl commonly fignifies the money paid
for a voyage, or paffage by water j but, in London, it
is what perfons pay for being conveyed from one part
of the town to another in a coach or chair.
FAREWELL-cape, the moft foutherly promon¬
tory of Greenland, in W. Long. 50°, and N. Lat.
6o°.
FARIN, or Farm. See Farm.
FARINA, a Latin term fignifying meal, or the flour
of corn. See Corn.
FARINA Fcecunduns, among Botani/ls, the fuppofed
impregnating meal or dull on the apices or antherae of
flowers. See FoLLEN.
The manner of gathering the farina of plants for
microfcopical obfervations is this : Gather the flowers
in the midft of a dry funlhiny day when the dew is
perfectly off, then gently (hake off the farina, or light¬
ly brufh it off with a foft hair pencil, upon a piece of
white paper ; then take a Angle talc or ifinglafs be¬
tween the nippers, and, breathing on it, apply it in-
ftantly to the farina, and the moifture of the breath
will make the light powder flick to it. If too great
a quantity be found adhering to the talc, blow a little
of it off; and, if there is too little, breathe upon it
again, and take up more. When this is done, put the
talc into the hole of a Aider, and, applying it to the
microfcope, fee whether the little grains are laid as you
defire ; and if they are, cover them up with another
talc, and fix the ring ; but be careful that the talcs do
not prefs upon the farina in fuch a manner as to alter
its form.
FARLEU, money paid by the tenants in the weft
of England, in lieu of a heriot. In fome manors'of
Devonfhire, farleu is often diftinguiflied to be the beft:
goods, as heriot is the beft beaft, payable at the death
of a tenant.
FARM, Farin, or Femt, (Firma), in Lair, figni-
fies a little country meffuage or ditiricl, containing
houfe or land, with other conveniences ; hired, or taken
by leafe, either in writing, or parole, under a certain
yearly rent. See Lease.
This in divers parts is differently termed : in the
north, it is a tack ; in Lancafliire, fermekolt; in Ef-
fex, a ueike, &c.
In the corrupted Latin, firma fignified a place in-
clofed or (hut in : whence, in fome provinces, Menage
3 F 2 obferveq
Farm.
Of a pafto-
taI farm.
FAR [ 4
obfer ve,s',.Lhey call cloferie, or clofurt, what in others
~ they cail a Jcirrn. Add, that we find locare ad fir mam,
to fignify to let to farm; probably on account of the
fure hold the tenant here has in comparifon of tenants
at will.
Spelman and Skinner, however, choofe to derive the
word farm from the Saxon fearme, or feorme, that is,
viBus, “ provifion j” by reafon the country people
and tenants anciently paid their rents in vidtuals and
other neceffaries, which -were afterwards converted in¬
to the payment of a fum of money. Whence a farm
was originally a place that furnifhed its landlord with
provifions. And among the Normans they Hill di-
llinguilh between farms that pay in kind, i. e. provi¬
fions, and thofe which pay in money ; calling the for¬
mer limply fcrmcs, and the latter blanche fertile, “ white
farm.”
Spelman fliows, that the word firma, anciently fig-
nifiled not only what we now call a farm, but alfo a
feait or entertainment, which the farmer gave the pro¬
prietor or landlord, for a certain number of days, and
at a certain rate, for the lands he held of him. Thus
fearme in the laws of King Canute is rendered by Mr
Lambard, vi&us : and thus we read of redderefirmam
vnius no&is, and reddebat mum diem de firma ; which
denote provifion for a night and day, the rents about
the time of the conqueit being all paid in provifions ;
which cuftom is laid to have been firft altered under
King Henry I. We alfo fay to farm duties, imports,
&c.
Culture of a FARM. See AGRICULTURE.
Farm, as connected with gardening, and fufceptible
of embellilhment. See Gardening.
In fpeculation, it might have been expefted that the
firft effays of improvement ihould have been on a farm,
to make it both advantageous and delightful 5 but the
fadt was otherwife ; a fmall plot was appropriated to
pleafure, the rell was referved for profit only. And
this may, perhaps, have been a principal caufe of the
vicious tafte which long prevailed in gardens. It
was imagined that a fpot fet apart from the reft Ihould
not be like them : the conceit introduced deviations
from nature, which were afterwards carried to fuch an
excels, that hardly any objefts truly rural were left
within the enclofure, and the view of thofe without
was generally excluded. The firft ftep, therefore, to¬
wards a reformation, was by opening the garden to
the country, and that immediately led to affimilating
them ; but ftill the idea of a fpot appropriated to plea¬
fure only prevailed, and one of the lateft improve¬
ments has been to blend the ufefui with the agreeable j
even the ornamental farm was prior in time to the
more rural •, and we have at laft returned to fimplieity
by force of refinement.
I. The ideas of paftoral poetry feem now to be the
ftandard of that limplicity ; and a place conformable
to them is deemed a farm in itsutmoft purity. An al-
lufion tb them evidently enters into the defign of the
Leafowes (a), where they appear fo lovely as to en¬
dear the memory of their author ; and juftify the re¬
putation of Mr Shenftone, who inhabited, made, and
12] FAR
celebrated tne place : it is a perfect picture of his
mind, limpie, elegant, and amiable; and will always
fuggell a doubt, whether the fpot infpired his verfe, or
whether, in the fcenes. which he formed, he only rea¬
lized the paftoral images which abound in his longs.
1 ue whole is in the fame tafie, yet full of variety 5 and,
except in two or three trirtes, every part is rural and
natural. It is literally a grazing farm lying round the
houfe and a walk, as unaffected and as unadorned,
as a common field-path, is conducted through the fe-
veral enclofure?. But for a detail of the plan and
fcenery, as illuftrative of the prefent fubjeft, the read¬
er is referred to the particular defeription of the Lea-
fimes publiHied by the late Mr Dodfley. We thall only
take notice of one or two circumftances independent on
the general delineation.
1. he art with which the divifions between the fields
are diverfified is one of them. Even the hedges are
diftinguiflied from each other : a common quickfet
fence is in one place the feparation : in another, it is a
lofty hedge-row, thick from the top to the bottom •,
in a third, it is a continued range of trees, with all their
ftems clear, and the light appearing in the intervals
between their boughs, and the bullies beneath them j
in others, thefe lines of trees are broken, a few groupes
only being left at different dillances j and fometimes a
wood, a grove, a coppice, or a thicket, is the apparent
boundary, and by them both the lhape and the ftyle
of the enclofures are varied.
'Fhe infcriptions, which abound in the place, are an¬
other linking peculiarity : they are well known and
juftly admired ; and the elegance of the poetry, and
the aptnefs of the quotations, atone for their length
and their number. But, in general, infcriptions pleafe
no more than once : the utmoft they can pretend to,
except when their allufions are emblematical, is to
point out the beauties, or defcribe the effedls, of the
ipots they belong to ; but thofe beauties and thofe ef-
fe£ls mull be very faint, which Hand in need of the af-
fiftance. Infcriptions, however, to commemorate a de¬
parted friend, are evidently exempt from the cenfure j
the monuments would be unintelligible without them ;
and an urn, in a lonely grove, or in the midft of a field,
is a favourite embellilhment at the Leafowes : they are
indeed among the principal ornaments of the place y
for the buildings are moftly mere feats, or little root-
houfes ; a ruin of a priory is the large!!, and that has
no peculiar beauty to recommend it: but a multiplici¬
ty of objects are unneceffary in the farm ; the country
it commands is full of ihem ; and every natural ad¬
vantage of the place within itfelf lias been difcover-
ed, applied, eontrafted, and carried to the utmoft
perfe£tion, in the pureft tafte, and with inexhauftible
fancy.
Among the ideas of pa ft oral poetry which are here
introduced, its mythology is not omitted : but the al¬
lufions are both to ancient and to modern fables j
fometimes to the fairies ; and fometimes to the naiads
and mules. I he objefls alfo are borrowed partly
from the fcenes which this country exhibited foms
centuries ago, and partly from thofe of Arcadia : the
priory,
Fiirm.
(a) In Shroplhire, between Birmingham and Stourbridge.
FAR * [ 4
Farm, priory, and a Gothic feat, llill more particularly cha-
w—-v—- raifterifed by an infcription in obfulcte language and
the black letter, belong to the one •, the urns, Virgil’s
obelilk, and a ruftic temple of Pan, to the other. All
thefe allutions and obje£ta are indeed equally rural :
but the images in an Engiilh and olafiical eclogue ire
not the fame ; each fpecies is a diftinft imitative cha-
ra£ler. Either is proper ; either will raife the farm it
is applied to above the ordinary level ; and within the
compafs of the fame place both may be introduced 5
but they thould be feparate: when they are mixed, they
counteraft one another •, and no reprefentation is pro¬
duced of the times and the countries they refer to. A
certain diftrift fh >u!d therefore be allotted to each, that
all the fields which belong to the refpe6live chara&ers
may lie together, and the correfponding- ideas be pre~
■ferved for a continuance.
Of an an- 2. In fuch an affortment, the more open and polifbed
cient farm, fcenes will generally be given to the Arcadian Ihcp-
herd } and thofe in a lower degree of cultivation, will
be thought more conformable to the manners of the
ancient Britilh yeomanry. We do not conceive that
the country in their time was entirely cleared, or dif-
timftly divided j the fields were furrounded by woods,
not by hedges ; and if a confiderable tra£t of improved
land lay together, it (lill was not feparated into a num¬
ber of inclofures. The fub]e6ts, therefore, proper to re¬
ceive this charaffer, are thofe in which cultivation feems
to have encroached on the wild, not to have fubdued
it; as the bottom of a valley in corn, while the fides
are ftill overgrown with wood ; and the outline of that
wood indented by the tillage creeping more or lefs up
the hill. But a glade of grafs, thus circumftanced,
does not peculiarly belong to the fpecies ; that may
occur in a park, or paftoral farm 5 in this, the paftures
fliould rather border on a wafte or common : if large,
they may be broken by draggling bullies, thickets, or
coppices j and the fcattered trees Ihould be befet with
brambles and briars. All thefe are circumftances
which improve the beauty of the place ; yet appear to
be only remains of the wild, not intended for embellilh-
ment. Such interruptions muft, however, be lefs fre¬
quent in the arable parts of the farm j but there the
opening may be divided into feveral lands, diftinguilh-
ed, as in common fields, only by different forts of grain.
Thefe will fufficiently break the famenefs of the fpace ;
and the tillage does not furnifii a more pleafing fcene,
than fuch a fpace fo broken, if the extent be moderate,
and the boundary beautiful.
As much wood is elfential to the charafler, a fpot
may eafily be found, where turret's riling above the co¬
vert, or fome arches feen within it, may have the re-
femblance of a caftle or an abbey. The partial conceal¬
ment is almoft nectlfary to both ; for to accord with
the age, the buildings mud feem to be entire; the
ruins of them belong to later days: the difguife is,
however, advantageous to them as objefts 5 none can
be imagined more pidlurefque, than a tower bofomed
in trees, or a cluder appearing between the Hems and
the branches. But the fuperditions of the times fur-
nilh other objefts which are more within compafs:
hermitages were then real 5 folitary chapels were com¬
mon 5 many of the fprings of the country being deem-
* ed holy wells, were diltinguilhed by little Gothic domes
built^over them ; and every hamlet had its crofs, even
i
3 ] FA R>
this, when perfeft, fet on a little rudic pillar, and that Farfti.
railed upon a bafe of circular deps, may in fome fcenes -y—
be confiderable : if a fituation can be found for a May-
pole, whence it would not obtrude itfelf on every view,
that alfo might not be improper; and an ancient church,
however unwelcome it may be when it breaks into the
defign of a park or a garden, in fuch a farm as this
would be a fortunate accident: nor would the old yeMr
in the church-yard be indifferent; it would be a me¬
morial of the times when it was ufeful.
Many other obje&s, fignificant of the mariners of our
ancedors, might perhaps, upon recollection, occur ; but
thefe are amply fufficient for a place of confiderable
extent; and cottages mud abound in every age and
every country ; they may therefore be introduced in
different forms and pofitions. Earge pieces of water
are alfo particularly proper ; and all the varieties of
rills are confident with every Ipecies of farm. From
the concurrence of fo many agreeable circumltances in
this, be the force or the effeCt of the chara&er what it
may, a number of pleafing fcenes may be exhibited ei¬
ther in a walk or riding, to be contraded to thole
which in another part of the place may be formed on
Arcadian ideas; or even to be fubdituted in their dead,
if they are omitted.
3. A part may alfo be free from either of thefe imita- Of a fimpl®
tive characters, and laid out in a common fimple farm. ^arm*
Some of the greated beauties of nature are to be found
in the fields, and attend an ordinary date of cultiva¬
tion : wood and water may there be exhibited in feve¬
ral forms and difpofitions ; we may enlarge or divide
the inclofures ; and give them fuch diapes and bounda¬
ries as we pleafe; every one may be an agreeable fpot ;
together, they may compofe beautiful views ; the arable,
the padure, and the mead, may fucceed one another ;
and now and then a little wild may be intermixed with¬
out impropriety ; every beauty, in Abort, which is not
unufual in an inclofed country, whether it arifes from
negleCI or improvement, is here in its place.
The buildings, alfo, which are frequent in fuch a
country, are often beautiful objeCls ; the church and
the manfion are confiderable: the farm-yard itfelf, if
an advantageous fituation be chofen for it ; if the
ricks, and the barns, and the out-houfes, are ranged-
with any defign to form them into groups, and if they
are properly blended with trees ; may be made a piCfu-
refque eompofition. Many of them may be detached
from the group, and difperfed about the grounds :
the dove-cot, or the dairy, may be feparated from
the refi ; they may be elegant in their forms, and pla¬
ced wherever they will have the bell effeCl. A com¬
mon barn, accompanied by a clump, is fometimes
pleafing at a diftance ; a Dutch barn is fo when near ;
and a hay-fiack is generally an agreeable circum-
fiance in any pofition. Each of thefe may be fingle ;
and befides thefe, all kinds of cottages are proper.
Among fo many buildings, fome may be converted to
other purpofes than their conftrudion denotes ; and,
whatever be their exterior, may within be made
agreeable retreats, for refrefhment, indulgence, or
fhelter.
With fuch opportunities of improvements, even to *
decoration within itftlf, and with advantages of prof-
pe£t into the country about it, a fimple farm may un¬
doubtedly be delightful. It will be particularly ac¬
ceptable
T A U
Farm, ceptable to the owner, if it be clofe to bis park or bis
1‘" v*'-'— garden : the objedls which condanlly remi»d him of
his rank, impofe a kind of conftraint} and he feels
' himfelf relieved, by retiring fometimes from the fplen-
dor of a feat into the fimplicity of a farm : it is more
than a variety of fcene •, it is a temporary change of
fituation in life, which has all the charms of novelty,
eafe, and tranquillity, to recommend it. A place,
therefore, can hajdly be deemed perfeft, which is not
provided with fuch a retreat. But if it be the whole
of the place, it feems inadequate to the manfion : a vi-
litor is difeppointed ; the mafler is diffatisfied ; he is
not fufficiently didinguilhed from his tenants $ hemifles
the appendages incidental to his feat and his fortune ;
and is hurt at th« fimilarity of his grounds with the
country about them. A paftoral or an ancient farm is
a little above the common level j but even thefe, if
brought clbfe up to the door, fet the houfe in a field,
where it always appears to be neglected and naked.
Some degree of poliih and ornament is eicpedled in its
immediate environs ; and a garden, though it be but a
fraall one, fhould be interpofed between the manfion
jand any fpecies of farm.
Ofanorna- 4. A fenfe of the propriety of fuch improvements
f?.rm€ shout a feat, joined to a tafte for the more fimple de¬
lights of the country, probably fuggefted the idea of
an ornamentalfarm, as the means of bringing every ru¬
ral circumdance within the verge of a garden. This
idea has been partially executed very often ; but no¬
where, perhaps, fo completely, and to fuch an extent, as
"at Woburn farm, (near Weybridgein Surry). The place
contains 150 acres : cf which near 35 are adorned to the
highed degree ; of the red, about two-thirds are in ps-
fture, and the remainder is in tillage. The decorations
are, how'ever, communicated to every part : for they are
difpofed along the fides of a walk, which, with its ap¬
pendages, forms a broad belt round the grazing-
“grounds ; and is continued, though on a more con-
tra&ed fcale, through the arable. This walk is pro¬
perly garden ; all within it is farm 5 the whole lies
on the two fides of a hill, and on a fiat at the foot of
it : the flat is divided into corn fields ; the pafiures
occupy the hill ; they are furrounded by the walk,
and croflfed by a communication carried along the
brow, which is alfo richly dreffed, and which divides
them into two lawns, each completely encompaffed
with garden.
Thefe ate in themfelves delightful; the ground in
both lies beautifully : the}'’ are diverfified with clumps
and fingle trees j and the buildings in the walk feem
to belong to them. On the top of the hill is a large
oflagon ftru£lure ; and, not far from it, the ruin of a
chapel. To one of the lawns the ruin appears, on the
brow of a gentle afcent, backed and grouped with
wood ; from the other is feen the odtagon, upon the
edge of a fteep fall, and by the fide of a pretty grove,
which hangs down the declivity. The lawn is further
embellithed by a neat Gothic building ; the former by
the houfe, and the lodge at the entrance *, and in both,
-other objedls of lefs confequence, little feats, alcoves,
and bridges, continually occur.
The buildings are not, however, the only orna¬
ments of the walk ; it is (hut out from the country,
for a eonfiderable length of the way, by a thick and
lofty hedge-row, which is enriched with woodbine, jef-
F A H
lamine, and every odoriferous plant whofe tendrils will parm
entwine with the thicket. A path, generally of fand r-
or gravel, is conducted in a waving line, fometimes
clofe under the hedge, fometimes at a little ciltance
from it j and the turf on either hand is diverfified with
little groups of thrubs, of firs, or the fmalldl trees,
and often with beds of flowers: thefe are rather too
profufely Are wed, and hurt the eye by their litlle-
nefles 5 but then they replenith the air with their per¬
fumes, and every gale is full of fragrancy. In feme
parts, however, the decoration is more chafle ; and the
walk is carried between larger clupips of evergreens,
thickets of deciduous fhrabs, or ftill more confiderably
open plantations. In one place it is entirely fimple,
without any appendages, any gravel, or any funk fence
to feparate it from the lawn j and is diftinguiflied only
by the richnefs of its verdure, and the nicety of its
prefervation. In the arable part it is alfo of green
fward, following the di red ion of the hedges about the
feveral inclofures : thefe hedges are fometimes thicken¬
ed with flowering fhrubs 5 and in every corner or va¬
cant fpace, is a rofary, a clofe or an open clump, or a
bed of flowers: but if the parterre has been rifled for
the embellifbment of the fields, the country has on the
other hand been fearched for plants new in a garden ;
and the fhrubs and the flowers which ufed to be deem¬
ed peculiar to' the one, have been liberally transferred
to the other ; while their number feems multiplied by
their arrangement in fo many and fuch different difpo-
fitions. A more moderate ufe of them would, however,
have been better ; and the variety more pleafing, had
it been lefs licentious.
But the excefs is only in the borders of the walk j
the feenes through which it leads are truly elegant,
everywhere rich, and always agreeable. A peculiar
cheerfulntfs overfpreads both the lawns, arifing from
the number and the fplendor of the objefls w'ith which
they abound, the lightnefs of the buildings, the inequa¬
lities of the ground, and the varieties of the plan¬
tations. The clumps and the groves, though feparate-
ly fmall, are often maffed by the perfpe£Hve, and ga¬
thered into confiderable groups, which are beautiful in
their forms, their tints, and their pofitions. The brow
of the hill commands two lovely profptfb : the one
gay and extenfive, over a fertile plain, watered by the
Thames, and broken by St Anne’s Hill and Windfor
Caftle ; a large mead, of the moft luxuriant verdure,
lies juft below the eye, fpreading to tbs barks of the
river j and beyond it the country is full of farms, vil¬
las, and villages, and every mark of opulence and cul¬
tivation. The other view is more wooded : the fleeple
of a church, or the turrets of a feat, fometimes rife
above the trees; and the bold arch of Walton bridge
is there a confpicuous objeff, equally lingular and
noble. The inclofures on the flat are more retired
and quiet ; each is confined within itfelf; and altoge¬
ther they form an agreeable contraft to the open ex-
pofijre above them.
With the beauties which enliven a garden are every¬
where intermixed many properties of a farm : both the
lawns are paftured ; and the lowings of the herds, the
bleating of the (beep, and the tinklings of the bell-wed-
der, refound through all the plantations: even the
clucking of poultry is not omitted ; for a menagerie of
a very fimple defign is placed near the Gothic building;
[ 4H 1
FAR [415] FAR
Farm a fmall Terpentine river is provided for the water-fowl;
■Farmer, while the others ftray among the flowering thrubs on
—the banks, or ftraggle about the neighbouring lawn :
and the corn fields are the lubje&s of every rural em¬
ployment which arable land from feed-time to harveft
can furnifli. But though fo many of the circumftances
occur, the fimplicity of a farm is wanting j that idea
is loft in fuch a profufion of ornament j a rufticity of
charafler cannot be preferved amidft all the elegant
decorations which may be laviflred on a garden.
FARMER, he that tenants a farm, or is leflee
thereof. Alfo generally every leflee for life, years, or
at will, is called farmer. As this word implies no my-
ftery, except it be that of hulbandry, hufbandman is
the proper addition for a farmer.
Farmer, Hugh, an Englifli clergyman and a man
of literature, belonging to the proteftant nonconformifts,
was defcended from people of refpe&ability in North
Wales, and drew his firft breath at Shrewibury, in the
year 1714. Dr Charles Owen was for fome time his
tutor, and prior to that period he was educated at a fchool
in Llanegrin. His parents from the firft having de-
figned him for the miniftry, he. was fent to profecute
his ftudies under the juftly celebrated Dr Doddridge at
Northampton, in 1730. Here* by the re&itude of his
condudl and wonderful proficiency, he gained the efteem
of that great man, who always fpoke of him in the
moft refpe&ful terms. Having completed his academi¬
cal ftudies, Mr Farmer became the chaplain of William
Coward, Efq. of Walthamftow, in the county of Eflfex,
and was at the fame time chofen minifter to a diflent-
ing congregation in that village. Notwithftanding the
gratitude with which Mr Coward ought to be remem¬
bered by many for his charitable inftitutions, he had
certain peculiarities of temper which rendered him a
very difagreeable domeftic. His doors were (hut at an
uncommonly early hour of the night, and neither vifitor
nor conftant refident could afterwards obtain admiflion.
Mr Farmer having one evening been detained a little
beyond that hour, found the doors (liut again ft him,
and was under the necefiity of applying to a William
Snell, Efq. folicitor, a man of eminence, and pofifeflfed
of many excellent qualifications, in whofe family he
remained for 30 years, living in the greateft friendthip
and intimacy. In this gentleman’s houfe he gradually
prepared thofe valuable treatifes and diflertations which
were afterwards given to the public, and acquired him
fo much celebrity as a man of letters. He alfo conti¬
nued to difcharge the duties of his miniflerial funflion
to the people of Walthamftow.
When a day of thanfgiving was appointed for the
fortunate fuppreflion of the rebellion in 1745’ ^ar*
mer preached a fermon on that occafion which was pub-
liftied the following year. . His next work was of con-
fiderably greater importance, and was entitled, “ An
Inquiry into the Nature and Defign of our Lord’s temp¬
tation in the wildernefs,” 8vo. In this.work it was the
defign of Mr Farmer to prove that the whole was tranf-
- ailed in vifion, the different ftages of which were intend¬
ed to point out to him the difficulties and duties of his
fubfequent miniftry. The originality of thought and
profound erudition which this work difplayed, foon
gave it a very extenfive circulation, and called forth
the exertions of thofe who were of an oppofite opinion.
It received one reply under the title of “ Chrift’s temp¬
tations real fa£ts,” which poffeffed confiderable meritr Farmer,
but much inferior to Mr Farmer’s for energy of ex- y—.
preflion, depth of thinking, and force of argument.
But the moft mafterly, perhaps, of all Mr Farmer’s
literary produdlions, was his “ Differtation on Miracles,
defigned to fhew that they are arguments of a divine in-
terpofition, and abfolute proofs of the miflion and doc-,
trine of a prophet.” Some have believed, and perhaps
not without reafon, that this work has no proper rival,
notwithftanding the many able treatifes upon that fub-
jedl which have made their appearance in different ages.
It was firft publifhed in the year 1771. But as great
talents are frequently envied, and as this infernal prin¬
ciple is the prolific fource of calumny and detradlion,
fo this fupereminent work of P»Ir Farmer wg.s. declared
to have been chiefly borrowed from M. le Moine on.-*
the fame fubjedl ; a Hander which Mr Farmer refuted
in a very able and fatisfadlory manner. In the year
1775, he publifhed his celebrated “ Effay on the De¬
moniacs of the New Teftament,” which may be con-
fidered as a mafterly completion of the defign he had
in view by his differtation on miracles. The hypothefis
he adopted had been formerly defended with great
ability by Mede, Sykes, Lardner, and others j but it
was referved for the critical acumen of Mr Farmer to
free it completely from thofe difficulties which ftilL
hung around it. His effay on demoniacs was fuccef-
fively attacked by Dr Worthington and Mr Fell, both
of them men of confiderable erudition, but much in-,
ferior to their able antagonift.
Mr Farmer having continued for feveral years the
foie paftor of the congregation at Walthamftow, an.
able colleague was appointed him in 1761, in confe-
quence of which he became the afternoon preacher to
the congregation of Salter’s-hall, in the city of London,
and foon after the Tuefday ledlurer at the fame place.
He refigned his minifterial employments as he advanced
in years, which the people committed to his charge very
much regretted. In the year 178.5 his eyes gave him
very much trouble, of the fight of which he was nearly
deprived, but by means of a fiargical operation, he was
for fome time enabled to refume his ftudies. But mor¬
tality is the inevitable lot of all men, and the growing
infirmities of Mr Farmer brought him to the grave in 1
1787, in the 73d year of his age.
By his laft will he had ordered all his manufcripts to
be burnt after his death, a circumstance which men of
letters have juft reafon to lament. It is no doubt the
duty of executors to pay attention to the will of the de :
ceafed ; yet for the benefit of the Chriftian world they
would have been juftified in taking a certain latitude in
the explanation of his meaning •, as it does by no means
appear probable that he meant to confign to the flames
his manufcript entitled, “ A Differtation on the ftory
of Balaam,” which appeared written in a fair hand, as
if, manifeftly intended for the prefs. When we fay that
Mr Farmer was a confummate fcholar, we truft that
his numerous and able works will fully juftify the affer-
tion \ and his talents as a preacher were equally con-
fpicuous. His voice was remarkable for its clearnefs
and harmony, and his whole manner was peculiarly im-
preflive. His piety was not morofe, his converfation was
lively, and his whole deportment was a beautiful tranf-
cript of his moral injunctions.
Farmer, Richard, D. D. a fcholar and critic of
4 confiderable
FAR [
Farmer, confiderable eminence, -was the Ton of a bofier at L
——v—i..' cefter, at which place he was born in the year 1735.
Here he received the rudiments of his education, and
was afterwards a ftudent at Cambridge, and penfioner
of Emanuel college. He was confidered as a young
man well acquainted with books, was much etteemed
among his friends, and looked upon as pofleffed of lively
parts, even before he acquired any extraordinary repu¬
tation as a fcholar. He was made B. A. in 1757, and
M. A. in 1760. Seven years after this period, having
been for feme time a curate, he took the degree of
B. D. and became a preacher at Whitehall. Befides the
attention he paid to the Grecian and Roman authors,
he profecuted the ftudy of books in his own language,
printed on black-letter, which laid the foundation of a
Work that added more to his literary reputation than
any other performance. This was “ An EfiPay on the
learning of Shakefpeare,” which he publifhed in 1766.
Men of letters had long turned their attention to the
learning of Shakefpeare, in order to afeertain its real ex¬
tent. It could not be queftioned that he was acquainted
with the hiftory and mythology of the ancients, but it was
ftill a matter of difpute from what fources that acquaint¬
ance was derived. To obviate this difficulty, Mr Far¬
mer’s knowledge of books enabled him to demonftrate,
that tranflations of the far greater part of claffical authors
were to be met with in the time of the celebrated dra-
matift j and as he proved that Shakefpeare had even
. copied the blunders and errors of fuch tranilations, he
made it manifeft beyond the poffibility of a rational
doubt, that he was wholly incapable of confulting the
originals. This effay paffed through three editions in
a very (hort time ; was much admired for the fprightli-
nefs of its compofition, and the generality were perfuaded
that he had fully eftablifhed his point.
This performance brought him fo much into notice,
as to become extremely favourable to his profeffional
advancement. By the influence of Bifhop Hurd, he pro¬
cured the chancellorfhip and a prebend in the cathe¬
dral of Lichfield, and in 1775 he was ele&ed matter of
Emanuel college, and took the degree of D. D. He
was foon after conftituted principal librarian to the uni-
verfity, and ferved in turn the office of vice-chancellor.
He was made prebendary of Canterbury by Lord North,
at that time prime minitter, and Mr Pitt made him
tw'ice an offer of a bifhopric $ but the conftraints and
folemnity of the epifcopal chara&er were not congenial
to his natural temper, on which account he declined the
offer, and having refigned his office as prebendary, he ac¬
cepted of a refidentiaryttiip of St Paul’s. This obliged
him to refide three months annually in London, which
he fpent with pleafure and advantage in the company
of literary characters. From nature he inherited a fund
of good humour, and was of fuch an obliging turn, that
he buried party fpirit in the fatisfaflion which he found
in the performance of beneficent aflions. Though in
general an enemy to reforms of any kind, and anxious
to preferve things as they were, both in the church and
ttate, he was inttrumental in amending the police of
^Cambridge, efpecially as it related to the paving and
lighting of the ftreets. At his inttigation alfo, monu¬
mental fculnture was admitted into the cathedral of St
Paul’s, which will continue to exhibit a ttriking proof
of national gratitude, and ferve to cover the nakednefs
of the walls.
416 ] FAR
It was at one time the intention of Dr Farmer to pub- Farmer
liih a hiflory of the town and antiquities of Leicetter, ||
the expences to be uetrayed by fubfeription ; but either Finable,
his independent circumftances, or a degree of native in-
dolence, made him relinquitti the defign, and the few
materials he had collected were given to Mr John
Nichols, at that time engaged in an elaborate work on
the fame fubjeCI. After a painful illnefs of fome length,
Dr Farmer died at Emanuel college in the month of
September, 1797, in the 62d year of his age. Dr Parr
wrote an epitaph for his tombftone, in which we find
the following teftimony to his worth. “ Vir facetus et
dulcis, fertique fermonis, Grseceet Latine doClus, in ex-
plicanda veterum Anglorum poefi fubtilis et elegans.”
He had a confiderable library, in which were a ^aft
number of books purchafed at the ttalls of London,
and afterwards difpofed of for much more than they
coft.
Farmer, in mining, is the lord of the field, or one
that farms the lot and cope of the king.
FARN islands, two groups of little ifiands and
rocks, 17 in number, lying oppofite to Bamborough
cattle in Northumberland. At low water the points
of feveral others are vifible befides the 17 jult mention¬
ed. The nearett ifland to the Ihore is called the Houfe-
iflandy and lies exaftly one mile and 68 chains from tha
coart. The mott diftant is about feven or eight miles.
Their produce is kelp, feathers, and a few feals, which
the tenant watches and Ihoots for the fake of the oil
and fldns. Some of them yield a little grafs that may
ferve to feed a cow or two ; which the people trans¬
port over in their little boats. The largeft or Houfe-
ifland is about one mile in compafs, and has a fort and
a lighthoufe. It contains about fix or feven acres of
rich pafiure j and the fhore abounds with good coals
which are dug at the ebb of tide. St Culhbert is faid
to have paffed the two laft years of his life on this
ifland. A priory of Benedi&ines was afterwards ella-
blifhed here, for fix or eight monks, fubordinate to
Durham. A fquare tower, the remains of a church,
and fome other buildings, are ftill to be feen on this
ifland ; and a ftone coffin, which is pretended to be
that of St Cuthbert. At the north end of the ifle is
a deep chafm, from the top to the bottom of the
rock, communicating with the fea ; through which,
in tempettuous weather, the water is forced with
great violence and noife, and forms a fine jet d’eau of
60 feet high. It is called by the inhabitants of the
oppofite coaft, the Churn. One of the ifiands in the
rnoft diftant group is called the Pinnacles, from
fome vaft columnar rocks at the fouth end, even at
their fides, flat at the tops, and entirely covered with
guillemots and fhags. The fowlers pafs from one to
the other of thefe columns by means of a board, which
they place from top to top, forming a narrow bridge
over fuch a dreadful gap that the very fight of it ftrikes
one with horror.
FAUNAS IE, Thomas, fon of a carpenter at
London, born in 1375, ftaid a fhort while at Oxford ;
where being enticed to abandon his religion, he went
to Spain, and was there educated in a college belong¬
ing to the Jefuits. Being weary of their fevere difei-
pline, he went with Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis
Drake in their laft voyage in 1595. He was after¬
wards a foldier in the Low Countries: but being redu¬
ced
FAR
Famabie ced to great want, returned to England, where wan-
H dering about for fome time under the name of Thomas
Farnovians. ^ainrafe^ the anagram of his name, he fettled at Mat-
~ ^ lock in Somerfetiliire, and taught a grammar-fchool
with good reputation. He removed to London, and
opened a fchool with large accommodations for young
gentlemen. While he taught this fchool, he was made
matter of arts at Cambridge, and incorporated into the
univerfity of Oxford. Thence he removed, in 1636,
to Seven-oaks in Kent j and taught the fons of feveral
noblemen and gentlemen, who boarded with him, with
great fuccefs, and grew rich. His works gained him
reputation. Upon the breaking out of the civil com¬
motions in 1641, he Avas caft into prifon. It was
debated in the houfe of commons, whether he fliould
be fent to America ; but this motion being rejected, he
Avas removed to Ely-houfe in Holborn, and there he
died in 1647. Mr Earnabie Avasa very eminent gram¬
marian ; and many Avriters have fpoken with great ap¬
probation of his labours. Mr Bayle in particular
lays, “ His notes upon moft of the ancient Latin
poets have bevn of very great ufe to young beginners j
being Ihort, learned, and defigned chiefly to clear up
the text.”
FARNHAM, or FernhaM ; a t0Avn of Surry, and
capital of the hamlet of its own name, 41 miles from
London on the Winchefter road. It is a large popu¬
lous place, fituated on the river Wey, and fuppofed to
have its name from the fern Avhich abounded here. It
was given by the Weft Saxon king Ethelbald to the
fee of Winchefter j the bilhops of which have general¬
ly refided in the caftle here, in the fummer time, ever
flnce the reign of King Stephen, Avhofe brother, its
then bilhop, firft built it. It was a magnificent ftruc-
ture, Avith deep moats, ftrong walls and towers at pro¬
per diftances, and a fine park ; but it is much decayed.
The toAvn, Avhich contains 437 houfes, and 2508 inha¬
bitants, is governed by 12 mailers or burgeffes, of
whom two are bailiffs, (chofen annually). They have
the profit of the fairs and markets, and the affize of
bread and beer j and hold a court every three Aveeks,
which has poAver of trying and determining all aftions
under 40s. From Michaelmas to Chriftmas here is a
good market for oats 5 and one of the greateft wheat
markets in England, efpecially between All-Saints day
and mid-fummer. The toll-dilh here Avas once reckon¬
ed worth 200I. a year; but it is much diminilhed,
fince the people about Chichefter and Southampton be¬
gan to lend their meal to London .by fea. But this
lofs is amply made up by the vaft growth of hops, of
which there are 300 or 400 acres of plantations about
this town, and they are faid to excel the Kentilh hop-
yards both in quantity and quality. This toAvn fent
members to parliament in the reign of Edward II.
but never fince. The magiftrates have their privi¬
leges from the bilhop of Winchefter, to Avhom they
pay an acknowledgment of I2d. a-year. The market
is on Thurfday : and there are three fairs annually,
and a great market for Wellh hofe.
FARNOVIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a fefl of
Socinians, fo called from Staniflaus Farnovius, Avho fe-
parated from the other Unitarians in the year 1568,
and was followed by feveral perfons eminent for their
learning. This fe6l did not laft long; for having
loft their chief, Avho died in 1615, it was fcattered
Vol. VIII. Part II.
[ 417 1
FAR
abroad and reduced to nothing. Farnovius was enga- Farnovians,
ged by Gonefius to prefer the Arian fyftem to that of Farquhar.
the Socinians, and confequently aflerted, that ChriflV '
had been produced out of nothing by the Supreme Be¬
ing before the creation of this terreftrial globe. His
fentiments concerning the Holy Ghoft are not certainly
knoAvn ; however, it appears that he Avarned his difei-
ples againft paying the tribute of religious worlhip to
the Divine Spirit.
FAR£) UHAR, George, an ingenious poet and
dramatic Avriter, the fon of a clergyman in Ireland,
was born at Londonderry in 1678. He Avas fent to
Trinity College, Dublin ; but his volatile difpofition not
relilhing a college life, he betook himfelf to the ftage ;
Avhere, having dangeroufly wounded a brother aflor in
a tragic feene, by forgetting to change his fword for a
foil, it ftiocked him fo much that he left the Dublin
theatre and went to London. Here he procured a
lieutenant’s commiflion by the intereft of the earl of Or¬
rery ; Avhich he held feveral years, and gave many
proofs both of courage and condu£t. In 1698, he
Avrote his firft comedy called Love and a Bottle; which
for its fprightly dialogue and bufy feenes, Avas Avell re¬
ceived. In the beginning of the year 1700, Avhich Avas
the jubilee year at Rome, he brought out his Conftant
Couple, or a Trip to the Jubilee : and fuited Mr Wilks’s
talents fo Avell in the chara&er of Sir Harry Wildair,
that the player gained almoft as much reputation as
the poet. This tempted him to continue it in another
comedy called Sir Harry Wildair, or The fequel of the
Trip to the Jubilee; in Avhich Mrs Oldfield acquired
great applaufe. In 1702, he publifhed his Mifcella-
nies, which contain a variety of humorous fallies of
fancy. In i7°3j appeared the Inconftant, or the Way
to Win him; in 1704, a farce called the Stage-coach;
in 1705, the Twin Rivals; and in 1706, the Recruit¬
ing Officer, founded on his oAvn obfervations while on
a recruiting party at Shrewfbury. His laft comedy
was the Beaux Stratagem, of Avhich he did not live to
enjoy the full fuccefs. Mr Farquhar married in 1703.
Before that time his manner of life had been rather
diffipated. The lady, therefore, who afterwards became
his wife, having fallen violently in love with him, but
judging that a gentleman of his humour Avould not ealily
be drawn into the trammels of matrimony, contrh'ed
to have it given out that (he was poffeffed of a large
fortune ; and finding means afterwards to let Mr Far¬
quhar know her attachment to him, intereft and vanity
got the better of his paffion for liberty, and the lady
and he were united in the hymeneal bands. But how
great Avas his difappointment when he found all his
profpedls overclouded fo early in life (for he Avas then
no more than 24), by a marriage from which he had
nothing to expe£l but an annual increafe of family, and
an enlargement of expence in confequence of it far be¬
yond Avhat his income Avould fupport. Yet, to his ho¬
nour be it told, though he found himfelf thus deceived
in a moft effential particular, he never Avas known once
to upbraid his wife with it; but generoufly forgave an
impofition Avhich love for him alone had urged her to,
and even behaved to her Avith all the tendernefs and de¬
licacy of the moft indulgent hufhand. Mrs Farquhar,
hoAvever, did not very long enjoy the happinefs ftie had
purchafed by this ftratagem ; for the circumftances that
attended this union were in fome refpe&s perhaps the
3 G meant
FAR [4
Farquhar. means of fhortening the period of the captain’s life.
/"*“— For, finding himfelf confiderably involved in debt in
conFquence of their increafing family, he was induced
to make application to a certain noble courtier, who
had frequently profefled the greateft friendfhip for him,
and given him the ftrongeft afiurances of his intended
fervices. This pretended patron repeated his former
declarations 5 but, expreffing much concern that he had
nothing at prefent immediately in his power, advifed
him to convert his commiffion into money to anfwer his
prefent occafions, and allured him that in a Ihort time
he would procure another for him. Farquhar, who
could not bear the thoughts of his wife and family be¬
ing in diftrefs, followed this advice, and fold his com-
8 ] FAR
million ; but, to his great mortification and difappoint- Farquhar
ment, found, on a renewal of his application to this in- Farrier.’
human nobleman, that he had either entirely forgotten, J
or had never intended to perform, the promife he had
made him. This dillrafting fruftration of all his hopes
fixed itfelf fo llrongly on our author’s mind, that it foon
brought on him a fure, though not a very fudden, de-
clenfion of nature, which at length carried him off the
flage of life in 1707, before he arrived at 30 years of
age.—His comedies have fo much humour, and the
charafters are fo natural, that his plays Hill continue
to be reprefented to full houfes.
FARRIER, one whofe employment is to fhoe hor-
fes, and cure them when difeafed or lame.
FARRIERY.
1
Origin of
the term
farriery.
1
Veterinary
art.
3
Term ex¬
tended.
INTRODUCTION.
nPHE term farrier is probably a corruption of ferrier,
Yv^ferrans, from the verb ferrer, to Jhoe a horfe ;
all thefe words being derived from the Latin ferrum^
“ iron''’ There is no doubt that the word farrier was
at firft ufed to denote a perfon who Ihod horfes, but as
thefe perfons were for a long period the only horfe-
doflors, the term was foon ufed in the more extenfive
fenfe of horfe doBor or horfe-leech; and hence far¬
riery came to fignify the art of curing the difeafes of
horfes.
There can be little doubt that the word farrier was
originally fpelt ferrier or ferrer; as we meet with this
latter orthography in fome of our older writers. Thus
Blundeville, who wrote in the time of Queen Elizabeth,
in his “ Addrefs to the Gentlemen of England,” book
iv. ha^ the following fentence.
“ All horfes, for the moft part, do come into their
decay, fooner than they fiiould do, by one of thefe four
waies; that is to fay, either for lacke of being well
bred, or through the ralhnefs of the rider, the negli¬
gence of the keeper, or elfe through the unlkilfulneffe
of the ferrer "
Again, the fame author mentions Martin Ghelly
of Afton, called Martin Alman, chiefe ferrer to the
queen’s magiftie.”
Farriery, in the ufual acceptation of the word, forms
only a part of that more general art, which has been
commonly called the veterinary art; by which is under-
ftood the art of medicine as applied to the inferior ani¬
mals, which has been long called by the French /’ art
veterinaire, or medicine veterinaire. This word veteri¬
nary is of very ancient date, being derived from the
Latin veterinarius, which is ufed by Columella to de¬
note a horfe-doBor or cattle doBor. The term veteri¬
nary, being derived from veterinus, qu. vehetennus, d
vehendo, carrying, is properly applicable only to beads
of burden j but veterinary medicine is now commonly
employed in a more comprehenfive fenfe, to denote the
art of curing the difeafes of domejlic animals in general.
The French, who appear to have fird ufed the term
in this general fenfe, ufually didinguilh that part of the
art which we call farriery, by the appellation of Hiy-
piatrique from /V?r#?, a horfe, and tetris, phyfcian.
Thus, they have a Cours d'Hippiatriqtte, a DiBionaire
d'Hippiatrique, &c.
As there are confiderable advantages attending the
confideration of the difeafes of the feveral domedic ani¬
mals in the lame treatife, we propofe, in the prefent ar¬
ticle, not to confine ourf’elves to the medical treatment
of the horfe, but to extend our views to the difeafes of
fuch other of the domedic animals, as are of the mod;
importance to man, particularly the ox, dieep, and dog.
The difeafes of the horfe, as they are better known,
and more intereding, than thofe of the other domedic
animals, will of courfe occupy the greated (hare of our
attention. The difeafes of the dog have been as yet too
little invedigated for us to give a very fatisfaftory ac¬
count of them ; but as the fubjeft of veterinary medi¬
cine has of late been much cultivated, it is probable
that thefe, as well as fome other obfcure difeafes of ani¬
mals, may ere long receive fome elucidation. If any
confiderable improvements or difcoveries diall be made
before the completion of our work, we (hall notice them
under VETERINARY medicine.
It may be thought, that, confidering veterinary medi-objections
cine in this extenfive point of view, it would have been anfwered.
more correft to defer the fubjeft to the article VETERI¬
NARY •, but mod of our readers who have been ac-
cudomed to fee in our diftionary the article Farriery,
will expeft an account of, at lead, the difeafes of the
HORSE, under this article, and would probably not be
pleafed to have this delayed till nearly the end of the
work \ befides, it is of little importance under which
article the difeafes of animals are treated of, as, when
we have once defined our terms, we cannot be mifun-
derdood, provided we always employ them in the fenfe
of the definition. Again, as the term veterinary has
departed from its original fignification, there can be
no objeftion to our employing the word farriery, a
term that is more familiar, in the fame general fenfe.
In faft, it has been fo employed by a late writer on
the fubjeft, Mr Feron, who has entitled his work, “ A
new Sydem of Farriery,” though he profeffes to treat
in it of the horfe, ox, and Iheep.
In this article, then, we {hall ufe farriery as fynony-
mous with veterinary art, and (hall confider both as
the
Importance
of the fub-
jeft
6
to the ve¬
terinary
pradtition-
er.
7
To the
farmer and
country
gentleman.
8
Tb the me¬
dical prac¬
titioner.
FARR
the art of preferring the health arid curing the difeafes of
domefic animals.
The liudy of veterinary medicine mull be an intereft-
ing objedl to every perfon, whofe profeffion, or fituation
in fociety, requires him to attend to the comforts and
difeafes of domeftic animals.
To the veterinary praElitioner, the ftudy of the prin¬
ciples of his art, the hiltory of the difeafes which he is
called on to relieve, and the methods of treating them
that have been found moft fuccefsful, are as eflential
as the ftudy of the human economy, and the difeafes to
which it is expufed, are to the medical pradlitioner. A
farrier who has ftudied his art (cientifically, is as much
fuperior to the ignorant empiric, to whofe mercy the
lives and limbs of horfes and cattle are ufually intruft-
ed ; as the regular phyfician to the illiterate quack,
who puffs off his pernicious noftrums in every newf-
paper, and enriches himfelf, by impofing on the credu¬
lity and folly of the public. The neceffity of a regular
education to the farrier, as well as to the furgeon or phy¬
fician, which had long been feen, has led to the inftitu-
tion of veterinary fchools j at firft in France, and with¬
in thefe few years in England. Of thefe we (hall pre-
fently give an account.
To the farmer and country gentleman this fubjedl
muft be highly interefting. They will find their ac¬
count in being able themfelves to fuperintend the ma¬
nagement of their horfes, dogs, ftieep, and cattle, fo as
beft to preferve their health, and relieve their difeafes,
without relying implicity on their grooms, huntfmen,
and farriers, herdfmen and cattle-do6lors, who are pro¬
bably either notorioufly ignorant, or are induced from
interefted views, or a fellow-feeling, to prolong the cure,
and pick the pockets of their mailers (a). Thefe
gentlemen therefore cannot employ a part of their
leifure time to greater advantage than in acquiring a
knowledge of the difeafes of domeftic animals.
The medical pra£litioner who wiihes to derive an
advantage from analogy in fome of the obfcure difeafes
to which the human frame is fubje£l, and which would
probably receive confiderable elucidation from a com-
parifon with fimilar difeafes that affeft the inferior ani¬
mals, muft engage with peculiar intereft, in a refearch
that promifes fo well to repay his labour. “ It is not
a little remarkable, (fay the editors of a well-condudfed
medical journal), that the difeafes of horfes, cattle, and
ftieep, which occur fo frequently, and are fo ferioufly
lamented, ftiould be fo imperfe<5lly underftood. No
greater benefit could be conferred on phyfical fcience
than a complete hiftory of the difeafes of our domeftic
animals, efpecially if given by any one endowed by na¬
ture with fuperior acutenefs, and a talent for obferva-
tion, improved by habit and experience ; who could
defcribe the fymptoms and appearances of the different
diforders, point out the analogies with thofe incident to
the human body, deleft thofe minute circumftances
i E R Y.
which ferve to diftinguifti them, clafs them under their
proper heads, and correft all the con full on in which
they now lie involved. Veterinary medicine has lately
occupied fome (hare of attention, chiefly as relating to
horfes, and as a diftinft purfuit from the general fiudy
of all the difeafes of animals, but confidered apart from
any relation or inquiry concerning the treatment of the
morbid ftates of the human fyftem. It is in this laft
point of view, that comparative pathology feems to offer
fo many fubjefts worthy inveftigation ; and, when look¬
ed upon in this light, it ftrikes us as one of thofe ftudies
quce ad nos pertinent, et quce nefcire malum ef *.
We ftiali fee, from the hiftprical Iketch of farriery,
which will immediately be given, that the art never
made any confiderable progrefs, or affumed any thing
like a fcientific form, till it attrafted the attention of
men who had made the human economy their ftudy.
Almoft the only rational improvement'-, that have been
made in the art, were either fuggefted or carried into
effeft by medical men ; and nothing will contribute fo
much to its perfeftion as the intereft which the profef¬
fion has lately (hewed to it, and the attention that has
of late been paid to the ftudy of comparative anatomy
and pathology.
The healing art in general muft profit by this.
There is not only an intimate conneftion between the
ftrufture of man and that of the inferior animals ; but,
efpecially in thofe that have been domefticated, the dif¬
eafes of both are nearly allied.
The murrains, that in the early part of the laft cen¬
tury fo frequently attacked the horned cattle through¬
out almoft all Europe, nearly depopulating moft of the
farms, are very analogous to fome of the epidemic dif¬
eafes of man ; and peftilential difeafes among cattle,
have not unfrequently been the forerunners of fimilar
epidemics among the human race. Homer, in de-
fcribing the plague that haraffed the Grecian camp, in
confequence of the affront given by Agamemnon to the
prieft of Apollo, fays that the domeftic animals were
firft affefted.
Oiigr/sf; piv nxi kwhs tlpyisf,
’Avlfltg Itts/T uvTourt lypvKii sptitg,
BacAA*——— II. i.
“ On mules and dogs th’ infeftion firft began,
“ And laft the vengeful arrows fix’d in man.”
Pope.
The plague of boils that raged among the Egyptians
(Exod. ix. io.) affefted both man and bead. Similar
inftances are related both by facred and profane hifto-
rians.
Almoft the whole tribe of inflammations, even the
gout (according to Van Swieten), are found to affeft
the domeftic animals, are produced by the fame caufes,
3 G 2 and
* Edin.
Med. and
Sur. Jourtt.
vol. i. »
p- 440.
9
Farriery
much in¬
debted to
medical
men.
10
Analogy
between
the difeafe*
of man and
of animals.
(a) It may be thought by fome, that we have gone to far in aocufing the farriers and grooms, &c. of having
a fellow-feeling ; but, when it is known, that “ a part of every (hiling paid to common farriers, is in fome
(hape returned to the groom, as a fee or perquifite j” that “ the fervant receives at lead five per cent, from the
farrier on every bill paid by his mafter j” and that “ if a horfe dies under the care of a farrier, he generally be¬
comes the property of the groom (See Veterinary Tranfaftions, N° 1. Introduftion) *, it will be allowed that
there is fome ground for the furmife.
420 FARR
Introduc- and yield to the fame treatment as in the human
tion- fyftem.
Domeftic animals are fubjeft to eruptive difeafes,
both chronic, and fuch as are attended with fever ; and
both are very fimilar to thofe by which man is affedted.
It is pretty certain that the fmallpox fometimes rages
among fheep, as we thall fee hereafter j and a com¬
plaint very like the meafles often attacks fwine. Some
of them are transferable to man j and to this trans¬
ference in the cafe of the cowpox, a blefiing which will
render immortal the name of Jenner, we ewe the
probable annihilation of one of the moft dreadful pefts
that ever affedled the human race.
Scrofula and confumption attack monkeys. Apo¬
plexy, epilepfy, and many others of what are called «er-
%>ous difeafes,, indigeftion, and even mental derangement,
are not uncommon among domeftic animals j fpafmodic
affedtions are very frequent among them; and it is faid,
that for one cafe of tetanus or locked jaw among the
human fpecies in thefe climates, there are ten or twenty
among horfes.
The analogy might be purfued much farther j but
what has been ftated is fufficient to (hew the advantages
that medical men may derive from the ftudy of veteri¬
nary medicine. Many obfcure and dangerous difeafes
may thus in time be illuftrated or mitigated $ and the
effedt of doubtful remedies may be afcertained by ex¬
periments on the inferior animals. For, though there
are a few inftances of different effedts following the ex¬
hibition of the fame medicines in man and animals $
yet, on the whole, the analogy is nearly as complete
II with refpedt to remedies as difeafes (b).
A farrier It will appear, from what has been faid, that the
fliould be reafoning^and much of the treatment, in the difeafes of
acquainted animals muft be nearly the fame as in man, and, of
cjne ' courfe, that the veterinary pradlitioner will gain much
by acquiring a knowledge of human medicine. Were
the pradlitioners in farriery generally inftrudted in the
principles of medicine, little more would be required
in a treatife on farriery, than to point out the difference
in the ftrudlure and fundlions of domeftic animals, tode-
fcribe the difeafes peculiar to thefe,. and to mark the
varieties that it is neceffary to obferve in the treatment
of difeafe and the adminiftration of remedies. But, as
many of thefe gentlemen have not the opportunity of
attending medical le&ures, and moft of them have not
received an education that would enable them to under-
ftand the language in which medical writings are ufual-
ly compofed j it becomes neceflary in a treatife of this
kind to accommodate the language to the tafte and
capacity of general readers, and to introduce much
that will be found in other articles on fubjefts connect¬
ed with medicine. To prevent repetition, as much as
poftible, and to avoid fwelling this article to a greater
length than is neceffary, we (hall, however, where the
I E R Y.
fimilarity of the fubjeft will admit of ft, occafionally Introduc.
refer to fome of the medical articles in this dictionary. tion.
_ The fuccefsful praftice of farriery, like that of medi- ’ v—J
cine in general, requires that the praaitioner IhouldTr 12
poffefs a confiderable ftiare of knowledge. It is not fuf- requiS*
ficient to have been long in the habit of managing the veteri^
horfes and cattle j this indeed, to a perfon of a ftrongnary prac.
mind, and attentive obfervation, will furnilh a confider-tititmer*
able number of faCts, with refpeCt to the fymptoms and
progrefs of the difeafes to which domeftic animals are
fubjeCt. But, to mark the minute differences between
fuch as referable each other, to inveftigate their caufes,
and to contrive a rational mode of treatment, requires
a much greater lliare of abilities, and much more ex-
tenfive information,, than we can expeCt to find among
grooms and fhepherds, or falls to the lot of moft of
thofe who call themfelves farriers and cattle-doftors.
It muft^ be obvious to every thinking mind, that no Anatomy
praClice either in medicine or farriery can be rational, and phyfi.
but fuch as is founded on a comprehenfive knowledge °fegy*
of the ftruCture and functions of thofe animals, the
treatment of whofe difeafes is the objeCt of that prac¬
tice. The firft thing, therefore, neceffary to the vete¬
rinary practitioner is, to acquire fome idea of the ana¬
tomical ftruCture of the domeftic animals. We have al¬
ready, in the fecond part of the article Anatomy, giv¬
en a general account of the ftruCture of quadrupeds;
and in exemplifying this, in the chapter on t/ie ana-
tomy of a dog, we pointed out the moft ftriking pecu¬
liarities that are to be found in this animal ; as. we
have done with refpeCt to ruminating animals, vizs.
the cow and fheep, in the fucceeding chapter of that
part. To that article we muft refer our readers for the
anatomical part of our fubjeCt, as far as relates to the
ox, the fheep, and the dog. It will naturally be ex*
peCted, that a defcription of the ftruCture of the horfe
fhould be given in this article ; but this defcripticn
muft, in general, be concife, as the nature of our plan
prevents us from enlarging on the fubjeCt, excepting in
thofe parts where a ptetty minute knowledge appears
to be neceffary.
Thofe who wife to ftudy the anatomy of the horfe
minutely, may confult Viter’s Medicine Veterinaire,
tom. i. ; Blaine’s Outlines, and Stubb’s elegant work,
on the anatomy of the horfe.
The praCtitioner feould take every opportunity of in-
fpeCting the bodies of thofe animals that die of difeafes,
which are very important, or which are not very well
underftood. Morbid diffeCtions often throw confiden-
able light on the nature and treatment of difeafes ; and
it fortunately happens, that with refpeCt to domeftic
animals, thefe diffeCtions are very eafy, and are not ob-
ftruCted by thofe abfurd prejudices which, efpecially in
this country, are oppofed to the diffeCtion of human bo¬
dies. In treating of the difeafes of domeftic animals, ia
a
(b) One of the moft remarkable cafes of anomaly in the effeCt of remedies is that of arfenic, which, in the
quantity of a few grains will prove a deadly poifon to man and moft animals, but may be given with impunity to
horfes to the amount of two drams or more. The ftory of the different effeCts of antimony, on hogs and monks*,
is well known. See Antimony. As to the example of white vitriol (fulphate of zinc), which proves emetic in
the human fubjeCt, but produces no fuch effeCt in the horfe ; it is owing to the different ftruCture of the ftomach
in this animal, by which he is incapable of vomiting. Colocynthis, or bitter apple, is well known to be a moft
violent purgative to tnan, but in the horfe it has produced no effeCt, in the enormous dofe of four ounces*.
FAR 11' r E R Y.
421
Introduc¬
tion.
14
Natural
kiltory.
*5
Cnemiftry.
i5
Surgery.
a futdfe part of this article, we fliall give a concife
view of the appearances on diffeftion, as far as they
have been afcertained, whenever they tend to illuftrate
the nature, caufes, or treatment of the difeafe under
conlideration.
The ftudy of the funftions of domeftic animals ought
to go hand in hand with that of their ftrufture j and
the ftudent will find it of confiderable advantage, to
compare the fun&ions of thefe animals with thofe of
man. This comparative view will be given in fome fu¬
ture article. In the prefent treatife, we can only fpeak
of the fun&ions of domeftic animals, as far as it is ne-
ceffary to illuftrate the nature or the treatment of their
difeafes.
The natural hiftory of thefe animals ought to form a
part of the ftudies of the veterinary practitioner. It is
a fubjeft that is not only highly curious and intereft-
ing, but extremely ufeful. We find, that thefe ani¬
mals, in their native fields, enjoy a ftate of health and
vigour, which is interrupted only by thofe accidents to
which a life of liberty and wildnefs may expofe them.
It is only when they are received under the protection
of man, that they become fubjeft to difeafe. It is
therefore an interefting inquiry, to examine into their
native habits 5 as, in our endeavours to preferve their
health, we fhould, as nearly as is compatible with conve¬
nience and economy, imitate the habits that are found to
prevail amongft thefe animals in a ftate of nature. It is
the province of the naturalift todefcribethe external con¬
formation of thefe animals, and the advantages, and de-
feds dependant on it, that fit or difqualify them for
the various purpofes, for which they are deftined under
the fervice of man ; it is his bufinefs to defcribe the
methods of breeding thefe animals in a ftate of nature,
and how far this may be improved, for the purpofes of
domeftication, and to detail the method of training and
managing them. Many of thefe circumftances are
treated of by fome of the writers on the veterinary art,
in a complete fyftem of which they ought not proper¬
ly to be omitted. We fhall, however, not treat of them
in this article, as, according to the plan of our work,
they more properly fall to be confidered under the ar¬
ticle Mammalia, in which will be given the natural
hiftory of all quadrupeds.
Chemiftry muft form a neceflary part of the ftudies
of every man who engages in the praClice of medicine,
whether human or veterinary, as, without a knowledge
of its principles, neither the functions of the animal
economy, the iotimate ftruCture of its component parts,
nor the aCtion of many remedies, can be properly un-
derftood. In the article Chemistry, we have pre¬
pared abundant matter for the reader to make himfelf
acquainted with the elements of that admirable fci-
ence.
The praCtitioner, whether of human or veterinary
medicine, who is a proficient in anatomy, wants but a
little manual dexterity, and fome practical experience,
to make him a tolerable furgeon. The operations to be
performed on brutes are few, and thefe are in general
very clumfily executed. Humanity, however, as well
as prudence, will readily point out to the farrier the ne-
ceflity of learning the belt methods of performing thele
operations with dexterity and defpatch, fo as to give
the leaft pain to the unfortunate animals that are placed
under his-care. We lhall defcribe the ufual operations
Z
immediately after treating of the anatomy
horfe.
It is of confiderable confequence, that the perfon ^
who undertakes the management of domeftic aniro^Hyge^oIo-
fhould make himfelf acquainted with thofe circumftan-gy.
ces which experience has (hewn to be moft favourable
to the prefervation of their health, and the prevention
of their difeafes. This fubjeCt forms what may be cal¬
led veterinary hygeiology; and will be confidered at
fome length in the fourth part of this article. 18
Before the praCtitioner can attempt to remove or al- Materia
leviate the difeafes to which domeftic animals are fub-mec*lca'
jeCt, he muft acquire a competent knowledge of the re¬
medies employed for that purpofe, their nature, ufes,
and dofes, as adapted to the different animals, in vari¬
ous fituations, and various difeafes \ with the methods
of preparing and compounding them into the feveral
forms that are ufually employed ; and with the beft
means of adminiftering them. This comprehends what
is called the veterinary materia medico, and. will form
the fubjeCt of our fifth part- 19
With this previous knowledge, the veterinary ftu-Practice*,
dent is prepared to enter on the confideration of the
difeafes, which will be treated of in the fixth part of
our article. He muft be particularly attentive to the
fymptoms of each difeafe, as, on an accurate knowledge
of thefe, will depend the means of diftinguilhing thofe
complaints, which upon a fuperficial view bear con¬
fiderable refemblance to each other, but which require
a very different, and perhaps oppofite mode of treat¬
ment. He muft attend to the greater or lefs violence
of thefe fymptoms, to the nature of the part which
they attack, and to the greater or lefs rapidity of their
progrefs j as thefe circumftances muft confiderably in¬
fluence the judgment he is to form of the danger, and
probable termination, of the difeafe. He muft, as far
as pofiible, inveftigate the caufes, that appear to have
produced the difeafe in queftion, or which feem to agr
gravate or keep up the morbid fymptoms j as on the
removal or mitigation of thefe caufes, muft depend the
only rational and fcientific method of cure. Laftly,
he muft make himfelf acquainted with the treatment
that experience has found moft fuccefsful in the cure
of each particular difeafe, as well as with that which
has been found to be attended with little or no advan*
tage.
As the proper means of attaining the beft informa¬
tion is of the greateft importance, we fhall here give
Mr Blaine’s inftrmEtions on this point.
“ The mode in which any art is attained, muft be in
a great meafure directed by the future views of the
learners. It appears to me that there are three diftinft
claffes of perfons, who are likely to ftudy this branch of
ufeful knowlodge. The firft are perfons of enlarged
minds, and extended fortunes. The fecond are fur-
geons, whofe fituation in country villages may render
their feryices in this art highly ufeful, upon occafions
when no farrier is at hand, or, in the end, in cafes in
which farriers of the common clafs are unable to judge.
The third are farriers, themfelves, or perfons intending
to profefs veterinary medicine.
“ Gentlemen and amateurs, who wifh to accumulate
information oh this curious and interefting fubjeft,
within the reach of the veterinary college, will find
their account in attending a courfe of leftures there j if
notj.
4 2 2*- FARR
Introtluc- no^ th^y fhould apply thenifelves to the ftudy of the
, tl^n* more general parts of the body, both of the human and
animal ; the latter, I hope, they may attain by the fol¬
lowing (beets. 1 hey may direft the collar-maker,
Imntfman, or tanner, to cut up their dead horfes in
their prefence. i hey may (ludy phyfiology in a plea-
lant and interefting manner, from the ingenious work
on this (ubjeft by Mr Saumarez. The lighter parts of
the veterinary art may be acquired with pleafure, from
the elegant publication of Mr Richard Lawrence of
Birmingham, and a courfe of chemiftry will amply re¬
ward them (or their pains in acquiring it.
good furgeon has travelled three-fourths of the
road towards making a good veterinarian, but he muft
diligently travel the remainder to arrive at excellence.
He muft by no means fit down contented with the ana¬
logy between the human and brute ; which, if he does,
will lead him into very great error ; for though this
analogy is in fome cafes very ftriking, yet there are
other, in which the fimilarity fails, and he is left to aft
upon other principles. Hence in thofe difeafes that are
conquered or mitigated by vomiting in the human ; in
the horfe he muft purlue another mode of treatment.
In acute difeafes removed by purging in the human, his
attempts on the horfe would probably fail ; as before
the eff'ecfs were produced, the animal might be part re¬
lief. It muft be remembered that the operations of me¬
dicines are very different in the one, and the other. It
is not iufficient that a furgeon has an intimate acquaint¬
ance with the human frame ; he muft be equally conver-
fant with the animal he treats, or he will treat in vain ;
particularly thofe difeafes originating" in a peculiarity of
form from the human, as all the difeafes of the feet.
He fhould make himfelf particularly converfant with the
fpecific difeafes of the horfe, which bear no analogy to any
thing in the human body ; as farcy, glanders, ftrangles,
greafe, &c. From the great ftrength of the arterial
fyftem, he muft ever be aware how prone the difeafes
of the horfe are to a rapid termination, and hence that
his treatment muft be decifive and energetic $ therefore,
in all cafes, he muft be very attentive to diagnoftics!
But what will much embarrafs a furgeon in pra£Hfing
the veterinary art, will be a want of knowledge of the
general ufages, nomenclature, and idiom, if I may fo
exprefs it, among grooms and farriers; without an ac¬
quaintance with which, thefe people at once deled and
defpife the praditioner. It fhould be the bufinefs there¬
fore of the furgeon, with his other acquifitions, to learn
their manners, and to make himfelf acquainted with
their terms. . The third clafs of perfons, either farriers
already pradifing, or perfons intending to pradife, will
eafily gain that. When it is in their power, I would ad-
viie their taking the advantage of the veterinary col-
lege } but when they cannot, I would recommend the
profecution of their ftudies in a regular manner. Begin
by firft reading fome general defcription of the human
body, fuch as Svmond’s Anatomy, or the anatomical
part of the prefent work, carefully ; let them pay atten¬
tion to the fundions and ufes of the parts, particularly
where the fame ufes are brought about by a variation in
ftrudure j this enlarges the mind, and prepares it to re¬
ceive the benefits of diffedion, which fhould now be
proceeded to. Any fmall animal may be firft diffeded,
to enable the learner to ufe his inftruments properly.
He may then proceed to diffed the horfe with fome
3
I E R Y.
authorities by him, which will aflift him at firft to make introduc
out parts, but too fcrupulous an attention to numerous tion.
defcriptions will only bewilder. The neceflary inftruc-'   
tions for diffedion, and the prefervation of parts, may
be gained, by a reccurfe to Poole’s Anatomical Inftruc-
tor, which is profeffedly written to inftrud the pupil
in thefe particulars. When he is well acquainted
with the appearance of the animal in health, he fltould
take every opportunity of examining difeafed appear¬
ances, which are feldom wanting at the tan-yard or the
kennel. He fhould now make himfelf acquainted more
intimately with phyfiology, for which purpofe he may
read Haller’s works j there is at prefent a tranflation
of Cuvier’s Treatife on ComparatTve Anatomy, which
he may likewife avail himfelf of. When he has become
acquainted with pathology, as at prefent received, he
may perufe the older authors on farriery ; to this fhould
fucceed a knowledge in chemiftry, preceded by an ac¬
quaintance with the materia medica •, the proper works
for which he may fee by a reference to that article, and * Blaine1
nothing will now be wanting, but experience and prac- 0u^l.neit
tice to perfcd him V° ‘ ^
Since the eftablifhment of a veterinary fchoolin Bri- Means of
tain, little is wanting to promote the progrefs and im-promoting a
provement of the veterinary art, as far as relates to the knowledge
difeafes of horfes. But the art, with refped to the me-°^arr*er^'
dical treatment of other animals, is ftill in the moft de¬
plorable (late of imperfection. Propofals have been
made for improving cattle medicine ; and among thefe
we think the following of Mr John Lawrence,entitled
to attention ; though, probably the propofer’s lift of
works may be much improved and enlarged, by refer¬
ring to the account of authors which will be immediate¬
ly given. # < 2r
Mr Lawrence’s propofal is Amply, “ that the affair of Mr Law¬
providing the country with regular-bred furgeons, for rel,ce’s Pro*
the praCtice of cattle medicine, be immediately under-
taken by the agricultural focieties ; at leaft, that the
experiment be made by fome of the moft confiderable,
each fociety engaging a gentleman of that defcription,
at a fufficient and refpeCtable annual ftipend. The con¬
tract may run in fuch form, that (hould the furgeon’s
annual emolument from praCtice come (hort of the fti-
pulated fum, the deficiency (hould annually be made
up by his patrons the fociety. No perfon to be engaged
on any pretence, but who (hall have received the ufual
education of a furgeon, and have attended the hofpitals
the ufual length of time. A feleCtion of Veterinary
text-books to be made, and the books purchafed for the
ufe of the furgeon, but to remain the property of the
fociety. This may confift of Gibfon’s laft edition, two
vols. Bracken, Bartlett, Ofmer, Layard, with our late
writers •, and Lafoffe and Bourgelat from the French,
with whatever may have been publiflied fince their time,
by authority of the French veterinary fchools. All the
members of the fociety and their connections, as far as
their influence may extend, to entruft the care of their
difeafed animals to the furgeon appointed, at a fair and
liberal charge for his attendance and medicines. The
furgeon to keep a regular hiftory of all the cafes which
(hall come under his infpeCtion, including the prefumed
caufes and fymptoms of the difeafe, with the probable
methods of prevention, his mode of treatment, a particu¬
lar detail of the medicines prefcribed, their operation,
with every relative and ufeful remark which may occur.
fart I.
Hiftory. A clear written copy of fuch veterinary tranfa&ions, to
    be delivered annually, and on a certain day, to the fo-
* Law- ciety, to remain at their difpofal*.”
rence on jt js nf confiderable confequence for the practitioner
Cattle%% to be informed of the rife and progrefs of the art
Importance which he profeffes, and to be acquainted with the prin-
ofbeing ac-cipal authors that have written on the fubjeft. We
quainted (halhhere, therefore, give a brief fkt tch of the hiftory of
hjfto/he Farriery, with a concife view of the writings that have
423
appeared from the earlieft authentic records to the pre- HUtory.
fent time (1806). J
Though we (hall enumerate all the authors that
have written profeffedly on this fubjeCt, who appear
deferring of notice, we (hall here characterize only
the general treatifes, referving our remarks on fuch
works as have appeared on individual difeafes, &c. to
that part of our treatife, in which we (hall confider thefe
fubjeCls.
farriery.
PART I. HISTORY.
23
Early hi- THE early hiftory of farriery, as of every other art
Rory of the and fcience, is involved in great obfeurity. We fhall
art very ob-nQj. attempt t0 penetrate the cloud that hangs over the
ancient ftnte of the art, or to fupply the want of faCts,
by conjectures, which, however rational, can lead to no
certain or ufeful conclufions.
There feems no doubt that in the time of Hippo¬
crates, and probably long before, the medical practi¬
tioner exercifed his office in favour of the doroeftic ani¬
mals, as well as of man \ and Galen feems to have been
well {killed in the knowledge and treatment of fome of
the difeafes of animals.
Columella. Perhaps the earlieft authentic writings on the fubjeCt
of the veterinary art, now extant, are to be found in the
works of Columella, the celebrated Roman author on
hufbandry, who, in his work De Re Rujlica, has given
many fenfible directions for the management of horfes
and cattle. Columella lived about the fecond century,
under the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, or, as
2^ fome fay, of Claudius Caefar.
Celfus. It is underftood that Celfus, the elegant imitator of
Hippocrates, who lived fome time before Columella,
wrote much on the difeafes of animals; but none of his
writings on this fubjeCt have furvived the general wreck
of fcience and literature that accompanied the fall of
2$ the Roman empire.
^egetius. We have no certain accounts of any author who
wrote exprefsly on this fubjeCt earlier than Vegetius,
who flouriftied, as is fuppofed, fome time in the fourth
century, and probably during the reign of the empe¬
ror Valentinian the third. The work of Vegetius, De
Arte Veterinarian is ftill confidered as extremely valu¬
able, as it has handed down to us the only certain ac¬
count of the opinions and praCtice of the early practi¬
tioners in this art. The body of the work appears to
have been compiled from the molt celebrated Greek
writers on the fubjeCt. It is divided into four books;
the prefaces or introductory chapters to which are
written in very elegant language.
An edition of Vegetius was publiftied at Baft], in
I574 i and th6 work lias been tranflated into feveral
modern languages. Such of our readers as with for a
particular account of the contents of Vegetius’s treatife,
will find a copious analyfis of it, in the third volume of
M. Vitet’s Medicine Veterinaire.
Ruelli’s A collection of fragments of ancient writers on the
collettion* veterinary art, was made by Ruellius, phyfician to
Francis I. king of France. It was firft publiftied in
Latin, in the year 1530; and afterwards, in 1637, l*ie
original Greek was publiftied. The writers who con¬
tributed to this collection were chiefly Abfyrtus, Eu-
melus, Hierocles, Petagonius, and Theomeftus. Some
part of this collection is tolerably good ; but, on the
whole, it appears to be a ftrange jumble of good, bad,
and indifferent, collected without judgment, and ar¬
ranged without tafte.
It is faid that Xenophon, who lived three or four Xenophon,
hundred years before the Cbriftian era, wrote a fmall
treatife in twelve chapters, on the training, manage¬
ment, and external figure of horfes ; but, as he fays
little or nothing with refpeCI to their difeafes, he cannot
properly be ranked among the writers on veterinary
medicine.
A blank of more than a thoufand years now occurs Dark ages,
in the hiftory of farriery. During this long period of
darkriefs, ignorance, and barbarity, the veterinary art,
like moft others, rather went back than advanced.
During fome part of this gloom, however, the art of
ftioeing horfes with iron appears to have been invented ;
an art which feems to have contributed not a little to
throw the management of this noble animal into the
hands of a fet of errant blockheads, who were now firft;
called farriers. We cannot here enter on a difeuflion
of the medical pretenfions of thefe guardians of the
health of horfes. They have been amply commented
on, by fome of the beft writers on the fubjeCt of far¬
riery, as Gibfon, Bracken, Lafoffe, and particularly
Mr John Lawrence, to whofe ufeful and humane trea¬
tife on horfes we refer our readers for fome very fpirited
remarks on the fubjeCt. \
The firft modern writer on farriery, whom we can Ru;n°
mention, is Carlo Ruini, an Italian, who, in 1618, pub¬
liftied at Venice his Anatomia del Cavallo. This work,
of which very few copies are now to be found, is em-
belliftied with many copperplates, which, for the time
when they were engraved, are very elegant. It is faid
that many fucceeding ivriters on the anatomy of the
horfe have been indebted to them for moft of their
figures.
We now come to a period at which the veterinary pr0gre(-s 0£
art began to affume fomething of a feientific form, farriery in
Many writers of eminence began to appear both in France.
France and England, countries which have been the
moft diftinguiftied for their attention to the manage¬
ment and difeafes of domeftic animals. As the French
writers were the firft who did any thing confiderable
towards the improvement of farriery, we (hall trace the
progrefs of the art in that country, before we examine
the improvements it has received in England. ^
In 1698 Solleyfel publifhed his grand work, “ Solleyfel.
parfait
33
Appear¬
ance of the
murrain in
Europe.
34
Sauvages.
35
Eftablifli-
ment of
veterinary
fchools.
3«
Bourgelat.
F A R H
parfah MarecJial^ the complete Horfeman, a work,
which gained its author a high reputation, and was
long the only guide, as well in farriery as in the ma¬
nege.
M. Solleyfel was principal riding-mafler in France,
and this fituation led him to pay much attention to the
difeafes of horfesj and being a man of confiderable
abilities, and enlightened underftanding, he faw the
errors that prevailed in his time j and his genius and
experience led him to expofe and corredt them. His
pradlical obfervations and remarks, which it would be
out of place to particularize in this early part of our ar¬
ticle, in general merit confiderable attention. His ob¬
fervations on the external figure of the horfe, and of
his blemifhes and defedls, are alfo very valuable.' It is
much to be regretted that this ingenious author had
not ftudied the anatomy of the horfe, as he would then
have avoided many errors and much falfe reafoning,
into which his ignorance of anatomy betrayed him.
Solleyfel’s work paffed through many editions, and was
tranflated into moft of the modern languages. A ver-
fion of it into Engliih was executed by Sir William
Hope, one of his pupils, early in the 18th century.
The dreadful havock committed by the murrains or
epidemic difeafes among horned cattle, that ravaged
Europe during the’firft half of the i8th century, at-
tradled the attention of medical men, and thus led the
way to a greater improvement in the veterinary art,
than it had ever before experienced. Thefe epidemics
were firft defcribed by two Italian phyficians, Ramaz-
zini, in a treatife De Contagione Epidemica ; and Lan-
cifi, phyfician to the pope, in a treatife De Bovina Pejle.
But the moft celebrated works on the prevailing epi¬
demic feem to have been written by the faculty in
France. Among the firft appeared a memoir by M.
Hermant, phyfician to the king.
In 1746 was publilhed a. memoir Sur la Ma/adie Epi-
demique des Boeufs du Vivaraic, by the celebrated nofo-
logift Sauvafges.
About the middle of this century, the firft fteps were
taken towards the eftabliftiment of fchools for the
public inftru&ion of pra&itioners in farriery. One of
the moft celebrated of thefe was the veterinary college
of Lyons.
Over this inftitution prefided the famous Bourgelat,
a name that will be ever refpedlable in the hiftory of
farriery. Befides his office of profeflor at Lyons, he
was infpedlor general of the veterinary fchools in
France 5 commiflary general to the royal ftables; ho¬
norary member of the Royal Academy of Paris, and
member of the Royal Academy of Berlin. M. Bour¬
gelat was a voluminous writer, and moft of his works
are ftill in much repute. In 1752, he publifhed Ele-
itiens d^Hippiatrique, “ Elements of Farriery,” in
3 vols. The firft volume is divided into eight chapters,
comprehending the knowledge of the horfe, as far as
regards his external form. The firft chapter treats of
the denomination and divifion of the parts that compofe
the body of this animal ; the fecond treats of the
beauties and defefts of the fore part of the horfe, or
what the French writers call I'Avant Main ; the third
treats of the beauties and defe£fs of the feveral parts
of the body j the fourth of the beauties and defers of
the hind part of the horfe, or PArriere Main; the fifth,
of the different marks of horfes j tire fixth, of the means
1 E R Y. Parti.
of afcertaining the age of horfes; the feventh, of the Hiftory.
geometrical proportions of the horfe j and the eighth, v"— v —<
of ffioeing.
The fecond volume defcribes the anatomy of the
horfe, as far as relates to the bones, the integuments,
the mufcles, and blood veffels 5 and the third volume
concludes the anatomy with a defcription of the parts
that compofe the head and cheft.
In 1765, M. Bourgelat’s materia medica, fortheufe of
the veterinary pupils, came out. Soon after was publiftied
his Elementary Treatife on the Anatomy of the Horfe,
which is the moft complete work of the kind that has
ever yet appeared. In 1766 he publilhed his Element¬
ary Botanical Demonftratipns, for the ufe of the pupils
of the veterinary college. He likewife gave to the
world a treatife on bandages applicable to the horfe.
M. Bourgelat alfo furniftied many of the beft articles
on farriery for the French Encyclopedie. ^
About this time appeared a number of works on the Buffon and
manege, and on natural hiftory, particularly a work by Dau'3ent0l,‘
M. de la Guerincere, entitled Ecole de Cavalerie, and
the celebrated natural hiftory by M. de Buffon and
Daubenton; but as thefe works have little connexion
with the difeafes of animals, which they mention only
incidentally, we ftiall not here particularize their con¬
tents.
Contemporary with Bourgelat, and equal to him in Lafoffe the
celebrity, flouriftied Lafolfe the Elder, a member of^der.
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and farrier to
the king of France. He made many difcoveries, and
introduced feveral valuable improvements in the art of
farriery, particularly an improved method of ftioeing,
and a treatife on the glanders. Thefe were at firft
communicated in the form of memoirs to the French
academy, and publiftied in their annals. They were
afterwards colle&ed in 1754 into one volume, under
the title of Ohfervations et Decouvertes Eaites fur des
Chevaux ; “ Obfervations and Difcoveries on Horfes.”
We (hall have occafion, in future parts of our article,
to confider the merits of thefe memoirs, which were
well received, and have contributed much to the ad¬
vancement of farriery.
The elder Lafoffe alfo wrote feme of the articles on
farriery in the Encyclopedie. ^
He was feon followed by his fen Lafoffe the Bafoffe the
Younger, who occupied the fame poft as his father,YouI,Ser*
and has acquired much reputation, by following his
fteps, and extending his improvements. He publiftied
in 1766, his Guide de Marechal; or “Farrier’s Guide j”
a work well known in this country, though it has
never, we believe, appeared in an Englifti drefs. It is
divided into five parts, treating, ift, Of the means of
afcertaining the age of horfes, and a fuccinfl enumera¬
tion of the feveral parts; 2d, Of the blunders and
tricks of farriers 5 3d, Of the internal difeafes of the
horfe ; 4th, Of the external difeafes, and the moft Im¬
portant operations ; and, 5th, Of ftioeing. This work
is chara fieri zed by M. Vitet, as one of the moft accu¬
rate, fimpleft, and moft precife, that had ever appeared.
The anatomical part of the work is ffiort, but compre-
henfive, and is illuftrated by feme tolerably good plates.
It appears to have been a fort of text-book to a courfe
of leflures on farriery, which were afterwards, in 1772,
publiftied in a fuperb form, with 65 coloured plates,
under the title of Cours de Hippiatrique; or “ Courfe
of
Parti. FARR
Hiftory. of Farriery.” This work is extremely fcarce in Bri-
u—-v  tain, where, according to Mr Blaine, there are only
three copies of it ; one of which belongs to the Medi¬
cal Society of Woolwich j another is in the hands of a
Mr Mathaifa, ci-devant pupil of the Veterinary Col¬
lege ; and he believes Mr Morecroft has a third.
But the principal work of the younger Lafoffe is his
"DiBionaire d'Hippiatrique, in four volumes, which is
little known in this country, and which we have not
feen. Mr Blaine calls it “ the beft practical fyftem
of farriery that had ever appeared.”
In 1803 was publilhed an abridgement of M. Lafoffe’s
' Guide, of which an Englifh tranflation has lately ap¬
peared under the title of The Veterinarian’s Pocket
Manual. It is a ufeful little book, but it is a pity that
the author or tranflator had not obferved a more metho¬
dical arrangement.
Though, for the fake of uniformity, we have men¬
tioned the younger Lafoffe immediately after his fa¬
ther j there were many works publiflied in France be-
40 tween the Memoirs and the Guide.
Garfault. ln 1'755, M. Garfault publithed his Nouveau parfait
Marechal, an improvement on the Parfait Marechal of
Solleyfel. It is divided into feven treatifes ; on the
Conformation of the Horfe *, on Haras, or on the Me¬
thod of Breeding •, on Stables ; on the Difeafes of
Horfes ; on Operations; on Shoeing ; and on Horfe
Medicines. This work is not without defects, but, for
the moft part, it is very good, and by no means de-
ferves the brief charafler given of it by Mr Biaine in
his Hiftory of the Veterinary Art, that it “ does not
41 feem to merit any diftin&ion in this place.”
Ronden. The articles on farriery in the Encyclopedie that
had been written by Bourgelat and Genfon, called forth
a work from M. Ptonden, fenior, farrier to the larger
ftables of the king ; who, in 1759, publidied Obferva-
tions fur Ics Articles de P Encyclopedic concernant la
Marechallerie. They appear to be ingenious, and con-
4j tain much pradfical information.
Lamaifen In 1763 there appeared at Paris a work on agricul-
ruftique. ture }n tvvo volumes 4to, entitled, La Nouvelie Maifon
Rufique, which contains much ufeful matter refpedting
the breeding, management, and difeafes of domeftic
animals, as well fowls as quadrupeds.
The contagious epidemics among horned cattle ftill
appeared occafionally in France and other parts of
Europe ; and many effays were written on them by va¬
rious phyficians, particularly by M. Bovand of Befan-
Son, in "1766; by M. Leclerc and M. Barbaret, of
Paris, in the fame year.
In 1768 Daubenton, the celebrated natural!!!, al¬
ready mentioned, publilhed a memoir on the mechanifm
of rumination in (beep ; and in 1769) appeared a finall
volume entitled La Medicine des Betes a Lame ; “ the
43 Medical Treatment of Sheep.”
Vltet- Between 1776 and 1782, M. Vitet, a phyfician at
Lyons, publiflied his Medicine Vcterinaire, in 3 vols
8vo. of which the firft contains a pretty full account
of the anatomy of the horfe and ox, with fome judici¬
ous remarks on the beauties and defeats of both, and on
fome of the more important operations to which they
are expofed $ the fecond treats of the difeafes of hordes,
fheep, and cattle ■, and the thud gives an account of the
remedies employed in veterinary medicine } and ends
with a copious analyfls of mod of the, continental writ-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
I E R Y. 425
ings, and a few Englifh, that had happened on the fub- Hiftoiy.
jeft, from Vegeliua to I77°* ' ^ ■'
M. Vitet’s work is, for the moft part, a compilation
from the bell writers who have gone before him j but
as he had read much, and appears to have feledled with
judgment, his book is one of thofe which may be con-
lulled with advantage. We knowT that it bears a high
char after in France, and is often quoted with relpecl.
We are therefore difpofed to rate it at a higher value
than a late writer has done ; and are inclined to fufpcfl
that fome of thofe who aff 61 to think lightly of it are
indebted to it for much more than the “ names of many
of thofe who have written on this fubjeff.” ^
Much about this time, but in what precife year we Rozier,
cannot fay, the abbe Rozier, well known as the editor
• of the early volumes of the Journal de Phyfque, publilh-
ed his Cours d' Agriculture et de Medicine Veterinaire ;
a work of much reputation in France, but, we believe,
little known on this fide the water. 4-
Another work appeared about this time on the epi- Paulet.
demies among cattle, entitled Recherches Hi/loriques et
Phyfqucs fur les Maladies Epitzootiques ; “ Hiliorical
and Philofophical Refearches refpefling Epizootic Dif¬
eafes,” by M. Paulet. It contains an abridgement of
almoft all that had been written on the fubjefl, and is
particularly valuable for the account of the morbid ap¬
pearances that were difeovered on diffeflion.
We (hall finifli our account of French writers in the
words .of Mr Blaine. ^
“ Afltr the death of Bourgelat and Lafoffe, we hear Huzai d
of no charafier of any great eminence for fame years Dra-
but it appears, that fince the revolution, the fubjedl has!jeit’
again been more diligently fludied, and the names of
Chabert and Hazard Hand forward. Soon after, or
about the time above alluded to, there appeared a con-
fiderable work, called, The Rational Dictionary of
Medicine, Surgery, and Farriery, in fix volumes 5 and
very foen after, a Veterinary Dictionary, by Buchon *,
but it has no merit fuperior to that of Lafoffe. In
1787, M. Chabert publiflied a Treatife on the Mange
of Horfes ; fince which he has likewife publiflied upon
the peripneumonia of black cattle. There has alfo ap¬
peared an Effay on the Greafe of Horfes, which gained
the prize medal of the fociety for the promoting the
health of animals; to which is joined a report on thick
wind and on broken wind; but we are not aware who is
the author. In 1788, there came out a treatife on the
karas, with the method of ftioeing, cutting, and all the
leffer operations, tranflated from the Spanifli of Hart-
. mann, by Huzard. Likewife “ Inftrudtions and Obfer-
vations on Domeftic Animals,” with remarks on the
breeding, rearing, buying and felling ; with an analyfis
of previous authors, by Chabert, Handrin, and Huzard.
The above authors have alfo pnbiiflied, conjointly, a
Veterinary Almanack, containing the hiftory and pro-
grefs of animal medicine, fince the eftabliftiment of the
veterinary fchools. In 1791, M. Lampagieu Lapole,
veterinary furgeon, publiflied obfervations on the health
of the animals of St Domingo, dedicated to the veteri¬
nary college at Alfort. In I797» M. Chabert and * Blames
M. Huzard publiflied, by order of government, a treatife Outlines,
on afeertaining the exiftence of the glanders, the means vol‘1-
of preventing it, and deftroying 'he infeflion. *” pr0
Before ive detail what has been done in Britain forfarriery on
the advancement of the art, we muft take a curfory the conti-
3 H view uent*
FARRIERY.
48
Goelicke.
Saunier.
Linnaeus
5^
Haftier.
52
Iteynier.
53
Hartmann,
54
Camper.
view of the principal writings that appeared during the
18th century in the reft of Europe.
In 1730, Goelicke, a German, publiftied a treatife
in 410, De Lue Contagiofa Bovium ; “ On the Contagi¬
ous Difeafe of Cattle in which the fymptoms of the
murrain that raged in Flanders about that time are well
defcribed 5 and there are added the appearances on dif-
feftion.
In 1734, appeared at the Hague a work entitled
La parfaite Connoijfance des Chevaux; “ The Complete
Knowledge of Horfes j” by John Saunier, and Gafpard
his fon. The latter boafts of this work, that it was
drawn up from the le&ures of his father, an experi¬
enced man; and that it contains the refult of numerous
experiments on fubje&s of every defcription, and dif-
eafes of every fpecies 5 that it is the labour of the life of
two men, the offspring of their continual application
and ftudy. After all their boafting, however, the work
of Mynheers Saunier is little worth.
In 1745 and 1746, appeared two other treatifes on
the epidemic of cattle by Mauchard and Ens.
In -1749, the illuftrious and indefatigable Linne
pubiifhed at Upfal his Pan Suecicus, in which there is
little that relates to our fubjeift, if we except a table of
fuch plants as are eaten or refufed by the domeftic ani¬
mals, which is curious and ufeful.
Some time before 1756, Frederic Haftfer, a Swede,
publilhed Inftru&ions for Improving the Breed of
Sheep, which was in much repute, and was tranflated
into French.
In 1762, M. Reynier of Laufanne pubiifhed a trea¬
tife on a contagious inflammatory diforder that raged
among horfes and cattle, and which the Genevefe call¬
ed la louvet. This will be confidered hereafter.
In the fame year there appeared at Vienna a work
on the epidemic of cattle by Dr Pleneiz ; and in 1765
Mich. Sagard of the fame city pubiifhed a work on a
contagious diftemper that the year before attacked the
cattle in the circle of Iglaw in Moravia 5 and was at¬
tended with an appearance of aphthous crufts in the
mouth.
Of late veterinary medicine has been much cultivat¬
ed in Spain, where the works of Hartmann are held in
much efteem. In that country, it is faid, a work on
farriery in nine volumes lips been lately pubiifhed ; but
of this we know nothing.
We muft not clofe our account of continental writers
without mentioning the name of the illuftrious Camper,
whofe works were lately colle&ed and pubiifhed at Paris.
Befides a long defcription of the ftru&ure of the oran-ou-
tang, and fome leffer effays on comparative anatomy,
thefe volumes contain an elaborate biftory of the epi¬
zootic difeafe that raged among the cattle on the conti¬
nent in the middle of laft century, in the form of
lectures. We fliall fpeak of this work hereafter.
We have thus brought the hiftory of this art on the
continent, in a concife manner, down to the prefent
time 5 and from it may be learned what improvements
have originated there, and at what periods. It would
appear, that when the fcience began to command at¬
tention, from the exertions of Francis the firft, and
Vegetius became ftudied, had it progreflively improved
in the degree it might be fuppofed to be placed by a
converfance with this author, it would ere this have
been more approximating to perfe&ion ; but inftead of
, . Part I,
proceeding on the rational fyftem of Vegetius, it dwlnd- H (i
led again into ignorance of barbarity j and the recipes^
of manege-mafters, and the operations of blackfmiths,
were the only oftenfible marks of its afliftance. From
this ftate the pra&itioner became in fome degree roufed
by the improved fyftem of Solleyfel; but he could only
combat prefent errors, he could not point the way to
future improvement, for he was ignorant of the ground¬
work whereon to build it, i. e. the anatomy of the ani¬
mal. This defeft was only in a fmall degree fupplied
by the labours of Ruini, arid in fome meafure farther
aftifted by the demonftrations of Bourgelat. Many of
the remaining errors were combated by Lafoffe with
great advantage ; and his experiments and difeoveries
on glanders, the rationality and improvements of his
mode of fhoeing, entitle him to great merit. Yet
though by thefe exertions, and by the eftablilhment of
veterinary Seminaries, the art aflumed a more regular
and Scientific form, its attainments were by no means
adequate to its opportunities ; which was alrnoft wholly
owing to an obftinate adherence to the humoral patho-
by which the treatment ef internal and acute
difeafes continued inert and unfuccefsful. Their pre-
feriptions were filled with deco&ions of fimples, and
they were utterly unacquainted with the medicinal vir¬
tues of the more aflive remedies in ufe among us. Un¬
der an opinion that the blood and humours were the
conftant feat of difeafe, they were continually wafhing
them fweet with corredlors ; entirely ignorant or un¬
mindful of the derangement of the folids, and of the
connedlions between living blood and living veffels.
Nor did this influence only their treatment of internal
and acute difeafes 5 but even of local and chronic affec¬
tions : hence their mode of treating farcy, greafe, and
other complaints of a fimilar nature, were equally inert,
and all evinced an erroneous pathology. Upon a care¬
ful and unprejudiced review of the ftate of farriery a-
mong ourfelves, and on the continent of Europe, we
are not inclined to think it had any advantages of mo¬
ment at the beginning of the war in their favour ;
though it muft be allowed, we are indebted to them for
many improvements, and for the firft hints Upwards
the eftablifhment of a regular School of the art among
us. Since the war, our means of communication are
fo few, that we are not aware of what is doing among
our neighbours. But though farriery, as a branch of
veterinary medicine here, has kept nearly equal pace
with its continental improvements, I do not think (fays
Mr Blaine), the treatment of other animals, particular¬
ly of oxen, coxvs, and fheep, has been equally attended
to ; and, in this particular, I am difpoftd to think wTe
are behind hand with them. Their fevere vifitations
of the epizootic diftemper have made them more atten-1
tive to this branch of the art U
In taking a review of the hiftory of farriery, or vete-Progrefsof
rinary medicine in general, in our own country, it willfar.rie.ryin
be Seen, that we are much longer in improving the art,511^111*
and reducing it under a rational and Scientific form,
than our neighbours on the continent. Our earlieft
writers on the difeafes of horfes and cattle, were deplor¬
ably ignorant, not only of all principles of general me¬
dicine and found pra&ice, but even frequently of the
common appearances of the difeafes, which they profef-
fed to cure. 56
Our firft writers on the treatment of the difeafes of B!,Iir’de'
■, r viile.
nones.
5
Parti-
Hiftory.
57
5*
Markham.
JSare?.
(Jo
Huke of
Newcaflle.
6i
f:napc.
6%
Oibfon.
F A B R
horfes, were, as in France, chiefly riding-mafters •, and
of thefe, the firft that feems worthy of notice is Blun-
deville, who lived, as we have already obferved, in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth. His work appears to have
been principally compiled from the writings of Vege-
tius, and other ancient writers ; and it contains little
that can entitle it to any diftinflion, as a work of uti¬
lity. It may, however, be perufed as a literary curio-
fity.
The names of many writers, after Blundeville, are
mentioned by thofe who have written on the hiftory of
farriery j but they are ft ill inferior to Blundeville,
except perhaps Burdon, on whofe work, notes were
written by Dr Bracken.
About the end of the 17th century, lived Gervafe
Markham, a name in high repute amongft grooms and
farriers even to this day. He publilhed a work on
Farriery, which is called his Maijler Peece, and which
is one of the ftrangeft compounds of nonfenfe and ab-
furdity that has ever appeared on the fubjeft.
In the opinion of Mr Lawrence, Markham was no¬
thing more than a mere vulgar and illiterate compiler ;
and his works, fome few things excepted, are ftuft'ed
with all the execrable trafh that had ever been invent¬
ed by any writer, or pra&ifed by any farrier, ancient
or modern, on the fubjeft of horfes. It is neceffary,
however, that we do juftice to the chara&er of Gervafe
Markham 5 he certainly poffefled a fpecies of merit
which has not defcended to all his fucceffors, the copy-
ifts and plagiarifts ; he very honeftly gives the names
of thofe authors from whom he derives his know¬
ledge.
Some years after Markham, Michael Baret publilh¬
ed a book, which he called the Vineyarde of Horfeman-
Jhip. This we have never feen, but it appears to be of
fome repute. The next writer on this fubjeft, is the
duke of Newcaftle, who gave to the world a moft fu-
perb work on an improved method of breeding and
managing horfes. This work bears a very high cha-
rafter, not only from the name of the illuftrious perfon
by whom it was compofed, but from its oivn intrinfic
merit. The duke is quoted with refpeft by moft fuc-
ceeding writers 3 and his work has been tranflated into
French, German, Dutch, and Italian. It chiefly relates
to horfemanftiip, but as it contains fome excellent ob-
fervations and maxims on the breeding of horfes, it na¬
turally comes to be confidered here.
In the latter end of the 17th century, Andrew Snape,
who was farrier to Charles II. publiftied a large work
on the anatomy of the horfe, illuftrated with many cop¬
perplates. Thefe plates appear not to have been taken
from his own diffeftion, but are moftly copied from pre¬
ceding authors, efpecially from Ruini. Mr Blaine,
however, is miftaken in aflerting that fome of them are
copied from Saunier, as Snape’s work was publiftied in
1683, whereas Saunier’s did not appear (according to
Vitet) before 1734. It is faid that Snape had projeft-
ed a larger work on the difeafes of horfes, but this he
did not live to execute.
Early in the 18th century, farriery experienced a
confiderable improvement from the writings of Mr
William Gibfon. This gentleman had been a furgeon
in the arrny, but relinquiftied that lituation for the prac¬
tice of farriery, which he probably expedled to find
more profitable. Mr Blaine places this writer in the
I E R Y. 427
middle of the laft century 3 but his firfi work entitled Hiftory.
“ The Farrier’s New Guide,” was certainly publiftred   y-*-—'
previous to the year 1721, as we have feen a fecond
edition of it advertifed in that year. This was the moil
fcientific work on the difeafes of horfes, that had then
appeared in the Englifti, or perhaps any language*
The detail of fymptoms is in general juft, accurate, and
the plan of treatment advifed is for the moft part very
judicious. The anatomical part of Mr Gibfon’s work
is not fo valuable, being frequently incorredl, and evi¬
dently not the refult of his own obfervation. The
Farriers Guide was foon followed by The Farriers Dif-
penfatory, containing an account of the remedies em-
ploved in farriery, and the means of preparing and ex¬
hibiting them. This work is far inferior to the former,
and is now of little ufe. In 1721, Mr Gibfon publifti¬
ed a fmall work on The True Method of Dieting
Horfes, which contains fome judicious remarks on the
means of preferving the health of this ufeful animal 3
as alfo on the breeding of horfes : with fome obferva-
tions on their external form, their fagacity, and habits.
This book muft have been very valuable at the time of
its publication, but is now in a great meafure fuperfe-
ded by Clark and other later writers.
About 1750, Mr Gibfon publiftted a larger work,
On the Difeafes of Horfes, in which he has brought to¬
gether the fubftance of his former works on farriery,
with fome improvements. There is, we believe, a later
edition of it in two vols. Mr Gibfon muft be confider¬
ed as one of thofe to whom farriery is moft; indebted
for its improvements. He was almoft the firft, at leaft
in this country, to refcue the art from the hands of the
illiterate empirics, to point out their blunders, and cor-
re£t their errors. Mr John Lawrence, who has given
a very full account of Mr Gibfon in the firft volume of
his treatife on horfes, perhaps goes too far in ranking
him on an equality with fome of our prefent writers j
while thefe again have erred as much on the other fide,
in detradting from the merits of a man to whom they
are all more or lefs indebted for much of their moft
valuable matter. ^
Gibfon was followed in his plan for the improvement Bracken*
of farriery by Dr Bracken, a phyfician at Lancafter,
and a pupil of Boerhaave, who publiftied a work called
Farriery Improved. “ Bracken (fays Mr Blaine) was a
phyfician of great abilities and extenfive knowledge in
his profeflion 3 a man of confiderable erudition, a fportf-
man, and a wit of a peculiar cart. His works have by
fome been as much admired and read for the peculiar
ftyle in which they are written, and that peculiar free¬
dom and non-obfervance of rule or form, as for the real
information they contain.
“ Though there is great ingenuity in his writings, and
though in many refpedls he improved upon Gibfon, yet
as a pradlical work it was much inferior 3 nor was his
information given in a way that could benefit the gene¬
rality of his readers : independent of his ftyle being too
peculiar, and his reafoning too abftrufe for farriers, his
manner of purfuing his fubjedt was fo defultory, that
few readers had patience to follow him. Neverthelefs
his wmiks, which were feveral, and pafled through many
editions, have raifed him a fame that can only die with
the fcience.”
Thefe two writers may juftly be confidered as the
fathers of Englifti farriery 3 they eftabliftied their fyftem
3 H 2 on
1
428
Hiflory.
64
Bartlet.
Ofmer.
€6
Brocklefbj.
67
Bayard.
68
Clark,
FARR
r>n llie only fare foundation, the analogy which prevail¬
ed between the ftroftnre, economy, and difeafes of man
and of brutes. The heft pra&ice in this country has
been derived from their inftruftions ; and their works
formed an example, by following which, later writers
have greatly improved the art.
The next writer of reputation was Mr John Bartlet,
alfo a medical man, who about the middle of the laid
century publilhed his Gentleman’s Farriery, and after¬
wards his Veterinary Pharmacopeia. Bartlet had for¬
med himfelf on the model of Gibfon and Bracken, the
belt parts of whofe writings he has given in his farriery,
condenfed into a more compendious view. He alfo en¬
riched his work by the mold material improvements of
Lafofle, whofe memoirs on (hoeing and on glanders,
he tranflated into Englilh.
Soon after Bartlet, appeared Mr William Ofmer, a
fnrgeon and a fportfman, who praddifed farriery in Ox-
ford-ldreet, London. He was the principal means of in¬
troducing into this country the French mode of {hoe¬
ing, which, in his treatife on the lamenefs of horfes, he
adapted to the Englifh manners, f> as to render of fer-
vree, what had been before nearly ufelefs and imprafdi-
cable. Mr Ofmer’s mode of (hoeing will be mentiorr-
ed hereafter. From the above works many compilations
were foon made ; thefe were generally below medio¬
crity, amongld which, one called the. Farrier’s Dic¬
tionary, though a very wretched compofition, met with
a very rapid fale. We mu(d except from thefe a fmall
treatife by a Mr Blount, furgeon, which is above the
common clafs, and worthy of notice, from an ingenious
contrivance, illuidrated by a plate, for fecuring'a frac¬
tured limb.
In the year 1746, Dr Richard Brocklefby, a friend
of Dr Mead, publithed a pamphlet on the diforder that
juft before raged among horned cattle. It fhould ftem
that this book is very little known beyond the circle of
medical men, as we have not feen it referred to by any
writer on the difeafes of cattle.
Brocklefby was followed on the fame fubjefd by Dr
Layard. We (hall fpeak particularly of thefe two
authors, when we come to treat of the murrains.
About 30 years ago, Mr James Clark, farrier to his
majefty for Scotland, publifhed an ingenious Treatife orr
Shoeing, and on the Difeafes of the Feet of Horfes.
This was foon followed by his Treatife on the Preven¬
tion of Difeafes Incidental to Horfes. By this latter
work Mr Clark has acquired much reputatisn as a
fcientific farrier, and a fenfible writer. It contains
fome judicious obfervations on fdables, diet, and exercife,
on blood-letting, rowels, and fetons j with remarks on
the ufes and adminiftration of the more common reme¬
dies. Mr Clark’« book is in general well calculated to
produce a more judicious and humane method of treat¬
ing horfes, than ufually prevails. But it would Irave
been more ufeful, had the author omitted much of the
theoretic difeuflion, into which he has entered on foroe
parts of the animal economy, on the nature of difeafe,
and on the aftion of remedies. Mr Clark is a good
pra6Iical writer, but his theory is often very lame, or
I E R Y.:
very obfeure. He had an eafy opportunity of attending
the medical leisures, which were taught at Edinburgh
in his youth, when the humoral pathology and the
theory of Boerhaave were in full vogue. Mr Claik
has here and there interfperfed among his pra&ical re¬
marks much of this old leaven. But as he probably
had not received fuch a previous liberal education as
might fit him for the judicious application of what he
heard, he is often deficient in that theoretical know-
Itdgs which he takes fo much pains to difplay.
Some years before the publication of Mr Clark’s laft
mentioned treatife, viz. in 1778, Lord Pembroke fa¬
voured the public with his excellent difiertation on the
Part T.
HiftorT.
r
Lord Pem.
broke.
management of dragoon horfes, with fome remarks on
(hoeing. This work is entitled, Military Equitation,
or a Method of Breaking Horfes. Though the obfer-
vations contained in his lordthip’s Avork Avere intended
for the u!e of the Britifti cavalry, they are for the moft
part applicable to horfes in general, and Avell merit the
attention of farriers and others concerned in the manage¬
ment of horfes. We do not Avell underftand Avhat Mr
Blaine means by afferting that Lord Pembroke derived
the principle of his medical hints from Mr Clark. If
he means that his lordftfip borrowed any thing frem
Mr Clark’s treatife on preventing the difeafes of horfes,
he is certainly miftaken, as the firft edition of this
treatife, which \ve believe has not been reprinted, ap¬
peared in 1788, and in it Mr Clark often quotes Lord
Pembroke’s Avork (c).
Much about this time Mr Stubbs pnblifhed his ele-Stub7b®
gsnt plates of the anatomy of the horfe, of which Avork,
as the produftion of an artift, avc cannot fpeak too
highly. Mr Stubbs is a very eminent painter of ani¬
mals, and to much profeflional excellence in this capa¬
city, he has added a confiderable (hare of anatomical
knoAvledge. Hence his figures are in general extremely
cor reel, and will be found very ufeful to thofe who
have not the opportunity of availing themfelves of real
fubjedls. ?I
One of ihe lateR Avrrters on the fubje£l of farriery is Taphn*
Mr laplin, who for fome time enjoyed a confiderable
reputation, both as a pra&itioner and as a writer. But
this reputation has been materially fullied, fince it Avas
difeovered, that Mr Taplin is not only ignorant of the
anatomy of the horfe, but has liberally copied from
thofe very Avriters Avhom he takes every opportunity to
vilify and abufe. As from his flagrant plagiarifm and
airogance, Mr Faplin has Avell dtferved the drejjtng
which he has recently received from feveral late Avriters,
Aye {hall turn him over into the hands of one of his
rivals, who does not feem difpofed to fliow him any
mercy.
“ Fhis gentleman likewife began his career as a fur¬
geon, but turned afide to the then more profitable track
of farriery. Mr Taplin fet out by decrying all that
had gone before him, all that Avere in pradice Avith him,
and in faft every thing that has been done by any one
fince. Yet Mr Taplin’s Avorks are faid to be compila¬
tions from thofe very authors Avhom he abufes; and, in
fome inftances, after abufing egregioufly, he copies liter¬
ally.
(c) We find that Lord Pembroke’s Avork was firft publiftied about 1761.
is, Ave believe, the fecond.
X
The edition mentioned in the text
# Blaine's
Outline s>
voi i. p. 63
72
London ve¬
terinary
toliege.
73
St Bet.
F A R }\ I
alW. Unfortunately for this gentleman, from feme late
improvements, the people of this country have learned
to didinguiilt in this art, as well as in others, between
feientific inveftigation and verbofe quakery. Had Mr
Taplin fet out by lludying the ftrufture and economy
of the animal, he might, and undoubtedly would, have
proved an ornament to the profeflion ; but when he
permits his works to go through fo many editions, in
the face of criticifm from all quarters, with a chapter
on difeafes of a part that has no exigence in the horfe,
i. e. the gall bladder, we muft be aware that he is en¬
tirely ignorant of that, upon which every pretenfion to
profedional merit muft be grounded. Mr Taplin in¬
dulges himfelf in the moft unreftrained freedoms in
fpeaking of thofe who have gone before him, yet copies
verbatim from them 5 he cannot wonder, therefore,
that he has been treated with confiderable feverity by
later writers 5 nor can he be furprifed that a pradftice
fo begun and fo continued has ended as it has
Mr Taplin is the author of feveral works on farriery;
His firft publication was, we believe, The Stable Di-
retftory, which had a great fale. He next publilhed a
larger work, in two volumes ; and lately he has fent
out a fmall pamphlet called Mitltum in parvo, which is
fuppofed to be merely i-.lended to advance the fale of
his prepared horfe medicines.
The end of the 18th century will ever be memora¬
ble in the hiftory of farriery, for the eftablilhment of
an inftitution for the public teaching of the veterinary
art in England, in imitation of thofe fchools in France
of which we have already fpoken.
The veterinary college owes its origin to M. St Bel,
a French gentleman, born at Lyons, and who was firft
junior affiftant to the profeffor of the Royal Veterinary
College there, and afterwards profeffor of anatomy at
the veterinary college of Montpelier. 1 his gentleman
came to Britain in 1788, and publilhed propofals for
eftablilhing a veterinary fchool in this kingdom. Thefe
propofals did not, at that time, meet with encourage¬
ment ', but two years after, when M. St Bel, driven
from his native country by the horrors of the revoke
tion, again vifited England, his propofals were taken
again into confideration by an agricultural fociety at
Ockham in Hampftiire. It had been the intention of
this fociety, to fend two young men to France, to ftudy
the veterinary art fcientifically ; but on hearing the
propofals of M. St Bel, they abandoned this idea, and
appointed a committee to confult with him on the belt
means of forming a fchool for teaching the art in this
kingdom. To this fchool they gave the name of the
Veterinary College of London ; and M. St Bel was ap¬
pointed the firft profeffor.
The following gentlemen were appointed to the ma¬
nagement of this inftitution.
His Grace the Duke of Northumberland, Prefident.
Earl Grofvenor,
Earl Morton,
Earl of Oxford,
Lord Rivers,
Sir George Baker, Bart. Vice Prefid.
Sir ft'. C. Bunbury% Bart. M. P.
Sir W. Fordyce,
John Hunter, Efq.
Dire&ors.
ft’reafurers.
E R Y.
Sir John Ingleby, Bart. M. P.
Sir H. P. St John Mildmay, Bart.
G. M. Afcougb, Efq.
Mr John Baynes,
Mr J. Burgels,
Rev. T. Burgefs,
Rev. J. Cook,
Dr Adair Crauford,
John Gretton, Efq.
Dr Hamilton,
Mr Rennet,
Dr D. Mapleton,
Granville Penn, Efq.
Mr William Stone,
Richard Tophane, Efq;
Dr Williams,
J. Wollafton, Efq.
Meffrs. Ranfom,
Moreland,
and Hammerlly,
A houfe was taken, for the purpofe of the inftitution,
and pupils were admitted to board in the houfe.
The fuccefs of tins inftitution, at firft, by no means
anfwered the expeftations of the founders. It appears
that M. St Bel was prevented, by the embarraffed ftate
of his circumftances, from executing the office of pro¬
feffor, with that ardour and a&ivity which was necef-
fary to the reputation of the infant fchool ; and indeed
it feems, from the fpecimen he has left us of his pro-
feffional abilities, that thefe were not adequate to the
office he had undertaken. He poffeffed confiderable in-
duftry, and it is probable that, had he lived, he would
have i’ucceeded better than his outfet had promifed.
But, in the year 1793, was attacked with an illnefs,
which proved fatal in about fortnight.
M. St Bel left behind him feveral works, viz. An
Effay on the Geometrical proportions of Eclipfe. Lec¬
tures on the Elements of Farriery. The Art of Horfe-
ffioeing, with Obfervations on the Difeafes of the Feet.
And a volume of port humous works.
We do not pretend to give our own opinion as to
the merits of thefe works, as we have not feen them.
But it is faid that the Effay is merely an application of
the proportions long ago laid down by Bourgelat in his
Elcmens d'Hippiatrique, to a particular cafe ; and that
many of his meafuremenls are incorreft. Mr Blame
roundly taxes him with tranflating Lafoffe to furtiifti
matter for his Elements, and relers for proof of this to
the defeription and treatment of qiiittor in St Bel’s
Elements, and Lafoffe’s DiBionaire d'Hippiatrique.
Mr Blaine brings many other inftances of M. St
Bel’s want of information and fcience, for which we
muft refer our readers to Mr Blaine’s Outlines of the
Veterinary Art.
On the death of M. St Bel, there appears to have
been a competition for the vacant chair, between two
gentlemen, who were both well qualified to fill it, Mr
Edward Coleman and Mr Morecroft. Both of thefe
gentlemen had been bred to furgery, and the former
had acquired much reputation by an ingenious Effay
on Sufpended Refpiration. ft'he latter was lately re¬
turned from France, where he had been ftudying the
veterinary art. We are not acquainted with the parti¬
culars
74
43°
FARR
Hiftory.
75
Mr Cole¬
man ap-
jwinted
profeflbr.
75
Examining
.. committee.
culars of tills competition ; but the choice of the fub-
icnbers fixed on Mr Coleman, under whofe manage-
ment the college has acquired confiderabie reputation.
Ihe eledion of Mr Coleman was followed by fome
new regulations. An anatomical theatre was fitted up,
with diffeding rooms for the ufe of the ftudents. A
medical committee was alfo appointed for the purpofe
o. examining the pupils, who had completed their
education at the college, previoufly to their receiving
a diploma as veterinary furgeons. This committee, in
1801, was compofed of the following gentlemen.
Dr Fordyce, fenior phyfician to St Thomas’s hofpital.
Dr Relph, phyfician to Guy’s hofpital.
Dr Babington, Do.
Dr Bailie, phyfician to St George’s hofpital.
Mr Cline, (ur^eon to St Thomas hofpital.
Mr Home, furgeon to St George’s hofpital.
Mr Aftley Cooper, furgeon to Guy’s hofpital.
Mr Abernethy, furgeon to Bartholemew’s hofpital.
Mr \\ ilfon, ledurer on anatomy and furgery, and
ijy Mr Coleman, profeffor of the college.
Regulations The following are the regulations of this ufeful infti-
oj the col- tution as publilhed in the year r8oi.
The fubfcribers of the veterinary college pay two
guineas per annum, or twenty guineas for life. For
this fubfeription each fubfcriber, is entitled to fend,
when fick or lame, any number of horfes to the vete¬
rinary ftables, where no charges are made for medi¬
cines, attendance, or operations. The fubfcriber pays
only for the keeping and {hoeing of his horfe, which is
generally lefs than the adual expence incurred by the
college. A committee of {fablers is appointed to exa¬
mine the quality of the forage, and to regulate the
price of the keep of horfes. For fome years part, the
fubfcribers paid only 2s. 6d. per night ; but in confe-
quence of the great advance in hay, corn, and llraw,
and the college, by this moderate charge, having fufl
tained a confiderabie lofs, the keep of horles is now fix¬
ed at 3s. per night. A feparate committee infpeds the
accounts of the college, and three times in the year
reports to the general meeting the ftate of the finances
of tne college. No horfes but thofe the property of
fubfcribers are admitted into the veterinary ftables : but
the profeffor is allowed private pradice, and horfes not
belonging to fubfcribers may be fent to the college for
the profeflor’s opinion.
The horfes not intended to be left in the ftables of
Ike college may be fent for the profelTor’s advice on
Mondays, Wednefdays, and Fridays, from twelve to
two o’clock. Where medicines are requifite, they are
prepared for fubfcribers horfes at very reduced prices •
and the college receives all emoluments which may
arife from the fale of horfe medicines.
The expences incurred by fubfcribers, for {hoeing, for
the keep of horfes, or for medicines, muft be paid’ for
before the animal be taken from the college. And as
fome Ioffes have been fuftained from the ftrid letter of
this regulation not having been always attended to, the
clerk has now received pofitive orders from the commit¬
tee, not to allow any horfe, before all the expences are
paid, to be taken from the college. The horfes are pla¬
ced under the diredion of the profeffor, who refides on
the {pot, and the medicines he prefcrib^s are compound¬
ed by a proper perfon employed for that purpofe.
I E R Y.
. As tlie great objed of the veterinary eftabliftiment
is to form a national fchool for the improvement of far¬
riery pupils paying twenty guineas are admitted into
tut*, college to leurn the veterinary art,
. Letfures are given by the profeffor on the forma-
turn, economy, and difeafes ol horfes, and o'her do
meihc animals; and moft of the eminent medical
teachers m London, with a liberality peculiar to them-
ielves, have allowed the veterinary pupils to hear their
ledures without any fee or reward. The veterinary
itudents attend ledures on human anatomy and phyfio-
logy, on the principles and pradice of furgery, on the
matena medica, and chemiftry, and pradice of phyfic.
1 he period requifite for obtaining a competent know¬
ledge of the veterinary art, is regulated by the talents
previous information, and induftry of the individual pu¬
pil. 1 he ftudents continue to attend the college until
they are examined and approved by the medical com¬
mittee. Fhofe pupils who are duly qualified receive a
diploma ; but thofe who are found on examination to b*
deficient, are rejeded. There are four general exa¬
minations in the year. When examined and approved,
it no oojedions are made to their condud, during their
ftudy at the veterinary college, they may be recom¬
mended to any regiment of cavalry, not already provi¬
ded with a veterinary furgeon.
No fees of any kind are allowed by the college to
.any °f the fevvants of fubfcribers ; neither are the^ fer-
vants of the college permitted to receive any peroui-
fites from the fubfcribers. 1 1
A veterinary col]ege has alfo been eftabliftied near
Birmingham, and it is faid that others are in contem¬
plation in other parts of the empire.
The advantages that have already accrued from this
eftabliftiment, to veterinary medicine in general, and
to our national cavalry in particular, are very confider¬
abie. Almoft every regiment of cavalry has been fup-
plied from the college, with a veterinary furgeon $ and
many of thefe gentlemen have publifhed works which,
for the moft part, do much credit to themfelves and
their academy. »
In 1798, Mr Coleman publilhed the firft volume,
and in 1802, the fecond, of Obfervations on the Struc¬
ture, peconomy, and Diftafes of the Foot of the Horfe.
This is a moft uieful and valuable work, but it is too
fplendid and eoftly, efpecially the fecond volume, for
general circulation. The firft volume contains a very
full account of the method of {hoeing pradlifed at the
veterinary college, of which we fliall give an abftradt
hereafter.
About lifts period, appeared alfo a pamphlet by Mr
Coleman, On the Formation and Ufes of the natural
I'rog of the Horfe, with the defeription of an artificial
Frog.
In 1801, appeared the firft number of the Veterinary
Tranfadfions, publiftied by order of the fubfcribers.
This pamphlet commences with a long introdudlion,
ftating the object of the inftitution, the progrefs which
it had made,, and the caufes that tended to prevent its
complete fuccefs. Thefe originate partly in the jv.rty
oppofition of the common farriers, who deem it their
mtereft to do all in their power to circumvent the views
of the fubfcribers : but they have {till more been derived
from the underhand malice of grooms and fervants, with
whofe intereft the inftitution, from the liberal manner in
which
Parti.
Part I.
Hiftory. lt 'ls cond«^ed» certainly clafh. The body
 of the pamphlet is occupied with a very neat view of the
confequences and treatment of wounds of joints, and
other circumfcribed cavities, and it is concluded by an
account of the regulations of the college (fee N° 77),
the lift of the medical committee, a lift of the examined
and approved veterinary furgeons that had at that time
paffed at the college, and lifts of the then managers
and fubfcribers to the inftitution.
Brace; _ The firft pupil of the college, as we believe, who
Clarke. diftinguiftied himfelf as an author, was Mr Bracey
Clarke; who, in the third volume of the Linnsean
Tranfa&ions, publilhed a very ingenious paper on the
bolts in horfes and cattle, of which we fhall fpeak here-
79 after.
Riding. About the fame time appeared a fmall volume on
Veterinary Pathology, by Mr Riding, veterinary fur-
go geon to the 18th regiment of dragoons.
Denny. fn 1802, Mr John Denny of the 10th dragoons
publifhed a fmall volume on the Difeafes of Jlorfes.
In this work Mr Denny has in general given the prin¬
ciples and practice of the veterinary college, and has
illuftrated and confirmed thefe by his own attentive
gI obfervations and long experience.
White. 1° the fame year appeared a very neat Compendium
of the Veterinary Art, by Mr James White, of the
1 ft dragoons. Phis is only a pocket volume, and of
courfe is very concife; but the author has given a very
comprehenfive view of the nature and treatment of dif-
. cafes, and of the late improvement in the art of ftioeing
introduced in the veterinary college ; and the work
will be found an ufeful companion to the young prac¬
titioner. This volume alfo contains the fubftance of a
former work, by the fame author, on the Anatomy and
Phyfiology of the Horfe’s Foot. In the year x 804, Mr
White publifhed the Veterinary Materia Medica, con¬
taining a brief defcription of the various fubftances em¬
ployed in farriery, with an account of their particular
effects on the body of the horfe. He occafionally in¬
troduces fome pertinent remarks on the difeafes of the
horfe ; and in the latter part of the volume, comprifing
the veterinary pharmacopeia, he has given a number of
the belt and moll: fcientific recipes that he had feen.
Phis work may be confidered as the fecond volume of
Mr White’s compendium ; and the author confidered
the two volumes as forming a complete fyftem of the
veterinary medicine. Phough we are difpofed to think
very favourably of thefe volumes, as a praftical com¬
pendium, we cannot help thinking that Mr White
might have contented himfelf with that modeft title
without affuming the more pompous one of a fyftem.
We muft alfo remark, that the materia medica, which
is not large, is unneceflarily fwelled by the admiflion of
many articles that feem to have been introduced mere¬
ly to tell us, that they are never ufed in the veterinary
pra&ice.
Mr White is alfo the author of an Addrefs to the
Royal Firft Devon Yeoman Cavalry refpe<fting the
management of their horfes, when employed on aftual
g2 fervice.
RicHard In the year 1802, or we believe, a little earlier, a
awrence. work of confiderable elegance was publilhed,. by Mr
Richard Lawrence, veterinary furgeon at Birmingham.
As we have not feen this work, we muft copy the fol¬
lowing account of it from Mr Blaine. “ It is much
43*
to be regretted that a gentleman who poflefles fo much Hiftory.
ingenuity, ftiould pafs over fubje&s of fuch importance v——y—j
in fuch a light curfory manner. The defcription and
treatment of fome difeafes occupy fewer lines than (to
treat the fubjeft in fuch a manner as to prove ufeful)
they would require pages. The plates are elegant, and
extremely well defigned, particularly thofe that regard
the proportions and paces of the horfe ; thofe that re¬
gard the internal ftru&ure and difeafes are not fo happy.
The di&ion is very fuperior. As a cabinet work, it is
moft certainly elegant and interefting ; but as a ufeful
affiftant to the art itfelf, it does not rank fo high.” g--
In the fame year was publiftied the firft part of aBoardmaa.
di&ionary of the veterinary art by Mr Thomas Board-
man of the third regiment of dragoons. This work
was intended to be completed in fixteen parts. The
author feems to have availed himfelf of the latell and
fceft information on the feveral articles that compofe his
work ; and he has introduced into it a variety of fub-
jecls on the principles of general medicine.
One of the lateft publications by pupils of the veteri-Feron.
nary college, is a new fyftem of farriery by Mr John
Feron, veterinary furgeon to the thirteenth regiment of
light dragoons. This work is printed in quarto, and
affords a good inftance to what extent a fmall quan¬
tity pf matter may be carried by the modern typogra¬
phical improvements of large type, broad margins,
wide fpaces, and frequent breaks. The work is indeed
very elegant both in type and m plates. It alfo con¬
tains fome ufeful information on the external ftru&ure
of the horfe, with a view to point out and illuftrate
what appealed to the author to be the moft perfe<fb
form of a blood horfe, with the blemifties and defefls
which appeared moft: likely to impede his velocity.
This appears to be the belt part of the work, and is
well illuftrated by the plates. The latter half of the
book is occupied with the confideration of difeafes; and
here we are led, from the author’s title page, to expefl
an account not only of the difeafes of horfes, but of the
principal epidemics to which cattle, fhee.p, &c. are
fubjeft. Thefe epidemics are however difeuffed in the
courfe of feventeen pages ; but we are given to un-
derftand that the author intends in a future publica-
tion to give a full comparative defeription, with the
proper mode of treatment of every difeafe that affedls
domeftic animals. Mr Feron’s obfervations are render¬
ed of lefs utility than they would otherwife have been,
by the want of a table of contents prefixed to the
work.
Ihefe are, we believe, the principal publications Freeman,
that have proceeded from the pupils of the veterinary
college. A few other works on veterinary medicine
ftill remain-to be confidered. In 1796, a very elegant
work on horfes was publiftied by S. Freeman, Efq. wftiofe
charatter is given by Mr Blaine as an amateur in the
manege, and a gentleman of fortune, learning, and great
ingenuity. This publication confifted in a defcription of
the fruciure and economy of the foot, accompanied with
a fet of plates highly finiftied in Skelton’s belt ftyle.
The fubjeas were diffeded under the infpeaion of Mr
Home, or an affiftant; and except fome flight errors in
the ligaments of the navicular bone, appear very cor-
rea. This publication, for the elegance of its engra¬
vings, and the general fpirit of the whole, will be long
without a competitor. It recommends a very ingeni¬
ous
FARRIERY.
432
Hi (lory.
SS
John Law-
fence.
downing.
88
Imperfec¬
tion 6f
works on
cattle me-
, ilicine.
FARRIERY.
Part I,
ous modle of (hoeing, and the economy of the foot is
liken ife very ingenious.
About the fame time Mr John Lawrence publiflied a
fmall volume on horfes, chiefly compofed of extrafts
from St Bel, Ofmer, Clarke, and Lord Pembroke j
and in 1798, this gentleman brought forward his phi-
lofophical and praflical treatife on horfes, a work which
is as remarkable for the good fenfe and humanity of
the author, as for the whimfical eccentricity and angry
irritability which he occafionally dilplays. The work
embraces a great variety of fuhjefts. It commences
with an account of the principal former writers on far¬
riery, in which high eulogies are paid to the memory of
Gibfon and Bracken, and a very violent attack is made
on the ill- flarred Mr Taplin. The latter part of the
work contains Mr Lawrence’s fyftem of veterinary prac¬
tice, which is chiefly taken from his favourite authors,
as Mr Lawrence feems at that time not to have had
much praftical experience. The work alfo contains
fome remarks on the difeafes of horned cattle, on the
treatment of cows, and fin calving.
Mr Lawrence has fince, in 1805, pnbliflied a fepa-
rate treatife on cattle, in which the management of neat
cattle, fheep, and fwine, are handled in a mafterly man¬
ner •, and a much fuller account of difeafes and their
treatment is given than could be expe&ed in his former
treatife. We venture to recommend Mr Lawrence’s
jvorks as amongft the moft inflrinflive.and moil enter¬
taining we have met with.
Some years ago there appeared a work on the de-
fcription and treatment of the difeafes of cattle, by a
Mr Downing, a profeffor of cattle medicine; which,
though very expenfive, fold very faft, and was very ge¬
nerally efteemed amongft farmers and graziers. We
have not feen this work ; but from the account of it
that is given by Mr Blaine in his outlines, it (hould
feem that it abounds with important errors, and frequent¬
ly inculcates a dangerous mode of practice. We can¬
not here enumerate the particular examples brought by
Mr Blaine in proof of his afiertions, but we (hall notice
the moft important of them under their proper heads.
Perhaps no part of veterinary medicine has been fo
little cultivated in this country, as that which confiders
the difeafes of cattle. There is fcarcely a work on this
fubjeft in the Englifh language that is worth perufal.
We cannot give a better idea of the little value that
muft be placed on thefe works than by the following
extraft from Mr Lawrence’s treatife on cattle.
“T have never yet feen any of thefe cattle-doBor-
ing books., which appeared to me to be written bona fide.
Well-intentioned ignorance, if not entitled to refpedl,
is at leaf! venial ; but the flighteft examination of moft:
of thefe printed guardians of the health of cattle, by a
perfon qualified to judge, will evince, that they are pre¬
meditated impoftures, goods merely varniftied up for
fale. They have either the names of living men tack¬
ed to them, who, in the ftrongeft probability, never ei¬
ther did, or could write a line of them, or they are
publiftied in the name of fome one of the mighty dead,
among cow-doctors, who moft unfortunately died at laft,
after fixty years practice. One would expedt to find
fomething original and valuable, from this long-con¬
tinued and extenfive practice ; but the difappointment
is always complete. The chief of that which we meet
with, con lifts of tranfcriptions from former writers, in¬
terlarded with learned, medical, and phyfical differta- Riftor-
tions, perhaps found and good enough in their place, to ——y—!!
which are loofely and clumfily tacked the moft nonfenfical
and burlefque appendages by Mr Editor. The medi¬
cinal forms in thefe books, are frequently the ftrangeft
jumble that imagination can conceive. Articles of a
diredlly oppofite nature and intention, are blended in
one mafs, which muft inevitably act upon the animal
fyftem with an effedt fimilar to that of two men pulling
at oppofite ends. of a cord. We find balfam of Peru
and Glauber’s falls married together, the intent of
which, no doubt muft be, as a Suffolk farrier once de-
fcribed to the late Mr Ru(h, “ a kind of heater, and a
kind of cooler.” Indeed the far greater number of the
prefcriptions wear rather the appearance of having been
fabricated for the life of the book, than of having ever
been ufed and approved in real pradfice. One truly
laughable cuftom was introduced by the book publiftied
under the name of Topham’s old one. It was to fub-
join to every prefeription of note, a fet charadler, con¬
ceived in the moft high founding terms of panegyric, at
the fame time, with a choice of words, at once fo droll,
and fo gravely profeffional, with fo formal an arrange¬
ment, that he muft be a man far furpaffing me in gravity,
grave as I naturally am, who can perufe them without
burfting into laughter. It muft not be denied, how¬
ever, that thefe books contain a number of ufeful hints,
relative to the management and dieting of cattle, whe¬
ther or not fuch may have originated with the doflor,
or have been introduced by the editor. They may al¬
fo, to a certain degree, be confulted as to the fymptoms
of difeafes, although by no means to be implicitly re¬
lied on even in that refpedt. So far they have their
ufe. With regard to dofloring, as it is termed, or
preferibiug medicines to cattle, they are moft truly
blind guides; and when, unfortunately, they are fet to
lead the blind, the fate of both parties may be very
readily anticipated. I am fpeaking of books, which
have been publiftied within the laft half century. As
to the ancient veterinary writers, none of them, not
even the celebrated Vegetius, were medical men, and
their medical pradtice is utterly beneath modern notice.
The fame kind of books of our old Englifti writers,
confift of a ftrange medley of ancient pradtice with va¬
rious fage additions of their own. A rational man can¬
not read over Tome of their prefcriptions without a-
mazement, nor a humane one without extreme pity for
the harafttd vidtirn of fuch monftrous pradfice. By the
way, they who, for interefted purpofes, fabricate pre¬
tended cattle medicines, of the effedts of which they are
carelefs or ignorant, commit an adt of grofs inhumani¬
ty and crime, in too probably adding to the load of fuf-
ferings of a helplefs animal already tortured by difeafe.
One of the greateft curiofities we meet with in the old
book';, is their grand univerfal fpecific. It feems as
though they judged by a kind of compound arithmeti-
co-medical logic, that , all medicines being conjoined *
and multiplied one into the other, (he produdt muft ne- \:attiei
ceffarily be the prevention or cure of all difeafes 89
Mr Lawrence has excepted from the above general Cufley.
condemnation, a work lately publiftied by Mr Culley,
of Northumberland ; which, he fays, ought to be in the
hands of every farmer in Great Britain. He confiders
it as the only original work in our language, and, as
containing in a fmall compafs, a moil valuable fund of
information,
Part II. FARR
Hiftory. information, chiefly from the author’s own experi-
i—v——* ence.
90 ^ In the year 1800, Mr Morecroft, the rival candidate
Morecroft. w|th Mr Coleman for the profeflorfhip of the veterinary
college, publilhed a fmall pamphlet containing a cur-
fory account of the various methods of thoeing horfes,
with incidental obfervations. This work difplays confi-
derable ingenuity. We (hall notice Mr Moreeroft’s
91 method of (hoeing by and by.
Blaine. In 1802, appeared Mr Blaine’s Outlines of the Vete¬
rinary Art, or the Principles of Medicine as applied to
a knowledge of the flrusSure, fun&ions, and economy
of the horfe, the ox, the flieep, and the dog •, and to a
more fcientific and fuccefsful manner of treating their
various difeafes ; in two volumes. Mr Blaine is well
known as a pra&itioner of veterinary medicine, and as
the advertifer of a fpecifie againft the diftemper in dogs.
In his Outlines, Mr Blaine, after giving a (ketch of
the hiftory of medicine in general, enters on the hiftory
of veterinary medicine in particular, which he details
at confiderable length ; not, however, without feveral
errors, fome of which we h?.ve already pointed out.
He next proceeds to lay down very briefly what he con¬
ceives to be the proper means for the attainment of the
veterinary art. Then follows a long fed!ion on a fub-
jeft which we fliould fcarcely expedi to find in a work
of this kind, the hiftory of chemiftry. The firft part
concludes with a (ketch of comparative anatomy, in
which the ftruclure and economy of the ox, (heep, and
dog are palled over much too lightly. The fecond
part, which occupies the reft of the firft volume, and
one-half of the fecond, is taken up with a very minute
account of the anatomy of the horfe, with fome obfer¬
vations on the economy and ufes of the feveral parts.
We confider this as the beft part of Mr Blaine’s book $
but we think that he has made it unneceflarily prolix,
as by carrying it tofuch an extent, he has not left room
for a fatisfadlory account of difeafes, which occupy the
reft of the fecond volume. Here we cannot but con¬
fider the author as very defedlive. Neither the fymp-
toms nor the treatment are given with that accuracy or
precifion, which the public had a right to expedl from
a pradlitioner of Mr Blaine’s long experience. Many
of the difeafes of cattle, (heep, and efpecially of dogs,
are paffed over in a manner that is by no means fatisfac-
tory. The work is written in a very (lovenly manner,
and is everywhere filled with an oftentatious parade of
medical phrafeology that muft render it nearly unintel¬
ligible to the generality of readers. In his receipts,
Mr Blaine has for the moft part adopted the new no¬
menclature, which, however we may approve in medi¬
cal formulae, we cannot think calculated for the meri¬
dian of farriers. We, however, by no means intend to
, infinuate that Mr Blaine’s work is without merit: it
I E R Y. 433
certainly contains much valuable matter ; but we muft Hiftory.
repeat that it is not what we ftiould have expected from —
the advantages of information and experience which
Mr Blaine appears to have pofleffed.
In the following year, Mr Blaine publifhed a fmaller
work, which he calls a Domeftic Treatife on the dif¬
eafes of horfes and dogs, which appears to be chiefly an
abridgement of the Outlines, with a fort of advertife-
ment for the fale of Mr Blaine’s patent medicine. (J2
In 1802 appeared a General View of the Agricul-Findlater,
ture of the county of Peebles, by the Rev. Charles Find-
later, minifter of the parifh of Newlands, in that coun¬
ty. This work, though intended merely as a local fur-
vey of the (late of agriculture and improvements in a
fmall diftriff, abounds with much excellent matter that
muft prove of general utility. Befides the cbfervations
which the ingenious author has made, on the general
management of live (lock, in the body of his work, he
has added in one of his appendices fome valuable
information refpedfting fome of the moft important dif¬
eafes of (heep, which are partly furniftied from the com¬
munications of Dr Gillefpie, late phyfician in Edin¬
burgh, and Dr Coventry profeflor of agriculture in that
univerfity, and partly derived from his own experience. ^
In 1805 was publiftied an elegant work on pradlicalDickfom
agriculture by Dr R. W. Dickfon j the fecond volume
of which contains much ufeful inftru£lion refpedling the
choice, breeding, feeding, &c. of all the fpecies of live
flock employed on a farm ; with a few very concife re¬
marks on the difeafes of each fpecies. But as thefe are
merely praflicsl hints, they cannot be of much ufe, ex¬
cept to thofe who are already tolerably acquainted with
the fubjedl. ^
In the fame year, the Rev. William Daniel perform-Daniel,
ed a ta(k, which, however ill fuited to the character and
avocation of a clergyman, muft be highly grateful to
every lover of the fports of the field, in the publication
of his Rural Sports, which contains perhaps the moft com¬
plete account of every thing relating to dogs that is to
be found in the Engliftx language. Among other fub-
je£ls connected with the management of this favourite
companion of man, the reverend author takes occafion to
treat pretty fully of his difeafes. On this fubjeft, Mr
Daniel has not only colledled matter from what he con¬
ceives to be the beft fources, but, what is more ufeful,
as well as more to be depended on, he has added much
from his own obfervation and experience.
One of the lateft works on the difeafes of domeftic Harrifoa,
animals, which we have f- : An Enquiry into the
Rot in Sheep, and other a.j.iftals, by Dr Edward Harri-
fon, a refpeftable phyfician of Horn caftle, in Lincoln-
(hire. Of this pamphlet we (hall fpeak at large, when
we come to treat of the difeafe, whofe nature and caufes
it is intended to illuftrate.
PART II. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE.
IN the (ketch which we are to give of the anatomy
of the horfe, we muft very lightly pafs over fuch parts
as appear not to be of immediate importance in the prac¬
tice of farriery, in order to dwell more minutely on thofe
organs that are of greater confequence. Thus we (hall
content ourfelves with giving a tabular view of the
Vol. VIII. Part II.
bones and mufcles ; we (hall entirely omit the brain and
nerves $ but we (hall defcribe fome of the other vifcera,
as the ftomach, and the bowels, fomewhat more mi¬
nutely. We (hall be moft particular on the anatomy of
the extremities, efpecially of the feet, as on an accurate
knowledge of thefe parts depend the principles of (hoe4
3 1 ing \
of the
Horfe.
97
Importance
of an accu¬
rate
434 FARR
Anatomy ing j which, without fuch knowledge, cannot be pro¬
perly underftood, or rationally pra£tifed.
On the fubjeft of the anatomy of the foot, we fhall
be particularly indebted to the writings of Mr Cole¬
man •, and we cannot (hew the importance of the fub-
jeft in (hoeing better than by the following remarks of
that gentleman.
“ The organization and fun&ions of the foot of the
know" h°rfe wM be found rather complicated ; but it is of
ledge of the confiderable importance to thofe who wilh to inveftigate
anatomy of the principles, as well as the practice of (hoeing, to
the foot. be lvep acquainted with every part of that organ.
The praftical part of (hoeing is often well executed,
without an accurate knowledge of the contents of the
hoof.
“ But, in many cafes, it is very neceffary to be well
acquainted with the ftru&ure and fundlions of the deep¬
er feated parts, and is moft particularly ufeful for the
removal of many difeafes incident to the foot. The im-
menfe weight fupported by the feet of the horfe, and
the rapidity with which this great animal is conveyed
from place to place, without violence to the external or
internal parts of the foot, naturally excite a defire to
afcertain the caufe of fo wonderful an effedf. If the
human foot fupported the fame weight as the foot of the
horf«, the fenlible parts would be deftroyed. Without
fprings, no external covering could effe&ually fupport
the weight, and prevent the foot from being fmafh-
ed. The phyfiologift will receive infinite fatisfadlion
in the invelfigation of the fundtionsof this complicated
organ ; he will find as much order and beauty, as much
wifdom and utility, in the formation and economy of the
foot, as ever was difplayed in the ftrudture and ufes of
* Coleman ariy animal. It will be feen in many inflances, that
V} tJle, the fame part performs various fundtions, and all of thefe
Foot*vol. ii. fundtions well
<j8 In our defcription of the (Irudture of the horfe, we
(hall, as far as puffible, employ Englifh names to de¬
note the parts defcribed or enumerated, as we think the
writers on the fubjedl have done wrong in giving to
the parts of the horfe the Latin names that are employ¬
ed in the human anatomy j and we have no doubt that
the generality of veterinary ftudents tnuft, from this cir-
cumfiance alone, be in a great meafure deterred from
paying the neceffary attention to fo important a fubjedt.
But, that we may avoid affedlation, we (hall, wherever
it appears neceffary, add the correfponding Latin name,
and fome fynonyms of the more refpedtable writers on
the anatomy of the horfe.
99
Skeleton.
Chap. I. Sketch of the Bones of the Horfe.
When we take a general view of the (keleton of the
horfe, fuppofed to (land before us, we (hall obferve that,
excepting the head and fore part of the neck, the (kele¬
ton forms nearly a fquare, and approaches more nearly
to this form, as the body of the animal is more exadlly
proportional. We remark this for the fake of painters
and feulptors, who commonly err confiderably with re-
fpedl to their proportion of length and breadth in their
figures of the horfe.
We (hall divide the Ikeleton into the head, thefpine,
the trunk, and extremities. See Plate CCXI. fig. I.
3
I E R Y.
Part II,
i. Bones of the Head. A. Anatomy
of the
a, c, Half of the frontal bone^ which in the horfe is al- H°rfe.
ways compofed of two pieces. v-—-y—
e,f One of the two parietal bones.
g, h, i, k, The occipital bone, with a procefs at k, that
is peculiar to the horfe.
/, m, The temple, or temporal bone, of one fide j n, the
cheek-bone of one fide.
o, One of the fmall bones within the focket of the
eye, that anfwers to the os unguis in man.
p, p, Bones of the nofe.
q, r, 4, The upper jaw-bone.
t. The intermaxillary bone, or what is ufually called
by veterinary writers the /n/enor jaw-bone. This is not
found in the human fkeleton.
u, v. The pofierior maxillary bone, which anfwers to
the lower jaw-bone in man.
Bones of the Spine. B.
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, The feven vertebrae of the neck.
a, The atlas j b, the fecund vertebra, called in human
anatomy, dentata ; r/, e,./, its tranfverfe prccefs; e, its
oblique procefs-, f, its ridge, anfwering for a fpinous pro¬
cefs $ g, h, t, k, l, m, n, third cervical vertebra ; g, its
body j above the letter is the hole for the tranfmiffion
of the vertebral arteries and veins j i, h, anterior and
pofterior tranfverfe proceffes ; /, a protuberance in the
fore part of the body.
8—25, Theeighteen vertebraeofthe back ; a, thebody
of each j b, the tranfverfe procefies that articulate with the
ribs 5 c, the oblique proceffes; d, the fpinous proceffes.
26 to 30, The five vertebrae of the loins, which have
very long tranfverfe proceffes, though thefe are not very
eafily difiinguiftied in the figure, from its having a fide
view.
x, x. The facrum bone, compofed of five pieces, as in
man..
From 31 to 43, the 13 bones compofing the tail, an^
fwering to the os coccygis in man.
Bones of the Trunk. C.
a, b, 1, 9, The true ribs ; 10 to 18 the falfe ribs;
a, the head articulating with the tranfverfe procefs of
the firft dorfal vertebra $ under is feen the lower branch
of the head that unites with the feventh cervical and firft
dorfal vertebra; c, the end that unites with the fternum
or breaft-bone; a, b, c, d, e,f, g, the two hip bones, an¬
fwering to the offa innominata in the human anatomy ;
a, b, c, the ilium, with its tuberofity a, forming the
haunch or hip; e,f the ifchium ; g, g, the pubis with
its jundture or fymphyfis between the two letters.
Bones of the Fore Extremity. D. D.
e,f g, h, i, l, m. The fcapula or blade-bone ; e, its
neck, below which is feen its glenoid cavity ; f ante-
fpinatus foffa ; h, its fpine, which in the human ends in
the proceffus acromion, but as there is no clavicle in the
horfe, it ends by a tuberofity ; i, coracoid procefs ; be¬
tween m and i, the anterior cofta ; /, between this and
e, pofterior cofta, between m and l, is its bafe, and the
line above it marks the extent and fituation of the car¬
tilage of the fcapula; n, 0, p, q, humerus or arm ; «, its
neck, above which is feen its head ; 0, its anterior
head, forming the point of the (boulder, as it is commonly
called
FARRIERY.
Part II.
Anatomy called In tlie horfe ; its tuberofity ; its lower head,
of the behind is feen the cavity for the reception of the olecra-
Horfe' non; t4, r, ulna ; the upper part forms the olecranon
Uj"—y. or elbow, the lower part is united by ligamentous
fibres to the radius •, s, s, the radius 5 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
the carpus or knee $ 1, 1, pifiform j 2, 2, fcaphoid j
3, 3, lunar; 4, unciform ; 5, magnum 5 6, cuneiform ;
7, trapezoid ; «, metacarpus ; t, canon j two fmall
metacarpals •, v, w, x, ij, 25, phalanges •, v, firft pha¬
lanx or paftern; w, fefamoids; x, coronet-bone, or
little paftern ; y, coffin j 2;, navicular or nut-bone.
Bones of the Hind Extremity. E. E.
/i, ii, iy /, my Thigh-bone *, //, the neck, above which
is the head received into the focket of the pelvis •, /, great
trochanter 5 k, the outer trochanter j /, /, the inner tro¬
chanter j m, m, the anterior condyles 5 «, n, the pofte-
rior ditto ; p, pr femilunar cartilage ; 0, 0, knee-pan or
patella ; g, tibia or leg-bone, commonly called the
thigh ; r, fibula j ther tibia is feen terminating in its
maleoli, to articulate with the tarfusj 1,2, 3,4, 5,6, 7,8,
tarfus or hock; 1, 2, I, 2, calces, forming the point of
the hock, in man the heel 5 3, 4, aftragalus; 5, 5, great
cuneiform bone ; 6, cuboid bone } 7, middle cunei¬
form bone $ 8, fmall cuneiform bone ; s, s, t, t, meta-
tarfus $ Sy s, canon or (hank 5 t, t, two fmall metatarfals;
Uy paftern j Vy fefamoids ; iu, coronet-bone or leffer
paftern j Xy Xy coffin bone \ y, navicular or nut-bone.
Of the Teeth.
160 A male horfe has 40 teeth, when he has completed
Teeth. £u^ number. The mare has ufually but 36.
They are divided into three kinds j the cutting teeth
or nippers j the cufpidatte or tufties, and the molares or
grinders. A knowledge of the horfe’s teeth and of the
changes which they undergo, from their firft appear¬
ance, is of the greateft confequence, as from it we de¬
rive the fureft marks of the age of the horfe; at leaft,
till he is eight or nine years old.
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, ffiew the appearance of the
teeth from their firft cutting to the age of eight years.
Fig. 2. ffiews the appearance of the colt’s teeth at
the age of three weeks j fig. 3. that of the colt’s teeth
at three months. Fig. 4. ffiews the ftate of the teeth
from three months to about four or five years, where
a, a, are the pincers or nippers j by b, what are called
the feparators $ c, f, the corners, or the laft of the front
teeth at that age j d, d, the talks. Fig. 5. ffiews the
appearance of the teeth at the age of five years, and
figs. 6, 7, and 8, their appearance at the refpe&ive ages
10I of fix, feven, and eight years.
Means of The age of a horfe is eafily known by his mouth, till
aicertaining he comes eight, after which the ufual marks wear out.
the age of ^ horfe, like many other brute animals, has his teeth
3 0rfe‘ divided into three ranks; viz. his fore-teeth which are
flat and fmooth, his tufties, and his back-teeth. His
back-teeth or jaw-teeth are called his grinders, being
thofe by which a horfe chews and grinds his provender,
and are 24 in number, 12 above and 12 below : they
are ftrong double teeth, with ftiarp edges ; but when a
horfe grows old they wear much fmoother.
The firft that grow are his foal-teeth, which begin to
appear a few months after he is foaled : they are 12 in
number, fix above and fix below j and are eafily dil-
tinguiffied from the teeth that come afterwards by their
ffnallnefs and whitenefs, not unlike the fore-teeth of a
man.
When the colt is about two years and a half old
he calls the four middlemoft of his foal-teeth, viz. two
above and two below : but fome do not call any of their
foal-teeth till they are near three years old. The new
teeth are eafily diftinguilhed from the foal-teeth, being
much ftronger, and always twice their fize, and are call¬
ed the incifors or gatherers, being thofe by w'hieh a
horfe nips off the grafs when he is feeding abroad in
the fields, or in the houfe gathers his hay from the rack.
When a horfe has got thefe four teeth complete, he is
reckoned three years old.
When he is about three and a half, or in the fpring
before he is four years old, he calls out four more of his
foal-teeth, viz. two above and two below, one on each
fide the nippers or middle teeth : fo that when you look
into a horfe’s mouth, and fee the two middle teeth full
grown, and none of the foal-teeth except the common
teeth remaining, you may conclude he is four that year
about April or May. Some indeed are later colts, but
that makes little alteration in the mouth.
The tulhes appear near the fame time with the fout
laft mentioned teeth, fometimes fooner than thofe, and
fometimes not till after a horfe is full four years old : they
are curved like the taffies of other beafts 5 only in a young
horfe, they have a ffiarp edge all round the top and on
both fides, the infide being fomewhat grooved and flat-
tiffi, inclined to a hollownefs.
When a horfe’s tuffies do not appear for fome time
after the foal teeth are call and the new ones come in
their room, it is generally owing to the foal-teeth having
been pulled out before their time by the breeders or
other dealers in horfes, to make a colt of three years
old appear like one of four, that he may be the more
faleable ; for when any of the foal-teeth have been pul¬
led out, the others foon come in their places ; but the
tuffies having none that go before them, can never make
their appearance till their proper time, viz. when a horfe
is about four or coming four $ and, therefore, one of the
fureft marks to know a four years old horfe is by his
tufties, which are then very fmall and ffiarp on the top
and edges.
When a horfe comes five, or rather in the fpring be*
fore he is five, the corner teeth begin to appear, and at
firft but juft equal with the gums, being filled with fleffi
in the middle. The tuffies are alfo by this time grown
to a more diftinft fize, though not very large ; they
likewife continue rough and (harp on the top and edges.
But the corner teeth are now moft to be remarked ;
they differ from the middle teeth in being more fleftiy
on the infide, and the gums generally look rawiffi upon
their firft (hooting out ; whereas the others do not ap¬
pear in this way. The middle teeth arrive at their full
growth in lefs than three weeks ; but the corner teeth
growf leifurely, and are feldom much above the gums
till a horfe is full five : they differ alfo from the other
fore-teeth, in this, that they fomewhat refemble a (hell j
and thence are called the ffiell-teeth, becaufe they en¬
viron the flefti in the middle half-way round : and as
they grow, the fleffi within difappears, leaving a diftindt
hollownefs and opennefs on the infide. When a horfe
is full five, thefe teeth are generally about the thicknefs
of a crown-piece about the gums. From five to five
3 I 2 and
435
Anatomy
of the
Hovfe.
43<S
FARRIERY.
Horfe.
Anatomy and a half they will grow about a quarter of an inch
of the high, or more 5 and when a horfe is full fix, they will
^ be near half an inch, and in feme large horfes a full
half inch, about the gurus.
The corner teeth in the upper jaw fall out before
thole in the under, fo that the upper corner teeth are
feen before thofe below 5 on the contrary, the tulhes in
the under gums come on before thofe in the upper.
When a horfe is full fix years old, the hollownefs
on the infide begins vifibly to fill up, and that which
was at firft flelhyr grows into a brownilh fpot, not un¬
like the eye of a dried garden bean, and continues fo
till he is levenj with this difference only, that the tooth
is more filled up, and the mark or fpot becomes faint,
and of a lighter colour. At eight, the mark in moft
horfes is quite worn out, though fome retain the veftiges
ol it a long time; and thofe who have not had a good
deal of experience, may fometimes be deceived by ta¬
king a horfe of nine or ten years old for one of eight.
It is at this time only, when a horfe is paft mark, that
one can eafily err in knowing the age of a horfe ; for
xvhat pradlices are ufed to make a very young horfe or
colt appear older than he is, by pulling out the foal-
teeth before their time, may be difeovered by feeling
along the edges where the tufhes grow, for they may
be felt in the gums before the corner teeth are put
forth ; whereas, if the corner teeth come in fome
months before the tulhes rife in the gums, we may rea¬
sonably fufpe6l that the foal-teeth have been pulled out
at three years old.
It will, perhaps, be needlefs to mention the tricks
that are ufed to make a falfe mark in a borfehs mouth,
by hollowing the tooth with a graver, and burning a
mark with a fmall hot iron ; becaufe thofe who are ac¬
quainted with the true marks, will eafily difeover the
cheat by the fize and colour of the teeth, by the round-
nefs and bluntnefs of the tulhes, by the colour of the
falfe marks, which is generally blacker, and more im-
preffed than the true mark, and by many other vifible
tokens, which denote the advanced age of a horfe.
After the horfe has paffed his fixth year, and fome¬
times at feven, nothing certain can be known by the
mouth. It muff, however, be remembered, that fome
horfes have but indifferent mouths when they are young,
and foon lofe their mark ; others have their mouths
good for a long time, their teeth being white, even,
and regular, till they are 16 years old and upwards,
together with many other marks of frelhnefsand vigour ;
but when a horfe comes to be very old, it may be dif¬
eovered by feveral indications, the conllant attendants
of age, viz. his gums wear away infenfibly, leaving his
teeth long and naked at their roots. The bars of the
mouth, which, in a young horfe are always flefhy, and
form fo many diftinfl ridges, are, in an old horfe, lean,
dry, and fmooth, with little or no riling. The eye-pits
in a young horfe (except thofe come of old ftallions) are
generally filled up with flelh, look plump and fmooth ;
whereas in an old horfe, they are funk and hollow, and
make them look ghallly, and with a melancholy afpedh
There are alfo other marks which difeover a horfe to
be very old, viz. gray horfes turn very white, and many
of them all over flea-bitten, except their joints. This,
however, happens fometimes later and fometimes foon-
er, according to the variety of colour and. conftitutiom.
2
102
MufcleSi
Part II,
Black horfes are apt to grow gray over their eye-brows, Anat
and very often over a good part of their face, efpecially oft!?
thofe who have a liar or blane fringed round with gray Horfe.
when they are young. All horfes, when very old, fink ' V—J
more or lefs in their backs ; and fome horfes, that ara
naturally long-backed, grow fo hollow with age, that
it is fcarce poflible to fit them with a faddle. Of this
kind are feveral Spanifli and Barbary horfes, and many
Danifli and Flanders breed. The joints alfo grow lliff
with old age, and their knees and hocks bend fo, that
they are apt to trip and flumble upon the lead defeent,
though the way be fmooth and noways rugged. After * B°ard-
which they can be of little ufe to the owner *. ’tiomry"'
Chap. II. Principal Mufcles of the Horfe.
We fliall here only enumerate the mufcles of the
head, neck, and trunk, as being of lefs importance than
thofe of the extremities. Of thefe latter we fliall give
a table, exprefling, befides their ufual names, their ori¬
gin, infertion, and ufes.
Mufcles of the Eyelids and Eye.
Orbicular of the eyelids.
Elevator of the upper eyelid, a, fig. 10.
Elevator of the eye.
Depreffor of the eye.
Adduftor of the eye.
Abduflor of the eye.
Trochlear mufcle of the eye.
Ob/iquus major.
Leffer oblique.
Retra&or of the eye.
Mufcles of the Mouth and Jaws.
Orbicular,^, i, fig. 9. 0, fig. 10.
Buccinator, r, fig. 9. r, fig. 10.
Elevator of the corner of the mouth, m, n, fig. 10.
Long nafal of the upper lip, /, m, «, 0, fig. 9.
Maffeter, p, <y, fig. 9.
Ciliares, u, w, fig. 9.
Temporal, 2, 3, fig. 9.
Canine, 6, 7. fig. 9. m, n, fig. 10.
Depreffor of the lower lip, 9, 10, fig. 9. p, q, r,
fig. 10.
Elevator of the chin, 12. fig. 9.
Dilatators of the noftrils, a, b, c, d, fig. 9.
Mufcles of the Neck.
Sterno-maftoid ; a, b, c, fig. 9.
Coraco-hyoideus f f kg. 9. and cr, b, c, d} ei
fig. 10.
Sterno-hyoideus ; g, fig. 9.^ g, fig. 10.
Stefno-thyroideus; h, i, k7 fig. 10.
Tranfverfals; h, i, fig. 9. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H,
fig. 10. *
Trachelo-maftoid ; M, O, P, Q, S, fig. 10.
Reftus internus major capitis ; m7 n, fig. 9. and wy x9
!/, %• I0.
Intertranfverfales minores colli j 0, fig. 9.
Bong
Fart II. FARR
Anatomy Long n™fole of the neck; p, fig. 9. X, Y,
of the fig. 10.
HoWe. Splenius j r, J, fig. p.
Hyothyroidseus; y, fig. 9.
Cricothyroidseus ; us, fig. 9.
Lower conftridlor of the pharynx.
Reflus capitis pofticus major j t, u, fig. 11.
minor j x, w, fig. 11.
Superior oblique of the head $ u, U, fig. 10.
Inferior ditto ; W, W, fig. 10.
Intertranfverfales polferiores colli j L, &c. M, &c.
fig. 11.
Intervertebral mufcles.
Multifidse fpinae j c, d, fig. 12.
Spinales cervicis j R, T, U, fig. 11.
I E R Y*
Mufcles of the Trunk.
External oblique $ I, K, L, M, fig. 9.
Obliquus internus 5 s, t, u, w, x,y, fig. IQ«
Re&us abdominis j us, fig. 10.
Tranfverfalis abdominis j p, q, r, fig. 11.
External intercoflals j 1, 2, &c. fig. II.
Internal ditto 5 3,4, &c. fig. II.
Semifpinalis and fpinalis dorfi j a, b, c, d, e,f fig. II..
Longiffimus dorfi j g, h, 1, k, fig. 11.
Sacrolumbal j I, m, n, &c. fig. II.
Elevators of the ribs $ a, b, fig. 12.
Lateral of the tail; e,f fig. 12.
Intertranfverfals of the tail j g, &c. fig. 12.
Elevator of the tail $ i, fig. 12.
Depreffor of the tail} k, fig. 12.
437
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
103
Table of
the mufcles
of the ex¬
tremities.
Table of the Mufcles of the Extremities.
1. Mufcles of the Fore-leg and Foot.
Name.
Trapezius.
Larger rhomboid.
Rhomboideus major,
a, b, fig. 9.
Triangulaire Vitet.
Leffer rhomboid.
Levator fcapulce.
Leffer pe£toral.
Depreffor fcapulce.
c, d, e,f, fig. 9,
Triangular.
Anterior ferrated.
Serratus anticus.
g, h, i, k, /, o,p, fig. 9.
Ante-fpinatus.
a, b, c, d, e,f fig. 9.
Eoft-fpinatus.
h, k, l, n, fig. 9.
Extenfor of the ligament.
Latiffimus dorfi.
r,s,t,u, w, fig. 9.
Common mufcle.
Levator humeri.
Subfcapular.
V, %• U*
Origin and Infertion.
From the 4th, 5th, and 6th cervical vertebrae j
from the firft 12 or 13 dorfal vertebrae j and
from the cervical ligament, into the fpine
of the blade-bone.
From the 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th dorfal verte¬
brae, below the cartilage of the blade-bone,
into the whole length of that cartilage.
Ufe.
To raife and draw backwards
the blade-bone.
To raife the blade-bone, and
draw it a little forwards.
From the ligament of the neck, at about the
2d vertebra, into the cartilage of the blade-
bone.
From the lateral part of the breaft-bone, into
the upper and fore part of the blade-bone.
To draw the blade-bone for¬
ward when the neck is fix¬
ed, or vice verfa.
To draw the blade-bone down¬
wards.
From the 4th and 5th vertebrae of the neck,
into the upper and fore part of the blade-
bone, above the pe£loral.
From the true ribs, and from the 6th and 7th
cervical vertebrae, into the laft cervical ver¬
tebra.
From the ante-fpinatus foffa, by two tendons,
into the two tuberofities of the head of the
fhoulder-bone.
From a foffa, fo called, into the outer-fide of
the fhoulder-bone.
From the coracoid procefs of the blade-bone,
into the whole of the capfular ligament.
From all the dorfal vertebrae connefted with
the mufcles of the back, and with the
fkfhy pannicle, into the inner tuberofity
of the fhoulder-bone, below the blade-
bone.
From the tuberofity of the temporal bone,
and from the four firft cervical vertebrae,
into the upper and outward part of the
arm.
From the hollow of the blade-bone, into the
inner fide of the fhotilder-bone.
To draw the blade-bone for¬
wards.
To connect the blade-bone with
the cheft, and to draw it
downwards, and fometimes
to aflift other mufcles.
To extend the fore-leg and
move it forwards.
To move the fore-leg outward,
and away from its fellow.
To prevent the ligament from,
being pinched between the
bones.
To draw the fore-leg back¬
ward, and towards the cheft..
To raife the arm, and when
that is fixed, to draw the
head and neck downwards.
To move the arm towards its
fellow.
Larger.
43»
Anatomy Name,
\1ork Pe<^ora1,
0,re‘„ f 1 2 3 4 5 6, fig.
Sterno-brachiaL
Coraco-brachial.
Adduflor of the ftioulder.
Teres major.
d> e,Z fig. ii.
L.ong abdudlor of the fhoulder.
Teres minor,
q, %• 9-
Short abdudtor of the fhoulder.
Anterior radial flexor.
Flexor longus.
Biceps in human anatomy,
i, h, /, m, n, fig. io.
Oblique brachial flexor.
Fafcialis cubiti.
Extenfor longus.
Biceps extenfor cubiti.
p5 %• 9*
Internal brachial.
«, b, c, fig. n.
Intermediate extenfor.
Large extenfor of the canon.
Radial extenfor of the canon.
a, b, c, fig. io.
External flexor of the canon.
/, m, fig. ii.
Inner flexor of the canon,
fig- ii.
Flexor of the carpus.
Anterior long extenfor of the
foot.
The lateral extenfor of the foot.
Perforated flexor of the foot.
-Perforating flexor of the foot.
FARRIERY.
Origin and Infertion.
From the fide of the breaft-bone, and the car¬
tilages of the fix laft: true ribs, into the in¬
ner fide of the fhoulder bone.
From the fore part of the breaft-bone, into
the inner and lower part of the fhoulder-
bone, and conne£led by expanfion with the
radius.
From the coracoid procefs of the blade-bone
into the lower and back part of the fhoulder-
bone.
From the upper part of the pofterior edge of
the blade bone, into the infide of the ftioul-
der-bone.
From the pofterior edge of the blade-bone
into the outer tuberofity of the fhoulder-
bone.
Belowihe laft mufcle, between the laft and
the fubfcapula.
From the tuberofity of the blade-bone, above
the glenoid cavity, into the inner tuberofity
of the radius.
From the neck of the fhoulder-bone into the
inner tuberofity of the radius.
From the pofterior edge of the blade-bone in¬
to the olecranon, or elbow.
From the whole length of the pofterior edge
of the blade-bone into the olecranon.
Below the inner fide of the head of the
fhoulder-bone, into the inner and upper
part of the olecranon.
From the neck and fome part of the fhoulder-
bone, into the olecranon.
From the outer condyle, and tuberofity of the
fhoulder-bone, into the anterior tuberofity
of the canon-bone.
From the fide of the radius downwards from
the middle into the fmall inner metacarpal
bone.
From the outer condyle of the fhoulder-bone,
at its back part, into the pifiform, and
fmall outer metacarpal bones.
From the inner condyle of the fhoulder-bone,
into the back part of the canon.
From the inner condyle of the fhoulder-bone,
at its back part, into the pifiform bone.
From the lower and outer head of the fhoul¬
der-bone, and upper part of the radius,
into the anterior protuberance of the coffin-
bone.
From the outer head of the radius, palling
over the knee through an annular ligament,
into the upper and back part of the bone
down to the foot.
From the inner condyle of the fhoulder-bone
palling behind the knee, into the arch of
the coffin-bone.
From the olecranon and the fhoulder-bone at
the back part, into the arch of the coffin-
bone.
Part II.
tJfe* *
To draw the fore-leg down- ofthT
wards and backwards. Hone.
lo draw the fore-legs together,
and to affift the laft in re-
fpiration, when the fore-leg
is fixed.
To draw the arm forwards and
outwards.
When the blade-bone is fixed,
to draw the fore-leg up¬
wards and inwards, and vice
Vet-fa.
To draw the fhoulder-bone up¬
wards and outwards.
To turn the arm.
To bend the arm.
To turn the fore-arm, and
aflift the former in bending
it.
To bind down the mufcles,
and aflift in extending the
arm.
To extend the arm.
To oppofe the oblique flexor.
To affift in extending the arm.
To extend the canon.
To aflift the former, and turn
the foot outwards.
To bend the canon.
To aflift the former.
To bend the carpus, and extri¬
cate the ligament.
To extend the foot.
To aflift the former.
To bend the foot.
To aflift the former.
2. Mufcles
Part II.
Anatomy
of the
Morfe.
Name, is'c.
Pofterior gluteus, m, n, o, p,
fig. 9.
Tenfor vaginae femoris.
Fafcia lata.
a, h, c, c, D, e,f,g, fig. 9.
Setnimembranofus. 17,18,19,
fig. 9.
Biceps flexor cruris. 3, 4, 5
—II, fig. 9.
Pofterior flexor of the leg.
The. large gluteus, q, Q, r, s,
i, fig. 9.
Capfular. a, b, c, fig. 12.
Gracilis. e, f, fig. 9. u, w,
fig. 11.
Sartorius.
AdduRor longus.
P, <h r, s} t, fig. 21. t, u,
fig. 12.
Large pfoas.
Larger internal iliac, e, fig. 10.
Leffer internal iliac.
PefUneus. s, fig. 12.
Triceps addudor femoris.
Vaftus externus. », o,p, r, s, t,
fig. 10.
Straight mufcle of the leg.
Rutus cruris,
g, h, i, k, fig. 10.
Vaftus internus. b, c, fig. 10.
Crural. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. fig. 11.
External obturator.
Square mufcle of the thigh.
^uadratus femoris,
Gemini. f,g,Gg.io.
FARRIER YV
2. Mufcles of the Hind Leg or Foot.
Origin and Infertion.
From the interior and pofterior angles of the
ilium, into the little trochanter of the
thigh-bone.
From the anterior angle of the ilium, into a
tendinous expanfion over the thigh.
From the tuberofity and lower angle of the
ifchium, into the fore part of the thigh-bone,
and into the tibia.
From the tuberofity of the ifchium, and be¬
ginning of the tail, into the inner fide of
the fpine of the tibia.
Like the former, into the inner condyle of
the thigh-bone and upper end of the tibia.
From the vertebrae of the loins, and from the
facrum, into the great trochanter of the
thigh-bone.
Rifes from the brim of the acetabulum, into
the outer fide of the thigh-bone.
From the pubis and ifchium, into the fafcia
of the thigh and the inner fide of the head
of the tibia.
From the inner edge of the brim of the pelvis,
into the inner head of the tibia.
From the three laft dorfal, and four firft
lumbar vertebrae, and from the two laft
falfe ribs, into the inner trochanter of the
thigh-bone.
From the inner furface of the ilium, into the
lefler trochanter of the thigh-bone.
From the inner furface of the ilium, into the
leffer trochanter of the thigh-bone.
From the fymphyfis pubis, inferted below the
laft.
From the inner edge of the pubis, from the
anterior branch of the ifchium, and from
its tuberofity, into the back of the thigh¬
bone, the upper and inner part of the
tibia, and the tuberofity of the thigh bone.
From the great trochanter, and the outer fide
of the thigh-bone, into the fide of the knee-
pan.
From the ilium above the focket, and from
the upper part of the thigh bone, into the
upper part of the knee-pan.
From the neck, inner tuberofity, and whole
inner part of the thigh-bone, into the inner
fide of the knee-pan.
From the fore part of the thigh-bone, into the
inner fide of the knee-pan.
From the inner part of the ifchium, into the
hollow of the great trochanter.
From the lower part of the tuberofity of the
ifchium, into the thigh-bone below the
great trochanter.
From the ifchium and pubis, one above the
other, inferted into the thigh with the laft.
439
Anatomy
of the
Morfe.
To extend the thigh, and draw
it outwards.
To ft retch the fafcia of the
thigh, and draw it inwards.
To draw the thigh outwards.
To bend the leg, and draw it
inwards.
To bend the leg.
To extend the thigh, and draw
it backwards and outwards.
To extricate the capfular liga¬
ment.
To make one thigh approach
its fellow.
To affift the former.
To bend the thigh.
To aflift the former.
To affift the former.
To bend the thigh.
To draw one thigh towards its
fellow.
To extend the leg.
To extend the leg ftrongly.
To affift the vaftus externus,,
and laft; mufcle.
Ditto.
To roll the thigh-bone.
Affifts the former.
Oppofe the laft.
Inner
44°
Antomy
of the
Hori'e,
Name, b'c.
Inner obturator, i,
12.
'Pyriform.
2, 3>
fig.
Popliteus. 28, 29, fig. II.
Tibialis anticus. 14.
Gaftrocnemius.
Plantar. 40, fig. 9.
Perforated flexor of the foot.
Larger perforating flexor of
the foot.
Leffer perforating flexor of the
foot.
The long extenfor of the foot.
Lateral extenfor of the foot.
Lefler extenfor.
FARRIERY.
Origin and Infertion.
From the edge of the thyroid hole, into the
thigh with the preceding.
From the facrum within the pelvis, inferted as
the laft.
From the external condyle of the thigh-bone,
into the tibia.
From the fore part of the external condyle of
the thigh-bone, into both canons by two
portions.
From each condyle of the thigh-bone, into
the hock.
From the upper part of the fpine of the tibia,
inferted as the former.
From the hollow between the condyles of
the thigh-bone, into each fide of the paf-
tern-bone.
From the back and outer part of the head of
the tibia, into the arch of the coffin-bone.
From the back part of the head of the tibia,
inferted with the preceding.
From the tendon of the extenfor of the ca¬
non, in the anterior protuberance of the
coffin bone.
From the outer head of the thigh-bone, and
from the head of the fibula, inferted with
the laft.
From the tendon of the long extenfor to the
lateral extenfor.
Vfe.
To aflift the gemini.
Ditto.
To draw the leg inwards.
To bend the leg ftrongly.
To extend the canon.
To bend the paftern and foot.
To bend the foot.
To aflift the former.
To extend the foot.
Ditto.
To draw the tendons of the
long and lateral extenfors to¬
gether.
Part II.
Anatomy
of the
Hcrfe.
In the Hind Extremity.
Vena faphsena \ 21, fig. 9.
Capfular ligament of the knee ; 3, 4, fig. 10.
Sciatic artery j 34, fig. 11.
Gluteal artery ; 35, 35, fig. 11.
Crural vein •, 38, fig. 11.
Popliteal artery j 39, 52, fig. II.
 vein j 53, fig. II.
Crural nerve ; 35, fig. 12.
The four figures to which we have referred alfo re-
prefent the following parts.
The broad ligaments of the eyelids 3 s, t, fig. 9.
Alae narium 3 fig. 9.
Angular vein 3 14, fig. 9.
Angular artery ; 15, fig. 9*
Parotid gland 3 26, fig. 9.
In the Neck.
Common jugular vein 3 1, fig. 9.
External anterior jugular 3 2, fig. 9.
Pofterior external jugular 3 3, fig. 9.
Part of the carotid artery 3 4, fig. 9.
Branches of the cervical arteries and veins 31,2, fig. 10.
Thyroid gland ; a, fig.. II.
Gullet 3 i, fig. 11.
Windpipe 3 I, fig. II.
Cervical nerves 3 2, fig. II.
Ligament of the neck 3 5, fig. 11.3 7> I2,
External carotid artery 3 I, fig. 12.
In the Trunk.
Epigaftric artery ; w, fig. II.
External iliac 3 y, fig. II.
The diaphragm 3 m m, fig. 12.
Intercoftal artery 3 p, fig. 12.
In the Fore Extremity.
Internal plantar vein ; s, fig. 9.
Coronary ligament of the foot 3 13, fig. 9.
Cartilages of the coffin-bone j r, /, II.
Chap. III. Of the Stomach and Bowels.
104*
In the horfe there is but one ftomach, which is very ^tru<^urC
fmall in proportion to his general bulk; and is partly
membranous, partly cuticular, and partly mufcular.
It is fituated immediately behind the diaphragm, in the
left hypochondrium, and in part of the epigaftrium,
with its expellent orifice extending acrofs the fpine to
the right, which is the reafon that lying on that fide is
judged more wholefome than fleeping on the left. It
has two furfaces, which may be called its fides, though
one is pofterior, and the other anterior; and two ex¬
tremities, a large and a fmall 3 the fuperior furface of
which receives the gullet, and is called its cardiac ori¬
fice ; while the former ends in the duodenum, and is
termed the pyloric orifice; this extremity, when the
ftomach is diftended, is the moft pofterior of the two.
The hollow part fituat^d fuperiorly, only forms its
lefifer curvature, as the lower portion forms its great
curvature.
Thus when the ftomach is moderately diftended, it
lies in an obliquely tranfverfe dire&ion, with its great
extremity a little forwards, and its two orifices fuperi¬
or,
Part II.
FARRIERY.
441
Anatomy or, but the cardiac the moft To, with the leffer extre-
of the mity rather pofterior to the other, and the great eurva-
Horfe. ture inferior. It is evident that the fituation of the
u'"""v flomach muft vary much with its diftenfion : the fore¬
going defcription anfwers to it when moderately dif-
tended only ; but where it is very much filled, the left
extremity will prefs upon the diaphragm, and the
right wdll be carried more pofteriorly. In oxen and
ftieep, where the firft ftomach is large, it is found, when
diftended, to have its left extremity carried quite into
the left iliac region ; in which part it is ufually punctu¬
red, when they are hoved : but fuch an idea of the
ftomach of the borfe would prove very erroneous ; for
this animal has a very fmall one, and therefore its fitu-
* 1 ation can never be fuch
v0ofr From a diftended ftomach preffing upon the dia¬
phragm, we are at no lofs to underftand, why breathing
is impeded after a full meal, when a horfe appears to
labour for breath ; for he is forced to ufe the intercoftal
mufcles, and the mufcles of the (boulder and fore ex¬
tremities, to open the cheft, the pofterior enlargement
being prevented from the diaphragm being fixed by the
preffure of the ftomach ; hence we fee the great impro¬
priety of galloping horfes after watering, to warm it in
their bellies, as it is foolilhly termed. Horfes, when
grazing, if they drink, are never obferved to do this j
if it was neceffary, nature would diClate it to them.
How hurtful it is likewife to ride hard, after a horfe
has been full fed, is equally evinced. The ftomauh
has externally a covering from the peritoneum, which
adheres clofely to it, by means of its cellular portion ;
and which portion is dipping in between the mufcular
fibres. Its middle portion is made up of mufcular fibres,
which are more numerous in this animal, than in the
ruminant ; making this kind of ftomach a medium be¬
tween the membranous one of fome animals, and the
true mufcular ftomach of others. The direClion of
thefe fibres is various 5 but they may principally be
referred to a longitudinal and a tranfverfe order,
’though neither of them are regularly fo, and are inter¬
mixed with others, whofe dire&ion is very oblique, and
interlaced with each other. The longitudinal plane is
the moft external of the two, and appears a continua¬
tion of the external plane of the cefophagus, with
fome original fibres, which fpread over the leffer cur¬
vature, being carried obliquely round, and likewife
over the great extremity, forming themfelves into a
kind of vertex, whofe centre is in the middle of that
extremity. The inner plane is by much the larger,
and is not quite circular, but (lightly oblique, crofting
the obliquity of the longitudinal plane. This circular
plane is very thick and ftrong round the cardia, or
that extremity into which the oefophagus terminates.
105 They are here fo very thick as to form a tru« fphinc-
Reafotw for ter ; and to this it is in fome meafure owing, that a
tne horfe’s horfe cannot vomit ; for when the circular and longi¬
tudinal fibres are afting from the pylorus to the cardia,
by any irritation that reverfes the ufual motion, pro¬
ducing an effort to vomit, the circular and longitudinal
fibres of the cardia being infinitely ftronger and more
numerous, are contrafting this orifice (efpecially the
circular), as the others are contracting the other parts ;
for as the mufcular fibres exift equally throughout the
ftomach, by which the motions are effected, it cannot
be fimplv from the exiftence of the circular covering to
Vol, VIII. Part II.
i")t vomit
fng,
the firft portion of his ftomach, that he cannot vomit ;
for it is reafonable to fuppofe the fibres aft throughout
the ftomach by the common conlent of parts ; nor do
they of actual neceflity want an immediate ftimulus to
their furfaces ; for were this the cafe, the fibres of the
ceiophagus would not by the’prefence of the mafticated
bolus be ftimulated to contrail through the cuticular
coat, which equally here lies over the fibres; nevcrthe-
lels, the cuticular coat of the ftomach is probably aflift-
ing in this difficulty to regurgitate : it does it by leffen-
ing the liability to naufea, which feldom takes place in
the horfe ; and as vomiting is only an effort to remove
naufea or its caufe, fo nature not having given the dif-
eafe, has not provided the means for its removal. As
likewife vomiting appears to be a reverfing of the peri-
ftahic motion of the ftomach ; which motion, in its na¬
tural ftate, begins from the cardia, and ends at the py¬
lorus ; fo in this reverfed ftate, it commences at the
pylorus, and ends at the cardia, thus regurgitating its
contents ; fo it is very probable that the cuticular co¬
vering may leffen this inverted periftaltic motion in the
upper portion, though it cannot wholly deftroy it ; and
hence cannot be the only, or the principal reafon of the
impoflibilily, or rather of the difficulty with which this
animal vomits; for inftances have occurred where it
has taken place. A horfe in Suffex was feen to regur¬
gitate a large quantity of grains, and we have heard of
one or two other inftances; but thefe muft be regarded
as very rare occurrences.
It is not, therefore, that the ftomach of the horfe
cannot be irritated to make an attempt to vomit, that
no fuch effift generally takes place; for though it is
but very leldom that naufea occurs, and perhaps never
in a ftate of nature, yet it may be excited by means of
aconite, hellebore, and fome other fubftanees, which
have caufed fruitlefs efforts to vomit. But the true
and principal reafon that a horfe may be faid, naturally
not to be able to vomit, arifes, in that nature has wife¬
ly fo conftrudled the parts, that the very effort to it
increafes the refiftance by the very ftrong fphinfler
placed at the mouth of the cardia. Had this refiftance
not been placed, and every means taken to rncreafe the
almoft impoflibility of vomiting in a horfe, it is evident
that from the curtain of the palate flopping the open¬
ing of the mouth, this aiffion, had it taken place, would
have occafioned fuffocation. The inner coat of the
ftoraach is corapofed of two portions, the one cuticular
and the other villous. This fpecies of cuticular cover¬
ing to nearly one half of the ftomach, is peculiar to
fuch animals as appear deftined to live on grain, as
horfes, affes, rats, and mice ; and this forms a third
fpecies of ftomach between the true membranous one of
graminivorous animals, and the umfcular of the carni¬
vorous tribes, and it may be conndered in a flight de¬
gree, as a fpecies of gizzard, refembling the ftru£iure
of thofe animals, as fowls, who have organs to make up
for the want of teeth. For a horfe has not the means
of re-maftication, as in oxen or ftieep, nor does he ufu¬
ally mafticate his food at firft fufficiently to comminute
it ; for the wants of the conftitution ftimulate him to a
hafty deglutition of his food, which, if there was not
fome other ftrufture than that common to ftomachs in
general, would not be fuffieiently digefted : for the food
i> folid, and the ftomach fmall ; therefore this cilticular
coat may be uftTul, as its infenfibility allows it to prefs
K in
^notoihy
of tin
rionu
^ I06
442
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
* 'Blaine's
Outlines.
Ic7
Boweis.
in a fmall degree upon the food, and perform a flight
trituration upon it. This cuticular coat is fpread over
i portion of the ftomach, taking in 'all the great
extremity, and forming between a third and half of its
extent. It is formed into folds at the cardia in the
fame manner as at the internal part of the cefophagus j
but as foon as it has paffed this orifice, thefe folds take
an irregular diredlion, but are lefs than thofe formed on
the villous furface.
The villous or fenfible portion of the flomach, though
it occupies more of the length of the flomach, yet per¬
haps in real exten t is little more than half of its furface.
It unites with or is connefled to the cuticular. Its ex¬
ternal furface is firm, and appears as it were a diftindt
portion, but is only denfe cellular fubftance, which has
given rife to the defcription of four tunics to the
itomach. 1 he tunica villofa is fo called from its re-
femblance to the pile of velvet ; its fine villi are pro¬
bably the extreme fine ends of veffels fecreting the gaf-
tric juice. 1 he villous coat being much larger in ex¬
tent than toe mufcular, is thrown into folds which are
more confiderable than thofe of the cuticular coat.
I hefe are largeft at the portion toward the great extre¬
mity, and are irregularly waving : towards the duode¬
num they become lefs, and when at the pylorus they
form a fold that makes a kind of valve to this part of
the ftomach, preventing the return of the food, and its
too fpeedy paffage out. The folds not only hinder the
too fpeedy pafiage of the food, but by this means apply
the gaftric juice more certainly to all the parts; but the
principal end is to increafe the fecreting furface, which
is here more extenfive than thofe of the human*.
The remainder of the alimentary canal is continued
from the lower orifice of the ftomach, to the anus, or
end of the paflage, forming a long canal of different di-
menfions, called inteftines. They are ufually divided
into fmall and large. In fome animals they hardly
merit this diftinflion, there being but little difference
in point of fize : but in the horfe, the proportion is very
different; the fmall inteflines being not much larger
than the human, but the large of an imraenfe bulk.
Ihis canal is connedled through its whole extent to
membranous produ&ions of the peritoneum, efpecially to
thofe called mefentery and mefocolon. The whole canal
varies in point of length in different fubje&s ; but is
feldom lefs than 24 yards, and often more. The in¬
teftines are contained within a prolongation of the peri¬
toneum, which arifes in moft inftances from the mefen¬
tery : the two folds of this membrane feparate and fur-
round the inteflines, forming their external coat. The
next coat is mufcular, and formed of two layers of fibres,
a longitudinal and a circular ; the latter are in greater
proportion, and by the contra&ion of thefe the vermi¬
cular motion, called perijlaltic, is performed, from the
longitudinal fibres flightly fhortening them, and the
circular diminifhing their fize. Within this mufcular
coat there is a quantity of cellular membrane rather
more denfe than in fome other parts ; and this ufed to
be regarded as a coat, and was called the nervous, but
is only a layer of cellular membrane. The third and
inner coat of the inteftines is the villous, which is very
vafcular and fenfible. I here are no confiderable folds
of the inner tunic of the inteftines, as in the human. In
this animal thefe arc rendered unr.eceflary by the great
4
FARRIERY.
Part II,|
length of his inteflines, and the flow paflage of the all- Anat
ments through them by this length and his pofition. ohhT
The firft portion of the bowels, which anfwers to the Horfe.
duodenum in man, though in the horfe it is nearer 20' 
inches than 12, is attached to the flomach, having itsFlrft108
pyloric orifice ending in it; its courfe in the horfe istion. ^
rather different from that in the human, and by this it
acquires a more complete covering from the peritoneum.
It hangs loofe and pendulous, being attached to the
concave furface of the liver, where making a turn, it
is fixed to the vertebras : it then takes the name of jeju-
It appears rather larger in circumference than
num.
the other fmall inteftines, and is remarkable for having
the pancreatic and biliary dutts penetrating it, fome-
times entering it obliquely clofe together, and fometimes
at a diftance from each other.
1 he jejunum and ilium differ very little from the fame Jejunum,
bowels in the human fpecies.
I he great inteflines are very properly fo called inLarse^n-
the horfe; and as they have very little refemblance toteftines.
the human large inteftines, they require a particular de¬
fcription. iji
The cxecum is iituated in the back part of the belly, Cxcum.
and is a very large canal, which is entered abruptly
by the ilium. The fore part of this canal proje&s for¬
ward two or three feet, into a fort of bag of the fame
fize of the colon ; but the back part terminates in
what is called a blind end. The caecum ufually occu¬
pies the right fide of the belly, and appears imme¬
diately on opening the peritoneum, with its commence¬
ment from the colon and ilium in the right iliac region,
extending forwards to the right fide, with its blind
end clofe to the diaphragm and liver. This termi¬
nation is not furnifhed, as in fome animals, with an
appendix vermiformis, but terminates by a Ample
blind end. I hrough the peritoneal covering are feen
four mufcular longitudinal bands, extending from the
extremity along the mufcular coat, and dividing the
gut into four longitudinal portions. One or two of
thefe are ufually covered with fat, and are not fo re-‘
gularly longitudinal as the others. The internal mem¬
brane is folded up between the longitudinal bands, and
by interfering them forms numerous cavities called the
cells.
On the flighteft infpe£tion we fee a great peculiarity
in the form of the caecum of the horfe ; and in a more
•accurate view, are ftruck with the importance of the
ftrudiureto this animal, and are led to confider the caecum
as little lefs than a fecond ftomach. This is in fadt the
cafe; for the food coming in a macerated mafs from the
fmall inteftines, is mixed iff the caecum, with the bile
and pancreatic juice, and here undergoes a farther change,
to which the ftrudlure of the caecum is evidently favour¬
able, as it is fitted to retain the mafs for a confiderable
time within it, and to circulate it through all its parts.
It has two blind ends, one forming its bafis, and near
this enters the ilium ; the other forming its point, and
extending up towards the diaphragm. From one part
of the bafe the colon commences by a very contradled
portion, for the purpofe of preventing the entrance
of the contents of the ilium, till they have paffed
through the caecum. In many animals the caecum is a
very inconfiderable part; in fome it has one or more
appendicles ; in others it is almoft entirely wanting ;
and
j
Part II.
Anatomy and in all but tbe horfe its uftj is obfcure, and apparent-
oi the ly not very important ; but in the horfe it is certainly
uHorle' , little lefs than a fecond ftomach, for its whole itruflure
^ proves, that it is purpofely defigned that all the food
taken in (ball be poured into the bafe of this gut, by
the contraction of which it {hall be forced towards the
apex, and either in its paffage or return {hall be de¬
tained in the cells to be in fome way farther aCted upon,
and to undergo fome change neceffary to the fyflem.
Having undergone this change, whatever it is, it is
llt forced into the colon.
Colon. ^ C(3lon commences fmall from the fide of the bafe
of the caecum ; and as the ilium cannot be faid to enter
it together with the caecum, as in fome animals, there is
in the horfe no fueh part as the valve of the colon pro¬
perly fo called. The ilium has, however, a fort of pro-
trufion with its inner membrane, by which in fome mea-
fure it prevents the return of the contents of the
caecum. As the colon pafles, it is farther contraCled,
and then enlarges into a very long and large canal,
which, after having made nearly the whole circumfer¬
ence of the belly, b again {lightly contrafled. It then
again enlarges, pafles again round the belly, and is a
third time contra&ed, juft where it ends in the refium
or ftraight gut. The fmall inteftines reft on the turns
of the colon and on the ctecum. The colon is furnifti-
ed with four ligamentous bands in its large portion, but
there are only two in the fmall portions ; thefe form
longitudinal fraena, which are interfered again by in¬
ternal folds, fo as to form the cells of the colon. It is
connered and fupported in its fituation by that portion
of the mefentery termed mefocolon. This inteftine is
very different in the horfe to what it is in moft other
animals in confequence of its variations in fize, being in
moft other inftances of one general fize ; it is like wife
this gut and the caecum that are the principal feat of
j j^ the inflammation arifing from violent purging medicines.
Th® rechini is the continuation of the colon, and
pafles backwards from the lumbar vertebrae to the anus.
Its mufcular coat is thicker than that of the other in¬
teftines, and it is thrown internally into cavities by the
inner membrane, in fome manner fimilar to the cells of
the colon, though lefs; were it not for this, the inteftines
might be too conftantly ftimulated to expel its contents,
but by this means the faeces are received and retained
till they are colle&ed in a confiderable quantity, when
they are expelled. The reftum is attached to the fpine
and facrum by the peritoneum, is here called meforec-
tum ; but the true fold of peritoneum does not invert
its whole portion, but leaves it as it approaches the rec¬
tum, which is at this place only covered with the cel¬
lular part of it. The mefentery bands of the reflum are
very ftrong, and terminate at the anus in a kind of li-
gamenlary expanflon attached to the os coccygis.
The anus is the termination of the re£lum, and is
opened by the force of the periftaltic motion and the
confent of the parts, and Ihut by the mufcular band
round the extremity of the gut, called the fphin&er. It
is likewife elevated and retraced by two pair of mufcles.
Chap. IV. Of the Foot.
Iv our account of the anatomy of the horfe’s foot, it
will be neceflary to deferihe only one foot, as thofe be-
longing to both extremities are fimilar in ftruflure.
44.)
The bones which compofe the foot of the horfe are Anatomy
fix in number, confidering the foot as commencing at of the
the fetlock joint. Of thefe fix bones two are included Horfe- ^
within the hoof, viz. the coffin-bone, and the navicular- It^
bone ; and four are fituated above the hoof, viz. the Bones.
Itvge paftern-bone, the fmall paftern-bone, and the two
fefamoid bones.
We {hall begin from above, with the large, paftern-
bone, as this contributes to form what is called the large
paftern joint.
The large paftern-bone, (x, fig. 13, 14, and 15.) is Large paf-
of an oblong cylindrical form, and, as is the cafe with tern-bone,
all fuch bones, is fmaller in the middle than at either
extremity. It articulates above with the lower head of
the canon-bone, and below with the upper head of the
fmall paftern-bone. At its upper extremity there are
three depreffions, one on each fide, large and fuperficial
(o, c, fig. 13.) to receive the outer and inner convexi¬
ty of the lower head of the canon-bone, and one in the
middle, for receiving the middle narrow convexity of
the fame bone. The fore part of this bone is {lightly
rounded, and rough towards its upper extremity, as at
d, d, for the firmer attachment of ligaments. Behind, at
its back part, it is flatter; and here there is a rough de-
preffion (C, fig. 14.) alfo for the attachment of a liga¬
ment that is deep feated, and is fixed to the two fefa¬
moid bones. At the lower extremity the large paftern-
bone is convex on each fide (D, E, fig. 14.) for enter¬
ing into two concavities of the fmall paftern-bone ; and
there is a depreffion (/, fig, 13.) for the attachment of
a tendon. At the lower extremity there is alfo a roup-h-
nefs on each fide at e e, for the infertion of ligaments.
Both extremities are covered with very fmooth elaftic
griftle, which is kept conftantly moift by the fynovia
or joint oil. ^
At the upper end of the large paftern-bone, towards Sef/moid
the back part, are placed the two fefamoid bones, A A bones.
(fig. 14.). Thefe are of an irregular wedge-like form,
and are covered with cartilage, articulating both with
the canon-bone, and on the back part they are very
fmooth to admit of a tendon readily fliding over them.
The upper edges of thefe bones on each fide have a
rough irregular furface, into which is mferted a ftrong
ligament that comes from the upper and back parts of
the canon-bone, is faftened feparatel’y to each of the
fefamoid bones, from which it proceeds downwards and
obliquely forward to be inferted into the tendon of the
large extenfor mufcles, (fee a a a, fig. 16.) a little be¬
low the large paftern-joint. Thefe fefamuid bones are
of confiderable ufe in the mechanifm of the large
paftern-joint. “In confequence of their forming the
back part of the large paftern-joint, and articulating
with the lower and pofterior part of the canon, they
contribute very eflentially, by always receding when¬
ever the foot comes in contaft with the ground, to aft
as a fpring to the animal, and to prevent concuffion.
All the weight received by the upper head of the large
paftern-bone js conveyed to bones below ; but a con¬
fiderable portion of the burden is received by the fefa-
moid bones. While the animal is at reft, and alfo dur¬
ing motion, thefe bones fuftain part of the weight ; and
where the paftern-bones are long and oblique, the ft fa- * Coleman
moids often receive fo much of the weight as to put the Ml tle
nff™15 Vi°lently °n the ftretch’ andoccaGon lame- Fooffvol. ii.
The
farriery.
3 K 2
444 FARR
Anatomy The fmall paftern-bone (2, fig. 13, T4, 15.) is about
of the hajf the length of the large one, and is as broad as it is
, °‘le' b»ng. Bofides the two concave depreffions, (/;, //, fig.
117 I3>) mentioned before, there is a ridge between them, /,
Small paf- that enters a correfpondent depreffion, g, in the lower
tom-bone, head of the large paftern-bone. The fmall paftetn-
bone has at the back and upper part (F, fig. 14.) a
jmall projeflion, for the infertion of a long ligament,
that comes from the fefamoid bones. The lower arti¬
culating furface is more extenfive than the upper, as it
is connected with the upper furface of two confiderable
bones, viz. the navicular and coffin-bone. It is of
great confequence to underftand the mechanifm of the
joints that are formed by this connection, as it is on
this part that the principal ftrefs of the animal falls.
The union of the fmall paftern-bone with the navicular
and coffin-bones, forming what is called the cojjin-joint,
is one of the principal methods provided by nature to
118 prevent concuflion.
Navicular- 'j'he navicular-bone (3, fig. 13, 14, 15.) is connect¬
ed above with the back part of the fmall paftern-bone,
and the lower edge of this bone is attached by a large
ligament to the back part of the coffin-bone. The na¬
vicular-bone is {lightly concave, to receive the back
part of the lower head of the fmall paltern-bone. The
upper edge of the navicular-bone behind is rough (g,
fig. I 4.) and thick, for the attachment of the upper liga¬
ment ; and the loweredge of the navicular-bone receives
at the back part a ftrong flat ligament from the coffin-
bone, immediately above the infertion of the flexor ten¬
don. The lower furface of the navicular-bone is cover¬
ed by cartilage, and has a fmall ridge in its centre, (/,
fig. 13.) to be received into a correfponding depreffion
in the long flexor-tendon. This bone may be confider-
ed as forming two diftinC! joints, one of which is com-
pofed by the conneClion of one part of the bone with
the tendon of the flexor-mufcle, and the other is form¬
ed by the conneClion of another furface of the navicu¬
lar-bone.
The whole weight of the animal, fupported by the
fma1'l paftern-bone, is thrown upon the coffin and navi¬
cular bones. Of this weight the coffin bone receives
the greater {hare ; but the navicular-bone receives a
confiderable portion of it, though this bone does not
contribute to prevent concuflion fo much as Mr Freeman
has endeavoured to prove. The navicular-bone, when
the hoof touches the ground, defeends a little, and thus
prevents that concuflion which the horfe’s body would
have received if this bone had been immoveably fixed ;
and when the hoof is again raifed from the ground, the
elafticitv of the parts below the navicular-bone lifts up
this bone into its former pofition, thus aCling as a fpring
iti facilitating the motion of the animal. As the
weight fupported by the navicular-bone of the hind
feet h lefs than that fupported by the fame bone of the
fore feet, their defeent in the former is lefs than in the
latter. The organs connefted with the navicular-bone
t0 of the hind feet are alfo lefs fubjeCt to difeafe.
Coffin-bone- The coffin-bone (4, fig- Tj, Ms M-) is fo
from its being concealed, or as it were buried within the
hoof. B is alf° fometimes called the foot-bone. On
its fore part it is rounded, having very nearly the fhape
of the external hoof. Its upper furface is flightly hol¬
lowed (m, m, fig. 13.) to receive the lower end of the
fffiaji paftern-bone, vvith the fore part of which it aiti-
I
I E R Y. Part II.
culates, as it does behind with the fore edge of the na- Anatomy
vicular-bone. At the back part the coffin-bone ends cfthe.
in two proceffes on each fide, the upper of which Horfe
are tipped vvith cartilage. At the upper part of the
front of the coffin-bone there is a final] protuberance,
(w, fig. 13.) extending upwards above the joint, and
ferving for the infertion of the tendon of the muf-
cles that extend the foot. Below this the coffin-bone
is extremely porous, for the pafTage of nerves and
blood vefleis j and towards the lower part in particular
there are about 13 holes, for the tranfiniffion of con-
fiderabie arteries, which go to fupply the fenfible foie.
At the heels and quarters the coffin-bone is ftill more
porous, and is fupplied with a greater number of ar-
terfi, but thefe are proportionally fmaller. The low¬
er furface of the heels of this bone is alfo very porous,
where it unites with the fenfible foie, but the reft of the
lower furface is generally fmooth. There are here two
hollow furfaces, which receive two correfponding
rounded parts of the fenfible foie. They are unequal,
the foremoft being the larger. Into the hollow on the
back part, the tendon of the flexor-mufcle is inferted.
(A, fig. 16.)
There are feven ligaments belonging to the coffin-L:iram°ntfc
joint, of which there are three pairs, and one fingle. &
The fir ft pair of ligaments take their origin from the
heels of the coffin-bone on each fide, and pafs obliquely
upwards as high as the middle, to which they are at¬
tached, and at which part of the fmall paftern-bone
(B, fig. 16.) they are blended with the fibres of the la¬
teral ligaments of the fmall paftern-joint. The fecond
pair of ligaments on each fide arife from the edge of
the coffin bone, near the heels, and pafs obliquely for¬
ward to be inferted into the middle of the fmall palfern-
bone (C, fig. 16.) near the attachment of the extenfor-
tendon. Tie third pair take their origin from the
lateral edges of the anterior procefs of the coffin-bone^
and are inferted into the edges of the cartilages. The
ufe of thefe ligaments is to unite the cartilages more
firmly to the coffin-bone. The extenfor-tendon being
inferted into the upper edge of the anterior procefs of
the coffin-bone, prevents the neceffity of a ligament
at this part. The fingle ligament of the coffin-bone is
connected with the pofterior and inferior concave fur¬
face of the coffin-bone, immediately above the infertion
of the flexor-tendon, and alfo with the lower edge of
the navicular-bone. Beiides this ligament there is ano¬
ther attached to the whole of the upper and back part
of the navicular-bone, by which means that bone is en¬
abled to fupport a greater (hare of the weight that refts
upon it. By means of thefe ligaments this important
joint is rendered very ftrong, while by the elafticity
of the cartilages, and the conflant fupply of lubricating
fluid within the joint, all the motions of the animal are
rendered fafe and eafy.
The fmall paftern-joint is alfo well fecured by means
of ligaments, and by the fheath of the flexor-tendon.
There are alfo ligaments proceeding from the fefamoid
hones, which enter the fheath of the flexor-tendon, and
are attached to the fmall pattern-joint (a, a, a, fig. 16.).
“ The weight which the fefamuid bones, by means
of ligaments fuftain, is very different in different horfes $
and bears no proportion to the bulk and weight of the
animal. The pattern joints of large horfes deftined for
flow motion, are conftruCled very differently from tbofe
of
Part II.
Anatomy of blood borfes. Their paftern bones are lliort, and the
oftlie joints nearly ftraight ; bat thorough-bred horfes of
H^lfe' , light weight have long and very oblique paftern joints ;
’ and, as in proportion to the obliquity of the large
pattern, or fetlock joint, the canon conveys more of the
weight to the fefamoid bones, the ligaments that fup-
port the fefamoids are neceflarily put into motion, and
more on the ftretch, as the weight preffes down the
lower and back part of the canon on the fefamoid
bones. Short paftern joints are as much adapted to the
frame of heavy horfes as longer joints are to that of
lighter horfes. The ligaments that fupport the fefa-
moids above alfo contribute to afiift the flexor mufcles
and tendons in preferving when at reft, and in motion,
* Coleman the large paftern joint in its proper place*.”
on the Before we proceed in defcribing the ftrufture of the
, .. foot, it will be proper to (hew how the hoof is formed,
,2r and how it is connefted with the parts within.
Strudlure The hoof of the horfe forms a fort of organized {hoe,
of the hoof. vvhich is adapted to the foot with the greateft nicety 5
fo that every part of the cavity is completely filled,
without the foot’s being fubjefted to any unequal pref-
fure.
A correft knowledge of the natural form and ftruc-
ture of this part of the horfe’s foot, and of the deformi¬
ties produced in it by improper treatment, is of the ut-
moft importance; as on this muft depend the moft ad¬
vantageous method of {hoeing, and the only rational
means of correcting the unnatural deviations. It will
be obvious, that in order to form a juft idea of the ori¬
ginal thape of the hoof, we muft examine it before any
Ihoe has been applied to it ; for, unlefs this Ihoe has
been fo conttrufted and fitted to the foot, as to preferve
unaltered the original form of the hoof, this will be fo
changed, that we cannot recognife from it what was
the original ftiape. That the methods of {hoeing ufual-
ly employed are calculated rather to deform the hoof,
than to preferve its original figure, will appear pre¬
fen tly.
A vertical feCIion of the hoof {hows it to be nearly
conical; the broadeft part of the cone being next the
ground. This inferior furface, in a hoof that has not
been ftiod, efpecially in the fore foot, appears nearly
circular; or the diameter, from fide to fide, is nearly
equal to the diameter from toe to heel, (fee fig. 17).
The hoof is compofed of a horny fubftance that is
entirely without fenfation. It is divided into cruft,
Hz foie, frog, and barr.
Cruft. The cruft furrounds the foot on the fore part, and
on the fides, like a wall (A,- A, fig. 17). It grows
obliquely downwards from the coronet, and becomes
broader as it approaches the ground. It is thicker at
the toe than at the quarter ; and the outer quarter is
thicker than the inner. On the outfide it is fmootb and
rounded, but within hollow and laminated (B, B. fig.
15.) to unite with the coffin-bone. The cruft is the
only part into which nails can with fafety be driven in
123 {hoeing.
°rny lole. |)orny f()le (B B, fig. 17.) unites with the lower
part of the cruft, and is fituated below the coffin-bone ;
but between it and the coffin-bone, there is a vafcular
fubftance, to beprefently defcribed, called they^.v/rZA’Jo/e,
from the blood-veffels of which the horny foie is form¬
ed. On the outfide next the ground, the horny foie is
hollow, but rounded within next the coffin-bone. Tire
445
horny foie prote&s the fenfible foie from injury, and in Anatomy
the horfe’s motions it embraces the ground, afting as a °f the^
Hop. When the laminated fubftances of the hoof length- ^ e' ,
en, the horny foie defcends, and thus affifts in prevent¬
ing concuffion. I24
The bars, or binders, (CC, fig. 17.) are two horny Ears,
fubftances placed between the lole and the frog, and
forming at the heels a dole folid union with the cruft.
The fmall part of the bars called the toe, fometimes
reaches almoft as far as the toe of the frog. Within
the frog, the bars are laminated like the inner part of
the cruft, and are clofely united to the horny foie. The
bars on the outfide keep the horfe’s foot extended, and
within, they tend to prevent the feparation of the fen¬
fible foie from the horny foie. In the natural ftate of
the hoof, there is a eonfiderable cavity between the bars
and the frog on each fide. 125;
The frog (DD, fig. 17.) is that hard rounded pro-Frog,
tuberance, which weobferve in the middle of the lower
part of the hoof, pointed towards the toes, and expand¬
ed towards the heel like a wedge. In the middle of
this broad part, there is a fiflure (E,fig. 17). The ex¬
ternal frog is united within the hoof to a narrow fub¬
ftance of a fimilar ftiape, but of a more elaftie ftrudfture,
and poffeffing fenfation, and therefore called the fenfible
frog. This fubftance is connedled above with the
navicular bone, towards the back part ; and at the ex¬
tremity of the heels, it is united with cartilages on each
fide. The toe of the fenfible frog is united to the cof¬
fin-bone, but by far the greater part is behind this bone.
The back part of the frogs being united with elaftic
and moveable fubftances, admit of confiderable motion,
the frog riling when the hoof touches the ground, and
defeending when the foot is raifed. By the alcent of
the frog, the heels are prevented from contradling, and
the cartilages are expanded, fo as to afford the horfe a
confiderable fpring, whilft the form of this part fits it
for embracing the ground, and thus prevents the
horfe from flipping. The convex form of the frog clear¬
ly {hows that it was always intended to touch the ground,
and experience has fully proved, that, unlefs this con¬
tact takes place, the healthy ftate of this organ cannot
be preferved. It has been fuppofed that the frog is in¬
tended to defend the principal tendon or back finew ;
but Mr Coleman has ffiown that this-is a miftake. I2(J
The weight of the horfe is chiefly fupported by the Weight of
cruft, and not by the foie or frog ; for when thefe parts the horfe
have been removed, or by being difeafed, become foftnot^l’F"
and fungous,,and thus incapable of refiftance, it is f°und the foie and
that the cruft is ftili competent to bear the whole of the fr0g.
weight. If the foie and frog really fupported the
weight, it is evident that when thefe parts are removed
or difeafed, the foot would flip through the cruft. I2^
The union of the fenfible frog with the horny frog, Importance
and the connection thus formed between the fid os of ot the frog’s-
tbe fenfible frog, and the lower cartilages, effectually ftc®1.vlnS
prevents diflocation. When the horny frog touches the111
ground, both that and the fenfible frog afeend ; but
when by any means the horny frog is prevented from
prcffing on the ground, its proper funclions are fufpend-
td. The cartilages partake of the motion of the frog ;
and, in proportion as this receives preffure, they recede
from each other, and allow the fenfible frog to afeend
between them. But when the cartilages are rendered
immoveable by becoming bony, or by contraction of
the
F A R R I E R Y.
446
Anatomy
of the
Horfe.
uS
Senfible
foie.
129
' Coronary
ligament.
the foot, the fenfible frog is much confined in its mo¬
tion. Byth is immobility of the cartilages, the horfe
is deprived of a powerful fpring. W^hen the frog does
not prefs on the ground, and confequently the carti¬
lages are deprived ol motion, the moilture of the cruft
•evaporates $ and hence the quarters and heels of the
hoof oecoms contracted much more than the fore part
of the cruft, and this contraction is increafed by the
frog not being allowed to rife between the cartilages.
Thus, the natural circular ftiape of the hoof is deftroyed
by the frog not receiving preflure.
Fig. 18. reprefents the lower part of a horfe’s hoof,
as it is ufually lengthened or contracted by improper
flioeing.
We have not yet defcribed the fenfible foie. This is
fituated between the horny foie and the cofFin-bone,
and is united to the lower cartilages immediately be¬
hind the latter (CC, fig. 15.). Its lower edge is firm¬
ly connected with the lenfible laminae, at the lower
edge of the coffin-bone 5 but at the extremity of the
heels, the laminae are continued for about an inch,
forming what are called the fenjible bars. The fenfible
foie is well fupplied with blood-veffels, but when thefe
are emptied, it appears of a ligamentous texture. From
the veflels of this part, the horny matter of the horny
foie and bars is formed and renewed.
The only other part of the foot that we fhall defcribe,
is an important ligament, which furrounds the junCHon
of tne coffin-bone with the hoof, and is called the co¬
ronary ligament^ (DD, fig. 16.) This ligament is at¬
tached at its upper part, to the anterior protuberance of
the coffin-bone, and to the lateral cartilages j and ex¬
pends a little above the coffin joint, being united on its
outfide to the fkin. Below it is united to the fenfible
laminas, at their origin. On its outfide it is convex,
and is received into a eorrefpondent hollow in the cruft,
called the coronary ring. It is ultimately inferted into
the heels of the fenfible frog. The ufes of this liga¬
ment are very important. By its union with the fen¬
fible laminae, lateral cartilages, fenfible frog, and cof¬
fin bone, it affifts the aftion of all thele parts, increafing
their ftrength and connection j and in particular, pre-
lerves the proper fituation of the cartilages, and pre¬
vents their being diflocated, to which they would other-
ivife be liable, by being feparated by the rifing of the
tenfible frog between them, when the horny frog touches
the ground.
We have thus defcribed the ftruCture and functions of
the foot and hoof, as far as appeared to us to be abfolute-
ly neceffary for underftanding the principles and praCtice
of ffioeing. The names, infertions, and ufes of the
mufcles of the foot, have been already concifely given
in the table of the mufcles of the extremities (fee page
437-)* The.blood-velTels, nerves, and abforbents are
■well defcribed, and moft beautifully figured in Mr
Coleman’s elegant work on the ftruCture, economy,
FARRIERY. Part II
and difeafes of the foot of the horfe : to which, and to *
n/r„ tt’ . 1 ■ ‘ - - - - - ' Anato
Mr Freeman’s work on the fame fubjeft, we refer fuch
of our readers as with for a complete and accurate ac¬
count of that curious and important piece of mechan-
ifna, the foot of the horfe.
\ve thali conclude this chapter with a furomary reca¬
pitulation of the more important circumltances that
have been mentioned, as we ftiall immediately apply
them in deferibing the moft approved method of ftioe-
ing ; and they will be the better underftood, and the
more eafily remembered, by being brought together in
a comprehenfive point of view. It appears then
“ That the natural form of the hoof of the fore feetRe 130
of horfes, before any art has been employed, approaches tioenTUl,
to a circle ; and,
^ hat the internal cavity of the hoof, when cir¬
cular, is completely filled by the fenfible parts of the
foot.
That the hoof is compofed of horny infenfible
fibres, that take the names of cruft, foie, bars, and frog.
“ That the cruft is united with the laft bone of the
foot, by a number of laminated elaftic fubftances.
JL hat the ufes of the laminae are to fupport the
weight of the animal, and from their elafticity to pre¬
vent concuffion.
“ That the horny foie is externally concave, inter¬
nally convex, and united by its edge with the inferior
part of the cruft.
“ That the ufes of the horny foie are to aft as a
fpring, by defending at the heels; to preferve the fen¬
fible foie from preiTure, and (with its concavity) to form
a convexity of the earth.
“ That the external bars are nothing more than a
continuation of the cruft, forming angles at the heels.
“ That the internal bars are a continuation of the
laminae of the cruft, attached to the horny foie at the
heels within the hoof; and that thefe infenfible laminse
are intimately united with fenfible laminated bars, con-
nefted with the fenfible foie.
I hat the ufe of the external bars, is to prelerve
the heels expanded; and the ufe of the internal horny
bars, to prevent feparation and diflocation of the horny
foie from the fenfible foie.
-That the external frog is convex, and of an in*
fenfible horny elaftic nature.
“ That the internal fenfible frog is of the fame
form, very highly elaftic, and united with two elaftic
cartilages.
“ That the frogs are not made to proteft the ten¬
don, as Mr St. Bel and other writers have fun-
pofed.
“ That the nfe of the frog is to prevent the horfe
from flipping, by its convexity embracing the ground ; * Co/ema
and from the elafticity of the fenfible and horny frogs
they aft as a fpring to the animal, and keep expanded 1 :
the heels V’ ^ ^ Footrwoi.i>
PART
farriery.
’art III.
iterations.
447
Operations*
PART III.
OF TPIE OPERATIONS USUALLY PERFORMED ON DOMESTIC
ANIMALS.
Chap. I. Of Shoeing.
THE principles and praflice of (hoeing are ufually
explained at the end of treatifes on the veterinary art,
immediately after defcribing the ufual furgical opera¬
tions. We think it better, however, to treat on the
fubjeft of Ihoeing in this part of our article, immediate¬
ly after having defcribed the anatomy of the horfe’s foot;
the neceflity of underflanding which has been fully ex¬
plained in the lafl chapter.
It is very uncertain at what period mankind firft be¬
gan to (hoe their horfes with iron ; but it is probable
that this pradfice commenced as foon as they were fuf-
ficiently civilized, to have fuch roads as were compofed
of folid, hard materials, fitted for the purpofes of con-
ftant traffic. In many countries where fuch kind of
roads are not required, as in the deferts of Arabia, and
in many ealtern countries, we know that to this day the
horfes are not (hod ; and we have been affured, that
fome years ago, when the roads in mod of the United
Provinces of America were not fo hard as they are at
prefent, horfes were fhod only on the fore-feet (d).
We (hall firft briefly defcribe the mode of fhoeing
commonly pradlifed by the fmiths of this country, and
fliall then give a fliort account of the moft important
improvements that have been made in the art, from the
time of Lafofle to the prefent method employed at the
veterinary college.
In the common mode of (hoeing, the bars are totally Common
cut away, and the frog is confiderably pared down, by method of
means of a cutting inftrument called a butteris. The fll0ein§‘
reafon afligned for cutting away the bars, or opening
the heels, as it is called, is, that the heels may not con-
tradl, and that the (hoe may not prefs upon the foie,
and occafion corns. The hoof being thus prepared, the
(hoe is to be applied. The common form of this fho» •
is nearly elliptical, being broader at the fore part, and
growing narrower towards the heels, where it is thick¬
er than at the toe. It is convex on its outer furfac©
where it is to touch the ground, and concave on its in¬
ner part, which is applied next the hoof. It is faften-
ed to the hoof by means of eight nails, four in each
quarter 5 and the heads of thefe nails are nearly cubi¬
cal, (landing out a little beyond the (hoe. This (hoe
is commonly applied nearly red hot, in order, as we
fuppofe,
(d) Attempts have been made to prove that the ancients underftood the ufe of iron (hoes, and paflages have
been quoted both from Greek and Roman writers to fupportthis affertion. But we think that the learned Beck¬
mann has fully demonftrated the fallacy of this opinion, and has ffiown, that although leathern (hoes were fome-
times employed on the feet of horfes and other beads of burden, the ufe of iron horfe-flioes was entirely unknown,
both to the Greeks and Romans. Indeed, if fuch fhoes were in ufe among them, the ancient authors who have
treated on horfemanffiip, hufbandry, and the veterinary art, as Xenophon, Julius Pollux, Columella, and Vege-
tius, could not poffibly have omitted to notice them. It cannot be fuppofed that thefe writers would have been
filent with refpeft to the (hoeing of horfes, when they treat fo particularly of the breeding and rearing of thefe
animals, and prefcribe remedies for the accidents and difeafes to which they are fubjeft.
Beckmann is of opinion that iron horfe-ffioes were ufed in Europeas early as the ninth century, for in the works
of the emperor Leo, who lived about that period, they are exprefsly mentioned by the name of wteveux c-ih^u.
The emperor alfo fpeaks of horfe-ffioe nails by the appellation of and mentions that a certain number of
pounds of iron (hould be given out from the imperial (lores to make nMvxta, and other horfe furniture. The an¬
tiquity of horfe-flioes is alfo confirmed by their being fpoken of in the writings of Italian, French, and Englifli au¬
thors of the fame century. “ When Boniface marquis of Tufcany, one of the richeft princes of his time, went to
meet Beatrix, his bride, mother of the well-known Matilda, about the year 1038, his whole train were fo magni¬
ficently decorated, that his horfes were not (hod with iron, but with filver. The nails were even of the fame me¬
tal j and when any of them dropped out, they belonged to thofe who found them. The marquis feems to have
imitated Nero ; but this anecdote may be only a fiflion. It is related by a cotemporary writer, but unfortunate¬
ly, his account is in verfe ; and the author, perhaps, fenfibleof his inability to make his fubjedt fufficiently intereft-
ing by poetical ornaments, availed himfelfof the licence claimed by poets to relate fomething Angular and uncom-
rnon. However this may be, it is certain that the (hoes of the horfes mud have been faftened on with nails, other-
wife the author could not have mentioned them.
“ Daniel the hiftorian, feems to give us to underfland, that in the ninth century, horfes were not (hod always,
but only in the time of froft, and on other particular occafions. The praclice of (hoeing appears to have been
introduced into England by William the Conqueror. We are informed that this fovereign gave the city of Nor¬
thampton as a fief, to a certain perfon, in confideration of his paying a ftated fum yearly for the (hoeing of horfes •
and it is believed that Henry de Ferrers, or de Ferriers, who came over with William, and whofe defeendants
dill bear in their arms fix horfe-ffioes, received that furname, becaufe he was entrufted with the infpedlion of the
farriers. We may here obferve, that horfe-fhoes have been found with other riding furniture, in the graves of
iome of the old Germans and Vandals in the northern countries j but the antiquity of them cannot be afeertain-
ed.” Beckmann on Inventions, vol. ii.
448
Operations,
i.H
Oefe'ffts of
the com¬
mon mode.
T3S
Xafofle’s
method.
„ T 3 <>
Ofmer’s
method.
Lord Pem¬
broke’s me¬
thod.
FARR
Tuppofe, to adapt it better, and make it fit clofer to the
hoof.
i he conftquences of this method of ihoeing muft be,
I. I hat the function of the bars, Arhatever it may be,
(and we have (hewn that they are intended to prevent
contraction of the feet), mult be deftroyed. 2. That
cutting aw'ay the frog, expofes this part to injury, and
is productive of many difeafes. 3. That the heels of
the fiioe being higher than the toe, will prevent the
frogs from embracing the ground, for which we have
fhewn they were naturally intended. 4. That by
making the fhoe concave at the quarters, and placing
the nails near the heels, the growth of the cruft in thefe
parts is impeded, and thus the foot is contraaed, and
its proper ftiape deftroyed. 5. That by faflening the
fhoe near the .infenfible frog at the heels, the proper
aChon of the frogs and foie, as a fpring to aflift the mo¬
tions of the animal, is deftroyed. 6. That by putting
on the (hoe hot, the moifture of the crufts is dried-up,
and thus the contraaion of the foot is ft ill further in-
creafed 5 and, 7. That by making the fhoes rounded
next the ground, the fure footing of the horfe is greatly
leffened, much to the danger of.his rider.
The firft modern writer who attempted to reform the
common mode of (hoeing, appears to have been La-
fofle. It is true that an excellent mode of (hoeing wras
recommended about 300 years ago by Csefar Fiafchi, an
Italian writer on horfemanftfip ; but bis plan never came
into general ufe, and Lafoffe appears to Tave all the
merit of the improvement, as it is more than probable
that he had never feen Fiafchi’s work. The (hoe re¬
commended by Lafoffe was what he called the /ia/f-
moon Jloe, being nearly femicircular, and reaching little
further than to the middle of the foot 5 the nails being
placed round the toe. Lafoffe’s (lice was never very
generally employed in this country, even though the
improvement was rendered familiar by Bracken and
Bartlet, who, as We have faid, tranflated Lafoffe’s
treatife into Englilh. It has been comidered as ufeful
in fume cafes of difeafed feet, and for ftrong feet which
have begun to contraCl, or appear likely to do fo, pro¬
vided fueb horfes ?re not employed on very hard, rough
roads ^ but it is by no means applicable to the majority
of-par horfes. Its principal difadvantages appear to be,
that the heels wear too faft, and that in running, horfes
are apt to flip with it.
Mr William Ofmer, whofe work on (hoeing we have
mentioned in N° 65. improved confiderably on the (line
of Lafoffe. Fie forbade the frogs and bars to be cut
away, except when they were ragged. Fie, however,
remarks, that the feet of all horfes ftiould be pared ac¬
cording to their length ; the cruft being made perfedly
fmooth by paring or rafping. His (line was everywhere
of an equal tbicknefs, rather narrower behind than be¬
fore, of a flat furface next the ground, and bevilled away
from about the middle of its breadth inwards, leaving a
flat furface for the cruft to reft on.
The uext improver of fiioes was 'Lord Pembroke,
though Mr Blaine moft unaccountably,places him after
Mr Clark. Lord .Pembroke’s remarks on (hoeing are
exceedingly ingenious. He obferved that the weight
of (hoes muft, in a great meafure, depend on the qua¬
lity and hardnefs of the iron. If the iron be, very good
it will not bend, and in this cafe the (hoes cannot pof-
fjbly be too light; care, however, muft be taken, that
I E R Y* Part 11,
they be made of a thicknefs fo as not to bend, for gw •
bending would tear out the nails, and ruin the hoof. -^1!!’
That part of the (lioe which is next the horfe’s heel
muft be narrower than anywhere elfe, that Hones may
be thereby prevented from getting under it, and ftick-
mg there, which otherwife would be the cafe, becaufe
the iron when it advances inwardly beyond the bearing
of the foot, makes a cavity, wherein (tones being
lodged, would remain, and by prefling againfl the foot,
lame the horfe. The part of the (hoe which the horfe
walks upon, (hould be quite flat, and the infide of it
likevvife j and only juft room enough flu'uld be' left next
the foot, to put in a picker, (which ought to be ufed
every time the horfe comes into the liable, and often on
marches), and alfo to prevent the (hoe’s prefimg upon the
foie. 'Ihree, or at moft four nails of a fide, hold better
than a greater number, and keep the hoof in a far bet¬
ter (late. He advifes that the toe of the horfe be cut
fquare and (Fort, and that no nails be placed in that
part. By the.fe means narrow heels are prevented, and
many good effefts produced. His lordfliip advifed the
hinder feet to be (hod in the fame manner as the fore¬
feet, except in hilly and (lippery countries, where the
fhoes on the hinder feet may be a little turned up be¬
hind.
The utmoft feverity, (fays Lord Pembroke), ought
to be inflicted on all thofe who clap (hoes on hot. This
unpardonable lazinefs of farriers in making feet fit (hoes,
in (lead of making (hoes fitting feet, dries up the hoofs
and utterly deflroys them. Frequent removals of (hoes
are detrimental, and tear the foot, but fometimes they
are very neceffary. This is an inconvenience which
half (hoes are liable to (though excellent in feveral
other refpeds), for the end of the (lice being very ftiort,
is apt to get foon into the foot, and confequentiy then
muft be moved.
The fhoe recommended by Mr Clark did not differ Mr Clark’
very much from that of Ofmer. He does not, how-method-
ever, recommend the hollowing of the furface of the
(hoe next the foot. Mr Clark recommended that the
hoof and frog (hould not be pared or cut away without
neceflity, and was much againft railing the heels with
calkins; to the ufe of which he preferred that of an ice
nail. He, however, admits, that (harp calkins may be
neceffary in hilly countries.
The (hoe originally ufed at the veterinary college by Method Of
the firft profeffor, was very fimilar to that*of Ofmer ;the veteri-
but when Mr Coleman fucceeded to the profefforfhip, nary co1'
he adopted the half-moon (hoe introduced by Lafoffe.lege'
This was, however, foon given up, as experience (hew.
ed that it W’as not adapted to the generality of horfes in
this country. Within thefe few years, a method of
(hoeing has been introduced by Mr Coleman, which
appears in moft inftances preferable to any former me¬
thod. We (kail therefore -confider it pretty much at
large.
Mr Coleman has laid down two‘general principles, i4»
by which the pra&ice of (hoeing for all horfes, in every
country, muft be invariably followed. “ So long as
nails and iron are employed to proteft the hoof, the
cruft is the part that (hould receive the nails, and the
preffure of the fiioe ; and the foie of every horfe em¬
ployed for‘every purpofe, is a part that fhould not be
in contafl with the (hoe.” Thefe are Mr Coleman’s
general rules, and to thefe it muft be added, that the
fmg
i art III- , FARR
Derations. fr°g foould, i’1 almoll every cafe, be allowed to come
^-y—J in contact with the ground, where this is prafticable,
whenever the horfe fets down his foot.
Two general circumftances are to be obferved in
fhoeing ; the cutting of the hoof, and the application
of the fhoe. Some parts of the hoof require to be re¬
moved, before the fhoe can be applied ; while others
mull: be carefully preferved. Thefe circumftances are
at lead of as much confequence as the form of the fhoe,
but are not in general fo fully attended to.
In Mr Coleman’s method of fhoeing, he firft recom¬
mends that a part of the horny foie between the whole
length of the bars and cruft, be pared away with a
drawing knife, as the heels of the foie cannot receive
the preffure of the fhoe, without corns being produced.
The foie muft therefore be laid hollow, that it may
not come in contaft with the fhoe. This he confiders
of the greatefl confequence. The heels of the fhoe
muft be made to reft on that part of the hoof where
the bars unite with the cruft. See fig. 19. If the heels
•have been previoufly lowered by means of the butteris,
there may perhaps not be left fufficient foie to admit of
the application of the drawing knife, without penetra¬
ting to the fenfible foie ; fo that it is better, firft to cut
the foie, as it may then be eafily determined how far
the heels may be lowered, and the toe fhortened, with
propriety. When the hoof is cut in this way, the foie
readily defcends when the hoof touches the ground,
without being obftrufled by the fhoe ; and ftones, or
other foreign bodies that have gotten between the fhoe
and the hoof, are thus readily pufhed out. It is found
by experience, that the foie never fuffers from ftones
and gravel, when there is fufficient fpace left between
the bars and the cruft. The cavity between the foie
and fhoe fliould alfo be left fufficiently wide after
the fhoe is applied, to admit of the introduftion of a
large horfe-picker, efpecially between the bars and the
cruft. If the foie fhould be naturally concave, a
fhoe that has a flat furface next the hoof will not touch
any part of the foie when applied to the cruft 5 and
even fhould the foie be flat, or rounded in the middle
or towards the toe, yet the quarters and heels may
generally be made fufficiently hollow by the drawing
knife, to avoid preffure on a flat fhoe.
I M1 If it is found that a fhoe with its upper furface flat,
does not leave a fpace large enough to admit the picker
between it and the foie, it is neceffary to make either
the foie or the fhoe a little hollow. Sometimes the
foie appears ragged and in flakes, and of confiderable
thicknefs. It is then proper to make the whole of the
foie hollow with the drawing knife, before attempting
to lower the heels or flrorten the toe. When the foie
is made hollow, the fhoe will reft only on the cruft ;
but if we cannot hollow the foie, we muft, to prevent
preffure, make the upper furface of the ffioe hollow.
As the hoof is always growing, and is preferved from
fri&ion by the ffioe, it is neceffary to pare the toe of
the cruft about once in every month. The more we
can remove from the toe of the cruft, in hoofs that are
not well ffiaped, the fooner we fhall be able to apply a
142 ft™6 of the proper form and thicknefs.
is and “ The bars and frog fliould never be removed,
foot to Where there are ragged and detached parts of the frog, .
^ it is better that they ffiould be cut with any fmall knife,
by the groom, than by the farrier j for if the latter is
Vol. VIII. Part II.
I E R Y. 449
once allowed to touch the frog, the found parts are Operations.
generally deflroyed. Where the frogs are not large  ■
and projecting, and the heels are higher than the frogs,
then it is advifeable to lower the heels, which may be
done by a rafp, or the butteris •, for in every cafe we
are to endeavour to bring the frog in contaCl with the
ground. We ffiould never lofe fight of this principle,
that the frog muft have preffure, or be difeafed. If the
frog does not touch the ground, it cannot perform its
ufe ; and no organ can be preferved. in health, that
does not perform the funftions for which it was made. * Lvleman
Neverthelefs, where the frog has been difqualified ^ jjnrfe\-
its fumftions for a confiderable period, and becomes foft, Foot, vol. 1.
it muft be accuftomed to preffure by degrees*.”
When it is neceffary for the horfe to work, though
his frog is foft and difeafed, it muft be gradually accuf¬
tomed to preffure, by cutting down the hoof about one-
tenth of an inch at every freffi (hoeing, that the frog
may become hard, and equally protuberant with the
heels. If the horfe be not required to labour, much
advantage will be derived from allowing him to ftand
in the liable without ffioes. 144
, The feet of moft horfes have been deformed by bad^0610^
management. It will therefore be neceffary to ufe
particular fhoe to each particular form of hoof. Any
one form employed indifcriminately for all feet, can¬
not be alike fuccefsful for all. It is from not having
fufficiently attended to this fimple fail, that the ffioe
recommended by the veterinary college has not been
more generally adopted. It is therefore neceffary to
vary the length, breadth, and thicknefs of the fhoe,
according to the form of the hoof to which it is to
be applied. If the heels or fore-feet are two inches
and a half or more in depth 5 if the frog be found
and prominent, and the roads dry, the toe of the
hoof only requires to be fhortened, and afterwards
covered by a fliort fhoe, which may be made of the
ufual thicknefs at the toe, but muft be thinner gra¬
dually towards the heel. The proportional thick¬
nefs of a ffioe of this kind for a common faddle horfe, as
recommended by Mr Coleman, is three-eighths of an
inch at the toe, and one-eighth at the heel. By means
of fuch a fhoe the frog is completely brought in con-
ta<51; with the ground ; the heels are expanded •, and
corns, tliruffies, and canker are prevented. The horfe
may continue to wear fuch a fhoe as long as the wea¬
ther is warm, and the ground dry.
Race-horfes, who generally have the heels high, and J4S
the cruft thicker and ftronger than heavy horfes, may
generally wear ffiort ffioes, at leaft on the fore-feet.
But fuch as have weak legs, bent knees, long patterns,
or low heels, muft not wear fuch a ffioe.
A long fhoe is neceffary in wet weather, and even in Changes to
fummer, when the heels of the hoofs are low. In win-136
ter, when the heels are too high, they fhould be lower-s^a^*ually,
ed by means of a rafp, rather than fuffered to wear
down, by being expofed to the ground with a fliort
fhoe ; for moifture is very deftruftive to the hoof 5 and
thus as great a part of it may be removed as is necef¬
fary. Befides, when a horfe has been accuftomed to
high-heeled ffioes, if he was fuddenly made to wear
thofe with thin heels, the frog might be bruifed or in¬
flamed, and the mufcles and tendons of the leg confi-
derably (trained. It is therefore neceffary to bring the
heels of the fhoe to the proper degree of thinnefs gra-
3 L dually,
148
45° FARR
Operations, dually, oblervlng that the heels of each fucceeding
v ■' fhoe be made fbmeuhat thinner than thofe of the laft.
In general, as much as poflibie of the horny part of the
hoof next the toe is to be removed, and as little iron
employed next the heels every time of (hoeing, till the
feet be brought as nearly as may be to their natural
(liape.
T47 In horfes that have been aceuftomed to wear (hoes
of an equal thicknefs all round, and where the frog is
healthy, we may in general apply a (hoe, much thicker
at the toe than the heel, by paring down the toe, and
taking nothing from the heel j and if a horfe appear to
fuffer no inconvenience from a thin-heeled (hoe, during
the firft month after it is applied, it may be continued
with iafety, and will greatly improve the hoof. In
. young horfes, however, that have never been (hod, and
in horfes juft taken up from grafs, the toe feldom ad¬
mits of being pared down, and a thin-heeled (hoe can¬
not be applied at once.
In all cafes where the frog does not embrace the
ground with a thin (hoe, the heels muft be lowered ;
and if the horfe has been accuftomed to wear high-
heeled (hoes, both the (hoe and the hoof muft be gra¬
dually lowered, till the frog can fafely and eafily per¬
form its proper function.
A few horfes require to be (hod in a manner differ¬
ent from that which we have dcfcribed, but ftill de¬
pendant on the fame principles.
Different weights of (hoes are required for different
horfes. Mr Coleman lays down the following propor¬
tions, for horfes of various defcriptions,
A moderate-fized coach-horle will require a weight
of (hoes and nails, from eighteen to twenty ounces *, an
inch wide, and half an inch thick at the toe, and three-
fourths of an inch wide, and one-fixth of an inch thick
at the heels.
An ordinary faddle-horfe will require only from 12
to 14 ounces j and the fhoe may be three-fourths of an
inch wide at the toe, and half an inch at the heel, and
three-eighths of an inch thick on the outfide of the
toe, but only one-eighth at the infide of the toe, and at
the heel.
The (hoe moft recommended by Mr Coleman, is
concave on its upper furface, where the foie is flat or
convex, but it is flat on the reft of the upper furface 5
but if the foie admits of being hollowed, the whole up¬
per furface may be flat. It is regularly concave on its
lower furface next the ground 5 and it is faftened to the
cruft by means of eight nails placed round from the toe
backwards, (b as to leave a part of the fhoe about an
inch and a half from the heel. Hunting-horfes ufually
require an additional nail on each fide, next the quar¬
ter. The nail-holes are made with a punch of a wedge¬
like form, and to correfpond to this the heads of the
nails are made conical, fo that as long as any part of the
head of the nail remains in the hole, the (hoe cannot
eafily come off.
153 For hunters, and fuch horfes as run in drafts, it is re¬
commended by Mr Coleman to turn up the outer heel :
but, as in this way there is often feme inequality of po-
fition, the outer heel of the foot is to be lowered, while
the inner heel of the (hoe is fomewhat thickened. By
thefe means cutting is avoided.
In fuch horfes as have weak low heels, Mr Cole¬
man recommends the ufe of the bar-ftioe, as the bar af-
149
Weight
of flioes.
For a
coach-horfe
I5I
A faddle-
horfe.
I52
Coleman’s
ordinary
fhoe.
I E R \. Part II
fords a fupport to the frogs, without wearing out the Operatu
heels. When the bar-ftioe has been employed long -yj
enough to admit of the heels growing to the proper
fize, the ordinary thin-heeled (hoe may be adopted.
The method recommended by Mr Coleman, as de- IS4
feribed above, has been for fome time followed with
confiderable fuccefs by the board of ordnance, whofe
horfes, as well as thofe of the Britilh cavalry in gene¬
ral, are now (hod after this manner. The method has,
however, met with confiderable oppofition, partly from
fuch as do not underftand the principles on which it is
founded, and partly from its having been too haftily
adopted, in cafes to which, as Mr Coleman himfelf al¬
lows, is not generally applicable.
I'ig- ip* anc^ 20* illuftrate Mr Coleman’s method of
Ihoeing.
Fig. 19. reprefents the hoof turned upwards to (hew
the manner in which the (hoe is applied. It may be
feen from this figure that the web of the (hoe is hollow 5
that the heels at «« are narrower than the other parts
of the (hoe, and that the nails are placed all round from
the toe backwards. Fig. 20. (hows that the heels of
the (hoe are much thinner than the point, and alfo (hews
the manner in which the nails are rivetted or clinched
on the outfide of the hoof round the toe and cruft,
The only remaining method of (hoeing that we (hall Mr More
here mention, is that of the ingenious Mr Morecroft. croft’s mi
Thisgentleman has acquired much celebrity by his inven-thod‘
tion of cojling (hoes, by finking them in dies, by which
means horfes may be fitted with any (hoes beft adapted
to their hoofs. Mr Morecroft’s fhoe differs from Of-
mer’s, in being concave within for more than half its
width. He condemns the ufe of calkins, on the prin¬
ciple that the public roads are now much more folid
than when calkins were in general uie ; and, confe-
quently, that inflead of finking them into the ground,
they rather tend to raife the heels above it, and thus the
frog is prevented from receiving the neceffary preffure.
Mr Morecroft, however, allows calkins to heavy draught-
horfes, for whom he recommends two on each (hoe ;
but in lighter horfes of the fame defeription, one on the
outfide of each (hoe. The latter is alfo recommended
for hunters, but for other riding horfes he forbids the
ufe of calkins. The number of nails in Mr Morecroft’s
fhoe is ufually eight, but in heavy draught horfes they
are not to be placed on the fides of the (hoe, but all
round at equal diftances, leaving a fpaee at the heels of
about two inches or two inches and a half. In frofty
weather, Mr Morecroft recommends nails with a lo¬
zenge head, or a double counterfink, terminating in an
edge inftead of coming to a point, which greater breadth
of furface prevents its being rubbed away fo faft as
a point. The thicknefs in the middle gives it ftrength,
and the regular taper to the (hank caufes it to apply
exaftly to the fide of the hole in the (hoe, by which
it is equally fupported, and prevented from bending or
breaking. _ _ ^
Mr Coleman confidering preffure as neceffary to the Coleman
healthy aflion of the frog, has contrived a method of artificial
affording this preffure in thofe cafes in which, from dif-*10^'
eafed feet, or bad management in (hoeing, it cannot
naturally receive it ; and where, if the heels were
lowered, in order to bring the frog in contafl with the
ground, there would be danger of ftraining the tendons.
Mr Coleman’s patent artificial frogs are intended to pro¬
duce
art III. F A R 11
duce preflure on the natural frogs, while the horfes are
Handing in the Cable, and thus to give time for the
' growth of the heels, and to avoid the evils that would
arife from lowering thefe too fuddenly, or from allow¬
ing the frog to remain elevated above the ground. For
the particulars of this ingenious invention, we muft re-
157 fer to Coleman’s pamphlet. ^
foes for Where oxen are worked in farming bufinefs like
p. horfes, it is generally thought neceffary to defend their
hoofs in a iimilar manner by means of iron ihoes. The
form and manner of fitting thefe do not appear to be
univerfally the lame in all places ; nor are we acquaint¬
ed with the methods ufually pra&ifed. We know that
M. St Bel recommended the following methods j either
to Ihoe the ox with a flat plate of iron, having fix or
feven nail holes on the outer edge, accompanied with a
projection of four or five inches of iron at the toe, which
paffing the cleft of the foot, is bent over the hoof: or
with eight limes, one under each nail ; otherwife with
four, one undereach internal nail; or only two, one un¬
der the external nail of each fore-foot.
Ch AP. II. Of Cqfting.
fling* There arc feveral tedious and painful operations
that we are fometimes obliged to perform, and which
it would be difficult or impoffibie to execute, were the
animal left at full liberty to refill us. It is, therefore,
neceflary to render ourfelves completely mailers of him,
by throwing him down on the ground, and in a conve¬
nient fituation, fo as not to expofe him or ourfelves to
injury. This operation is called cajhng, and is ufually
thus performed.
The firlt objeCl is to prepare a thick bed of llraw or
litter, not lefs than eight feet fquare, to prevent the
animal from being hurt in the fall. If the liable be
fufficiently large to admit of the bed being made there,
it is to be preferred, as, during the operation, to pre¬
pare for which calling is neceffary, the parts operated
on will fuffer lefs from expofure to the air in the liable,
than without doors.
But, if there is not room in the liable, the bed mull
be made in the liable-yard, or rather, if poffible, in fome
field or park adjoining.
The animal is now to be brought to one fide of the
bed ; a llrong leather llrap, with a buckle at one end,
and having an iron ring fixed to it, at a convenient dif-
tance from the buckle, is to be fixed round the pallern
of each of the four legs, in fuch a way, that the rings
of the llraps that are round the fore-feet ffiall be di¬
rected backwards, and thofe of the llraps on the hind-
feet ffiall be oppolite to thefe ; while the buckles point
outwards, to prevent hurting the animal. A pretty
ftrong cord, ten or twelve feet long, is to be faltened
to the ring of that (trap that has been placed on the
fore-foot on that fide of the animal which is fartheft
from the bed : from this ring it is to pafs through the
ring on the hind foot, on the fame fide, from which it
paffes through the ring on the other hind-foot, then
through the ring on the other fore-foot, and lallly,
through that to which it was firll fallened. The a-
nimal being thus fettered, a number of men are to place
themfelves befide him, fo that he may be between them
and the bed, while others are to Hand on the oppofite
fide of the litter. Now, the men that are befide the
I E R Y. 45i
animal, laying hold of the end of the rope, are to pull Operations,
gradually with confiderable force, fo as to bring the —y——
four feet of the animal as near as poffible together.
When this is done, the men on the other fide, Handing
in a row, one at the head of the animal, another at his
died, a third at his haunches, a fourth at his tail, &c.
pull the animal toward them and complete his fall.
It is neceffary to obferve that the men who pull the
rope, and thofe who receive the animal on the bed, mutt
not aCt at the fame time; as in this cafe the ffiock
would be fo great and fudden, as probably to oceafion
fome accident, either to the men or to the animal. It
is alio proper to remark, that the animal mull be call
in fueh a manner, that the part to be operated on may
be fully in the view and reach of the operator.
When the animal is once on the bed, his head mud
be held down by a man, and it will be proper to cover
his eyes. Another affidant mud dand by the cord,
which for greater fecurity, Ihould be iadened with a
knot at the fird ring.
There are fome little niceties to be obferved in cad-
ing an animal, according to the operation that is in¬
tended to be performed on him ; but of thefe we ffiall
fpeak, when we defcribe the operations themfelves.
Chap. III. Of Bleeding.
159
Bleeding is didinguiffied into general and local. Bleeding.
General bleeding is performed for the purpofe of taking
away a quantity of blood from the general mafs, and
confids in opening fome large vein, or fome confider¬
able branch of an artery. The vein ufually opened, in
horfes and cattle, is the vein that runs along the neck,
and which is called the jugular vein. This vein may
be eafily felt, as it is generally confiderably raifed above
the mufcles.
The vein is ufually opened by means of a fleam, which
is forced into the vein, by driking it with a fmall wooden
mallet, called by farriers a blood-flick. There are many
objections to this mode of bleeding. In the fird place,
it is extremely clumfy ; and, if the vein happens to
roll, which is very commonly the cafe, a large wound
may be made in the Ikin, without drawing blood.
Again, thefe animals, efpecially horfes, are eafily fright¬
ened by any fudden motion of the hand ; and fome per-
fons have a way of ffiaking the blood-dick before they
give the droke; and, in doing this, they often ufe more
exertion than is neceffary. The animal alarmed at
thefe drange motions, tofles up his head, and thus ren¬
ders the droke uncertain.
Many prefer the ordinary lancet ufed by furgeons;
and, in feveral cafes, particularly of local bleeding,
this is the mod convenient indrument. But in open¬
ing the jugular vein, we do not confider it as much
fuperior to the common fleam. When this latter is
employed, the back of it ffiould be made of confider¬
able thicknefs, as, when it is too narrow, as is commonly
the cafe, when the indrument is druck with the dick, it
finks into the channel of the vein, which is often not open¬
ed, as the prominent mufcles of the neck receive the droke.
For mod purpofes of bleeding, we would recommend
the fpring-fleam, as being eafily applied, and mucli I<^0 ,
more certain m its ettect. tiling a li¬
lt is a common pra6lice with grooms and farriers, gature
to tie a rope or other ligature about the neck of the about the
3 L 2 animal,neck>
452 FARR
Operations, animal, previous to tlte bleeding in the jugular vein.
* -They do this from a fuppofition that the vein will thus
fwell the more readily, and that it will be opened with
greater certainty. But this ligature is in moft cafes
unneceflary, and will at fome times be highly dangerous.
Where exercife is not improper before bleeding, it
■will be fufficient that the animal be gently trotted pre¬
vious to the operation, as thus the circulation will be
promoted, and the fuperficial veins will be fufficiently
filled with blood. Where general exercife is improper
or inadmiffible, the filling of the vein may eafily be pro¬
moted by brilkly rubbing the neck for fome time with
a wilp of draw or hay ; and juft before applying the
fteam, it will he proper to prefs with one finger upon
that part of the vein that is between the fhoulder and
the place where the fleam is applied.
I he danger of a ligature will appear both from rea-
lon and experience. When the ligature is faftened
round the neck, it produces a fwelling of the vein
on each fide j and thus the circulation being in a great
meafure impeded, and the return of much of the blood
from the head prevented, an accumulation of blood
takes place in the veflels of the brain. If the ligature
be continued round the neck, which muft happen when,
by want of dexterity of the operator, or by the horfe
being frightened, the vein has not been opened at the
firft attempt, the ftagnation of the blood in the head
goes on to an alarming degree, and the horfe not un-
frequently falls dawn in an apoplectic fit. “ In fuch
cafes, (fays Mr Clark), I have obferved the operator
greatly difconcerted, and defift from any further at¬
tempts to draw blood at that time, being prepoflefled
with the idea that the horfe was vicious and unruly,
although the very treatment the horfe had juft under¬
gone rendered bleeding at this time the more neceffary,
in order to make a fpeedy revulfion from the velfels of
the head ; therefore a ligature or bandage ought never
to be uled till fuch time as the opening is made into
the vein, and even then it will not be neceffary at all
times, if the horfe can Hand on his feet, as a moderate
preffure with the finger on the vein will make the blood
flow freely ; but if the horfe is lying on the ground, a
ligature will be neceffary.”
But further, the concuflion or {hock the horfe re¬
ceives from his falling down, in the above fituation,
which will always happen if the ligature is too long
continued, may caufe a blood-veffel in the head to burft,
and death may be the confequence.
The place where the vein is to be opened is of fame
vein is to con^ecluence» as> when the opening is made too far from
be opened, head, where the vein lies deep among the mufcles,
both the vein is not fo eafily opened, and the wound is
not fo readily healed. The moft proper place for open¬
ing the jugular vein is about an inch below the joining
of the fmall branches that come from the lower jaw.
This is generally about a hand-breadth from the head,
but it may be eafily feen by the fwelling of the vein
when preffure is made on its trunk.
Before opening the vein, it is ufual to wet the hairs
that lie above it, and to ftroke them in the direCIion
of the intended orifice. This is a good pradlice, as
the inftrumentthus paffes through the {kin more readily,
not having to overcome the refiftance of the hair. In
mentioning the direClion of the orifice, it is worth while
to remark, That this ftiould neither be longitudinal nor
161
Place
where the
1 E R Y. partn
direClly acrofs the vein, but rather oblique ; as the flow 0
of blood from an oblique orifice is moft eafily flopped. ifl^10n:
\Vhen the vein is opened, it is highly proper in all >62
cafes to catch tne blood in fome convenient veffel, The blood
is a very abfurd praaice, although it is commonlytobefave'
adopted, to allow the blood to flow at random on the
ground or on a dunghill, by which means no precife
eftimate canbe made of the quantity of blood taken
away. This may either be fo fmall, as to be of no ad¬
vantage j or it may be fo confiderable as to produce
fainting, before the operator thinks of flopping the ori¬
fice.
For the purpofe of meafuring the quantity of blood
taken away, Mr White recommends a. graduated tin
veffel, capable of containing five quarts j every pint
being marked on the infide of the veffel, fo that the
quantity of blood that is taken off may be exactly
known. The blood ftiould always be preferved, that
we may judge from its appearance of the nature of the
difeafe, and whether it is proper, or not, to repeat Uia
operation. If the blood continues fluid for a confider¬
able time, it ftiows that there is an inflammatory ftate
ol the body ; and if a jelly-like fubftance, of a whitilh
or light buff colour, and rather firm confiftence, ap¬
pears. on the furface after the blood has cooled, and
efpecially if the furface is hollowed, we may be cer¬
tain that the animal s complaint is of an inflammatory
natme, that the bleeding has been proper, and muft be
repeated, if the fymptoms continue or increafe ; but if
the blood coagulates quickly, is uniformly of a dark
liver colour, loofe, and eafily broken, with a confider¬
able quantity of water upon its furface, it denotes de¬
bility, and (hews that the diieafe arifes from a weaknefs
of the.fyftem ; that inftead of bleeding, tonic and cordial * While's
medicines are to be employed, with every thing that Mate^a
may tend to reftore the animal’s ftrength *. Medico.
When .a fufficient quantity of blood has been taken Securing
away, it is for the moft part neceffary to fecure theori-the orifice,
free., in order to prevent, future accidental bleeding.
I his is ufually done by thrufting a common pin through
the lips, of the wound, and twining about it a little
horfe hair. As in this way the wound often rankles,
and becomes a fore difficult to heal, which we are
difpofed to attribute to the brafs pin employed, as often
as to any other caufe j we would recommend a pin of
filver, or at leaft of poliffied fteel. 1 he pin need not pafs
through more than the {kin, and in lome cafes when the
horfe can conveniently be faftened to the rack after
bleeding, the pin may be entirely difpenfed with.
As it is often required to bleed on either fide of the-
neck, or on both fides, it is proper that the operator
ffiould be able to bleed with either hand. This is in¬
deed not quite fo neceffary in bleeding horfes and cattle,
as in the human fubjeft 5 but it will be often found
very convenient in both. i64
In fome cafes, efpecially in inflammation of the brain, Opening
where a hidden and copious lofs of blood is required, it tlie temP0*
becomes neceffary to open the temporal artery. Thisral artery’
is eafily effefted, as the artery is fituated very fuperficial-
ly, about an inch and a half backwards from the upper
and outer corner of the eye. It is moft conveniently
opened with a lancet, and when a fufficient quantity of
blood has been drawn, the flow is in general very eafily
flopped by making continued preffure upon the artery j
or, if this ffiould not fucceed, and a dangerous effufion
of
II
Part III. FARR
I rations. of blood fhould be apprehended, this may be effe&ual-
ly prevented by completely dividing the artery.
! 165 General bleeding is one of the moft efficacious re-
Ipafesre* medies in moft of the acute difeafes to which horfes
W and cattle are fubjeft. “ When a horfe appears dull and
ilee “'o- jieaVy^ ^fays Mr White), and indifferent about his
food, by bleeding we often prevent a fever. If a horfe
is bled at the commencement of a cold, the complaint
generally proves moderate, and of (hort continuance.
In all cafes of internal inflammation, or fymptomatic
fever, bleeding is the molt effential remedy, provided
the operation be performed at an early period, and the
blood drawn in fufficient quantity. In fuch cafes I
have often taken away five quarts, and repeated the
operation the following day, when it appeared necef-
fary. By bleeding copioufly at firft, thefe formidable
difeafes are crulhed at once ; while by fuffering them
to proceed, or become at all violent, which they will
* White's ^ unlefs this pradlice is adopted (or if only a fmall
Materia ntity Df blood is drawn) they generally prove fatal j
^ VeT nor will bleeding then be of any fervice
Cautions. Mr Clark very juftly remarks, “ that although the
cafes which may require bleeding are numerous, yet
there is one general caution to be obferved, viz. never
to take away blood but when it is abfolutely neceffary j
as it is a fluid that may be eafily taken away, but can¬
not be fo eafily replaced j befides, that the pra&ice of
bleeding frequently, or at Hated times, is exceedingly .
improper, as it difpofes the body to become lax, weak,
and plethoric.
“ In bleeding, therefore, a due regard mufl always
be had to the conftitution, age, ftrength, &c. of
horfes, and the ftate or habit of body they are in at
the time.
“ It is commonly faid that the taking away a little
blood from horfes, even when they are in health, or
when they are in the leafl: indifpofed, will do no harm :
this in one fenfe may be allowed to be literally true j
but why draw blood from them on every trifling oc¬
casion, unlefs there may be fuch fymptoms attending
as may require it ? I have obferved in many horfes
who have been, very frequently blooded, and which
may be eafily known, from the cicatrices or marks on
the neck veins, that their blood had loft much of its
tenacity, together with a confiderable portion oj. its
florid and red colour. Butchers who daughter calves,
may find their account in bleeding them frequently, as
it renders their flefti white, by taking away the red
particles of the blood. But in horfes it is quite other-
wile } as they are deftined for hard labour and a£Irve
exercifes, it impairs their conftitutions, fubjefts them
to difeafe, and haftens a premature old age.
“ As the blood of horfes, more especially thofe who
are conftantly employed in hard labour, or in aftive
exercifes, when drawn from a vein, appears of a dark-
ilh or deep red colour, even in the higheft ftate of
health, it is commonly faid to be bad blood, and more
fo, when a thick yellow or buff-coloured cruft forms on
the furface after it is cold j hence thefe appearances
are faid to require repetition of bleeding ; lor it very
unluckily happens, that moft of the difeafes to which
horfes are fubjeft are thought to proceed from feme im-
i Clark purities or humours, as they are called,, in the blood,
ingbifeafes which require to be drained off by bleeding, and other
in Horfes. evacuations f.”
! E R V. 453
Topical bleeding is ufeful in feveral cafes, as in in-Operations.
flammatory affeftions of the feet, which are often re-v  
lieved by opening the coronary veins, or the vein thatr i67
encircles the coffin-bone j in inflammations of the eyes,
in which blood may be often drawn, from the angular
veins, with confiderable luccefs j and in affedtions of
the mouth, where it is fometimes ufeful to draw blood,
by fcarifying the bars of the mouth, or even, in feme
urgent cafes, by opening the veins of the palate. To¬
pical bleeding is beft performed with a lancet.
Almoft the only method that is pradlifed for bleed¬
ing ftieep, or dogs, is to cut off a joint or two of the
tail ; and this is certainly often produdlive of good con-
fequences, as the flow of blood is fometimes pretty con¬
fiderable. Unfortunately, however, we can feldom have
recourfe to this mode of bleeding more than once or
twice, whereas cafes often occur in which it is necef¬
fary to repeat the bleeding. It is alfo a cruel method,
and we fee no reafon why the veins in thefe animals
may not be opened like thofe of horfes and cattle. In
the ftieep, indeed the thicknefs of the wool will com¬
monly prevent bleeding in the neck, but the temporal
artery and the veins of the foot may be opened without
difficulty j and in moft dogs we may bleed in the ju¬
gular-vein with nearly as much eafe, as in the horfe or .
cow.
Chap. IV. Of making Rowels and Setons.
168
Rowels in horfes and cattle are much the fame as itowelling
iffues in the human body. The operation confifts in defcribed.
opening the fkin, fe as to infert between it and the cel¬
lular membrane feme foreign body, which is kept there,
in order to produce and keep up a fuppuration, or run¬
ning of purulent matter. The operation is ufually per¬
formed in the following manner. An incifion is made
through the Ikin by means of a very ffiarp pair of fcif-
fars, or, what appears better, a ftiarp knife. The finger
is then introduced below7 the fkin, fo as to feparate it
from the flefti all round, as far as the finger will reach.
A piece of leather about the fize of a crown-piece, and
of a circular form, with a hole cut in the middle, is
then inferted between the fkin and the mufeles, having
been firft anointed with feme ftimulating ointment. A
fmall piece of tow or caddice fpread with the fame oint¬
ment, is put over the hole in the centre of the leather 5
the fkin is laid down over all, and the part is covered
with a pledget, alfe covered with ointment, to keep out
the external air.
The leather is left in this fituation for two or three
days, during which the parts adjoining the rowel fwell,
and at the end of the time there appears a difcharge of
a yellowifh matter, which gradually becomes thicker
and whiter. In three days at fartheft the part mult be
examined, and the plug removed from the centre hole,
to allow the matter to flow out. The rowel is now
complete, and may be continued as long as fhall be
found neceffary. The action of the rowel is eafiiy ex¬
plained the leather introduced excites a degree of in¬
flammation between the Ikin and the flefh, and no
means being taken to check this, it goes on, like moft
other inflammations of flefhy parts, to fuppuration.
Thus a difcharge is produced from the part, which is
found to have confiderable effect in checking inflam¬
mation of feme more important organ near which the
rowel ■
454
Operations.
169
Situations
proper for
rowels.
F A R R I E R Y.
170
When im¬
proper.
171
Setons.
172
Their ufe.
173
Mode of in.
troducing
them.
, rowel has been inferled. Thus, in inflammation of the
lungs, after copious bleeding, a rowel in the cheft, like
a blifter in the human body, is found to have coniider-
able elfedl: in checking the progrefs of the difeafe.
Rowels may be placed in molt of the flelhy parts of
the body ; but they are molt commonly inferted in the
belly, the breaft, the infide of the thighs, the outfide
of the (boulders, and the hips. They are fometimes
placed between the jaw-bones, below the tongue 5 but
this is very improper, as a good fuppuration can feldom
be brought on in this place.
It is fometimes found neceflary to make feveral rowels
at the fame time ; but they (hould always be placed, as
nearly as poflible, to the feat of the affediion which they
are intended to relieve.
Befides dangerous inflammations, rowels are found
ferviceable in large fwellings of the hind legs, in ob-
ftinate cafes of greafe, and in drains of the (boulder.
Though rowels are thus found extremely ufeful in
many cafes, they are, like many other operations per¬
formed on brute animals, fometimes made where they are
unneceflary or improper. Where there is confiderable
debility, the infertion of a rowel would be very injudi¬
cious, as it would not fuppurate kindly, and ft’s the dif-
charge produced would tend dill farther to increafe
the debility. The difeharge in thefe cafes is ufually
thin and ichorous j fometimes they are perfedlly dry,
and not unfrequently a mortification is produced.
When a rowel is found to be attended with any of
thefe effedls, it mud be immediately removed, and the
parts mud be fomented with a warm decodtion of the
chamomile-flowers, and fome dimulating herbs j or
mud be bathed with fpirit of wine or oil of turpentine.
If gangrene fliould have come on, it will befides be ne¬
ceflary to adminider cordial and drengthening reme¬
dies.
Setons are inferted through an opening made in two
oppofite parts of the (kin, and the extraneous body in¬
troduced is a cord.
The opening is made by means of a (harp-pointed in-
druraent with an eye at the other end for receiving the
cord. The ddes of the indrument mud be proportion¬
ed to the opening to be made, and the fize of the cord
to be inferted.
Setons are particularly ufeful for the purpofe of gra¬
dually draining off matter from abfeeffes or fuppurating
tumours, that are either fo deeply feated as not to be
eafily opened in any other way, or fo large that the
fudden difeharge of matter from them while opened by
the knife, would be attended with bad confequences.
They are bed employed in large abfeeffes of the back
withers, and the upper part of the neck behind the
ears. Setons are alfo attended with the advantage ef
draining off the matter without^expofing the infide of
the abfeefs to the air.
The method of inferting the feton for the purpofe of
opening an abfeefs is this. When it is found that there
is a confiderable accumulation of matter, the needle,
furnidied with a cord of the proper fize, is to be intro¬
duced at the highed part of the tumour, and brought
out towards its lowed part, fo that the matter may more
eafily drain off. The cord, which mud previoufly be
rubbed with dimulating ointment, is now to be cut
from the eye of the needle, and then fadened together
at both ends, to prevent its being pulled out; but if
3
Part III.
the cord (hould not admit of being thus tied, a fmall nr
button of wood may be fadened on each end. It is
better, however, if poflible, to tie the ends together, as
every time the fore is dreffed, the feton requires to’be
drawn a little round. When the difeharge appears to
be nearly flopped, except what evidently arifes from the
prefence of the cord, this may be gradually removed
by drawing out a Angle thread of it at every drefiing. ’
In introducing the needle, great care mud be taken
to avoid large blood-veffels and nerves ; and where
there is a danger in encountering thefe, it is better to
pafs the needle through a (heath. This may eafily be
done, by firfi making a fmall opening with a lancet at
the upper part of the tumour j and through this intro¬
ducing the (heath, which is to be pufiied down till it
reaches the part at which the needle is intended to
come out. The needle in this way will pafs through
the (heath without danger of wounding any important
nerve or veffel.
Chap. V. Of Firing.
This operation confifls in applying to the (kin, orr;^74
other parts of the body, a metallic inflrument heated ^
to a greater or leffer degree of rednefs. The inflru¬
ment is called a cautery, and the operation was well
known among the ancient furgeons, by the name of the
actual cautery.
The indruments employed for firing are ufually made
ef iron, fometimes of copper j but iron is to be prefer¬
red. They are of various forms, according to the part
to which they are to be applied, and the purpofe for
Avhich the operation is to be performed. Thefe will be
confidered in deferibing the cafes to which firing is ap¬
plicable.
The operation is found of ufe on feveral occafions : its ufel
id, In order to oppofe the progrefs of mortification.
With this view a cautery (haped like a knife, with a
blunt edge and a thick back, is to be employed. This
form will alfo anfwer for many other cafes. There
(hould be feveral inflruments of the fame kind, that
when one becomes too cool, another may be ready of
the proper degree of heat. The heat of the iron in¬
tended for the prefent cafe (hould be that of a cherry-
red. . In applying the iron, the parts adjoining to the
mortified place are to be paffed over with the edge of
the inflrument in fucceflive parallel lines, fo as the heat
may penetrate to the living parts, and thus produce
fuch a degree of healthy a&ion as may enable them to
throw off the mortified dough. When the iron has
been applied for a fufficient time, which mud be regu¬
lated by the nature of the part, and the extent of mor¬
tification, the wound is to be covered with a pledget
fpread with fome flimulating ointment.
2d, Firing is employed to brace the (kin, and to
flrengthen the finews. The inflrument above deferibed
is ufed on this occafion, but its heat mud be fomewhat
greater. The mode of applying it is to pafs the edge
lightly and quickly over the Ikin, deferibing parallel
lines from one end of the part to the other. When one
iron has been ufed in this wray, a frefh one is to be
taken, and made to retrace the lines find formed, be¬
ginning where the lad iron left off 5 and this is to be
repeated as often as appears neceffary, taking care not
to deflroy the texture ef the Ikin. It is recommended
by
Part HI.
tpDerations, by ^°'cae t() aPi,’y l^e ^lot jroll> & ^ to burn away the
w—'hair, for fome time previoufly to firing the fkin ; as
much time is othervvife loft before the proper impretfion
can be made by the iron. After firing, a blifter is fome-
times applied, as this is thought to increafe the good
effeft produced by the iron. When firing is employed
on the hind legs, or on any part where the operator
would be expofed to danger from the horfe’s kicking,
it is neceffary to confine the legs by means of fetters.
3d, This operation has been found ufeful in fpaving,
ring-bones, old callous fwellings of the back finews,
and in wind-galls. For this purpofe the irons are ufed
as already direfted. It is the cuftom with fome far¬
riers to apply a blifter in thefe cafes before firing, in
order to reduce the fwelling j as they fuppofe that fir¬
ing employed without this precaution would tend to fix
the fwelling, and render it incurable. There is pro¬
bably little foundation for fuch an idea.
4th, Firing is very frequently had recourfe to by
way of a ftyptic in Hopping or checking profufe bleed-
ings, from accidental wounds, or furgical operations.
The iron employed with this view has generally a
rounded extremity, except in the operation of docking,
where an iron in the form of a ring is generally em¬
ployed.
5th, Another ufe of firing is in wounds of the joints,
or other circumfcribed cavities, where it is employed
to promote a kindly circulation, and confequent granu¬
lation of healthy flefli. It has been employed in thefe
cafes by Mr Coleman, with confiderable fuccefs.
6th, Firing has been found one of the moft effeftual
remedies in thofe fuperficial ulcers that accompany
farcy or glanders in the horfe •, and,
Laftly, the ufe of the hot iron has been found the
only certain means of preventing the dreadful effefls
arifing from the bite of a mad animal, when properly
applied after cutting out the bitten part.
Chap. VI. Of Daching.
176
Docking The honour of having introduced this moft ufeful
firft ufed and humane practice, belongs, we believe, folely to this
iu England. country. jq appears that it was in ufe in England, fo
long ago as the end of the eighth century ; for at a
council held there about that time {concilium Calchu-
tenfe, or council of Calchute), there was a canon enabl¬
ed, exprefsly forbidding this practice as indecent and
abominable.
It does not appear that this operation is performed
among the Arabians, or other eaftern nations •, or at
leaft, if it be, it is not intended as an ornament to the
animal, but either from neceflity when the tail is dif-
eafed, or by way of mark, to diftinguifh fome particu¬
lar horfe.
Docking has been pra61ifed in Germanv for about
300 years; and probably much longer in France. It
was certainly unknown to the Italians at the latter end
of the fifteenth century;, for we are told, that when the
army of the emperor Maximilian was in Italy in I497>
the Italians were much furpriled to fee his cavalry
177 mounted on docked horfes.
Its abfur- It is ftrange that prejudice and falfe tafte ftiould lead
mankind to deprive their horfes of a part, which, to the
eye of reafon and unfophifticated nature, muft appear
not only an ornament to the animal, but a^defigned by
455
the Creator as a prole<ftion againft flies, gnats, and in-Operations.
numerable other winged enemies, which harafs them in w—, <
the fummer months. It is true, indeed, that in Britain,
where the fummer heats are in general notfo lading, or
fo violent, as in the more fouthern countries of Europe,
thofe infe&s are not always fo troublefome as they are
found in thofe climates. But even here they are fuf-
fieiently fo, to render the protection of the tail necef¬
fary ; and when our cavalry are unhappily fent to the
continent, the lofs of the horfes tails proves a very fe-
rious obftacle to the fuccefs of the troops. More than
one inftance of this has occurred. At the battle of
Dettingen in 1743, great part of the Britifti cavalry
were abfolutely difmounted, from the death of the
horfes, occafioned in a great meafure by the torment
which they experienced from the bite of gad-flies, and
other infedls; and at the battle of Minden, in the feven
years war, the cavalry of the allies were thrown into fo
much diforder by thefe petty enemies, that they had
nearly loft the battle. Lord Pembroke declares, that
he has feen the cavalry horfes belonging to cur army,
fweating, rulhing againft each other, refufing their food,
and abfolutely devoured by flies for want of their tails
to brufh them off; while thofe of the horfes of the fo¬
reign cavalry that had not been deprived of this necef¬
fary defence, were cool, tranquil, fed well, and were in
good condition. From the inconveniences which our
cavalry have fuffered from the want of the horfes tails,
it has been for fome years the cuftom to employ long¬
tailed horfes.
The principal reafons that have been afligned for
this abfurd pradlice, are, that a long tail is extremely
inconvenient to both horfe and rider, when travelling
through dirty roads and buftiy forefts ; and that when
the tail is of its ordinary length, the animal cannot car¬
ry it in that fine, arched, cocked-tail dire&ion, which
feems to form one of the chief beauties of the modern
racer.
We apprehend that few horfes enjoy fuch an ample
length of tail as that of the redoubted Hudibras; of
whofe horfe we read, that
“ His draggling tail hung in the dirt,
“ Which on his rider he would flirt,
“ Still as his tender fide he prickt
“ With arm’d heel, or with unarm’d kickt.”
As to the beauty of a cocked-tailed horfe, we pro-
fefs ourfelves pot competent to judge ; but with due de¬
ference to the gentlemen of the turf, and the refpeftable
fraternity of iockies, we fhould humbly conceive (we
fpeak with fubmiflion) that a horfe with a long tail is a
much finer objedft than one that is perpetually perking
and wriggling his tail in the air, and expofing his bare
breech to the broad flare of open day. s
Docking isufually performed on horfes, by laying the Mode of
tail upon a block, and chopping off the part by means performing
of a cleaver or hatchet ftruck with a mallet. Perhaps^16 °Pera-
it would be rather lefs bungling to perform the opera-tlon'
tion by means of a knife, and it would not take up
much more time. When this is done, the hair muft be
previoufly clipped away, that the knife may cut more
eafily ; and previous to making the incifion, the fkin
fhould be drawn up forcibly towards the rump. The
incifion may be made by beginning on one fide, and
cutting round from below upwards, fo as to perform the
whole 1
FARRIER y.
45<>
FARR
Operations, whole as nearly as poffible at one ftroke. When the
v flcin and mufcles have been completely divided, the
part of the tail is to be cut off at the joining of two of
the bones as nearly as poffible to the edges of the
wound, {till keeping the Ikin drawn up. When the
part has been removed, the flelh is to be feared all
round with a hot iron, to flop the effufion of blood.
The iron employed in France for this purpofe is formed
Hke a ring, fo that it is eafily applied to the fledi with¬
out injuring the bone. The wound mufl: be covered
from the air, and the animal muft live rather low to
prevent inflammation.
The pr&dHce of nicking, or cutting acrofs the mufcles
that draw down the tail, fo that thofe ■which pull it up¬
wards may exert their full power, is ftill more inhuman
and abfurd than that of docking j and as we will con¬
tribute nothing towards extending this abominable
pradtice, we fhall omit the operation altogether.
I7<)
Cropping,
Chap. VII. Of Cropping.
Taste and faflnon have introduced another opera¬
tion, by which the ears of horfes and dogs are changed
from their natural fhape and fize, to thofe which are
confidered by their owners as more handfome or agree¬
able. The ears of the horfe and dog are feldom of
fuch a (hape or fize, as to render them inconvenient to
the animals, or to unfit them for the purpofes for which
nature has defigned them. This may, however, fome-
times happen ; and there are fome cafes of wounds or
■difeafes that may render cropping neceflary : but in per¬
forming this operation, it fliould always be kept in mind
that as no part of the animal is made in vain, no more
of the ears ftiould be taken away than what is abfolute-
ly neceflary. We not unfrequently fee horfes and dogs
cropped clofe to their head, a pradflice which is cruel
end abfurd, and which is always followed by more or
lefs deafnefs, and expofes the animals to much incon¬
venience from the weather. In thofe dogs that are em¬
ployed in rabbit warrens, or for fimilar purpofes, where
they are required to enter burrows, cropping is attended
with the worft effedfls, as the ears of the dog are una¬
voidably expofed to the particles of fand and earth that
he brufhes away in his paflage through the burrow.
The operation of cropping fcarcely requires defcrip-
tion. In the dog it is ufually performed by means of a
pair of fcifiars, but thefe Ihould be very fharp. In the
horfe, more nicety is required ; and a particular inftru-
ment called the cropping iron, is required, and a (hape
of the fize of which it is intended the ear fhall be, is
applied to the ear, to mark the line of fedlion. After
the ear is cut, the fkin and mufcles recede confiderably
from the grifly part ; but this feems of little confe-
quence, and the wound heals in a few days without
any other attention, than confining the animal within
doors, and keeping him on a moderate, cooling diet.
Horfes ears are fometimes trimmed, as the grooms call
it j that is, they are deprived of the fine foft hair that
lines the infide of the cavity. This practice is equally
■abfurd with cropping, as will appear from the following
jgg obfervations of Mr Clark.
Abfurdity “ The ears of horfes, as of other animals, (fays Mr
of trimming Clark), are covered on the infide with a fhort down,
horfes ears, intermixed with long hairs, which line the external ca-
I E R ^. parj.
vity of the ear, which feems defigned by nature to pre-0 era •
vent harlh founds from making too great an impreflion
upon the brain, and likewife to prevent the cold air
rain, daft, flies, &c. from annoying the internal ear,
The means commonly ufed to remove this down, &c.
is by the fciflars, the flame of a candle, or that of a
burning torch. Both the latter are cruel and barbar¬
ous, and caufe a deal of pain to the animal, not only
from the blifters that fometimes rife on the ears after
this manner of finging them, but likewife from the
means that are ufed to make horfes ftand with patience
to undergo the operation, that is a twitch on the nofe j
and perhaps, if he is troublefome to the operator, one
put on the ear. It is to be obferved, that horfes are
very much guided or diretted by the fenfe of hearing.
This is obvious in thofe that hear diftinttly, from the
motion of their ears, and the dire&ion they give them
to whatever quarter any found comes from, the atten¬
tion they pay to what pafles around them, or to what is
Ipoke to them. Many of them, particularly the fineft
kind, as they only are liable to this kind of treatment,
have the fenfe of hearing confiderably blunted, if not
rendered quite deaf from the above operation.
As this operation is generally firft performed on
young horfes at the time they are breaking, it is the
more hurtful; as the uncommon founds, as the rattling
of carriages, drums, &c. which are entirely new to
them, and to which they are then more expofed on the
roads or in ftreets, muft make the greater impreflion
on the fenfe of hearing ; and perhaps it may be owing
to the above caufe only that many horfes are timorous
to pafs carriages, and remain fo ever afterwards.
Another difadvantage which attends this operation
upon the ears of horfes, is, that they will not go on
cheerfully when travelling in oppofition to the wind,
more efpecially if it rains 3 for as the wind and rain
get free accefs into the ears, they are continually {bak¬
ing their heads and endeavouring to turn from it 3 and
thofe who are of a more impatient temper, will wheel
fuddenly round, in order to avoid what gives them fo
much uneafinefs. They are then faid to be reftive 5
the whip and fpurs are applied by way of chaftifement
for a fuppofed fault only.
From what has been faid, it will be obvious, from
the pradlice of taking away the natural covering from
the infide of the ears, that the internal ear muft be
expofed to be confiderably injured, particularly from
cold, duft, &c. which blunts the fenfe of hearing, and
perhaps caufes deafnefs 5 for it is obferved in thofe
horfes who have been much ufed to this treatment, that
they lofe that lively, aftive motion of the ears, and ap¬
pear dull and inattentive to what pafles around them,
and even to the voice of their keeper *. * Clark on
Preventioi
Chap. VIII. Of Cajiration.
181
It is found of ufe to deprive the males of feveral ofCaftration*
the domeftic animals, efpecially of horfes and cattle, of
the means of propagation, either to render them more
mild and traftable, or, in the cafe of cattle, to promote
their fattening, and render their flefti lefs rank. It has
been difputed whether the caftration of the ftallion is
productive of fuch advantages as are not counterbalan¬
ced by the lofs of ftrength and fpirk, which the animals
fuftain
Pillt III.
182
lode of
bftrating.
FARR
ration?. Tullain by the operation. It is not our intention to dif-
' cufs this point, and we (hall here only defcribe the ufu-
al modes of performing the operation.
The moft prudent mode of caftrating an adult or
grown horfe, appears to be the following. Let him be
thrown on fome convenient fpot, on the off fide, and
when down, let the off hind leg be drawn ’- wards the
neck, by which the fcrotum will be fairly expofed.
Holding the fcrotum firmly, make a cut at once through
it, not of too great length, but fufficient to admit the
tefticle being preffed out; this being done, apply the
clams or a pair of nippers on the cord within an inch of
the tefticle, and hold the. clams fufficiently tight to flop
the. flow of blood, but not to bruife the cord ; the ftone
may then be cut off with a fcalpel, or it may be feared
off with a burning knife. If it is cut off with a fcalpel,
immediately before the clams let go their hold, fear the
end of the cord. Some apply a little powdered refin
on it before fearing, after which the clams may be
loofened. When this is finiftied, proceed to remove
the other in the fame manner.
After both are removed, a pledgit of lint, wetted in
■warmed fpirits, may be introduced juft within the edges
of each wound ; but no fait flrould by any means be
introduced, as is the praflice of fome farriers ; nor will
any kind of bandage be eafily retained, and if any thing
of this kind is ufed, it (hould be very loofely applied, fo
as not to irritate.
When this operation is performed on a full grown
horfe, if he is at all fat, he ftiould be previoufly bled,
and kept rather low ; and it will be prudent to choofe
mild weather for the operation ; and the place likewife
he is put into after the operation, fhould be of a moder¬
ate temperature.
Sometimes there is a confiderable degree of inflam¬
mation, and when this happens, it is by no means pro¬
per to trot the horfe about as is commonly done, but to
bleed and purge, and apply a folution of fugar of lead
to the parts. It will alfo be of advantage to infert a
feton fmeared with bliftering ointment into the infide
ef the thigh.
Some operators feparate the epididymis from the tef¬
ticle and fuffer it to remain, by which means they think
that a portion of the animal’s fpirit is retained. A fimi-
lar cuftom is faid to prevail in France ; but the French
operators objedl to it, on the idea that it produces fiftu-
lous fores in the part. The fa£t is, that when any por¬
tion of the tefticle is fuffered to remain, though it can¬
not fecrete femen, yet it has fome adlion going on with¬
in, by which it produces fome influence both on the
mind and form ; and as fuch, the future growth of the
animal may perhaps be flightly affedfted by it, and per¬
haps his temper too, but the addition to the latter may
probably not be a very favourable one *.
Where the operation is to be performed, the belt
performing time is probably when the foal is about three months
F 6 old, though fome prefer a much more advanced age, as
fix, or even 12 months, and more in fome cafes. In
all animals there is, however, the lead danger of in¬
flammation while they are young, in performing fuch
operations. Befides, it is better to cut colts before they
have any propenfity to hanker after mares, and get bad
habits. When the foals are early, and the weather is
not too hot, the latter end of May or beginning of June
may be a good and proper feafon.
Vox,. VIII. Part II.
*• Blaine'
Outlines,
ral. i».
Time of
I E It Y. 457
Some of the Yorkftiire breeders, however, think that Operations.
they find advantage in deferring the operation till the  v——*
horfes are two years old, as they fuppofe they become
the ttronger and handfomer for it. And where the ope¬
ration is performed at one year old, they find that the
foals have not recovered the check they fuftained by
weaning before they experience another in this operation.
They experience no greater difference in their recovery
at two years old than one. The foals fhould be kept up
fome time before the gelding is to be performed *. ^
The caftrating of male lambs is performed at dif-^^
ferent periods in different diftridfts; but it feems the. molt
proper to be done in the firft fortnight in the ftronger
fort of lambs, and in thofe of the weaker kind from a
fortnight to three weeks, or a month old, according to
circumftances. Some, however, advife its being done
at a much later period. When done early, there is,
however, the leaft danger of too much inflammation
coming on, if the lambs be in a healthy condition.
When performed while very young, on tender, delicate
lambs, mortification may fometimes be apt to come on
and deftroy them f. f Ibid,
Chap. IX. Of Spaying.
I 8/1.
Spaying is an operation performed on the females, Spaying,
chiefly on cattle and dogs, to prevent their producing
young. It confifts in taking away the ovaries, or thole
appendages to the womb in which are formed the rudi¬
ments of the young. It is fuppofed that it is attended
with confiderable advantage, in cows or heifers, as it
greatly promotes their fattening. In bitches, it is gene¬
rally employed to prevent the unpleafant circumftances
that often occur in the time they are in heat.
Spaying is ufually performed after the -animal has
been newly impregnated, as at that time the ovaries are
larger than before impregnation, and are of courfe more
eafily difcovered. In performing the operation, a cut
is made through the integuments of the belly, between
the haunch-bone and the laft ribs, and through this
opening the fingers are to be introduced. If the animal
has not been impregnated, a roundilh hard fubftance
will be felt attached to the loins. This is to be drawn
out and cut off, and that on the other fide is now to be
felt for, drawn out, and cut away. The ovaries, as has
been faid, will be much more readily found, efpecially
the inmoft one, when the animal is impregnated, as the
young within the horns of the womb afford a good di-
re&ion to the finger. It is fometimes neceflary, when
the animal is not in a ftate of impregnation, to make an
opening on each fide of the belly, one for the extrac¬
tion of each ovary ; but when this is found requifite,
it will be better to delay the fecond operation till the
animal is in fome meafure recovered from the firft.
When the ovaries have been cut away, the openings
muft be clofed by means of a ftitch through the inte¬
guments of the belly, and muft be carefully covered
with flicking plafter, to prevent the admiflion of the
external air.
Mr-Daniel remarks, that this operation does not al- xSj
ways fucceed in bitches, unlefs done by a fkilful perfon,
who can be relied upon. If it be ill done, although
the bitches can have no puppies, they will notwith-
ftanding go to heat, which defeats the purpofe. There
is a difference of opinion, whether a bitch fhould be
3 M fpayed
♦
* Daniel's
Rural
Sports.
1S6
Delivery.
187
Directions
for deliver¬
ing cows in
crofs por¬
tions.
FARR
{payed before or after die has had a litter of whelps j
Mr Daniel, however, has tried, and found both periods
to anfwer. The belt time is 14 or 15 days after (he
has taken the dog, and when the puppies juft begin to
be knotted within her. All the roots of the veins
ftiould not be taken away •, her ftrength and fwiftnefs
will be injured by fo doing. They ftiould be kept low
for feveral days before the operation is performed, and
fed on thin meat for fome time after *.
Chap. X. Of Delivery in Difficult Labours.
In general, Nature is all-fufficient for bringing forth
the young of domeftic animals, and man has little to do,
except to take care that the females be not in fuch a fi-
tuation as may expofe themfelves or their young to injury.
It is proper always to watch a mare, or a cow, that is
near the time of bringing forth ; and to be at hand, to
afford afliftance where neceffary. Mares do not often
require afliftance, as with them, difficult labour is un¬
common. Where this does occur, the direftions we
are about to give for the cow, will in general anf\verfor
the mare.
Cows, particularly the fhort-horned fpecies, often
need the afliftance of the accoucheur. The natural
prefentation of the calf, is with its head and fore-feet,
the nofe between the feet, and the back upwards.
Downing enumerates feven preternatural pofitions :
namely, ift, Reverfe prefentation, or tail firft. 2d,
Fore-feet, no head appearing. 3d, Side-belly upwards,
head reverfed over one (boulder, legs appearing. 4th,
Fore-feet, with head under the brifket. 5th, Head
alone, or one fore-leg only with it. 6th, Head and
one leg, or head alone. 7th, Calf lying on its back, its
four legs folded nearly together, and clofe up to the
cow’s back ; the head appearing, or doubled back,
even with the ribs, on one fide or other 5 one hind-leg,
perhaps, appearing.
The following general rules are given by Mr Law¬
rence.—Timely afliftance before the cow is exhaufted.-
Extra&ion never to be attempted in an improper pofi-
tion. Supple the hand and arm with warm water and
frefh lard. Examination beft made, the cow ftanding,
and in the interval of pains. In pulling at the feet, in-
clofe the claws in the hand, that the horn may not
bruife the cow. Navel firing burfting, and the ufual
flux of blood, of no confequence. Inftruments to be
ufed only in the laft refort, and by experienced and
Heady perfons only. The proper hook is of hard iron,
four inches long, with a loop for the cord at the ftraight
end.
In a natural pofition, if the cow fhould want help,
the pofition of the calf may be afcertained after the wa¬
ters have been feen. A cord ought to be in readinefs,
to attach to the fore-legs of the calf, in order to aflift
each natural exertion. The head to be kept clear of
obftruttion.
Preternatural pofition. N° I. as above. No at¬
tempt to turn the calf (this pofition being favourable for
extraftion), but ufe expedition, for fear it be fuffocated.
Prefs the haunches back with the palm of the hand,
take hold of the bend of the hough of one leg, pull at
it, and reach the foot $ both feet may thus be brought
forth. N° 2. Reduce the head to its proper fituation,
between the fore-legs, either by hold of the nofe, or the
3
IE R \. par£pj
face-bone. A long arm is needful, which muft be kept Operati
to the full extent in the body, that inftant advantage
may be taken of every throe, the fingers being proper¬
ly fixed. N° 3. Gently move the calf back, and bring
the head forth to the legs. N° 4. Pu(h the calf back
to find the bead j pull at the nofe: this requires ad¬
dress, but it is ufelefs to employ force, until the head be
in Us proper place. N° 5. and 6. Pufti the calf back
againft the {boulders and briflcet; the feet will be found
folded under the belly j bring the feet forward, one at a
time, the hand being gently placed on the bend of the
knee. Should the head be too much fwelled and
bruifed, to be returned, it muft be Ikinned and ampu¬
tated. Difleft in a ftraight line from the poll to the
nofe, force the fkin back over the firft joint of the neck,
divide the head from the body, pulhing the latter back
to obtain hold of the knees. The loofe Ikin muft be pre-
vioufly wrapped over the ragged bone, and an afliftant
fhould have faft hold, in order to guide it clear of the
haunch-bones of the cow ; fhould it hitch there, put
back inftantly. N° 7* H one hind-leg appear, put it
back ; the calf cannot be brought forth with a hinder
and fore-leg together, and the difference between the
knee and hough will be immediately difcovered. The
head being doubled back, muft of courfe be reduced to
its proper place. The cow being ftrong and quiet, the
bufinefs may be effedled with care and patience 5 but
fhould the hook be pofitively neceffary, hold muft be
taken either in the fockets of the eyes, cavity of the
ears, or in the jaw. The cafe of dropfy in the calf will
be fufficiently apparent by its preternatural fize ; ufe
the knife carefully, fhould that be neceffary, to pierce vot. H. '
the belly of the calf*. 188
There is a very material obftru&ion which frequent-1" Preter*
ly happens to the calving of cows. It is called a horn-n?turai.
ing of the lye or calf-bed, when the paffage of it is con-of th^paf."
trailed into a very fmall circumference, infomuch, thatfage.
at the full time of geftation, it will not admit fo much
as the fmalleft hand, and grows fo finewy or horned, as
renders it utterly impoflible for the cow to calve with¬
out afliftance, and many cattle have died under this
dreadful inconvenience, when it might have beeneafily
prevented j but fo little has been known hitherto of the
difeafes peculiar to black cattle, that many thoufands
have fallen viftims to untimely death, that a Ample
remedy or operation might have faved.
In the cafe before obferved, it muft take a confider-
able length of time, before it is contra&ed, as it is often)
found; but no fufpicion or dread can reafonably take
place, until near the time when the beaft has arrived
at the end of nine months, her full time of bearing
young; when they generally make a regular prepara¬
tion, or falling of the parts of generation, for a few
days or weeks before calving ; but in cafes of this
hornednefs of the calf-bed, it is obferved that they are
backward in making thefe neceffary alterations, pre¬
paratory to the approaching change; and when this is
noticed, more than ufual obfervation ought to be taken,
for when thev do not prepare in a regular manner, they
feldom have the efforts of nature in due courfe, for the
delivery of their burthen.—But when the beaft is ob¬
ferved fick for calving, and has reached the end of her
time, and any dread of this is apprehended, there is no
danger or impropriety in fearching with the hand, in
order to be fatisfied, whether that part is open, or
grown
?art IV. FARR
Hyeeio- grown up, a$ previoufly defcribed j yet the greateft care
logy, is neceffary, that the inquiry be made with judgment,
—~v—‘*-,and the hand that is introduced muft be well lathered
with foap and water, or greafed with tallow, frelh but¬
ter or forae fuch thing, that will not caufe irritation in
the neck of the womb.
Now, if it be found in the ftate defcribed in any de¬
gree, and a certainty of the beaft being at its full time,
with the common ficknefs and fymptoms for calving, no
time (hould be loft until the animal be relieved. The
difficulty greatly depends on knowing to what degree
it is grown up ; it is fometimes fo ftrait as not to admit
the end of a finger, but with fome exertion, it may give
fo much way as that a fmall knife may be introduced,
whofe blade fhould not be above an inch and a half in
length, and very ftiarp, with a hollow on the back part
of the point, for the end of the fore finger to guide the
knife when cutting, and to cover the point and edge,
when introduced, which muft be covered as much as
poffible until the hand. Its handle ought to be Ihort,
and the fore-finger of the operator fhould always be
kept forward on the knife, to prevent any danger that
might arife from the edge of it. The horny circle is
fometimes fo hard and griftly, that it takes more exer¬
tion than may have been expefted from the nature of
the place j but as foon as it is cut through, the beaft
will find a very material difference, and ftrive to void
her burden, if poffible, when every exertion of art
I E R Y,
ought to be ufed for her relief. Many people have fuf-
fered the beaft, fo difordered, to die a miferable death
before their eyes, without offering to render her any
affiftance, and fome have attempted to take the calf out
at the fide of the animal, a pra&ice commonly known
by the name of the Caefarean operation j but the other
method is to be preferred, when the obftru£lion is the
refult of hornednefs. But operations of this kind in
general fail, from negle&ing the attempt until every
natural hope is gone, and the patient fo much weaken¬
ed, as to die under the hands of the perfon who has un¬
dertaken the talk. It is therefore recommended, that
no time be loft in afcertaining the caufe of any delay in
calving, and that every exertion be ufed, while the ani¬
mal has ftrength to undergo the operation, and to fecond
the attempt. When the bufinefs is happily over, the
wounded parts within muft be taken care of, by pro¬
viding one pint of redtified fpirit of wine camphorated,
to anoint the wound, and any other parts which may
have been expofed to the air, bruifed, or over diftended.
This may be conveyed up the neck of the womb by a
fyringe, fponge, or linen rag filled with it, and carried
thither by a fmall hand, well fomented with fome of the
foregoing articles for that purpofe. Let the beaft be
kept moderately warm, and in a comfortable fituation,
allowing her at all times a plentiful fupply of good, dry,
and fweet litter. We have taken the above from Bow¬
lin’s Complete Cow-do£lor.
459
Hygeio-
logy.
PART IV. HYGEIOLOGY j OR, THE MEANS OF PRESERVING THE
HEALTH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
BEFORE We enter on the confideration of the dif-
eafes, that affedt domeftic animals, whofe medical treat¬
ment is to form the fubjedl of the remaining part of this
article j it will be proper to lay down fdme inftrudtions
for the management of thefe animals in a ftate of health,
with a view to that moft important objedt, the avoiding
of the caufes of difeafe. The prefervatioti of health
muft ever be confidered as one of the principal objedts
of the medical pradlitioner, and has exereifed the pens
of fome of the moft eminent phyficians in all ages. But
the confideration of this fubjedl isftill more neceffary in
the treatment of the inferior animals, than in that of
man. In the former the cure of difeafe is rendered
much more difficult and precarious, on account of the
obfcurily in which the fymptoms are often hid, and the
difficulty which we frequently experience in inveftigat-
rg0 ing the caufes of morbid affedtions.
labita- The management of domeftic animals in a ftate of
ions. health, chiefly refpedts the habitations in which they
are placed, when taken from their native fields j their
food and drink j cleanlinefs, and exercife.
Chap. I. Of Stablesy Covu-houfes and Kennels.
In a ftate of nature, all the animals at prefent under
our confideration, are conftantly expofed to the open
air, and only feek for (belter from the inclemencies of
the weather under woods and thickets. The young of
all thefe animals when domefticated, except the dog,
are for a long time left in a fimilar ftate, till, for the
convenience of their matters, it is found neceffary to
place them in habitations. The ftrudlure of thefe, that
is of ftables, cow-houfes, and kennels, and the method of
treating the animals confined in them, is of the utmofl:
confequence ; as on thefe the animals health and com¬
fort muft in a great meafure depend.
i. Of Stables.
Stables {hould be built on a dry foil, that is fome-Shoul^be
what elevated $ or, at leaft, they muft not be built in abuilt on a
hollow, or in the neighbourhood of boggy or marffiy d,ry an<^
land. The damp cold air, arifing from moift, low fitua-piace^
tions, is extremely prejudicial to the health of all ani¬
mals, particularly horfes, and, as we (hall fee hereafter,
to ffieep. It renders them fubjedt to colds, rheumatifm,
and not unfrequently to fever. Stables built in thefe
fituations are therefore always dangerous; and more
particularly fo, when the animals return to them after
having been heated by violent exercife or labour.
Stables ffiould be roomy in proportion to the number 5^,^'
of horfes that it is propofed they (hould contain. Per-roomy. *
haps no liable (hould be made to hold more than five or
fix horfes, as many inconveniences arife from keeping
too many of thefe animals in the fame apartment. Not
only is the air thereby much more vitiated, but the reft
and (leep, fo neceffary to repair the fatigues of the day,
are thus prevented or difturbed. Some horfes will not
fieep, or even lie down, if not perfedlly at their eafe j
and hence, in large ftables, that are made to contain a
dozen or more horfes, as is often the cafe in livery fta-
3 M 2 bles
" \
460 FARR
Ilygeio- bles, and fueli as are attached to large inns, the frequent
lngy- entrance of grooms, olllers, and other perfons with
s,..i- ligate, into the ftable, and even the reftlefs noife of
fome of the horfes, who are more watchful, or have
been lefs fatigued than others, mufl be a great diftur-
bance to thefe latter. Where neceflity requires a long
range of ftables, it is better to have them divided, by
thick partition wails, into feparate apartments, each
made to contain not more than fix horfes. The addi¬
tional expence of this would be trifling, compared to
the greater eafe and comfort of the animals.
It is ufual in large {fables, for the fake of keeping
more horfes conveniently under the fame roof, to make
them double headed, as it is termed 5 that is, to have a
range of flails along each wall, with a fpace between,
for perfons to pafs to and fro. Stables of this kind are
very improper ; the fpace between the two ranges is
often fo narrow, that when the oppofite flails are oc¬
cupied at the fame time, the horfes can reach each other
19.3 with their hind feet, efpecially when (landing, as they
I)ouble rta- often do, at the full length of their halter. Hence, in
e®s irni)'J'the contefts that often arife between quarrelfome or met-
tlefome horfes, very fevere bruifes, and even lamenefs,
are not unufually the confequences of the animals being
within each other’s reach. The danger that threatens
paflengers in thefe narrow fpaces is alfo not fmall j we
have often trembled when obliged to pafs between two
rows of horfes, kicking and wincing under the curry¬
combs, where the intermediate fpace did not exceed
three or four feet. If double-headed flables mull be
ufed, the fpace between the ranges of flails fhould be at
194 leaft eight feet.
Roof fliould The roof of flables fliould not be low ; for, as the.
not be low. anfj v;tJated air, generated by refpiration and the
exhalations of animal bodies, naturally afeends to the
highefl parts, the horfes, who ufually carry their heads
very high, are, when the ceiling of the liable is low, ful¬
ly expofed to the noxious influence of this vitiated at-
mofphere. This is not the place to enlarge on the
vitiation that the air undergoes from the aftion of the
animals that are confined in it; this fubje£l has been al¬
ready fully confidered in the article Chemistry when
fpeaking of refpiration ; and, from what has been there
delivered, the reader will fee the neceffity of pure air
to horfes and other animals as well as man, and will be
able to judge of the propriety of the above maxim, and
fome others which we fhall prefently lay down.
The walls of the flable fhould be of Hone or brick,
and by no means of wood ; they flionld alfo be left
bare, or at leaft only covered with plaifter. The tem¬
perature of the air, in buildings of ftone or brick, is
much more equable than in thofe built of wood, they
are not fo eafily penetrated by the heat of fummer, or
the cold of winter, and they are alfo attended with
another important advantage, that they refill the fpread-
ing of fire.
The flails in which the horfes are to ftand (hould be
divided from each other by ftrong wooden partitions,
that fhould rife fufficiently high to prevent the horfe
from llepping over, but not fo high as to impede the
free circulation of air, and admiflion of light from one
flail to another. The breadth of each flail {hould be
fuch as will freely admit of the horfe turning himfelf,
and ftretching at his full length when he lies down ;
but they fliould not be fo wide as to allow of his kick-
21
Part IV
*95
Stalls.
I E R Y.
ing again ft the partition. • The floor of the Hall fhould
have a gentle declivity, from the manger backwards.
This allows the urine and water to run eafily off; it al¬
fo relieves the fore quarters of the horfe, and adds
much to the grace of his appearance behind. Too
great a flope, however, mull be avoided, as when the de¬
clivity is too rapid, all the weight of the horfe is thrown
on his hind legs ; and, as it is extremely uneafy for the
animal to remain long in this pofitlon, he is obliged to.
prefs his body forward, which he cannot accomplifli,
without keeping the hind legs always on the ftretch ;
the paftern-joint, from its fituation, receives the whole
additional weight, and the ligament which conne&s it
is invariably ftrained in all horfes which are kept in
this fort of liable for any length of time.
A flope of one inch in fix feet will be fufficient to
anfwer every purpofe.
This declivity Ihould terminate in a hollow fpace a
few inches from the end of the flail, forming a fort of
gutter, extending the whole length of the liable, and
palling out through the wall at each end, where iron
bars Ihould be placed, to admit of the w-ater, &e. paf-
fing out of the liable, which is the intention of this
gutter, but preventing the intrufion of rats, and other
noxious animals.
The floor of ilables is commonly paved with ftone,
or hard bricks made for that purpofe. This kind of
flooring has the advantage of being more durable than
any other ; but it is not without its inconveniences.
The Hones or bricks become fmooth by wearing, and,
when the liable is wet, the horfe, efpecially if he be
very frifky, is apt to flip, and endanger draining or
otherwife injuring his limbs. Again, by the pawing,
or (lamping, to w’hich thefe animals are often fubjedl,
the pavement may be loofened or broken. For thefe
reafons, it would perhaps be better that at leaft the
flails Ihould be floored with ftrong oaken planks well
feafoned, and laid acrofs the Hall, with their extremi¬
ties below the partitions, and having their joining edges
accurately adapted to each other, A flooring of this
kind has the advantage of being more elaflic, and of
preferving a more equable temperature than pavement;
and it is not liable to the inconveniences which we
have mentioned, as attending this latter. A wooden
flooring is indeed expenfive, but this is more than
counterbalanced by the advantages to the horfe. It is.
of little confequence how the reft of the ftable is cover-,
ed ; fome gentlemen floor their ftables with a fort of
cement, which in courfe of time becomes as hard as.
ftone, and has the advantage of being perfectly fmooth,
and even. The gutter fliould of courfe be well paved.,
The manger for receiving the horfes corn fhould be Manger,
about a foot broad, and five or fix inches deep. The
manger is ufually made of wood, and when this is the
cafe, the boards compofing it Ihould be fo clofely join¬
ed, that the corn cannot get through between them*.
The front of the manger fhould rife about three feet,
or a little aio^e from the ground ; fhould flope a little,
and fliould terminate above by a ftrong rounded border.
This, if the manger be made of wood, fliould be
covered with tin plate, or white iron, as horfes are very,
apt, when without food, or when allowed to remain,
long in the flail, to bite the front of the manger, and
thus acquire a very bad habit, which farriers call crib-
biting. Some choofe to make the manger of flone,,
which
Hygeio-
logy.
Part IV. FARR
which has the advantage of wood in being more durable
and cleanly,-wood acquiring by ufe an unpleafant fmell,
1 and being foon rotted by the moiiture of the food,
which it often receives. The bottom of the manger
thould dope a little forwards.
The manger is fometimes made to extend the whole
length of the ftable, when it is in general divided into
feveral cavities, one for each horfe. It is of little con-
fequence whether it be one continued cavity, or
whether there be a feparate manger for each ftall j but
the manger fhould by no means be fupported on legs,
fo as to make it moveable, as is fometimes done j as
this prevents the litter from being conveniently flowed
below the manger, and expofes the horfe or the manger
to accidents. It ftiould therefore be firmly fixed at the
back to the wall of the ftable, and to each partition of
the ftall. Sometimes a hollow is made at one end of
the manger, or at one end of each divifion of it, for
the purpofe of holding water. When this is done,
there fhould be a hole in the bottom of this cavity
fitted with a plug, to draw off the water when the'
horfe has done drinking, or when the manger has been
wafhed.
In the middle of the front of the manger, in its thick
edge, there is ufually fixed an iron ring, turning eafily
in an eye bolt, for the purpofe of pafling through the
halter, by which the horfe is faftened. Sometimes, in*
ftead of this ring, a hole is made through the border of
the manger for the halter to pafs through ; but as the
halter does not flip backwards and forwards eafily through
fuch a hole, and wears very fail by rubbing againft the
wood, the iron ring is to be preferred. The horfe
fhould always be faftened in fuch a way, as that the
halter ftnll Hide backwards and forwards with every
motion of the horfe’s head ; and he fbould on no account
be tied by the halter, as this expofes him to accidents,
by twilling the halter about his neck or legs.
The rack fbould be placed at fuch a height above
the manger, as that the horfe can eafily reach it, to pull
out the hay ; it fbould be very ftrong and firmly fixed,
and fhould incline a little outwards from the wall of
the ftable. The bars of which it is compofed, fhould
not be above four or five inches afunder, that the hay
may not fall out and be wafted.
One circumftance particularly to be attended to in
the conftruftion of {tables is, to preferve a free circula¬
tion of air.
The generality of ftables are by much too clofe and
Se warm-; not a chink is left for the free admiftion of air
e too c ofe. tke anci windows (if there are any), are made fo
clofe, as perfectly to exclude the air j or, if this is not
the cafe, the crevices are frequently flopped with hay,
under the idea that the horfes cannot be kept too warm..
This is a moft abfurd and miftaken notion -, and is con-
tradidled both by reafon and daily experience. When
we confider that horfes in a ftate of nature, or even in
their ufual paftures, are perpetually expofed to the open
air, and that, under thefe circumftances, they are more
vigorous and adlive than under the moft attentive care
of their mafters, we muft be convinced of the improprie*
ty of keeping them for hours together in the foul and
heated atmofphere of the ordinary clofe ftables. Who¬
ever enters one of thefe ftables when the door is firit
opened in the morning, after it has been clofely fhut up
all night, will be able to judge from his own fenfations,
Hygeio-
logy.
198
Sack.
199
Stables
ihould not
I E R Y. 461
whether fuch an atmofphere can be wholefome to the
animals that breathe it. Befides the great heat of the
ftable, which, if many horfes have been fbut up in it all ——y-—
night is nearly intolerable, the air will be found highly
impure from the continued refpiration of fo many ani¬
mals, and the fleams arifing from the exhalations of
their bodies, which have probably fweated profufely
from having been fo long confined in an atmofphere fo
foul and heated. Add to this the impregnation of ths
air by the effluvia arifing from the litter, &c, and it is
not eafy to conceive a more unhealthy fituation for an
animal, who, to perform the offices required of him
with adlivity and vigour, fhould be in the full pofleffion
of all his ftrength. Now it may eafily be fuppofed,
that fuch an air as we have defcribed, cannot be calcu¬
lated to ftrengthen the body of the horfes. On the
contrary, it muft be in a high degree weakening and
relaxing. In this relaxed ftate, the horfe is probably
taken out immediately into the open air, whatever may
be the feafon or weather, and made to enter on his
daily talk. The effedl which fuch a fudden change
mutt have on the conftitution of the ftrongeft horfe, need
not be defcribed. The fudden adtion of the cold and
probably moift air on a body that has been expofed for
fo many hours to the heated air of the ftable, muft be
produdtive of , the worft confequences to the health and
vigour of the animal. Accordingly, fevers, colds,
rheumatifm, afthma, and a number of other formidable
difeafes, may be traced to this debilitating fource.
We fhould think, that the analogy of nature would
have taught men to avoid fuch abfurdities. We leam
from thofe authors who have written on the natural hif-
tory of the horfe, that the Arabians, who live in tents,
and are extremely careful in the management of their
horfes, allow them to ftand all day, when not employ¬
ed, at the door of the tent j and at night bring them
within the tent, where they lie down in the fame apart¬
ment with their mafter and family, fheltered indeed
from the dews of the night, but freely expofed to the
circulation of air that muft conftantly prevail in thefe
temporary dwellings.
To avoid the inconveniences arifing from confined jyj0C}e'o£-
air, the ftable ftiould be made high and roomy } theventila-
door and windows ffiould not be made too clofe j andtion.
the ftable ftiould be provided with proper ventilators.
Perhaps a good method of preferving a free circulation
of air in the ftable at all times, would be to carry up a
flue diagonally through the wall at each extremity,
terminating above in a fort of chimney ; and below,
within the ftable, in an opening fufficiently wide in
any part of the w'all that is not immediately within the
ftall.
The free admiflion of light into ftables is nearly of\y;ndows>
as much confequence as that of air. It is a very errone¬
ous opinion which is maintained by fome grooms and
ftable-keepers, that horfes feed beft in the dark. Thefe
animals naturally love the light, and are much more
cheerful and fpirited in ftables where this is freely ad¬
mitted, than in the dark and difinal hovels that we-
fometimes find attached to inns and farm houfes. There
is one bad confequence that follows keeping horfes in
a dark ftable, which does not appear to be fufficiently
attended to. By being kept fo long excluded from the
light, the horfes eyes become weak, and unable to fup-
port the full glare of open day. The pupils being fo
lon§ ,
462 T A R R
Hygeio- 5ong habituated to an unufual degree of dilatation, do
. io^y- n°t readily contract when the animal is brought out in-
v— 0pen ajr . jience jjjg ey€S being offended with
the ftrong light, to which he is fo little accuftomed, are
perpetually winking and watering $ the horfe appears as
if half blind, and darts and Humbles at almofl every ftep.
The flable fhould, therefore, be furnifhed with glaz¬
ed windows, in number proportioned to the fize of the
building. In general, no flables fliould have fewer
than two windows ; and they fhould be placed in fuch
a fituation, as that the horfes may not receive the rays
of light too diredlly on their eyes. Where the liable
Hygeio.
logy.
I E R Y. partlv>
vacancy in that part, of the flooring which is immediate¬
ly over the rack, for the purpofe of more conveniently
fupplying the horfes with hay. This mode of building
flables has its convenience in an economical point of
view, and thefe apartments in the upper flory add much
to the fhowv appearance of the building j but there
are feveral material objeftions to this conftrudtion.
i. The hay and corn being kept immediately over
the flable, are conflantly expofed to the foul and heat*
ed air and putrid fleams rifing up from the flails through
the rack, and are thus rendered liable to be heated and
mildewed ; while the dull rifing from the fhaking of
t20X]
Lofts above
the liable
improper.
has only one range of flails, this point can be eafily ef- the hay into the rack is very prejudicial to the lungs of
febled, and in fuch flables, the windows fhould always the horfes. On this account it is much better, where
be placed at the back of the horfes. But in double
flables it is not eafy to place the windows fo as not to
incommode fome of the horfes, fince, on whichever fide
of the flable they are made, the horfes en that fide are
expofed to the full glare of the light; another argu¬
ment againfl double {tables. The windows fhould by all
means be fafhed j and fhould be made to draw down from
the top, as well as to be thrown up from below. They
fliould not be made too fmall, and fhould be carried up
as near the ceiling of the flable, as is compatible with
the ftrength and fymmetry of the building. Windows
conflrudled in this way not only add much to the ap¬
pearance of the flables and to the comfort of the
horfes; but they afford one of the befl means of pro¬
moting a free circulation of frefh air through the flable.
For by throwing one of them up, and drawing another
down, the ventilation becomes nearly as complete as
poflible.
Nothing has aflonifhed us more, when viewing the
handfome offices attached to fome of the gentlemen’s
houfes in this country, than to fee the deficiency of the
{tables in the article of windows. Wlien viewing them
from without, we have congratulated the animals con¬
fined in them on the comfort of light and air, which
they mufl enjoy from the fine faffi-windows, which
we faw on each fide of the flable door. How great has
been our afloniffiment on entering the building, to find
all gloomy and dark within j and that the fine fafh-win-
dows which we thought to have feen atadiflance, were
nothing but efforts of the painter to deceive our fenfes,
and to prefent an appearance of what certainly ought
to have been a reality!
We mufl be permitted here to draw what we hope
will not be confidered as an invidious comparifon be¬
tween the Scotch and Engliffi method of lodging their
horfes. In England we have rarely feen fuch miferable
hovels as, in many parts of Scotland, are ufed to fup-
ply the place of flables. We have indeed in the for¬
mer country feen the flables fometimes very fmall, or
even confifling of a thatched building not very well de¬
fended from the weather $ but they are for the mofl
part tolerably well ventilated, and we believe fcarcely
ever without windows.
It is a common pradlice to build flables of two fto-
ries, the upper flory forming a loft for the purpofe of
keeping the horfe’s hay and corn ; and in gentlemen’s
flables, where the building is fufficiently large, it is
ufual to have apartments on the upper flory for the
grooms and other fervants employed about the flables
to fleep in.
The apartment employed as a hay loft has ufually a
this can be conveniently done, to keep the hay and corn
in fome place diflindl from the liable, and bring
from time to time a fufficient quantity of hay nearly to
fill the rack, into which it might be put while the horfe '
is abroad.
2. Another ferious objedlion to having lofts and
chambers above the flable, is that the building is thus
much more expofed to accidents from fire, owing to the
carelefihefs of the fervants. And,
3. Thefe apartments above the liable render the latter
much too clofe and warm.
Where, from convenience or fancy, a gentleman
choofes to build his flables in the manner which we have
juft defcribed, it will be advifable to have the flooring
above the liable made as clofe as poffible, and covered
with thin bricks or Hones for the purpofe of checking
the progrefs of fire 5 and for preferving the hay and corn
as much as may be from the fleams of the liable, a parti-
tition wall may be raifed from the extremity of the floor¬
ing immediately over the rack all the way to the roof
of the loft, with a door opening over the rack in each
flail. The entrance to the hay loft or chambers above
the flable fhould be without, and by no means, as is
generally the cafe, by a trap door and ladder within
the liable. If, as we frequently fee in gentlemen’s of¬
fices, the flables are built on each fide of the coach-
houfe, the entrance to the rooms above may be con¬
veniently made by a flair from the coach-houfe.
The building of which the liable forms a part, fhould
be as much as poffible detached from other buildings,
fo as to admit of a free circulation of air all around.
It is a vile praflice, which is common on many farms
and in fome inns, to have the dung-hill or midden fliould be
clofe to the liable. This nuifance ftiould be removed apart frera
as far as poffible from the door and windows of the|^®(*unS*
flable, as the heat and noifome vapours arifing from"1
the fermenting dung impregnate the air to a confider-
able extent.
It is of great confequence that the liable be kept^reCgg{fy
fweeped and cleaned. It fliould therefore be regularly of cleanh-
fwept every morning, and every part of the litter thatnefr*
is wet and dirty fhould be removed to the dunghill,
while what is clean and dry fhould be put up clofe be¬
low the manger, unlefs where the horfe is lame, or has
any affe6lion of the feet or limbs, which renders it ne-
ceflary for him to fland upon foft litter. Where the
horfe is perfectly healthy, no litter fhould be allowed
in the day time, much lefs ffiould the flail be crammed
with litter, as is often done, and is fuffered to remain
in this fituation for many days, for the purpofe of in-
creafing the quantity of manure. Nothing injures the
feet
Part IV. FARRIERY. 463
„ feet of horfes more, or more frequently produces foft- the affefted parts fhould not be rubbed, as it would Hygeio.
logy, nefs of the hoof, canker, and greafy heels, than allow- tend to increafe the pain and diftrefs arifing from the logy-
inflammation. v '
104
Jlothing.
505
"eiGng.
'ing them to ftand night and day on hot fermenting
dung. It is alfo impoflible for the horfe to lie down
in comfort in fuch a hot-bed ; and if the poor animal
is obliged to recline himfelf for a time, he is foon com¬
pelled to rife again, and repeatedly making the fame
attempt to reft, and finding it impra&icable, he is for¬
ced at length to ftand altogether, perhaps Ihifting his
legs from one part of the ftall to another, to avoid the
heat of the dung.
Lord Pembroke is of opinion that after working,
and at night of courfe, as alfo in lameneffes and fick-
neffes, it is good for horfes to ftand on litter ; it alfo
promotes ftaling, &c. At other times it is a bad cuf-
tom ; the conftant ufe of it heats and makes the feet
tender, and caufrs fwelled legs. Moreover it renders
the animal delicate. Swelled legs may frequently be
reduced to their proper natural fize by taking away
the litter only, which, in fome ftables, where ignorant
grooms and farriers govern, would be a great faving of
phyfic and bleeding, befides ftraw. “ I have feen,
(fays he), by repeated experiments, legs fwell and un-
fvvell, by leaving litter, or taking it away, like mer¬
cury in a weather-glafs.”
It is a very common practice to keep horfes, while
in the liable, covered up with warm clothing. This
is in fome cafes neceffary, efpecially when they are un¬
der a courfe of phyfic, or are otherwife fo delicate, as
that they would be liable to injury from too much ex-
pofure to the air. But its indifcriminate ufe is highly
improper, as it tends to render the horfe too delicate,
and expofes him to the danger of catching cold when¬
ever he goes out into the air. While a horfe is in com¬
plete health, and Hands idle, he requires very little, if
any covering, unlefs the liable be extremely cold, or ill
Iheltered. When indeed he comes into the liable,
much heated by violent exercife or hard labour, it may
be proper to throw over him a Angle cloth, that he may
cool gradually. Some grooms think it neceffary, be¬
fides enveloping the horfe with body clothes, to gird
them fall round the belly with tight rollers ; and this
is done with the view of taking up the horfes belly, as
they term it. The pra£tice is exceedingly abfurd, for
theife tight rollers impede the circulation in the fuper-
ficial veins, produce difficult breathing, and if they
be applied, as is often the cafe, after eating, they great¬
ly obftrufl digeftion.
To finilh the fubje£t of liable economy, we have
only to make a few remarks on currying, or dreffing
horfes.
Fridlion employed on the horfe’s Ikin is not only ne-
ceffary to keep him clean, and to promote the infenfi-
ble perfpiration, by freeing the fkin and hair from im¬
purities, but it is exceedingly ufeful when confidered
as a kind of exercife. It promotes the free circulation
of the blood, which is much impeded by the horfe
Handing long idle in the liable 5 and it much improves
the appearance of the horfe’s coat. Horfes Ihould
therefore be regularly dreffed, at lead twice a-day.
There are, however* fome cafes in which general
friction ought not to be employed fuch are cafes of
internal inflammation, efpecially of the bowels j or
when there is a difcharge of lharp ichorous matter from
any part, efpecially the legs and heels. In thefe cafes
2. Of Cow-houfes, or Byres.
106
After what we have faid on the conftruftion of Ha- Cow-houfes
bles, we need not here enlarge on that of cow-houfes or byres,
or cattle byres, as thefe buildings, fo far at leaft as re-
fpe6ls their outfides, are conftrufted on fimilar princi¬
ples. We lhall take occafion,' when treating on the
manner of feeding cattle, to defcribe a byre that ap¬
pears to us to afford a good model for buildings of this
kind.
It is of material importance in the wintering of young
Hock, to keep them more warm, and Iheltered from
wet, than is ufually done, as by this means they thrive
fafter, with a lefs confumption of food, than in the con¬
trary circumftances. This may be effected, either by
tying them up in Halls, in houfes for the purpofe, or
by keeping them in good Iheds in well inclofed yards. ^
The queftion of feeding the cattle tied up, or loofe pr0prjety
in the yards, in winter, has not been yet decided, of tying
Each method has probably advantages. In the firft,catfle*
the cattle thrive better than when left at liberty to run
about the yards. Mr Marftiall found that in York-
fliire, cattle kept tied up, and regularly fed with ftraw
in a moderate proportion, did better than in the fouthern
parts of the ifland, where left loofe in the midft of greater
plenty. Whether this effedl is to be afcribed to the
greater warmth, the refting better, or the being fed
more regularly, and eating with an appetite, he cannot
determine. Some experiments of Mr Young’s alfo
lead to the conclufion that cattle flock thrive better
when tied up. They like wife ffiow that the pra£lice
of tying up is the only one that can be had recourfe to,
where ftraw is not in great plenty, and the quantity of
the flock very inadequate to its confumption.
In the latter method there is the advantage of a
large fupply of manure, efpecially where the farmer has
the conveniency of litter. Where however the farmer
has convenience, the former method is probably in ge¬
neral the moft beneficial. In either mode of manage¬
ment much attention is neceffary to keeping the flock
conftantly fupplied in an evenly proportioned manner, * bickforis
as in this way there will be great advantage, both in^r,f“^*
the faving of food, and the condition of the animals*. 'ao’s
The neceffity of providing fhelter for cattle in bad Ox-houfes.
weather, is now we believe pretty well underftood by
every intelligent farmer $ and experience has proved
that proper buildings erefted for winter feeding are at¬
tended with confiderable advantages. The ere£lion for
this purpofe at Hafod in Wales, the refidence of Tho¬
mas Johnes, Efq. M. P. for the county of Cardigan,
and one of the moft eminent improvers of the prefent
time, feems to be calculated upon a moderate fcale*..
The whole length of the building is fifty feet, the roof
fhelving, its chief height being fourteen feet, the lower
extremities, one feven and a half, the other fix feet.
A ftone wall running up to the fummit, parts the feed-
ing-heufe from the other and fmaller apartment, which,
is a receptacle for dung. Width of the feeding-houfe,
nineteen feet within-fide. Stalls each twelve feet long
by four feet two inches wide. Gangway three feet and
a half, at the heels and tails of the cattle, leading from
the doorSj the firft door being for the cattle, the other
for
«
464 FARR
Hygeio- for the attendants. Similar doors at the oppofite ends
i iogy- of the building. Running water in troughs, with racks,
v and mangers. The cattle lie on wooden platforms,
perforated for the pafiage of the urine. The urine
runs, and the dung is pufhed through apertures in the
wall, each of which is two feet fquare, and one be¬
tween every two flails. There are 12 wooden flaps or
windows to give light and air, to each flail. The
dung pit is about twelve feet wide, funk fome feet deep
in the earth, extending the whole length of the build¬
ing. The walls are built partly with ftone, and in
part with wood, the roof w ith larch wood, as an expe¬
riment of its durability in that expofure.
According to Mr Lawrence, the round or quadrangu¬
lar form might perhaps, either of them, be more economi¬
cal as to fpace and materials for a building to contain a
confiderable number. The oxen would moft convenient¬
ly ftand around with their tails toward the wall, contrary
to the ufual practice, for the more eafy throwing out
the dung from a gangway, through apertures purpofely
made in the wall, into a pit, under cover, funk around
the building. The area within would, of courfe, be
for feeding, and every neceflary purpofe of attendance.
A ftore-chamber above completes the building, the chief
objection to the form of which, is the greater expence
attendant upon the reverfed pofition of the cattle, which
perhaps is compenfated by the great faving of labour,
in the more eafily getting rid of the dung. The gang-
way will in courfe be fufficiently wide to admit the
beafts to and from their flails j the dung aperture in
the wall may be clofed in cold weather
.Sheep-cots. Of all cbmeftic animals, fheep are the moft expofed
to the inclemencies of the weather. This arifes chiefly
from their numbers, which renders complete ftielter
very difficult 5 but even in the cafe of a fmall flock, the
prejudices of many feeders have prevented their procuring
proper (belter for their (beep,under the idea that itwould
render them too lazy to provide for themfelves. Thefe
prejudices, however, are gradually wearing away, and
few flieep-farms are at prefect unprovided with (belter,
either of trees or buildings. ?dr Findlater, in his able
furvey of Peebles, ftrongly recommends (belter for
(beep. “ It would be (fays this gentleman) for the in-
tereft of every proprietor of fheep-farms, to encourage
the farmer to rear (belter of trees, by allowing him the
weedings of the plantation, and becoming bound to
:pay the farmer, at the rate of perhaps eight-pence or
ten-pence a piece, for every tree left (landing at fpecified
diftances, at the expiry of his leafe; fuch intereft
communicated to the farmer, would give the moft ef-
fedlual fecurity for the protection of the trees. Shel¬
ters are alfo procured by building, enclofing a fquare
open area in the middle, furniffied with (hades, on every
fide. Stel/s (that is circular fpaces of area, propor¬
tioned to the fize of the flock, enclofed by a five or fix
feet wall of ftone, or fod, without any roof) were the
primeval (belters invented by our forefathers. The cir¬
cular figure of the building caufes the drifting wind in
fnow (forms to wheel round it, without rifing over it,
and depofiting the fnow in the calm region within.
The (beep are fed, in winter (forms, with fuch provi-
fion as can be procured, under the trees, in the (beds,
and within the circles. Even where no feeding is ad-
iriniftered, much advantage refults to the animals, from
I E It Y. PartIV
mere defence againfl the weather 5 and they are much h ■
the more alert in fearching for natural food, fo foon as logy°*
the (form ceafes. The mode of affing of the (heepy—.
gives a pretty certain indication of the weather to be
expected : Upon the near approach of a (form, thofe ac~
cuftomed to (belters are obferved to make for their
(belters. Upon the near approach of thaw, their pre-
fentiment leads them to be lefs induftrious in digging
the fnow for food, as if confcious that fuch labour was
no longer neceffary
According to Mordaunt, who wrote about the mid- ter's Sur.
die of laft century, (heep pens and houfes, were thenP-*54
not uncommon in Effex and Gloucefterihire. He dire£fs
■the pens to be made at fome convenient corner of a
pafture, or where feveral fields, commons, or paftures
meet, fo as to be common to them all. They (hould
alfo be erefted on a dry fpot of ground, and Hones laid
at the bottom to keep the (heep dry and clean, whilft
under examination. The pens to be divided into parti¬
tions to hold about forty (heep.
“ Thejheep houfes, for warmth in the winter feafon,
are made low, and a third part longer than broad, and
rather large, the fides lined with furze or boards, for
warmth j the bottom laid with large ftone (labs, and
very level, that the urine run not away, but foak into
the litter. It would be proper to have the funny fide
well lined with moveable hurdles, that when the fun
(bines it may be laid open to give the (heep a refreffi-
ment, by letting them into fome clofe or croft, where¬
in the (heep-houfe (lands : the houfe to be well cover¬
ed.”
3. Of Dog-kennels.
It is ufually recommended to eredf a particular Doo2.^ j
building, for the foie purpofe of a kennel ; and certain-nelt i
ly where the proprietor’s fortune will admit of it, fuch
an appropriate building is to be preferred. A com¬
mon barn has, however, often been employed as a
kennel : and Mr Daniel fays, that the excellence of
the hounds kept in fuch a building has been rivalled
by few that were lodged in the moft fumptuous edi¬
fices.
Whatever may be the form or original intention of
the building, cleanlinefs is abfolutely neceflary, both to
the nofe of the hound and the prefervation of his
health. The fenfe of fuelling is fo exquifite in a hound,
that every (tench muft be fuppofed injurious to it $
upon that faculty all our hopes depend, and noftrils
clogged with the effluvia of a dirty kennel, are ill
adapted to carry the fcent over greafy fallows, or guide
one through the foil of deer, or over ground tainted by
(heep. Dogs are by nature cleanly ; where they lie,
if they can avoid it, they feldom dung. Air and frefli
draw are eflfential to preferve them healthy. They are
fubjefl to the mange; naftinefs very much contributes
to this, and although at the firft appearance it may be
eafily checked, the remedies that are ufed are in them¬
felves ftrong in their operation, and will do no good
to the hounds conftitution. Let the cleanlinefs of the
kennel, therefore, be carefully attended to; a refort to
thefe remedies will then be unneceflary, and all injury
to hounds from this fource will be prevented.
On the prefumption that a kennel is to be erefled,
its fite is ftrongly pointed out by Somerville.
“ Upon
II
’’art IV.
Hygeio-
FARR
“ Upon fome little eminence ereSt
“ And fronting to the ruddy dawn, its courts
“ On either hand wide opening to receive
“ The fun’s all-cheering beams, when mild he ftiines
And gilds the mountain tops.”
But this fele&ion of a high fituation is incompatible
with a running brook ; and as tbefe two advantages can¬
not be united, water is to be preferred, with the afpeft
to the morning fun as much attended to as poffible.
The number of its inmates mull determine the fize
of the kennel; and the architecture Ihoutd be neat, with-
n out being ufelef-ly expenlive. The molt magnificent is
)ukeof the duke of Richmond’s at Goodwood, which colt
tichmond’s 19,000!. and is fufficiently extenfive for two packs of
ennel. hounds. The building comprifes five kennels, two 36
by 15, three 30 by 1 j, and two feeding rooms 20 by
15 feet, with ftoves to warm the air, when too cold.
The huntfman and whipper-in have each a parlour,
kitchen, and {leeping-room.
The nearer to the houfe the kennel is placed the bet¬
ter. There are reafons againft its too clofe approach,
but they yield to others which forbid a great difiance.
To mention one, derived indeed from a vulgar faying,
“ that the mailer’s eye makes the horfe fat recoiled
that the infpedion of the kennel is even more needful
than that of the liable ; for in both, cleanlinefs is no
m lefs effential than food.
ize. The kennel fiiould be of fufficient dimenfions at its
firft building; room for twTo kennels {hould be under
the fame roof; when there is but one it is ft'Id ora
fweet ; and when walked out, the hounds, particularly
in winter, not only fuffer during the time of cleaning,
but as long afterwards as it remains wet. The fecond
kennel affords opportunity for drafting the hounds in¬
tended to hunt the next morning. In a few days
they will be drafted with little trouble, will readily
anfwer to their names; and with equal eafe as a fhepherd
numbers his fiieep, you may count your hounds into the
hunting kennel.
2l3 In a morning, upon the feeder’s firft entering the
kennel, he fiiould let the hounds into the outer court;
the door of the hunting kennel, when not occupied by
the drafted hounds for that day’s hunting, fiiould be
opened in bad weather to {belter them ; the lodging-
room fiiould then be thoroughly cleaned, the windows
and doors opened, the litter well fiiaken, and the ken¬
nel made fweet, before the hounds are again fliut into
it. Every omiflion prejudicial to the hounds fhould be
immediately pointed out to the feeder, who muft be
made to remedy it; and alfo obferve that the great
court and the other kennels are equally objects of his at¬
tention.
l0dg*ng-roorn {hould be bricked, and Hoped on
i >om. a both fides to the centre, where fhould be a gutter to
carry off the water, that when wafiied, the floor may
he equally dried : but flag-ftones, or large fquare bricks
termed/jowwonf/j1, are far preferable; there are fewer
interftices, and confequently lefs filth or water can
there accumulate, and the furface is fooner dry. Let
the floor be kept in thorough repair, that no water may
remain in any cavity, until the mafon can be had, when
at any time wanted ; let the ftagnant water be carefully
Hopped up ; for nothing is more hurtful to hounds,
Vol. VIII. Part II.
1 E R Y.
46s
than damp, or more refrefiiing than warmth after hard Hy.-eio-
Work,
The kennel {hould have three doors ; two in front -v——«»
and one behind ; that in the back to have a lattice [Jo 5
window in it, with a wooden {butter, which is to be
kept always clofe, except in fummer, when it fhould
be left open the whole of the day. This door has a two¬
fold utility, it ferves to carry out the dirty firaw, and
being oppofite to the window, will admit a thorough
air, when the lodging-room is cleaned, which will
much contribute to render it fweet and wholefome.
The front doors will be ufeful in drying the room when
the hounds are out; and as one is to be fliut and the
other hooked back, fo as to allow a Angle dog to pafs,
they are not liable to any objedtion. The large centre
window fiiould have a folding {butter, which at night,
according to the weather, may be wholly or partially
clofed ; and thus the warmth of the kennel may be re¬
gulated as is judged moll falutary. The two great
lodging rooms are exadlly fimilar, and having a court
belonging to each, are diftindt kennels fituated at the
oppofite ends of the building. In the centre of the
boiling-houfe and feeding-yard, a lefler kennel, either
for hounds that are drafted off, hounds that are lick
and lame, or for any other required purpofe, is on each
fide ; at the back of which, it being but half the depth
of the two larger kennels, are places for coals, &e. for
the ufe of the kennel. There is alfo a final! building
in the rear for hot bitches.
The inner court floor ftiould be bricked or flagged, jnue2i1^)ur,
and Hoped towards the centre like thofe of the lodging-
room ; and water brought in by a leaden pipe, {hould
run through the channel in the middle. In the centre
of each court is a wTell fufiiciently large to dip a bucket
for the purpofe of cleaning the kennel. To keep thefe
from wanting repair, they ftiould be faced with ftone,
and to that of the feeding-yard a wooden cover thould
be fixed. The benches, which muft be open to let the
urine through, fhould have hinges and hooks in them
all, that they may fold up when the kennel is waftied.
They {hould be made as low as poffible, that when a
hound is tired, he may have no difficulty in jumping
up, and at no time be able to creep under them. Re¬
collect that if, owing to the fmallnefs of the hound, as
in beagles, it ftiould be difficult to make the benches
fufficiently low, it will be proper to nail a lodging pro¬
jecting downwards in the edge, or the benches may be
faced with boards at the bottom, to prevent hounds
from creeping under.
A large bricked court in front, having a grafs court
adjoining, and a brook running through the middle of
it, completes the kennel. This court fiiould be plant¬
ed round, and alfo have fome lime trees and fome horfe
chefnuts near the centre for (hade. Some polls bound
round with ftraw, rubbed with galbanuro, may be placed
fo as to prevent the hounds from making water againft'
the trees. The brook may be ufed as a cold bath for
hounds lamed, in the ftifle, in {trains, or for other pur-
pofes for which the cold bath is required. A high pal¬
ing {hould inclofe the whole, and which, to the height
of four feet, {hould be clofe, the remainder being open,
with an interval of two inches between the pales. At
the back of the kennel fiiould be a thatched houfe,
fenced at the fides, to contain at leaft a load of ftraw,
.3 N a
\
466
FARRIERY.
Hygeio- a pit for. receiving the dung, and a gallows for the
t log.v'’ Helh. If a piece of ground adjoining to the kennel can
1,1"" v conveniently be enclofed, for keeping fuch horfes as
may be brought alive for the ufe of the hounds, it
would be of great fervice, as the diforders of condemn¬
ed horfes are not always afcertained j and an opportu¬
nity may thus be offered of invefligating their nature
and progrefs, which may prove advantageous in future
fimilar cafes. The hounds may alfo be brought into
this field, to empty themfelves after feeding; and the
draught for the next day’s hunt can be here made with
greater accuracy than when they are confined to the
kennel.
Stoves are ufed in fome kennels j but a good feeder,
and the mop properly applied, render them unneceffary.
Should ticks prove troublefome at any time, the walls of
the kennel fhould be well waflied j and if that fhould
fail to deftroy the ticks, they mull be white-wafhed
with lime.
217 When the hunting feafon is over, one kennel will be
fuflcient, and the other with the grafs-yard adjoining to
it may be allowed to the young hounds. This repara¬
tion, which fhould continue till the feafon comnaences,
is neceffary for preventing many accidents that might
otherwife happen at this time of the year. Should there
be conveniences, it will be proper to keep the dogs fe-
parate from the bitches during the fummer months.
When hounds are very riotous, the feeder may fleep in
a cot in an adjoining kennel ; if the dogs are well
chaflifed at the firfl quarrel, his voice will afterwards
* Canid's be fufficient to keep them quiet *.
Rvral
' SportSy
vol. i.
21S
Diet.
219
"Food of
horfes.
Chap. II. Of Diet.
In preferving the health of domeftic animals, much
will depend on the quantity and quality of their food,
and on the manner in which they are fupplied with it.
This fubjeft, therefore, requires fome fhare of our at¬
tention. We have already, in the article Agricul¬
ture, treated pretty much at large on the different
kinds of food that are mofl proper for horfes, fheep, and
cattle ; and have here little to add on that head. Our
principal object in this chapter will be, to confider the
beft means of difpenfing food to the different claffes of
domeftic animals, and to deferibe what are confidered
the moft beneficial methods of preparing the food in
thofe cafes where its preparation appears to be necef¬
fary.
The natural food of the horfe is the fimple herbage
of the field, and on it alone he can be conftantly kept
in a high ftate of health and vigour, fo long as he fhall
not be required to labour \ and whilft he is employed
in labour, grafs in fome form, either dried or green,
fieems abfolutely neceflary to his maintenance in a
healthy ftate. Hay, ftraw, and corn of various kinds
have been, from the earlieft time, the common food of
horfes j but in Britain, and indeed in France and Ger¬
many, during the later periods efpecially, they have re-
jefted all other fpecies of horfe corn, from a well-
grounded preference in favour of oats and beans $ the
latter for draught horfes chiefly, or as fubftantial auxi¬
liaries to the oats, imparting as flrong a nourifhment as
the conftitution of the horfe will properly bear, and at
the fame time of a cleanfing nature j and are, moreover,
H7geio.
!°gy.
. Part IV
the beft and cheapeft in-door fattening for almoft all
domeftic animals.
The fpecies of corn ufually given to horfes in many
countries is barley, the bulky provender is ftraw, both
of which in warm climates, are faid to be nearly equal
in nutriment to our oats and hay. With us, barley is
apt to fcour horfes, and make their urine red, efpecially
at its firfl; being given. Wheat is often given -to horfes
of the great upon the continent; it is faid when Philip
of Spain was in this country, his jennets were fed upon
wheat during the time of fcarcity, and this gave great
umbrage to the people.
There feems to exift no particular difference of qua.
lity between the white and the black oats, they being
equal in weight and thinnefs of hulk j thefe criteria, and
their being ftiort, are the beft marks of their goodnefs.
It is equally well known that they Ihould be fome
months old when ufed, as new oats are apt to fvvell the
belly and produce gripes.
New beans are improper for horfes, for the fame rea-Beans*
fon. The beft remedy is to dry them in a kiln. Old
beans Ihould be fplit, and given either with bran or
chaff j or the beft way would be to break them in a
mill. Mr Lawrence fed cart-horfes with beans for
nearly feven years, without experiencing any ill effe&
from fuch food ; but the horfes laboured very hard.
Beans contain more folid nourilhment than oats, but of
a lefs falubrious nature.
Grains conftantly loofen a horfe, and impoverilh his
blood ; bran fcours and weakens the entrails; both of
them are good occafional dietetic alteratives.
Carrots are faid to purify and fvveeten the blood, to Carrots,
amend the wind, and to replenilh after the waftings
occafioned by difeafe or inordinate labour. Mr Law¬
rence informs us that he has been accuftomed to ufe
them for years in all forms, and to all deferiptions of
horfes. They are either given in fpring or autumn to
high-fed horfes, as a change of diet, at the rate of one
feed per day, in lieu of a feed of corn, or as full fubfift-
ence to others. They ought to be waftied clean, and,
if large, cut into fiat and fizeable pieces. The quantity
of carrots for a feed is from half a peck to a peck.
The ufual periods of feeding with corn are in thisTiJ^of
country, morning, noon, and night. Ihe quantitiesfeedinj.
each time either a quarter or half a peck, with or with¬
out about two handfuls of beans, according to the
horfe’s ftate of body. Much greater care than is com¬
mon ought to be taken in fifting the oats clean from daft,
and the dung of mice. Water Ihould be allowed with¬
out fail twice a day. There is an error not unfrequent
among liable people, who fuppofe water to be at beft
but a kind of neceffary evil to horfes, and therefore
think it a point gained whenever they can find an op¬
portunity to abridge the quantity. But how well fo-
ever a horfe may fhift with little or no water while in
the field, and while feeding on fucculent meat, much
mifehief may enfue from its being withheld ; and this
may produce coftivenefs, gripes, inflammation of the
bowels, perpetual longing, and a danger of drinking to
excefs on every opportunity.
The well known ufe of hay is to dilate the body of Hay.
the horfe, to fatisfy his appetite with bulk and quanti¬
ty^ as corn does with compaft and folid nourilhment.
Britilh hay, the beft in the world,, contains great
nourilkment,
224
Hygeio-
logy.
E Law-
enct on
lorfes,
ol. ii.
225
’art IV. F A Tt It
nourifhment, and will keep a horfe and even fatten him j
but he is unable to labour upon hay alone, and experi¬
ence has fhewn that Bracken’s obfervation of the coii-
ftant ufe of hay injuring the fight of horfes, particular¬
ly if fuddenly put on fuch food after good keeping, is
very juft. Hard upland hay is the beft for race and
coach horfes ; and it fheuld be of a fine greenith colour,
fragrant fcent, and full of flower. It is faid that horfes
and cattle prefer fuch hay as has been fweated, or which
has undergone a partial fermentation : and it is even
thought that they grow much fooner fat on heated hay
than on fuch as has been gotten up dry and cool.
There can be no doubt that fvveated hay contains a
confiderable quantity of fugar, formed during its ftate
of fermentation j this may render the hay more pala¬
table to the beafts, but we have fome doubt whether it
be fo wholefome as frefli well-coloured hay. Clover-hay,
and hay of artificial grafles, from its groflnefs, is appro¬
priated to cart-horfes. Without attempting to afcertain
the precife quantity, it may be faid that hay fhould be
given as often as a horfe has a keen appetite for it j
but great care ftiould be taken that fo much be never
allowed at once, as that he (hall leave it, and blow up¬
on it. At night a confiderable quantity of hay is ufual-
ly left in the rack, and this is no doubt abfolutely ne-
ceflary for horfes who are hard worked during the day,
as night is their moft leifure time for feeding ; but it
admits of doubt whether horfes who live in a ftate of
luxury, and are but little worked, ftiould be indulged
in much hay at night*.
It will obvioufly occur to moft people, that the quan¬
tity and quality of a horfe’s food ftiould be proportion¬
ed to his labour ; that horfes who are lightly worked,
will not in general require fo much or fo nourifhing
food, as thofe who are conftantly kept to hard labour.
It is evident that when horfes ftand idle, and are at the
fame time high fed, they are expofed to many dangerous
difeafes, as inflammation, flaggers, arifing from a too
full habit of body j and thefe difeafes will be more like¬
ly to come on when a horfe that has been thus fed is
fuddenly put to hard labour, or obliged to make any
unufual or violent exertion. But this muft not be
carried too far. Horfes ftiould not, becaufe they have
little work at the time, be entirely confined to grafs, or
grafs and hay, unlefs they are at pafture, and are never
worked. For while a horfe ftands in the liable, and is
liable to be called upon on any emergency, his diet
fliould be fo regulated, as that he ftiall neither be fo fat
and full of blood, as not to perform oecafional work
without difficulty and danger, nor on the other hand,
fo poor and weak, as to be incapable of fupporting ex¬
ertion without injury to himfelf or rider. All horfes
that are fed on grafs and hay alone, are too weak to
perform a good day’s journey without Humbling. A
moderate quantity of corn or other hard food, Ihould
therefore be allowed to fuch horfes as ftand conflantly
in the liable, or who, while at pafture, are occafionally
worked.
Mr Clark obferves, that throwing great quantities of
clean grain before horfes at one time is very improper j
as they eat it too greedily, and fwallow whole mouth¬
fuls of it almoft dry. The moifture in the ftomach, or
water drunk immediately after eating, caufes the grain
to fwell, and thus the ftomach is greatly diftended, and
Jofea its contradling power on the food. By the preffure
iSf
I E R Y. 457
of the full ftomach on the inteftines, the paflage of the Hygeio-
food backwards is obftrudted, and the confined air, _ ^
arifing from the indigelted food, not having a ready "v
paflage backwards, and horfes not poflfeffing the power
of belching, the air becomes rarefied to a great degree,
the horfe is feized with colic pains j as thefe increafe
he becomes convulfed, and in many cafes the ftomach
burfts. Out of a number of cafes where the above wTas
difcovered on diflfedling the bodies, Mr Clark mentions
the two following.
“ A young draught-horfe was fed in the morning
with too great a quantity of barley mixed with peafe,
and had been allowed to drink water immediately
thereafter. He-was yoked to a two-wheeled chaife, in
order to travel a few miles, and was obferved about the
middle of the day to be very uneafy, frequently at¬
tempting to lie down. As foon as he was unyoked he
lay down and tumbled about, frequently lying on his
back, ftarting up fuddenly and turning his head to¬
wards his belly. He continued thus in great agony
till towards next morning, when he died. Upon open¬
ing his body, the ftomach was found burft, the barley
and peafe moftly entire, only greatly fw’elled, and the
whole contents of the ftomach fpread through the ab¬
domen.
“ The other cafe W'as a horfe who had been fed with
too great a quantity of oats and barley, and had been
allowed to drink water freely aftenvards. He was
feized with griping pains, fo that he frequently lay
down and tumbled, feemingly tortured with the moll
acute pains. He died next day. Upon opening his ^
body, the ftomach was found diftended to a moft enor¬
mous fize, but was not burft. Its coats were fo very
thin, from the great diftention it had undergone, that
its cohefion was almoft deftmyed, and had more the ap¬
pearance of a coat of mucus or llime, than the ftomach.
The oats and barley were for the moft part entire as
they were fwallowed, only greatly fwelled from thd
moiflure they had imbibed. /
“ From the cafes now related, it will appear how ne-
ceflary it is not to allow horfes to eat too great a quan¬
tity of clean grain at a time, but to give it in fmall
quantities, and repeated the more frequently. At the
fame time, it will fhow the propriety of mixing with
it a little chopped ftraw, or hay, in order to make them
chew it the more thoroughly before they fwallow ft.
This procefs alfo prepares the food for being properly
digefted, and not a fingle grain of it is loft gri‘
The method of feeding horfes with bruifed grain Prevention,'
and cut ftraw is recommended by the earl of Pembroke,
in his excellent treatife on horfes, as exceedingly proper. 22y
“ Every grain (fays he) goes to nouriffiment. : none is Cut Ilraw.
to be found in the dung 5 and three feeds of it go
further than four as commonly given which have not
been in the mill. But wheaten ftraw, and a little hay
fometimes mixed with it, is excellent food. To a quan¬
tity of corn, put the fame quantity of ftraw. It obli¬
ges them to chew their meat, and is many other ways
°f ^ V' JT r u r rn \ Military
Mr Lawrence duapproves 01 the Ute or ftraw, as Equitation.
containing no nourifhment. In this he probably goes
too far, as both horfes and cattle are in ftraw-yards
often fed with little elfe. He prefers chaff, or cut
clover hay to mix with the corn, efpecially for cart-
horfes. Mr Lawxense, however, allows that cutting
3 N 2 up
468
FARR
Hyjtio- up untVirallied oats for food is a good pradtice, particu-
luSY- larly when hay is fcarce j as thrafhing and dreding of
lu~"" v — ' the oats are. thus faved, and it is an economical expen¬
diture of the oats, which are moreover very frtlh, and
stzS agreeable to the horfe.
Of grinding ^ bas of late been recommended to bruife the corn
corn for in a mill, before giving it to the horfe, and it is certain-
kaics. ly a g00d praftice, as there is thus little danger of its
palTing through the bowels undigefted. It is ufual
only to bruife the corn, but Mr Lawrence thinks that
it is better to grind them as tine as poffible. Whole
corn, with whatever it may be mixed, will, much of it,
be fwallowed in that date ; a great deal only half malli-
cated, which will elude the digeitive powers of the ani¬
mal, and be ejected from his body crude and unbroken.
This is particularly the cafe with brood-mares and
young dock, the bellies of which are full of flippery
grafs j fuch fhould ever have ground corn, and mafhes
Ihould always be made with it. Ground buck-wheat
529
L'awfon’s
food t’.r
horfes and
cattle.
230
Foodef
cauie.
agrees well enough with horfes, but that fpecies of corn
is the lead fundantial.
Mr Lawfon, a merchant of London, has lately pub-
IMted an eflay, on the ulc of Mixed and Compreffed
Cattle Fodder, intended as food and fattening for
horfes, oxen, dieep, and hogs. His plan is, to grind,
cut, mix, and comprefs, all the article* in prefent ufe,
as food for cattle, with fome additional ones of his own
recommending -7 and to keep the mafs dowed in calks,
or other clofe dowage. He gives a detailed account
of all the indrumen!s neceffary in the procefs, the mod
commodious methods according *o his pradlice, and va¬
rious tables of expence and quantities^
With relpecl to the drink of horles, we have little
tc remark. Their water diould be as pure as poflible,
as muddy and hard water is not onlv very unpleafant
to the horfe, bul probably lays the foundation of gra¬
velly complaints. It is a very abfurd cudom, which is
however very prevalent, to gallop the horfe after water¬
ing, with the view, according to the groom’s id; a, of
warming the water in his belly j for if the bode has
drunk heartily, as he is very often improperly allowed
to do, any violent exertion immediately after cannot
but occafion great unealinefs. It is, however, a yood
praftice to ride the horfe moderately before watering;
but care (hould be taken, not to throw him into a per-
fpiration, as drinking cold water in this date is attend¬
ed with conliderable danger.
The feeding of cattle is of confiderable importance
to the farmer, and has of late been much improved.
Both the food and tire manner of adminidering it mud
be different according to the age of the cattle, the fea-
fon ot the year, and the purpofes for which the cattle
are fed.
It ha> been well obferved in a late ufeful practical
■work, that in the winter the yearlings fhould “ be fed
■With hav and roots, either turnips, carrots, or potatoes;
and they fhouid be thoroughly well fed, and be kept
perft^lly clean by means of litter. At this age it is a
matter of great confequence to keep fuch young cattle
as well as poflible for the contrary pra6Hce will ine¬
vitably dop their growth,, which cannot be recovered
bv the bed fummer food. If hay is not to be had,
good draw mud be fubdituted ; but then the roots
fro u!d be given in greater plenty, and with more at¬
tention. To fleers and horfes two years old, the pro-
I
1 E R Y* Partly
per food is hay, if cheap, or draw, with baits, of tur- u •
nips, cabbages, &c*.” H^10-
bickfjn'i
IVIr Donaldfon thinks the advantages of Green win
- C. 1 r _ 1:..* n 1. r . ., *.
ter food for live dock, fo great, that there is'no way in * Dickf^'
which it can be applied with greater benefit than “ by ^ ^
giving the young cattle a daily allowance during the ’
fird two or three winters.” Whenever draw is em¬
ployed as fodder for young dock, without the above
forts of food, if it be not very good, or flightly mixed
with fome graffy material, a little hay diould always be
blended with it, in order that it may be preferved in
proper condition. It is alfo of confequence that the
animals be ferved with this fort of fodder, in a regular
manner, as where too much is given at a time, Mr Mar-
diall has remarked, that they do not thrive fo well.
The following obfervations of Sir John Sinclair me¬
rit every attention.
.. “ Some intelligent graziers recommend the follow-sir John
ing mode of feeding and fattening cattle. Suppofe there Sinclair’s
are four inclolures of from fix to ten acres each onermarllSt
of them diould be kept quite free from dock till the
graF has got up ; and then the prime or falling cattle,
diould be put into it, that they may get the bed of the
food : the fecond bed diould then follow ; and the
young (fore alter all, making the whole feed over the
four inclofures in fuccedion, as follows.
id Inclofure. Free from Jlock, till readtj for the bejl
cuttle.
2d ditto. For the beft cattle tillfent to N° 1.
3d ditto. For the Jecond bejl till fent to N° 2.
4th ditto. For the young cattle tillfent to N° 3.
N° 4. is then kept free from dock till the grafs gets
up, and it is ready for the prime cattle. The proper
fize of inclofures has never yet been afcertained by ex¬
periment ; probably from 10 to 30 acres is the bed;
but the fize diould be various, as fmall ones are better
calculated for grafs, and large ones for corn. Probably
the bed plan to adopt is to teed cattle entirely in the
houfe, or foiling them as it is technically called. In
that cafe, Imall inclofures mud be preferred, as the
Ihelter they afford is extremely favourable to the growth
of the herbage.
The larger a bullock is, he mud take the more food ^
to fupport him. It is defirable to change his food of¬
ten, and to give him frequently, but little at a time,
which makes him more eager to eat. After his kid¬
neys aie covered with fat, he will take lefs meat every
week. It is better, therefore, to afeertain the quantity
he eats, by the week, than by the day.
Fatting cattle, to be fold immediately from the far- 232
mer’s houfe, and not fent to market, fhould be kept
moderate;y warm. If kept too hot it makes them per-
fpire, and tluir fkinsto itch : this vexes them, and they
rub themfelves againit any wall or pod within their
reach, which is much againd quick feeding. Currying
and combing them are ufeful praffices;. and wafhing
them at lead once a week, is of great fervice. Bleed¬
ing is now exploded as an old and unneceffary practice.
In fome parts of the kingdom, the whole attention j.34
of the farmer is dedicated to luckling, or, in other words,
to feeding calves, for fupplying the market with veal.
In Effex, this plan is reckoned more profitable than
the dairy, and next to grazing. But the profit there
mull depend much upon the immediate neighbourhood
of
Hygeio-
logy.
23S
FARRIERY.
to fo sreat and certain a market as
f
alves,
Part IV.
of that country
Londonr
The particulars connected with this branch of rural
economy, will, it is probable, be fully detailed, in the
ilTixmotj6 jmproveci Agricultural Survey of EiTex, in fo far as re-
lr‘M'ln° gards that and the neighbburing diftrifts. But as the
mode of fuckiing, adopted in feme parts of Scotland, is
extremely different, it may not be improper to give a
fliort account of it in this place. As foon as the calf
is dropped, it is put into a box made of coarfe boards,
four feet and a half or five feet long, and four feet, or
four feet and a half high, and about two feet wide, ac¬
cording to the fize of the calf. The boards are not put
fo clofe but that a fufficient quantity of air is admitted;
light is, however, carefully excluded ; and the box has
a cover for that purpofe. The box Hands on four feet,
which, at one end, are four inches high, but at the
other, only two inches ; and, as there are holes at the
bottom, all wetnefs is drained off. The bottom is alfo
covered with Itraw or hay, which is changed twice a-
week. For feven or eight days, milk is but cautioufly
given, for unlefs a calf is fed moderately at firft, it is
apt to take a loathing to its food. It Ihould be bled in
about ten days ; and afterwards, as much milk given it
freih from the cow, either twice or thrice a-day, as it
will take. The bleeding fhould be repeated once a-
week ; and at all times when a calf loathes its milk, and
does not feed well, bleeding ought to be repeated.
Thefe frequent bleedings prevent difeafes from plethora*
to which calves are fubje£t, even when not fed fo high,
and ftill more fo when they are. A large piece of chalk
fhould be hung up in the box, which the calf will lick
occafionally : this contributes nothing to the whitenefs
of the veal ; but it amufes the animal, and corre&s that
acidity in the ftomach which might otherwife be en¬
gendered, and which certainly often takes place. A
cow calf is reckoned the beff veal ; if a bull calf is
fuckled, he ought to be cut when about a week old,
otherwife the veal will neither be fo good nor fo white.
By this made of treatment calves are kept clean, quiet,
warm, and dry ; the veal they furnifh is excellent, and
they are foon ready for the market ; and, on the whole,
it feems to be preferable to the pra&ice of ftupifying
them with fpirits, or with laudanum, fo common in other
places where a different fyffem is purfued.
The fuppofed neceffity of beginning to feed oxen at
an early age, is a great obje&ion to their being gener¬
ally ufed, as they are hardly trained properly to work,
before it is thought neceffary to fatten them, after
which they do very little work ; but, in confequence of
the improved mode of fattening by oil-cake, &c. there
Mag. vol. js no difficulty to fatten oxen, even at twelve years of
1I1‘ l63' age, which is a material circumftance in their favour*.”
It is now very generally underftood, that the more
cleanly and comfortable cattle are kept, and the cleaner
and better the order in which their food is prefented to
them, the better they will thrive, and conlequently the
fooner they will fatten, and the heavier they will be.
With thefe views, and with the additional view of
faving a greater proportion of the dung and urine of
the cattle than is ufually done, fo as to increafe the
quantity of manure as much as poffible, a bvre has been
eonftrudted by Mr Hunter of Blaeknefs in Forfarfhire,
which has been found, on trial, completely to anfvver
the ends propofed. The byre conliffs of two apavt-
* Farm.
236
Mr Hun.
er’s feed,
ing byre.
ments, an inner apartment or byre for feeding the Hygeio-
cattle, and an outer apartment or barn for containing ^ logy-
the turnips and fodder.
At the proper feafon when the turnips are complete¬
ly ripened, and the turnip feeding commences, the tur¬
nips are gathered together on the field in large quanti¬
ties, and two or three men with coarfe turnip knives
made from old fcythes, cut off the whole of the roots,
carefully cleaning the turnips at the fame time, from
any earth which may adhere to them. T he turnips are
then carted to the turnip barn, the door of which is
wide enough to allow the carts to back in, and throw
them down. Here the men with their turnip knives
are again ready immediately to cut off the whole green
tops or fhaws of the turnips, and thefe green tops are
immediately given to cows, young winterling cattle,
ffieep, &c. who readily eat them when freffi. Ihe tur¬
nips, now quite clean, are piled up in one end of the barn
like cannon balls, and will keep in excellent order for
months together. Should the winter ftorm fet in, a
fmall quantity of clean dry ftraw laid over them, will
effe&ually preferve them from being injured by the
froft. The other end of the barn receives the ftraw
and litter for the ufe of the byre. The advantages pro¬
pofed to be derived from this method of treating the
turnips are, r. The prefervation of a great many of the
beft turnips, which, if allowed to remain on the field
during winter, are unavoidably fpoiled by the effects of
the weather, and the alternate operations of fnow, rain,
and froft. 2. The green tops being cut off freftr and
good, are immediately confumed, in place of being en¬
tirely loft if allowed to remain on the field. 3. It
faves much labour and trouble, both to men and horfes*
to lay in a (lock of turnips at once, in place of going
to the field every day, whether good or bad, and when,
as the fields are neceflarily wet and foft, the horfes,
carts, and harnefs, are feverely ftrained, and the fields
poached and cut up.
Laftly, By having a couple of months fupply of tur¬
nips in the barn, you are never under the neceflity of
ufing frofted turnips, which are often little better than
lumps of ice. And even if you (hould not incline, or
find it convenient, to lay in fo large a ftock ol turnips
at once, ftill you can take the advantage of any good
frefti day, as it occurs, to add to your ftock of turnips
in the barn.
At right angles to the turnip barn, Hands the feed-
ing byre, conftrudled as follows. At the diftance of
about three feet and a half from the great fide wall
of the byre, there are conftrufted on the ground, in a
flraight line, ten troughs for feeding ten large cattle ;
thtfe are of hewn pavement on nil tides, and at the bot¬
tom ; and they are divided from each other by divifions
or bridges, like-wife of hewn pavement. Thefe troughs
are fo conftrufted, that there is a {mall and gradual de¬
clivity from the firft or innermoft, to the laft and outer-
moft one; and the bridges feparatingthem, being made
with a imall arch at the bottom, a pail or bucket of
water poured in at the uppermoft, runs out at the un-
dermoft one, through a ftone fpout palling through the
wall, and a fweep with a broom, carries off the whole
remains of the turnips, &c. rendering the whole troughs
quite clean and fweet. The whole food of the cattle is
thus kept perfedlly clean at all times.
In a line with the feeding troughs, and immediately .
469
over
470
Hygeio
logy.
FARR
over them, runs a large ftrong beam of wood, from one
, end of the byre to the other, which is ftrengthened by
two ftrong upright fupporters to the roof, placed at e-
qual diftances from the ends of the byre, and the main
beam is again fubdivided by the cattle ftakes and chains,
fo as to keep each of the ten oxen oppofite to 'his own
feeding trough and ftall.
The three and a half feet of fpace betwixt the feed¬
ing troughs and outer wall of the byre, lighted at the
farther end by a glazed window, is the cattle-feeder’s
walk, who paffes along it in front of the cattle} and,
with a bafket, depofits before each of the cattle the
turnips into the feeding trough of eaclv
To prevent any of the cattle from choking on fmall
turnips, or pieces of large ones, as they are very apt to
do, the chains at the ftakes are contrived of fuch a
length, that no ox can raife his head too high when
eating •, for in this way, it is obferved, cattle are ge¬
nerally choked. However, in cafe it ftill ftiould hap¬
pen, that an ox chokes on a turnip, the cattle-man, or
feeder is provided with a ramrod, made of a piece of
ftrong ftiff rope, with a fm?U round polilhed wooden
head at the end of it; this he introduces into the mouth
of the ox, and fo gently knocks the turnip down his
throat without either difficulty or danger to the ani¬
mal. That the cattle-feeder may be always at hand to
attend his cattle, a fmall apartment with a window in
it, in which his bed is placed, is conftru&ed immediate¬
ly off the corner of the byre, fo that he is ready, even
in the night-time, in cafe of any accident happening,
to give affiftance.
.At the diftance of about fix feet eight inches from
the feeding troughs, and parallel to them, is the dung
groop and urine gutter, neatly and fubftantially built
with hewn ftone. Here too, like the troughs, there is
a gradual declivity from the inner and upper to the out¬
er and lower end ; fo that the moment the urine paffes
from the cattle, it runs to the low eft end of the gutter,
whence it is conveyed through the outer wall of the*
byre in a large ftone fpout, and depofited in the urina-
rium outfide of the wall. At this place is a large in-
•clofed fpace, occupied as a comport dung-court. Here
all forts of ftuff are colledied for increafing the manure j
fuch as, fat earth, cleanings of roads, ditches, ponds,
&c. rotten vegetables, &c.; and the urine from the
byre being caufed to run over all thefe collefted toge¬
ther, which is done very eafily by a couple of wooden
fpouts moved backwards and forwards to the urinarium
at; pleafure, renders the whole mafs, in a fhort time, a
rich compoft dunghill ; and this is done by the urine
alone, which in general is totally loft. The dung of
the byre again is cleaned out feveral times each day, at
the two front doors of the byre oppofite to the groop,
and depofited in the dung-court; fo that in this way*
too, the byre is kept in as good order as any liable, and
the cattle as clean as horfes. Along the edge of the
dung-court, a few low ftieds are conftrufled, in which
young beafts, ftieep, or fwine, &c. are kept; and thefe
confume the refufe and remains of the turnips from the
great feeding byre.
In the fide wall of the byre, and oppofite to the
heads of the cattle, there are conftru&ed three vents,
or ventilators5 thefe are placed at the diftance of about
two feet four inches from the ground in the infide of
th« byre, and come out immediately under the eafing
I E R Y.
of the Hates on the outfide
thefe are
 i • • , , v , “i uieacun.
and nine in depth ,n the wall j and they ferve two good
PUrnofes. I. Thp hrpctt, l - r -P6 ..
Part IV,
The infide openings of v,
■ . Hygei0.
about 13 inches in length, feven in breadth f.“ ”
IM tU~  ii 1.1 » *OPv
purpofes. 1. The breath of cattle being’fpecifiSlIy
lighter than atmofpheric air ; the confequence is that
in lome byres the cattle are kept in a conftant heat and
iweat, becaufe their breath and heat have no way to
eicape 5 whereas, by means of the ventilators, the air of
The byre is kept in proper circulation, which conduces
as much to the health of the cattle as to the preferva-
tion of the walls and timber of the byre, by drying up
the moifture produced from the breath and fweat of*SeeW
the cattle, which is fouijd to injure thofe parts of the Voi’
building*. r “f-p. 8.
The method of giving cows their food by the milk-LondS
farmers m the vicinity of the metropolis, where this bufi-mo<i®0f
/nels is carried on upon the moft extenfive fcale, is thusfeedins
ftated in the valuable Agricultural Survey’of that'0™'
iftn&. “ During the night, the cows are confined in
italls j about three o’clock in the morning, each cow
has a half-bufhel bafket of grains ; when the milkino- is
finifhed, a bufliel bafket of turnips is given to each
cow ; and very foon afterwards they have an allotment
in the proportion of one bufs to ten cows, of the moft
graffy and foft meadow hay, which had been the moft
early mown, and cured of the greeneft colour. Thefe
feveral feedings are generally made before eight o’clock
in the morning, at which time the cows are turned into
the cow-yard. About twelve o’clock they are again
confined to their ftalls, and ferved with the fame quan¬
tity as they had in the morning. When the afternoon
milking, which-Continues till near three, is finifhed the
cows ere again ferved with the fame quantity of’tur¬
nips, and about an hour afterwards with the fame diftri-
bution of hay, as before defcribed. This mode of feed¬
ing generally continues during the turnip feafon, which
is from the month of September to the month of May.
During the other months of the year they are fed with
grains, cabbages, tares, and the other foregoing pro¬
portion of fecond-cut meadow hay, and are continued
to be fed with the fame regularity until they are turned
out to grafs, when they continue in the field all night;
and even during this feafbn they are frequently fed with
grains.”
As the grains employed in feeding cattle cannot al¬
ways be procured frefh as they are wanted, it becomes 1
a defirabfe objeft to preferve them far a length of time.
They are preferved in feme places by putting them into
pits dug in the earth, into which they are trodden
down, and afterwards covered to a moderate depth
with dry earth. In this way being defended from the
action of the air, and thus prevented from fermenting,
they may be kept for a confiderable time during the
months of fummer, when brewing is not carrying on ;
they may alfo be kept by preffing them down into
cafks placed upon Hands, fo as to elevate them a little
from the ground, and having their bottoms pierced
with holes, to carry off the fuperabundant moifture.
*3*
Food of Dogs,
A good feeder is very effential. He fhould be Food of
young, active, induftrious, and good tempered, for the dogs*
fake of the animals entrufted to his care, who, however
they may be treated by him, cannot complain. He
muft ftri&ly obey any orders that his mafter may give,
both
part IV.
FARR
Hygeio-
logy.
239
Cleanlineft'
240
Of vege¬
table food.
241
Oa» meal.
242
Barley
meal.
243
Mode of
preparing
the food.
both wilh regard to the management and to the breed¬
ing of the hounds, ar.d he muft not confider himfelf as
folely under the direftion of the huntfman. This is a
necelfary hint, as it has fometimes happened that a pack,
of hounds apparently belonged entirely to the huntl-
man, ’.vhen the mafter had little more authority over
them than if he were a perfeft ftranger.
On the exquilite fenfe of fmelling, lb peculiar to the
hound, our fport entirely depends ; care muft therefore
be taken to preferve it, and the fureft method of doing
fo is, to obferve the utmoft cleanlinefsj to keep the ken¬
nel fvveet, is a point that cannot be too much recom¬
mended, and which muft on no account be negledled.
This muft therefore be inculcated on the feeder, and
the proprietor ftiould fee that his orders in this refpedl
are carefully obferved.
Oat meal is by far the heartieft and beft food ; for
hounds will run more ftoutly with that, than on any
other meal, or than even on oat meal mixed with any
other. In point of expence, as well as for the greater
benefit of the hounds, the moft advantageous method is
to grow one’s own oats, and have them properly dried,
and broken at the mill into meal that is not too fine.
A fufficient quantity ftiould be ground, to ferve for 12
or 18 months confumption ; the older the meal, fo
much the better ; but unlefs it is kept by one, there is
fcarcely any mode of procuring it fufficiently old. It
fliould be kept in bins, in a dry granary, and the meal
fliould be trodden into the bins as clofely as poflible.
Should there be no granary near, fugar hogiheads will
anfwer the purpofe, but the meal muft be prefled into
them very firmly, and it muft be kept dry. Thefe hogf-
heads fhould be placed upon ftands, like beer ftands, by
which means vermin will be prevented from getting at
the meal unobferved.
Barley meal is ufed in many kennels, being cheaper
than oat meal, but it is faid to be much more heating
and lefs nourifliing; or as the huntfmen exprefs them-
felves, there is lefs proof in it.
It js well known that the principal animal food giv¬
en to hounds, is the flefh of horfes, which ihould be
boiled. The boiler employed for this purpofe ihould be
madeofeaft iron, and its fize ftiould be in proportion to
the number of hounds in the kennel. The flelh muft
be thoroughly boiled, and muft then be taken out of
the broth with the ftrainer, and a proper quantity of
oat meal muft be put into the broth. When this has
been boiled fufficiently, which will require from three
quarters of an hour to an hour, the fire may be with¬
drawn. As it cools, it thickens into a pretty firm jelly,
and for hunting hounds it cannot be too ftrong. Five
or fix pecks of good oat meal will be fufficient to make
a boiler of broth that will furnifti 30 couple of hounds
for two feeds fufficiently thick. Some are of opinion
that oat meal and barley meal in equal quantities make
the beft food for hounds. The oat meal is to be firft
boiled for half an hour, the fire is then to be extinguifh-
ed, and the barley meal put into the copper, and both
mixed together. The reafon for not putting both kinds
of meal into the boiler at the fame time is, that the
boiling which thickens the oat meal, makes the barley
meal thin. When barley meal alone is ufed, it ftiould
not be put into the boiler at all, but fhould be
fealded with the hot liquor, and mixed up in a large
tub, capable of containing at leaft half a hogfhead.
1 E R Y. 47*
We muft however remark, that barley meal fhould Hygeio-
never be given by itfelf to hunting hounds during the logy,
hunting feafon, as its heating quality renders them ex- *
ceedingly thirlfy ; and when out, they take every op¬
portunity to lap water.
The meat Ihould never be given to the dogs too hot, 244
and fhould be mixed up to as thick a confiftence as may
be. The feeding troughs fhould be wide at the bot¬
tom, and have wooden covers, and they fhould not be
made too long; five or fix troughs that are eafily moved,
are better than two or three that are unwieldy.
The boiling for the hounds, mixing of the meat, and
preparing it for them at prope* hours, will of courle be
taken care of by the huntfman. He muft conftantly
attend the feeding of the hounds, who Ihould be
draughted according to the ftate they are in at the
time. Some hounds are better feeders than others, and
fome require lefs meat than others; a nice eye and great
attention are required to keep them all in equal flefh.
This is what conftitutes the merit of the huntfman, and
fhews him to be well qualified for his office; but few
are fufficiently attentive to this. The hounds are fed
in a hurry, without examining them before they begin*
To afeertain properly the condition of a pack of hounds
requires nofmall circumfpe£tion.
The huntfman fhould call each hound by name, let-M0(ie of
ting him in to his food as he is called; this ufes them to adminifter?
their name, and teaches them obedience. A hound ing it.
fhould always approach him who calls on him ; and if
he touches him with a flick, he fhould follow wherever
he is led.
The thin and tender feeding hounds being firft turn¬
ed out to the feeding room, will have the opportunity of
picking where they choofe. Such hounds as are in low
condition, had better be drafted off into a feparate
kennel. Thus feledting thofe that are poor, we proceed
to the feeding of the reft with lefs trouble and more
accuracy; but thofe that are drafted off, when more r
flefh is mixed with the meat, muft be let in to feed one
by one as they anfwer to their names ; or they may be
better fed than taught. Thus the hounds who want
flefh, will all have a fhare of it ; and if any of them be
much poorer than the reft, they fhould be fed again, as
fuchliounds cannot be fed too often. Unlefs peculiarly
good, a foft wafhy conftitutioned hound will fcarcely
ever be worth the attention that is given him ; and af¬
ter a hard day is frequently unferviceable for fome time. -
It muft be recolle£led, however, that fuch hounds as are
tender, or lean feeders, cannot be fed too late, or with
too rich meat. Should any hounds appear to get too
fat, they muft not be fuffered to eat their fill, but the
reft may eat as much of the meat as they pleafe.
Once a week, or fortnight at moft, during the hunt- 24g
ing feafon, the hounds fhould have a pound of fulphur
given them in their meat; and when the feafon is over,
they fhould have half a pound of antimony added to the
fulphur, and well mixed with the meat. On thefe days,
the hounds fhould all be let in to feed together, and
fuch as require flefh, have it given to them afterwards.
Greens boiled in their meat once a-vveek, is likewife
proper. A horfe killed and given to hounds whilft:
warm, after a very hard day’s hunting, will make an
excellent meal, but they ffiould not hunt again till three
days after it. The bones broken are good food for
poor hounds, as there is confiderable nourifhment in them.
Sheeps
472 FARR
Hygeio- Sheeps trotlefs are alfo very fweet food, and in a fcar-
. c^y oi horfe flefh, bullocks paunches may be employed
^ with advantage.
a47 It is cudomary with fome to (hut up the hounds for
two hours after they have returned from hunting, be¬
fore they are fed, and the other hounds are fhut up with
them to lick them clean ; but probably this pra&ice
tloes more harm than good, as the idle hounds will dif-
turb the tired dogs more by their licking, than this will
-make amends for. Befides, hounds (but up on their re¬
turn from hunting, will not afterwards readily quit
their benches, as, if much fatigued, they will feek re-
pofe rather than food. It is therefore a better way when
the hunt is nearly over, to fend forward a fervant to fee
the meat prepared, that the dogs may be fed immediate¬
ly on their return. If they have had a fevere day, they
Ihould be fed again afterwards. When hounds are fed
twice, they fliould be kept feparate from the hounds that
were left at home, till after the fecund feeding, and it
will be ftill better if they are not put together till the
next morning. It is the bell plan to feed the bounds
that have been out twice. Some hounds will feed bet¬
ter the fecond time than the firft, and befides, the turn¬
ing them out from the lodging houfe refrelhes them,
and allows them to ftretch their limbs j and if the ken¬
nel is cleaned out, and the litter well Ihaken up, they
will afterwards fettle themfelves better on their benches.
It is at all times proper, after feeding, to turn out the
dogs into the grafs court, as this contributes very much
to the cleanlinefs of the kennel.
Chap. III. Of Epcercife.
^ ^
Ixercife. Nature didfates the neceffity of exercife to almoft
every animal, and a greater or lefs proportion of it is
neceflary to enable them to perform their fundlions with
health and adlivity. The proportion requifite for this
purpofe is, however, not the fame in all animals. Sheep
and cattle require but little exercife, much of which, in¬
deed, appears to be incompatible with the manner of
their eating ; for, as they require a fecond maftication of
their food by rumination, a confiderable time is necef-
fary for this procefs, which cannot be properly perform¬
ed unlefs the animal be entirely at its eafe. It is found,
however, that fuch of thefe animals as are kept without
exercife, or are wholly cooped up in hoiifes, for the pur¬
pofe of fattening them more fpeedily, are neither fo
healthy, nor afford fuch fine and wholefome meat, as
thofe which are permitted to rove at large in their na¬
tive paftures. It is to the horfe and dog that exercife
fcems the moft elfential. Thtfe animals require the
greatefl proportion, and are moft injured by the want
©f it. The obfervations we are about to make will
chiefly apply to the horfe.
Such horfes as are conftantly employed in adtive la¬
bour have, of courfe, fufficient exercife; but it often
happens that thofe which are kept by gentlemen, for
their pleafure or convenience, are, when their labour is
not required, permitted to ftand whole days in the
liable, without any other exercife than being ridden
perhaps twice a-day to a neighbouring pond. In cities
and large towns, even this exercife is often not permit¬
ted them. They are in the mean time plentifully fed
with rich hard food, and thus pampered, they are ren¬
dered liable to the attacks of many acute difeafesj and
i E R Y. parf JY
"hen their exertions are required, they cannot perform Hv • 1
their ufual labour with their ufuai eafe. It is therefore logy.0'
neceflary that fuch horfes as are not regularly worked kl""
fliould receive daily a moderate proportion of txercife
and ftiould be accuftomed to fuch a degree of labour as
may counterbalance the eftedf of high feeding, and en¬
able them to undergo occafional exertion. A horfe who
is kept in the ftate of regular labour, is faid to be in wind.
The exercife of a horfe that is not conttantiy work¬
ed ftiould not, however, be exceffive, or be carried be¬
yond the commencement of fatigue, as this would wear
out the horfe without neceflity. It is an abfurd prac-
tice which fome people purfue, to fend out their horfes
every day to be galloped and rattled along the roads,
er perhaps over the ftreets, for the purpofe of keeping
them in wind. This is wrong, even where the horfe is
rn good health and found condition ; but when it is
praftifed with finew-ftrained, or foundered horfes, as is
not uncommon, it muft be produdfive of confiderable
mifehief.
In general, two hours a-day will be fufficient for
the purpofe of preferving the health of the horfe, and
this may be taken at once or tufice in the day, as may¬
be moft convenient. If poflible, the owner ftiould ride
his own horfe on thefe exercifing jaunts, for the
groom will probably do the horfe more injury than
benefit.
Some horfes require more exercife than others.
Gentlemen’s horfes that are merely kept for light riding,
will do with but little j but hunters and racers require
a greater proportion, and fhould feldom have lefs than
three hours a-day. This, however, muft depend in a
great meafure on the quantity and quality of their food,
as the food and exercife muft in general be proportion¬
ed to each other 5 but in all cafes care muft be taken
that the horfe’s labour do not exceed his ftrengtb.
Young horfes are not equal to much exertion, and
ihould therefore be exercifed but lightly. Many horfes
have been deflroyed by the negleft of this precaution,
efpecially in the army, where it is not unufual to re¬
ceive horfes as recruits of four or even three years of
age. Thefe horfes, when they reach the regiment, to
which they are probably brought from a confiderable
diftance, are in general weak and in low condition,
and are probably fuffering from fome acute diftafe,
brought on them by expofure to cold and wet during
their journey. They are of courfe very unfit for labour,
and require at leaft three or four weeks reft, before
they can with propriety be brought to go through their
exercifes in the riding fchool. According to Mr
White, however, they are feldom allowed the half of
that time, but are brought too haftily into the fchool,
without reflefting that, as they are unaccuftomed to
fuch exercifes, or indeed at that early age to any kind
of work, it muft become exceedingly fatiguing to them j
and to young horfes in a ftate of debility, efpecially if
they are not immediately attended to, when brought
fweating from the riding fehool, fuch labour muft often
be followed by the worft confequences.
Where a horfe cannot be conveniently taken out to
the fields or roads, for the purpofe of exercife, ex¬
pedients have been thought on to exercife them within
the ftable, or in a yard adjoining. The ftable can
anfwer for this purpofe only when it is very large, and
he may then be made to trot backwards and forwards
till
’art V.
Materia till he begins to fweat, with Tome advantage. We have
Medica. heard of the governor of a certain town, who fell on a
—y—good expedient to exercife the horfes of a large body of
cavalry that had been received into the town, juft be¬
fore the enemy laid fiege to it. As there was no poffi-
bility of riding out the horfes, he caufed a number of
the troopers to Hand about the horfes, two or three at
each horfe, and whip them fo as to make them fly from
one fide of the flail to the other, till both men and
horfes were fufficiently heated. It is faid that by this
means the horfes were kept in a pretty good ftate of
health, whereas they would otherwife have been much
difeafed.
When a horfe comes in from work in a profufe per-
fpiration, he (hould not be fuffered to ftand to cool at
the liable door, but fliould rather be walked gently a-
bout if the weather will permit of it, or elfe be tied up
in his flail with a cloth thrown over him. If he is in a
violent fweat, it is a good pradtice to ftroke off the
fweat with a lharp-edged flick, as is ufually performed
on race horfes immediately after running the courfe. If
he is much fatigued, it will alfo be not amifs to give
him a little ftrong beer, a fmall draught of which will
confiderably refrefli him. The French commonly give
wine in thefe cafes ; but their wine is very weak, and
is probably not fo wholefome for horfes as our ale.
It is very common with the drivers of coaches, and
many grooms, to throw cold water over the legs of
horfes, when they come to the end of their journey,
fweating and fatigued. Some even ride them into the
water on thefe occafions, or throw it over a great part
of their body. This is a very dangerous praflice, and
gives occafion to feveral difeafes of the legs, joints, and
feet. It is more efpecially to be avoided when the
horfe has been long fvveating, as when in this ftate he is
too much weakened to bear the {hock of the cold water
with impunity. When a horfe is overheated without
much fweating or fatigue, the praftice would probably
not be attended with danger, and bathing him with
cold water at that time would perhaps be even bene¬
ficial, efpecially if he were immediately rubbed dry,
and covered with a light cloth. But as it is difficult to
hit this nice point, this practice muft be employed with
caution, and {hould never be trufted to the indifcrimi-
nate prudence of a groom or coachman. The inftances
of horfes having been plunged into cold water when
overheated, without fuftaining any injury, are eafily
explained from the above remark.
M. Lafoffe makes the following remarks on the ex-
473
ercife of horfes. “ A horfe on a journey may travel Materia
five hours at a time, if not hurried onwards *, a manege Me<*!Ca- ^
horfe one hour j a cavalry horfe may manceuvre two ‘nr—-^
hours j a coach horfe, at a flow pace, fix hours. But it
is proper that faddle horfes {hould not be overloaded,
and that the load of a horfe in harnefs {hould be in
proportion to his ftrength, in order to perform thofe
proportions of labour, to eftablifh which is a difficult
point j all depends on quicknefs. We will lay general¬
ly, that a faddle horfe, well formed, and mufcular, may
thus carry at a flow rate, two-thirds of his own weight,
and run in a chaife, with double and one-half of his
weight. It is eafy to fee from this, that the load of a
faddle horfe fliould be lefs if he is put on the trot, and
lefs ftill if he is made to gallop. The draught horfe,
on the contrary, lightens his load by fpeed, which,
however, he cannot long continue without tiring, and
being out of breath.
“ The diforders which proceed from hard wor kare,
founder, fret, and moft inflammatory difeafes. There
are others that proceed from fudden tranfitions from
heat to cold, or, on the contrary, fuch as inflammation
of the lungs, colds, glanders, rheumatifms, and dropfy
of the breaft. Thefe are particularly frequent and dan¬
gerous to cavalry horfes. They have exifted at all times ;
but the prefent fyftem of manoeuvres renders them much
more common than formerly j they are a fpecies of en-
demial diforders, which alarm many regiments, and
make them dread the confequences. But there can
be no doubt they may be avoided in a great degree,
1. By taking no horfe into a regiment under fouf
years old, and thofe only which are well formed.
2. By giving them forage of good quality.
3. By airing them in the liable, and
4. By avoiding to put them in a fweat, which is a
ftate contrary to nature. This forced perfpiration dries
up and impoverifties the blood, fpoils the finer fibres,
the veffels lofe their re-a£lion $ hence the ftagnation of
the humours, which produce tumours and farcy. It
would be advifable then to avoid accidents after a re¬
petition of military exercifes by walking the horfes
quick, and afterwards {lowly, until they have regained
their natural warmth. By this means a repercuffion of
the humours may be avoided. For the fame reafon, a
horfe fliould neither be watered, fed, or dreffed while
fweating ; on the contrary, if he muft be put into the
liable, take off the faddle, rub him down with ftravy,
and cover him with a cloth * Veterina¬
rian's Poe-
ketManual,
p. 11.
FARRIERY.
PART V. VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.
IN treating of the fubftances employed in the cure
of the difeafes that affe£t domeflic animals, we (hall
firft deferibe the ufual forms in which they are adminif-
tered, with the moft approved methods of exhibiting
each, in the various cafes to which they are applicable.
We (hall then enumerate the remedies themfelves, ar¬
ranged under certain heads or claffes, as is ufually done
by writers on the materia medica •, for the fake of
bringing together under one view, thofe articles which
are fuited to the fame purpofes. We ftiall not at pre-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
fent, however, deferibe the articles made ufe of, as
moft of them are employed in general medicine* and
a particular account will be given of them in the arti¬
cle Materia Medica. Our objedt here will be to
point out the dofes required for the animals of whofe
difeafes we are about to treatand the particular cafes
to which they are adapted. To each clafs we ftiallfub-
join a number of receipts to which we ftiall have oc¬
cafion to refer, when we come to the treatment of the
difeafes.
30
The
474
Materia
Medic a.
250
Forms.
251
Powders.
252-
Balls.
F A R II
The moft ufual forms in which medicine is exhibited,
to horfes and cattle, are thofe of powder, ball, drench,
clyfter, ointment, poultice, and fomentation.
Powders.
There are not many fubftances which admit of be¬
ing adminiftered in form of powders j for as it is
neceffary to mix thefe with the food of the animal, they
mult of courfe be compofed of fuch articles as do not
impart to the food any very ftrong or difagreeable tafte.
Thefe fubltances chiefly given in the form of powders
are antimony, fulphur, nitre, and fome of the aromatic
feeds, &c. They Ihould be reduced to the fineft
powder, and Ihould be thoroughly mixed with the corn
or bran that is placed before the animal. Thofe
powders which do not readily diffolve in water, fuch as
antimony, fulphur, and the powder of feeds, (hould be
moiftened before mixing with the food, as in this way
lefs of the medicine will be wafted. Emetic tartar,
and all articles that require to be given in a fmall de¬
terminate dofe, cannot properly be adminiftered in
this form. *
In giving powders mixed with the food of horfes,
much will depend on the delicacy of the animal’s tafte,
and on the ftate of his ftomach at the time. Some
horfes will readily take their food mixed with medi¬
cinal powders, while others refule every article offered
to them in this form. When this is the cafe, or when
the medicine thus adminiftered appears to difagree with
the animal’s ftomach, this mode of giving it muft not
be repeated ; but the medicine muft be adminiftered
in fome other form.
Powders are alfo fometimes ufed externally either
to fores and ulcers, or blown into the eyes.
Balls.
The form of ball or bolus is one of the moft com¬
mon in which internal medicines are adminiftered in
farriery. It is extremely convenient, as there are very
few articles that do not admit of being given when
mixed up into a ball $ as they are, from the peculiar
conformation of the animal’s throat, more eafily admi¬
niftered than any other form that can be given by
the mouth. Some articles, however, efpecially fuch as
eafily evaporate at the ufual temperature of the air, as
ether and volatile alkali, and fuch as fpeedily liquefy
or deliquefce by expofure to a moift atmofphere, are
not fo properly given in the form of balls. Subftances,
too, which require a very large dofe, do not eafily ad¬
mit of this form, and are beft given in infufion, or mix¬
ed with water in the form of a drench.
It is beft to prepare balls as they are required, or at
leaft not many days before they are needed, as by ex¬
pofure to the air they become hard, and do not eafily
dilfolve in the ftomach ; they may even pafs through the
bowels nearly unchanged. But what is of ftill more
confequence, giving a hard ball may endanger the ani¬
mal’s life, by its flicking in his throat. Mr White fays,
that he has known feveral inftances of horfes being de-
ftroyed in this way. Sometimes the horfes jaws are fo
narrow as not to admit of introducing the hand between
them. In this cafe, the ball may be fixed lightly on
the end of a flick or cane, moderately pointed j or, what
I E R Y. Party,
is ftill better, placed loofely in a kind of cup fixed on Materia
fuch a flick or cane j and thus thruft to the back of the Medica.
throat. V-—1
The ball ftiould be made not round, but nearly of^ ’S3
the Ihape of an egg, and rather lefs in fize. The mode adminifter
of adminiftering balls to horfes requires fome dexteri-ing balls. *
ty. To give a ball with eafe, the operator ftiould ex¬
tend his fingers fo as to furround one end of it, while
the whole hand and the thumb oppofite to the finger
that furround the ball muft be contrafted into as fmall
a fpace as poffible, as the fmaller the hand the greater
will be the eafe with which the operation is performed,
both to the farrier and the horfe. The animal’s mouth
is ufually kept open by means of an inftrument called a
balling iron, that is formed like a ring, with an opening
fufficiently large to admit the hand, and which is cover¬
ed with cloth, and placed between the horfe’s jaws}
thus preventing him from (hutting his mouth, or hurt¬
ing the operator with hi? teeth. When the ball is
held in this way, in the right hand, the tongue of the
animal is to be drawn out with the left hand towards
the left fide, and the ball is to be adroitly placed be¬
yond the root of the tongue, and immediately on quit¬
ting the ball, the tongue is to be let go, and the horfe
allowed to raife his head. The ball is now in fuch a
fituation that it cannot be thrown back, and will be
gradually fwallowed. In holding the tongue, it is pro¬
per to keep it pretty firmly againft the lower jaw, as
this pofition greatly facilitates the operation. Balls
are ufually wrapt up lightly in paper, to prevent their
difagreeable tafte, but the paper (hould be very thin
and delicate, that it may eafily give way when the ball
enters the ftomach. Wafer paper, which is employed
for adminiftering bolufes in the human fubjeft, would
be an improvement in farriery, which may be eafily
adopted, as it is by no means expenfive.
When the balls are compofed of very hot or (Emu¬
lating ingredients, it is proper to give the horfe drink
before adminiftering them. It is beft to give the
drink firft, as horfes in particular will not readily
drink after receiving a ball. If the ball has been coui-
pofed of any medicine that poffelfes a corrofive quali¬
ty, or is otherwife very irritating, as arfenic, corrofive
fublimate, blue vitriol, or the like, it is neceffary to
give the animal, previous to the operation, a confider-
able quantity of fome mucilaginous drink, as of water-,
gruel, or linfeed tea.
When a ball is properly adminiftered, it gives the
animal very little fatigue, and may be repeated much
more frequently than any other form of medicine. It
is therefore extremely convenient.
The ingredients compofing a ball (hould be mixed
up with fome fugary fubftance, as molaffes, honey, or
extraft of liquorice foftened in water, rather than with
any gummy or mucilaginous fubftance, as thefe latter
foon become hard by expofure to the air.
When a number of balls of the fame kind are made
at once, great care Ihould be taken in mixing the
ingredients in the moft accurate manner, other-
wife a much greater quantity of the a6Hve part of
the medicine will be found in fome of the balls than
in others.
Though we have mentioned the ufe of the balling
iron, In adminiftering balls to horfes, fome grooms and
farriers are very expert in giving the ball without this
inftrument 9.
Part V.
FARR
inftrument. Where this cah be done, it is certainly
wlS preferable, as the ufe of the iron is very apt to alarm a
Drekches.
. ,*54 ^ -j'jjjg form is chiefly failed to thofe remedies that are
I< renC Jeafily foluble in water, or which readily mix with that
fluid, and which have not any very difagreeable tafte.
Hence all mucilaginous fubftances, fome refins, and
many of the aromatics, may be given in this form. It
is proper, in compounding a drench, that the fubftances
compofing it be thoroughly mixed with each other.
It not unfrequently happens, that oils or balfams are
given by way of drench, without any pains having been
taken to combine them fully with the watery part of
the medicine ; and when fubftances that would admit
of being finely powdered, are adminiftered in this way,
• the carelefihefs of grooms or farriers is too often fuch as
to give them in a very coarfe ftate. In the former cafe
the oil or balfam fwimming in the liquid hangs about
the mouth and throat of the animal, and by its unplea-
fant tafte renders him averfe to the repetition of the
medicine ; in the latter cafe, it is evident that the re¬
medy is not reduced to that ftate in which it is capable
of exerting its full effeft.
*5^5, Drenches are ufually adminiftered by means of a
adminifter- horn, which is that of an ox or cow, with the larger
ing. end cut into the form of a fpout. Sometimes when a
horn is not at hand, a bottle is employed j but this is
very improper, as in the horfe’s ftruggling, which of¬
ten happens in adminiftering a drench, the neck of the
bottle may be broken, and occafion much mifchief.
In giving a drench by means of the horn, the ani¬
mal’s tongue is to be held down with the left hand, as
in giving a ball 5 and when his head is fufEciently
raifed, the drench is to be poured cautioufly into his
mouth. Every liable ftiould be provided with a drench*
ing horn.
In preparing drenches, farriers almoft always make
ufe of ale or beer, as the menftruum or diluent ; but
this is often very abfurd, and can be proper only in the
preparation of cordial drenches. Thofe of a cooling
nature Ihould be mixed, either with common water, or
with fome mucilaginous infufion.
Drenches are feldom given with dexterity, and thus
a confiderable quantity of the medicine is frequently fpilt.
This circumftance renders them often very inconveni¬
ent, particularly in cafes where there is any fwelling or
painful affeftion either of the mouth or throat. Under
fuch circumftances it is fcarcely advifable to adminifter
medicine in the form of a drench $ as, independently
of the refiftance given by the horfe, which will certain¬
ly wafte much of the medicine, the forcing of a drench
down his throat, when it is in an inflamed or irritable
ftate, may be followed by very unpleafant confequences.
Mr Clark fays that he has frequently obferved a fimple
folution of nitre in water, fweetened with honey or
molaffes, when given in cafes fuch as avc have defcribed,
to occafion violent coughing, trembling and panting,
infomuch that the poor animal was like to drop down,
merely from the acute pain he fuffered, from a medicine
being adminiftered to him in the form of a drench at
fuch a critical period.
Even the pofition in which the horfe’s head is placed
I E R Y.
to receive a drench may, in thefe cafes, excite the mofl:
violent pain, from the diftention which the mufcles of
the throat undergo, when the head and tongue are held
in fo awkward a fituation.
The great advantage of a drench is, that remedies
exhibited m this form produce their effe6l much more
fpeedily than when given in the iorm of a ball, which
may take a confiderable time to be diflblved in the
juices of the ftomach. Drenches are therefore particu¬
larly fuited to urgent cafes, in which it is neceffary to
give immediate relief.
Clysters.
475
Materia
Medica.
256
This form is fuited to a great variety of purpofes, of Clyfters.
and is not adminiftered fo often as with propriety it
might be given. Not only purges, which are very
commonly adminiftered in this way, but alfo every clafs
of remedies, may be exhibited in the form of a clyfter.
The clyfter Ihould be compofed of no fubftances that
are not either entirely foluble in w^ater, or may be fo
thoroughly mixed with any watery fluid, as to pafs rea¬
dily through a flender tube.
The inftrument employed for adminiftering a clyfter
is, as in the human fubjeft, a pipe and bladder, but
the bladder ftiould be that of an ox, and of the largeft
fize; to the extremity of which muft be fitted a pewter
pipe about a foot long, and about half an inch in dia¬
meter, having the extremity which is to enter the gut
made completely fmooth, that it may not injure the in¬
ternal coat of the bowel. *57
Previous to adminiftering a clyfter, it is often necef-Back-rak*
fary to free the great gut from a quantity of hardened inS*
excrement which it may contain. ’I his is beft per¬
formed by means of the hand, and the operation is call¬
ed raking, or back-raking. The hand is eafily intro¬
duced, as the diameter of the great gut is in the horfe
very large. Care muft be taken before introducing the
hand, to greafe it well with oil or hogs lard, and to
have the nails cut perfe£lly clofe, for fear of injuring
the gut. This mode of extradling the hardened excre¬
ment is frequently required, and will fucceed when
medicine would probably only ferve to increafe the
animal’s diftrefs.
Large fyringes are frequently employed for the pur- 95*
pofe of adminiftering clyfters j but fuch inftruments are
exceedingly improper, as their tubes are very ftiort^
and they are very difficult to manage, efpecially if the
animal ffiould prove reftlefs from pain, as frequently
happens in cafes of colic 5 where, as we (hall fee, cly¬
fters are very frequently required.
Glyfters are peculiarly requifite in thofe cafes where
medicine cannot be conveniently given by the mouth ,
as in locked jaw, or when there is any obftru&ion in
the throat, or wound of the tongue. In fuch circum¬
ftances horfes may frequently be kept alive for many
weeks, by the frequent exhibition of nouriflflng clyfters.
Ointments.
Ointments are employed in farriery, merely as an ap¬
plication to fores, or in fome cafes of eruptions of the
fkin. They cannot be employed as in the human
body, to introduce remedies into the fyftem ; as on ac¬
count of the hair that covers the body of quadrupeds,
3 O 2 long-
. «S9
Ointments*
i. Emetics.
476
FARR
Materia long-continued fri<*lion in this way cannot eafily be
Medica. ployed.
260 ■
Poultices.
Poultices.
Poultices are frequently employed, either for the pur-
pofe of maintaining a long-continued heat and moitture
about a part in which we are defirous to produce fup-
puration, or for cerrefting the unpleafant fmell that
fometimes arifes from foul ill-conditioned ulcers ; or
laflly, they are applied to check inflammation. In the
firft cafe they are always applied warm, and fliould be
renewed repeatedly, till the proper effeft is produced j
as if old poultices are fuffered to remain long on a fup-
purating part, they tend to check the fuppuration in-
ftead of aflifting it. In the two latter cafes poultices
are ufually applied cold.
Poultices fhould always be compofed of fuch fub-
ftances, as admit of being reduced to a foft mafs, either
by boiling or pounding, as otherwife they would fret
and irritate the parts to which they are applied. This
muft be particularly attended to in fuch poultices as
are laid over large open ulcers, or any part that is high¬
ly ienfible.
z6t
Fomenta¬
tions.
a.62
Fomentations.
Thefe are intended to relax and foften the parts to
which they are applied, and in this cireumftanee they
nearly referable the firft kind of poultices, only that
fomentations are always in a liquid form, being compo-
fed of fome infufion or deco£lion of herbs. The mode
of applying a fomentation is, by wetting a large flan¬
nel cloth in the warm liquor, wringing it flightly, and
then applying it as warm as can eafily be borne over
the part to be fomented.
In the following lift of the articles of the veterinary
materia medica, we fhall call the fubftances by thofe
names by which they are ufually known to the common
people j but we {hall add by way of fynonyms the
fcientific names, as derived from the modern fyftems of
natural hiftory and chemiftry. In fixing the dofes of
each article, we (hall, unlefs particularly mentioned to
the contrary, only fpecify the dofe proper for horfes
and cattle j but it would be proper for the reader to
keep in remembrance, that the dofe for a fheep or a
dog will be about one-half or one-third of that for a
horfe or cow.
In clafling the remedies we (hall adapt the arrange¬
ment given in a late compendium of the materia medi¬
ca. Moft writers on the materia medica of horfes,
have arranged their articles in alphabetical order. Mr
White has done this, in his excellent veterinary mate¬
ria medica and pharmacopeia. Such an arrangement
does very well, if intended to anfwer the purpofe of a
di&ionary ; but for practice, it is better to have the
articles clafled according to the fenfible effeCts which
they appear to produce in the fyftem ; as in this way
the praftitioner has before him all thofe remedies- that
are of the fame nature, and may feleCt from among
them fuch as he thinks will beft fuit the particular cafe
that he has in hand.
It may be neceflary to obferve, that the weight in¬
tended in this part is troy weight divided according to
the apothecaries, and the meafure Englifti wine mea-
fure.
I E R Y.
PartV
It will have appeared from our defeription of the
ftomach of the horfe, that this animal is in general in¬
capable of vomiting. Emetics, therefore, as calculated
for him, form no part of the veterinary materia medica.
We do not know that emetics are given either to ftieep
or cattle, but to dogs they may be often given with
advantage. A few fubftances, however, will anfwer
this purpofe, as in general a little grafs, or a little
muftard mixed with warm water, will be fuffieient to
vomit a dog. The following fubftances may be rank¬
ed in this clafs for dogs.
Materia
Medica,
263
Emetics,
a. Antimony. Sulphuret of Antimony.
Emetic Tartar. Tartrate of Antimony and
Potajh.
Dofe from two to four grains.
b. Antimonial Powder. Oxide of Antimony 'with
P hofphate of Lime. James's Powder.
Said to have been given with fuccefs in the dif-
temper.
Dofe from eight to ten grains, repeated every three
or four hours, according to the evacuation produced.
c. Mercury.
Turbith Mineral. Yellow Sulphate of Mer¬
cury.
Ufed alfo for the diftemper, and in cafes of recent
poifoning.
Dofe about half a drachm. Alfo recommended in
canine madnefs.
Receipt. 2g4
I. Take of turbith mineral, five grains j
And emetic tartar, one grain.
Give in a little milk after bleeding.
2. Expectorants.
Thefe are remedies that are calculated to produce or Expeditor.-
keep up a difeharge of mucus from the lungs, or wind- ants,
pipe, and are thus fuited to relieve coughs and thicknefs
of wind or afthma.
a. Ammoniac. Gum Ammoniac..
A gum-refin. Dofe from three to five drachms, in
the form of a ball. Commonly combined with fquill, or
fome other powerful expe&orant, preceded by a pur¬
ging medicine. Particularly fuited to chronk: coughs..
b. Asafoetida. Ferula Afafcetida. Lin.
A gum refin $ dofe about half a drachm, in a ball.
c. Balsam of Peru. Myroxilon Peruiferum. Lin.
Dofe from one to two drachms in combination in a
ball, aflifted with other expectorants. In chronic
coughs.
d. Balsam of Copaiva. Cbpaifera balfamum. Lin,
Dofe about an ounce, in the fame form and cafes as
the laft.
e. Balsam of Sulphur.
Dofe. from half an ounce to an ounce.
f Barbadoes
Part V. FARR
Materia f- BaRBADOES Tar. 'Petroleum Barbadenfe. Lin.
Medica. Employed fometimes in chronic cough $ but not fo
u.' y—; good as other expe&orants.
g. Garlic. Alliumfativum. Lin.
The cloves of the root beaten to a pafle 5 dofe from
one to two ounces ; made into a ball with liquorice
powder, or boiled in water into a drench. In fimilar
cafes.
h. Squill. Scilla maritima. Lin.
Dried root powdered j dofe about a drachm, in a
ball, with other mild expe&orants.
I E R Y. 477
c. Antimony. Sulphuret of Antimony. Materia
Very commonly given to horfes for the purpofe of Medica. ^
improving the hnenefs of their coat. Dofe about an
ounce, in powder, mixed with the food.
d. Emetic Tartar. Tartrate of Antimony and Pot-
ajh.
Dofe from one to two drachms $ in a ball or drench.
Antimonial Powder. Oxide of Antimony with
Phofphate of Lime.
Dofe about two drachms.
i. Storax. Styrax officinale. Lin.
Strained ilorax. Dofe two drachms, in a ball. As
a fubftitute for balfam of Tolu, in obftinate coughs.
Receipts for ExpeElorants.
Beceipts. 2. Take of gum ammoniac, three drachms j
Caftile foap, two drachms j
Powdered fquill, a drachm.
Mix with honey or molafles into a ball.
3. Take of camphor, powdered fquill, each a
drachm 5
Balfam of copaiva, half an ounce ;
Aromatic powder, two drachms.
With honey, mix into a ball.
4. Take of balfam of fulphur, 4 ounces j
Barbadoes tar, two ounces ;
Oil of anifeed, two drachms ;
Powdered liquorice root, enough to make a mafs,
to be divided into balls, each weighing about
an ounce and a half, for a dofe.
5.. Take afafoetida, half an ounce j
Powdered ginger, a drachm and a half 5
Prepared ammonia, half a drachm j
Honey, &c. enough to make a ball.
3. SuDORIFICS,
Sudarifics. Thefe are fuch medicines as are intended, either to
keep up or bring back the infenfible perfpiration, or to
excite profufe fweating. They are alfo called diapho¬
retics. See Materia Medica.
Few medicines are employed in farriery with a view
to excite fweat. In the dog, it is well known that
this effe£t can fcarcely be produced by any means; and
in the horfe it is found extremely difficult to produce
any fenfible fudorific effect by means of medicine.
This may indeed be excited by violent exercife and
warm clothing; but thefe are ill fuited to the cafes in
which fweating would-b# mod defirable. The infen-
lible perfpiration may, however, be gently encouraged
by fome powerful fweating medicines ; avid in cattle
thefe may not unfrequently be given with advantage.
a. Ammonia.
Mindererus’s Spirit. Acetate of Ammonia.
Recommended by Mr White as a gentle diaphore¬
tic. Dofe from eight to ten ounces in form of a drench.
In febrile complaints^
b. Camphor. Laurus camphora. Lin.
Dofe from one to two drachms, in form of a ball.
In fevers.
e. Unwashed Calx or Oxide of Antimony.
Dofe two or three drachms; in compofition as below.
f. Nitre. Nitrate of Potafh.
Dofe about one ounce in a ball, with one or two
drachms of camphor ; or alone in a drench.
g. Opium. Papaverfomniferum. Lin.
Seldom given alone, though it might probably be
adminiftered with great propriety, in dofes of two
fcruples to a drachm.
Receipts for Sudorifcs.
6. Take of nitre, half an ounce $
Camphor, a drachm and a half j.
Calomel, powdered opium, a fcruple ;
Molalfes, enough to make a ball. In fever.
a6g
Receipts-
7. Take of unwaffied calx of antimony, two drachms $
Camphor, a drachm $
Opium, half a drachm ;
Compound powder of tragacanth, two drachms ;
Honey enough to make a ball.
In fever. To be repeated occafionally.
8. Take of emetic tartar, from one drachm to twaj
Compound powder of tragacanth, three drachms j
Honey enough to make a ball.
9. Take of emetic tartar, a drachm and a half j
Ginger, two drachms ;
Camphor, half a drachm j
Opium, a fcruple j
Oil of caraway, ten drops.
Molaffes enough to make a ball.
For horfes that are hide-bound, and have unhealthy
looking coats.
10. Take of antimonial powder, two drachms j
Caraway feeds powdered, half an ounce }
Ginger, a drachm j
Oil of anifeeds, twenty drops j
Honey enough to make a ball.
11. Take of unwaffied calx or oxide of antimony, two*
drachms 5
Prepared ammonia, ginger, of each a drachm j
Opium, half a drachm 5
Powdered anifeeds, half an ounce $
Molafles, enough to make a ball.
4. Diuretics. .
Thefe are remedies that are intended to produce aDiurctfes?
more than ordinary difeharge of urine., See Materia
Medica.
2.
Diuretics
478
Materia
Medica.
FARR
Diuretics are frequently given to liorfes, not only in
; cafes of dropfical fwellings, efpecially of the legs, but
in greafe, and in many eruptive difeafes j in running
thrulhes, crack, or ulcers about the heels j in baldnefs
of different parts of the body ; and in fome cafes where
there appears to be a difficulty in ftaling.
They are ufually given in the form of balls, but
fome of them by way of powder mixed with the food.
Before exhibiting diuretics, bleeding is fometimes re-
quifite. Thefe cafes will be dated in their proper place.
It is alfo proper, during the ufe of diuretics, that the
animal fhould take regular exercife j and occafional
drink fhould be given to promote their operation. The
ufe of them ffiould not be continued too long, as they
are found to produce confiderable weaknefs.
a. Balsam of Copaiva. See ExpeSlorants.
This medicine, when given as directed under expec¬
torants, frequently a£ts as a diuretic.
b. Camphor. See Sudorifics.
Dofe about two drachms, mixed with nitre in a ball.
In fpafmodic difficulty of ftaling.
c. Nitre. Nitrate of Potafh.
Dofe about one ounce, in the form of powder, ball,
or drench. In fevers and ftrangury.
d. Potash. Subcarbonate of Potafh, or Vegetable
Alkali.
Dofe a drachm or two.
e. Rosin.
Dofe from two to four drachms repeated occafionally,
in the form of powder, with the food.
Rofin is a good diuretic in cafes of fwelled legs and
greafy heels, but is feldom given, except to cart-horfes.
f Soap. Cajlile Soap.
Dofe from two to fix drachms, in compofition.
g. Tobacco. Nicotiana tabacum. Lin.
Sometimes given by grooms for fining a horfe’s coat.
h. Turpentine.
{a. Common turpentine.
b. Venice turpentine. Dofe from half an ounce to
an ounce j in the form of emulfion.
i. Oil or Spirit of Turpentine.
Dofe from one ounce to two.
Receipts for Diuretics.
12. Take of Caftile foap, powdered rofin, of each
three drachms $
Nitre, half an ounce j
Oil of juniper, a drachm.
Firft beat the foap and oil of juniper together, and
then add the other ingredients, to make a ball.
13. Take of nitre in powder, half an ounce ;
Camphor, oil of juniper, of each one drachm j
Caftile foap, three drachms.
Rub the camphor and oil together, then add the
foap and nitre, and as much flour as is fufficient to
make it into a ball.
Take of rofin and nitre, each half an ounce.
Mix into a powder, to be taken with the food.
3
1 E R Y.
Part V
Materia
Medica.
5. Purges.
Thefe medicines are well known. They are gene-
rally confidered of two kinds j laxatives, or fuch as p 270
gently move the bowels, and are intended merely to S ’
empty them of excrement j and purges, or fuch as, be-
fides this effect, are intended to ftimulate the exhalent
veffels of the inteftines, and produce a confiderable dif-
charge of liquid ftools, (fee Materia Medica). As
either order may in general be given fo as to produce
either of thefe effefts, according to the quantity in
which it is adminiftered, we {hall confider them to¬
gether.
Purgative medicines are given with confiderable ad¬
vantage to all the domeftic animals, in many cafes of
difeafe, which will be pointed out hereafter. They are
very commonly, however, given to horfes, by grooms
and ordinary farriers, by way of alterative or preven¬
tive of difeafe j or in order, as they think, the better to
prepare them for fome unufual exertion. The reafon
given for this praflice is, that the horfe is foul in the
body, or full of humours, and the purgatives are given
to expel this morbid accumulation of humours. ^
“ This fort of evacuation (fays Dr Bracken, who islmpropriet-
one of the firft that pointed out the abfurdity of thisofindifcri-
pra£lice), feems very much to quadrate with the out-mina.te .
ward fenfes, and makes the ignorant part of mankind,
whofe heads are fuller of humours than their horfes,
imagine that purging medicines carry off the offending
matter in moft diforders 5 never confidering the general
ufe, which ought ftill to be kept in mind, viz. that in
proportion to any one evacuation being heightened or
increafed, moft or all of the natural evacuations are
proportionally diminiftied.
It muft be remembered that the inteftines of the
horfe are exceedingly long, and the large inteftines are
fo conftrufted as in many cafes to retain the food or ex¬
crement for a very confiderable time. Purgative medi¬
cines given to a horfe are often retained for 24 or 30
hours ; and if thefe have been of an irritating quality,
it is evident that the unneceffary exhibition of them
may often produce confiderable mifchief. Mr Blaine
fays, that when horfes die after the exhibition of ftrong
purges, which according to him is not unfrequently the
cafe, he has always found the large inteftines more or
lefs inflamed.
It is found that after giving a horfe a ftrong purge,
he is often incapable of returning to his ufual work for
many days 5 it is even faid for a month. Hence it will
eafily appear how abfurd is the praftice of thofe who
phyfic their horfes without neceffity. Mr John Law¬
rence is, however, ftill an advocate for purging horfes
now and then, and is of opinion that the mifchief done
by purges is to be attributed to the coarfenefs of the
medicine, rather than to its purging effect. He de¬
clares, that after 30 years experience, he has never
known purging do harm, if the aloes employed was of
the finer fort.
Veterinary praftitioners differ with refpeft to the
time of adminiftering a purge. Mr Blaine recommends
it to be given in the morning, when the horfe is to be
allowed to faft from 9 or 10 o’clock to 12 or 1. Then
a lock or two of hay, or about two handfuls, is to be
given him, and after this he is to have the ball, with a
horn
Materia
Me^a
part V. FARR
horn full of warm ale, or water-gruel, immediately af¬
ter it. He is then to faft for another hour, when he is
to be allowed the moderate ufe of hay. He fhould
have all his drink a little warm ; fliould be walked a-
bout gently during the remainder of the day, and
(hould have a warm mafh at night. Next day he is to
be again moderately exercifed at intervals, till the purge
begins to operate *, but if the weather is fevere, he muft
be covered with body clothes, and care muft be taken
not to have the liable too warm when he returns. Mr
Clark recommends Jl malh of bran to be given about
an hour before the ball, and fays that in this way he
has always found the medicine to operate in a gentle
and eafv manner.
It is a common pra&ice with many people to ride
their horfes very hard before giving them a purging
medicine, with the view, as they term it, to ftir up the
humours, which being thus fet afloat, will more eafily
be carried off by the purge. To fay no more with re-
fpeft to the abfurdity of the do&rine, we may remark
that the praftice itfelf is highly dangerous, as a purge
adminiftered after fucb violent exercife, will feldom fail
27*
Strong ex-
;rcif: be-
bre purg-
ag, impro-
ier.
to produce inflammation in the bowels, fevers, or fome
other diforder, which, though it may not at the time
prove fatal, may lay the foundation of blindnefs, in¬
curable lamentfs, or fome other diforder that may ren¬
der the horfe ufelefs. Violent exercife, after admini-
ftering a purge, is equally to be avoided, as it may pro¬
duce fweating, and thus counteradl the purgative ef-
fe£l ; or, what is as bad, it will tend to increafe the
weaknefs that feldom fails to be brought on by pur-
g,nK-
We have been the more particular in our obferva-
tions on purging horfes, as it is a matter of confidera-
ble confequenee, and as the efftft of indifcriminate
purging in this animal is little underftood.
*73 a. Aloes. A/oe perfoliata. Lin.
C a. Socotorine aloes. Dofe from five to nine drachms.
•< b. Barbadoes aloes. Dofe from half an ounce to an
{. ounce.
Of thefe the latter is commonly emploved for horfes.
It is heft given in form of a ball, mixed with foap, as
prefcribed at prefent. In moft cafes where purges are
required.
b. Castor Oil. Ricinus corvmunis. Lin.
Dore from a pound to a pound arid a half. In fevers
and worms. Though Mr White fays, he has given it
in the latter cafe without effeft.
c. Epsom Salt. See Sulphate of Magncjia.
d. Gamboge. Stalagmitis catnbogioides. Lin.
Seldom employed in horfes, though recommended by
Mr White as a ufeful medicine in worms.
Dofe from two to three drachms, in a ball with Caf-
tile foap.
e. Jalap. Convolvulusjalapa.
Dofe in the dog twenty to thirty grains.
f. Common Salt. Muriate of Soda.
Dofe from four to fix ounces in a drench, or in a
larger dofe by ivay of clyfter.
g. Soap.
1 E R Y. 479
Chiefly ufed to combine aloes and other purgatives Materia
into a ball. ' , M^dica-.
b. Mercury, or Quichjilver.
i. Calomel. Sub muriate or mild muriate of mer¬
cury.
Dofe from one to two drachms, ufually mixed with
other purgatives.
In liver complaints, obftinate cafes of greafe, chronic
inflammation of the eyes, and dropfical fwellings of the
hind-legs.
k. Glauber’s Salt. Sulphate of Soda.
Dofe about a pound. Beft given in the form of a
clyfter. In fevers, and inflammatory complaints.
/. Epsom Salt. Sulphate of Magnefa.
As the laft.
Receipts for Purges.
14. Take of Socotorine aloes, five drachms 3
Caftile foap, half an ounce 3
Oil of caraway, ten drops 3
Molaffes enough to make a ball.
A moderate dofe for young or delicate horfes.
15. Take of Socotorine aloes, an ounce 3
Caftile foap, half an ounce 3
Calomel, a drachm and a half 3
Oil of mint, twenty drops 3
Molaffes enough to make a ball.
16. Take of Barbadoes aloes, half an ounce 3
Compound powder of tragacanth, two drachms 3
Salt of tartar, a drachm and a half 3
Syrup enough to make a ball. v
This is given as a laxative by Mr White, who de¬
clares that he never faw any ill refult from giving Bar¬
badoes aloes, though Mr Blaine and Mr Lawrence are
of opinion, that Socotorine aloes is always to be pre¬
ferred.
*74
Receipts.
17. Take of water-gruel, a gallon 5
Glauber’s fait, half a pound 3
Oil of olives, or linfeed oil, a pint.
To be given warm by way of clyfter. In fevers and
inflammation of the bowels.
18. Take of powdered jalap, a drachm 3
Powdered ginger, half a drachm 3
Syrup of buckthorn, enough to make a ball.
For dogs.
6. Errhines.
27C
Thefe remedies are fuited to produce a confiderable£rrhines.
difcharge from thenoftrils, and with this view arefome-
times prefcribed to horfes in cafes of flaggers or violent
headaches. They muft, however, be given with cau¬
tion, and not till after bleeding and other evacuating
means have been ufed. They are always adminiftered
in the form of powder, which is blown up the noftrils,
ufually through a quill.
a. Asarabacca. Afarum Ruropceum. Lin.
The dried leaves in powder.
The fnuff, ufually fold by the name of cephalic
fnuff, is chiefly compofed of afarabacca mixed with fome
aromatic.
48o FARR
Materia aromatic herbs, and will anfvver the purpofe of an
t Mediea. errhine pretty well.
b. Tobacco.
Common fnuff.
In affedions of the eyes.
7. SlALOGOGUES.
Sialo- Thefe remedies are given with a view of increafing
gogues. fjow 0£ fauva or flaver> They are feldom employ¬
ed in veterinary medicine, though it is probable that
falivation might be produ&ive of good effefts in the
locked jaw, fo fatal to horfes, and in the dijlemper in
dogs.
a. Ginger. Amomum %ingiber.
Sometimes tied about a horfe’s bit by Way of a tnaf-
ticatory, as it is called.
b. Mercury.
Calomel is the only mercurial that can properly be
employed to excite falivation in the horfe and dog j and
it will fcarcely produce this effeft, if given by the
mouth. It is belt to rub the gums with it twice or
thrice a-day, till the proper effeft is produced. See
Stimulants.
8. Emollients.
277
Emollients. Thefe are fuch remedies as are calculated either to
relax the body, or to abate acrimony. The former are
fometimes divided into diluents and relaxants; the lat¬
ter are ufually called demulcents, although diluents are
alfo commonly given to obviate acrimony.
a. Barley. Hordeum diftichon. Lin.
The ufe of barley as an article of food, has been al¬
ready noticed. A decoflion of it forms a part of moll
emollient drenches and clyfters.
b. Chamomile. Anthemis nobilis. Lin.
The dried fldwer. In infufion or decodtion by way
of fomentation.
c. Gum Arabic. Mimofa nilotica. Lin.
In powder. Dofe two or three ounces or more, by
way of a drench.
d. Gum Dragant. AJlragalus tragacanthu.
In infufion, fo as to form a mucilage. In inflamma¬
tory affeftions of the lungs, bowels, or bladder.
e. Hog’s Lard.
An ingredient in molt ointments and liniments.
f. Linseed. Linum ujitatijjimutn. Lin.
In infufion, by way of drench or clyfter. In purging
or fcouring.
g. Liquorice. Glycyrrhk&a glabra. Lin.
The root in infufion, or powder.
Seldom employed except to render drenches more
palatable, or in powder to mix up balls.
h. Marshmallows. Althea officinalis. Lin.
The dried root in decodtion, by way of drench or
clyfter. In internal inflammations, or irritation from
dtrong purges.
I E R Y. Part V.
i. Olive Oil. Materia
A principal ingredient in ointments and liniments, Medica.
and alfo frequently given by way of drench or clyfter. '■’-“^■•■4
h. Starch.
Very ferviceable by way of clyfter diflblved in warm
water, either to obviate acrimony in inflammation of the
bowels, and fcouring j or by way of nourifhment, com¬
bined with a little opium, in cafes where food cannot
be given by the mouth.
/. Warm Bath.
Seldom employed, on account of its inconvenience,
although it would be probably one of the beft remedies
in fpafmodic complaints.
Receipts for Emollients.
278
19. Take of linfeed, four ounces j Receipt*
Boiling water, three pints.
Infufe for fome hours, and add to the {trained liquor,
of nitre an ounce, honey fufficient to make a pa¬
latable drench. For two dofes.
20. Take of marftimallow root diced, four ounces j
Water three pints.
Boil together till the liquor be reduced to a quart,
and to the drained decodtion add of
Powdered gum arabic, an ounce j
Linfeed oil, two ounces j
Honey fufficient to make it palatable. For two
dofes.
The above decodtion, before the other ingredients
are added, forms a good emollient fomentation.
21. Take of ftarch, two ounces 5
Water-gruel, two quarts;
Mix for a clyfter.
To be given frequently in fcouring or purging.
If they are not kept up for a fufficient time, two or
three drachms of laudanum muft be added.
9. Cooling Remedies.
279
Thefe are called refrigerants by medical writers, and Cooling re.
it is fuppofed that they adt by diminiftiing the ternpe-me^e6,
rature of the body. See Materia Medica. They
are peculiarly fuited to cafes of fever and inflamma¬
tion.
a. ftlTRE.
Frequently employed in fevers and inflammations,
except thofe of the kidneys, and in catarrh. Dofe
about an ounce, diflblved in water-gruel, or fome mu¬
cilaginous decodtion, by way of a drench.
b. Sal Ammoniac. Muriate of Ammonia.
Externally, as a lotion, againlt inflammation.
c. Spirit of Salt. Muriatic Acid.
May be employed as a refrigerant in fevers, when
largely diluted with water or water-gruel.
d. Sugar of Lead. Acetate of Lead.
Employed externally, diflblved in foft water j byway
of lotion or embrocation, for {trains or bruifes; and in
the form of a poultice with oat-meal, to check inflam¬
mation.
e% Goulard’s
I! '
’art V.
Materia
Medica.
FARR
e. Goulard’s Extract, or Vegeto-mineral water.
Is merely another form of the fame remedy.
f. VlXEGAR. Acetous acid.
Employed externally in fimilar cafes.
i a8o
eceipts.
g. Vitriolic Acid. Sulphuric acid.
Ufeful in fimilar cafes with the muriatic acid, but re¬
quires to be largely diluted.
Receipts for Cooling Remedies.
r
22. Take of nitre, an ounce •,
Emetic tartar, two drachms.
Diffolve it in a fufficient quantity of water-gruel, for
a drench.
I E R Y. 4*t
The root in powder, from half an ounce to an ounce Materia
or in a larger dofe, in the form of deco&ion, for a Medica. ^
drench.
A powerful afiringent in cafes of purging, and re¬
commended in hemorrhages.
c. Galls. Quercus cerris. Lin.
Nut galls.
In powder, infufed in boiling water as an external
application.
d. Iron. Muriate of Iron.
A powerful aftringent, though rarely employed in
veterinary practice. It may be given in cafes of obfti-
nate purging, or diabetes, in dofes of a drachm or two,
by way of drench.
23. Take of fugar of lead, half an ounce j
Vinegar, two ounces j
Rain-water, a quart.
Diffolve for a lotion.
24. Take of fal ammoniac, an ounce j
Vinegar, four ounces j
Spirit of wine, two ounces j
Soft water, half a pint.
Diffolve for a lotion.
Both thefe lotions are employed in external inflam¬
mation.
25. Take of cream of tartar, two drachms 5
Nitre, an ounce 5
Water-gruel, a quart.
For a drench in fevers.
. 26. Take of emetic tartar, a drachm ;
Glauber’s fait, eight ounces $
Water-gruel, a quart.
In fimilar cafes attended with coflivenefs.
To be repeated every fix hours.
27. Take of extract of lead, half an ounce j
Diftilled vinegar,
Olive oil, of each two ounces.
Mix well together, into a liniment.
For fore backs.
I
28. Take of marlhmallow ointment, half a pound j
Sugar of lead rubbed fine, an ounce.
Mix for an ointment.
281
Aftringents 10. ASTRINGENTS.
Afiringents are fuch medicines as are fuppofed to pro¬
duce a degree of rigidity in the mufcular fibres, and
thus to increafe its power of aflion, or to prevent
morbid difcharges. Such as are intended to prevent
unufual difcharges of blood are called ftyptics. For
the aflion of afiringents, fee Materia Medica.
a. Alum. Superfulphate of Alumina and Potafh.
In powder, from half an ounce to an ounce, in the
form of drench or ball.
In purging, diabetes, &c. Externally by way of
lotion, or in a fine powder fprinkled on the part. In
greafe.
b. Bistort. Polygotmtn bijlorta. Lin.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
e. Japan Earth. Mimofa catechu'.
Improperly called an earth, as it is a vegetable ex-
trafl. Given in powder, from two drachms to four, in
purging and diabetes.
f Kino.
An extract fimilar to the former, and adapted to fi¬
milar purpofes.
g. Logwood. Hcematoxylon Campechianum. Lin.
Extract of logwood. Dofe from two to four drachms,
in a ball.
h. Oak Bark, ^uercus robur. Lin.
In powder. Dofe about two ounces, in the form of
a ball. Externally by way of decodliun.
i. Pomegranate. Punica granatum. Lin.
The dried fruit in powder. Dofe from half an ounce
to an ounce. Chiefly given in the fcouring incident to
horned cattle.
b. Tormentil. Tormentilla ereBa. Lin.
The root in the form of decoflion, by way of a
drench. An ounce or an ounce and a half in three
pints of water, boiled to a quart. In fimilar cafes with
the laft.
/.Vitriolic Acid. Sulphuric Acid.
Diluted Vitriolic Acid.
Ufed externally by way of lotion, in obftinate cafes
of greafe, and to foul ulcers. Not given to the horfe
internally.
m. Zinc.
White Vitriol. Sulphate of Zinc.
Chiefly employed externally, in inflammations of the
eye, and as a lotion to foul ulcers, and to check inflam¬
mation. Seems to have little effedl on the horfe, but
may probably be given to cattle with fome advantage
in cafes of debility.
Receipts for AJlringents.
282
Receipts.
29. Take of powdered oak-bark, an ounce }
Powdered ginger, two drachms j
Opium, a drachm;
Solution of glue, enough to make the mafs into
a ball.
In profufe ftaling, with a drench of oak-bark decoc¬
tion after it.
3?
30.
farriery.
48i
Materia
Medica.
2S3
Strer.gth-
enmg re¬
medies.
30. lake of kino, two dracliras j
t Alum, half an ounce j
Ginger, a drachm;
Caftile foap foftened with water, two drachms j
„ Powder of oak-bark, enough to make a ball.
In fcouring or purging.
31. Take of white vitriol,
Sugar of lead, each one drachm j
Soft water, half a pint.
Mix.
For eye-water, in inflammation of the eyes,
xi. Strengthening Remedies.
I. hefe are commonly called tonics by medical wri¬
ters. Many of them are aftringents, and have been
already enumerated.
a. Galangal. Maranta ga/angcs. Lin.
1 he root in powder j dofe about an ounce. In weak*
nefs of the ftomach.
b. Gentian. Gentiana lutea. Lin.
I he root in powder j dofe from half an ounce to fix
drachms.
Extract of Gentian. Dofe, a drachm or two,
in a ball in compofition. In indigeftion and weaknefs
of the llomach.
c. Horse Chesnut. EJculus hippocajlanum. Lin.
The bark in powder, or its decoction. Dofe of the
pov/der about an ounce.
d. Iron.
Salt of Steel. Sulphate of Iron.
Dofe about halt an ounce. Generally in compofition.
In fimilar cafes.
e. Myrrh.
A gum refin. Dofe in powder, from two to four
drachms, in a ball. In weaknefs of the Itomach, and
general debility.
f. Oak Bark, ^uercus robur. Lin.
Dofe in powder about an ounce.
In general debility, fucceeding to violent difeafes.
g. Peruvian Bark. Cinchona officinalis. Lin.
Dofe of the powder from one ounce to two. Sel¬
dom employed in veterinary practice on account of its
expence. Said to be inferior to many other tonics in
the horfe.
h. Quassia. ^J/nffia excelfa. Lin.
The wood and the bark of the root. Dofe in pow¬
der two or three drachms, in a ball, or infufed in water
by way of a drench.
i. Blue Vitriol. Sulphate of Copper.
Recommended as a powerful tonic, but requires cau¬
tion in its ufe. Dofe about half a drachm, gradually
increafed according to its effefts. A confiderable quan¬
tity of drink ihould be given, either before or after it.
In cafes of debility that refill other tonics.
Receipts for Tonics.
32. Take of powdered gentian, half an ounce j
Ginger, two drachms j
Honey or molafies, enough to make a ball.
33. Take of powdered horfe chefnut bark, an ounce;
Myrrh, in powder ;
G^ftile foap, each a drachm ;
Water, enough to make a ball.
34* Take of powdered caflia buds, a drachm ;
Extraft of gentian, a drachm and a half;
Honey, enough to make a ball.
35. Take of powdered oak bark, an ounce ;
Aromatic powder, two drachms ;
Salt of tartar, a drachm ;
Molalfes, enough to form a ball.
36. Take of fait of fteel, two drachms ;
Infufion of quaflia, (2 drachms t* a quart of wa-
ter)a quart;
Dilfolve for a drench.
12. Stimulants.
Thefe are fuch remedies as are fuited to increafe the
action, either of the whole circulating fyftem, or of feme
particular part or organ. They are at prefent ufually
divided into diffujible and permanent, the former being
fuch as produce a confiderable Emulating effeft, which
isfoon followed by a degree of quietnefs or torpor, pro¬
portioned to the quantity that had been adminiftered ;
as wine, alcohol, ether, and probably opium ; the
other ioi t being fuch as produce no very confiderable
effea, unlefs repeatedly exhibited for fome confiderable
time.
Mofl: of the ftimulants are called cordials or aroma¬
tics ; and under this clafs, we rank thofe medicines
which have been called carminatives, or which are cal¬
culated to expel wind from the ftomach and bowels,
epifpafics or bliftering fubftances ; and under this clafs
we may alio reckon moft of thofe remedies that are call¬
ed alteratives, or fuch as are fuppoled to produce fome
change in the conftitution or habit of body. The ftimu-
lating remedies employed in farriery, as in human me¬
dicine, are very numerous.
a. Ammonia, or Volatile Alkali. Prepared Ammonia.
Carbonate of Ammonia.
Dofe from half a drachm to two drachms, in a ball
newly prepared. In the latter ftages of fever, attended
with great debility.
• Spirit of Sal Ammoniac. Water of Cal'*
Part V
Materia
Medica.
JS4
Receipts,
Stimulants
b.
bonate of Ammonia.
Chiefly ufed externally.
Cauflic Volatile Alkali. Water of Ammonia.
Ufed externally mixed with oil into a liniment, in
cafes of ftrains, bruifes, and fwellings of the back
finews.
c. Aniseseed. Pimpinella anifum. Lin.
The feed in powder. Dofe about an ounce, in a
ball.
Effenhal oil of anifefeed.
Dofe from half a drachm to a drachm, in the fame
form. In flatulency and indigeftion.
d. Balsam
I!
'art V. FARRIERY. a?,-,
Materia Balsam OF CopaiVA. See ExpeElorants.
yiedica. In flatulent colic or gripes.
" e. Barbadoes Tar.
Externally mixed with oil of turpentine or fvveet oil
into an embrocation. In ftrains and bruifes.
f. CaNTHARIDES, or Spanifh jhj. Lytta veficatoria.
Tin&ure of cantharides. Externally by way of em¬
brocation in fimilar cafes.
Blifters are well known to be thofe remedies that ir¬
ritate the Ikin to which they are applied, fo as to raife
the fcarf-lkin into a bladder containing a watery fluid,
which is the ferous part of the blood. By abftrafting
this from the general mafs of circulation, they produce
an evacuation, proportioned to their extent, from the
part to which they are applied, and are thus extremely
ufeful in producing a determination of blood from fome
neighbouring and more important part.
, Blifters are of confiderable ufe in veterinary praflice.
According to Mr White they are very efficacious in
difperfing callous fweliings, the effects of ftrains, bruifes,
&c. Their beneficial effects are very great in removing
the inflammation of fuch parts as are remote from the
furface. In inflammations of the internal parts of the
foot, they generally give relief when applied to the
paftern, efpecially if the auxiliary remedies are not ne-
gledted, fuch as rafping the hoof, paring the foie, foak-
ing the horny part of the foot in warm water, or by the
application of a poultice to it, and adminiftering a
purging medicine. For curbs, wind-galls, fpavins, &c.
no remedy is more efficacious than bliftering. It is alfo
produdtive of falutary efFedts in inflammation of the in¬
ternal organs. For inftance, when the lungs are in¬
flamed, the determination of blood to the difeafed part
is leffened by extenfive bliftering of the fides, and con-
fiderable relief is afforded in this way.
By the unlkilful treatment of broken knees, a callous
fwelling is often left in the part, for the removal of
which it is always neceffary to have recourfe to blifter¬
ing. If blifters are freed from all cauftic ingredients,
and properly made, no injury to the hair will refult
from their application ; and if one flrould fail of pro¬
ducing the defired effeft, the pradice may be followed
without danger till that objed is attained.
g. Blue Vitriol. Sulphate of Copper.
Employed externally to foul ulcers, either in folu-
tion, or by touching their edges with a cryftal of it j to
produce healthy granulations. Alfo in fome inflamma¬
tions of the eye by way of lotion.
h. Burgundy Pitch.
As an ingredient in ftimulatingointments and plafters.
j. Capsicum, or Cayenne Pepper. Cap. annuum.
Lin.
The dried pod in water.
Dofe about a drachm, in a ball, with milder ftimu-
lants. In flatulence and indigeftion.
£. Caraway. Carum carui. Lin.
The feeds and their efl'ential oil.
Dofe of the oil from, half a drachm to a drachm, in
a ball, as preferibed prefently. In weaknefs of the
ftotnach, flatulence, and indigeftion.
/. Cassia. Laurus cajjia. Lin. Materia
The bark and flowering buds in powder. Medica,
Dofe, from one to three drachms. Ufed as an ingre- v™~
dient in many cordial medicines. Chiefly for affedions
of the ftomach.
tn. Cloves. Eugenium caryophyllata. Lin.
The flowering buds.
n. Oil of Cloves.
Dofe, 20 or 30 drops. In gripes and ficknefs of th«
ftomach.
0. Cummin. Cuminum cyminum. Lin.
The feeds and their effential oil.
In a dofe of from half a drachm to a drachm, in ftmi-
lar cafes.
p. Oil of Cummin.
Dofe, from half a drachm to a drachm. In flatulent
colic.
q. Fennel. j4nethum fceniculum. Lin.
The feeds in powder.
Dofe, an ounce or two.
r. Ginger. Amentum ‘zingiber. Lin.
The root in powder. One of the moft ufeful ftimu-
lants, and preferable to moft others in veterinary prac¬
tice.
Dofe, a drachm or two. In weaknefs of the ftomach,
indigeftion, and flatulent colic.
s. Grains of Paradise. Amomum gratia paradi/i.
Lin.
The feeds. Chiefly employed as a ftimulant for cat¬
tle, as a cordial.
Dofe, from three to fix drachms.
t. White Hellebore. Veratrum album. Lin.
The root in powder. Chiefly ufed externally in
blifters, and for difeafes of the fkin. Formerly employ¬
ed as a purge for horfes, but now defervedly exploded,
as by far too violent.
u. Horse Radish. Cochlearia armoracia. Lin.
The frefli root in infufion or diftilied water. In fla¬
tulence and indigeftion.
v. Mercury.
Calomel. Dofe, from 15 grains to half a drachm. In
farcy, glanders, &c.
Wherever calomel or other mercurial preparations
are given, the animals ftiould be kept warm, ftiould
drink their water a little warmed, and ftiould take re¬
gular exercife in dry weather.
u’. Corrosive Sublimate. Muriate of Mercury.
Employed internally in folution, in dofes of about
15 grains, gradually incruafed. In farcy and glanders.
Externally by way of lotion, to foul ulcers and eruptions
of the fkin.
No preparation of mercury feems to produce fo great
a degree of weaknefs in the horfe as this. Its effefls
muft therefore be carefully watched 5 and befides the
regulations laid down above *, the horfe muft be kept
on a more nourifhing diet than ufual.
x. Red Precipitate. Nitrated Oxide of Mercury.
Externally to ulcers, either fprinkltd on their furface,
3 p 2 or
484 PARK
Materia or mixed into an ointment j in which latter form it is
Meiika. very ufeful in chronic inflammation of the eyes.
y. Nitrate of Mercury. See Receipts, N° 49.
%. Mint. Mentha fativa. Lin.
The effential oil.
Dofe, about a drachm. In weaknefs of the ftomach,
&c.
a a. Mustard. Sin a pi nigrum. Lin.
The feed in powder.
Externally mixed with water into a pafte, or finapifm,
in cafes of internal inflammation.
b b. Peppermint. Mentha Piperita. Lin.
The eflentiai oil.
Dofe, about half a drachm. In fimilar cafes with
mint.
c c. PEPPER. Piper nigrum. Lin.
Dofe, from half an ounce to an ounce, in powder.
In flatulent colic.
d d. ''PIPITS. IVhiJky, Gin, or Brandy.
D fe, from a gill to halt a pint. To cattle in the
flatulence proceeding from eating too much green
food.
1 e 11 r.
42. Take of oil of turpentine,
Oil of olii'es, each two ounces,.
Mix for a liniment.
For drains and bruifes.
43* Fake of verdigrife finely powdered, an ounce j
Venice turpentine, half an ounce ;
Olive oil, an ounce.
Melt the turpentine and oil together, and when.
nearly cold, add the verdigrife.
For foul ulcers.
44. I ake of hog’s lard, four ounces j
Bees wax, an ounce ;
Venice turpentine, three ounces j
Red precipitate finely ground, two ounces.
Melt the three firft together, and when nearly
cold, fprinkle in the powder.
This is Mr White’s receipt for the digeftive ointment,
commonly employed by farriers for drefling rowels and
ulcers.
45. Take of camphor, an ounce ;
Oil of turpentine, two ounces j
Rectified fpirit, four ounces.
Diflblve. For old flrains.
Part V.
Materia
Mediea.
e e. Salt. Muriate of Soda.
Given with good effect to Iheep in the rot.
ff Tar.
Commonly given by country farmers to cattle when
boven from clover.
g g. Turpentine.
Oi/ of Turpentine.
Dofe, an ounce or two. In flatulent colic. Exter¬
nally by way of embrocation. In cafes of indurated
Ivvellings, ftrains, and bruifes j and for cattle after the
bite of the gad-fly.
Receipts. Receipts for Stimulants.
Cordial Balls.
37. Take of caraway feeds powdered, fix drachms j
Powdered ginger, two drachms j
Oil of cloves, 15 drops j
Treacle enough to make a ball.
38. Take of powdered anifefeeds, half an ounce j
Turmeric, an ounce j
Powdered caflia, two drachms j
Treacle enough to form the ball.
39. Take of caraway feeds, and grains of paradife, each
in powder, three drachms j
Ginger, a drachm $
Oil of mint, 30 drops
Honey enough to form the ball.
Stimulating Ointments and Liniments.
40. Take of yellow balilicon, half a pound $
Red precipitate finely ground, two ounces.
Mix well together.
For f<>ul ulcers.
41. Take of hog’s lard, four ounces j
O l ot turpentine, an ounce.
Melt together on a flow fire.
In fimiiar cafes.
Stimulating Lotions.
46. Take of blue vitriol, an ounce j
Water, four ounces ;
Vitriolic acid, 10 drops'.
Mix.
For fimilar cafes, and for the mange.
47. Take of blue vitriol, half a drachm $.
Water, half a pint.
Diflolve for a lotion.
In inflammation of the eyes.
48. Take of tin£lure of opium, two ounces;
Water, fix ounces.
Mix for an eye water.
In fimilar cafes.
49. Take of aquafortis, two ounces}
Quickfilver one ounce.
Diffolve in a gentle heat, taking care to avoid the
fumes.
This forms a nitrate of quichjilver, and when diluted
with a proper quantity of water, is one of the bell ap¬
plications for the foot-rot in fheep.
13. AntiSPASMODICS. Antifpaf.
modics.
Thefe are fuch remedies as are calculated to remove
fpalmodic aflfedtions of the mufcles, or convulfive affec¬
tions, and are therefore frequently employed in cafes of
locked jaw, epilepfy, &c. Few remedies of this clafs
are ufed in veterinary praftice. Such as are more pe¬
culiarly of this nature are mentioned below. They
generally confifl of ftimulants or of anodyne remedies.
a. Camphor.
Dofe, about two drachms, in a ball combined with
opium and ftimulants. In locked jaw.
b. Ether. Sulphuric Ether.
One of the moll powerful antifpafmodics.
Dofe?
1
Part V. FARR
j^teria Dofe, about an ounce, tnixed with a pint of water.
Medica. This fhould be given as expeditioufly as poffible, other-
* * wife much of the ether will evaporate. In obftinate
cafes ot flatulent colic,
C. Oi lUM.
Dofe a diachra or two. The latter quantity general¬
ly in clyfters.
Tincture of Opium.
Dole, from half an ounce to an ounce, repeated oc-
cafionally. In moil fpafmodic complaints.
Oil of Turpentine.
Dofe, about two ounces. In flatulent colic.
1S8
Receipts. Receipts.
I E R Y. 485
Dofe, a drachm or two, in a ball. _ Materia
The hop has been (hewn to be a powerful narcotic, Me^ica-.
and has lucceeded in producing fleep in fome cafes
where opium has failed. It has not yet been introdu¬
ced into veterinary practice j but we think it deferves
a trial, as being much cheaper than opium.
e. Opium.
Dofe, about a drachm by the mouth, and two drachms
in a clyfter.
f. Poppy. Papaverfomniferum. Lin.
The dried heads boiled in water, by way of fomen¬
tation. /
290
Receipts. Receipts.
50. Take of camphor, a drachm j
Effence of peppermint, two drachms.
Grind together, and add
Of water, a pint j
Ether, half an ounce.
Mix.
To be given immediately.
In violent cramp of the ftomach.
51. Take of tinflure of opium, an ounce j
Oil of juniper, two drachms j
Dulcified fpirit of nitre, a drachm j
Water a pint.
Mix.
52. Take of timflure of opium, two ounces j
Cold water-gruel, a quart.
Tor a clyfter.
To be repeated frequently.
In locked jaw.
289
Anodynes. 14. ANODYNES
Are thofe remedies which are given for the purpofe
of procuring fleep, or alleviating pain. They are com¬
monly called narcotics, and many of them are by moft
medical writers denominated fedatives.
a. Fox Glove. Digitalis purpurea. Lin.
Leaves in powder.
Dofe, half a drachm, increafed gradually according
to its effefl. In violent internal inflammations and
fwelling of the legs.
b. Hemlock. Cotiium maculatum. Lin.
Leaves in powder.
Dofe, about a drachm, gradually increafed.
Extrncl of Hemlock.
Dofe, about a drachm.
In obftinate coughs attended with irritability.
c. Henbane. Hyofcyamus niger. Lin.
The leaves in powder, or the feeds,
Dofe, about a drachm.
Extract of Henbane.
Dole, about a drachm.
A folution of this extraft has been found ufeful, ap¬
plied to the eye, in chronic inflammation.
d. Hop. Humu/us lupulus. Lin.
The dried cones in powder.
53. Take of opium, a drachm ;
Powdered anifefeeds, half an ounce j
Caftile'foap, two drachms j
Molaffes, enough to make a ball.
54. Take of camphor, a drachm and a half j
Opium, a drachm j
Ginger, two drachms;
Honey, enough to form the ball.
55. Take of tinflure of opium, two drachms;
Deco£tion of poppyheads, a quart.
Mix for a clyfler.
56. Take of extraft of hemlock, two drachms;
Peppermint water, half a pint;
Ether, half an ounce.
Diff ilve the extraft in the water, and add the ether
at the moment of exhibition.
For a drench.
In putrid fever, or gangrene.
57. Take of bruifed poppyheads, four ounces ;
Hemlock leaves green, a large handful.
Boil gently in a gallon of water for about an hour,
and ftrain the deco&ion.
In wounds and bruifes attended with confiderable ir¬
ritability.
15. Worm Medicines.
291
Worm me¬
dicines.
There are few cafes in which worm medicines are
given in veterinary practice. In the horfe they are fel-
dom required, and do not often prove effectual. In the
dog, indeed, they have been applied more frequent¬
ly, and may be ufed with more probability of fuccefs.
The remedies of this clafs are generally of two kinds,
either fuch as are violent purgatives, and in this way
expel the worms by the violence of their operation; or,
they are fuch as a£l mechanically on thefe animals, ir¬
ritating and tearing their tender bodies, and thus for¬
cing them to relinquifti their fituation.
a. Castor Oil.
Dofe, about half a pound.
b. Gamboge.
Dofe, two or three drachms in a ball.
c. Mercury. Calomel.
Dofe for a horfe, two or three drachms ; for a dog,
about half a drachm, in a ball with purgatives.
d. Salt.
Bofe, ,
486
Materia
Medica.
0
292
Receipts.
FARR
Dofe, from four to fix ounces, in a drench, or double
the quantity by way of clyfttr.
Said to have proved frequently fuccefsful in expelling
worms, when followed by a briflc purgative.
e. Sal Indus.
A fait lately procured from the Eaft Indies, faid to
be fuccefsful in expelling bots from horfesj but Mr
White thinks that other worms have been miilaken for
bots, in the cafes where it has been fuccefsful.
Dofe, about four or five ounces in a drench.
f. Tin. Powder of Tin.
Dole, aboftt an ounce, mixed with honey. '
This promifes to be one of the moft effectual medi¬
cines in cafes of tape-worm, that are fo common to
dogs.
Receipts.
58. Take of calomel, jalap, each half a drachm j
Honey enough to make a ball.
For dogs.
59. Take of tin powder,
Quickfilver, of each two drachms.
Grind together till they be thoroughly mixed ; then
add enough of fugar to form a powder, to be made
up into a ball with caftile foap, foftened with water.
60. Take of fal indus, four ounces $
Alum, half an ounce j
Water, a pint.
Diflblve for a drench. For the bots in horfes.
I E R Y. Part v>
Given mternaUy in powder, to correa the bad fmell Materia
in violent purging; and when powdered fine, may be
ipnnkled on large ftinking fores, with the fame inten¬
tion.
Medica.
e. Lime.
Lime-water. Dofe about a quart, in acidity of the
itomach.
f Chalk.
Carbonate of Lime.
Dofe, an ounce or two.
In violent purging attended with acidity.
g. Silver.
Lunar Caufic. Nitrate of Silver.
Employed to eat down proud fblh, or deftroy horny
excrefcences. J J
Spirit of Salt. Dofe about two drachms,
mixed with a quart of water by way of drench.
i. Vinegar.
Given internally as an antifeptic, diluted with an
equal quantity of water, or ufed externally to wafh foul
ulcers.
L Vitriolic Acid.
Dofe, a drachm or two, as under fpirit of fait.
/. Yeast or Barm.
Employed to make fermenting poultices in cafes of
flinking ulcers.
393
chemical
remedies.
16. Chemical Remedies.
Many remedies are given internally, or applied ex¬
ternally, which feem to adt merely chemically, either
by combining with an acid or alkali, and thus neutra¬
lizing it, by checking putrefaction, or corredting the
ill fmell that is produced by it ; or, in external appli¬
cations, by deftroying or corroding the parts to which
».hey are applied, ihis clafs will therefore compre¬
hend, r
1. All tliofe medicines that have been called antacids
or abforbents, which are given to correft acidity in the
Romach and bowels.
Antalhalines, or tbofe acid fubftances that are
Receipts.
61. Take of prepared chalk, an ounce 5
Powdered ginger, two drachms $
Honey enough to make a ball.
In purging attended with griping.
62. Take of purified foda in powder,
Powdered gentian root, each two drachms j
Powdered caffia, a drachm j
Ireacle enough to form a ball.
In indigefiion, with acidity of the ftomach
bowels.
294
Receipts*
and
2.
given more rarely to correfl alkalefcence.
3; jintifeptics, or thofe that are fuppofed capable of
obviating putrefa&ion.
4. Caujlics or efcheir0tics, which are intended to cor¬
rode the fkin, or to take down fungous or proud flelh jn
ulcers.
a. Alum.
Burnt Alum.
Sometimes applied to ulcers, to wear down proud
b. A AIM ONI A.
Spirit oj Sal Ammoniac. Water of Ammonia.
Dofe, a drachm or two, in a drench, for acidity in
the ftornach and bowels.
c. Antimony.
Butter of Antimony. Muriate of Antimony.
Sometimes applied to foul ulcers. A violent cauftic.
«. Charcoal.
63. Take of charcoal in powder,
Powdered oak bark, each an ounce ;
.1 reacle enough to make a ball.
In violent purging, producing very fetid ft cols.
64. Take of oat meal,
Powdered charcoal, of each four ounces $
T hm yeaft, a fufficient quantity to make a poul*
tice.
To be applied to foul ulcers.
65. Take of aquafortis, an ounce,
Filings of copper, half an ounce.
Difiblve in a gentle heat, taking care to avoid the
fumes.
For a cauftic, in cancer of the foot. It may be
made into an ointment for the fame purpofe, bv mixing-
with hogs lard. ‘ 6
66. Take of frefh burnt quicklime powdered,
Soft foap, of each equal parts.
Mix at the time of ufing!
A mild cauftic, ufeful in deftroying parts of the 1km
where neceffary.
4
67. Take
Materia
Medica.
295
Mifcellane-
cus reme¬
dies.
Part V. FARR
67. Take of corrofive fublimate, half a drachm j
Ardent fpirits, two ounces.
Diffolve for a lotion.
Ufeful as an application to the callous edges of ulcers.
17. Miscellaneous Remedies.
rz. Eggs. The Yolk.
Sometimes employed among the common farriers as
a remedy for broken wind, but appear to be ufeful only
for the purpofe of combining oily fubftances with water.
b. Elecampane, Enula helenium. Lin.
The root in powder. In the form of ointment for
the itch or mange.
c. Glass. /
Powdered glafs is fometimes blown into the eyes of
horfes, to remove fpecks on the 9ornea.
d. Lead.
White Lead. V/hite Oxide of Lead.
Sometimes ufed by way of ointment in fome difeafes
of the fkin.
e. Diachylon Plaister. Litharge Plaifler.
Employed in making charges or (Lengthening plan¬
ters.
f. Bays. Laurus nobiiis. Lin.
Oil of Bay.
Sometimes ufed in ointments for the mange.
g. SxAVESACEE. Delphinium faphifagria. Lin.
The feeds in powder. Employed to deilroy vermin,
being fprinkled on the Ikin.
h. Zinc.
Whiteflowers of 'Line. White Oxide of Zinc.
In ointment, to fores and ulcers.
Calamine. Impure Carbonate of Zinc.
Employed to make the common brown cerate.
Receipts.
68. Take of fulphur vivum finely powdered,
Powdered elecampane root, each two ounces ;
Hogs lard, enough to form an ointment.
For the mange.
69. Take of fulphur vivum powdered, four ounces y
Salt butter, fix ounces j
Train oil,
Oil of turpentine, each one ounce.
Mix well together into an ointment.
Thefe two ointments are ufeful applications in the
mange.
70. Take of hogs lard, four ounces 5
Tar, two ounces.
Melt together-into an ointment.
Employed to anoint the backs of flieep or cattle,
when bitten by the gad-fly.
71. Take of Burgundy pitch, four ounces j
Barbadoes tar, fix ounces j
Bees wax, two ounces j
Red lead, four ounces.
Melt the pitch, tar, and wax together, and when the
mixture is nearly cold, ftir in the red lead, and
continue ftirring till it is firm.
This is Mr White’s receipt for making charges, or
(Lengthening plaifters.
In cafes of wind-galls and old (trains.
2p(>
Receipts.
I E R Y. 487
Before concluding this part, it will be proper to make Materia
a few obfervations, on the cuftem that prevails fo much Medica.
among grooms and farriers, of adminiitering medicine ——v—*
to horfes, by way of prefervatives of health, or prevent-, 207 .
ives of difeafe. It is very common among thefe gentle-'v
men to bleed or phyfic a horfe at lead twice a-year, viz. medicines
in the fpring and fall, though he be in never fuch tohorfesim-
good health, or good condition *, to give him fulphur nece^ar*^*
and antimony now and then to keep his coat fine ; and
to adminifter a cordial ball, or a dofe of diapente oc-
cafionally to improve his appetite. If he is to undergo
any unufual exertion, as riding or hunting, it is Judged
necelfary by thefe fagacious practitioners to prepare him
for the work, by bleeding, purging, and fweating be¬
low a load of body clothes in a clofe, hot (table. In
purfuingthis cuftom, they indeed only imitate what they
praCtife on themfelves on fimilar occafions. As they
deem it neceffary to have themfelves bled every fpring
and fall, or once a-quarter, to take phyfic once a-month,
and to fweat themfelves to make them ride or run more
lightly in a jockey match, they naturally conclude
that their horfes (hould be treated in the fame manner,
and (hould undergo the fame preparation.
If an animal is in a perfeCl (late of health, nothing
more is required to render him capable of performing
the functions for which he is intended. It is only when
there appears fome derangement of the fyftem, or when
the (late of the body is fuch as to threaten the attack of
fome dangerous difeafe, that it is neceffary to call in
the aflhlance of medicine. We (hall foon have oeca-
fion to mention cafes of this kind, and to (hew how the
threatened danger is to be avoided. It muft be re¬
membered that thofe fubftances that are called medi¬
cine, are fuch as produce fome effeCt on the body, that
is in general either unnatural, or is greater than what
commonly takes place in a (late of perfeCl health. If
then we give medicines to an animal in this healthy
(late, we either excite the organs to fome unufual exer¬
tion, or we check thofe exertions that are natural and
healthy ; and in either cafe, we muft do harm. Befides
the cuftom of giving medicines when they are unnecef-
fary, renders them lefs efficacious when they areabfolute-
ly required, to ward off or obviate any difeafe. It is
found that mod remedies, when employed habitually,
require to be incrcafed in quantity in order to produce
the fame effeCl, and if continued too long they
fometimes ceafe to produce their effe£l at all. With
relpedl to fome remedies, it is found that their habitual
ufe is attended with dangerous confequences. Frequent
bleeding tends to produce fatneft, and a plethoric (late
of the body ; the frequent ufe of cordials and aftringents
ftimulates the circulation too much, and produces
fuch a rigidity of the fibres, as lays the foundation of
apoplexy, palfy, and other dangerous diforders. It is
well known too, that when the adlion of the ftomach is
too much excited by the habitual ufe of ftimulants,
it in time lofes its tone, and becomes incapable of
healthy digeftion, unlefs roufed by a greater quan¬
tity of its accuftomed ftimulus. It is therefore ob¬
vious that when an animal is in perfect health, all
that is required to keep him fo, is the proper regula¬
tion of diet, exercife, cleanlinefs, and other circumftan-
ces that have been mentioned in the fourth part of
this article.
We cannot better illuftrate the abfurdity of the ufualcafe.
methods
488
Difeafes. methods of preparing liorfes for a race, than by the fol-
i**~**v~~' lowing cafe, which fell under the obfervation*of Mr
Clark of Edinburgh. “ Two military gentlemen bet¬
ted their horfes to run again 11 each other on the fands
of Leith for a confiderable fum, and this was to take
place three weeks after the bet. The horfes were to
be ridden by their own grooms. Captain H’s was a
poney about hands, Captain M’s was a gelding
about 15 hands high. Both grooms were bred at
Newmarket, and were keen advocates for bleeding
and purging, though both the horfes had been kept on
dry food, and in the beft order, and the interval of time
for fuch treatment was very Ihort. This bleeding and
purging was in order to prepare them the better for
running. Captain M’s horfe was bled once, and pur¬
ged twice. Captain R’s was bled once and purged
once. Both were fweated in the liable with a great
load of clothes ; and their flables, though feparate, were
kept uncommonly hot, and clofely (hut up day and
night, though it was in the midll of fummer. From
this treatment the horfes foon loft their appetite, and
in the courfe of eight or ten days their ftrength was fo
Part VI.
much exhaufted, that they rvere fcarcelv able to o-0 ,Vl
through their ufual exercifeon the fands. 'in this fitua-
turn Captain R. confidered his bet as loft, and export¬
ed nothing lefs than the lofs of his poney, on which he
fet a high value. Luckily, however, the groom, who
was rather corpulent, had put himfelf under a courfe of
paj-fic, to bring himlelf down to the proper weight,
and vyas unable to proceed in his plan of purging and
fweating the horfe. The poney was therefore provid¬
ed with another groom, and was put under the care of
Mr Clark, who, feeing the abfurdity of the plan which
had hitherto been obferved, ordered his clothing to be
reduced to a Angle rug, and the liable windows to be
thrown open, to admit the frelh air. The pqney fnon
recovered his appetite ; and his artivity, ftrength and
fpirits were in a great meafure reftored. Captain M’s
hone in the meantime was continued under the debi¬
litating regimen. When the race came to be decided,
though at ftarting the odds were confiderably in favour
of Captain M’s horfe, yet his opponent won the race
with confiderable eafe.
FARRIERY,
PART VI. OF THE DISEASES INCIDENT TO DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
IN treating of the difeafes of domeftic animals, we
lhall clafs them in two great divifions : in the firft of
which we fhall confider molt of thofe morbid affertions
which are ufually called local and fymptomaticy or in
general thofe fimple affertions of the feveral functions,
that are molt eafily underftood, and require the leaft
complicated mode of treatment. In the fecond of thefe
divifions we lhall treat of the more complicated dileafes,
or tbofe in which the whole fyftem is more or le(s af-
ferted, and of which the treatment is more difficult,
^00 and in general more precarious.
Claffifica- When an animal is difeafed, he is afferted with fome
tion of or other of the following fymptoms.
'fymptoms.
Offenfa- I- Of Senfation.
He labours under too acute fenfibility ; or,
He is afferted with pain or itching.
His fenfibility is unufually diminiihed.
His fsnfe of fmelling is more or lefs impaired.
He hears with difficulty, or not at all.
His vifion is more or lefs impaired.
He is unufually watchful.
His lleep is difturbed •, or,
He is unufually heavy and drowfy.
302
©f motion.
2. Of Motion.
He is either afferted with irregular, involuntary mo¬
tions or fpafms; or,
His moving powers are impaired.
3O3
<Digeftion. 3‘ Of Digefion.
His digeftive organs perform their funrtions toe quickly.
His digeftion is impaired j or.
He does not digeft at all.
He is afferted with ficknefs,
with flatulence, or wind in the ftomach
and bowels.
4. Of Abforption.
He is unufually fat; or,
unufually lean.
He is afferted with fome Watery fwelling.
5. Of Circulation.
His circulation is too rapid ; or, \
It is too flow 5 or,
It is irregular.
He has fome effufion of blood.
304
Of abforp.
tion.
Of circula¬
tion.
6. Of Refpiration.
His breathing is hurried j or,
It is difficult.
He is afferted with cough j
with breezing,
hickup.
His breath is hot ; or,
It is cold.
His Ikin is unufually hot 5 or,
It is unufually cold.
305
Of refpira-
tion.
7. Of Secretion and Excretion.
His fecretions and excretions are either unufually co
pious.
He ftales profufely.
He has a purging ; or,
His Ikin is unufually moift.
307 .
Of fecretion
and excre¬
tion.
The fecretions and excretions are morbidly diminiflr-
ed.
He ftales with difficulty, or not at all.
He is coftive.
His Ikin is unufually dry.
8. Of Generation,
part VI.
FARR
Difeafes.
3°S
Of genera* venereal appetite is exceffive 5 or,
t,on' It is morbidly impaired.
He is impotent.
When a praftitioner comes to examine one of thefe
animals whofe health is deranged, he will naturally in¬
quire into all or moft of the above particulars, and they
will in general apply to all the four animals of which
We are treating. There are fome other queftions
which peculiarly relate to horfes, and which it more
efpecially becomes a farrier to aik ; as,
Enquiries Whether his flanks work.
proper to Whether his ears are cold, or are in conftant motion.
be made Jn what manner he walks.
br a farrier. Whether he looks earneftly at his fides.
Whether his eyes appear drowfy.
In what manner he carries his head.
Whether he kicks his belly.
Whether he appears defirous to lie down, but afraid to
do fo.
Whether he fometimes lies down on one fide, and then
immediately turns to the other.
Whether he lies down and flies up again repeatedly.
Whether he leans upon the manger.
Whether he (lands off from the manger.
Whether he paws his litter.
Whether his nofe runs.
Whether or not he pafTes much wind.
It will alfo frequently be of confequence to afcertain
the following particulars.
Whether the horfe is ufually in a poor condition.
How did the diforder begin ?
How long it has continued.
How long it is fince he ate or drank.
Has he ever had the diforder before \
If he has, What was ufually given him on thefe occa-
fions ?
Does the diforder come on at any particular times ?
Has he been obferved to pafs any worms ?
How long has he been bought, and what price was paid
for him.
Was he bought of a horfe-dealer, or of a private per-
fon ?
Of a friend, or at the public market ?
310 Having afcertained the neceflary particulars, it is
proper to confider whether the difeafe is of fuch a na¬
ture as has in general been eafily removed ; or whether
the expence and time of cure will be Sufficiently com-
penfated by the value of the horfe *, for it muff be re¬
marked, that in general a horfe or other domeftic ani¬
mal is worth no more than the price he would fetch at
the public market. Unlefs, therefore, the animal is a
favourite, or has fome particular good quality which
greatly enhances his value, it may happen that the ex¬
pence and trouble of cure may amount to more than the
animal is worth. In fuch a cafe it would be both pru¬
dence and mercy to kill him, unlefs we wifh to attempt
his cure for the fake of experience. Thefe obfervations
of courfe equally apply to cafes that are generally deem¬
ed incurable.
Having found that the difeafe is of fuch a nature as
Vol. VIII. Part II.
I E R Y.
489
to give hopes of a fpeedy or perfeft cure, it will next
be proper for the practitioner to confider what is the
fpeedielt, fafeft, and cheapeft method of treatment. In
particular, he ought to confider whether any immediate
remedy be neceffary, in order to check the violence
of the diftemper 5 more efpecially whether any imme¬
diate evacuation is required, as bleeding, purging,
blifters, rowels, &c.
He muft alfo be particular in examining whether the
difeafe be of a contagious or infedtious nature, that the
affedled animals may be kept in a feparate place from
thofe which have not been attacked.
Difeafes.
As the general nature and theory of difeafe will be 31s
confidered at large under the medical department of
this work, we have only in this article to detail the
fymptoms as they occur in the domeftic animals; to
point out the caufes and feat of the difeafe, as far as
they have been afcertained by obfervation and diffec-
tion j and to lay down the moft approved methods of
treatment adapted to thefe animals. Obfervations with
refpedt to the theory of difeafes would here be out of
place, and we {hall feldom hazard them, except in fome
of thofe fpecifie complaints which appear to attack fole-
ly the animals of which we are treating. ^I2
It may not be improper to remark, that difeafes, like ClaiEfica-
the obje£ls of natural hiftory, have been arranged in tion of the
two methods. One of thefe is the natural method, in difeafes.
which they are clafled according to their feat or caufes.
The caufes of difeafes are the foundation of Dr Dar¬
win’s fyftem. In the firft feftion of this part we (hall
attempt to clafs the morbid fymptoms according to
their feat, or the fun&ions which they attack. The
other method of arrangement, or the artificial method, is
that in which difeafes are arranged according to fome
obvious and remarkable fymptoms. This is beft calcu¬
lated for the purpofe of recognizing the difeafe when
feen, and is the method employed by moft: nofologifts.
The difeafes in the fecond fe£tion of this part will be
arranged in this way.
SECT. I.
Chap. I. Of Morbid AjfeFlions of Senfation,
3 r3
Most animals are occafionally fubjeft to a morbid in- Morbidfer.«
ereafe of fenfibility, either of the whole nervous fyf. fibility.
tern, or of fome particular organ. This morbid fenfi¬
bility is generally called by medical writers, irritabi¬
lity; but this name is improper, as it implies an affec¬
tion of the niufcular parts; whereas the fymptom we
are now confidering is an affeftion of the nervous fyf¬
tem.
Some horfes naturally poflefs a morbid degree of
fenfibility, which appears by their ftarting on the fudden
approach of any objeft, by the peculiar tendernefs of
their fkin that makes them wince and tremble under
the currycomb, and by the extreme fenfibility that
they evince at the leaft touch of the whip or fpur. Such
horfes are in general very attive and fpirited $ but they
require a cautious and prudent rider, who muft rather
endeavour to foothe and encourage them, than ufe any
harfti or violent means.
This increafed fenfibility is not eafily removed by art,
3 Q. but
314
Reftleflrefs
or anxietj,
315
Depreffion
cf fpirit.
316
Fatigue.
FARR
but generally decreafes as the horfe grows older. It
is belt counteracted by living in a large well-aired
liable, by being kept on hard coarfe food, and by lying
with as little litter below him, as isfufficient to prevent
him from injuring himfelf againlt the pavement of the
(table. In drefling him, the currycomb Ihould not be
too (harp, and fhould not be employed too freely.
When exceflive fenfibility arifes from a delicacy and
weaknefs of habit, (trengthening medicines will be of
ufe, and cordials may occalionally be employed.
There is a fymptom nearly allied to this, which fome-
times appears. The animal affe<Sted gathers himfelf to¬
gether, and brings his four legs as clofe as poffible be¬
low him, and creeps as it were all on a heap. This
fymptom often attends nervous difeafes, and fevere af¬
fections of the bowels. It is generally confidered as a
fign of great danger, and is not unfrequently the fore¬
runner of mortification.
At the commencement of feveral acute difeafes, efpe-
cially thofe of the brain, animals betray an unufual
fenfibility to the effeCts of light and found. When
this happens, the place where they are kept (hould be
darkened, and they (hould be as little as poflible difturb-
ed with rioife.
There is a peculiar rejlleffnefs and anxiety with which
animals are fometimes affeCted. This is not unfrequent¬
ly their only complaint, or at lead we cannot perceive
that they are affedled with any obvious or well-marked
difeafe, but it is moil commonly a fymptom attending
violent diforders, efpecially of the inflammatory kind ;
and generally preceding the fatal termination of dan¬
gerous chronic difeafes. Animals thus affeCtcd are con¬
tinually moving about, and often lie down ; if they are
at liberty, they feek out the mod fequeflered and
gloomy parts of the paflure, and frequently change
their place : if they are tied up, they appear to liden
to, or obferve, every thing that paffes round them ;
they are redlefsly attentive to the various objecls near
them ; but although their eyes appear fixed, and wide
open, they do not dedfadly regard any objtCl; they
are perpetually turning from fide to fide, and if they
feel pain in any part, they often turn their heads
mournfully towards it, fometimes groaning or pant¬
ing. If this date has continued long, the animals be¬
come dill more-refllefs, are perpetually (hiding about,
fcraping with their feet, or pawing the litter ; their
ears become cold, and their hairs bridle up.
Thefe latter fymptoms are confidered as denoting
great danger, efpecially when the animal looks ded¬
fadly at his (ides, or dares with his eyes without ap¬
pearing to take particular notice of any objeCt.
When anxiety appears to be the only fymptom, with¬
out any figns of inflammation or convulfive affeClion,
it is generally a mark of nervous weaknefs, and requires
cordial and ftrengthening remedies, nourifhing diet, and
gentle exercife without labour : but if it is a fymptom
of fome violent difeafe *, it can only be removed by the
general treatment of that difeafe; and in this view, will
come to be confidered hereafter.
Animals are fometimes affected with dejection or
lofs of fpirit. This is not unfrequently the a-fendant
of fatigue brought on by exceflive labour or unufual
exertion; and is therefore mod commonly feen in horfes.
It appears by the animal’s leaning his head on the
manger, danding dill in the fame place, and appearing
I E R Y.
Part VI
to move with pain or difficulty. His limbs are diff, Difeaf
his (kin hard and dry, his eyes look fad, he has no appe- ^ ^
tite for meat ; if belies down, he remains immoveable,
or if obliged to rife, immediately falls again when left
to himfelf.
In general, if the fatigue produced be not extreme¬
ly great, it gradually goes off with red and quiet, efpe¬
cially if it has been found practicable to employ the
means that are prefently to be recommended; but if
the exertion to which-the animal was expofed, has been
too great for its drength, the confequent depreffion may
prove highly dangerous, or even fatal. In this date
his urine is crude and watery, and, if a male horfe, he
feems fcarcely to have the power of drawing for the
purpofe of making water ; and his excrements are dry
and fcanty. If taken out in this condition, he moves
with pain and didiculty, trots dow, or lifts his feet very"
little above the ground, carries his head veiy low and
his ears depreffed over his forehead ; he often durables,
and not unfrequently falls on his knees, and appears
very little fenfible of the whip or fpur. If a horfe in
this date has any fores or ulcers about him, they become
hard, or dabby, affume a dull appearance, and the
matter proceeding from them becomes thick and vifcid.
Rowels very frequently dry up ; and if he is affeCfed
with any eruption of the (kin, this commonly dilap-
pears.
1 o prevent the bad confeqiiences that are likely to
follow the date which we have now dcfcribed, it is pro¬
per, as loon as we find a horfe much fatigued, to fpread
a bed of litter (or him to red on : and as foon as pof¬
fible give him a cordial bail, or drench. The drength
of this mud not, however, be in proportion to the de¬
gree of fatigue or depreffion, as experience has drawn,
that when a powerful cordial is given in a date of ex-
ceffive weaknefs, it proves too much for the animal, and
frequently excites fevers or inflammation. The horfe’s
limbs (hould be bathed with warm water, and then rub¬
bed thoroughly dry. After this he flrauld be left to his
repole, and if it be not too late at night, he may in a
few hours have a warm bran malh. When a little re¬
covered, he muft be gently rubbed all over, but efpeci¬
ally his limbs, without currying; he (hould be put upon
a nourifihing diet, and exercifed but little. Thefe
means, varied according to circumflances, will in gene¬
ral bring the horfe round, unlefs the fymptoms are ex¬
tremely violent ; when they will commonly terminate
in fever, or in fome chronic difeafe, efpecially dropfy.
The train of fymptoms which we have been defcrib-
ing, are mod commonly the effe£t of fatigue ; but they
may arife from other eaufes. They are more or lefs
the attendants of decay, and they are generally the
forerunners of fever or inflammation of the brain.
Sometimes thefe animals areafre&ed with a great de- infenfihili*
gree of infenfibility or torpor ; they are heavy and lift- ty, drowfi*
lefs; lie much ; are not eafily difturbed ; are inattentivenefs.
to the objects around them ; feem to be infenfible to
pain, and move heavily and unwillingly. Thefe fymp¬
toms require particular attention, as in mod cafes they
denote fome dangerous affection of the brain and are
very commonly followed by apoplexy or flaggers ; or
by epilepfy ; or they are the attendants (efpecially in
dieep) of water in the head. Wherever they are ob-
ferved to take place in an animal that has been full fed,
with little exercife, efpecially if he appear fat and full
of
part VI.
FARR
pifeafes.
3iS
Giddinefs,
or turn-
fick.
319
Blindnefs.
320
Marks of a
: found eye.
32»
Partial
hlindnefs.
of blood, and the pulfe be found full and ftrong, the
eyes red or heavy, there is danger of apoplexy j and the
animal fhould immediately be bled and purged, be
gradually put on a lower diet, and ufe gradually more
exercife. Thefe changes mud; be made by degrees, be-
caufe too fudden changes may produce the very effetts
againd which we are guarding.
A great degree of torpor and infenfibility is often
produced by exceflive cold, or by being kept long in an
impure atmofphere. Where they have taken place from
either of thefe caufes to a dangerous degree, the appli¬
cation of heat mud not be too fudden, as it will tend to
extinguidi the fmall remaining fpark of life, and pro¬
duce apoplexy, or mortification, where any external
part has fulfered from cold.
The head may be affefted with dizzinefs, or giddinefs,
commonly calledfrom various caufes. It may
arife from great weaknefs, or it may be the confequence
of plethora, or fulnels of blood. In the latter cafe, it
is a pretty fare mark of approaching apoplexy or dag¬
gers j and the animal mud irnmediatelv be bled, and
put on a lower diet, with gentle exercife. In fheep,
dizzinefs is a common fymptom of durdy, or water in
the head, a complaint which will be confidered hereaf¬
ter. It will be evident that when this affection appears
in animals that are lean, meagre, and in low condition,
it (hows the neceflity of a more full and nourilhing
diet.
The only morbid affe£Hon of the external fenfes,
that we fliall here confider is blindnefs, a dtfecl which
is of mod confequence in the horfe, though it may oc¬
cur in all the domedic animals.
The eyes of a horfe, when perfedlly found, have the
cornea or outer covering, and the humours that are feen
through it, perfeftly clear and tranfparent; there (hould
be no fpecks, or dragons as they are called, in either •,
no greennefs or glafly appearance of the pupil, and this
fhould readily contrail when fuddenly expofed to a
clear light. Buffon obferves, that in a found eye, two
or three foot-coloured fpots appear through the corrtea
above the pupil.
When a horfe has a defeil in his vifion, without be¬
ing perfettly blind, he appears dull, fearful, and redive,
darts at fuddenly approaching any objeil, carries his
head high, or to one fide ; moves his ears alternately,
or turns one forwards, while the other is turrted back¬
wards, and ufually hangs back on his bridle or halter,
and lifts his legs up very high.
Partial blindnefs is a fymptom of feveral difeafes in
the horfe': it ufually attends great weaknefs, efpecially
when this has been brought on by hard work and low
feeding ; it is a common attendant on locked jaw, and
generally precedes the daggers. It of courfe is one of
the effefls of old age.
When proceeding from debility, it generally goes off
in proportion as the drength is redored by red and pro¬
per nouridiment j when it is a fymptom of other difeafes,
it goes off when they are removed. The blindnefs of
old age is incurable, and in the horfe we believe no
method has yet been difeovered of relieving the defedl
by art.
It is generally allowed, that it is belter to have a
horfe totally, than partially blind j as when quite blind,
he is not liable to dart, or be fliy j and when fure foot-
1 E R Y.
491
ed, well (hod, and managed by a careful rider, there is Difeafes.
little danger of his dumbling or falling. * \
Total blindnefs either proceeds from a defett in the ^.ot^y;r |
optic nerve, by which this is rendered incapable of re-^^
ceiving the impredion of light, or from an opacity or
muddinefs in the cornea or humours, by which the
tranfmiffion of light through them is obllrudled. 323
The fird fpecies of blindnefs, or that depending on aGlafs eyes.
defe<d in the optic nerve, is generally called by farriers
glafs eyes, and by medical writers, it is termed amauro-
f™, or gutta ferena.
It is known by the peculiar glafly appearance of the
eye, which feems perfedlly clear, fo that an ordinary ob-
ferver would not fuppofe that there was any defeft in
the horfe’s eye. On examining the eve however more
attentively, it will be found that the pupil is confider-
ably dilated, and preferves the fame fize in every change
of light ; not contracting, as ufual, when the light to
which it is expofed becomes dronger. There is alfo a
greenifh Tippearance of the eye in this difeafe.
The caufes of glafs eyes are not well afeertained. It
has followed a blow on the head, or indammatory af-
fe&ions of the brain or its membranes j but it has come
on fometimes imperceptibly, and where thefe difeafes,
or any other evident caufe has not appeared.
This difeafe in the horfe has hitherto proved incurable. 324
The mod common caufe of blindnefs in the horfe, is Cataradl.
an opacity of the lens, or crydalline humour of the eye.
This difeafe is known by the name of cataraci, and is
fometimes called by farriers, moon blindnefs, or a horfe
that has a cataraCl is faid to be moon-eyed.
It is in general eafily difeovered that a horfe labours
under a cataraft, as, when the difeafe is confirmed, an
obfeurity or muddinefs may be fee n in the centre of the
pupil, occupying more or lefs of the opening, according
as the cataradl is more or lefs extended. The opaque
fpot is generally of a dull white or yeilowidi colour.
Sometimes the crydalline humour is fo fixed to the iris,
or that moveable coloured part in the middle of the
eye, as to obdruft its motion, and then the pupil re¬
tains the fame fize in every light j or if the adhefion is
partial, the pupil of the eye affumes a regular (hape.
It mud be obferved, that in this difeafe, the iris is not
always fo immoveable as in glafs eyes ; though when
the cataraCl is fully formed, the pupil is generally en¬
larged, and contrafts very little on the approach of a
drong light. Sometimes the lens comes through the
pupil altogether, and doats in the watery humour, in
the fore part of the eye.
The cataraCl in horfes is faid to be always a confe¬
quence of inflammation in the eye, which will be con¬
fidered in the fecond feClion of this part.
The only method that appears likely to remove the
cataraCl, is an operation by which the opaque lens may
be thrud down below the pupil or entirely extraCled
from the eye 3 but neither couching nor extraction can
be recommended in the horfe, as the removal of the
lens wmuld dill be attended with a defect of vifion that
would render the animal of lefs ufe, than if he were to¬
tally blind. 32S
Another caufe of blindnefs, and alfo a confequence Opacity of
of inflammation, is opacity of the cornea. There may the cornea,
be either a diffufe wTbitenefs or muddinefs in the cornea,
that is more or lefs extenfive ; or, there may be fpecks
3 Q_ 2 or
3^
Waits.
492 FARR
DHeafes, or warts growing on the outfide of this coat, fo as to ob-
v ftrufl the paffage of the rays of light. Sometimes the
opacity of the cornea is only flight, producing partial
blindnefs; but frequently it is univerfal, and then the
horfe cannot fee at all. This univerfal opacity of the
cornea is fometimes, though improperly, called cataraEi,
It fometimes difappears for a time, and the eye feems
nearly as clear as ever j but it generally returns in no
long time.
General opacity diffufed through the fubfknce of the
cornea, does not readily yield to remedies. Attempts
have been made, by fcarifying the veflels on the white
of the eye, or by Simulating applications to the cornea,
to roufe into adlion the abforbent vefifels of the eye, and
thus remove the opacity : but thefe attempts feem to
have been attended with little fuccefs. Specks or warts
on the cornea, if they are not too large, may generally
be removed by the knife, or by repeatedly blowing into
the eye a powder compofed of powdered glaA and white
vitriol. But, it thefe fpecks are attended with any ge¬
neral opacify of the cornea, little benefit is to be ex¬
pelled from thefe operations.
As the Ikin is fo intimately connefted with fenfation,
we fhall here confider fume of the more fimple affedtions
of that organ, that are not generally attended with fe¬
ver. It is not uncommon for excrefcences or warts to
grow on the fkins of domeflic animals, particularly on
horfes and oxen. Sometimes they are hard, and firm 5.
at others they are foft and fprouting : in fame their root
is fmaller than their head ; in others the bafe is the lar-
geft part. The fprouting kind of warts are called by
the farriers anger-berries, ambury or ambery, and are
not uncommon among oxen. As thefe are large!! at
the bafe, they can, like all of that defcription, be re¬
moved only by touching them daily with fome cauftic,
as lunar cauftic, or butter of antimony. Where the
wart has a fmall root, it may be beft removed by tying
a ftrong waxed thread round the root, tightening it now
and then as it gets loofe till the wart drops off. It is
in general not proper to remove warts by the knife, un-
lefs they are of fuch a firm confiftence as not to bleed
on being cut, and to admit of the application of caullic
after cutting.
There fometimes appears on the fkin of the horfe, a
fcurfy eruption at the bending of the knee, or the bend¬
ing of the hock. The eruption generally appears in
both places at once, and is called by farriers, the Mal-
lenders and Sallenders ; a term which they have bor¬
rowed from the French. When confidered feparately,
the eruption of the knee is called the mallenders, and
that of the hock the fallenders.
Thefe eruptions may generally be traced to want of
cleanlinefs, and are, in moft cafes, eafily removed, by
■wafting the parts with foap and water, and applying an
ointment, compofed of mercurial ointment and camphor;
or either of the ointments marked N® 41. and N° 70. in
the receipts.
When a horfe’s fkin is hard, dry, and unufually tight
about the body, the animal is faid to be hide-bound.
This tightnefs about the Ikin is ufually the effeft of hard
work and improper food ; and commonly attends linger¬
ing difeafes, in which the fat is gradually wafted or ab-
forbed. It muft therefore be confidered rather as a
fymptom of difeafe than as a difeafe itfelf: but, as is the
cafe with moll remarkable fymptoms, it has often been
327
Mallenders
and fallen¬
ders.
328
Hide¬
bound.
I E R \. par{. yj
regarded as a primary difeafe j to remove which, by Difeafes '
fweating and relaxing remedies, i» the principal obieft v-'
of the pra&itioner.
The proper remedies for this affeCtion, when it is not
a fymptom of fome lingering diforder, are nouriftino-
diet, with plenty of green food, particular attention to
cleanlinefs, by frequent drefling, and the occafional ufe
of boiled barley and warm maflies.
Horfes that have a lean, unthrifty-like appearance,Suriein
with their coats looking rough and rufty, are faid by
the grooms to labour under a furfeit. ' Whence has
ariftn the application of this ftrange term to an appear¬
ance that feems fo oppofite to what is generally under-
ftood by a furfeit, we are not aware ; but an affedion of
the Ikin, under the name of furfeit, is thus defcribed by
Mr Lawrence : Its confirmed Hate is attended with
eruptions, and fometimes with fwellings of the legs and
joints, and in the latter cafe is ufually to be looked up¬
on, as the termination of fome chronic difeafe, or a con-
fequence of the improper ufe of mercurial phyfic. Sur¬
feits are ftyled dry or wet i in the former, the Ikin is
covered with a thick dry fcurf, with fcabs, and fmall
hard tumours like warbles j in the latter, a ftarp briny
ichor iffues from the poll, neck, withers, quarters, and
hinder legs, in the bend of the hock, caufing great ftiff-
nels and inflammation j this is probably analogous with
fcurvy in the human body, and will often attend cart-
horfes, with foul and unwholefome blood, at Hated pe¬
riods. 'I he too free ufe of beans will produce the wet
furfeit.
“ The cure offurfeits depends alraoft entirely upon
internal alteratives, with a very fmall attention to exter¬
nal applications. As to the latter, perhaps, frequent
cleanfing, with a good ftrong lather of foap, is generally
fufficient, but where the eruptions are hard and fixed,
and the fcabs do not peel off, I know of nothing bet¬
ter than to rub them frequently with the ftrong mer- * Law-
curial unftion, keeping the horfe well clothed, and g\v-renre on
ing warm water in the interim. The warm bath if the
animal is ftrong vo ‘ u'
One of the moft common difeafes of the fkin among Man3K3s°in
domeftic animals, is what is commonly called the mangehoihu
in borfes, cattle and dogs, and the fcab or itch in fteep.
Its fymptoms differ but little in the different fpecies of
animals, and we do net remember to have feen thedif*
order well defcribed by any writer. The following de¬
fcription of the mange in horfes by Mr Feron, is per¬
haps among the beft that have been publifted. “ The
mange is a contagious chronical diforder which mani-
fefts itfelf on the Ikin, on which fenfible eminences of
a roundift figure rife up 5 thefe being fcratched, a fluid
oozes out, of a hot and corroding quality, that excori¬
ates the found fkin wherever it runs, in a little time
forming a dry, fcaly, crufty eruption, which in its pro-
grefs fpreads over the whole furfaee of the body : and
the fkin becomes unequally thick, thin, hard, and foft.
If the diforder has been neglected, or ill-treated, the
animal falls off from his food, grows lean, and the legs
fwell : in this ftate the patient has frequent fits of ftiver-
ing and trembling, and a flight fever arifes, terminal-
ing in farcy or the glanders, by which he is eafily de-1 Teron's
ftroyed f.” Farriery-
A difeafe fimilar to this, if not of the fame kind, af-ln c33tiei>
fe£ts cattle, efpecially fuch as are ill-fed, and not kept
clean.. It is commonly called, by herdfmen, the fcab
or
33 2
In ilieep,
vey.
333
In dogs,
fart VI. FARR
nifeafes. orIcurf i an^ 's ^efcribed In a popular trealife on
L ^ ' cow-doftoring.
Skin ftiff, and flicks faft to every part of the carcafe,
as if too fmall for the body. It makes its firft appear¬
ance about the head and jaws of the animal, with a
fcurfy, pale, and dry texture •, and the beaft begins to
fcrateh againft every thing that comes in its way : - it
then (hews itfelf along the back, and behind the
flioulders; and if timely aid be not procured, the ani¬
mal will tear its {kin till it bleeds violently, which
ought to be prevented, if poflible, as the fcabs which
are the confequence of bleeding, much retard the effi¬
cacy of the ointment, and the lofs of time confirms the
diforder.
This difeafe is incident to ftieep in fome particular
paftures, fituations, and feafons, more than to others.
The predifpofing caufe feems to be a relaxed habit of
body, produced by poverty or leannefs, though fome
(beep are fubjeft to it that are fat, and otherwife in
* Yinila- good condition. The difeafe feldom feems to originate
ter's Sur- with fuch ftieep, but to be conveyed to them by infec¬
tion *.
Dogs are exceedingly fubjefl to the mange, and rea¬
dily catch it from each other. The appearance of the
difeafe in dogs, is familiar to every one, as there are
few more common and difgufting fights than a mangy
dog. A dog in this flate is very unfit for any a£tive
exertion, as the affedion of the Ikin renders him ftiff
and fore even in his limbs. A friend of ours had a
greyhound, that, when he was clean, was one of the
fwifteft runners in the country, and had gained the
prize in many a courfing match. This dog caught the
mange, and while in this fituation was feveral times
fent in purfuit of a hare j but now, pufs generally ef-
caped him.
This difeafe has fometimes been attributed to ani-
malculae, fuch as are found in the fymptoms of the itch
upon the human {kin *, and analogy feems to be in fa¬
vour of this idea. It is, however, evidently conne&ed
with poor living, and want of cleanlinefs.
In the treatment of the mange, we are to rely chief¬
ly on the ufe of external applications, fuch as ointments,
compofed of fulphur, of fome preparation of mercury,
or hellebore roots. The receipts marked N° 68. and
69. are well adapted to the cure of this difeafe. Some
times internal remedies, fuch as fulphur and gentle lax¬
atives, are required •, and the greateft attention muft be
paid to cleanlinefs diet, and exercife. It may be ne*
ceffary in fome cafes, efpecially where the animals that
have caught the difeafe, are very full of blood, to bleed
and give cooling phyfic previous to the application of
ointment ; and in all cafes the fkin fhould be thorough¬
ly waihed with foap and water, both before and after
anointing. The animals fhould always be confined till
they are quite free from the difeafe.
Mr Feron, who confiders the mange in horfes as a
general affeiflion of the fyftem, and not merely a local
difeafe of the fkin, ftrongly recommends the ufe of blif-
ters, which he has feen aft as a fpecific. “ The local
treatment, and the only one to be depended upon (fays
this gentleman), confifts in a judicious application of
blifters, ufed after the following manner •, viz. if the
whole body is affefted, the one half muft be bliftered
one day, and the other in three days after. This muft
be done at different times, in order to prevent the can-
334
Treatment.
I E R Y. 493
tharides from operating too violently upon the kidneys Difeafes.
and bladder j but if this happens, let the animal be bled,' ■ » r
and clyiters frequently injefted. But the beft way to
avoid this, is to leave off all kinds of internal medicines,
during the aftion of the blifters. When they begin to
operate, the Ikin muft; be fomented with warm water
three times a-day, in order to wafti out a quantity of
yellow matter, difcharged by the aftion of the blifters,
and to encourage the growth of new hair.” Wedonot
pretend to difpute the efficacy of Mr Feron’s biiftering
praftice in removing the mange, but we doubt whether
the biiftering one half of the body with cantharides
may not be produftive of more ferious confequences
than the difeaie which it is intended to remove. At
any rate, the expence of the method, and the torment
which it muft; occafion to the poor animal, muft great¬
ly prevent the general application of the remedy.
In Mr Findlater’s furvey, quoted above, are the fol¬
lowing judicious obfervations on the treatment of fhecp
labouring under the fcab.
“ Sheep that are regularly tarred, or-fmeared, are
feldom infefted with this difeafe. If the difeafe be
partial, perhaps the beft remedy would be to clip the
affefted parts as bare as poflible, and rub them occa-
fionally with the common fmearing ointment, to which
may be added a little Venice turpentine. They ihould.
alfo be waftied, once or twice a week, with black foap
and water. But if this prove ineffeftual, or it the dif¬
eafe has gone to a great extremity, the animal fhould
firft; be waftied as clean as poflible, in a pond, or rill of
water, to purge away all the accumulated virus, or in-
fefting matter, from the wool. A little black foap may
be of great ufe in waftiing. Then the whole body may.
be fmeared with juice of tobacco j and after the animal
becomes dry, may be rubbed with butter mixed with
powdered brimftone ; or brimftone mixed with the
fmearing ointment would anfwer better. A little of
the fulphur may meanwhile be thrown down its throat.
If this treatment, being twice or thrice repeated, after
an interval of feveral days, ftiould prove ineffeftual, re-
courfe muft be had to the mercurial ointment, compo¬
fed of three ounces of hogs lard, well rubbed in a mor¬
tar, with half a drachm of finely powdered corrofive
fublimate j or the fame proportion of corrofive fub-
limate, well mixed with three ounces of the common
fmearing ointment, will anfwer equally well. The ani¬
mal being fmeared with this ointment, will foon be ef-
feftually cured. Meanwhile the difeafed animal ftiould
be invigorated or put upon fubflantial food.”
In a note Mr Findlater mentions an obfervation of
Mr Loch's of Rachan, that the matter difcharged in
the fcab mixing with the wool, and drying, forms a hard
impenetrable cruft, which he has obferved of half an
inch in thicknefs; that it is vain to think of curing it
by any external application, till this is removed ; and
that you might as well attempt to cure a man of the
itch, by rubbing butter and brimftone upon his coat,
inftead of his naked {kin ; that the fcurf thus formed,
muft be removed by foaking and waftiing it with
warm lime-water and foap, and fcraping it clean to the
quick with a blunt knife. It may then be fuccefsfully
cured by the ointment *, or, what is more cleanly and
more eafily prepared, by means of a lotion made by
difl'olving half a drachm of corrofive fublimate in a quart
(chopin) bottle of whifkey and water, Mr Loch has .
always ,
494
F A R R
. 335
Lice and
flea?.
Difeafes, always found this lotion effectual, after two or three
-"nr--' applications.
It has been propofed by a correfpondent of the Far¬
mer’s Magazine, to inoculate llieep for the fcab, in or¬
der to render it milder. Even fhould inoculation have
this effeft, which is by no means certain, it does not
appear neceffary, in a difeafe that is fo eafily cured.
Befides the feveral applications that we have men¬
tioned, a variety of ointments and lotions are recom¬
mended by writers on dogs. Mr Beckford advifes that
as foon as a mangy fpot appears on a hound, it Ihould
be wrell rubbed with a liniment compofed of a pint
(mutchkin) of train oil, half a pint of oil of turpen¬
tine, a quarter of a pound of powdered ginger, and
half an ounce of gunpowder. It is alfo recommended
that the dog fhould have a purging ball now and then,
and fhould be kept from flefh meat. There is a variety
of the mange in dogs, called the red mange, which it
is ♦hid is heft cured by mercurial ointments.
Moft of the domeftic animals, efpeeially when young,
are troubled with lice. Calves are fometimes loufy, if
they have been hard kept during winter, by being
tutned out in fevere weather, fed on poor diet, and not
kept clean. The beft means of deftroying thefe ver¬
min is by rubbing their hide with an ointment compo¬
fed of ftaves-acre, or cayenne pepper, mixed up with
hogs lard.
Young whelps are very fubjebl to lice ; but they may
be eafily removed by wafliing with a lotion formed by
deeping a pound of tobacco in three Englifti pints of
fmall beer, or by rubbing the {kin well with train-oil.
Fleas are beft deftroyed by walhing the dogs fre¬
quently with foft foap and water.
Sheep are often infe&ed with vermin of various kinds,
which harafs the animals exceedingly j and not only
do much mifchief to the wool, but even eat into the
animal’s fkin.
The ftieep fly abounds moft in the fouthern parts of
the ifland, and is chiefly troublefome to lambs. The
moft effectual means of protefling the lambs from the
infeft appears to be to fmear the fleece with any kind
of rancid oil.
Another fpecies of infeft that infeft Iheep is com¬
monly called tick, or kedd, the hippobofca ovina of na-
turalifts.
336
Fly.
337
Ticks*
The fmearing ointment generally prevents, or kills
this infeft. But if this fhould not happen, or if the
ftieep are not fmeared, infefts of every kind may be ef¬
fectually killed, by flightly rubbing the parts affefted
witjh mercurial ointment, compofed of three ounces of
hogs lard, rubbed up with half a drachm of finely pow¬
dered corrofive fublimate. To this may be added, a
little of the fpirit of turpentine. Coal oil is powerfully
deftruftive to infefts of evfery kind ; but whether it may
not prove injurious to the health or fleece of the ftieep,
has not yet been afcertained by experiment. A decoc¬
tion or diftillation from the gall-plant, which abounds
in many moffes and muirs, is known to be very fatal to
infefts of every kind ; and a flieep may be fafely wafh-
ed with this juice. The juice of tobacco is alfo much
recommended as a poifon for thofe infefts which infeft
* Find- ftieep.
later’s The laft fpecies of infefts are chiefly hurtful to fheep
Surrey. 0f a year or tnore *.
Part VI
I E R Y.
Among the infefts whk!, prove moft troublefome to ,>if
horfes, flieep, and cattle, are thole of the genus Oef. - ‘ " ^
trus, fome fpecies of which are generally known by the
name o?gad-fly. The beft account of thefe infefts and
their effefts, that we have feen, is that of Mr Bracey
Clark, publiftied in the third volume of the Linnman
I ranfaftions, from which the following account is
chiefly taken.
Mr Clark defcribes five fpecies of Oflrus, viz. Oe.
bovis, Oe. eqmt Oe. hcemorrhoida!is) Oe. veterinus and
Oe. ovis.
We fliall at prefent defcribe the effefts only of the
faff and laft fpecies.
Ihe Oe. bovis, as its name imports, chiefly attacks Gad-fly, or
cattle, through the fkins of which it pierces, in order0eftrU!>
to depofit its eggs. The pain which it inflifts in de-bovis-
pofiting its eggs appears to be much more fevere than
what is excited by any of the other fpecies. When
one of the cattle is attacked by this fly, it is eafily
known by the extreme terror and agitation that feizes
the whole herd. The unfortunate objeft of attack runs
bellowing from among his fellows, to fome diftant
part of the pafture, or to the neareft water, holding
his tail, from the feverity of the pain, extended flraight
from the body, in a line with bis back, with a tremu¬
lous motion, and ftretching out his head and neck to
the utmoft. The reft of the herd, infefted with the like
fear, though not attacked, fly alfo to the water, or dif-
perfe to different parts of the pafture. Such is the
dread and apprehenfion of the cattle for this fly, fays
Mr Clark, tnat I have feen one of them meet the herd
when almoft driven home, and turn them back, re-
gardlefs of the ftones, flicks, and noife of their drivers ;
nor could they be flopped till they reached their accuf-
tomed retreat in the water.”
When one of thefe flies happens to attack oxen that
are yoked in the plough, there is often confiderable
danger, as the animals become quite ungovernable, and
will often run direftly forwards with the plough,
through hedges, or whatever oppofes their career. ^
Heifers, fteers, and the younger cattle, are in gene¬
ral moft frequently attacked by this fly, the ftrongeft
and moft healthy hearts feem conrtantly to be preferred
by it, and this circumftance is faid to be a criterion of
goodnefs held in much efteem by the dealers in cat¬
tle. Tanners alfo have remarked, that their beft and
ftrongeft hides have generally the greateft number of
boles in them.
The larvae of this fpecies, as of moft of thofe we
are to mention, are generally termed Lots, but this
name is moft frequently applied to the larva; of the Oe.
equi.
The complaint produced by the punfture of this in¬
feft in the fkins of cattle, is called puckeridge, and is
not unfrequently attributed to the bite of the goat-
fucker. For the deflruftion of the larvae thus depo-
flted, it has been recommended to infert a red hot wire
dnto each of the holes made in the fkin ; but this is a
formidable remedy, and will probably do as much harm
to the fkin as the hots themfelves. A more rational
praftice that is fometimes in ufe, is to prefs the parts,
and rub them well with a little oil of turpentine, or
fome other ftimulating application, or a little oil of tur¬
pentine may be injefted into each hole.
3
The
II
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafes.
339
|0e. ovis.
1 340
Mt-rot,
The larvae of the Oo, bovis are cornmonly known to
the country people by the names of wormiis, or wor-
inuls, or warbles.
During the fummer, (heep areoften obferved to gather
together in clufters, endeavouring carefully to guard their
heads. Mr Blaine fays that this is to protect them-
felves againft the attacks of this infeft, which attempts
to lay its eggs on the inner margin of the nofe, which
when it has effedled, thefe eggs become larvae, and
creep up into the frontal and maxillary finufes.
It is not eafy to difcover the manner in which this
infeft depolits its eggs, owing to its obfcure colour and
rapid motions, and to the great agitation into which
the {Keep are thrown by its attack; but the fubfequent
motion of the fheep, and the manner in which they at¬
tempt to defend themfelves againft their enemy, leave
no room to doubt, that the eggs are depolited on the
inner margin of the noftrils.
The moment the fly touches this part of the flieep,
they fhake their heads, and ftrike the ground violently
with their fore feet, at the fame time holding their
nofes clofe to the earth ; they run awav, looking about
them on every fide, to fee whether the fly purfues: they
alfo Imell to the grafs, as they go, left one fhould be
lying in wait for them. As they cannot, like horfes,
take refuge in the water, they have recourfe to a rut,
or dry dully road, or gravel-pits, where they crowd to-
gether during the heat of the day, with their nofes held
clofe to the ground, which renders it difficult for the
fly conveniently to get at the noftril.
Obfervations on thefe flies are beft made in warm
weather, and during the heat of the day, when by
driving' the flieep from their retreats to the grafs, the
attack of the fly, and the emotions of the flieep, are
eafily obferved.
The noftril from repeated attacks, and the confe-
quent rubbing againft the ground, becomes highly in¬
flamed and fore, which occafions their touch to be fo
much dreaded by the flieep.
It is faid that this fly alfo depofits its eggs in the
Ikin of the fheep, but we are not certain how far this
has been proved by experience ; although there is no
doubt that there are fometimes found in the flieep’s fkin,
maggots that mufl have been produced from eggs depofit-
ed by fume infeft. They prove extremely troublefome
to the animal, eating into the fkin, and producing ul¬
cers. If not difeovered in time, they may even deflroy-
the. life of the flieep. The remedy is to clip the in-
fedled parts bare, wafti them well with black foap and
water, and apply the fmearing ointment. If this does
not fucceed, recourfe mull: be had to the method re¬
commended in n° 337-
When flieep have lain about for a long time in wet
and marfliy paftures, or have been kept in woods or
copies in a flarving condition, their fleeces become fo
completely foaked with water, that the wool rots
off from the fkin. This is what is called the pelt-rot.
If fheep be fuffered to continue long in this condition,
they become heavy and low-fpirited, and will fooner or
later be deftroyed. If, however, they be attended to
in proper time, they may be faved by driving them to
a good draw yard, pulling off their ragged and rotten
wool, and rubbing on a good coat of tar, greafe, and
turpentine. Care muff alfo be taken, to provide them
with plenty of good wholefome nourifliment.
I E R Y. 495
The fkin of all animals, efpecially on the moft Difeafes.
delicate parts of it, is fubjett to excoriation or chafing. —-v——<
T his is of moft confequence in the backs of horfes fret- ^34.*
ted with the faddle, and the udders of cows by rub- t^^chaps,
bing againft their thighs, when they are cat-hammed^c^
and go clofe behind. Both the udder and thighs
of the cow are fometimes quite raw, and ulcerated.
The beft remedy in thefe cafes, is to wafti the parts
well with warm foap and water, and afterwards bathe
them frequently with a mixture of Goulard, and cam¬
phorated fpirits.
The teats of cows are fometimes chapped, which is
commonly owing to want of cleanlinefs in the milkers.
When this happens, the treatment recommended above
for chapping may be followed, or, if this does not fueceed,
the teats may be anointed with what is called unguen-
tum nutritum. If the teats are very painful, the cracks
may firft be bathed with a little laudanum, and after¬
wards filled up with finely powdered prepared chalk.
There are many other difeafes that affe6l the Ikin
of thefe animals ; but fome of them are fo trifling as
not to require particular notice, and others being inti¬
mately eonnefled with fome general derangement of
the fyftem, fall more properly to be confidered in the
next feftion of this part.
Chap. II. Morbid AjfeBions of Motion.
The function of motion may be morbidly affe£ted in 342
various ways, but all thefe tend more or lefs to impede
or difturb the natural motions of the animal.
The mufcles are often affecled with irregular mo¬
tions, producing violent involuntary contractions, called
convullions or fpafms. Thefe are often fymptoms of
fome dangerous derangement of the brain or nervous
fyftem, as locked-jaw, epilepfy, canine madnefs, &c.
Convulfions of tins nature, being intimately dependent
on the primary difeafe, can only be removed by fuch
means, as are calculated to carry off the difeafe, of
which they are fymptoms. Irregular a&ion of the
mufcles commonly attends great debility, whether it be
brought on by hard work and low diet, or by difeafe.
In either cafe, it is commonly a. very dangerous fymp-
tom. We cannot properly confider the treatment of
convulfion here ; but it will be confidered in the next
feftion, when we come to treat of convuifive or fpaf-
modic difeafes. 343
The affection that we are chiefly called to confider lame-
in this chapter is lamenefs, a very comprehenfive term, ntts‘
as it includes aimoft all the local affedtions of the ex¬
tremities. Lamenefs is a complaint that is exceedingly
common among horfes and dogs, efpecially the form¬
er ; in whom it more particularly demands attention,
as it fo materially affefls the value of the animal. A
knowledge of the nature of lamenefs, and the method
of treating it, can only be acquired by an inveftigation
of the caufe by which it is produced.
The caufes of lamenefs are extremely numerous and
various. We (hall endeavour to clafs them, fo as to
render our inquiry as little tedious and difficult, as may
ift, Lamenefs may be produced by a ftiffnefs of fomeStiflnefs.
parts of the muffles, tendons, or ligaments, arifing
either from exceffive labour, from bruifes, wounds, or
fome difeafed affedion of the joints.
It
496 FARR
J^ifcafes. It is Well known, that when the mufcles of an animal
^re exerted for any unufual length of time, or in a
more than ordinary degree, they become fatigued, and
cannot for feme time perform their fundtions with their
accuftomed eafe. In general, after proper reft and
careful treatment, the ftiffhefs gradually goes olf 5 and
in a day or two the animal is able to exert himfelf as
ufual } but if care has not been taken to rub him well
down, and provide him with a well littered bed, and
-efpecially if he has been expofed to cold while fweat-
ing and fatigued, this ftiffnefs may continue for many
■days, or may even degenerate into permanent lamenefs.
Animals that have acquired this permanent ftiffnefs of
their limbs, always move with confiderable difficulty,
when fir ft taken out $ but in general when they have been
long in exercife, and are become warm, the ftiffnefs
•and lamenefs in a great meafure difappear, but they
commonly return again when the exertion is over.
Where the ftiffnefs has not continued long, it may
in general bo eafily removed, by frequent friaion of the
limbs, firft with a wifp of hay and the bruffi, and after¬
wards with fome warm liniment or embrocation,
fuch as has been defcribed among the ftimulant re¬
ceipts.
If it does not yield to this treatment, recourfe may
be had to warm fomentations, and gentle exercife muft
be perfifted in. If the lamenefs ffiould ftill continue,
it will probably be occafioned by a ftrain of fome liga-
34- ment, or an injury done to fome part of the limb.
Eruifes. Any of the mufcular parts may be bruifed by falls
or blows j and if the bruife takes place on the limbs,
or in their neighbourhood, lamenefs may be the confe-
quence. A bruife is almoft always followed by a fwell-
ing of the bruifed part, occafioned by the rupture of
fraall veffels, that pour out their fluids into,the cellu¬
lar membrane. If the bruife is flight, the fwelling
will foon fubfide ; but if the injury has been confider¬
able, and much blood has been poured out, inflamma¬
tion and confequent fuppuration will take place, and
1 he part will become an abfcefs. If the injury has been
ftill greater, and the texture of the parts has been de-
ftroyed, mortification will probably come on, and if
the bruife be extenfive, will be attended with confider¬
able danger.
The treatment of bruifes will be different according
-to the degree of the injury produced. In flight cafes
the objeft will be to promote the abforption of the ef-
fufed blood ; and this will be beft anfwered by bathing
the part with warm vinegar and water, or camphorated
lj)irit. If there is confiderable inflammation, and it is
not judged proper to encourage a fuppuration, the parts
rauft be frequently bathed with a folution of fugar of
lead, with a little vinegar : or, where the part admits of
a bandage,, it will be better to form a cold poultice of
-oatmeal mixed up with fuch a folution, and kept con-
ffantly applied to the part and frequently moiftened
with the folution to prevent its becoming hard and dry.
If a fuppuration fhould appear unavoidable, it will be
proper to encourage it by a frequent application of
warm poultices renewed as often as they become cool,
or, where thefe cannot be applied, by repeatedly foment¬
ing the part with flannel wrung out of warm water.
When the fuppuration is complete, the fwelling muft
•be opened with a lancet, or by means of a feton ; and
the fore muft be treated as we lhall prefently defcribe
I E R Y. par£ y J
with refpea to ulcers. If mortification takes place, Dife >
the part muft be frequently fomented with the fomen- ‘ .
tation directed in N® 57. of the receipts ; and the ani¬
mal’s ftrength muft be fupported by nouriffiing food,
and the occafional ufe of cordial and ftrengthening
remedies. If the mortified part be very extenfive, it
may be neceffary to make incifions towards the edges
with a knife, to promote the feparation of the flough 5
©r firing may be employed, as direfted for this purpofe
in N° 175.
It fometimes happens that after the inflammation
which attended a bruife has fubfided, a permanent hard
tumour is left, that prevents the free motion of the
mufcles of the part. This may arife either from a
thickening of fome ligament, or the cellular texture, or
it may proceed from an excrefcence formed on the
bone, in confequence of the bruife. The treatment in
fuch cafes will be prefently defcribed, when we come
to confider fplents, ring-bones, and other tumours that
commonly produce lamenefs.
Horfes are very liable to receive fevere bruifes in the Trefd, or
back part of the foot, either from the tread of another overreach.
horfe, as often happens in the army, by a horfe in the
rear-rank treading on the heels of one in the front-
rank ; or, by a horfe overreaching his hind foot, and
thus bruifing the heels of the fore foot. From the
manner in which this accident is produced, it has re¬
ceived the names trendy and overreach. Sometimes
the bruife is fo flight as to be productive of no farther ill
confequence than a temporary lamenefs j but if the
tread has been very violent, the edges of the part trod¬
den on may be fo much bruifed as to produce confider¬
able inflammations, or even a mortification. In ordi¬
nary cafes it is fufficient to waffi the part carefully with
warm water, to clear it of dirt and gravel, then apply
a pledget dipped in fpirits, and bind up the foot, fo as
to exclude the external air *, when the bruife, if flight,
will probably foon heal. But in fome cafes matter is
formed, which makes its way downwards towards the
foie, forming what is called a quittor. Quittor may
alfo take place from a punClure in the foot, by a nail
or other pointed body, the effefts and treatment of
which will be prefently defcribed. * ^
In a newly-formed quittor, it is of confequence to af- Quittor.
certain, whether it has been produced by a prick or a
tread. In the former cafe the matter ufually makes
its way upwards from the punClured part towards the
coronet ; and here the practice generally followed by
farriers is, to fear the upper orifice with a hot iron,
which anfwers no other purpofe than to confine the
matter within the wound, where it muft produce ex¬
tenfive ulceration and deftru&ion of important parts of
the foot. In the latter cafe, where quittor is produced
by a tread, and when the finus formed is very fuperfi-
cial, the ufe of the cautery may be very proper ; and
if it can be fo applied as to inflame the whole extent
of the wound, it may entirely carry off the difeafe.
According to Mr Blaine, there are two general methods
of curing quittor j one by removing a part of the hoof,
cutting away the difeafed parts, or fuffering them to
flough off or exfoliate. The other, to apply cauftic
to the difeafed furfaces, introducing it within the finufes,
thus deftroying the ulcerated parts, and allowing the
healthy parts to throw them off. The latter is called
by farriers cereing out a quittor^ or as they fuppofe that
the
Fart VI.
F A R Pv
Difeafes. the core or Hough that comes away formed a part
—v of the complaint. Mr Blaine objects to removing the
hoof, as it would take up a confiderable time before
new horn can be formed •, and it is probable that in the
new hoof there will be a falfe quarter, which will ren¬
der the horfe unfound, befides that, during the forma¬
tion of the new hoof, frelli finules may be produced.
In the method of cure by cauftic, he thinks that the
difeafe may be completely removed in three or four
weeks, whereas the other method may require as many
months. The mode of applying the cauftic is, to
examine carefully the extent and dire&ion of the
linufes, and then to fill them up with powdered blue
vitriol, verdigrife, or corrofive fublimate. Mr Blaine
has found that, a pafte made of corrofive fublimate,
mixed up with Hour and butter, forms a very good
cauftic for this purpole. Some of it is to be introduced
by means of a probe, to which a piece of fponge is
faftened, which muft be carefully introduced in every
diredtion, fo as to touch all the difeafed parts, after
which the whole foot is to be bound up •, but the band¬
age muft not be applied too tightly. In two or three
days the dreflings are to be renewed, and this is to be
repeated at intervals till the Houghs come away, when
a healthy adlion of the parts will take place, and the
cure foon be completed. Another method of introdu¬
cing cauftic, by which the finufes may be completely
filled, is to mix up the cauftic with hogs lard, and roll
the mafs into fmall pellets within gauze-paper, which
may be eafily introduced into the cavities.
Many farriers have fallen into a miftake with refpeft
to the nature and treatment of quittor, that has been the
ruin of many horfes. Ihey fuppofe, that during the
progrefs of this difeafe, a bone is formed which they call
a quittor bone ,• and they think it neceflary to remove
this bone, before a cure can be completed. This er¬
ror feems to have arifen from an opinion of Lafoffe,
who conceived that the derangement which accompani¬
ed this difeafe originated in the cartilages being affedt-
ed j which he affirmed were capable of being thus dif¬
eafed, but incapable either of exfoliating like bone, or
Houghing like ligament5 and therefore that to promote
a cure, the whole of the lateral cartilage on the affe£l-
ed fide muft be removed. But his firft premifes were
erroneous, for cartilages are vafcular, as we know by
their being tinged with bile, and by their being at times
abforbed; this is particularly the cafe with the lateral
cartilages, which in almoft all old horfes are partly
abforbed. As they are vafcular, they muft be capable of
living a£tion; though it is flow, and hence, where dif¬
eafe exifts, they will exfoliate like other parts. This
pra&ice of Lafoffe has in this country been for fome
time tried among many of the more intelligent farriers,
and was Hill further propagated by the late Profeffor
St Bel. Many horfes have been ruined by this in¬
judicious practice ; for the future elafticity of the foot,
which is in a great meafure dependent on thefe carti¬
lages, muft be loft; befides the neceffary removal of the
hoof to get at the cartilage, a falfe quarter almoft al¬
ways remains*.
Wounds are frequently inftifted in the foft parts of
horfes and dogs, and thefe are more common in the legs,
feet, and joints, than in any other parts. The treat¬
ment of wounds muft depend in a great meafure on the
part where they are inflidcd, and the form of the in-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
^ Blaine's
Outlines,
vol. ii.
t 348
Wounds.
I E R Y. 497
ftrument that produced them. A clean cut made in Dlfeafes,
the mufcular parts is eafily healed, by applying flips of
flicking plafter as foon as poffible, fo as to keep the
edges of the wound clofe together; or where plafter
cannot readily be applied, by taking a flitch or two
through the edges of the wound, and tying the firings
gently together. When the edges are found to adhere,
the firings muft be cut away, and the holes which they
made will foon fill up". If any confiderable blood-
veffel has been wounded, it will be proper to fecure it,
if poffible, by means of ligature, rather than by apply¬
ing any ftyptic fubftance. All wounds ftiould be made
as clean as poffible, before any attempt is made to heal
them. Sometimes the wound is fo fituated that it will
not admit of being fewed up ; but in thefe cafes we
may in general pafs filver or fteel pins from the edges,
at about an inch diflance from each other, and twift a
thread croffwife from one to the other, fo as to form
what is called the tvoifted-future. In all cafes where
futures are ufed, it will be, proper to apply a flicking
plafter over the edges of the wound. If the wound
ffiould not heal by thefe means, a formation of matter
will take place, and then the fore is to be treated as
a common ulcer, taking care that its edges be always
kept as near together as may be, by flicking plafter
or a bandage.
If the wound is very large, it may excite confider¬
able inflammation and fever. In thefe cafes, if the
animal is plethoric, it will be proper to bleed him, or
at any rate to adminifter cooling remedies. If, on the
other hand, there has been much lofs of blood, or if
the wound ffiews no difpofition to heal, and the matter
formed is thin and ichorous, an oppofite plan of treat-
ment will be required. The animal muft be fupported
by ncurifhing food, and ftrengthening remedies.
The moft troublefome wounds are thofe of the feet
and joints, as they are in general very difficult to be
healed. ,
Wounds in the feet are not uncommonly produced Wounds of
by the horfe treading on fharp ftones^. broken glafs, the feet,
fharp bones or nails. Thefe are generally pundtured
wounds, and will be confidered prefently. Sometimes
a deep wound is made on the coronet, by a fharp part
of the heel of the ffioe on the oppofite foot, or any
other fubftance penetrating downwards between the
coffin-bone and the hoof, or between the lateral carti¬
lages of the coffin-bone and the joint. Wounds of this
kind are attended with much danger, from the difficulty
of evacuating the matter that may be formed, or of
producing that healthy adlion in the parts that is ne¬
ceffary to make them heal. In fuch cafes Mr Feron
recommends the application of a blifter, extending from
the fetlock to the foot, fo as to produce external irrita¬
tion, which may relieve the internal parts. In the
mean time the foot is to be kept in a veffel of warm
water all day, and a large warm poultice of bran and
water is to be applied round it at night. The inten¬
tion of this practice is to prevent fuppuration, but if
this ffiould neverthelefs, take place, and if matter
ftiould be formed between the hoof and the fenfible la¬
minae ; the fuppuration is to be encouraged, and we
are to endeavour to prevent the formation of finufes,
by rafping the hoof very thin, juft below the feat of the
wound, fo that we may be able to make an orifice for
the evacuation of the matter downwards. Mr Feron
3 R advifeg
493
Difeafes
350
Wounds of
Jhe joints.
351
Mr Cole¬
man’s me¬
thod of
treating
wounds of
the joints.
advifes to delay this opening as long as poffible, and
* when it is performed, to take care that the laminae be
properly prefied after the operation, to prevent coming
out through the hoof, and forming an incurable fand-
crack, or falfe-quarter. The bathing the foot in warm
water, and the application of the bran poultice, mufl be
continued till the foot is perfectly healed. If proud
flefh fhould appear through the opening that has been
made in the hoof, it is to be pared away with a (harp
knife, then fired, and covered with a finall pledget
fpread with foft ointment, on which is fprinkled a little
powdered blue vitriol. It is evident that, during the
cure, the horfe muff be kept perfeftly at reft 5 and it is
recommended to adminifter diuretics, and now and
then a gentle dofe of phyfic, to keep the bowels mode¬
rately open.
Wounds in the joints are commonly attended with
very ferious confequences, as it frequently happens
that the capfular ligament is divided, and in this cafe
the fynovia or joint-oil conftantly exfuding through the
opening, prevents the difpofition to heal. A wound
in the joints is common among borfes in the army, and
fuch as are employed in hunting ; and a horfe that has
received fuch a wound in general becomes perfedtly
ufelefs, from the improper method of treating thefe
wounds that has in general prevailed among farriers.
By their treatment, either an incurable finus is produ¬
ced, or a fecretion of bony matter takes place within
the joint, forming what is called an anchyfojis or [Hff-
joint. The method generally pracftifed by ordinary
farriers is, to injedt within the joint a mixture of tur¬
pentine and oil of vitriol, a folution of corrofive fub-
limate and lime water, or fome other corrofive fub-
ftance. The more rational of them content themfdves
W'ith an injection of tindlure of myrrh. All thefe fub-
ftances produce fuch a high degree of inflammation
within the joint, as not unfrequently to deftroy the ani¬
mal.
Of late, a much more rational mode of treatment
has been adopted by Mr Coleman, and is defcribed in
the firft number of the Veterinary Tranfadtions.
The following is the method recommended by Mr
Coleman for treating wounds of the joints and capfules.
“ Where a joint, a mucous capfule, or the fheath of
a tendon is opened, the firft application neceflary is the
actual cautery. The inftrument moft proper for the
operation ftiould be made of iron, two feet in length,
rounded at the extremity about the fize of a fmall but¬
ton, with a wooden handle. The temperature of the
iron Ihould be moderately red. If it be black, the
heat will not be fufficient to produce a proper difcharge
of lymph, to clofe up the wound and if it is white, it
will deftroy too much of the furrounding parts, and per¬
haps do mifchief to the ligament. Although the opera¬
tion in itfelf is very fimple, yet fome knowledge of the
ftrudlure and economy of the parts, for the purpofe of
applying the cautery with the beft poflible effedl, is ne¬
ceflary. The object in view is to produce a glutinous
fubftance to clofe up the cavity, and before the Hough
is removed, for granulations below to fupply the place
of the lymph ; but if the ligament itfelf be deftroyed
£>y the cautery, it muft, like other dead parts, feparate
from the living and come away, and then the joint will
itill be opened. It is, therefore, of importance not to
tieftroy the ligament of joints with the hot iron, but
F A R R I E R Y. part yj.
confine its application to the external foft parts. In Difeafes.
thefe cafes, it is generally proper to cauterize the whole ,
external furface of the wound j and if the difcharge is
not immediately flopped, the iron has probably not
been applied fufficiently deep, or too cold, to produce
a proper difcharge of lymph. Where a cure is poflible
to be eftedted, the adlual cautery will frequently clofe
the cavity and flop the dilcharge. Sometimen, however,
in the courfe of one, two, or three days, the difcharge
appears again by the fides of the lymph, and then the
fame operation fliould be repeated. In fome infiances
Mr Coleman has had occafion to apply the hot iron five
or fix times, and neverthelefs fucceeded ultimately, with¬
out the leaft lamenefs. The fame treatment is likewife
to be recommended for penetrating wounds into the
cheft and abdomen. The lips of the wound fliould be
cauterized, and, if requifite, repeated in the fame man¬
ner as is recommended for wounds of other cavities.
When the cavities of veins become inflamed, fome little
variation is neceflary in the treatment, as accidents of that
nature are frequently attended with confequences dif¬
ferent from the opening of other cavities, and require a
trifling alteration in the treatment. When a hemor¬
rhage takes place, it may be very generally ftopt by the
application of the cautery ; but if this fails, and the
parts are too much fwelled to admit of a pin, there is
no other remedy than to take up the vein by a ligature
above the difeafed parts; and there may be inftances in.
which it may be advifable to tie up the vein below.
In general, however, the actual cauterv will prevent
the. neceffity ot a ligature ; and if it fails, tying up the
vein will fucceed only in tbofe cafes where the*vein
above is free from difeafe. In general, the vein is thick¬
ened and inflamed, and if a ligature be applied on a
veffel in a flate of inflammation, the difeafe will be form¬
ed, and the vein inflamed above. In a cafe that occurred
to Mr Goodwin, veterinary furgeon at Oxford, where
the jugular vein was tied, an abfcefs took place over
the occipital bone,, commonly termed the poll eviL
That difeafe, however, mofl probably did not originate
in eonfequence of the tube being obliterated, for in moft
fuccefsful cafes of inflamed veins, the fides of the vein
unite and deftroy the cavity. After the orifice of the
inflamed vein, from the application of the actual
cautery, is doled, a confiderable degree of fwelling fre¬
quently remains, and this may be removed by a blirter.
When abfceffes form in the adjacent parts, they fliould
be treated in the fame manner as common abfcefles.” 352
A pundure of tome part of the lower furface of the^nn<^«re^
foot is a frequent occurrence. It may arife from thewounds*
prick of a nail in Ihoeing, from a nail picked up in
travelling ; or from glafs, flint, or any other fliarp body.
Injuries of this kind are proportioned in their eflfeds,
to the parts pundured, and not entirely to the depth of
the wound. A pundure of the frog penetrating even
to the flefliy frog, is not ufually fe ferious, as that which
penetrates the foie ; hence a wound any where at the
hinder part may penetrate deeper with impunity than
towards the centre, and likewife in the front, though
confiderable inflammation ufually follows from this laft.
When the capfular ligament is wounded in thefe cafes,
the confequence may be very ferious, as a ftiff joint is
commonly produced. When it is found that the cap-
lular ligament has been wounded, the external opening
muft be enlarged, and a hot iron muft be applied to
the
part VI. FARR
Difeafes. the furface of the fkin that covers the ■wounded part of
v..,—t < the ligament, in order to heal up the internal opening.
Confiderable irritation commonly attends a punctured
wound of the tendon, or its (heath ; and it is beft re¬
moved by enlarging the wound that is made through
the horny part, and keeping the feet for fome time in
warm water. When matter appears in either of thefe
cafes, it mud: be let out, and the wound mud be healed
in the ufual manner.
The mod ufual cafe of pun&ures is that which arifes
from a nail in (hoeing taking a wrong direftion, when
indead of penetrating the outer furface of the crud, it
turns inwards, and thus wounds the fenfible laminae.
This is known to the fmith at the time by a peculiar
feel in the droke he gives, and by flinching ; when,
if the nail is immediately removed, and has not pene¬
trated far, the wound heals by the firfl intention *, but
if it is differed to remain, it produces inflammation and
fuppuration. As foon as this is difeovered, a depend¬
ing orifice (hould be made for the matter, by making
an opening in the line of the hole at which the nail
entered. It is always prudent, when a nail has pene¬
trated, and lamenefs follows without matter appearing,
to remove the (hoe, and enlarging the opening, to apply
a pledget of tow dipped in fpirits of wine, which will
frequently prevent any future effects : but whenever
matter has formed, it is indifpenfably neceffary ; for
othenvife the matter will proceed upwards, and coming
out at an opening on the coronet, it will form a quittor.
When by this treatment the matter has gained a de¬
pending fituation, and the inflammation has fubfided,
the part may be dreffed with any mild ointment ; but
if the matter fhould increafe in quantity, it will be pro¬
per to pour a folution of white vitriol within to promote
a floppage of the difeharge, and of the extenfion of the
ulcerative procefs. In every pundture, when the heat
and inflammation appear confiderable, bleeding at the
toe is a prudent meafure, as it unloads the veflels.
Dogs are frequently wounded with thorns in their
feet or knees, and the thorn may be fo deeply lodged,
that it cannot eafiiy be extrafled. When the foot is
wounded with a thorn, the beft application is a plafter
of black pitch, which is (aid to have fucceeded when
every thing elfe has failed. If there is much inflamma¬
tion, it will be proper to apply a poultice over the
plafter. When a dog is wounded in the knee, if there
is reafon to fuppofe that a thorn is left in the wound,
the fame applications v/ill be proper : and when the thorn
comes away, if there is ftill an oozing of fluid from the
orifice, a red-hot iron muft be applied, as in the wounds
of the joints in horfes. If no thorn is left in the wound,
a little digeftive ointment rubbed upon the part, and a
fubfequent application of a poultice made with Goulard
and crumbs of bread, with proper reft, will probably
foon effeft a cure.
Lamenefs is not unfrequently produced by a ftiff joint,
or what the furgeons call anchylojis. This is generally
the effedl of an injury done to the articulating furfaces
of the bones that compofe the joint, caufing the forma¬
tion of new bony matter, which gets between the bones,
and unites them together. A ftiff joint may perhaps
be fometimes prevented by the timely ufe of blifters
and firing ; but when completely formed, the lamenefs
Is incurable.
I E R Y. 499
2. The fecond head of caufes that produce lamenefs Difeafes.
will comprehend ftrains, iradlures, and luxations. 1 v—
Strains may take place in any of the mufcular parts ^^353
or ligaments, but they moft commonly happen in the5 ms‘
flefhy part of the (boulder, or in fome of the ligaments
of the feet. 354
A (train in the muffles of the (boulder, has been ge- Shoulder
nerally called a (boulder-flip, under the idea that the ^‘P*
(houlder-bone has been disjointed, or the blade-bone
pufhed out of its place ; but the ftru£ture of the parts
(hews that the former of thefe accidents can (carcely
happen, on account of the great ftrength of the cap-
fular and other ligaments that furround the (houlder
joint $ and a diflocation of the blade-bone is, by the
extent and (Length of the mufcles that unite it with the
ribs, nearly impoflible, unlefs by fuch a force as is fuf-
ficient to deftroy the texture of the mufcles, and tear the
limb from the body. A drain of thefe mufcles and of
the ligaments that furround the (houlder joint, is, how¬
ever, by no means an unfrequent occurrence, but affec¬
tions of other parts are often roiftaken for a (houlder
drain, as we (hall fee prefently. A drain in the. (boul¬
der, when firft received, is generally attended with
confiderable inflammation and fwelling of the part,
which are ufually fufficient to diftinguilh it from other
affe£tions. When the drain has continued long, and
the inflammation lias fubfided, the diftinflion is not fo
eafy.
In cafes of recent (houlder ftrains, it will be proper
to draw blood from the plate vein, and if the inflam¬
mation is extenfive, to adminifter a purge, and keep the
animal rather low, to keep down the inflammation as
much as poffible ; and it will be proper to bathe the
parts frequently, with fome aftringent lotion, or with a
warm fomentation, as dire&ed under bruifex. A rowel
may alfo be placed in the cheft, or a feton in the infide
of the fore-leg. Complete reft is neceffary •, and to ren¬
der this the more perfeft, the horfe (hould be fitted with
a patten (hoe, and ftiould have a bed of litter con-
ftantly below him. When the inflammation has fub¬
fided, gentle friftion, and the occafional ufe of aftringent
lotions, will in general foon reftore the ufe of the limb 5
and as foon as the horfe can bear it, moderate exercife
may be employed. 355
Injuries done to the ligaments and tendons, are alfo Injuries of
ufually called drains*, but if we underftand by this
term, an extenfion of the drained part, the appellation teIKjons#
is improper, fince the tendons appear to be entirely
without elafticity, and the ligaments nearly fo. Thefe
parts cannot, therefore, be properly drained, though
by unufual exertion, their texture may be fo far injur¬
ed as to produce ftiffnefs, inflammation, and fwelling,
but will have the fame effeft in caufing lamenefs, as a
drain.
Injuries of this kind are more dangerous than mere
mufcular ftrains, their treatment is more difficult, and
the cure more tedious. The treatment ufually adopted
by ordinary farriers, is to apply the fame aftringent and
ftimulating lotions, as in ftrains; but here they com¬
monly do harm, as they generally produce a greater
fecretion of coagulable lymph, which ftill more ob-
ftru&s the motion of the part, and renders the lamenefs
permanent.
One of the word cafes of thefe, injuries, is what far-
3 R a riers
5oo
Difcafcs
356
Clap or
Itrain in
the ba£k
fmcwi.
FARRIERY.
^ Feron's
Farriery,
P*i04.
. ners commonly call a clap or llrain In the back finews.
When a horfe trips or tlumbles, and makes an unufual
effort to lave himfelf from falling, or when the heels
are lowered in flioeing too fuddenly, or too much at
once, fo as to throw too great a weight upon them,
there often happens fuch a fudden or violent contraftion
of the flexor mufcles as may produce a partial lacera¬
tion, or even rupture of the flexor tendon, or its flieath.
Ihis injury is attended with confiderable inflammation,
and the confequent lamenefs is of the worfl kind. A
great ftifrnefs and fwelling is produced, and there is
commonly an eftufion of fluid, which is at firft ferous,
and may again be taken up by the abforbent veffels j
but if improper applications are employed, coagulable
lymph may be poured out, fo as to obflruft the motion
of the part, and produce that fwelling, or permanent
enlargement, that we fometimes fee in the neighbour¬
hood of the tendon, after what is called a drain of the
back finews.
When a horfe is drained in the back finews, he puts
forward his leg and foot in a loofe, faint, and faultering
manner. Pvlr Lawrence gives the following directions
for afcertaining whether or not a horfe is injured in the
back finews. To try how far the horfe has been injured,
let him be walked about for half an hour, when the
fwelling of his legs will in all probability fubfide. If
you then obfervethe ten do achil/is, or main finew, dif-
tinct from the (hank ; if, on preffing it with the finger
towards the bone, you find it firm and tenfe ; if you
difcover by the feel, no foft fpongy finews between the
Ihank and the tendon, no extraordinary pulfation, but
that all is well braced and wiry, you may conclude the
fwellings not dangerous. A perfon of experience, with
a nice difcriminating finger, will fcarce ever fail to de¬
left lamenefs in the back finews.
Mr Feron is of opinion that the injury which we have
defcribed is not done to the flexor tendon, but to the
ligaments of the neighbouring joints. He fays, that
ct on the diffeftion of a drain fuppofed to be in the back
finews, we difcover no affeftion in the fubdance of this
part, which on the contrary appears perfeftly found.
But on examining the ligaments of the fetlock, coro¬
net, and foot, we find them to be the feat of the difeafe j
we find alio, that if the accident has been violent, and
of long duration, the whole vafcular fydem of the leg
is found affefted, but never, or very feldom, the hack
finews ; it is in this violent date that we obferve fome¬
times one or two fwellings along the tendons. It is al-
fo on this account that the pain is fo great, and fo hard
to be cured, in confequence of the confiderable irrita¬
tion which takes place in the furrounding parts. So
the increafe of thicknefs of the leg, is nothing more
than the effe6t of the difeafe ; but not the difeafe itfelf.
as farriers, grooms, &c. fuppofe it to be. Neverthelefs,
we faid before that the back finews or tendons were
void of feeling in a date of health and incapable of ex-
tenfion It may be very true that this injury is not
commonly feated in the tendon ; but we cannot agree
with Mr Feron, that this part is never the feat of it,
efpecially as he himfelf allows that a rupture, of the ten¬
don may take place, of which he has feen different in¬
dances. It is not difficult to conceive that the fame
exertion which when in a great degree is capable of
rupturing the tendon, may in a fmaller degree produce
a partial laceration or a drain in the back finews.
3
Part Vi,
. hmff6 labouring under this injury, even after the ivf
inflammation has fubfided, is extremely weak and diff jn
the joints of the foot j but when he has been for fome ^
time at work, the lamenefs in lome meafure goes oft*.
This has led fome perfons to fuppofe that a drained horfe
may. be worked found $ but this is a very erroneous
opinion, and the praftice of continuing to work a horfe
that, has been newly drained, under the idea of re¬
moving the diffnefs, is equally cruel and injudicious.
ihe treatment of drains or injuries of the ligaments
or tendons, mud be fuch as will mod effeftually prevent
inflammation, and promote the abforption of the effufed
fluid. Local bleeding from the veins of the part, and
warm fomentations frequently repeated, feem to be the
mod advifable j and a bandage ffiould be always ap¬
plied where the nature of the parts will admit of it, and
fliould be continued till the lamentfs is removed. Various
dimulating applications have been recommended in thefe
cafes, as fo.on as the inflammation has fubfided, fuch as oil
of turpentine, camphorated fpirit, verjuice, &c. but thefe
mud not be employed while any confiderable inflamma¬
tion remains. It is fomewhat remarkable that Mr Fe¬
ron recommends adringent and dimulating applications
in the text of his work, and fays there that they may
be employed with fafety ; but, in a note at the foot of
the page., he fpeaks of having inferted thofe afiringent
prefcriptions for the purpofe of fatisfying the different
opinions, but that he is fully convinced, by a long ex¬
perience, that warm fomentations and warm poultices
of bran and water, are infinitely preferable in drains
or contufions, to thefe expenfive prefcriptions, and.arw
always to be tried fird.
It will be proper to elevate the heels of the horfe’s
ffioe by calkins, and Mr Blaine recommends that the
heels ot the hoof be encouraged to grow, or that a thick-
heeled ffioe be ufed. If there dill remains much fwel-
ling, firing will prove one of the mod effeftual remedies,
as it will both promote the ablorption of the effufed fluid,
and will produce fuch a degree of conffriftion of th^.
fkin as will anfwer the purpole of a permanent bandage.
In fuch cafes the cautery mud be applied, fo as to make
perpendicular lines on the fkin.
Hogs are very fubjeft to drains ; and where thefe are Strainfof
flight, a mixture of fpirit of wine and oil of turpentine,the ftifte Ut
or drong Goulard, applied before a fire, is the moftdo£s-
ufeful remedy. Sometimes from blows or other acci¬
dents, fuch as flipping their hind-legs, or getting them
entangled in the bars of a gate, hounds are lamed in
their Jhjle, as it is called. In general the above appli¬
cations and long red will remove the lamenefs j but when
a confiderable quantity of coagulable lymph has been
effufed, it is not eafily re-abforbed, and the lamenefs con¬
tinues. When this happens, fome huntfmen recommend
the operation of cutting for the difle, and Mr Daniel
fpeaks of a huntfman who ufed to perform this operation
very dexteroufly in the following manner. The bone
is laid bare by a tranfverfe cut, and upon it is found a
fubdance like a diff jelly, which is the caufe of the
lamenefs, and is in faft the coagulable lymph that has
been effufed. This jelly is taken away, and a wire is
run through the ball of the hind foot on the contrary
fide, and twided in fuch a manner as to keep that leg
from touching the ground, fo that the hound may be
compelled to ufe the flifled leg. In this way the dogs
were always cured. The fame huntfman recommended
that
Part VI. FARR
Difeafcs. that when a dog had been entangled in a gate or ftile,
v— y—> he (hould, as foon as releafed, be taken by the hind-
feet, and twifled round five or fix times, turning with
him ; and it is faid that this prevented any ill confe-
quence from the bruifes that he received in the flifle,
while endeavouring to difengage himfelf.
35$ Some of the ligaments or tendons of the extremities
are now and then ruptured. This is not a common cafe,
but it may happen, either to the fufpenfory ligament, or
the back finew.
Rupture of A rupture of the fufpenfory ligament is found moft
the fufpen- likely to happen to young horfes while breaking, and
fory hga- to cavalry horfes while under training. The accident
is generally called breaking down, as, when it happens
the horfe appears unable to fupport himfelf. The fet¬
lock is brought almoft to the ground, and the limb is evi¬
dently exceedingly w’eak ; but the horfe can bend his
foot when he raifes it. This circumftance diftinguifiies
a rupture of the fufpenfory ligament from that of the
flexor tendon or back finew ; as, in the latter cafe, the
power of the flexor mufcle being deitroyed, the horfe is
unable to bend the foot.
It appears from the obfervations of Mr Coleman, and
fome experiments that have been made by Mr Feron,
that the flexor tendon has little or no effeft in giving
fupport to the heels 5 but that this office is almott en¬
tirely performed by the fufpenfory ligament. Hence,
when this is ruptured, the horfe lofes one of his prin¬
cipal flays, and the foot is of courfe unable to fupport
its ufual weight, whence the horfe breaks down.
A perfeft cure of this accident can feldom be ex¬
pected ; and the only way to relieve the animal will be
to obviate the inflammation as much as poflible, and to
elevate the limb, and efpecially to >aife the heels, in
order to relax the injured parts. An intermediate fub-
flance will in time be produced between the two parts
of the broken ligament, that will enable the horfe to
walk and perform fome of his functions, but he can
never afterwards be depended on for the road or the
field.
When it is afcertained that the back finew has been
ruptured, which is difcovered by the inability of the
horfe. to bend his foot backwards, it is generally recom¬
mended to kill the horfe, as a cure is by moft deemed
impracticable. Mr Blaine recommends to bend the
limb from the ancle downwards, and to keep it in that
fituation by throwing the animal, when he thinks that a
perfeCt cure might be made. There would, however,
be confiderable difficulty in keeping the limb in fuch a
confined fituation for fo long a time as would be necef-
fary to unite the ruptured tendon 5 and after all, there
is the greateft probability that a very flight exertion
would produce a frefh rupture.
FraCtures of the bones may take place in any part of
thefe animals, but they are moft common in the feet of
horfes and the legs of dogs.
The navicular, coffin, and froall pattern bones of a
horfe are not unfrequently fraCtured, and Mr Feron
fpeaks of a fmall pattern bone being broken into feven
pieces. It is not furprifing that thefe bones fliould be
broken, when we confider the immenfe weight that is
generally fuftained by them, and the great exertions
which a horfe fometimes makes to recover a falfe
ftep.
Thefe bones, when broken, will be united by a cal-
360
Rupture of
the back
finew.
361
FraCtures.
I E R Y. 501
lus, provided that the limb be kept in fuch a fituation Difeafes.
as to prevent motion; but this can rarely be effeCted,
even in cafes where the bones of the foot are fraCtured,
ftill lefs in thefe cafes where a fraCture of the larger
bones has taken place. 352
One of the moft: common fraCtures of the bones in a Fractures
horfe is that of the ridge of the ilium, or haunch-bone.
This bone, from the projecting angle formed by itsb'one>
ridge, is peculiarly expofed to injury ; and when the
ridge is unufually prominent, as fometimes happens, or
when the horfe is more than commonly lean, the pro¬
bability of fraCturing this bone is itill further in-
creafed.
FraCtures of the haunch-bone may be occafioned by
falls, by blow's, which are often given by brutal oftlers
and carters, with the but end of a large whip, or per¬
haps a broomftick, and they are very commonly produ¬
ced by itriking the haunch violently againft a poft, or
the edge of a wall, when the horfe turns too (harply
round a corner, or paffes fwiftly through a narrow gate¬
way.
It'may be afcertained that fuch an accident has taken
place, by the pain the horfe feels in the part, and where
the fraCture is confiderable, by the cracking of the
parts of the broken bone againft each other, but ftill
more certainly by an evident cavity of the haunch,
from the depreflion of the ridge. The mufcles of the
belly in the upper part of the flank will appear funk in,
efpecially when the horfe lies down, and will form a
fort of hollow between the haunch and the ribs. The
horfe, when he attempts to move, will be as lame as if
one of the bones of the leg were broken, owing to the
extreme pain that motion excites in the mufcles, that
befide being feverelybruifed, have loft one of their prin¬
cipal attachments.
When an accident of this kind has happened, it is
neceffary to keep the animal perfectly at reft, as no¬
thing but repofe can produce a reunion of the fraCtured
bone. The parts may be gently rubbed with fome fti-
mulating liniment, as in other cafes of bruifes, and
fome recommend the application of a charge, or ftrength-
ening plafter. It fometimes happens, where only a
fmall part of the bone has been broken off", the horle
completely recovers his former aCtivity ; but more com¬
monly fuch a deformity is produced by the ridge of one
haunch remaining lower than that of the other, and by
the callus that forms between the end of the divided
bone, as to render the horfe more or lefs permanently
lame.
When the legs of a dog are broken, it is eafy by
means of fplints, to keep the limb in fuch a fituation as
to effeft a union of the broken bone ; and we have not
unfrequently met with cafes of this kind, where a com¬
plete cure has been efft&ed in the courfe of a few
weeks.
The ribs of a horfe are fometimes broken, either by
falls, or from the brutality of their keepers, as by link¬
ing them with the heavy handle of a whip or cudgel.
If the end of the fraCtured rib does not penetrate into
the cheft, fo as to wound the lungs, a cure may in ge¬
neral be readily effeCted, by fattening a bandage round
the body over the feat of the fraCtured rib, and keeping
the horfe at reft and on a low diet. ^63
Luxations or diflocations of bones are exceedingly Luxations,
uncommon in the horfe.
owing to the great ftrength of
th?
3 <4
.3^5
Wind-galls
266
Bog-fpavin.
367
Thorousb-
pm.
368
Capulet.
369
Treatment.
the ligaments that furround the joints. Thefe may,
however, fometimes happen, and we are by no means
ot Mr Jjlaine’s opinion, that the immenfe ftrength of
the muicles in a horfe would prove any obftacle to the
complete reduction of fuch a luxation. If, indeed, we
endeavour to reduce the luxation by pulling and haul¬
ing at the luxated limb, in order to overcome the power
of the mufcles, and thus produce a counter extenfion,
wnicn is dill, we believe, the method generally employ¬
ed by furgeons to fet a diflocated limb in the human
body, we (hall molt certainly be difappointed. But if,
inltead of this vain attempt, we place the limb in fuch
a fituation as that the power of tbofe mufcles which are
the antagonifts of the mufcles that keep the limb in its
didocated place, may be fairly exerted, there will pro¬
bably be little difficulty in replacing the bone in its
iocket, as the very ftrength of the mufcles will affil-t us
in the operation.
3. Lamenefs is very commonly the effe<51: of tumours
of the mucous bags or capfules, or of excrefcences
formed on the bones of the legs and feet, or on the
hoof.
In moll of the joints there are appendages or mem¬
branous bags, called burfee mucofee, or mucous bags, that
are filled with a mucous fluid fecreted into their cavi¬
ties, for the purpofe of affifling the motions of the
mufcles and tendons near the joint. It often happens
that thefe mucous capfules are enlarged either from
hard work, which is a very common caufe of their en¬
largement, or from fume injury done to the neighbour¬
ing parts. When the enlargement is but fmall, it is of
little confequence, but when the bags become unufual-
ly difiended, their fize impedes the motion of the joints.
Thefe tumours have received different names among
grooms and farriers, according to the place where they
are feated.
When the mucous bags that are fituated near the
patterns become enlarged, the tumours are called ’wind-
ga/ls.
When the enlargement takes place in the mucous
bags on the inner fide of the hock, the difeafe is called
bog-fpavin.
When the tumours are feated in the upper and back
part of the hock, between the gemelli mufcle and the
tendons of the great flexor mufcle of the foot, the af¬
fection is called thorough-pin.
When the fwelling is fituated at that part where the
tendon of the gemelli mufcles is inferted into the point
of the hock, it is called capulet ox capped hoch.
Of all the various fwellings, the wind-galls are the
moft likely to produce lamenefs, and next to them the
bog-fpavin. The capulet and thorough-pin are feldom
of much confequence.
In the treatment of wind-galls and fimilar tumours,
the objeCI is to remove the unufual fwelling, and to
prevent its return. The fwelling can be removed only
by evacuating the contents of the tumour, or by promot¬
ing its abforption, The former was recommended by
Dr Bracken, and appears to have been fuccefsful in a
few cafes. The tumour is opened with a fharp knife ;
and when the fluid has been evacuated, an efcharotic
fubfiance compofed of burnt alum, white vitriol, and red
precipitate, is applied to the wound, to produce fuch a
degree of inflammation as may contraCl its cavity. Pro¬
bably firing would have a better effeft. Mr Coleman
farriery. partVL
and the eleves of the veterinary college, are much a- Tvr
-—1.1 • _ 1 • - 0 ■ - -Dneafes.
verfe to this operation, and certainly where it can be
avoided it is not defirable. Abforption of the accumu¬
lated fluid may often be produced by the application of
blifters, and other ftimulating applications ; but this is
moft certainly effe&ed by producing preffure on the
tumour, by means of a bandage applied round the part,
with a bolfter or comprefs immediately over the fwell-
jng. When the unufual enlargement has been reduced,
its return is beft prevented by firing the fkin, fo as to
produce a confiderable degree of conftridion.
Horfes are fubjeft to various excrefcences on theSplenu,
bones, or exnfofcs, as they are called, which, when they
form near the joints, or below the tendons of the muf¬
cles, generally produce lamenefs. Thefe excrefcences
have received various names, according to their fituation.
When they are formed about feme part of the knee or
canon bone, they are generally called fplents, though
farriers often call the excrefcences at the knee ojfeletes ;
and when there are two fmall bony enlargements near
each other, they are called/azer. The excrefcences
at the knee are not very common, and when they oc-
are generally the effeft of a wound ; but fplents
about the canon bone are very common, efpecially a-
mong young horfes, owing to the blood-veflels in them
being larger in proportion to the abforbents than in old
horfes ; and hence the depofition of bony matter may,
in certain cafes of injury, be greater than what the ab¬
forbents are able to take up again. Thefe excrefcences
are eafily produced in young horfes, by any blow or
other injury that is capable of producing confiderable
inflammation j as ftriking part of the canon bone which
is the ufual feat of fplents in what is called the fpeedy
cut, or by producing unufual prelfure on one fide more
than on the other. Although a fplent may not be in
the neighbourhood of any material tendon, it may ftill
produce lamenefs by the pain which it excites ; but
when it interferes with a tendon, or fome important
ligament, lamenefs muft in general be the confe¬
quence.
When an excrefcence appears on any of the bones Bont-fps
that enter into the formation of the hough, it is called
a bone-fpavin. It is moft frequently found on the up¬
per and inner part of the fmall metacarpal bone, or on
fome of the wedge-like bones on the infide of the hock.
In the former filuation it is often produced in confe¬
quence of the outer heel having been raifed by calkins ;
and in what are called cat, cow, or fickle hammed
horfes, it is often brought on by their natural de¬
formity, though in thefe latter cafes the excrefcence
is moft commonly formed on the infide of the hock.
An excrefcence fituated on the back part of the Curb.’
hock towards its point, is called a curb. Thisis fome¬
times formed on the bone, but it is frequently only an
unufual hardnefs and fwelling of fome of the liga¬
ments.
When an exoftofis forms on the lefler paftern bone, Ring-bone,
producing a hard fw4lling round the coronet, it is called
a ring-bone. A depofition of bone over the lateral car¬
tilages is fometimes alfo called by the fame name. 374
The treatment of all thefe exerefcences is much the Treatment,
fame, and our objedl: muft be, either to excite the ab-
forbent velfels to inereafed aftion, fo as to remove the
bony excrefcence, or to take this away by means of an
operation. The former of thefe is not likely to be fuc-
375
jmn.
Part VI. _ FARR
Difeafes. cefsful, except In the early ftage of the complaint, when
w-v < the bony matter is not completely hardened. If the
excrefcence be difcovered in time, blitters are to be ap¬
plied oyer the part, and repeated frequently, and ftrong
mercurial ointment, or an ointment compofed of corro-
five fublimate and bliftering ointment, is to be applied
over the part, and gentle friflion ttiould be frequently
employed on thofe parts of the limb that are above and
below the fvvelling. By thefe means the excrefcences
may fometimes be removed; but when they have become
too hard, thefe ttimulating applications will icarcely ex¬
cite the abforbents to fufficient aftion. The only me¬
thod to which we can then have recourfe is an operation
long ago pra&ifed by the old farriers, apparently with
confiderable fuccefs. The bony excrefcence is laid
bare, by making an incifion through the integuments,
and then the excrefcence is cut off by means of a (harp
chiffel ftruck by a mallet. After this the fkin is to be
laid down over the part, and we are to endeavour to
heal the wound as foon as pottible, by flicking platter
and a proper bandage. Firing is much employed by
the French for the removal of ring-bones and other ex¬
crefcences. Mr Lawrence recommends that in firino a
ring-bone, the inftrument employed fliould be thinner
than ufual, and that the lines defcribed ttiould not be
more than one-fourth of an inch diftant from each other,
being croffed obliquely like a chain.
Sometimes an inflammation takes place on the lower
part of the hoof, between the fenfible and horny foies,
or between the outer crufl and the binders, producing
a flight effufion of blood, and leaving a confiderable
tendernefs in the part. When the hoof is examined
after being perfectly cleaned, there is commonly feen a
difcoloured fpot, fometimes red, but more ufually blue,
or blackifh, like what is feen below one’s nail, when
the finger is jammed. This affection is commonly cal¬
led by farriers a corn, (in Scotland, we believe' it is
called ajlane-crefs), though it is by no means fimilar to
a corn in the human foot. Horny excrefcences which
might properly be called corns, are fometimes however
produced on the horfe’s hoof; and of this nature, we
fuppofe, were the corns on the feet of Ccefar's horfe.
This complaint is always owing to an improper pref-
fure on the horny foie, by which the fenfible foie is
fqueezed between it and the coffin-bone. Hence a
quantity of blood is effufed from the vefftls of the fen¬
fible foie, which, if it remains for any length of time,
produces an unufual tendernefs in that part of the hoof.
Corns are generally produced by flioes that are too hol¬
low next the hoof, fo as to allow a ftone to get be¬
tween the (hoe and the foie, and thus prefs upon the
latter ; or it may be produced by the flioe being made
too fliort or too narrow, and thus indenting itfelf upon
the foie between'the binders and the crutt.
The bell manner of treating a corn appears to be, to
remove that part of the foie which is immediately be¬
low the leat of the affeftion with a drawing knife, tak¬
ing care to cut farther than the feat of the effufed
blood ; then to infert a pkdgit dipped in tindlure of
myrrh, into the opening. No preffure mutt be applied
upon the part, and a piece of the flioe oppofite the
corn ftiould be cut out, to prevent preffure from taking-
place. The horfe mutt be allowed to ft and quiet, on a
level furface, and mult not be worked till the horny part
I E R Y. 503
of the foie that has been cut away fliall be renewed ; Difeafes.
and even then it would be proper to turn him to grafs v-—“J
for fome time, without ttioes, or with very fmall tips of
iron at the toes.
4. Lamenefs may be produced by many injuries of 376
the feet, brought on by hard work, bad (hoeing, or
other ill treatment.
When horfes are ridden hard on pavement, or hard
dry roads, elpecially if the frog has been pared down,
or even the cruft cut away too much in (hoeing, the
battering produced on the hoof frequently brings on
an inflammation of the fenfible part within. This may
happen alfo to cart horfes made to draw heavy loads,
under fimilar circumftances.
When the horfe’s hoof is not very delicate or tender, Grogginefs.
this battering fometimes only produces a ftiffnefs, or
fwelling of the legs, and contraction of the finews.
I his ftate is commonly called groqginefs, or a horfe
that has his feet thus battered, is faid to be groggy.
If inflammation is excited within the hoof, a moft p0Under.
painful (pecies of lamenefs is produced commonly called
founder, or the horfe thus lamed is faid to be foundered.
i he complaint is alfo called foot founder, to diftinguifti
it from a difeafe which we (hall defcribe hereafter,
and to which farriers fometimes give the name of body-
founder. This inflammation may take place in any of
the feet, or in all ; but it is molt commonly produced
in the fore-feet: and as, from the pain which the horfe
experiences, he endeavours to throw as much as poffible
of his weight, upon his hind-feet, and appears unable
to fupport himfelf on his fore-feet, he is faid to be down
before^
1 his complaint moft commonly takes place in horfes;
but it may take place in cattle or (beep, brought on by
hard driving, on hard ftony roads, Avhen fent to fairs,
or markets. In thefe animals, however, the complaint
feldom proceeds to fuch a height as in horfes; and it is
in them more eafily relieved.
I he fymptoms oi founder are thus defenbed by IVXr Symptoms. ’
Feron. “ Foundered horfes have a general ttiffnefs of
the fore-hand, attended with a confiderable acute pain
of the joints, ligaments, and mufcles, connected with it.
’I he pain which the animal fufferson moving the joints,
obliges him to keep the flexor mufcles in a conflant re¬
laxed ftate, which pofition ultimately produces an entire
debility and ftiffnefs of every joint which compofes the
fore extremity of the animal. If the horfe has been
negle&od, or the difeafe fo rapid in its progrefs that it
cannot be removed, the fymptoms will increafe fo rapid¬
ly, that in a very little time we may obferve the cuticu-
lar veins become turgid and varicofe, fimilar to the lym¬
phatic enlargement in farcy. In this flate, exercife
confiderably increafes the pain and violence of the
fymptoms, the animal falls off his food, his health be¬
comes very much impaired, and a general decay of the
whole limbs, particularly obfervable in the extenfor
muffles of the fore-arm, foon renders the animal ufflefs
for aclivity _ * FWj
When the complaint affedls the fore-feet, the farriery,
horfe throws his hind-feet as far forward as poffible,P* 1 JO‘
which leads thofe who do not underftand the nature of
the complaint to fuppofe that the horfe is affeaed with
a weaknefs in his loins. When it is feated in the hind-
feet the horfe throws his body forward, in order to re-
lievs
5°4 ^ I* A Pi R
UifeaRs. lieve the hind-feet of their weight. In this cafe the
* J horfe is fuppofed to labour under an affection of the
chell, which has been called cheft-founder, e
The complaint ufually comes on very rapidly, and
fometimes appears a few hours after hard riding, or af¬
ter the application of other caufes, that will immediate¬
ly be mentioned.
It may be eafily known that a horfe is foundered, as
he can fcarcely walk on firft coming out of the liable,
and evidently labours under great pain. Like many
other aflfeftions that produce lamenefs, the horfe appears
to be relieved by exercife, but this relief is only tempo¬
rary ; and exercife only tends to increafe the difeafe.
Mr Feron fays, that, on dilfedling the feet of found¬
ered horfes, he has frequently found the membranes of
the joints thicker than in their natural Hate, and fome¬
times a difpofition to anchylojis, or lliffjoint; which in
fome of the joints was evidently obferved.
The founder is very commonly produced by batter¬
ing the hoofs on hard ground. It may be brought on
by any caufes that are capable of exciting inflammation
in the internal fenfible parts of the foot. It is fre¬
quently produced by walking the legs of a horfe, while
fweating ; and according to Mr Feron, this is fo evi¬
dent, that if we obferve the horfes belonging to public
coaches, in whom this practice is very common, we
{hall fee that fixteen out of twenty labour under the
torture of this difeafe. Founder may alfo proceed from
allowing the horfe, while fweating and fatigued, to
Hand long in a cold, damp air.
Treatment. In the treatment of founder, the great objeft is to re¬
move the inflammation, which is bell done by bleed¬
ing in the veins of the foot, and the application of
blifters about the joints. The {hoe of the affefted foot
muft be removed, and the toe of the cruft may then be
pared to the quick, in order to produce a difcharge of
blood from the veffels of the affedled part. It will be
proper to pare the whole of the cruft as thin as poflible,
efpecially at the heels and quarters, in order to allow
the frog to come in contaft with the ground. Blifters
are now to be applied round the fetlock, down to the
foot. Mr Feron recommends immerftng the feet in
warm water 14 hours after bliftering, keeping them there
all day, and applying a large warm poultice of bran and
water at night. Mr Blaine, on the other hand, advifes
the ufe of cold aftringent lotions, as Goulard or fal am¬
moniac in vinegar. Sometimes the pain in the feet is
fo violent, that the horfe can fcarcely bear to fupport
himfelf upon them, and indeed if he could remain quiet,
it would be better to let him lie down. But if he
proves reftlefs, he may be partly fupported by means of
a ftieet drawn round him, with its corners pulled up to
the ceiling of the ftable by pulleys, fo as to let the
horfe’s feet juft touch the ground.
The horfe muft be kept rather low, and if the inflam¬
mation is very great, or if there is any fever, it will be
proper to adminifter cooling remedies, fuch as the
drenches marked 22 and 25 in the receipts. The
belly muft be kept moderately open, and all exercife
muft be avoided.
Sometimes after the inflammation has fubfided, the
lamenefs ftill continues. This may be owing to the
formation of horny matter between the fenfible and
horny foie. Mr Blaine recommends that this be re¬
moved by cutting away the horny foie; but we much
38°.
Gaufes.
3s*
I E R Y.
Part VI.
doubt whether this operation would be attended with rvr r
the defired effeft. Difeafes-
Founder, properly fo called, can take place only in 33*
thofe animals that have horny hoofs; but a fimilar af-Stub!)fcl
feftion not unfrequently occurs, in the feet of hounds,IS/"
after a long and fatiguing chafe. It confifts in an in- ^ ‘
flamed ftate of the feet, produced by long running,
efpecially over hard or ftony ground. When the dogs
come home, their feet are hurt and fwelled, inflamed,
and fometimes cracked or chopt. The dog evidently feels
confiderable pain, and if he lies down for a little, he can
fcarcely be made to rife again. Dogs in this ftate are
faid to be flubbed in the feet, and are often fo much
lamed, that they cannot be taken out again for fome
days.
Wrhen the inflammation is but flight, it requires but
little attention, as the dog will himfelf allay the fvvell-
ing and pain by conftant licking. When, however,
the feet have been much bruifed, the cracks pour out a
bloody or purulent matter, and the cafe requires greater
attention. 1 he feet fliould be firft bathed with warm
water, and great care taken that no dirt or gravel be
fuffered to remain between the claws or in the cracks.
After bathing, the feet may be rubbed with fome di-
geftive ointment, and a cold poultice compofed of
crumbs of bread well moiftened with vinegar and wa¬
ter, fliould be tied round the affefted foot.
The hoof of the horfe frequently becomes lengthen- Coatradd
ed, and contracted at the heels and quarters. This un-feet,
natural ftiape is commonly the effedt of bad Ihoeing, by
which the frog is deprived of the neceflary preflure on
the ground, and thus the heels are prevented from ex¬
panding, while the nails that are fixed in the quarters
contribute to prevent expanfion there, and thus the
hoof is unnaturally lengthened at the toe. This con¬
traction is confiderably increafed by the heat of ordi¬
nary {tables, and by the evaporation that takes place
from the hoof while the horfe ftands within doors, on
account of the vacancy left below the frog, while the
heels are elevated above the ground. Contraction of
the hoof caufes lamenefs, by producing an unnatural de¬
gree of preflure on the fenfible parts within, efpecially
on the fenfible frog, which is not unfrequently inflamed
in thefe cafes.
The remedy for this defeCt is, to bring the frog gra¬
dually to prefs upon the ground, by lowering the heels;
but as, in the very fenfible ftate to which the feet are
commonly brought by contraction, it might be dan¬
gerous to apply preflure to the frog at once, it is ad-
vifable to lower the heels gradually, in the manner di¬
rected in N0 146. If the frog is much difeafed, as fome¬
times happens, a bar ftioe ftiould be employed, by
which means flight preflure may be made by fixing an
iron plate from the heels of the Ihoe towards the toe.
The beft means of producing preflure in thefe cafes
would probably be to employ Mr Coleman’s artificial
frog. The upper part of the hoof ftiould be rafped
thin, efpecially at the quarters, as thefe parts of the
hoof will then be more eafily expanded by the motion
of the lateral cartilages. The lower part of the hoof
fliould alfo be kept moift, efpecially the frog.
Mr Blaine remarks, that dark chefnut horfes are
more fubjeCt to contracted feet than others, and he re¬
lates a cafe of a mare belonging to himfelf, who had all
her feet contracted. Thefe he endeavoured to expand
by
FARR
Difeafes.
3S4
Running
thrufti.
Part VI.
by means of jointed flioes, furniftied with a Aiding bar,
which was kept in its fituat.ion by means of pegs, fo
that in this way the heels of the (hoe might be gra¬
dually widened, by moving the crofs bar farther on to¬
wards the toe. J his method is very ingenious, but
Mr Blaine acknowledges that it did not fully anfwer
his purpofe.
When the heels have been gradually lowered fo far,
that the frog can bear the proper preffure, the horfe
fhould continue to wear a thin-heeled ihoe ; but if he is
not required to be worked, it would be better to fend
him out to grafs without (hoes, where the pafture is not
too dry.
It often happens in cafes of contraifled feet, and in
fome other cafes, when the frog does not receive the
due degree of preffure, that a running takes place from
the cleft of the horny frog, occafioned by a degree of
inflammation which is followed by a fecretion of puru¬
lent matter. This complaint is commonly called a
running thrufh. While it extends no farther than the
horny frog, it is feldom attended with any ferious con-
fequences; but if it be neglected, the matter extends
through the horny to the fenfible frog and fenfible foie,
and produces canker or quittor.
Some hoifes have naturally a running from the cleft
of the frog *, and fo long as this is flight, and the parts
are kept clean, it is of little confequence. "We know
there are fome perfons who conceive a flight running
tkrujh, as rather beneficial to a horfe, and do notefteem
it as a mark of unfoundnefs j but we cannot agree with
thefe gentlemen in either particular, as, though the
complaint does not in itfelf abfolutely render a horfe
lame, fo long as his feet are properly attended to, it
will, if negle&ed, degenerate into a foul ulcer, the mat¬
ter of which may eafily penetrate into the internal
parts of the foot. A running thrujh is very commonly
the confequence of bad grooming, and fuft'ering dirt
and gravel to lodge in the cleft of the fiog ; and it is
flill more frequently produced in the common method
of fhoeing, by cutting and paring away the frog.
In the treatment of a running thrufh, the principal
obje&s are, to remove the caufe that firft produced it,
and to flop the difcharge of purulent matter. The lat¬
ter is eafily effeffed by applying to the part fome lli-
inulating liniment. Mr Blaine recommends for this
purpofe a compofition of two ounces of tar, with fix
drachms of vitriolic acid, which is to be applied hot
every day, by pouring it into the cleft of the frog from
a fpoon. L he difcharge, though eafily flopped in this
way, will foon return, unlels the proper degree of pref¬
fure be given to the frog ; and this is to be brought
about by proper attention to fhoeing the horfe with
thin heeled fiioes, taking care that the heels be lowered
gradually, and flight artificial preffure be made on the
frog, till it is become fufficiently healthy to bear the
natural preffure of the ground.
When the matter of a running thrufh infinuates itfelf
upwards to the fenfible part of the foot, it forms what
is called canker, in which there is a confiderable in¬
flammation, producing a luxuriant unhealthy fungus,
fpringing up from all the difeafed furface that is ex-
pofed, and producing a great degree of tendernefs, and
what may be called a rottennefs of the hoof. If this
difeale continues for any confiderable lime, it attacks
the whole fubflance of the foot, extending to the ten-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
3*5
anker.
8fc
I E R Y.
dons, ligaments, and bones, till at laft the foot may
abfolutely drop off with difeafe. Mr Coleman confiders
canker as generally the effect of too much moifture ap¬
plied to the foot or hoof.
To check the progrefs of a canker, the whole of the
excrefcence that appears on the external part of the
hoof, is to be cut away clofe to the furface from which
it fprings, and fuch parts of the horny foie as appear to
be detached from the fenfible foie, fliould be removed,
to prevent the matter from lodging in the internal parts.
When the difeafed part is fairly expofed to view, it is to
be walhed with a folution of fome metallic cauftic, fuch
as nitrate of mercury, N° 49. of the receipts, or a fo¬
lution ol lunar cauflic, in the proportion of a drachm
to two ounces of foft water. This is beft applied by
moiilcning a pledget of lint or two, and confining this
upon the cankered furface, by applying a regular pref¬
fure by means of crofs bars of iron introduced beneath
the flioe. A continuance of thefe applications, while
the frog is gradually expofed to preflure, will in gene¬
ral foon flop the progrefs of the difeafe, and when this
is removed, the horny parts of the hoof that had been
cut away will be gradually removed ; and by flioeing
the hurfe properly afterwards, the difeafe will be pre¬
vented from returning.
Cattle and flieep are fubjeft to a difeafe very fimilar
to canker in the horfe, producing a difcharge of fetid
matter from between the claws of the hoof, or fome-
times from only one claw.
1 his affection in cattle is commonly called the fouls, Fouls,
or the cattle are faid to be foul in the foot. Managers
of cattle commonly divide this difeafe into two kinds,
the foft, and the horny, which are faid to require dif¬
ferent modes 01 treatment. In the fuft fouls, a running
of very offenfive matter takes place from the heels, or
between the claws of the hoof 5 and the animal appears
exceedingly lame. The treatment in this cafe confiffs
in cutting away all the foft and fpongy parts, and then
applying a cauftic liquid, fuch as will prefently be de-
feribed, for the foot-rot in ftieep. The parts are then
to be covered with a pledget fpread with mild oint¬
ment, or, what is very common among farmers, a piecr
of fat bacon may be wrapt round the part, tied on the
foot, and fuffered to remain for two or three days. In
the mean time the animal thould ftand very clean, and
be allowed to reft as much as poftible.
J he horny fouls feem to be very analogous to corns
in horfes. The animal is very lame, and, on examining
the foot, the hoof feels very hot, and, when hard preffed,
the beaft evidently feels much pain. There will com¬
monly be found fome part of the horn penetrating into
the fofter parts of the foot, either at the heel, or be¬
tween the hoofs. In the treatment it is neceffary to cut
away thefe parts of the horn, as well as any part under
which there appears much inflammation. For this pur¬
pofe, it will probably be neceffary to caft the animal,
but care fhould be taken that he be thrown on a foft
place. After the hoof has been pared away, a rag
moiftened with vinegar and water fhould be tied on,
and the animal muff be fent to grafs in a foft fmooth
pafture. If the inflammation and pain are very great,
it may be neceffary to bleed from the veins of the foot!
In fheep it is called the foot-rot, and is generally pro-F ^
duced by their being kept on a wet foil, "it is remark-1
able that fait marflies do not produce it. According1 ^
3 § to
•5
FARRIER Y.
Difeafes ^ Mr Lawrence, frequent travelling to and from the
- fold, or by fuckling ewes from the hot dung of a fheep-
boufe, will occafion it. Some are of opinion, that it
originates from the fame caufe which occafions chil¬
blains in the human feet ; and this opinion is maintain¬
ed in the effay on the difeafes of fheep, affixed to Mr
Findlater’s Survey of Peebles, where it is dated, that
the remote caufe of the difeafe is weaknefs, and the im¬
mediate caufe cold and wet, as (landing in cold wea¬
ther upon wet paftures, with the feet condantly foaked
in water. Dr Wilkinfon of Enfield confiders moifture
as the predifpofing caufe, and has found the difeafe to
be produced from the fheep continuing in long grafs
during a mild winter. The fame caufe generally, al¬
though perhaps gradually, operates upon the whole flock,
and then it has been fuppofed that the difeafe is conta¬
gious. The late Lord Somerville had a piece of paf-
ture which always produced the foot-rot on any fheep
that were put into it $ but the difeafe was entirely pre¬
vented or rooted out by a careful feleftion of the (keep
in order, by paring the hoofs of thofe that began to
be affefted, and by the ufe of caulfics not too corrofive.
Thefe appeared to be the moft proper means of (lopping
the complaint, and the bed cauftic application is faid to
be the nitrate of mercury. It is evident, that during the
application, the hoofs of the (keep ffiould be kept as
clean as poffible. Whether its greater or lefs prevalence
depends on the lefs or greater attention paid to the ffieep,
is not perhaps fully afcertained. It is* however, certain
that the ffieep of fome diftrifls are entirely free from it.
We are informed, that in Tweeddale the complaint is
fearcely known.
There is a difeafe in the horfe’s foot, in which the
coffin-bone is forced backwards, and made to prefs un¬
naturally upon the heels, by which its edges being fub-
jefted to unufual preffure, become partly abforbed.
Hence this bone, lofing its fupport, becomes preffed in
its concave part, where inflammation is produced, and
bony matter is thrown out, rendering the lower part of
the coffin-bone convex Inftead of concave, and the foie is
rendered unufually thin. This difeafe is calledpummiced
feet, and may be brought on in three ways *, from im¬
proper (koeing, from inflammation, as in cafe of found¬
ers, and from a natural defe61 in the foot itfelf. It is
faid to be very common in wet foils. It is very common¬
ly produced by applying the (hoe red hot to the horfe’s
foot. Its immediate caufe appears to be an inflamma¬
tion of the fenfible laminae, by which a quantity of coa¬
gulated lymph or of bony matter is thrown out, that
forces back the coffin bone in the manner above de-
fcribed. When the difeafe. is completely formed, it
does not appear capable of being radically cured, but
only admits of palliation. Mr Blaine recommends, that
the growth of the foie ffiould be encouraged by every
means, but the foot (hould not be kept improperly moift.
The beft means would be, the turning the horfe out
without (hoes in a dry pafture. No part of the heels or
foie ffiould be removed in this cafe, as the parts are al¬
ready too (light. A ikoe ffiould be formed, if poffible,
that prefents a hollow furface to the foot, and a plain
one to the ground. This may be done, by making it
of rather an increafed thicknefs, which will admit of its
being hollowed within, and bevilled from the outer to
the inner edge of the web.
Sometimes perpendicular fiffures or cracks are feen in
3*8
jPummiced
Sect.
3*9
Ssndcrack
Part VI.
the hoof extending between the fibres in a parallel di- Dife ff?
reft ion from above downwards, Thefe are called fand-' v—
cracks, and generally take place near the quarter, more
frequently on the outer than the inner fide, and oftener
in theTore than the hind foot. Thefe cracks fometimes
come on fuddenly, and then generally denote a contrac¬
tion of the hoof. . They are alfo faid to have arifen from
a wound in the veflfel or part of the coronary ligament,
bringing on a fecretion of horny matter, which gets be¬
tween the fibres of the hoof, and caufes them to (eparate.
The means of preventing the crack from extending,
are to thin the hoof where the crack has taken place as
much as poffible, and to make a tranfverfe fedlion a little
way acrois at the upper part. If the crack (hould dill
continue to gape, it mud be carefully covered, and the
hoof bound round, fo as to clofe it as much as may be,
and the portion of the crud that reds on the (hoe fhould
be chambered away a little, by which means the divid¬
ed parts will be more likely to come together*
When a wound has been inflided on the coronet, Falfe quar.
the coronary ligament commonly becomes injured, andter«
its vafcular part does not fecrete fo much bony matter
as ufual. Hence there is a fpace left between the old
horny matter of the hoof, and the new that is formed
from other parts ; and this produces what is commonly
called a falfe quarter. A falfe quarter may alfb b©
produced, in confequence of a quittor extending upwards
through the coronet. As the fenfible laminae within
the hoof are liable to be prefled in this vacant fpace be¬
tween the horny edges, thus caufing violent pain, the
falfe quarter is attended with a lamenefs of the word
kind •, for as this interference of the lamina fometimes
takes place fuddenly, while the animal is in motion, the
pain makes him (brink, and he not unfrequently comes
down.
The only way of remedying this defeft is, to excite
fueh an a&ion in the coronary ligament as may difpofe
it to throw out new horny matter, and thus fill up the
vacant fpace. This is heft effefled by removing the
fuvrounding horn, and applying blifters to the coronet,
while the part of the hoof that is oppofed to the (hoe
(hould be hollowed away as much as poffible, to admit *■
of the feparated parts approaching each other.
When a horfe in motion, efpecially in trotting, brings cutting,
one foot fo near another as to interfere, and thereby
graze or wound one of the feet, he is faid to cut. Some¬
times the feet of a hogfe are in this way feverely wound¬
ed, and temporary lamenefs is produced. In cutting,
the horfe may either wound the heels of the. fore feet,
with the toe, or fide of the hind (hoe, which is the mod
common cafe ■, or he may wound the fore part of the
hind-foot, jud above the hoof, by driking it againd the
heel of the fore (hoe *, or, ladly, he may bring two of
the feet fo clofely together, as to wound the inner fide
of either.
Cutting may arife from a bad habit, or from a natural
deformity of the feet, but it is very commonly the con¬
fequence of bad (hoeing. When horfes cut from turning
out their toes, which is by much the mod common
caufe, they are obferved to have the inner quarter of
the 'hoof lou'er than the outer, and the fetlock
joints are thus nearer each other than thofe of horfes
which have their limbs flraight. Thefe fafls led far¬
riers to a conclufion, that if the inner quarters were
railed to a level with the outer, and efpecially if made
even-
part VI.
J-Jifeafes. even higher, the fetlock joints would be thrown further
apart, fo that the foot would pafs the fupporting leg
without ftriking : Accordingly, it has been ufual to
make the inner quarter of the (hoe higher than the
outer, and this has been the common pradtice for a long
time. Mr Pvlorecroft, by making trial of a (hoe, of a
(hape the reverfe of what we have defcribed, namely,
having the outer quarter thick, and the inner thin, com¬
pletely prevented cutting in the horfe, on whom thofe
(hoes were tried, and the utility of the improvement has
been confirmed by fucceeding trials. According to Mr
Blaine, the principle on which this is fuppofed to adt is,
that when a horfe is at reft, he fupports his weight
equally on both feet 5 but having his inner quarter
much raifed, in the common mode of attempting to re¬
medy the defedl of cutting, when one foot is elevated he
muft be fupported obliquely on the other, and hence
have a tendency to fall outwards j to prevent which he
brings the moving foot nearer the fupporting one, by
which he ftrikes it. Confidering it in this point of view,
it is not difficult to account for our author’s mode of
reafoning on his method, which, by elevating the outer
inftead of the inner fide of the fupporting foot, muft ne-
etffarily give it a difpofition to lean inwards, and fall to
the infide, which will throw the moving further from
the fupporting foot. But, ingenious as this mode of
reafoning may be, it is to be feared, that by thus throw-
* Blaine's an increa^e °f weight on the inner fide, we (hall
Outlines, fometimes be in danger of producing evils, that will
vol. ii. counterbalance the prevention of cutting *.
Lamenefs may be produced by any one of the caufes
that we have mentioned, but it may happen that a com¬
bination of two or more of thefe caufes takes place at the
fame time in different parts of the fame limb : thus the
foot may be pricked with a nail, and a drain may take
place nearly at the fame time, in the finews of the leg,
or the ligaments of the joints ; for the pain excited by
the nail firft makes the horfe trip or (tumble, and then,
his making a hidden exertion to fave himfelf, or eafe the
pained foot, a drain of the ligaments or finews frequently
takes place. A fimilar complication is often produced
in a horfe that is affefted with fpavin, or other bony
excrefcences, as his exertion to fave the limb that feels
painful from the rubbing of the mufcles or tendons
againft the fpavin, may produce a fevere drain in the
mufcles of the (boulder.
As the caufes of lamenefs are fo various, and the real
feat of it frequently very obfcure, a pra&itioner ftiould
be extremely cautious how he gives a decifive opinion
with refpeft to either, before he has well examined the
parts where lamenefs may take place, and enquired into
every circumftance that may aflift him in forming his
opinion. For want of fuch precaution, and from a
fuperficial examination of the part that is fuppofed to be
the feat of the affe&ion, egregious blunders and danger¬
ous miftakes are not unfrequently committed and appli¬
cations have been made to parts that are really found,
when it is afterwards difeovered, to the confufion of the
praftitioner, that the real caufe of the lamenefs was in a
different place. Nothing is more common than for or¬
dinary farriers to apply their liniments and embrocations
to the (houlder, when in fadl the affe&ion that caufes
the lamenefs is feated in the feet.
As, perhaps, in nine cafes out of ten, the foot is the
part that has received the injury, this fliould firft be
S°1
examined with the ftri&eft attention, the hoof (hould Difeafes.
be made perfeaiy clean, especially in its under furface, » '
to fee whether there be any crack or filfure, any difeo-
location, any particular heat, &c. The pattern and all
round the coronet ihould be alfo carefully infpetfed j
and, if nothing is found, the examination ftiould be
repeated next day, or even a third time. 1 he foot is
more particularly to befufpe6ted of being the feat of the
complaint, when the lamenefs makes its appearance
foon after the horfe has been (bod, or has had his (hoes
fattened 5 as the foot may be lamed by a nail in (hoeing,
though the point of the nail has not penetrated to the
quick. The nail may be fo thick, or may pafs fo near
the quick, as to prefs in a fmall part of the hoof upon
the foft parts, thus producing exquifite pain, and perhaps
inflammation. It is therefore proper alfo to remove
the (hoe from the foot of the affedted limb, and if the
caufe of lamenefs is not very evident, to wait a few days
to fee whether the removal of the (hoe has produced
any alteration for the better.
No certain rule can be laid down for judging of the
feat of lamenefs from the motion of the affected limb,
though this is confidered by fome as one of the fureft
marks. The deranged motion in one part of the limb
very commonly arifes from fympathy with another part
that is the real feat of the affedtion. ^ A
We have now, we believe, mentioned all the i«iport-string-halt,
ant cafes of lamenefs, except the Jiring-halt, or click?
fpavin. This is an affedtion of the hind quarters, pro¬
ducing a fudden jerking of the legs upwards, when the
horfe attempts to move. It appears to be a nervous
affedtion, and feems to be fomevvhat analogous to the
chorea, or St Vitus's dance, in children. We do not
know that this affedtion has ever been cured, but it is
faid that it may be palliated by allowing the horfe to
run much at large, and letting him remain untied in a
large (table. Mr Lawrence recommends that, after a
hard day’s work, both hind legs be immerfed in a warm
bath up to the hocks, and kept there as long as the
water continues warm, when they are to be rubbed per-
fedtly dry, and the fame bath and rubbing repeated in
the morning. He alfo advifes anointing the back
(mews, and about the hocks, with ftrong camphorated
ointment.
31*4
We have occafionally, in this and the preceding chap- Ulcers:
ters, fpoken of abfeeffes and ulcers, and their treatment;
and we can add little here on that fubjeft, as it will be
fully treated of in the article Surgery ; and the in-
ftru&ions to be there laid down will apply nearly as
properly to the inferior animals as to man. We may
juft remark, that foul ulcers, and fuch as do not heal
kindly, are perhaps more common in fome of the infe¬
rior animals than in man \ and hence they require in the
former applications of a more ftimulating nature, to ex¬
cite a proper degree of healthy aflion in the ulcerated
part. There are a few particular ulcers which call for
confideration in this article, and we cannot, perhaps,
treat of them in any part of the treatife more properly
than under the morbid affe&ions of motion.
There fometimes takes place an inflammation, and Foil-evil,
confequent fuppuration in the mucous capfules, at the
articulation of the head with the firff vertebra of the
neck, near the infertion of the cervical ligament. This
affe&ion is commonly called \.\\t .poll-evil. It is almoft
3 S 2 always /
F A R R I E R Y,
f oS
Difeafe.1
396
Fiftulous
withers..
. always the confequence «f an injury done to the back of
itie bead, by a horfe’s banging back in his collar, by
finking his head agamfl the rack or manger; and is very
frequently produced by a blow given on the head by
biutal coachmen or carters. An ulcer in this part is
eiten very difficult to heal, and when it extends beyond
the fkin, the matter fometimes infinuates itfelf below
the ligament of the neck, and on each fide of it, and it
not unfrequently produces a caries or rottennefs of the
vertebrae. The cure of the poll evil is molt eafily
effected when the inflammation is firlt difcovered, before
a iuppuration takes place; a«,when once matter is formed,
it commonly produces finufes in the loofe cellular fub-
ftance about that part of the head, and thefe are not
eafily healed. When, therefore, we have reafon to
fuppofe that inflammation has begun in the fkin of this
part of the neck, every means mult be employed to pre¬
vent its progrefs towards fuppuration. A blitter Ihould
be immediately applied over the part, and when this has
done its duty, a dilution of fal ammoniac in vinegar, or
vinegar and water, Ihould be applied by means of a
cloth kept conltantly wet. If a fuppuration appears
inevitable, it mult be encouraged by fomenting the pai t
frequently with warm water, or by the repeated appli¬
cation of warm poultices; and when the fwelling ap¬
pears fuffieiently ripe, it muit be opened, which is belt
done by introducing a feton from the higheit to the
molt depending part of the tumour, as directed in N*
1 73- ^ cord of the feton mult be examined every
day, wiped dry, and rubbed with a little digeltive oint¬
ment, and the fore lliould be carefully excluded from
the air.
If the fuppuration has proceeded any length, before
it is difcovered, there will probably be a number of
finufes, or pipes, as they are called, with matter lodging
in each. It it can be eafily effected, it would be proper
to lay thele open, and make them communicate with
each other, or, if their direction can be afcertained, a
feton may be paffed through each. When a proper
opening has been made tor the matter, and care taken
that none of it lodges, the fore will foon heal, by the
application of the proper flimulating ointments-
It is fometimes neceffary to employ the knife in this
cale ; but when this is done, the greateft care Ihould be
taken not to wound the ligament, or, as thefarrkrs call
it, \\w fix fax ot the neck. I he bell method of avoid¬
ing this is, to have the animal’s head faftened very high
to the rack, by which the ligament will be more flack,
and the finger can be eafily introduced below it, fo as
to be a guide to the knife.
We mentioned in N° 341. the chafing of the back
with the faddle. j here is another injury of a fimilar
kind, that is often iuffered by the withers, from the
faddle being allowed to prefs on them too long. This
prefiure and rubbing fometimes produces an inflamma¬
tory fwelling, which, if it be not foon difcuffed, goes on
to fuppuration, and produces a fore which farriers call
ffulous withers, or a ffu/a in the withers. This is
aifo a very troublefome ulcer, as the matter fometimes
penetrates below the {boulder, and makes its way down
the bones of the fore leg; or, by infinuatingitfelf among
the vertebrae of the back, renders them carious. The
treatment in this cafe is mucli the fame as in the laft;
the inflammation ffiould be difcuffed as foon as poflible,
and if matter forms, it Ihould be evacuated by means
F A R It I E R Y. Part VI
of fetons. It is frequency required to pafs a feten n r r
—  1. e.j * r . 1 . . wneaies.
through the tumour on each tide of the withers, in order
to produce a proper inclination of the orifice, to carry
off the matter. When finufes form, they mult be open¬
ed, as in the cafe of poll-evil.
There is fometimes a fpecies of ill-difpofed ulcers in r £97
the external part of the ears of dogs, very difficult tothe earil
heal. It is generally called canker. Thefe, when they dogs,
heal, leave hardened edges, which frequently breakout
again in the courfe of a few months. The belt appli¬
cation in this cafw is lunar cauflic applied to the edges,
to encourage them to Hough off; but if this fhould not
be found fufficient, the belt remedy will be to fear off
the difeafed parts with a red-hot knife, or they may be
cut by a Ample incifion.
39*
Chap. III. Morbid Ajfecliom of Digcfion.
In order that the food may be well digefted, when
received into the flotnach, it is neceflary that it undergo
the previous operation of chewing; unlefs it be ot fuch
a nature, as to be eafily foluble in the gaflrie juice,
without this previous preparation. The latter is the
cafe only with dogs, whofe food confifting almofl entire¬
ly of animal matter, requires little or no chewing. But
the food of hories, (beep, and cattle in general, requires
to be well chewed, either when firft fwallowed, or in
flieep and cattle by fubfequent rumination.
1 he mouth in thefe animals is fometimes fo fwelled, Sore^raoutb.
or otherwife affefted with fores or cracks, that it is with
difficulty the animals can chew their food. Sometimes
there aie bloody chinks or chops in the palate, occalion-
ed by thidles or other prickly plants, which are mixed
W'ith the hay, or grow up among the grafs. Thefe
fliould be walked on their firft appearance with fait and
vinegar, applied by means of a rag tied to a flick. If
neglected, thefe chops frequently become inflamed and
ulcerated. If pimples arife, they muft be opened when
they begin to fuppurate, by means of a pointed cautery.
There are fometimes found within-fide the lip of cart
borfes and other ordinary cattle, foft tumours, or puf-
tules with black heads, which are called gzggs, bladders,
or flips in the mouth. They do not always occafion
much inconvenience, but fometimes they grow to a large
fize, fo as to grow troublefome, and prevent chewing.
When this is the cafe, they muft be removed, either by
faflening a thread about their roots, as dire£Ied in the
treatment of warts, where they are of fuch a form as
to admit of a ligature ; or by the knife, applying after¬
wards the hot iron or cautery. In performing this ope¬
ration, care muft be taken to draw the tongue to one
fide, fo that it may not be wounded. After removing
thele excrefcences with the knife and cautery, the mouth
may be wafhed with a folution of white vitriol or alum.
Excrefcences of a fitnilar kind, called barbs or paps,
fometimes grow below the tongue, and muft be removed
where pradicable by means of a ligature, as it is danger¬
ous to employ the knife. When thefe excrefcences
are negledfed, there lometimes arife in the mouth little
ulcers with white fpecks, very fimilar to the aphthous
crufts that form in the human mouth. It is recom¬
mended by fome writers to ufe the cautery on thefe
occafions ; but probably a detergent lotion, fuch as we
have juft recommended, will anfwer the purpofe of re¬
moving them.
Th&
Difeafes.
th
401
Lampas.
404
Choking
Part VI. F A n R
The mouth or tongue of horfes is fometimes wound¬
ed vvitli the bit or curb. When this happens, a lotion
400 made with alum diiTolved in water, and fweetened with
Wounds in honey, may be employed ; and the bit ilioulu not be
mouth, agajn ^11 the mouth is healed.
Many veterinary writers have defcribed the difeafe
in the horfe’s mouth called the Itimpas, which is Hated
to be an inflammation and fsvelling of the firft bar of
the mouth in a young horfe, fo as to prevent his
chewing. We believe that Lafotle and Dr Bracken
were the firft to deny the exiflence of luch a complaint,
which is now generally difcredited among moll of our
modern writers. We have no doubt that fuch a fwelling
may take place ; but it can fcarcely be attended with
the ill confequences commonly attributed to it, or re¬
quire fuch vigorous treatment as is ufually recommended,
It may happen, that any of thefe animals lhall have
a difficulty of {'wallowing, from various caufes ; either
from an unufual narrownefs in the gullet, or from the
morfel attempted to be fwallowed being too large.
The latter very frequently happens to cattle who are
fed upon turnips or potatoes ; and the choking thus
produced fometimes proves very dangerous, as, if the
obftru&ion is not fpeedily removed, the animal will die
for want of breath. The method commonly employed
among country farmers for unchoking cattle, as they
term it, is to thrall down the throat a large Hiff rope,
ravelled at the end, and well greafed. This often luc-
ceeds, but it is a clumfy method j and if the rope, by
having been long ufed, or becoming dry, Ihould loie its
itinfnefs, it will be bent in endeavouring to force down
the obilruftion •, or, if the ravelled end be not pretty
large, or the obftru£ting morfel of an irregular (hape,
the rope may pafs between the fide of the gullet and
the obftru£lion, without this being removed. Several
intelligent farmers have therefore laid afide the ufe of
the rope, and have contrived an inllrument fimilar to
the probang employed by furgeons. An inftrument
of this kind has been already mentioned, in the delcrip-
tion of Mr Hunter’s feeding byre in N° 236. An ac¬
count of one that appears to us to be more ufeful and
ingenious, has been communicated to us by the reverend
Charles Findlater, miniller of Newlands in Tweeddale.
It is the contrivance of Mr Charles Alexander, a far¬
mer in Mr Findlater’s neighbourhood, and has long been
employed by him for the purpofe of relieving choked
cattle. The following is Mr Alexander’s conllru&ion
of his inftrument,. as politely defcribed to us by Mr
Findlater.
Take three fmall canes, of the thicknefs of the little
ander’s pro-finger, or thereabouts, of the length of feet, that
^ang* they may reach down the throat, and into the ftomach
of the largeft ox. Thefe canes are to be bound toge¬
ther by ftrong fmooth twine rolled tightly about them
(the circles of the twine touching each other), from top
to bottom. Bees wax is then to be rubbed along the
twine, to fill up any inequalities, and the whole rod is
to be well oiled before it is ufed. i here is a round
knob at each end, the larger 2-*- inches in diameter for
larger cattle j the other lefs for leffer cattle. Thefe
knobs are formed of the twine rolled hard, and when
formed may be ftrengthened in their pofition, by being
fewed by means of a Ihoemaker’s awl or brog, and a
wax briftled thread, fuch as they employ. The thread
knobs are made tapering up the canes from their broad
4°3
Mr Alex-
I E R Y. 509
extremity ; but it muft be remarked that the furface of Difeafes.
this extremity is not rounded like a clue, but hollowed ——v—" J
into the form of a cup. The intention of this hollowed
form is, to make certain of catching hold of the ob-
ftrutling body ; as, if the knob was round, it might
pafs by it. After the knobs are formed, they are co¬
vered with foft leather, which by its flexibility will
adapt itfelf to the hollow end of the knob as foon as it
reaches an obftacle. The knobs muft be fecurely fixed
to the canes, for if they fall off, they leave an indigefl-
ible fubftanee in the ftomach. Such is Mr Alexander’s
probang, the only improvements on which that we
would advife are, to make the knobs ol fponge, firmly
faftened to the canes, by palling twine through holes
bored in them, and adding at each end two or three
bights of twine, for the purpofe of catching hold of
any obftacle, thus making the inftrument almoft exa£lly
like a furgeon’s probang. We think the fponge prefer¬
able to the twine, as it will not be fo liable to injure
the animal’s throat by its hardnefs, will adapt itfelf more
readily to the form of the obftacle, and may be more
firmly fixed to the canes. 404
When cattle are put into a field of young clover, or Over-feed-
rich grafs, efpecially if they have previoufly been kept in£ or/°g'’
on poor or dry rodder, they are apt to eat voracioully
of their new repaft, and the young fucculent food, when
received into the ftomach, foon ferments, and produces
fuch a quantity of air, as to fwell the ftomach to a vio¬
lent and dangerous degree. Cattle thus affedled are
faid to be over-fed, hove, or blown ; or the affeftion of
the ftomach thus produced, is called overfeeding, or
fometimes fogfcknefs. If not fpeedily relieved, the
animal’s ftomach not unfrequently burfts, from the ina¬
bility to evacuate the accumulated airj for there feems,
in thefe cafes, to be a conftriflion of the gullet, fo
that the air cannot efcape upwards, while the number
of ftomachs, and the fpafmodic contradlion produced by
the unufual diftention, prevents its paffage by the anus.
The neceftity of fpeedily relieving the animal, promp¬
ted the employment of what muft at firfl: have been
confidered as a very defperate remedy j namely, {tabbing
the animal. An opening is made with a fharp pen¬
knife into the paunch, in the thin part between the Jail
rib and the buckle bone ; and through this the air ra¬
pidly efcapes. Sometimes the barrel of a quill is in-
ferted into the wound, to prevent its doling before all
the air that is produced during the fermentation of the
food, has efcaped.
Stabbing the animal, is a remedy that fliould not be
had recourfe to, but on the moil urgent neceffity j as
the wound can feldom be made with fuch nicety as not
to wound feme important organ, efpecially feme large
blood-veffel. Indeed frequently the diftention of the
ftomach, and confequently of the Ikin and mufcles of
the belly, is fo great, that the moment the knife is in¬
troduced, a dreadful rent takes place, producing fuch a
wound as may be attended with fatal confequences.
Happily this operation is not often neceffary,. as it is
found that the adminfftration of feme internal ftimulat-
ing medicine will check the fermentation of the green
fodder, and promote the abforption of the extricated
air. Many farmers have for fome time given tar with
this intention, adminiftering an egg (hell full to each
bead j of late, however, the ufe of ardent fpirits has
been introduced, and it is found that a pint or mutchkin
o£
*
5io FARR
Difeafes. "'bifky or gin, mixed with an equal quantity of water,
> —— v' m.' is the moft efficacious remedy. Laudanum has alfo
been recommended, but probably it is not fuperior to
common fpirits(D).
It has been the praflice with fome farmers, to intro¬
duce on thefe occafions, the common rope employed in
cafes of choking, into the ftomach, and move it up and
down, fo as to produce a gradual evacuation of the air j
but we (hould fuppofe that the evacuation produced in
^ this way muft be extremely flow.
Dr Monro’s Dr Monro fenior, profeflor of anatomy in the uni-
' flexible verfity of Edinburgh, fome years ago contrived an elalfic
tube. tube, that might be introduced down the throat into
the ftomach of the animal, and thus fpeedily and effec¬
tually evacuate the air. A defcription of this inftru-
ment, and the manner of employing it, appeared in an
Edinburgh newfpaper, we believe, with the do&or’s au¬
thority. It has fince been publiflied in a popular trea-
tife on the difeafes of black cattle, entitled “ Rowlin’s
Complete Cow-Doflor,” from which we have taken it.
The doftor begins by obferving, that the fwelling of
the belly is owing to the diftention of the ftomachs by
* fixed air, difengaged from the fucculent grafs in confe-
quence of fermentation, the difcharge of which by the
mouth feems to be prevented by a fpafmodic contraftion
of the upper orifice of the ftomach. He concludes
that the cattle may with certainty be faved, if the air
be drawn off in due time, without injuring the ftomach
and bowels ; and he affirms that this may be done with
great eafe by paffing a flexible tube down the gullet
into the ftomach.
The tube is to be compofed of iron wire, as large as
a common flocking wire, or about one-fixteenth part of
an inch diameter, twifted round afmooth iron rod, three
eighths of an inch diameter, in order to give it a cylin¬
drical form ; and after taking it off the rod, it is to be
covered with fmooth leather.
To the end of the tube, which is intended to be paf-
fed into the ftomach, a brafs pipe, two inches long, of
the fame fize as the tube, and pierced with a number of
large holes, is to be firmly connedled.
To prevent the tube from bending too much, within
the mouth or gullet, in time of paffing it down into
the ftomach, an iron wire, one eighth of an inch dia¬
meter, and of the fame length as the tube, is put within
it, which is to be withdrawn, when the tube has entered
the ftomach.
He has found that the fpace from the fore teeth of
the under jaw, to the bottom of the firft ftomach of a
large ox, meafures about fix feet, and he has paffed fueh
a tube, five feet and nine inches long into the gullet and
ilomach of a living ox. The tube ought therefore to
be fix feet long, that we may be fure of its anfwering
in the largeft oxen.
After the tube is paffed into the ftomach, it may be
allowed to remain for any length of time ; as when it
is preffed to one fide of the throat, it (loes not intercept
the breathing of the animal. The greateft part of the
elaftic and condenfed fixed air, will be readily difcbar-
ged through the tube j and if it be thought neceffary,
I E R Y. Part Vi
the remainder of it, or the fuperfluous drink, may be nifeafea
fucked out, by a bellows fixed to the upper end of the
tube, with a couple of valves, one at its muzzle, and the
other at the fide of it, fo difpofed as to allow the air to
pafs in the diredlion from the ftomach upwards.
By means of fuch a tube, the air is not only more
certainly difcharged than by ftabbing the animal j but
the dangers avoided which the ftabbing occafions, not
fo much by the irritation which the wound creates, as
that the air, and the other contents of the ftomach, get¬
ting into the cavity of the belly, between the contain¬
ing parts of the bowels, excite fuch a degree of in-
flammaiion as frequently proves fatal to the animal.
This tube may be alfo ufeful for the purpofe of intro¬
ducing ftimulant medicines in the ftomach, when the
contradlion at the upper orifice would prevent their be-
ing given without fome fuch contrivance.
An inftrument of this kind is fold in London, at
Macdougal’s, N° 15, Great Wind-Mill Street. It
ftiould be made of various fizes, for ftieep as well as
cattle. According to Mr Blaine, Mr Eages of Graff ham
farm, near Guildford, has Amplified this mode of relief
much, by the invention of an inftrument, for which he
was rewarded by the Society for the Encouragement of
Arts, with fifty guineas. This is Amply a cane of con-
fiderable diameter, and fix feet in length for oxen ; to
which is affixed a knob of wood, at the end to be intro¬
duced into the ftomach. That for ftieep is confiderably
fmaller, and three feet long. This inftrument, for its
fimplicity, is much to be preferred, as it is found to oc-
cafion the evacuation of the air as effedlually as the
other. In cafes of emergency, and in a judicious
band, the flexible part of a common cart whip might
anfwer the end.
Flatulence may be produced in horfes, by eating
greedily of rich food, to which they have been unaccuf-
tomed, or after having fafted long; efpecially if they
drink much water immediately after. A horfe in this
ftate ftiould not be taken out to work, as, from the di¬
ftention of the ftomach, there is danger of injuring the
horfe’s wind, or even in fome cafes of burfting the fto¬
mach. If the diftention has not proceeded to a great
length, and if the horfe is not coftive, gentle fri£lion
on the belly, and adminiftering a ball made of fome of
the cordial feeds, will generally procure relief; but if
the complaint proceeds to a great height, and there is
griping pain, attended with coftivenefs, it becomes a cafe
of flatulent colic ; the defcriptions and treatment of
which will be confidered in the next fedlion. ,
When this flatulence comes to a great height, it Acute m*
forms the difeafe that is commonly called acute indigef-digeftion,
tion. It very commonly arifes from the horfe eating
voracioufly, after having been kept without food for
many-hours ; efnecially if the food then given him be
of a flatulent kind, fuch as grains or draff, young fweet
grafs, clover, or the like. The horfe’s flomach being
naturally fmall, is eafily diftended by an unufual quantity
of food, or by t he air difengaged from fuch as eafily runs
into fermentation. Hence arife fwelling and tightnefs
of the ftomach, and acute pain. The horfe difcontinues
eating,
(d) The ufe of fpirits in thefe cafes was, we believe, firft introduced by Dr Whytt of Edinburgh, who was in
the habit of adminiftering a pint (mutchkin) of gin on thefe occafions.
part VI. FARRIERY. 5**
pifeafes eating, holds out his head, and appears exceedingly
^ - j diltreffed j he looks anxioufly and mournfully at his
fide, ftamps with his feet, and breaks out into cold
fweats. If he is not foon relieved, the head becomes
aiTefted, and there appear evident marks of preffure on
the brain. Symptoms very fimilar to thofe of daggers
follow, and the horfe commonly dies apoplectic, or the
ftomach burlts.
As this affection is fo dangerous, immediate relief is
neceffary. Stimulant medicines, fuch as are called car¬
minatives, as oil of anifefeeds, eflence of peppermint,
or oil of turpentine, fhould be immediately adminider-
ed ; and if there appears much determination of blood
to the head, which may be known by a fwelling and
heavinefs of the eyes, and the violent throbbing of the
arteries of the temples, it will be neceffary to draw
blood pretty largely by opening one of thefe arteries.
If the horfe is bound in the belly, he mud be raked,
and have a drong purgative clyder with fome aromatic
407 fubftance, in it, as anifefeeds, or caraway feeds.
Poifon. All thefe animals may occafionally fwallow poifon,
and the treatment in thefe cafes mud depend in a great
meafure on the nature of the poifonous fubdance, where
this can be afcertained. It is feldom that a horfe, cow,
or fheep is poifoned ; but in the dog, this may frequently
happen, either from accidents, or defign. Dogs often
pick up mux vomica, (which is the poifon modly ufed
by vvarreners), and which ufually caufes convulfive fits,
and foon kills. Apply immediately the following reme¬
dy. As much common fait as can be got down ; hold
the head upwards, and force open the mouth, and by
fixing a dick acrofs, prevent its {hutting, whilft the
throat is filled with fait ; a fufficient quantity to purge
and vomit will foon diffolve, and be fwallowed ; the
ftomach once cleared by a free padage obtained by a dool,
warm broth diould frequently be given to prevent thfe
faintncfs which might otherwife prove fatal. Two
table fpoonfuls of cajlor oil, added to the fait, would
* Daniel's very much accelerate its aftion downwards*.
Kural Arfenic is frequently given to dogs by defign, or it
Sports. may kg picked Up by them in places where it has been
laid for rats. If the accident is difcovered foon, the
dog may fometimes be recovered by giving him a vo¬
mit of white vitriol, and drenching him well with
fweet oil and milk ; and when mod of the poifon ap¬
pears to have been thrown up, the red may probably be
rendered harmlefs by repeated doles of liver of ful-
phur.
If a horfe is poifoned, the danger is very great, as
from his inability to vomit, the domach cannot be clear¬
ed of the poifon. But fortunately this accident fcarcely
ever happens as arfenic, the mod common poifonous
fubdance, will produce little efte6t on the horfe, unlefs
4os g'>v™in a vcry larse dofe- „ „ , r . , ,
Worms. The domach and bowels of all thefe animals may be
infeded by worms, but thefe are mod common in the
horfe and dog.
The worms that mod commonly infed the horfe are
what are commonly called the hots. 1 hey are not pro¬
perly worms, but are the larvae of feveral fpecies of the
409 Oejirus or Gadfly mentioned in N° 337.
Bots, Oe. The horfe is attacked by 2 or 3 fpecies of Oeflrus, but
^ more efpecially by the Oe. equi, which depofits its eggs
in fuch a manner as that they diall be received into the
animal’s domach, where they form the bots.
I • «
The method purfued by the parent fly, in order to Difeafes.
lay its eggs in the mod favourable fituation for being w-y——
received into the domach of the horfe, is extremely cu¬
rious. It is thus related by Mr Bracey Clark, who ap¬
pears to have witneded the procefs.
“ When the female has been impregnated, and the
eggs are fufficiently matured, die feeks among the horfes
a fubjett for her purpofe, and approaching it on the
wing, die holds her body nearly upright in the air, and
her tail, which is lengthened for the purpofe, carried in¬
wards and upwards. In this way die approaches the
part where die defigns to depofit the egg, and fufpend-
ing herfelf for a few feconds before it, fuddenly darts
upon it, and leaves the egg adhering to the hair, by
means of a glutinous liquor fecreted with it. She then
leaves the horfe at a fmall didance, and prepares a fe-
cond egg, and poifing herfelf before the part, depofits it
in the fame way. The liquor dries, and the egg be¬
comes firmly glued to the hair. This is repeated by va¬
rious dies, till four or five hundred eggs are fometimes
depofited on one horfe. The fkin of the horfe is al¬
ways thrown into a tremulous motion on the touch of
this infeft, arifing from the very great irritability of the
{kin and mufcles at that feafon of the year, occafioned
by the continual leafing of the dies. The infide of
the knee is the part on which thefe dies feem to prefer
depofiting their eggs, and next to this the fide, and back
part of the dioulder. It is curious that thefe parts are
what are mod expofed to be licked by the animal. In
licking, the eggs adhere to the animal’s tongue, and are
carried into the domach with the faliva.
“ The bots attach themfelves to every part of the
horfe’s domach, but are ufually more numerous about its
farther orifice, and are fometimes, though lefs frequently,
found in the bowels. Their number varies confider-
ably ; fometimes there are not above half a dozen j at
others they exceed 100. They mod ufually hang in
cluders, fixed by the fmall end to the inner membrane
of the domach, to which they adhere by means of two
fmall hooks.
“ The body of the larva is compofed of eleven feg-
ments, all of which, except the two lad, are furrounded
with a double row of thorny bridles, dire&ed towards ths
truncated end, and are of a reddidi colour, except the
points, which are black. Thefe larva: evidently receive
their food at the fmall end by a longitudinal aperture
which is fituated between the two hooks or tentacular
The lips of this aperture appear foraewhat hard, horny,
and irregular.
“ Their food is probably the chyle, which being near¬
ly pure aliment, may go wholly to the compofition of
their bodies without any excrementitious refidue, though
on diffeftion the intedine is found to contain a yellow
ov greenifh matter, which is derived from the colour of
their food, and diewsthat the chyle as they receive it is
not perfectly pure.
“ The downefs of their growth and the purity of their
food mud occafion, what they receive in a given time
to be proportionally fmall j from which probably arifes
the extreme difficulty there is found in dedroying them
bv any medicine or poifon thrown into the doraach.
After opium had been adminidered to a horfe labouring
under a cafe of locked jaw for a week, in dofes of one
ounce every day, on the death of the animal I have
found the bots in the domach perfettly alive. Tobacco
* Linn.
Tranf vol.
i'ii. p. 298.
FARR
has been employed in much larger quantities in the fame
complaint, and has been alfo longer continued, without
detlroying them. They are alfo but rarely affedted by
the draftic purgatives, which bring away in abundance
the Tenice and Afcarides
Mr Clark, does not apprehend they are fo very inju¬
rious to the horfes as is generally conceived. When re¬
moved from the ftomach a deep impreflion remains where
they adhered, but whether they ever irritate it fo as to
bring on a fatal fpafm of the ftomach itfelf, or of the
pylorus, or, by collecting round this paffage, prevent
the food fiom entering the inteftine, has never been in-
veftigated with fufficient accuracy. The ignorant fur-
prife of farriers on opening the ftomach after death, and
being prefented with fo Angular an appearance as the
bots, has without doubt very often occafioned the death
to be attributed to thefe, though it is certain but few
horfes on our commons can efcape them.
Inftances have occurred of violent inflammation ex¬
cited in the ftomach by the bots. An example of this
is related by Mr James Clark. He was once defired
by a farrier in the neighbourhood who was indifpofed,
to vifit a horfe that had been a patient of his for fome
days, and report the fituation he was in. When Mr
Clark entered the ftable, the fervant was giving the
horfe a drink, which he was afterwards informed was
compofed of an infufion of linfeed, in which was dif-
folved one ounce of nitre, with honey to fvveeten it;
and in the lad hornful was poured, from a fmall phial,
about half an ounce, or more, of fpirits of hartfhorn.
The horfe feemed very uneafy after the drink, he was
ibon feized with a violent trembling and ftiaking, a pro-
fufe fweat broke out over all his body, and run down
his lides, as if water had been poured on him ; at the
fame time his legs and ears were quite cold ; he lay
down feemingly in great agony ; he was foon after con-
vulfed all over, and died in about half an hour from the
time the drink was fwallowed. Mr Clark obtained
leave to take out his ftomach where he was, on condi¬
tion he fhould few up the fkin afterwards, in order to
prevent any bad fmell in the ftable, till he could be
carried off. On infpeCling the ftomach, the coats of it
were found greatly inflamed, and a mortification had
taken place on one fide, where it appeared of a darker
colour, and here there was a fmall hole, through which
a lead probe paffed into the cavity of the ftomach from
the outfide ; the coats of the ftomach were confiderably
thickened, and of a darkifti red colour refembling the
liver ; at the fame time the ftomach was confiderably
diftended and full of food : on turning it infide out, an
incredible number of bots were found flicking allround
the fides and lower part of it, fo that it appeared en¬
tirely covered with them, flicking as clofely to one an¬
other as bees in a honey-comb ; and fo firmly were the
heads of thefe vermin fixed in the coats of the ftomach,
that endeavouring to pull fome of them off when alive,
-they broke in two, and their heads remained flicking in
the coats of the ftomach.
The great irritation produced by fuch a number of
thefe worms flicking in the coats of the ftomach had no
doubt occafioned at firft an inflammation there, and
f Clark m from its continuance this was tending to a mortification,
Prevention before the drench was given, and would have occafion-
OeHsemor. e£^ ^ ^orfe’s death f.
rfloidalis. Another fpecies of Oeflrus, viz. the Jicemorrhoidalis,
I E R Y. Part VI
alfo produces eggs, which when received into the fto- Difeaf;
mach of the horfe become bots. This infefl has been
termed JuemOrrhoidalis from the appearance of the bots
when coming out of the anus of the horfe, when they
are very like the fwelling produced by the piles or hm-
morrhoids. It was fuppofed by Linnaeus and fome
other naturalifts, that this and the laft fpecies introdu¬
ced their eggs into the bowels of the horfe, by entering
the reBum, mire per anum intrans ; but this opinion is
noxv fully refuted.
The part chofen by this infeft for this purpofe, is the
lips of the horfe, which is very diftrefling to the animal
from the exceflive titillation it occafions ; for he imme¬
diately after rubs his mouth againft the ground, his
fore-legs, or fometimes againft a tree; or if two are
ftanding together, they often rub themfelves againft each
other. At the fight of this fly, the horfe appears much
agitated, and moves his head backward and forwards *
in the air, to baulk its touch, and prevent its darting on
the lips ; but the fly, watching for a favourable oppor¬
tunity, continues to repeat the operation from time to
time ; till at length finding this mode of defence in fuf¬
ficient, the enraged animal endeavours to avoid it, by
galloping away to a diftant part of the field. If it ftill
continues to follow and teafe him, his laft refource is in
the water, where the Oeflrus is never obferved to follow
him.
The teafing of other flies will fometimes occafion a
motion of the head fimilar to this ; but it ftiould not
be miftaken for it, as it is never in any degree fo vio¬
lent, as during the attack of the Oejlrus.
At other times the Oejlrus gets between the fore legs
of the horfe while he is grazing, and thus makes its
attack on the lower lip; the titillation occafions the
horfe to ftamp violently with his fore feet againft the
ground, and often ftrike with his foot, as aiming a blow
at the fly. They alfo fometimes hide themfelves in the
grafs ; and as the horfe ftoops to graze, they dart on
the mouth, or lips, and are always obferved to poife
themfelves a few feconds in the air, while the egg is
preparing on the point of the abdomen.
When feveral of thefe flies are confined in a clofe
place, they have a particularly ftrong fufty fmell ; and
I have obferved both fheep, and horfes, when teafed by
them, to look into the grafs, and fraell to it very
anxioufly ; and if they by thefe means difeover the fly,
they immediately turn afide, and haften to a diftant
part of the field.
The eggs of this fpecies appear of a darker colour
than the former, and we are unacquainted with the cir-
cumftances attending their paffage to the ftomach.
J he larvce of the Oejrus luemorrhoidalis, as well as
the former fpecies, appear to have been termed among
the -Romans, cojfus, which feems to have been a general
expreffion for any kind of foft imperfect animal, and to * Linnet an
have been very analogous, and as extenfively applied as.7'""/vo1-
the word grub is at prefent in the Englith language *. U1‘ p,31°'
The prefence of Dots in the borfe’s ftomach and Symptoms
Rowels, is not always eafily afeertained, as itis certain thatoi bots.
great numbers have been found in the ftomach after
dcaln, without appearing to have produced any unufual
fymptoms in the animal while alive. When, however
they have collected in any great numbers, or when the
animal’s ftomach is peculiarly irritable, they are attend¬
ed with the following fymptoms. The horfe lias a dif-
412
Lumbrici.
part VI. . FARR
pifeafes. pofitiofi to rub his tail frequently, without any apparent
i_.—( ' humour or eruption that fhould make it itchy ; he eats
heartily, and is yet always lean and out of condition.
His coat is rough and flaring, fuch as we have defcrib-
ed it to be in what is called a forfeit. There is alfo a
fickly palenefs of the mouth and tongue, attended with
an unwholefome cadaverous fmell. The horfe appears
tucked up in his flanks, which often heave ; he turns
his head now and then, and {trikes his belly with his
hind feet. Thefe latter fymptoms indeed, as they only
indicate griping pains, and often occur in ordinary co¬
lic, are not to be relied on, unlefs accompanied with
the former. In cafes of worms, it is faid that the dung
is yellowifh, like melted fulphur, or is otherwife dif-
coloured and very offenfive. The furefl mark, how¬
ever, of the prefence of bots is their being voided by
the anus, where they are fometimes found flicking.
Treatment. As the bots are extremely tenacious of life, it is very
difficult to expel them, and where they do not occafion
any confiderable irritation or other bad fymptoms, it
will be better to let them alone till they come away
fpontaneoufly. But when it is judged neceffary to at¬
tempt their expulfion, this may be done by adminifter-
ing the fal indus, as direfted in N° 60. of the receipts,
and after it a ftrong dofe of calomel and aloes.
We have faid the bots are not properly worms j but
there are feveral fpecies of worms that are very frequent
in dogs, and are now and then found in the horfe.
Thefe are the lumbrici, or long round worms; the
afcarides, or thread worms; and the to:nice, or tape¬
worms.
The long round worms are feldom met with in thefe
animals ; but when they occur in the horfe, they pro¬
duce much uneafinefs, and fometimes occafion colic and
inflammation of the bowels. It is very difficult to ex¬
pel thefe worms, as the only remedies by which this
could be properly attempted, fuch as powdered tin and
flrong purgatives, cannot with propriety be often given
to a horfe, as, from the flru&ure of his ftomach, the
former might produce confiderable injury, and the latter
are extremely debilitating.
Afcarides are now and then found in the great guts
of the horfe, and fomelimes prove troublefome, but
are feldom or never dangerous. They are befl remov¬
ed by clyfters of lime-water, followed by purgative
clyfters.
The tape-worm is feldom found but in dogs, where
they are fometimes the caufe of fatal difeafes, efpecially
to puppies. The fymptoms of worms in dogs are, an
itchinefs of the nofe and at the anus, both of which they
are perpetually rubbing againfl every thing 5 fvvelling
and hardnefs of the belly, leannefs, running at the eyes
and nofe, and frequent purging of a flimy or ftringy
matter. There is alfo a peculiar flaring appearance of
the hair, which points the wrong way.
Mr Blaine fays that the bowels of dogs are fo irri¬
table, that they will feldom bear flrong phyfic, and
that he knows of nothing that will certainly deflroy
the worms in their inteflines. He has tried with vari¬
able fuccefs, tin, quickfilver, pewter, calomel, and fa-
vine, with other fubflances, but none of them appeared
fufficiently certain to demand his confidence. When
the worms are early detected, he thinks that purging
doles of the compound powder of fcammony with calo¬
mel, prove the mofl efficacious means. Mr Daniel re-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
413
Afcarides.
414
Tape¬
worm.
I E R Y. ‘5i3
commends aloes, hartfhorn, the juice of wormwood, Difeafes.
with fome flower of brimflone, mixed together into a
ball, about the fize of a hazel nut, which is to be wrap¬
ped up in butter, and given three or four times a-week,
letting the dog fafl for a few hours each time, which,
he fays, will deflroy the worms. He alfo fays that
they may be deflroyed by giving the dog as much fine¬
ly powdered white glafs as will lie on a fixpence, for
three fucceffive mornings, mixed up with butter ; and
if the worms are not voided in that time, the dofe of
the glafs is to be increafed, and it is to be repeated for
three other mornings, by which time it will fcarcely fail
of producing the defired effedt. 41-
There is a fort of concretion often met with in the ConeretioH*
flomachs of cattle, and fometimes in that of horfes,111 t^ie
which is partly compofed of a chalky fubflance, andmac^‘
partly, or fometimes almofl entirely, of hair evidently
arifing from the animals licking off their hair and fwal-
lowing it with their faliva. The mafs thus received in¬
to the ftomach, being wholly indigeftible, colle&s
there, and forms thefe globular concretions which fome¬
times grow to fuch a fize as to prove fatal.
The growth of thefe concretions is thought to be en¬
couraged by the long ufe of dry hard food, without the
animal’s being allowed to feed from time to time on
frefti green herbage. It is even thought that the time¬
ly ufe of frefh grafs may prove the means of diflolving
thefe concretions. Van Swieten, in his commentaries
on Boerhaave, when fpeaking of chalky matters found
in the liver and other organs, remarks, that fometimes
there are concretions of the like fort found in this or¬
gan, but of a more friable texture, and of a whiter ap¬
pearance, like gypfum or plafler of Paris. Such incruf-
tations were often obferved by Gliffon in the pori bili-
arii, and its larger branches difperfed through the livers
of oxen that had been fed in flails with hay and flravv
during the winter feafon and without exercife. But
then thefe concretions are very friable, and they after¬
wards diffolve again, and pafs out of the body when the
cattle come to feed upon the frefli grafs of the mea¬
dows ; for in oxen that are flain in the fpring or fum-
mer, they are very rarely to be found.
“ In diflefling horfes, (fays Mr Clark) I have fre¬
quently met with chalky concretions in their livers and
in the lungs, efpecially in thofe that have been fed long
on dry food, and likewife round balls in their flomachs,
fometimes of an oval fhape. The latter feem for the
mofl part to be compofed of the dufl they lick from
their own bodies mixed with the hair. Whether the
frefh grafs diffolves them is not fo certain j but that it
caufes thefe concretions to pafs through the inteflines, I
have had a full demonflration. In May 1786, a horfe
that had been long fed on dry food was turned out to
grafs j in about eight or ten days afterwards, he was
feized with violent griping pains, which lafted for about
24 hours, when he died. As the horfe was very fat,
the man who had the charge of him wanted to make
fomething of his greafe. In fearching for it, he obferv¬
ed a large fpace of the inteftines of a very black colour ;
and on feeling it, found fomething hard and. weighty
within them. He immediately cut it open with his
knife, and took out a large oval hard ball, which mea-
fured four inches in length, and three inches and a
half in breadth, and which I have now in my poffef-
fion. That this concretion wras originally formed in the.
3 T flomach,
5H FARR
Difeafes. Aomacfi, there can be no doubt, as they frequently upon
diffe£lion have been found there, and nothing but its
great bulk had hindered it from palling through the in-
* Clark on teftines*.”
Prevention, The bell: means of obviating thefe concretions, is to
P- °' allow the animal to feed occafionally on frelh green
fodder ; and, according to what has been faid, this may
4,6 fometimes remove them after they are formed.
Lofs of ap- Horfes and other doraeftic animals fometimes labour
petite. under a lofs of appetite. Animals may eat lefs than
ufual, or they may refufe to eat at all, either from a
want of that fenfation in the ftomach, which we call
hunger, or from a dillike that the animal takes at the
food that is fet before him. Want of appetite is a
fymptom of feveral difeafes, particularly of fevers and
internal inflammations. When this happens, it would
be abfurd to force food on the animal’s ftomach, as it
could not be digefted, and would only aggravate the
violence of the difeafe.
Want of appetite very often attends very great fa¬
tigue. It is alfo very frequently the effeft of an im¬
proper ufe of cordial and ftrengthening medicines. It
may, however, be the effeft of weaknefs of the ftomach,
not brought on by thofe means. In fuch a cafe, cor¬
dials and tonics are very proper, and their ufe Ihould be
accompanied with gentle exercife.
This lofs of appetite in the horfe, is commonly called
chronic indigejlion, and is ufually accompanied with a
roughnefs and flaring of the coat, the fkin having the
appearance which we have defcribed in N° 328. under
hide-bound.
An affe&ion of a fimilar kind takes place in cattle,
in whom it is called lofs of the cud, from their not chew-
ing the cud as ufual. It is known by the animal’s
mourning, having no inclination to eat, or dropping his
food, without fwallowing it. It frequently arifes from
the ftomach being loaded with hard food that is diffi¬
cult of digeftion, fuch as acorns, or coarfe dry ftraw.
It may alfo arife from a weaknefs of the ftomach, which
is not uncommon in hot weather, and may be brought
on by confinement and want of frelh air. The treat-
477 ment is much the fame as in horfes.
Foul feed- Horfes are fubjedl to an affe&ion of the ftomach, in
^ which they fometimes eat voracioully, or greedily fwal-
low fubftances that are indigeftible. Horfes labouring
under this complaint are called fou/feeders, as they eat
clay, mortar, dirt, foul litter, or even the dung of other
animals.
This is properly a fymptom of indigeftion, and feems
to be owing to a peculiar acrimony of the gaftrrc juice,
and in moft cafes there is evidently an acid upon the
ftomach. The beft remedies are bitters, and other
flrengthening medicines, combined with fait of tartar,
or fome other antacid. The receipts marked 61. and
62. are well adapted to thefe cafes. Thefe remedies
Ihould be affifted by pure air and regular exercife. 5 and
where coftivenefs is prefent, it fhould be obviated by
the ufe of warm laxatives. Care Ihould alfo be taken
to keep the liable clean, and to have a quantity of
clean ftraw below the manger, that the horfe may not
be tempted to eat other fubftances that are more in-
418 jurious.
Surfeit in A furfeit is fometimes occafioned by hounds eating
putrid flelh, or that of horfes that have died, or been
killed when violently affetted with the farcy. Arifing
2
I E R Y. par|.
from the former caufe, the fatality which attended the r,ifeaf
hounds of Mr Finch in Kent, is a curious inftance. ' j
In drawing the covers, the hounds met with the car-
cafe of a difeafed bullock, with which they gorged
themfelves ; the contamination was immediate through
the pack ; they were generally feized with daggering
convulfive fits, operating to fo violent a degree, that
eight couple of hounds died in the field in lefs than two
hours, and it was fuppofed the whole pack would have
fallen vidlims, but for timely application of oil and
other medicines. Mr Daniel, from feeding with the
flefh of horfes fent from a poll liable, in which the far¬
cy and the glanders had fpread their ravages, had an
opportunity of fpeaking to the latter ; the hounds broke
out all over in blotches, difcharging a watery humour,
fimilar to thofe occafioned by the farcy 5 they caufed
great ftiffnefs, and were extremely painful. This inocu¬
lation took place, notwithftanding moft of the horfes
were lent alive to the kennel, and were properly flaugh-
tered, and none of the flelh was given raw to the
hounds. Phyfic, and taking them frequently to the
fait water, and well rubbing the fores by hand with it,
at length recovered them. For checking a common
furfeit, ox-gall and train-oil, equal quantities 5 the af- * DanielV
feared parts to be well rubbed, and fome phyfic taken f'aal
inwardly will quickly reftore them*. ^Crtl‘
There are two difeafes that affeft the bowels, which Ruptufe.
v'e cannot confider more properly than at the end of
this chapter. Thefe are rupture and falling of the fun¬
dament. Thefe may take place in any of the domeftic
animals, but they are more common in horfes, as they
are moft frequently the dfe£l of great exertion. Bur-
fennefs or rupture, commonly proceeds from ftrains in
labour, kicks on the belly, high and difficult leaps, ef-
pecially when heavy laden. It may be produced by
the gorging of oxen, by being flaked, and by various
other accidents. Gibfon fays that he has known it pro¬
duced by too deep an incifion being made in inferting a
rowel.
The bowel may be ruptured either at the navel, or
through the rings at the back part of the belly into the
fcrotum or cod. d he tumour, when not too large, will
return on being prelfed, as if it were merely flatulent,
and the rupture or chafm may be felt. It is eafy to
conceive that fuch a defedl is incurable, excepting pof-
fibly in a very flight cafe, and a very young fubjedl j
the intention muft be to palliate, to render the animal
as ufeful as poffible, and as comfortable to itfelf. In a
recent cafe, bleed, and give emollient and oily clyfters,
boiled barley, malt malhes, nitrated water. Foment
twice a day with camphorated fpirits, and vinegar
warm j and poultice with oatmeal, oil, and vinegar. 420
Falling of the fundament is fometimes occafioned by a Falling of
long-continued loofenefs, and is moft likely to be pro-the fun<la'
duced in fuch animals as are of a weak and delicatement*
conftitution, but is frequently brought on by hard rid¬
ing or hard driving. Mr Lawrence fays that he has fre¬
quently feen it in hard-driven pigs. According to Soley-
fel, it is in horfes fometimes the confequence of docking..
When this complaint is firft feen, it may in general
be eafily cured. I he gut fliould be returned as foon
as poffible, by puftiing it up with the ends of two or
three fingers wrapt round with a piece of foft linen rag
gently greafed ; but before returning the gut it fhould
be bathed with fome aftringent lotion, as a folution
of
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes. of alum or white vitriol, or port wine and water * and
a little of either of thefe tnould be frequently injefted.
If the gut ftiould become inflamed, it muft be anointed
with fume cooling liniment, fuch as receipt N° 28. Care
mufl: be taken to keep the animal’s bowels open, by
frequent bran mafhes. If the complaint continues
obftinate, nothing will effectually remove it, but cutting
off a part of the protruded gut. This may be done
with a common burgeon’s knife, called a fca/pe/, but
it is fometimes performed with a (harp red-hot cau¬
tery. The wound commonly foon heals, but the
animal fhould not be worked for fome time after ; but
fhould be allowed a long run at grafs, or in a draw
yard.
422
Leannefs.
Chap.
IV. Morbid Affections of Abforption.
421 T. HE abforbent veffels of the human body have been
defcribed in the article Anatomy ; and the ftrudture
of thefe veffels, in the animals now under our confidera-
tion, is fufliciently fimilar to render a particular de-
fcription of them here unneceffary. The funClion of
abforption, and the derangements produced in it by dif-
eafe, will be explained under tbefe medical articles that
have for their objeCf phy/iology and pathology. It will
be fufbcient for us, in this place, to remark, that many
of the diforders of the animal frame, are greatly influ¬
enced by the Hate of the abforbent fyftem ; and that
fome complaints feem chiefly to depend on the lofs of
the proper balance between the funCfion of abforption,
nnd that of circulation. Sometimes the abforbent vef¬
fels are too aCfive, while the circulating fyftem is pro¬
portionally languid j at others the abforbent fyftem is
languid, while that of the circulation is either unufually
aClive, or continues in its natural ftate. The former
feems to be the caufe of leannefs, coftivenefs, and fome
other morbid affeClions $ to the latter may be referred
the feveral fpecies of dropfy. We (hall here only con-
fider two of thefe affeClions, leannefs, and fwelled legs,
as moft of our readers will expeCl coftivenefs treated of
as a morbid affeClion of excretion, and moft of the fpe¬
cies of dropfy muft be confidered as general affeCtions of
the fyftem ; and therefore to be explained in the next
fection.
An unnatural degree of leannefs may take place from
many caufes ; as, ift, From the want of a proper fupply
of food, whether from this being difpenfed too fparingly
in proportion to the labour of the animal, or from its
not being fufficiently nourifliing. Hence we fee that
fuch horfes and dogs as are hard worked and ill fed, are
extremely lean.
2d, In ftallions leannefs is often the efftft of being
luffered to cover too often, or too long at one fteafon.
3d, It is a common attendant on feveral acute difeafes,
as fevers, fome inflammations, efpecially dyfentery, or
what has been commonly called molten greafe.
4th, Leannefs is a common attendant on old age.
This fymptom requires little attention, as it is feldom
da ngerous, except when it comes on very rapidly, and is
attended with great weaknefs, and manifeft figns of
decay, in ftallions that are too hard wcrhed. It com¬
monly foon difappears after the caufe that produced it,
Swelled or ^ie comP^aint» which it is a fymptom, is removed,
leg*. A fwelling of the legs is very common to horfes that
I E R Y. \ .515
ate fuffered to ftand long in the liable, without being Difeafes.
worked, or in fome other cafes that will prefently be -y——'
mentioned. There is rf fweliing of the legs that is the
confequence of hard work, ftrains, or other caufes that
excite inflammation ; but what we are now confidering
is a dropfical fwelling, confifling in an accumulation of
watery fluid below the fkin, fimilar to the fwelled legs
of old people, and chlorotic girls. It may affeft all the
legs, but it is more commonly confined to the hinder ex¬
tremities. The fwelling generally takes place above the
paitern and fetlocks; but if it continues long, it extends
further up the legs, and the fkin fometimes cracks, and
there oozes out a watery fluid, or fometimes a purulent
or greafy matter. In this laft cafe it has degenerated
into greafe, which will be confidered hereafter.
Swelled legs frequently take place in horfes that are
newly brought into the liable, or a flraw yard ; efpecial¬
ly if they are not regularly worked, and their kgs re¬
gularly rubbed down, at lead twice a-day. It is more
certainly produced, if the horfe fhould be fuffered to
(land long on hot litter. It is alfo not uncommonly
the effedl of wading through fnow or cold water, efpe¬
cially when the legs are heated. It evidently depends
on a decreafed a£Iion of the abforbent veffels and veins
of the legs.
It may in general be prevented by regular exercife,
and frequent rubbing : but if it fhould occur in a horfe
that is too full of blood, it may be neceffary to bleed
and phyfic. If the fwelling fhould continue obftinate,
it will be proper to apply a blifter to the part, or to
rub the legs frequently with fome ftimulating liniment,
and if the complaint is of long (landing, it may be pro¬
per to infert a rowel in each leg ; and the difperfion of
the fwelling may be aflifted by rolling hay bands around
the legs, by way of bandage. One of the moft effec¬
tual means of preventing a return, will be firing, making
perpendicular lines with the cautery from the fetlock to
the coronet. Regular exercife and fridlion muft be per-
fifted in $ and if the complaint is accompanied with ge¬
neral weaknefs of the fyftem, a nourifhing diet, and
ftrengthening remedies muft be added.
Chap. V. Morbid AffeBions of Circulatioti.
424
The pulfe in the inferior animals has been very little Pulfe in
attended to by veterinary praflitioners $ indeed thevad°u»
common farriers and cattle doctors fcarcely know whe-an^ma^s<
ther their patients have a pulfe, or where it may be moft
readily felt.
The ftrength and frequency of the pulfe in its natural
ftate, differs very much in the feveral fpecies of the do-
meftic animals. It is in general ftronger according to
the fize of the animal •, but its frequency diminifhes in
the fame proportion, it being quicker in the fmaller than
in the larger animals, even of the fame fpecies. We
cannot undertake to ftate exadlly the average frequency
of the pulfe, in the feveral animals, and the accounts
given by different authors vary confiderably. Mr Clark
fays that the pulfe of a horfe in health, and no way
terrified or alarmed, is from 36 to 40 beats in a minute.
According to Mr Blaine, it ranges from 45 to 55, being
generally from 45 to 50 in large horfes, and from 50
to 55 in fmaller horfes. Dr Hales found that the pulfe
of an ox in health did not exceed 38 beats in a minute.
3 T 2 Mr
5K> FARR
Difeafes. ^ ]\fr Blaine, in his firft volume, flates the medium pulfc
*' “ 'in~* of a dog at 80 or 90 ; but in his fecond volume, p. 149,
he fays, that a dog has ufually'from 90 to 100 or 110
contra£tions in a minute, fo that we may probably take
the average at from 90 to 100. Perhaps the pulie of a
425 (beep is flower by about 10 beats than that of a dog.
Feeling the The pulfe in the inferior animals may be mod con-
ju'lc. veniently felt in the temporal arteries, which, as we have
faid in N° 164. are fituated a little backwards above
the outer angle of the eye. It may be felt alfo at the
corner of the lower jaw, on each fide of the fetlock
joint, on the infide of the hock, and at the heart.
As much is to be learned from the pulfe, refpedling
the nature of many difeafes, and the degree of danger
which they indicate j we earneftly recommend to our
practical readers, that they take every opportunity of
examining the pulfe of thefe animals, when in a date of
difeafe. We cannot here enter with propriety into an
explanation of the morbid varieties of the pulfe, as it
would be only to repeat what is given in the pathologi¬
cal part of our work, to which we refer our veterinary
readers j as the obfervations there delivered can be
eafily applied to the particular cafes of horfes, cattle,
fheep, and dogs, by keeping in view the natural date of
the pulfe, in each fpecies, as above laid down.
426 There are two general dates of the fydem, that may
take place in all animals, and which are chiefly di-
ftinguiflied by the date of the circulation, &s afcertain-
ed by the pulfe. Thefe are plethora, or fulnefs of habit j
and debility, weaknefs, or inanition. The former is
always attended with a fulnefs, and fometimes a hard-
nefs of the pulfe j while in the latter, the pulfe is weak
and fmall, eafily comprefled or dopt by the finger, and
is fometimes flower, but oflener much more frequent
417 than natural.
Plethora. When an animal has been kept for fome time on a
full nourifhing diet, while he is at the fame time con¬
fined within doors, and deprived of that regular exer-
cife, which is neceffary to carry off fuperfluities, he be¬
comes fat, corpulent, and full of blood, or what we call
plethoric. In this date the veins below the dun, from
their being greatly didended with blood, are very pro¬
minent, excepting in thofe parts where they are bedded
in fat •, the pulfe is, as we have faid, full, and commonly
llrong, but in fome cafes it feels oppreffed, as if the
quantity of blood were too much for the cavity of the
artery. The pulfe in thefe cafes is frequently flower
than natural. The animal becomes dull and fluggidi,
averfe to motion, and if he is obliged to exert bimfelf,
evidently does fo with difficulty, pants, and labours, and
becomes foon fatigued.
This plethoric date is extremely common in horfes
and dogs that are pampered with high living, and little
or no work. A horfe in this date, though he may look
well, is far from being in good condition, and is by
no means fit for active labour. In fa£I, if fuch a horfe
is put to hard work, before he is properly prepared for
it, there is the greated probability that he will be com¬
pletely ruined. Indances occur every day of full fed
idle horfes knocking up, or even dying on the road,
and a long lid of violent difeafes is the confequence of
this plethoric date of body. It lays the foundation of
broken wind, inflammation of the lungs, phrenfy, and
above all of flaggers, or apoplexy. It is no uncommon
thing to fee a fat well-looking horfe, fall down in con-
I E R Y. Part VI,
vulfions, while drawing a heavy load, owing to the de- D;rea&
termination of blood to the head, from lo great an exer- ‘ j
tion, while the veffels are too much didended. Mod
lap"dogs and others who are parlour guefls, commonly
die of apoplexy. A lady of our acquaintance had a
fine fat lapdog, who feldom quitted the cudiion that
formed his bed, befide his miflrefs’s chair, where he
was fed with the nicefl bits from the dinner table.
‘jack had been unufually heavy for a day or two, and
one morning was found lying dead on his cufliion ;
though he had the night before eaten a hearty (upper,
1 o prevent the ill confequences that mud arife from
this plethoric date, thefe animals fliould be regularly
exercifed, and not fuffered to eat too much. Where
the plethora has already taken place, and where no dan- ,
gerous fymptoms threaten the attack of fome violent
diforder, the bed method of bringing the animal into
good condition, is to lower his diet gradually, and as
gradually increafe his exercife or labour j -but where
the fymptoms are fuch, as indicate approaching apo¬
plexy, or fome other dangerous diforders, it will be ne¬
ceffary immediately to bleed and purge, and to take
care tnat the animal be not put to any violent exertion,,
till he be brought into good condition.
. We mufl here remark, that frequent bleeding with a
view to obviate plethora, is extremely improper, as it
tends to produce the very date againd which it is em¬
ployed. Bleeding, therefore, ought not to be had re-
courfe to, except in cafes of imminent danger.
There is a complaint that fometimes appears among Haw4k2J
cattle, when they are fuddenly put on high feeding, hocks.^’^
after having been long accuflomed to a poor and fparing
diet.. It is called by the graziers, Hawkes or Hoch,
and is probably of an inflammatory nature, but as it
feems to depend entirely on a hidden diflention of the
blood vefftls, and is fpeedily relieved by removing
this diflention, it may properly be confidered in this
place.
The complaint is faid to begin with an uneafinefs and1
fwelling about the eyes, and about the glandular parts
of the throat, which extends itfelf gradually over the
whole body, to the legs and joints j and in cows to the
barren and udder. The animal appears languid, dull,
and heavy, and feems unwilling to dir from the place
where he is j and when the difeafe has made fome pro-
grefs, he will not lie down till he is relieved. The legs
become cold and numb, and as the fwelling advances
towards the hind parts, a copious fecretion of faliva com¬
monly takes place from the mouth, attended often with
a fwelling about the tongue. The difeafe is extremely
rapid in its attack and progrefs, and if it be not fpeedily
attended to, it will terminate in flaggers, or fome vio»
lent inflammatory difeafe.
The cure of this affe&ion feems to depend entirely
on bleeding, which fliould be performed as foon as
poffible, taking away a quart or two of blood at firfl,
and repeating the operation fome hours after, if the
fwelling is not diminiflied. It is recommended to rub
the whole body well, both before and after bleeding,,
and if the mouth is much affefted, it will be relieved
by wafliing it frequently with fait and water. If there
is any confiderable heat, it may be proper to give a
drench with nitre every four hours.
Inanition is a date of body dire&ly the oppofite of
what we have defcribed ) and is produced by very dif¬
ferent
Part VT.
rifeafes. fcrent caufes •, from (larvation, hard work, lofs of blood,
y—or violent or long-continued difeafes.
An animal in this Hate is lank and'lean ; its pulfe is
fmall and weak, Ins eyes hollow, his Ikin dry and hide¬
bound, his excrements fmall in quantity, hard, dry, and
difcoloured, his urine thick and turbid ; he takes every
opportunity of grazing by the road fide, pulling at the
hedges, or eating whatever comes in his way ; he be¬
comes mangy; and if this date of debility continues
long, he falls into what is called an atrophy, which com¬
monly proves fatal.
The above defcription is chiefly applicable to thofe
animals, who either from accident or negle£l, are half
ftarved. The date of inanition produced from this
caufe, is frequently feen in horfes belonging to the lower
clafs ; and it is no uncommon thing to fee dogs that
have been turned out of doors, perilhing in the dreets
in this condition. Sheep are alfo often found in a date
of inanition at the end of a hard winter, after having
been left for months to Ihift for themfelves among the
fnow.
On opening the bodies of fuch as have died of hunger,
we find the domach and bowels much contrafted, and
fometimes in the former there will be a fmall quantity
of food, fcarcely madicated and indigeded : Sometimes
both domach and bowels contain balls of earth or other
indigedible matters; the large intedines are exceeding¬
ly diminidied in fize, and commonly contain a quantity
of dry, hardened excrement ; the caul and other mem¬
branes that furround the intedines are much dirunk, and
for the mod part appear completely diveded of fat; the
heart and large blood-vedels are dabby, and filled with
a thin watery blood.
Though inanition is mod frequently the efiFt £1 of darv-
ing, it not unfrequently follows great lofs of blood, or
profufe difcharges from the bladder and intedines. It
alfo not uncommonly attends an obdruftion in the gul¬
let; in which cafe the animal can take little or nothing
by the mouth, and the nouridiment which he can re¬
ceive by clyders is little more than fufdcient to fupport
his exidence. /
Inanition from the lad caufe is the mod bopelef«; for
when it arifes from darving, lofs of blood, or profufe
difcharg es, the animal may, in mod cafes, be brought
* back to good condition, by nourifhing diet and drength-
ening remedies, wnih proper attention to pure air, gen¬
tle exercife when he is able to bear it, and proper diel-
430 ter from the inclemencies of the weather.
Wounds of It is not uncommon, either from injudicioufnefs or
arteries. want of (kill in bleeding, or from accident, for an artery
to be wounded. If the wound be large, or the artery
of any confiderable fize, fo much blood may be poured
out as to deflroy the animal in a fhort time ; but, if the
artery be wounded by a fmall punfture, fuch as may be
made by the point of a lancet pading through a
vein, blood is gradually effufcd, and infinuates itfelf in
the cellular membrane below the Ikin. In this way a
fwelling is formed with an evident pulfation like the
beat of an artery ; and, as this enlarges, the Ikin be¬
comes difcoloured anddidended, fo as fometimes to burd
and occafion death by a fudden lofs of blood. The
fwelling produced by the blood effufed from a wounded
artery has been commonly called a falfe aneurifm, to
diftinguilh it from what we are immediately to mention.
517
The artery that is mod liable to be wounded in bleed- Difeafes.
ing is the external carotid, which runs below the jugular —y—■-»
vein, or fometimes a little to one dde of it. This acci¬
dent will, however, feldom happen, except when a liga¬
ture is ufed; but when this is employed, the jugular vein
is preffed fo clofely on the artery, that the point of the
deam or lancet may eadly penetrate through the vein
into the artery. M. Huzard alleges, that in this way
even the wind pipe may be wounded, together with the
artery, and that the animal may be choked by the ef-
fudon of the blood from the latter into the former.
When an accident of this kind has taken place,
whether from bleeding, from wounds, or from the ero-
don of an artery by the acrid matter of a foul ulcer,
it is neceffary to take fpeedy means for preventing the
ill confequences that may enfue; for, though the wound¬
ed artery be not very large, fuch an effuiion of blood
may take place from it, as may greatly weaken the
animal, if it diould not prove fatal. If the artery is .
very fmall, the bleeding is eafily dopped, either by
applying fuch a degree of predure, as may be fufficient
to obliterate the cavity of the wounded veffel, or, what
is often more convenient, by completely dividing it;
after which the divided ends will contrail: fo much as
to prevent the further effufion of blood. If the wound¬
ed artery be large, it can be fecured with certainty only
by means of ligature. For this purpofe, preffure mult
be made on the artery, between the wounded part and
the heart, while an incidem is made through the Ikin
and mufcles down to the place where the artery has
been wounded, fo that this may eafily be difcevered.
Then a pretty drong thread, doubled and waxed, is to be
paffed round the artery by means of a crooked needle, with
a blunt point, and is then to be tied fad about an inch
above the wounded part. A dmilar ligature is to be fixed
upon the artery at about the fame didance, on the other
fide of the orifice, and the artery is to be cut acrofs between
the two ligatures. Thus, the further effufion of blood
is completely prevented, and the wound may be healed
in the ufual manner. The part that was fupplied with
blood by the wounded artery, will, if the veffel was
pretty large, be colder and lefs fenfible than ufual, but
it will in general be fufficiently fupported by the fmall
branches of other arteries that join with the wounded
Veffels beyond the ligatures ; and thefe branches will
gradually become fo didended as to fupply the place of
the divided artery, and redore the part to its proper
funflions. 341
It fometimes happens, that part of an artery be-J^neur^ra'
comes unufually dilated, forming what is called a true
aneurifm. This dilatation may take place in any of the
arteries, but it is mod common in the aorta or great
artery within the body, and in the external carotid and*
popliteal arteries without. An aneurifm of the external
carotid is often feen in dogs, and fometimes in horfes,
efpecially fuch as are accudomed to draw' heavy weights.
An aneurifm of an external artery is eafily didinguifhed,
by a confiderable pulfation, which may be felt much
more fuperficially than the ordinary beat of the artery,
and is fometimes fo remarkable, that it can be didinftly
feen by the alternate heaving and finking of the Ikin
below which the fwelling is fituated. An aneurifm of
the aorta is not fo eafily didinguilhed in the inferior
animals. The diagnodic marks by which it may be
known.
FA'R'RIEHY.
43*
Wounds of
^eins.
FARR
known in the human body, will be given in the article
Surgery.
Thofe aneurifms are attended with confiderable dan¬
ger, and thofe of internal arteries commonly foon prove
fatal. Aneurifms of external arteries are attended with
a wafting of the bones over which they lie, owing to
the increafed abforption of bony matter produced by the
pulfation of the dilated artery j and thefe fwellings com¬
monly burft in no long time, efpecially if the animal be
expofed to any great labour or exertion.
The treatment of thefe aneurifms is exa&ly fimilarto
that of a wounded artery defcribed above. It confifts
in fecuring the dilated artery, either by preffure on the
fides of the aneurifm next the heart, or by means of two
ligatures, one on each fide of the tumour.
An effufion of blood into the cellular fubftance may
take place from a vein, the orifice of which has not
been properly clofed after bleeding; or it may happen
from the orifice in the vein not exadlly correfponding
to that in the Ikin, fo that the fkin gets over the orifice
in the vein, and prevents the blood from flowing out.
In this latter cafe there is faid to be a thrombus of the
vein.
When fuch an effufion of blood Is obferved, it is
neceffary to dilate the orifice in the fkin, and to take
away the clotted effufed blood from below it. If the
vein does not appear likely to bleed again, it will be
unneceffary to pin it up j but if blood fhould ft ill
flow from it, it will be neceffary to fecure it by a
pin. This, however, fhould not be fuffered to remain
too long, as "it may produce inflammation and ulceration
of the vein. Sometimes it is fo long before the effufion
of blood is obferved, that the fwelling is become confi¬
derable, and is attended with inflammation, or even fup-
puration. Where inflammation is prefent, but has not
proceeded to fuppuration, this latter may in general be
prevented by keeping the part moift (after taking out
the effufed blood), with a folution of fugar of lead in
vinegar and water. If matter is already formed, the
fwelling muft be poulticed, or frequently fomented with
warm liquors,; and when the matter is let out, the fore
mnft be treated as a common ulcer.
Sometimes the infide of a vein that has been opened
in bleeding inflames, fuppurates, and becomes a fiftulous
fore ; and if this be negle&ed, the matter may extend
to fome important organ, as to the head, when the ju¬
gular vein has been opened, and produce death. When
the vein is not very large, or the ulcerated part of it is
inconfiderable, it may commonly be healed by means of
the adtual cautery, or firing, as defcribed in N° 351.;
but if the wound is very large, or the ulceration very
extenfive, it may be proper to fecure the vein by means
of ligatures applied on each fide of the ulcerated part.
VamPr When the enlargement of any part of a vein takes
blood- place, without the vein having been wounded, the fwel-
jjpavin. l'ng is called by medical writers varix, or the vein is
faid to be varicofe. This fwelling feldom takes place
in any of the domeftic animals, except the horfe, in
whom fometimes the fuperfieial vein that paffes over the
infide of the hock fometimes becomes varicofe, and
forms what farriers call a blood-fpavin. The enlarge¬
ment of this particular vein is always accompanied by
bog-fjbavin, or an enlargement of the mucous capfules in
the fame part of the hock, and the former feems to be a
confequence of the latter, being produced by the com-
1 E R Y. Part VI,
predion of the vein, by the fwelling of the mucous cap- ]^reares
fule below it, whence an obftru&ion of the blood, and
a confequent dilatation of the coats of the vein.
When the enlargement of the vein is not confiderable,
it requires no particular attention ; but if it fliould in-
creafe fo far as to be troublefome, methods muft be
taken for its removal. This may be effefled, either by
producing fuch a preffure on the vein as {hall flop the
circulation of the blood in it, or by tying up the vein
with a ligature. In applying preffure, fuch a bandage
ftiould be adopted as may furround the whole hock,
while the greateft preffure is made on the dilated vein.
Mr Blaine recommends for this purpofe a bandage in¬
cluding feveralof thofe elaftic tubes, ladies glove braces
or tops are made of, which would occafion permanent
preffure, and yet permit motion. But, fhould it ftill be
found to refift this, its removal muft be attempted. For
this purpofe, an opening fliould be made above the en¬
largement, and then including the vein within a liga¬
ture, and an opening below likewife, including the vein
alfo at that part ; the enlarged part may then be punc¬
tured, to let out the diftended blood, and the remain¬
der fuffered to flough away *. * Blainc't
Outlines^
Chap. VI. Morbid AffeBions of Refpiration.
vol. ii.
In many complaints, efpecially fevers and inflamma- ...
tions of the internal organs, the breathing becomes hur¬
ried, and infpiration and expiration, but efpecially the
former, are performed more quickly than in the healthy
ftate of the body. This hurried refpiration, in the infe¬
rior animals, is known by the rapid heaving of their
flanks ; and when it is attended with confiderable heat
and drynefs of the flcin, it denotes confiderable danger.
Any particular confideration of this fymptom, will,
however, be more proper, when we come to treat of the
particular cafes in which it occurs.
The principal affe&ions of breathing which we fhall
here notice, are thofe in which refpiration is rendered
difficult, without being attended with fever or inflam¬
mation. Horfes are more liable than other domeftic
animals to difficulty of breathing, and one particular
modification of it, broken wind, is peculiar to this ani-
mal; . 435
There fometimes takes place within the noftrils a Snores, or
gathering of thick clotted matter, which, when it comesfniveis.
to any confiderable height, very much obftrufts refpira¬
tion, and produces a fnivelling noife when the air paffes
through the noftrils. This affe&ion is called thefnorest
or fnivels, and is almoft peculiar to cattle. It is fome¬
times miftaken for a diforder of the throat, where it is
imagined there is fome obftru&ion ; but when this
rattling noife is found to attend the breathing of cattle,
it may generally fie difoovered whether or not it be the
difeafe in queftion, by a careful infpedlion of the noftrils.
The fwelling thus produced in the noftrils generally
goes on to fuppuration, and when it breaks the animal
is relieved. The objeft of our treatment muft therefore
be to haften the fuppuration by the application of warm
ftimulating fomentations or liniments. A very com¬
mon application in thefe cafes is the oil of bays injedled
up into the noftrils ; but perhaps the fleam of warm
water would anfwer every good purpofe, and might be
eafily applied, by putting a warm bran mafh into a
canvafs bag, and tying it to the animal’s head; and this
may
Part VI. FARRIERY. 519
Difeafes. may be repeated till the impo&hume breaks. The ani-
c—-v—' mal (hould in the mean time be kept in a well-lheltered
houfe, and fhould be fed on nourithing diet.
43^ Cough is almoft a conftant attendant on colds, con-
cough.' fumptions, inflammation of the lungs, and other pulmo¬
nary complaints 5 and when g- occurs as a fymptom of
thefe difeafes, no particular attention is to be paid to it,
as our principal objeft is the primary affeftion. It fre¬
quently happens, however, that after the inflammatory
affeftion is removed, an obftinate cough remains; and
if this is attended with no confiderable difficulty of
breathing, and if the horfe eats well, and appears
thriving, the cough alone requires our attention. This
kind of chronic cough is generally more confiderable
in the mornings and evenings, and after eating, and is
generally increafed by any violent exertion.
Chronic coughs, though generally a confequence of
previous inflammation, may arife from a peculiar irritable
llate of the top of the wind-pipe ; and if this be the
cafe, the ufe of fume narcotic fubllance, as opium or
hemlock, may be proper. A very obflinate cough is
often the confequence of preceding inflammation, and is
attended with a peculiar noife, as if the aperture through
which the air came was diminifhed. This kind of noife
is called roaring, and it is found on difleflion that the
wind-pipe is contrafted by a quantity of coagulable
lymph, that has been effufed during the inflammation.
Mr Blaine has feen a preparation where the diameter of
the wind-pipe was reduced to one-third of its original
dimenfions, and it has often firuck him as not improbable
that the grafping the wind-pipe hard, as is fometimes
done to try the wind, may bring on inflammation, and
occafion this affection.
Thefe chronic coughs, efpecially the roarer, fcarcely
admit of a complete cure •, but they may in general be
mitigated, by keeping the animal warm, and by avoid¬
ing violent exertion. The food fhould be fueh as is
eafy of digeflion, and does not produce much diftention
of the flomach. Tar is much recommended in thefe
cafes, efpecially for the cough, or hoofe, that fometimes
occurs in cows. An ounce of tar, with the fame quan¬
tity of vinegar of fquills, and a little oil of anifeed, is to
be given every morning, in a quart or chopin of warm
437 ale-
Brokea One of the moft common defe&s in a horfe’s breath-
wim1, ing is that which is called broken wind; the nature of
which complaint has been of late much elucidated
by Mr Coleman. According to Mr Lawrence, broken
wind is difcovered by the quick and irregular heaving
of the flanks, and a more than ordinary dilatation of the
noftrils; fometimes alfo, by a confumptive appearance of
the body. But the ufual method of trying the foundnefs
of a horfe’s wind, is tocough him; which is performed by
preffing the upper part of the wind-pipe with the finger
and thumb. Theftrong, clear, and full tone of the cough,
prove his wind to be found ; if, on the contrary, the
note be ffiort, whiftling, and bulky, the horfe is afthmatic
and unfound. Horfes labouring under the worll ftage
of this difeafe, are ftyled, in the language of the repofi-
tory, roarers; from the noife they make in work, of
very little of which they are capable. Broken-winded
mares are generally barren, although we have heard of
one which bred a whole team of horfes after fire became
fo. In confirmed broken wind there is fometimes ob-
ferved a palpitation of the cheft, with conftant contrac¬
tion and dilatation, and now and then & confiderable Difeafes.
cavity or depreffion may be perceived. v"’’—
The older writers had many ftrange opinions with
refpeft to the nature of this complaint. Gibfon attri¬
buted it to an enlargement of the contents of the cheft,.
and Dr Lower thought it proceeded from a rupture of
the phrenic nerve. A friend of Bartlet fuppofed the
difeafe to proceed from a morbid or obflru&ed ftate of
the glands and membranes of the head and throat, the
enlargement of which prevented a free paflage to the
wind. According to Mr Ofmer certain glands, which
are placed upon the air-pipe, at its entrance into the
lungs, are become enlarged, and thereby the diameter of
the tube is leffened j hence the received air cannot fo
readily make its efcape, nor refpiration be performed,
with fuch facility as before ; from which quantity of
contained air the lobes of the lungs are always enlar¬
ged, as may be feen by examining the dead carcafes of
broken-winded horfes.
It is now fatisfaflorily afcertained, that the immediate
caufe of broken-wind is a rupture of fome of the air-cells
of the lungs. The caufe that moft commonly produces
fuch a rupture is over diftention of the ftomacb, attend¬
ed with hard and violent exertion. The horfe being an
animal that is always eating, will, when hungry, eat very
voracioufly, if he has an opportunity, and foon fills his
ftomach $ and if, in this ftate, he is exercifed violently,
the circulation and refpiration will be increafed, but the
lungs cannot expand fufficiently, becaufe the diaphragm
cannot defcend from the preffure of the ftomach. In
this cafe, the circulation being hurried, the lungs do
not undergo the neceffary change, in conlequence of
their, now being comprefled. The animal then, en¬
deavouring to take in more air, either actually occafions
the cell to be ruptured, or fomething elfe to give way.
If the cells are ruptured, the air efcapes from them into
the cellular membrane of the lungs, and there acts as
foreign matter, or, at leaft, it cannot then produce the
neceifary change on the blood, when thus diffufed ; in
confequence, difficulty of breathing arifes from two
caufes : ift, From the blood palling through the lungs
before it has undergone its neceffary alteration ; and,
2dly, from the rupture of the air-veffels. The refpira¬
tion is rendered flow, as is feen by the flanks being long
in riling up, becaufe there is no diredt communication
with the bronchia, as in the healthy ftate of the lungs
infpiration is, however, in a third of the time of expira¬
tion, which is feen by the fudden defcent of the Hank.
The lungs, from containing more air, are fpecifically
lighter than in the healthy ftate.
This local difeafe does not admit of a permanent cure,
at leaft no medicine has yet had any fuch effedt ; but a
temporary relief may be obtained, as we Ihall fee here¬
after. But we muft not omit to mention here a moft
ridiculous pradlice which has fometimes been tried by
common farriers, that of making an orifice above the
redlum, and then introducing a machine fimilar to a
mulical inftrument called a flageolet, with the idea of
evacuating the fuperfluous air. or wind, which they fup-
pofe to have produced the difeafe.
Bliftering the wind-pipe, towelling the cheft, and a
fmall purgative of aloes and calomel now and then, have
often produced a good effedl.
A pound or two of {hot has been ftrongly recommend¬
ed to Mr Coleman, as a fpecificj but, upon trial, it has
been
F A R R I E R Y.
.433
Thick
wind.
been found to have no obvious effect: it was thought
that the (hot would a£t by its fpecific gravity inclining
•the llomach further back into the cavity of the abdo¬
men.
I he treatment muff be nearly confined to diet and
exercife j the animal fliould have little hay, and water
in particular muff be adminiftered with a very fparing
hand. Thefe fubftances which afford moft nourifhment
in the lead; compafs, as carrots, corn, fplit beans, &c.
fliould be given ; the horfe fhould always be worked
upon an empty ilomach j and, upon the whole, his diet
fhould be fmall in quantity, but nourifhing. By ob-
ferving this method, a broken-winded horfe may do a
* Feroti's great deal of work, and be ufeful to the owner *.
turnery. According to Mr Blaine, internal medicines have
fometimes been found ufeful in this complaint. Lime-
water has been employed with advantage ; and the ufe
of tar is much recommended. Mr Blaine prefcribes a
mixture compofed of two gallons of lime-water, four
pounds of tar, and an ounce of frefii bruifed fquill*, or
garlic,, of which an Englifh pint (or mutchkin) is to be
adminiftered every morning.
A complaint fimilar to the foregoing often occurs in
the horfe, and is called thick wind. It proceeds from
a very different caufe, being always the caufe of previous
inflammation, during which coagulable lymph has been
effufed, as in the roarer. Thick wind may be diflin-
guifhed from broken-wind, by the infpirations and ex¬
pirations being equal in the former j while in the
latter the refpiration is not fo frequent, and the principal
difficulty confifts in expiration, which is of courfe per¬
formed in longer time than infpiration.
Little can be done towards a cure of this complaint.
We may prevent the difeafe by good management in the
adminiftration of the aliments, exercife, &c. Calomel
has been employed to produce abforption, but without
any great effed ; a rowel under the jaw, and frequent
applications of blifters on the wind-pipe, are the only
methods capable of producing abforption of the lymph.
Half a drachm of the digitalis, or fox-glove, in powder,
twice a day, makes an admirable remedy in this, and
local difeafes of the lungs.
439 The breathing may be completely obftru&ed, either
by. the want of a regular fupply of frelh air, or by the
animals being obliged to breathe fuch kinds of air, as
are unfit for refpiration. The confequence of this im¬
peded breathing, is a fufpenfion of the vital powers,
or, if the obftru&ion continues long, death will fome¬
times be produced. As fufpended animation is always
attended with more or lefs of an apopledtic ftate, we
lhall defer the confideration of thofe cafes till we come
to treat of comatous difeafes.
Chap. VII. Morbid JjffeBions of Secretion and
Excretion.
440 The fluids that are fecreted or feparated from the
general mafs of blood, by means of the organs called
glands, are in fome cafes fecreted in an unufual quan¬
tity j in others their fecretion is leffened, or their ex¬
cretion or paffage out of the body is obftru&ed. Thus
in colds of the head, as they are called, in glanders,
and in fome other affe&ions, an unufual running takes
lace from the nofe j in inflammation of the eyes the
fecretion of tears is generally increafed, fometimes di-
3
Part Vi.
miniftied, while it fometimes happens that their paffage D:f
from. the lachrymal gland out of the eye is obftruaed.
Again, the fecreted fluids may undergo various changes
in their colour, fluidity, and compofition. Thus the
urine is fometimes yellow, at others red, or blackifli ;
it is fometimes extremely watery, at others very thick
and muddy, and in one particular difeafe, the diabetes,
it feems to lofe altogether the properties of urine, and
appears like a folution of fugar, or honey.
In the prefent chapter, we {hall confider the morbid
affeftions of the bile, and of tfie urine. We {hall alfo
make fome obfervations on coftivenefs and purging.
The principal morbid affe&ion of the biliary fyf-T 4tl
tem that takes place in the inferior animals, is the yellows.6 ^
obftrudlion to the paffage of the bile, from the liver'
into the bowels, producing the difeafe called jaundice-m
the human body, and commonly known to farriers and
cattle-doflors, by the name of the yellows.
Ihis difeafe feldom takes place in the horfe, for as it
is almofl. always the confequence of biliary concretions
or.gall-ftones formed within the gall bladder, and as
this animal has no gall bladder, the difeafe in queftion
can feldom take place. It may however happen that
an obftrutffion may take place in the common du61 or
pipe, that conveys the bile from the liver, either from
concretions formed in the du£l, from a fpafmodic con-
tradlion of the du£t, or from a fchirrous or hardened
ftate of the liver. The difeafe is however fufficiently
common in cattle and ftieep *, and a defeription of the
fymptoms that mark the complaint in thefe animals
will almoft equally apply to the difeafe when it may
take place in horfes. According to Mr Denny, young
horfes are very fubjefl to a variety of jaundice.
Its firft vifible fign is a yellowilh tinge in the white
part of the eyes, mouth, and tongue j the mucus and
faliva, from the noftrils and mouth, are of a greenifti
hue, bordering a little upon the yellow. The beaft is
dull, and heavy, loathing all kinds of food, eating no
more than a bare fufficiency for the fupport of nature j
the {kin is dry and itchy, efpecially behind the Ihoul-
ders, where it can fcarcely bear the touch. Thebeafts
have an utter averfion to exercife, or ftirring from the
place where they are, and if removed with the leaft de¬
gree of precipitation, will break into a cold fweat.
Their urine is of a deeper yellow than ufual, which
has fometimes led to believe it was red water, or bloody
urine. The dung undergoes a very confiderable alter¬
ation in all ft ages of the difeafe, and its general co¬
lour is blueifti or brown, and much refembling burnt
clay ; but it varies in colour, according to the fubjed,
or different circumftances and feafons. If the difeafe
continues long, the beaft gradually pines away, and at
laft dies of a decline.
It is faid that horfes have fometimes died of jaundice,
in two or three days; and in thefe violent cafes a black
fanious difeharge has taken place from the mouth and
noftrils a little before death. This is called by farriers
the black jaundice, and after death the liver is found
totally decayed. Mr Lawrence fays that he has re¬
peatedly feen cafes of this kind. Gibfon fpeaks of an
inflammatory fpecies ofjaundice, attended with delirium
and madnefs ; but this was probably a violent inflam¬
mation of the liver.
We have faid that the immediate caufe of this dif-
<?afe is an obftruflion of the gall pipe, commonly owing
to
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes. to the formation of gall-ftones. The formation of
~Y“—' thefe concretions is moft likely to take place, when the
animals are deprived of their regular exercife, and are
at the fame time allowed too full a diet, or are given
food of an improper quality. It is faid to be very com¬
mon in fome of the cold provinces on the continent,
where the cattle are ftall-fed during the winter 5 after
which the moll of them are attacked with it in the
fpring. It may fometimes be brought on by hard la¬
bour and poor living ; but then it probably depends on
a difeafed (late of the liver.
In the treatment of jaundice, our chief reliance is
to be placed on the ufe of purgative medicines; and of
thefe rhubarb, calomel, and aloes, feem to be the moft
proper; and during their exhibition, gentle exercife
Ihould be employed. Mr Denny fays that much re¬
lief is often afforded in the jaundice of young horfes,
by giving a ball compofed of an ounce of aloes, half
an ounce of Venetian foap, and a drachm of calomel ;
every fecond or third night, and giving on the inter¬
vening mornings a ball of half an ounce of nitre, with the
fame quantity of powdered rofin, and of common foap.
Maflies and warm water are to be given plentifully,
and the horfe muft be kept warm by clothing, and ful¬
ly exercifed.
In cattle, a vomit of emetic tartar may be tried at
the firft appearance of the difeafe, as the effort of vo¬
miting may affift in promoting the paffage of the gall-
ftone. If, however, the difeafe Ihould arife in confe-
quence of previous inflammation of the liver, vomits
will be of no ufe, and the beft remedies will be mer¬
curial purgatives with foap. The food fhould confift
of fucculent and watery fubftances, efpecially of freih
grafs ; as it is found that when cattle affeifted with this
difeafe are fent to pafture they commonly foon recover.
Warm mafties of bran or malt ftiould be given frequently,
both to obviate coftivenefs, and as being good articles
of diet. If the difeafe fhould continue obftinate, and
the ufe of mercurial medicines fhould be found necef-
fary, the animal muft be confined within doors, during
night and bad weather; and a horfe Ihould during the
exhibition of the medicines be covered with a Angle
cloth. It will be proper, whenever the weather and
other circumftances permit, to give the animal regular
exercife in the open air ; but if neeeflity obliges us to
keep him within doors, the whole body, but efpecially
the belly, fhould be well rubbed for a confiderable time,
twice or thrice a-day. This friflion will be proper,
even though regular exercife can be taken in the open
air.
Horfes, and fometimes cattle, are fubjeft to a profufe
difcharge of urine ; but as the complaint of which this
is a principal fymptom, feems not to be feated in the
urinary organs, we {hall not confider it here, but {hall
treat of it among the general and more important dif¬
eafes.
It often happens that there is an inability in thefe
animals to retain their urine for any length of time ;
they are either obliged to void it very frequently, and
in fmall quantities, or, what is more frequent, it drops
away imperceptibly and involuntarily, forming the com¬
plaint called incontinence of urine. This complaint
differs from diabetes, or profufe ftaling, in the urine
coming away by drops, or in very fmall quantities at a
Vol. VIII. Part II.
442
Inconti¬
nence of
urine.
444
I E R Y.
time, whereas in diabetes it paffes off in a full and co¬
pious ftream.
Incontinence of urine is extremely common to dogs,
and often arifes in thefe animals from exceflive venery,
or from the violent efforts which they are fometimes,
by the brutality of byftanders, obliged to make to fe-
parate themfelves from the females. It is alfo not un¬
commonly owing to the prefence of a ftone in the blad¬
der. M. Barruel, profeffor of the veterinary fchool
of Alfort, had a little Spanifh bitch, not above five
inches high, and about feven years old, who was troubled
with an incontinence of urine, unaccompanied by any
other fymptom ; fhe was fprightly and well, and was in
good condition. Not knowing to what to attribute the
complaint, M. Barruel tried a number of remedies,
fuch as warm bathing and clyfters of various kinds,
but without effedft ; at laft he killed the bitch, and
found in her bladder a ftone that weighed an ounce
and 40 grains, a very confiderable bulk, if we advert
to the fmall fize of the animal.
This complaint is lefs common in the horfe, but it
may arife in any of thefe animals from a paralytic
affedlion of the fphinfter mufcle at the neck of the blad¬
der; which is fometimes the confequence of the bladder’s
being unufually diftended with urine. When there is
reafon to fuppofe that it is owing to this caufe, the beft
remedy is a blifter applied above the pubis, or the fre¬
quent application of ftimulating liniments to the fame
part.
A difficulty of making water, or even an entire fup-Suppreffioat
preffion of urine, is a very common difeafe among horfes, of urine,
and frequently occurs in fheep. The fymptoms accom¬
panying this affeiftion, differ fomewhat according to the
caufes which have produced it; we fhall therefore confi¬
der it under feveral heads. I. One of the moft
mon caufes of a fuppreffion of urine, is fuffering the ani-over diften
mal to travel for a long time without flopping him totion of the
allow him to ftale ; a circumftance which is often ne-b^a^er*
glefted by thoughtlefs people, while on a journey.
From the urine being fo long retained, the bladder be¬
comes exceffively diftended; confiderable irritation takes
place, and when the diftention has proceeded to a great
height, the animal, though conftantly ftimulated to re¬
lieve nature, is not able to effeft his purpofe, owing to
a paralytic affe&ion that has taken place in the mufcu-
lar coat of the body of the bladder, attended probably
with a fpafmodic contraction of the fphin&er. If the
animal be not foon relieved, a confiderable fwelling ap¬
pears above the pubis, accompanied with great uneafi-
nefs; the urine becomes abforbed, and is carried through
the circulation to various parts of the body, producing
an itching of the fkin, and generally, in no long time,
apoplexy and death.
Sometimes, however, before any confiderable abforp-
tion can take, place, the bladder either becomes inflam¬
ed, or burfts, and difcharges its contents into the belly,
producing there inflammation and mortification. 446
This complaint is, as we have faid, very common Watery
among fheep, conftituting an affeClion which in Scot-braxy*
land is called the ’Watery braxy. It is faid that young
and vigorous fheep are moft liable to it; and according
to the writers of the ingenious appendix to Mr Findla-
ter’s furvey, the immediate caufe of the difeafe, is feed¬
ing too freely on fucculent diuretic food, and refting too
3 U long
$22
FARE.
Difeafes. long In their laires in the morning. It has been fre-
w r v ' quently obferved, that this fpecies of braxy is moft apt
to make its attacks upon Sundays, becaufe fhepherds ge¬
nerally fleep longer on Sunday mornings than other days
of the week, and, of courfe, allow the (beep to remain
too long in their laires. This difeafe may be prevent¬
ed by avoiding too free a ufe of fucculent diuretic
food, and by moving the animals from their laires
early in the morning, making them walk about for
fame time, in order to encourage them to pafs their
urine and purl.
In attempting to effefl a cure, it may be. known
■whether the bladder is affedted, by a great fulnefs in
the lower part of the belly, immediately above the pu¬
bis. The feat of the diftemper being afcertained, a fe¬
male filver catheter, or one of elaftic gum, ought in-
flantly to be palled through the urethra into the blad¬
der of females. This will draw off the urine, and give
immediate relief. But this will be attended with
greater difficulty in males ; and if attempted, muft be
done with a long and properly bent catheter or bougie.
In either cafe, when this cannot be accompliflied, a
pundlure may be made into the bladder with a trocar,
diredlly above the pubis ; taking care not to wound the
inteftines. By either of thefe methods, the urine may
be difcharged, and the animal relieved. In other re-
fpedts, with a view to allay or prevent inflammation,
evacuations fhould be procured by clyfters and warm
injections into the great gut.
2. In the cafe which we have been confidering, the
urine, though fecreted as ufual, could not be difehar-
ged ; but a fuppreffion of urine fometimes takes place
from the fecretion not going on as ufual, owing to fome
affedtion of the kidneys, commonly an inflammation of
thofe organs. We can fcarcely with propriety confider
this cafe here, but fhall treat of it among the other in¬
flammations in the fecond chapter of the next fedtion.
3. Another caufe that may produce a fuppreffion of
urine, or a difficulty in ftaling, is a ftone in the bladder,
or gravelly concretions paffing from the kidneys through
the ureters or urinary pipes. We have juft feen that a
ftone is fometimes found in the bladder of dogs ; but
doubts have arifen, whether this could take place in the
horfe. Examples of it are no doubt very rare, but we
have fufficient proof that it may take place. Mr Clark
of Edinburgh mentions that he has feveral ftones taken
out of different horfes j and it is faid that Dr Mead had
in his cabinet one that weighed 11 ounces. M. Huz-
ard gives an account of a diffedtion that he made of
a horfe that died of a fuppreffion of urine, in whom the
following appearances were obferved. The bladder
contained a confiderable quantity of red and bloody
urine. Its internal membrane was thickened, efpecially
at its lower part 5 and it was alfo inflamed and gangren¬
ous in feveral points. The ureter contained at about its
middle, a fragment of a ftone that entirely blocked up
the paffage of the urine, and had no doubt been the
caufe of this fuppreffion. The ftone was imbedded in
a cavernous body like the kernel of a fruit. Within the
bladder there "was alfo a Jlone about the fvze of a large
pullet'1 s egg, broken into two portions.
If we confider that fymptoms of gravel are by no
means uncommon in the horfe, that gravel is often
found in his urine, and that calculous concretions have
been frequently obferved in his kidneys, we ftiall eafily
r 44-7
r rom in
flamma-
tion.
448
Stone.
I E R Y. part vi.
fee that thefe cafes are not fo extraordinary as fome may Difeafes
imagine. There is no doubt, however, that cafes of a ■ v —1
ftone in the bladder cannot fo frequently happen in
quadrupeds, from their horizontal pofition, which pre¬
vents the ftone from paffing from the kidney into the
bladder fo readily as in the human fubjeft. Hence the
kidneys have often been found to contain ftones of a
confiderable fize, without the horfe having been during
life affe&ed with fymptoms of calculus.
When concretions form in the kidneys, they gene¬
rally produce a great degree of irritation, and confc-
quent inflammation j but if a horfe is affe&ed with a
luppreffion of urine, there is reafon to fuppofe that a
ftone is lodged in the bladder. The certainty of this
having taken place may be very readily afcertained, by
introducing the hand within the redum, as the ftone
will, for the moft part, be felt below the finger.
It is not probable that internal remedies can have
any effeft in cafes of calculus in the horfe. In the be¬
ginning of the complaint, when the fymptoms are very
flight, diuretic medicines may be tried, and will per¬
haps bring away the fmall fandy particles ; but if a
ftone of any confiderable fize be lodged in the kidneys,
the cafe is incurable. If the ftone has got into the blad¬
der, it may be extra£led by making a cut into the
bladder above the pubis, and taking out the ftone by
means of forceps, fuch as are employed by furgeons m
the operation for the ftone. In the mean time the ani¬
mal may be relieved, by drawing off the urine from
time to time by means of a catheter, which is eafily ufed.
in the mare, and by preventing coftivenefs. Too much
labour or over exertion fhould alfo be avoided, and the
animal ftunfld live chiefly on fucculent food.
4. A fuppreffion of urine may arife from an obftruc-0bp4^;{m
tion in or about the neck of the bladder. A curious at the necfc
cafe of this kind occurred to M. Huzard, and he hasofthebkd-
related the appearances on diffe&ion, which were as'5®1''
follows.
There was at the bafe of the fpermatic arteries, on
the right fide, a glandulous body about the bigneis of
one’s fift, through which oozed a lymphatic fluid, that
was whitifh and thick, in fome places appearing like
pus. The bladder was enormoufly diftended with urine,
and extended into the belly beyond its ufual limits ; it
was inflamed and thickened 5 the urine was nearly in
its natural ftate. The neck of the bladder was filled
with varicofe excrefcences, that completely obftrufled
the paffage. Thefe excrefcences were red, and fo hard
as to refift the knife j they contained each a fmall par¬
ticle of hardened blood, in which two parts were dif-
tinguiftiable. The bottom of the bladder was very
black, and its furface of a reddifti yellow j the whole of
the urethra was red and inflamed.
It will be pretty evident, that, fliould a cafe like this _B]0(4jy
occur, it is incurable. It fometimes happens that the urine, or
urine appears unufually red, as if bloody. This affec-red water,
tion may take place in any of thefe animals, and it is
called bloody urine, pifftng of blood, or red water. It is
moft common among cattle. It may arife from falls
or bruifes, from overftraining at hard work, as in horfes
from a hard-run heat in racing, or after any violent ex¬
ertion, fuch as a defperate leap ; or it may proceed from
inflammation of the kidneys.
When it takes place in cattle, the animals are affetff-
ed with an almoft inceffant defire to ftalej fometimes
they
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes they make butlittle water at once ; fometimes the urine
u . i comes away in its ufual quantity. In this latter cafe, if
the urine be deeply tinged, it is confidered as a very
dangerous fymptom, and when it happens, the beads
leave the herd, and appear to feel confiderable pain j
they hold up their tail, and fometimes hold their back
higher than common. In faft, thefe fymptoms, which
do not feem well underflood by the cattle doftors, indi¬
cate an inflammation of the kidneys.
When this difeafe is occafloned by drains, bruifes, or
any violent exertion, there is reafon to fear that inflam¬
mation may take place. This muft therefore be guard¬
ed againft by bleeding, cooling drinks, and fucculent
food ; by avoiding exercife and every thing that can
heat or irritate. It is a common cuftom to give nitre
and other faline fubftanees in thefe cafes ; but when
there is any inflammatory affeftion in the kidneys, thefe
falls are improper, as they tend to increafe the irritation
of thefe organs. The bed drinks in fuch cafes will
therefore be thin gruel, linfeed-tea, or bran-water.
Cattle are faid to be mod fubjeft to the red water in
the fpring, or fummer, while at grafs; and it is fuppofed
to be produced fometimes by fudden changes of the
weather, by want of water, or the ufe of fuch as is un-
wholefome. Young cattle are more fubje£f to it than
thofe of more advanced age} hence particular attention
fliould be paid to thefe young animals ■, as when the
affedlion has once taken place, it is confidered as highly
dangerous. Thefe are the opinions of cattle doctors,
and we fuppofe they refer chiefly to inflammation of the
kidneys, of which bloody urine is, as we have faid, a
prevalent fymptom. This formidable difeafe will be
confidered more at large hereafter.
It appears that when cattle are lent from Europe to
the Wed Indies, the bulls when fird put on fliore are
extremely liable to this complaint, which often proves
fatal. It is attributed to the eager defire which thefe
animals, after having been fo long confined to a dry
diet on board, have for green fucculent food, in which
they will of courfe indulge to excefs the fird opportu¬
nity. The remedies found mod effeflual are bleeding,
and the adminidering of nitre and purging falls } but
it might probably be prevented by houfing the cattle
immediately after they are brought on Ihore, and ac-
451 cudoming them gradually to their change of diet.
Black wa- Sometimes the colour of the urine in Iheep and cattle
ter’ is nearly black, and they are then faid to labour under
the black water. This affe&ion is not well underdood,
but it is probably a variety of the lad. It is faid to be
produced by feeding on cold, wet land, and that Ample
removal of the cattle to a more favourable fituation will
often effect a cure. Mr Lawrence confiders the black
water as a fymptom of incipient mortification of the kid¬
neys, and commends bleeding, (unlefs in a cow), cor¬
dials and tonics, fuch as iron filings, with bark, opium,
nitre, in drong beer, if the progrefs of mortification
be apprehended, We may remark, that, if mortifica¬
tion of the kidneys has taken place, which may in ge¬
neral be known by the dinking fmell of the urine j all
thefe remedies could produce no edefl } and it would
be much better to kill the animal at once, than be at
the expence of time, labour, and medicines, in attempt-
45* *° effe& a hopelefs cure.
Scouring or A fcouring or purging is a very common difeafe in
purging in aq our domedic animals: and in fome of them it is very
torus.
I E R Y.
523
dangerous, and very difficult to cure. The complaint
is fomewhat different in the feveral fpecies, fo as to re¬
quire a particular defcription in each. Some horfes are
liable to be affe&ed with a purging from the llighted
caufes, and on every exertion. Thefe horfes are called
by grooms wajhy horfes, and they are faid to have nar¬
rower chells and lanker bellies than others } and it is
to this unufual deformity that the purging is generally
attributed. Some horfes are faid to labour under a ner¬
vous diarrhoea } thofe that are chiefly fubjeft to it are
young, and of a weak and irritable habit. The com¬
plaint generally appears on them only when at work ;
and when they are fuffered to remain idle, their bowels
are fufficiently healthy. Mr Lawrence had a favourite
young horfe that was fubjeft to this nervous fcouring,
and on whom he tried a variety of medicines to no pur-
pofe, as it was found that nothing but idlenefs could ar-
reft the complaint. To ufe Mr Lawrence’s words, “ the
nag whilft at play, was always fat as bacon, and very
firm in body 5 but a week’s work reduced his flefli, and
caufed him to dung like a cow.” Horfes of this deli¬
cate conftitution require great care and attention, or
they will not be of much ufe to the owner. They
fliould have ftrong nouriffiment, but it fliould be given
in fmall quantities at a time. Mr Lawrence recom¬
mends good old beans mixed with their oats, lucerne,
or ffrong upland hay, with rice maflies, carrots, and oc~
cafional runs of grafs,
A purging may be brought on in horfes by a fudden
change of diet, as from hay to grafs, or from grafs to
hay. Hence, in fuch horfes as are liable to diforders of
the bowels, thefe changes ftiould always be made very
gradually. It is very commonly the effeft of expofure
to cold while the body is heated, and is one of the leaft
dangerous afleflions arifing from that caufe. A purg¬
ing may alfo be owing to irritating fubftances, fuch as
crude, unwholefome, or undigefted food remaining in
the bowels; and in thefe cafes it is often attended with
pain, from the formation of an acid in the bowels.
A purging in horfes is feldom dangerous, except
when it arifes to a great height, or continues very long,
fo as to produce d great wafte of flefli, or very confider¬
able weaknefs.
In general it is fufficient, in order to carry oft a
purging in horfes, to avoid the caufes which have pro¬
duced it, where thefe can be afcertained } to wafti away
irritating fubftances from the bowels, by giving plenti¬
fully of diluting liquors, fuch as water gruel and lin-
feed tea, or gradually to change the diet, if the purging
feems to have arifen from improper feeding. If, how¬
ever, the difeafe fliould continue obftinate, or be attend¬
ed with unpleafant fymptoms, means muft be taken for
checking or removing it. Some caution is requifite as
to the plan of treatment to be adopted ; as, if the com¬
plaint be checked too fuddenly, fome other dangerous
affedHon might be produced. Veterinary writers differ
confiderably with refpedl to the treatment of diarrhoea
in horfes; feme recommending gentle laxatives, as rhu¬
barb, which Mr Lawrenceconlidersas the llieetanchor in
thefe cafes; whilft: others as ftrenuoufly advife againft:
the ufe of purgatives, and recommend opium and aftrin-
gents. Probably in moft cafes there is little need of
laxatives, and after plentiful diluting, one of the befl
remedies will be cly tiers of ftarch or water gruel, with
a fmall quantity of laudanum. If there is acidity in the
3 U 2 ftoraach
DitVafe?.
524 FARR
' Pi.cafes, ftomach and bowels, prepared chalk or lime water may
*,_V" be given with advantage; and if there is conhderabie
weaknefs, the ftrengthening aftringent medicines may,
in the latter ftages, be ufed without helitation. We
agree with Mr Blaine, that thefe are lefs proper at the
commencement of the difeafe.
In canie. ca^^e this complaint is fometimes very ferious,
and farmers not unfrequently lofe feveral of thefe ani¬
mals by it in a feafon. This has induced them to call
it the Jcouring rot. When the purging has continued
long, it produces in thefe animals a general weaknefs
and lofs of fleih. 1 heir Ikin fometimes hangs loofe
about the body ; in other cafes they appear hide-bound j
their hair turns fandy, or of a grayilh colour j their eyes
grow pale ; the pulfe becomes weak and irregular \ their
excrements thin and (limy, and frequently change co¬
lour, efpecially in the early ftages of the difeafe } but
when the complaint is pretty far advanced, the dung
appears like half-chewed food } and in fa£l, in thefe
cafes the food appears to pafs through the bowels with¬
out undergoing the digeftive procefs. It is faid that
when the animals have been long affedled with this
fcouring rot, they feel a great degree of diftrefs and
pain, when grafped on each fide of the back-bone, juft
behind the fhoulders } and this is confidtred as a lure
mark that the beaft has become tainted or unfound,
from the fcouring rot.
This complaint in cattle may arife from moft of the
caufes that have been ftated to produce it in the horfe j
but it is confidered as being moft commonly owing to
their being overheated in driving, and to want of fufti-
cient nourifhment, either with refpecl to quantity or qua¬
lity. It may be produced in cows, by their being con-
ftantly and too frequently milked, while they are de¬
prived of proper nourifhment $ and it is not uncommon¬
ly produced by lodging on wet ground in autumn, and
feeding on a coarfe, unwholefome fog.
In the treatment of this complaint in cattle, a num¬
ber of ftrange remedies have been employed, fuch as
hogs dung, turpentine and butter-milk ; dock root boil¬
ed in fait and w’ater, and nettle root boiled in forge
water. Among the mod fenfible receipts that we have
feen, is one in Bowlin’s Cow-doff or, cnmpofed of three
ounces of bole armoniac, with two ounces of bay berries,
and the fame quantity of alum, of fhavings of ivory, and
powdered comfrey root, boiled in two quarts of fkim-
med milk, adding while boiling a handful of ftarch.
1 his is to be given for a dofe, for which, however, it is
perhaps rather too ftrong. Mr Lawrence recommends
that, on the firft appearance of the fr.ouring, the cattle
fhould be taken to the home fold, and put on dry food,
which will generally fuperfede the neceffity of medicine.
Hie remedy which Mr Blaine feems chiefly to rely on,
is a decoffion of an ounce of ipecacuanha, a drachm
and a half of nux vomica, half an ounce of galls, two
drachms of alum, and 20 grains of white vitriol, in a
quart of water boiled to a pint. Perhaps this decoftion
is rather too complex, and fome of its ingredients may
be fpared. 1 he receipt, N° 30. is well fuited to thefe
cafes. It may befuppofed that where thefcouring has con¬
tinued for any confiderable time, the bowels are become
extremely fore and tender. In this cafe, mucilaginous or
oily fubftances would be of advantage, and they fliould be
given frequently, both by the mouth and by way of
tlyfter, Mr Lawrence recommends a pound of frefh
1 E R y. Part VL
mutton fuel boiled in 3 quarts of milk until the fuel is DT
dilfolved, to form a drink to be given warm. This, we
doubt not, will anfwer extremely well. If the difeafe
fhould go to an alarming height, ftarch clyfters with
laudanum may be given as a laft refource. Mr Blaine
remarks, that in thefe cafes, he fhould be difpofed to
try animal food altogether j giving broth to drink, or
the blood of other animals, with meat balls forced down
the throat; as he thinks it not improbable that thus
a change might be effedled in the conflitution, which
might pave the way to a cure.
X)r Dickfon thinks that much advantage may be de¬
rived in thefe cafes, from a ftrong decodtion of hartfhorn
fhavings and caflia, with powdered chalk, in the pro¬
portion of half a pound of chalk, four ounces of fhav-
ings, and an ounce of caflia, to be boiled together
in two quarts (chopins) of water to three pints, (mutch-
kins), adding the caflia towards the clofe of the boiling.
A hornful of this mixture is to be given feveral times
in the day, fhaking it well every time.
Calves, when firft weaned, are fubjedl to a fpecies ofInG^
purging which fometimes proves extremely obftinate . n ca ves‘
and it is faid that the principal reafon of the calf-feed¬
ers giving them chalk to lick, is to prevent this purg¬
ing. It appears that this difeafe will take place in
calves, when they are fed on the milk of fome particu¬
lar cows 5 and that when the milk is changed the com¬
plaint goes off. The purging may in general be check¬
ed by boiling ftarch and bean flour in their milk j and
if it ftill continues obftinate, a little ginger and lauda¬
num may be added.
This difeafe is extremely incident to young lambs, . 455 .
and it is called by the fhepherds pinning, becaufe when **
the purging has continued for any time, there flows fromlam S‘
the fundament a glutinous matter that fallens or pins
down the tail to the hips, and prevents any farther eva¬
cuation. When this is obferved by the fhepherds, they
commonly feize the lamb, and after wafhing away the
glutinous matter from the tad, fo as to dilengage it from
the hips, they rub the parts with fine earth, or other
fine powdery matter, to prevent their {ticking in future.
Something of this kind is very proper, but hogs lard, or
any other greafy fubftance, would anfyver the purpofe
much better. The difeafe is faid to be produced by
wet and cold in fpring, together with the ewes eating
too greedily of foft moifl grafs. It may be prevented
or cured, by removing the flock to healthy or poorer
pailures, that abound with aftringent or aromatic
plants.
Mr Findlater remarks that among lambs fed with
their dams, upon the rich improved pafture of Lothian
parks, pinning never occurs $ whence it is probable
that it originates from milk concofted from poorer
pafture, which gives more curd than cream to the milk,
rendering the excrements of the lamb more vifeid.
When the mothers have little milk, the lambs are very
rarelj pinned. Pinning is therefore confidered as a fa¬
vourable fymptom of the lamb’s being well nurfed. It
is not confidertd as a difeafe in Tweeddalej though, if
not redrelfed, it would be productive of difeafe. It is
confidered as an accident to be guarded againft, and
which, like other accidents to which fheep are liable,
requires the ftiepherd to be conftantly walking through
his flock. No Tweeddale farmer would, on this account,
remove his ewes and lambs to poorer failure, where the
lambs
Part VI. ' . F A R R
Difeafes lambs would be worfe nurfed j as he knows, that if the
 > pinned lamb is timeoufly noticed, and relieved by pull-
45<> ^ the tail, all danger is removed.
In dogs, Dogs are alfo very fubjedl to this complaint, and it
may be brought on in thefe animals by any of the
caufes which we have mentioned as producing it in the
other fpecies. In young dogs it is often the effe6t of
worms, and in this cafe the ftools are (limy, greenifh,
and fometimes bloody. Common loofenefs in dogs may
be removed by much the fame remedies as in other ani¬
mals, as by ipecacuanha, opium, with ftaich, or arrow
root clyflers, and prepared chalk, if there is any acidity
in the bowels ; but where it proceeds from worms, it
cannot be effe61ually removed till they are expelled.
Purging mull be carefully diftinguilhed from dyfen-
tery, or what is called bloody flux in the human fpecies,
and brake-fhaw in fheep, as in this latter there are
fymptoms of inflammation, and commonly more or lefs
of fever. The diftinguilhing marks of this difeafe will
be confidered hereafter, as we cannot properly treat of
457 it in this place.
Coftivenefs Coftivenefs, or binding of the belly, occurs occafion-
ally in all thefe animals $ but it chiefly calls for atten¬
tion in the horfe, as in him it is more frequent and more
dangerous. It arifes for the moft part from want of
exercife, when the horfe is kept upon hard dry food, as
oats or beans. It is a conftant fymptom of colic and
of inflammation in the bowels, and the continuance of it
always aggravates thefe complaints, and feldom fails to
produce them where they were not before prefent.
It is bell prevented by occafional change of diet $ by
giving the horfe barley boiled, or green food now and
then, where he cannot be frequently fent to pafture j
and every night or two allowing him a malli of bran,
or, if he is of a very coftive habit, of malt. Regular
exercife and good drefling, efpecially friction on the
belly fome time after feeding, are alfo good preventives.
If it Ihould arife to any confiderable height, the bowels
mull be emptied by back-raking, and the adminiilra-
tion of foftening, laxative clyfters, which may be repeat¬
ed every three or four hours till the bowels become fuf-
ficiently regular. Purges given by the mouth, though
they may, after fome hours, remove the cnftivenefs,
feldom fail to do more harm than good ; efpecially if the
complaint has continued long, and there is confiderable
heat of the body, fulnefs of the pulfe, pain in the
bowels, or great irritation. In thefe cafes, while the
bowels are opened by clyfters, it may be proper to take
away a little blood.
Suckling calves are fometimes fubjeft to coftivenefs.
When this happens, the chalk ftiould be taken away, and
half an ounce or an ounce of magnefia be given them
in a pint of warm gruel ; or if the coftivenefs continue,
a little rhubarb may be added.
Chap. VIII. Morbid Affeclions of Generation.
45* It has been wifely ordained by nature, that the in¬
ferior animals (hall feel the paflion of defire only at cer¬
tain feafonsj and thefe periods are generally fo adapted,
that delivery (hall take place at fuch a time of the year
as will be bed fuited to the rearing and feeding of the
young animal. It is probable that in a (late of nature
thefe animals, whether male or female, do not ex-
3
I E R Y. 523
perience inordinate defire, except at the proper periods 5 Difeafes.
and when domefticated, the females are fcarcely ever fa- * my—...iJ
lacious, except at thefe times. The males of thefe ani¬
mals, however, in the domeftic (late, efpecially dogs, are
occafionally fubjeft to exceftive lull, and all of them,
during the periods afligned by nature, become fome¬
times very unruly, if not permitted to indulge their na¬
tural appetite. Should circumftances render it necef-
fary to prevent them from indulging this propenfity,
they muft be kept on a lower diet than ufual, or have
fuch food as contains lead nouriftiment in the fame
quantity 5 and muft be made to ufe more exercife than
common. They muft alfo be kept extremely cool,
and horfes ftiould at thefe times have lefs litter to deep
on than ufual.
It is of confiderable confequence to thofe who makeinciifter-
breeding an object, that the animals who are to copulateence.
(liould not be indifferent to the aft in which they are
to engage. It fometimes happens that either the male
or the female betrays a coolnefs or indifference, which
may defeat the objedt of the breeder. When it appears
that a ftallion or a bull regards the mare or cow pre-
fented to him with tranquil air, or turns from her when
he ought to do his duty, it is clear that fomething is
wrong, and that the iffue of fnch a forced connection
would fcarcely be worth the trouble of rearing. It is
faid that Spaniftr ftallions are more fubjedl to this indif¬
ference than others.
If an indifference of this kind (hould take place
in an animal that is generally keen and vigorous, it
would be wrong to employ any incitement to ftimulate
him to an adtion for which he has perhaps been unfitted
by too much exertion of the fame kind during the fea-
fon 5 but where the animal is naturally thus cool, and
has otherwife the requifite qualities of a good flallion or
bull, it may not be amifs to employ fome ftimulating
means before leading him to the female. He fhould be
kept on a generous diet, and when particularly required,
he may have a cordial ball given him, with a quart of
good ale after it. This will generally anfw'er the pur-
pofe, or if it does not, the animal is unfit for his office,
and (hould be difearded. It is a common pradtice among
fome grooms to infert a (lice of ginger into the funda¬
ment of an indifferent horfe, and this is faid to have the
effedl of roufing his latent powers.
Indifference for coition is more likely to take place
in the females of thefe animals, and it is no uncommon
thing for a mare or cow to refufe the male. In ge¬
neral this is owing to a poornefs of diet; and thefe
females (hould, like the males, before being taken to bo
covered, be put on a generous diet with moderate exer¬
cife. Probably all flrong, ftimulating remedies, fuch
as cantharides, which are fometimes given, do more
harm than good, as they may produce inflammation of
fome internal organ, without producing completely the
defired effedl. The cordial ball and ftrong ale are the
moft innocent remedies in thefe cafes, and where nature
is tolerably fufficient, they will be the moft efficacious.
The parts of generation in thefe animals are fubjedt
to certain accidents or difeafes, and it is neceffary that
we (hould notice the more common of thefe. 460
The horfe is fubjedt to what is called a falling of the Faffing of
penis. Thisconfifts in a relaxation, and total weaknefs t*ie Pen‘s>
of the parts deftined to fuftain and fupport it in its natu¬
ral
526 FARR
Di'.eaies. ra] anc] |3 jn £a(^. a k.in(j 0f paralyfis of the erec¬
tor and accelerator mufcles, or a total atony of the
fufpenfory ligament.
It may be produced by various caufes, as by too
great exertion in labour; hence it is common to draught
horfes that are hard worked. It may alfo depend on a
violent fpafm of the mufcles of thefe parts, as this is
always fucceeded by a proportionate relaxation and
atony. It is not unfrequently produced when aftallion
is made to cover too many mares in one feafon.
When the cafe is flight, after returning the penis
within the fheath, which Ihould always be done, a pail
or two of cold water, or of fait and water, may be
thrown over it feveral times in the day, and the mufcles
may be anointed with fome ftimulating liniment.
It has been advifed to make fuperficial punctures about
the yard with a (harp needle, and then to wadi it with
diftilled vinegar ; but we do-net know whether this plan
has been attended with the defired fuccefs. If the com¬
plaint continues obdinate, the penis mud be bolftered
up, and a charge applied over the back part of the (heath
fo as to leave fufficient room for the horfe to make wa¬
ter. If the complaint is attended with a general weak-
461 nefs, tonics and cordial remedies mud be applied.
Falling of When a cow has been delivered with more than
t e worab' ufual difficulty, or has been very long in labour before
procuring affidance, it not unfrequently happens that
the womb is inverted, or, as it is commonly exprefled,
the calf-bed comes down. This accident is more likely
to happen to fome cows than to others, and is more
efpecially incident to thofe of a weak habit of body,
and fuch as are unufually wide between the thighs. In
fuch cows it would be proper to pay more than ufual
attention about the time when labour is expefled to
take place, and the dall in which they are left (hould
be made very commodious, that they may frequently
lie down, as the great weight of their burden will have
mod.effeft while they are danding. When the calf-
bed is come down, it (hould be returned as foon as pof-
fible, by the operator clenching his fid after greafing it
and putting it to the middle part of the womb, which
he is thus to pu(h gently into its place, and when it is
up, he mud take care not to withdraw his hand too fud-
denly ; but it would be better to keep it within the
womb for a little, as it will dimulate the adjacent
mufcles to preferve the parts in the proper fituation.
After withdrawing the hand gently, the external parts
fhould be bathed with camphorated fpirits, and the
bead mud be watched, to prevent the fame accident
from taking place again. It is the pra&ice with fome
to lead the cow down a hill after returning the womb,
as it is fuppofed that this is greatly advantageous to the
parts recovering their proper pofition. If proper aflid-
^nce cannot foon be procured, the inverted womb {hould
be laid on a clean foft linen ffieet, and carefully covered
from the air, the irritation of which might produce an
inflammation. If the relaxation of the parts is fo great
that the womb dill comes down, recourfe mud be bad
to a day, to put behind, to prevent the womb from fal¬
ling down ; and fome have recommended ditching it to
the adjacent parts with a wax thread. Probably this
operation would be attended with more danger than
benefit.
Cows and mares fometimes differ abortion, or, as ibis
called, (lip their calf or foal, before the ufual time of
I E R 1. par£ yj
labour. This accident may be brought on by violent Difeafe*
exercife, efpecially by leaping hedges and ditches ;' 
by hidden frights, knocks, or bruifes; and it is alfo faid
that it may arife from bad fmells, and ardent defire in
the mare or cow ; but thefe latter caufes are probably
imaginai). It is advifed by fome to keep cows who
have (!ipt their calves as free from having any com¬
munication with the red of the cattle as podible, under
the idea that the accident may become infettious; and
it is declared that experience has diown, that without
great care and management it may go through the
whole dock, and even return the next feafon, if the
fame cattle are kept. We cannot vouch for the truth
of thefe affertions, but if true, the circumdance is very
remarkable.
When a cow or mare has dipt her young, unlefs this
accident has been occafioned by great exertion, it is a
proof that the animal is extremely weak, and (he mud
be put on a more nourifhing diet, and have drengthen-
ing remedies ; but in general little is required after fuch
an accident, but red, and perhaps a warm bran mafh.
This latter may be frequently given to mares or cows
during pregnancy, as codivenels may be a great means
of producing abortion.
SECT. II. OF COMPLICATED DISEASES.
Many of the difeafes, that have been treated of in 463
the lad fedtion, are very important, and feveral of them
highly dangerous ; but thofe which we are now to con-
glider, have a fuperior claim to our attention, either from
their fatality, the rapidity of their progrefs, or their
intimate connexion with Come of the mod important or
dedrudlive maladies that affedl the human race. They
will, therefore, require a fomewhat fuller difcudion than
we have thought it neceffary to give to the difeafes de-
fcribed in the lad fedtion.
We (hall clafs them under the feveral heads of
Fevers and Febrile Eruptions; Inflammations-
Lethargic difeafes; Spasmodic difeafes; Dropsies-
and Anomalous difeafes ; which will form the titles of
as many chapters, the lad comprehending thofe affec¬
tions, of which the nature or caufes have not been ful¬
ly afcertained, with thofe that could not properly be
reduced under any of the former heads.
For the general dodtrine of fevers, inflammations,
comata, Fpalms, and dropfy, we muff refer to the me¬
dical articles of this work.
Chap. I. Of Fevers and Febrile Eruptions.
All the domeffic animals may be affedted with pri-Inflamraa-
mary fever ; and this may be either of an inflammatory tory iever-
or putrid kind.
46a
Abortion.
1. Inflammatory Fever. Synocha.
Inflammatory fever is, we believe, feldom feen in a
primary or idiopathic complaint, except in the horfe ;
and to the confidcration of this fever, in that animal,
we (hall here confine ourfelves. The fymptomsare thus
defcribed by Mr Blaine :
‘ It is not eafy to fay what is the firft fymptom of
feyer^ in the horfe ; but from the effedls that we fee
anfe in fome cafes, it may be prefumed that it is a cold
fit. It is ufual however firft to obferve this complaint,
by
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes. by the lofs of appetite, and dull heavy appearance of
y-1' the animal j the extremities are cold, and the trunk hot,
or the body is cold, and ears are hot. If a horfe is at¬
tacked with common fever, while he is at grafs, he is
found refllefs, roving about the field, with an unfteady
flaggering air, and his head held low $ if in the liable,
frequently fhifting his pofition, and is evidently relllefs
and uneafy. His pulfe is generally full, frequent, and
hard, the two latter Hates of it are almoft always pre¬
fen t, but the former may vary. If the mouth is ex¬
amined, it will be found hot and dry, and frequently
fmells ftrong ; the breath is particularly hot, and there
is often an inereafed rednefs of the inner membrane of
the nofe, even though there fiiould be no primary affec¬
tion of the lungs. The eyes are dull, heavy, and fome-
times inflamed, and the horfe ftarts, and is at times
drowfy, but has no regular fleep. In this fever the fe-
cretions are generally diminifhed, therefore the dung is
hard, and in fmall quantities $ the urine fparingly made,
and high coloured, and the excretions from the {kin
equally confined, giving it a dry harfii feel. The re-
fpiration is quickened, which is (hewn by the heaving
at the flanks, and which muft be diflinguifhed from that
difficulty accompanying inflammation of the lungs 5 in
which cafe the air appears drawn through a part too fmall
for it, as though we were to breathe through a quill 5
but in fever it is ufually only fimnly accelerated.
“ This forms the firft ffage of the complaint, and
fometimes immediately fueceeding to this, is an attack
on fome one particular organ, as the brain, lungs,
bowels, or kidneys: in which cafe it ceafes its primary
affe&ion, and becomes fecondary and fymptomatic ;
but when it remains purely of the febrile type, as the
difeafe advances the fymptoms become more irregular,
feldom appearing the fame in any two objefls, arifing
from particular Hates in the individual bodies, varieties
in the treatment, or from fome peculiarities in the dif¬
eafe itfelf. The pulfe in this fecond flage continues
hard, but lofes fome of its fulnefs, and increafes in fre¬
quency j the {kin becomes raoifler, the urine is fecreted
in rather larger quantities, and fometimes to thefe fuc-
ceeds a purging 5 the watchfulnefs increafes, and the
horfe is often obferved in thefe cafes to chew a lock of
hay, and let it fall from his mouth again, as though in-
fenfible of its efcape.
“ This difeafe feldom remains very long in this Hate ;
but there either fucceeds a gradual abatement in the
hardnefs and frequency of the pulfe, the countenance
becomes more lively, the mufcular weaknefs increafes,
but the irritability leffens •, the animal appears more
tranquil ; the fecretions gradually return to their natu¬
ral Hate ; the mouth becomes moifl, and the heat regu¬
lar and equable ; and thus is formed a refolution of
the fever. This kind of fever, I believe, feldom termi¬
nates in a crifis, nor often by fwealing ; perhaps it may
fometimes by purging.
“ But when to the foregoing fymptoms, inflead of their
latter appearances, there fucceeds great reHlefsnefs, or
fometimes conHant drowfinefs, the pulfe becoming very
quick, as from 'jo to 80 pulfations in a minute, pre-
ferving fome of its hardnefs, and accompanied with pro-
fufe Haling, though at others the urine remains high
coloured, and fmall in quantity, and the third unaba¬
ted •, when to thefe are added great proHration of
Hrength, a fatal termination may be expedled
* Blaine'
Jutlines,
■ol. ii.
* «
I E R Y.
We have faid that Ample fever is not common in
Hieep or cattle ; but when it occurs in thefe animals,'
the fymptoms differ little from thofe above defcrib-
ed.
It mud be remarked, that though the foregoing de-
fcription will apply to mofl cafes in horfes, all the
fymptoms here laid down will not often be found in the
fame cafe ; but they will vary according to the conflitu-
tion of the animal and other eircumfiances. Sometimes,
the fever will have lefs of the inflammatory type, and
will approach to what is called a low or nervous fever.
Cafes of low nervous fever are, however, very uncom¬
mon among horfes. Mr Blaine fays that he has met
with no indance of this kind, but that he was affured
by a Mr Bloxham, a veterinary pradlitioner of confider-
able obfervation, that he had met with a well-marked
cafe of typhus fever. In cafes that approach this low
type, the heat of the body is more irregular than in the
pure inflammatory fever, and the mouth often continues
moid though drink .be refufed : and the fecretions and
excretions are ufually not fo much affeded. Some¬
times there takes place a difcharge of glutinous matter'
from the nofe, and the eyes are watery. The pulfe in
thefe cafes ufually ceafes to be full after the firfl 24 or
36 hours j and though it Hill continues hard, it is more
frequent than before, and becomes fmall and irregular
as the difeafe advances. This low variety of fever is
more dangerous than the true inflammatory fever, and
requires more particular attention.
Inflammatory fever may be produced by any caufe
that violently agitates the body, and unufually accele¬
rates the motion of the blood. It may be produced by
excefllve exertion and. fatigue, or by an ©xpofure to cold
while the body is overheated. It is faid to have been
fometimes brought on by a Hidden fright. A very-
common caufe in hot climates, is long expofure to the
dired rays of the fun. Pure inflammatory fever is cer-.
tainly not contagious.
In the cure of inflammatory fever it is neceffary to
draw blood as foon as poflible ; and the quantity of
blood taken away ftiould be in proportion to the vio¬
lence of the inflammatory fymptoms. We are difpofed,
however, to think, that a lefs quantity than is ufually
recommended, perhaps not more than two quarts at
once, will be fufticient, as the weaknefs that comes on
in the latter ftages of all fevers, will be greatly increafed
by too much lofs of blood. The blood fhould be pre-
ferved in a proper veffel, as direded in N° 162. that it
may be afeertained how far it will be proper to repeat
the operation. When blood has been drawn, the horfe
fliould be baek-raked, or a hand paffed up the redum,
and the dung drawn carefully away, after which a cly-
fter fliould be thrown up, fuel) as N° 17. of the receipts.
It fliould be blood-warm, and fliould be paffed up care¬
fully and gently. If there is much determination to
the head, a blifter may be applied to the neck, or a
feton inferted as near the head as may be. Cooling
medicines may be adminiflered, fuch as the drenches,
N0 22. and N° 26. All heating or cordial medi¬
cines, and Aimulating food fliould, in the early Hage of
the fever, be carefully avoided. The diet fhould con-
fifl of light food that is eafily digefled, fueh as fweet
hay, or, if that can be procured, lucerne or fainfoin $
bran maflies, and, by way of drink, thin gruel.
The rational mode of treating fevers, lately introdu¬
ced
527
Difeafes.
528
F A R R
Difeafes.
ced into human medicine, will probably not foon be
transferred to the liable. Grooms and farriers will not
eafily believe that it is neceffary to keep a feverilh horfe
cool, and allow him to breathe a free, pure air. The
pradtice ufually followed in thefe cafes is to Ihut up the
liable as clofely as poffible, and even to flop every
cranny in the door and windows. This pradlice is not
only fufficient to increafe the diforder of the feverilh
horfe, but even to excite fever in fuch horfes as happen
to be in the fame liable. It is, befides, cultomary to
cover up the horfe with a load of body-clothes, in or¬
der that he may fweat off the fever; and probably thefe
clothes are girded tight round his body by means of
rollers.
Inltead of this abfurd method of treatment, a fever-
ilh horfe flionld, if poffible, be put into a liable where
there is not more than one horfe. As thefe animals
naturally love fociety, it is better that he Ihould not be
quite folitary, otherwife he might be put in a liable by
himfelf. Phe liable Ihould be roomy and airy, and
fhould be regularly cleaned. The horfe may have
a light cloth thrown over him, but this Ihould not be
fattened more than is fufficient to keep it from fallino-
off his body. °
When the inflammatory fymptoms hare fubfided, and
figns of debility begin to make their appearance, as
they never fail to do in the courfe of a few days, a dif¬
ferent plan of treatment will be required, as far as re-
fpefls the adminillration of internal remedies. A horfe
labouring under fever mull be carefully watched, in or¬
der to mark the time at which the inflammatory fymp¬
toms begin to give way to thofe of lownefs and debili¬
ty ; and as the change is often very hidden, the horfe
Ihould be vifited at leall twice a-day, or oftener if
poflible, as were the groom or other attendant to con¬
tinue the debilitating treatment after the fymptoms of
debility come on, fuch a degree of weaknefs may be
produced as will not eafily be recovered. The change
will be difcovered chiefly by the alteration of the pulfe,
which, from being hard and full, becomes fofter and in
general weaker. This is the time to exhibit ftrength-
ening medicines ; but thefe at firlt Ihould be of the
gentler kind, fuch as Peruvian bark, or willow bark,
which may be given at firll in moderate dofes ; and if
the debility continues, the dofe mull be increafed, and
the medicine adminillered more frequently. During
the whole treatment, care mull be taken that the horfe
be not fuffered to remain collive, and his bowels may be
kept moderately open, by giving him a warm mafh
every night. If the weaknefs becomes very great, and
there appears much rellleffnefs or heavinefs, while the
pulfe continues low, it will be proper to adminifter
fome of the more powerful ftimulant medicines, as cam¬
phor and opium, ammonia, or fnake-root, as diredled in
the receipts N° 35. and 38. As the horfe becomes
convalefcent, the ftronger tonics, as oak bark, with
ginger, may be adminillered twice or thrice a-day ; and
as his appetite returns, he may be indulged with his
ufual food, with gentle exercife. It will be proper,
however, to avoid any confiderable exertion for a long
time after the animal has become convalefcent, as a
confiderable period mull elapfe before the body can re¬
cover its ufual ftrength and vigour.
Inflammatory fever precedes or accompanies moll vio¬
lent inflammations, efpecially thofe of the brain and
1 E R Y. PartVl
other vilcera, and it generally ufliers in feveral of the Dife
eruptive difeafes, In fome ot thefe complaints the fe-
ver demands particular attention ; but in moll of them
it is merely a fecondary fymptom, and yields to the ge¬
neral treatment of the difeafe.
2. Epidemic Putrid Fever. Typhus. Murrain,
Peji, Garble. Epizootee, Fr.
Putrid fever does not commonly attack horfes, though puuidft
it has occafionally raged epidemically among thefe ani-ver.
mals. Lancifi, an Italian phyfician, has defcribed an
epidemic fever that raged among horfes in Italy about
the year 1712, and Mr Ofmer mentions an epidemic of
a limilar kind, attended with critical abfceffes. He
calls it the diltemper, and fays that it had raged at dif¬
ferent periods for more than 50 years.
The moll ferious epidemic fevers that have ever ap-Murrain,
peared among domeltic animals, are thofe which, from
their violence and fatality, have been called murrains
or pejls, and which have raged occafionally from the
earliell hiltorical accounts.
Columella mentions a contagious difeafe, which he
calls cruilitas, that fcarcely differs in its fymptoms from
the murrains that we are prefently to defcribe. The
following is his defcription. “ Crebri rudlus, ac ven-
tris fonitus, faftidia cibi, nervorum intenfio,hebitas oculi,
propter quae bos neque ruminat, neque lingua fe deter-
get.” He advifes bleeding in the tail, and back-rak¬
ing, and clyllers} and if it appears that the difeafe is
contagious, he recommends the infefted cattle to be
feparated from the reft of the herd.
A fimilar difeafe is alfo defcribed by Vegetius, who
recommends a fimilar treatment, with the additional
advice : “ Mortua cadavera ultra fines villm projicienda
funt, et altiffime obruenda fub tern's j” To carry the
carcafes to a diftance from the farm, and bury them
deep in the earth.
Marius, a Burgundian ecclefiaftic, who wrote in the
6th century, mentions a difeafe, which he confiders as
the fmallpox, that deftroyed great numbers of cattle,
“ Hoc anno (570) morbus validus, cum profluvio ven-
tris et variola, Italiam, Galliamque valde afflixit, et
animalia bubula per loca fuperfcripta maxima interie-
runt * Muir
The firft accounts that we have of any diforder Q^ehinthe
this kind, fince the beginning of the prefent century, i04CoW¬
are related by Ramazini and Lancifi, two phyficianstne/.
then living in Italy, where this diforder firft broke out,
in the year 1711, in the territories of the republic of
Venice, in the country round Padua; and was faid to
have been brought from Dalmatia, a province of Tur¬
key, by fome merchants importing living cattle, ac¬
cording to their annual cuftom, from that and the
neighbouring parts. The difeafe foon fpread itfelf
through moft parts of Italy beyond the river Po, and
appeared two years after in the duchy of Ferrara, where
it fo ravaged the country, in the years 1713 and 1714,
that Lannonius, a celebrated phyfician of that time,
informs us, it was a prevalent opinion, that the whole
fpecies would quickly become extindl. From Italy it
travelled through the lyrolefe into France. Shortly
after Germany fuffered, as well as the Low Countries ;
and from thefe parts it was fuppofed to have been tranf-
ported into Great Britain and Ireland. But there is
no
Part VI. FAR R
Difeafes. no record of a new infe&ion in this country fince the
year i7i4j till the middle of laft century, when we
probably received the infe&ion from Holland, where
this diforder then reigned, having received the infection
from fome of the neighbouring parts of Germany and
^ Flanders.
Appear- About the year 1744, it was reported to have been
ance of the brought by fome traders into EiTex, who had purchafed
marram in ca]ves jn Holland, or fome other of the provinces of
gmam. .^e jow countries, which had the infedtion, and fpread
through feveral counties, till it became a matter of im¬
portance to the date ; and on the 13th of February
1745 gave occafion to the piffing of an a£t of parlia¬
ment, commanding that every probable, or even poffi-
ble, means Ihould be employed, by officers appointed
for that purpofe, to prevent the farther fpreading of it.
Premiums were given to thofe who killed their cattle
as foon as the infection made its appearance •, and fines
•were impofed upon every one who afted in oppofition
to the elfablifhed laws, refpe&ing driving, expofing, or
felling cattle, fuppofed or found to have caught the
diforder. Every precaution, however, which could be
fuggefted at that time, proved ineffeftual •, and frefh
orders were iffued by his majefty in council, which
for fome time were alfo found to produce very little ef-
fe6t. It became fo alarming to the country, that many
eminent medical characters in different parts of Eng¬
land, clofely applied themfelves to the fludy of reme¬
dies for this calamitous diftemper. They differed in
opinion, whether it was a difeafe of an infeftious na¬
ture, or proceeded from a malignancy in the date of
the atmofphere, or fome peculiarity in the nature of
their food. The contradictory opinions which prevail¬
ed among them, nearly prevented fome of the ableft
profeffiona! men from appearing in behalf of the public;
efpecially Mr Barker, who wrote an ingenious pamph¬
let on the fubjeCt, and whofe mode of treatment pro¬
ved more fuccefsful than that of many others, whofe
pretenfions were given to the public in a more confident
manner, and more ftrenuoufly fupported.
From the feveral hiftories that have been given of
the diforder, it appears to have differed in its fymptoms
and effeCts, according to the countries in which it ap¬
peared, the various feafons in which it commenced
its ravages, and fome other circumftances not fully af-
certained. There feems to have been no doubt that
the difeafe was infeCIious, or at lead that it was eafdy
propagated among the fpecies of animals which it at¬
tacked ; but it does not appear to have been capable of
fpreading to other fpecies; as men, horfes, flieep, and
dogs, that lived in the neighbourhood of the inftded
cattle, (hewed no marks of having received the con¬
tagion.
In the hidorical (ketch of the writers on veterinary
medicine, we mentioned feveral works on the fubjeCt of
the murrains that prevailed over Europe in the lad cen¬
tury; and of thefe it will have appeared that the great¬
er part were the production of foreigners. I be mod
celebrated of thefe foreign publications were thofe of
Sauvages, Goelicke, and Camper. The work of the
latter upon this fubjeft is extremely valuable; and as it
was written for the indruClion of people in general,
having been delivered in the form of leCtures before a
crowded audience, it is preferable to many others that
have appeared on the fubjeft.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
46S
•It is given in the third
1 E R Y. 529
volume of Camper’s works on natural hidory, phyfiolo- Difeafe*.
gv, and comparative anatomy, lately publidied at Paris. -v " J
Camper delivered four lectures; in the fird of which
he explains to his hearers the drufture and diredfion
of the principal blood-veffels of the neck and extremi¬
ties in cattle., and the natural pofition and appear¬
ance of the entrails of thefe animals. In the fecond he de-
fcribes the natural drudture of the four (tomach«, the
liver, and the fpleen, and of the heart and lungs. In the
third he explains the funftion of rumination, or chew¬
ing the cud, in all ruminating animals, but efpecially
in cattle. In the fourth ledlure he gives an account of
the feveral writings that had appeared on the fubjedl of
epizootic difenfes ; among which he particularly recom¬
mends a German work by Dr Krunetz, that of Gi e-
licke, and thofe of our countrymen Brocklt-fhy and
Layard. In the fame ledture he gives a very accurate
detail of the fymptoms of the dileale as it appeared in
the province of Groningen in the year 1768, with the
appearances on diffedtion ; his own opinion with refpedl
to the nature of the malady, and an account ef the
mod approved method of treating it. We regret that
this work came into our hands too late for us to make
any confiderable ufe of it in this' article.
The medical pradfitioners in England, to whom we
are mod indebted for an accurate account of the fymp-
toms of this diforder, and a rational mode of treating it,
are Dr Brocklelby and Dr Layard. As the account
given by thefe gentlemen differs in feveral particulars,
though there can be no doubt that both defcribe the
appearances which fell under their own obfervations,
we diall extradt a few particulars from both their pu¬
blications. The following is Dr Brocklelby’s account
of the difeafe. 469
For ten days or a fortnight the cattle were troubled Brorklef-
with a dry cough, which is indeed not an uncommon ^
fymptom among cattle, at that time of the year, and tRe mur-
tbere.fore Dr Brocklelby did not confider it belonging rain,
to the prefent difeafe ; the hair was rougher on the
Ikin than ordinary ; their eyes looked heavy, and,
when the principal diforder appeared, they refufed
fodder, but had an infatiable third for a time : The
milch cows decreafed in their milk, which remained to a
certain quantity, fometimes for two days, before it
changed colour, but at length often dried up. Upon
ceafing to chew the cud, a (hivering feized them all
over, and a high fever immediately came on ; the milk,
if any remained to that time, curdled over the fire, but
did not in the fird of the diforder. At fird the belly
was codive, but for the mod part a loofenefs fucceeded
within forty-eight hours after the (hivering fit. The
dools were fird green and watery, and of a dinking
fmell ; their confidence, however, altered afterwards
to a vifcid, Oimy matter, the purging accompanied till
about the feventh day, and about that time the excre¬
ments became thicker, in iuch as recovered ; and thefe
foon chewed their cud again, and taded of fodder,
which they had before abfolutely refufed through the
whole difeafe. All that had not the loofenefs before
the third day died. The urine was very high colour¬
ed, and in fmaller quantities. The degree of fever
was obferved very high ; upon the third day the pulfe
beat near a hundred times in a minute, whereas the in¬
genious Dr Hales found a found ox’s artery not to ex¬
ceed 5-8 pulfes, in the fame time. At different inter-
3 X vals.
I
S2° FARR
. v^ils, after the attack, they all laboured under a prodi-
™”""w ^ious difficulty and panting for breath j fome fuffered
thefe after the firft day, others not before the third.
B,ut this Jiforder fuffered reraiffions, and feemed to be
augmented towards evening, and at night. Several
beads difcharged, towards the fourth or fifth day, when
ill, a very great quantity of a frothy matter from the
mouth and eyes 5 others ran adtually purulent matter
from the noftrils. As the diforder advanced, the eyes
funk more in their orbit6, and fome were obferved to be
quite blind, .towards the conclufion, the fore parts of
the body, and particularly the glands about the head,
were prodigioufly fwelled, and feveral beads had a uni-
verfal emphyfema, or crackling of air beneath their fkin ;
thofe that were not blooded, equally with fuch as were.
Frequently one might obferve pudules break out on the
fifth or fixth days, all over the neck and fore parts.
Some cattle were raging mad on the fird day ; fuch
were neceflarily killed : fome. dropped down fuddenly ;
others died on the third, mod on the fixth or feventh
very few alive to the fourteenth day 5 before death the
horns and dugs grew remarkably cold.
The appearances in the dead bodies of eight different
diffeAion. c°ws were as follow : The flefli was of a found colour
and everywhere lined with fat, the cellular membrane
between the fkin and flefh was didended with air to
above the thicknefs of three inches. The paunch was
prodigioufly didended with food, in all of them, but it
contained not any thing preternatural ; nor indeed in
the reticulum or fecond domach, were there any morbid
appearances j but, upon incifion of the omnfus, or third
domach, in which the food is naturally without much
juice, a mod offenfive dench rutfied out, with a large
quantity of thin greenifli water.
The blood-veffels on the inner furface of the ventri¬
cle were very full. The abomafus and part of the in-
tedines difcovered the like morbid phenomena. The
liver, fpleen, and kidneys, were as ufual ; but the gall¬
bladder feemed to be in the greater number fuller than
ordinary j the confidence of fome was thicker than the
red, and the gall taded difagreeably fweetifh. Dr
Brocklefby did not obferve any purulent matter inved-
ing the inner furface of the intedines, though other
gentlemen difpovered fuch, in fome cattle, if he was
rightly informed ; but there appeared in fome a flimy
mucus, all along the intedinal canal.
The lungs univerfally fhewed the dronged figns of a
preceding high indammation ; mod of them were turgid
with red blood, while the fmalled veficles of the bron¬
chia, or air-veflels, were very much inflated. Some
few arterious veffels were replete with a gelatinous,
glaory mucus, and all the lungs appeared larger than
they do in common. The whole inner furface of the
trachea, or wind-pipe, was covered with a frothy mu¬
cus ; but he never found any ulcers with purulent mat¬
ter either at the root of the tongue, or in the lungs.
Upon opening two or three heads, he found large
quantities of extravafated ferum ; and the blood retain-
Hismode ed fluidity 5n the lar£er veffels Iong death,
of treat- The hod of treating the cattle recommended by
tnent. Dr Brocklefby is as follows : Before the cattle are
feized, he advifes two fetons, or pegs, to be put deep
into the dewlap, and into the under part of the neck •
and immediately upon refufing fodder, the beads fhould
have three quarts of blood taken away j and, after
I
470
Appear¬
ances on
ItER,Y- Part VI
twelve hours, two quarts more ; after the next twelve
hours about three pints may be let out j and after the
following twelve hours, diminifh a pint of blood from
the quantity taken away at the preceding blood-lettine •
laitly, about a fingle pint fhould be taken away in lef»
than twelve hours after the former bleeding 1 fo that
when the beaft has been blooded five times, in the
manner here propofed, the worft fymptoms will, it it
hoped, abate ; but if the difficulty and panting for
breath continue very great, he fees no reafon againft re¬
peating bleeding, or at lead againft taking away the
fifth time, inftead of a fingle pound, twice that quantity.
In the mean time the fetons or pegs fhould be daily
promoted to fuppuration by moving the chord ; and the
cattle fhould have as much bran-water as they choofe to
drink luke-warm. This fhould be made a little tart or
fourifh, either with common vinegar or fpirit of vi¬
triol j and immediately after the firft bleeding they
fhould have a drench compofed of a drachm and a half
of camphor, well rubbed with two ounces of honey
adding an ounce and a half of nitre, and about a quart
of water-gruel.
It is extraordinary that this treatment, with a little
variation in the internal medicine, is recommended by
Mr Feron as the refult of his own experience, in what
he calls the general inflammation of cattle. It is a
curious coincidence $ as we fuppofe that Mr Feron, from
his not noticing Dr Brocklefby’s pamphlet, has never
leen it.
The do&or recommends keeping the cattle very
warm, and guarding againft the admiffion of any cool
air, a pradice in which he will fcarcely be followed at
the prefent day.
The fymptoms of this diftemper as defcribed by Drr 474
Layard are, on the firft appearance of the infetfion, aaccoui’of
decreafe of appetite ; a poking out of the neck, imply-the mur.
ing fome difficulty in deglutition, a fhakingof the head,rain-
as if the ears were tickled ; a hanging down of the
ears, and deafnefs ; dimnefs of the eyes ; and a moving
to and fro in a conftant uneafinefs. All thefe figns
except the laft, increafe till the fourth day. Then a
ftupidity and unwillingnefs to move, great debility, to¬
tal lofs of appetite, a running at the eyes and the'nofe,
fometimes ficknefs and throwing up of bile, a hufky
cough and {hivering. The head, horns, and breath are
very hot, while the body and limbs are cold. The
fever, which was continued the three firft days, now
rifes and increafes towards evening ; the pulfe is all
ahmg quick, contrafted, and irregular. A conftant
diarrhoea, or fcouring of foetid green feces, a ftinking
breath, and naufeous fleams from the fkin, infeft the
air they are placed in. The blood is very florid, hot,
and frothy. The urine, or ftale, is highly coloured •
the. roofs of their mouths, and their barbs, are ulcerated.
.Tumours, or boils, aie to be felt under the panniculus
carnofus, or flefhy membrane of the fkin ; and erup¬
tions appear all along their limbs, and about their
dugs. If a new milch-cow be thus ill, her milk dries
up gradually, her purging is more violent, and on ths
fourth day fhe is commonly dry. There is fuch acri¬
mony or fharpnefs in their dung, that a vifible irrita¬
tion is to be obferved during fome time in ano. They
groan much, are vvoffe in the evening, and moftly ly¬
ing down. Thefe fymptoms continue increafing till
the feventh day from the invafion, on which generally,
though
Part VI. FARR
DifrsfM. ll'ouS,> romelime! pratrafled till the ninth, the criGs
ta—y--~ or turn takes place.
If after the leventh day from the invafion (at which
time a crifis may be expefted), the eruptions, boils, or
abfceffes are decreafed in bulk, or totally difappear,
without having broken or difcbarged outwardly, or an
aggravation of the fymptoms already mentioned, with
no intermiflron ; it may be affuredly pronounced, that
the beaft will die.
As to the cure, immediately upon the firft appear¬
ance of the diftempe.r, the beali ftiould be put intofome
place where it may be kept clean, warm, and as free as
poffible from infectious fleams of other beads in the
fame condition. The beaft mult be bled in proportion
to its ftrength, waflied with warm water and vinegar,
to clear the hair from filth and infects, and rubbed
every morning and evening, for a quarter of an hour,
with a dry linen or woollen cloth, or ftraw, to promote
perfpiration. A rowel alfn is to be made in the dew¬
lap, which is to be drefled twice every day, which
rowel is alfo to be kept in a month at leaft after the
recovery of the beaft.
Should the beaft be hot, hang down his head,
breathe with difficulty after the bleeding, dung hard,
and the fkin feel tight and thick ; then it will be very
proper to give a gentle, cooling purge in this firft ftage.
When the beaft has voided the hardened dung, or if
it fhould not have wanted purging, the following drench
is to be given. Take of madder-root, three ounces;
of turmeric and horfe-radilh-root, each one ounce; of
fenugreek-feeds, bruifed* two ounces ; of chamomile-
flowers, dried leaves of feverfew, rue, and fage, of each
one handful. Boil them half an hour in a gallon of
fmall ale, well hopped, to three quarts : then ftrain
the liquor, and give the beaft three pints in the morning,
and the remainder in the evening. No dry or folid
fodder is to be offered till the beaft chews the cud a-
gain. Between thefe drenches a quart or two of diftil-
led vinegar whey muft be given frequently in the day,
to dilute the hard fodder, and ftrengthen the coats of
the ftomach ; and hay-water may be alfo given. Great
care muft be taken, twice or thrice a day, to cleanfe
the mouth, barbs, and noftrilsof the diftempered cattle,
with feme abfterging acidulated liquor. On the fourth
day, if the beaft be heavy, dull, fbivering, no pimples
or knots arife, and a purging be coming on, the follow¬
ing drench muft be given at about eight in the even¬
ing, and repeated three or four nights, as occafion re¬
quires.
Take of Virginian fnake-root, contrayerva root,
chamomile flowers powdered, of each half an ounce ;
Venice treacle, fix drachms: Mix all thefe in three pints
of vinegar-whey, and give the drench lukewarm. Let a
pt-rfon fit up all night with the beaft, and give it fre¬
quently a quart of vinegar whey. Venice treacle may
alfo be ferviceable ; and if there be any figns of morti¬
fication from the dark and relaxed appearance of the
mouth, the coldnefs of the Ikin, the black fetid dung,
infenfibility, &c. the Peruvian bark muft be inftantly
given every four or fix hours, as occafion may require,
taking theufual medicines in the intervals. In the laft
ftage, let the fuellings that puff up the fkin be opened
and digefted; and after the crifis takes place, if a
fcouring ftiould enfue, it is not to be haftily flopped,
though diligently watched and reftrained, left it
I E R T. s.V
weaken the beaft too much ; and to cleanfe the ftomach Difeafes.
and bowels, let a purge of rhubarb, fenna, &c. be "-v-—■"*
given. Dr Layard advifes to let the beaft drink wa¬
ter-gruel lukewarm, and keep it on dry meat, though
fparingly ; and at night to give an ounce of elefluary
of diafeordium, in a quart or three pints of fmali ale,
warm. But if after the crifis the beaft is coftive, and
the fkin dry, harfh, and tighten thefleffi; dunging may
be procured by giving in the evening a mafh of bran,
with a handful of beans bruifed, and an ounce of Ep-
fom fait. He recommends, however, the greateft
exaftnefs in obferving when the crifis is over ; for the
leaft laxative medicine, or opening food, at the height
of the difeafe, and confequently in the former ftages of
expulfion and maturation, will certainly bring on a
fcouring, attended with fatal confequences, or at leaft
very difficult to be removed. In winter time, the cat¬
tle, upon recovery, fhould not be turned out at once to
the pafture grounds, let thefe be ever fo dry ; but to¬
wards the middle of the day, in fair weather, turning
them out two hours, and then bringing them in again,
will gradually ufe them to the open air. In fummer,
morning and evening will be the moft fuitable times;
for the heat of the fun, or cold, may bring on other
diforders.
“ A farmer, (fays Dr Layard), loft ten head of cat¬
tle, and two more were dying, and feven others ill,
when I took upon me the direction of the feven which
were laft fallen ill. By the preceding treatment five
of thefe recovered. One cow, very near her time, of
calving, died ; and the feventh was certainly loft for
want of obferving the due time of the crifis, and purg¬
ing too foon.”
Such are the accounts given by Brocklefby and Lay¬
ard, of the fymptoms and treatment of this deftruflive
malady ; and it will be feen that their accounts differ
no more than what may be expelled from two different
perfons delcribing a fimilar difeafe that occurred at two
different periods ; for the murrain deferibed by Dr
Brocklefby appeared in the years 1744 and 1745,
while that of which Dr Layard has given an account
occurred between 1750 and 1760.
The caufes and nature of this difeafe have not been 473
exactly afeertained. Some have fuppofed it conne6Ied
with a peculiar ftate of the atmofphere, and that it did
not originate in contagion. Many confidered the prin¬
cipal caufes of the difeafe to be previous hard winters,
obftrufted perfpiration, worms in the liver, and cor¬
rupted food.
Hard winters have been confidered as a caufe of thi*
difeafe, becaufe it was in 1 710, after the hard winter in
1709 that the great mortality among the cattle was ob-
ferved ; and becaufe the hard winter in 1740 was fol¬
lowed by the contagion in 1741, which fpread over the
moft part of Europe. Not to mention many others,
the murrain in 1768, followed immediately after a
pretty hard winter in 1767. On the other hand Cam¬
per remarks, that the hard winter in 1727 was not fol¬
lowed by the contagion; from which it would appear
that the epidemic does not neceffarily depend on the
feverity or mildnefs of the preceding winter.
It was attributed by many to obftrudled perfpi¬
ration; and to prevent its attack, it was propofed to
cover the cattle during the nights of autumn, and to
make them deep within doors during the fpring nights.
3X2 It
532 • PARR
Diieafes. It may, however, be obferved, that if this reafoning
were true, the difeafe ought to have been lefs prevalent,
or ought not to have appeared at all, in thofe provinces
where, for the fake of faving the dung, they houfe the
cattle at night, even in the fummer as well as in the
fpring and autumn. Befides it appears that the con¬
tagion was not known at Bern, though the cattle in
that diftri6l lay all night in the field whenever the
weather would permit.
Camper juftly ridicules the idea of the difeafe origi¬
nating from worms.
“ If (fays Camper), you demand of me to what I
attribute the firlt of the diftemper, I {hall anfwer,
as it were to be wilhed that all naturalifts would do in
fimilar cafes, that I do not know ; that the fubjeft is
above my comprehenfion, and doubtkfs above that of
ie°cZ7Jr 6Vtry raan* ”
tom. iii. ’ There feems no doubt,, however, that the complaint
p. 120. was infe&ious, and that, provided proper means were
taken to prevent infeftion, the diftemper would not
fpread. The means propofed by Dr Layard and fome
other medical praftitioners, to deftroy the contagion,
was to bury the carcafes of the infe&ed animals, and to
{laughter all that appeared to have received the infec¬
tion. Inoculation was propofed by fome, as a means
of diminilhing the ravages of the murrain j and is faid
to have been pradlifed in Denmark with confiderable
fuccefs: but if this be true, it is probable that the epi¬
zootic difeafe that raged in Denmark was of a different
nature from that which appeared in Britain, and on
fome parts of the continent 5 as inoculation feems to
have been tried in thefe places without effedf. What
probably led to the propofal of inoculation was, that
the difeale was confidered by fome as exadlly fimilar
to the fmallpox in the human body. This opinion was
adopted by Dr Layard, and feems to have arifen from
the boils or fuppurating tumours which appeared on the
bodies of moft of the affefted cattle j but thefe tumours
do not appear to be fimilar to the eruption that takes
place in fmallpox, but rather refemble the boils or
buboes that take place in the plague and fome other
highly infedtious fevers. On the whole, it feems to us
pretty evident, that the difeafe is of the nature of
putrid fever, and we have therefore ranked it under
this head.
It appears from Camper’s works, that inoculation
was attended with fo much fuccefs in many cafes on
the continent, that a great number of cattle was faved
by it, who probably could not have been recovered
from the natural difeafe. The advantages attending
inoculation according to Camper are,
1 ft, That we can expofe to the danger of contagion
fuch calves and heifers only as are of a moderate price.
2d, That the heifers pafs through the difeafe before
they take the bull, and confequently before they are
pregnant. This is attended with more advantages than
may appear at firft fight •, for when the contagion at¬
tacks a whole herd, all at once, oxen, calves, heifers,
and cows are feized without diftin£Hon. Such cows as
are pregnant generally flip their calf, and even if they
flhould perfe&ly recover, their womb is fo difordered
that it will never afterwards be capable of retaining
the calf j befides, that afterwards it is a long time before
they come in heat, fo that the proprietor is obliged to
I E R Y. Part Vf,
keep them for a whole year without deriving from them D-f
any benefit, except he fatten them for the butcher.
If the fuccefs of inoculation, as well as the certainty
of the cattle being incapable of a fecond infedtion, were
fully afcertained, the plan of inoculation would be ex¬
tremely proper.. If thefe points were fully eftabliftied,
would they not, however, confiderably militate againft
the opinion that is entertained by the beft writers on
the fubjed, even by Camper himfelf, that this difeafe
is an idiopathic putrid fever, and not an eruptive com¬
plaint like the Imallpox. %
Confidering the difeafe as one that is highly contagi-Mem^of
ous, every method {hould be taken to check the pro- checkinj
grefs of the infedion. For this purpofe the houfest!?e conta“
where the cattle are ftabled, {hould be kept perfedlyS10n’
clean, and well ventilated. It would alfo be proper
to fumigate thefe places twice a day with the vapour#
of fome mineral acid, fuch as the nitrous or muriatic
acids, as has been recommended by Dr Johnftone,
Guyton Morveau, and Dr Carmichael Smith. This
fumigation may be eafily effeded by placing pipkins
of vyarm fand in various parts of the cattle-houfes, and
particularly at the doors, and placing on the fand a
cup containing common fait or pounded nitre, on which
is to be poured a fufficient quantity of fulphuric acid or
oil of vitriol, ftirring the mafs now and then with a
glafs rod, to promote the efcape of the acid vapours.
We (hall conclude this fubjed with a feries of que¬
ries that were circulated among medical men on the
continent by the Society of Medicine at Paris, for the
purpofe of gaining every neceffary information refped-
ing this alarming peftilence, as they may tend todired
the inquiries of thofe who (hall in future have an op¬
portunity of obferving the diftemper.
1. What is the fituation of the country in which the
epidemic appears, and what is the nature of the foil >
2. Of what quality are the waters which the cattle
ufually drink, and of what dimenfions are the refer-
voirs that contain them ?
3. What is the quality of the pafturage, and what
are the plants which moft conftantly grow in the paf-
tures ?
475
4. .Of what nature is the fodder and the grain that
are given to the cattle within doors ?
5. Have there been any abundant rains or xnunda
tions; has the water continued for a long time on the
ground, and what are the effeds it has produced on
the fodder ?
6. Or has there on the contrary been any great
drought, and how long has it continued ?
7. What has been the feafon for getting in the hay*
and for harveft ; and what effed does the feafon feem
to have had on the hay and other fodder ?
8. What cireumftances feem to have rendered it ne-
ceffary for the cattle to work ?
9. Has the diftemper been announced by any pre¬
vious fymptoms ; and what were they ?•
10. Did the difeafe come on with {hivering, with
coldnefs of the horns and ears, and with the lofs of ap¬
petite ?
11. Did the heat come on foon after the cold fit, or
was it not preceded by a cold fit ?
12. Do the animals continue lying, without being
able to raife themfelves on their legs ?
13. When
Part VI. FARR
Pifeafes. I3- When they are lying, is their head low, or how
u—y—— do they hold it ?
14. Are their eyes red, watery, and hot ?
15. Are their noftrils dry, or does there ooze from
them a mucous matter ?
16. Is their tongue in the natural ftate, or is it very
red, or is it covered with a yellow or brown mucus; is
it moift or dry, or are there on it any tubercles ?
17. Is their throat inflamed, or are there on it any
aphthous crufts ?
18. Is the animal fatigued with a cough, and is this
cough very frequent ?
19. Do the flanks heave or not ?
20. Does the animal feem to feel any great pain when
he is touched in the flanks, or the belly, on the fpine,
or on the rump ?
21. Are there any puftules or tumours on the furface
of the body ?
22. Is the hair fmooth or flaring, or does it eafily
come off- when the fkin is curried, or even when the body
is rubbed with a wifp of ftraw ?
23. Does the animal feem much difordered, or does
he refufe every fort of drink ?
24. Does he chew the cud ?
25. Has he a frequent difcharge of urine, and what
is the colour and confiftence of it ?
26. Has he a difcharge by ftool more frequently or
lefs than ufual, and are the excrements natural, or very
dry or very liquid j what is their colour and odour, and
is their difcharge preceded or accompanied with a fre¬
quent explofion of wind ?
27. Are there to be obferved any little convulftons
below the Ikin, efpecially about the neck ?
28. Is the belly in its natural ftate, or is it fwelled j
is it foft, or hard and tenfe ?
29. At what periods do thefe feveral circumftances
take place ?
30. How does the diftemper terminate 5 what are
the fymptoms that announce a healthy termination, and
what are thofe which precede death ?
31. In what ftate after death are found the ftomachs,
the bowels, the liver, the fpleen, the lungs, the heart,
and the brain ?
32. What remedies have been adminiftered to the dif-
eafed beaft ?
33. What fenftble effe&s have thefe remedies pro¬
duced ?
34. Laftly, what regimen has been obferved in the
g convalefcent ftate ?
Eruptive 'l eruptive difeafes incident to domeftic animals
difeafes. are but few’, when compared with the exanthemata
that take place in the human body. Many fuch dif¬
eafes are, however, defcribed by veterinary writers,
efpecially on the continent, where they feem to be much
more prevalent than among us. In particular, it ap¬
pears, that in the fouthern parts of Europe the fheep
are frequently affe&ed with an eruptive difeafe that
nearly refembles the fmallpox ; and, like this difeafe
in the human fubjetft, there are two varieties of this
affeftion, a diJlinR and a confluent. A very particular
account of this diftafe, as it occurred at Cauterets in
the department of the Lower Pyrenees in France, was
drawn up by M. Tenon, and communicated by him to
the agricultural fociety at Paris 3 and a tranflation of it
I E R Y. 553
has been publilhed in the Farmer’s Magazine for May Difeafes.
1804, from which we have taken it. ■ y—J
3. Sheep-pox. Claveau, Fr.
477
This diftemper, which at Cauterets is called the Sheep po*.
fmallpox, is contagious 5 and indifcriminately attacks
weddtrs, ewes, lambs, and goats, more efpecially when,
Ihut up during winter in confined cots, the animals are
kept very hot. It is a very Angular circumftance, that
this diftemper Ihould only appear at Cauterets, after
intervals of twelve, fifteen, or twenty years 3 while
in Guienne, and the Higher Languedoc, it rages every
year. Befides, that in the former mountainous tra6ls,
the weather is colder than in the plains of the latter
diftridts, the fheep of the Pyrenees are kept more apart
from each other than in the low countries, and th«
different flocks are much lefs liable to meet together,
or to pafs through the fame roads, by which they
are not nearly fo much expofed to the danger of in-
fedlion.
When feized with this diftemper, the ftieep become
dull and weak, and they loathe their food 3 the head,
eyes, ears, and gums, are fwelled 3 and hard white tu¬
mours appear in the groins and under the joint of the
ftioulder. Three or four days after the appearance of
thefe tumours, pimples break out in different parts of
the body. At firft, thefe are fituated on the naked
Ikin between the thighs, and on the places where tho
wool is fhort and fcanty 3 afterwards, they break out
about the head, and fucceflively over the whole body,
even on the eye-lids, ears and throat. In this ftage
of the difeafe the animal fwallows with pain, being
obliged to hold back the head, and to flretch out the
neck for the purpofe, and it breathes with great dif¬
ficulty. As the difeafe goes on, the pimples enlarge,
and become inflamed, particularly at their bafes 3 they
fuppurate and burft 3 the matter which runs out
mixes with the wool, and mats along with it into
hard lumps, but afterwards dries and falls to powder j
the wool falls off in locks 3 and even the fcarf Ikm
peels off in large pieces, which are full of holes. When
the diftemper begins to abate, the fheep rub themfelves
on the polls of the racks, or any other hard fubftance
which comes in their way 3 and by this means the
wool, along with the loofe Ikin and dried pus, are rub¬
bed off. If proper precautions were not employed, this
would infallibly fpread the contagion by infefting any
other Iheep that might be brought into the fame cots:
but, on purpofe to deftroy the infedlion, new cribs are
either fubftituted for the old ones, which are pulled
down and burnt, or elfe the infected cribs are walhed
with cream of lime, and the cots are thoroughly fu¬
migated with burning juniper and other aromatie
plants.
There are feveral varieties of this diforder. In fome
of thefe the eruption of puftules is by no means com¬
plete as above defcribed ; fometimes the pimples grow
black, and dry up without coming to fuppuration 3 atJ
other times the difeafe is of a complicated nature. But
as the diforder only appears at diftant periods among,
the Iheep at Cauterets, we are not to expeift very full
information concerning its various degrees from the
Ihepherds of that diftri£l; neither have they any de¬
cided experience of the effe&s of fulphur, or fetons, or
'534
FARR
>DiTeafes. of bliftefs, In thr CUfe of this diftemper* Blitlers
^ > are fa id to have fcarceiy any effect upon the ikins of
fli^ep.
It is certain, that the fleth of fuch (beep, as have died
of this diforder, is very unwholefome, has a very bad
tafte, and is even dangerous to'eat ; and they add, that
when dogs happen to feed on it, they catch the difeafe,
and fpread it by infection. 1 hree cats, by eating this
food, had their heads affedied \vith an eruption of puf-
tules, by which they were firft bonded, and afterwards
loft their lives. Hence the neceflity of the precaution
which is taken at Cauterets to bury deeply the carcafes
©f fheep which die ef this difeafe.
I had an opportunity, fays M. Tenon> at a butcher’s
in Paris, to examine fome fheep which had died of this
diforder. 1 he Ikins were covered with fuppurated pu-
ftules, which penetrated as far as the cellular mem¬
brane, and the fat in their neighbourhood was affedhd
for a confiderable diftance all round, being browner and
firmer than the ordinary fat ; and this alteration pene¬
trated even to the flelh.
The inhabitants of Cauterets affirm, that thefe pu-
fiules are found on the liver and other internal parts of
?the body.
M. Tenon made every poffible inquiry to learn whether
this difeafe wasever communicated from the fheeptoman-
kind, but he could learn no inftances of fuch infedHon i
it is believed, however, in Languedoc, that it is com¬
municated from fheep to rabbits. He could not learn
whether the fheep were ever affedted a fecond time
with the fame diforder $ but we cannot expedt informa¬
tion at Cauterets on this part of the fubjedf, fince the
difeafe only appears there for a fingle feafon, after in¬
tervals of twelve, fifteen, or twenty years, while the
fheep live but eight, or at moft, ten years ; fo that any
of them, which have once been difeafed, cannot be alive
when the nex't period of contagion comes round.
Whenever the diforder appears in the flock, the in-
fedted animals are feparated from the reft, and {hut up
in warm cots, having plenty of xvheat or barley ftraw
given them for litter ; they are fed with bay and after¬
math wffiicb have been made on a dry field, with a
little fait, and are allowed lukewarm water for drinl>.
In the flat country at larbes, which is ten leagues
diftant from Cauterets, and confiderably warmer than
in the Pyrenees, and where this diftemper is much
more frequent, a different method of treatment is fol¬
lowed. At the beginning of the difeafe blood is drawn
by cutting the ear j the cots are fumigated for five or
fix fucceffive days, by burning aromatic and ftrong
fmelling herbs, preferring the dried ftems of garlic for
this purpofe •, thefe are burnt on a large ftone in the
middle of the cot, while all the vent holes are careful¬
ly flopped, to prevent, as much as poffible, the fmoke
from elcaping. ‘Ihe fhepherds of Tarbes have great
confidence in the beneficial effedfs of fumigating with
garlic fleams, which occafions a great difcharge from
the noflrds, efpecially in fuch cafes of the difeafe as
are complicated with catarrhal diforders, and with the
flaggers or vertigo.
At Bellegarde, near Auch, they give to each beaft
a double handful of white .mulberry leaves, which they
allege is a moft eff< dual cure, and ferves excellently for
preventing the attacks of the difeafe.
1 E It Y. part
When, at Cauterets, the diforder begins to abate, Rj(v
whatever be the feafon of the year, the animals are
dipt, on purpole to affift the drying of the puitules,
and to favour the growth of a new fleece. Alter this
the ftieep fatten very quickly ; and it is worth while to
remark, that the fleece which immediately fucceeds this
difeafe is finer and more filky than any former or future
fleece on the fame beafts.
Formerly this difeafe made great ravages among the
ffieep at Carcaffone, till a method was fallen on to in¬
oculate the difeafe. M. Uenon learned this fad in
1762 from Dr French, an Irifti phyfician, who lived
in Languedoc for feveral years ; but it was not till
1763 that he received particular information on this
curious fubjed from M. Berra, mayor of Carcaffone, to
whom he had written for information, and who pro-
cuied him a memoir on the difeafesof ftieep in that part
of the country. From this memoir the following ac¬
count of inoculating the fheep-pox is extraded.
“ The feigneur of Maux, in the diocefe of Nar-
bonne is the firft, and almoft the only perfon who has
pradifed inoculating the fmallpox on his flocks ; and
having been fuccefsful during ten years experience of
the pradice, his widow has ever fince continued to fol¬
low his example.
“ the month of September, when the heat of fum-
mer is pa ft, and before there is any danger of very cold
weather ; while the paftures are ftill in good order, and
the lambs, which are now fix or feven months old, are
ftrong enough for withflanding the force of the difeafe,
this feafon is chofen as the fitteft for communicating the
fmallpox to the fheep. For this purpofe the frefh fkin
of a ftieep, either ewe, wedder, or lamb, which has died
of the difeafe, or, inftead of that, one taken from a
flieep which has been killed while affedtd by it, is
placed on the floor »f the cot. Into this cot all the
young flieep of the year are driven, and they volunta¬
rily rub and roll themfelves on the difeafed fkin. Very
foon afterwards the fymptoms of the difeafe begin to
appear $ they have a dull and heavy appearance, hold
down their heads, are fomewhat fevered, and loathe
their food. On purpofe to aid the eruption of the pu-
ftules, bread dipt in wine is given to the ftieep ; they
are anxioufly preferved from being expofed to great
heat or great cold, and particularly from rain. By
thefe precautions they fpeedily recover, and it very
rarely happens that even one dies out of a flock of three
hundred.
Although the diforder has often fpread over the dif-
in the neighbourhood of the eftate where this
practice prevails, there has been no inftance of a fingle
fheep, after undergoing the above defcribed operation,
having been infe&ed a fecond time. It ought to have
been noticed, that the inoculated flock is caiefully pre¬
sented from mixing with any other fhtep, by keeping
it in a feparate cot, and on a particular paflure, the
other fhepherds being forbidden to ufe either for the
flocks under their charge. By thefe precautions, the
difeafe is prevented from fpreading, and fuch proprietors
as do not with to have their flirep artificially infttfed,
have themfelves to blame if they do not avoid the place
where the difeafed flieep are kept. Since this practice
has been followed, it has been obferved that the dif¬
order has not returned fo frequently, but that it has not
proved
Fart VI. FARR
Difeafes. proved Jn llie Ie.aft degree deftruaive to the flocks which
^ - have not been inoculated.
M. Berra adds, that the lambs never lofe their
wool under the initance of the inoculated diforder, and
that their fleeces are equally good in every refpedit with
thofe of the. uninfetfled, fo that no difference can be
perceived *.
Mw!To'l.v.. T1,is direafe was once Pretty common in Britain, but
p. 17*5. ts now fcarcely known among us. It is, however, jurt-
ly apprehended, that importation of Iheep from the con¬
tinent may again introduce it ; and Sir Jofeph Banks
has taken much pains to caution the public againlt the
danger of fuch an introdudtion.
4. Cow-fox, or Kine-pox. Vaccina.
47*
Cow-pox. A greater bitfling was pever procured to mankind
than what has been alreadyj derived, and will, we truft,
be ultimately derived, from the invaluable difcovery of
the inoculated cow-pox, in preventing the perfon who
has received it from being afterwards liable to variolous
contagion. For this bleffing we are certainly indebted"'
to the labours and experiment^ of Dr Edward Jenner.
There is no doubt that the difeafe was known many
years ago in fome of our principal dairy diftridts •, but
Dr Jenner has all the merit of having extenfively cir¬
culated the difcovery, and of having firft applied it to
thofe valuable purpofes to which an almofl univerfal
experience has ffiown it to be well adapted.
The fymptoms and origin of this difeafe amongft
cows, have been briefly described by Dr jenner in his
publications on the fubjeft. The firff of thefe appeared
in 1798, while Dr Jenner was pradifing in Berkely in
Gloucefterlhire, where he had an opportunity of fre¬
quently feeing the difeafe.
“In this dairy country, (fays Dr Jenner) a great
number of cows are kept, and the office of milking is
performed indifcriminately by men and maid fervants.
One of the former having been appointed to apply dref-
fings to the heels of a horfe affeded with the greafe $
and not paying due attention to cleanlinefs, incautioufly
bears his part in milking the cows with fome particles
of the infedious matter adhering to his fingers. When
this is the cafe, it commonly happens that a difeafe is
communicated to the cows, and from the cows to the
dairy maids, which fpreads through the farm, until
nioft of the cattle and domeffics feel its unpleafant con-
fequences. This difeafe has obtained the name of the
cow-pox. It appears on the nipples of the cows in the
form of irregular puflules. At their firff appearance-
they are commonly of a palifh blue, or rather of a co¬
lour fomewhat approaching to livid, and are furrounded
by an eryfipelatous inflammation. Thefe puftules, un-*
lefs a timely remedy be applied, frequently degenerate
into phagedenic ulcers, which prove extremely trouble-
fome. The animals become indifpofed, and the fecre-
Enl'ir'’'* t'°n mut-h Effened f.”
There fometimes appear- another kind of eruption on
the udder of the caw, which on a fuperficial view may
be miffaken for cow-pox. It confiffs of a number of white
blifters on the nipples, and thefe blillers are filled with
a whitifh ferous fluid. They are to be diffinguiflied
from the puffules that take place in the cow-pox, by
their not having the blutifli colour of the latter, and
by their never eating into the flefhy parts, being confin¬
ed to the fkin, and ending in fcabs, This eruption alfo
P' 3
1 E R Y.
appears to be infectious, but not nt&rly in fo great a de¬
gree as the true cow-pox.
Dr Jenner confiders this fpurious eruption as being
chiefly produced by the tranfition which is made by
the cow, in the fprrng, from a poor diet to one that is
more nouriffiing, by which the udder at this feafon be¬
comes more than ufually vafcular for the fupply of milk,
i here is, however, another fort of inflammation and puf¬
tules, which appears to be not uncommon in all the dairy
counties in the weft of England. A cow intended to
be expofed for fale, and having naturally a fmall udder,
is for a day or two previoufly neither milked by the
milker, nor is her calf iuffered to have accefs to her; thus
the milk is preternaturally accumulated, and the udder
and nipple become greatly diftended. The confequences
frequently are inflammation and puftular eruption.
As the eruption of the cow-pox difappears in a few
days, little more is required than to keep the teats clean,
and handle them as carefully as poflible during milking. 479
The fa£t of cow-pox originating from the matter of Originates
greafe, or of the latter being capable of producing the*n £rea^*’
former, was, we believe, firff difcovered by Dr Jenner j
but the opinion was for fome time confidered as fallaci¬
ous. Many unfuccefsful attempts were made by Dr
Woodville and by Mr Coleman to produce cow-pox by
inoculating the udders of cows with matter from grealy
heels. Some experiments made by Mr Simmons
tended ftill farther to difprove Dr Jenner’s opinion.
But about five years ago, Dr John Loy publiffied a
fmall pamphlet, in which he has related fome experi¬
ments made by himfelf, with a view to determine this
controverted point. He was led to make thefe experi¬
ments from iome cafes that fell under his obfervation, of
a difeafe very fimilar to the cow-pox appearing on per-
fons who muff certainly have derived it from the matter
of greafe. Dr Loy’s experiments fully confirmed the
opinion of Dr Jenner, and proved that the matter of
greafe would, by inoculation, produce in the human
body a difeafe exa£Uy refembling cow-pox, and like it
capable of protefting the inoculated perfon from an in-
vafion of the fmall pox. Dr Loy alfo proved, that in
fome cafes, the cow-pox might be produced in cows by
the immediate application of the matter of greafe, but
that this experiment did not fucceed unlefs the horf*
had alfo a general affeflion of the fyftem. This led Dr
Loy to fuppofe that there exift two fpecies of greafe, the
one merely a local affeiftion, ,the other a general affec- #r *
lion of the fyfteni*.' ^
The reafons that induced Dr Jenner to fuppofe \hz\. Experi-
cow-pox originates in greafe are thus ftated by himfelf, merits on
in his fecond publication on the fubjeft of cow-pox.
Firff, He conceived greafe to be the fouree of cow-
pox, from obferving that where the cow-pox had ap¬
peared among the dairies in Gloucefterfhire (unlefs it
could be traced to the introduflion of an infe&ed cow
or fervant), it had been preceded at the farm by a horfe
labouring under greafe', which horfe had been attended
by fome of the milkers.
Secondly, From its being a popular opinion through
that dairy country, and from* its being infifted on by
thofe who there attend fick cattle.
Thirdly, From the total abfence of the difeafe in
Scotland and Ireland (as the dodtor was informed from
the beft authority) where the men fervants are not em¬
ployed in the dairies.
Fourthly,
53®
FARR
t Pi'fe?-fes. Fourthly, From having obferved that morbid matter
generated by the horfe, frequently communicates in a
cafual way, a difeafe to the human fubjeft fo like the
cow-pox, that in many cafes it would be difficult to
mark the diftinffion between the one and the other*
The truth of this obfervation is well illuffrated by the
above experiments of Dr Loy.
Fifthly, From his being induced to believe from ex¬
periments, that fome of thofe who had been thus infedl-
cd by the horfe, refilled the fmallpox.
Sixthly, From the progrefs and general appearance
of a pufiule on the arm of a boy whom he inoculated
with matter taken from the hand of a man that had
t* yenner's been infefted by a horfe, and from the fimilarity to the
further 05-cow-pox, of the general conllitutional fymptoms which
fervations, followed*.
P< 21.
„ c. Le Louvet.
4S0 J
„Le Louvet. Continental writers defcribe a variety of eruptions
under the general name of charbon, or carbuncle, which
afife£l various parts of the body, and have received dif¬
ferent names according to the part which they attack.
\Ve lhall here only notice one of thefe which raged
epidemically about the middle of the laft century in
Switzerland, where it is called ie Louvet.
It affefted both cattle and horfes, but feems to have
been attended with different fymptoms in each. Ac¬
cording to M. Reynier, a phyfician at Laufanne, who
publilhed an account of the diflemper, when an ox is
feized with it, he fuddenly lofes his llrength, trembles,
feems defirous of lying conllantly on the ground,
whence he feldom moves except to refrelh himfelf; he
carries his head low, and his ears llouching ; he is fad,
and moans; his eyes red, his fkin very hot and dry,
and his breathing frequent and difficult. When the
difeafe has made fome progrefs, expiration is always
followed with a confiderable deprelfion of the flanks ;
tfiere is a frequent cough ; the breath is very fetid ;
» the heart and arteries beat violently ; the tongue and
palate are dry and become blackilh ; the animal lofes
his appetite and ceafes to chew the cud ; there is con¬
fiderable thirfl ; the urine is fcanty, reddifh, and the
excrement hard and blackifh towards the beginning of
the difeafe, and fometimes limpid and bloody. Cows
lofe their milk. On moft of the animals inflammatory
tumours are produced, which appear fometimes on-the
cheft, fometimes on the vertebras of the neck, and on
the belly ; at others on the udder, and the parts of ge¬
neration. At other times they entirely cover the fkin
In pimples, like thofe of the mange or fcab.
All thefe fymptoms do not often appear on the fame
fubjeiR ; but in proportion as more of them occur, the
difeafe is the more fatal. In general, death takes
place on the fourth day, .when the fymptoms are vio¬
lent ; if they pads the fourth day, and are not worfe on
the feventh, their recovery is pretty certain, though
they are often not convalefeent before the fifteenth
day.
# When the urine is turbid, and depofits a whitilh fe-
diment; when the excrements are mere abundant than
in the natural ftate, moift and not very offenfive ; when
the Ikin is black and relaxed, the pimples filled with
whitilh matter, the thirft alleviated ; when the appetite
^nd rumination returns, and when the puflules begin
to dry up, a perfect recovery may be expected : but on
I E R Y- Part vi.
the contrary, when there is much (welling of the belly, Dift,a{V
when the animals moan much, when there appear great u—
debility, trembling, convulfions, retention of urine, diar-
rhsea or dyfentery, a fatal termination may be looked for.
On opening the bodies of fuch animals as die of this
difeafe, there appear on the ikin numerous black tu¬
mours, full of yellow ferous fluid that-offervefces with
acids ; the mufcles are livid, foft and flaccid ; the lung*
wafted, full of tubercles and little ulcers, eipecially on
thofe animals which died on the fourth day. The fto-
mach and bowels are befet with red tumours, full of &
tenacious clammy fluid.
M. Reynier confiders the predifpofing caufes of this
difeafe to be the bad quality of the water which the
beafts drank, the corrupted ftate of their food, excef-
five fatigue, low and ill-aired ftables, deficiency of her¬
bage, and tempeftuous weather. Like many other
medical men of his time, he held the immediate caufe
of the difeafe to confift in an alkalefcent ftate of the
blood. I he method ol cure confifted in giving drenches
of emollient deco&ions, clyfters of the fame fubftances,
with nitre and vinegar mixed with honey; and towards
the latter ftage of the difeaie, the Peruvian bark and
camphor were adminiftered. This was a Very innocent
and gentle treatment, and it is no wonder that fo many
of the cattle died.
6. Strangles.
The difeafe called Jlrang/es in horfes, is confideredStrangle*,
by Mr Blaine as a fpecific fever, accompanied with a
difpolition to inflammation in the glands of the head and
throat. It moft commonly attacks horfes betwixt four
and fix years of age, though it may occur at any period
before fix ; but rarely appears after that age. Young
horfes are moft fubjefl to it when firft brought to labour,
and put on the nourilhing diet of the liable, though Mr
Lawrence lias feen it in unbroken colts in the field. It
feems that few horfes efcape having it once in their life.
It commences with a confiderable degree of fever ;
the breath is hot, the eyes «re heavy and languid, the
horfe thrufts out his nofe, has a hoarfe cough, and la¬
bours under fome difficulty in fwallowing. There foon
appears a fwelling between the jaws, or on the infide
of the lower jaw, which ufually extends to the parotid
glands. Thefe fwellings, if left to themfelves, go on
to fuppuration ; and about the fifth or fixth day they
break and difcharge a confiderable quantity of matter ;
but fometimes the heat, hardnefs, atid fwelling of the
glands continue for a long time. Thefe fympmrns are
ufually attended with a running at the nofe, which is
confidered as a favourable fign.
This complaint is feldom dangerous, though now and
then there is fome rilk of fuffocation, and fometimes it
degenerates into glanders. Of this Mr Lawrence has
feen feveral inftances. It appears to be contagious, and
may be propagated by inoculation, which has induced
us to confider it among the febrile eruptions.
The writers on farriery have flrangely differed with
refpeft to the nature of this affedlion. The elder
Lafoffe confidered it as analogous to the fmallpox ;
Bracken, as a fpecies of cynanche, or quin fey; and it
certainly nearly refembles the cynanche parotidea, or
mumps. Others have fuppofed it to be like the chicken-
pox, or mealies.
It is not agreed on whether it is better to check the
inflammation
4&t
Greafc.
Part VI. FARR
Difeaf#s. inflammation of the glands, or to encourage their fup-
' pnntinn Mr Blaine recommends the former plan,
■which is beft effe&ed by bleeding, purging, and the ule
of diuretics*, while a folution of fugar of lead is applied
to the fwelling externally $ but if the fwellings continue
hard and hot, it will be proper to encourage fuppura-
tion by the frequent application of warm poultices. If
there is much forenefs and fwelling of the throat, a
large blifter Ihould be applied to it. If there is much
fever, nitre or emetic tartar may be added to the
horfe’s water ; for it would be wrong to give him medi¬
cine in the form of a ball or drench. He may have
frequent warm malhes ; and to encourage the running
at the nofe, there ftiould be hung to it a bag contain¬
ing a warm mafh, which fhould be frequently renewed.
The horfe’s head Ihould be kept warm, and currents of
cold air fhould be avoided. When the tumours break,
the difcharge fhould be afiifted by enlarging the open-
. ing and applying warm poultices, and the ulcers may
be dreffed with the common digeftive ointment. If the
difcharge proceeds by the mouth, the parts fhould be
frequently waflied with vinegar and water fweetened
with honey.
5. GREASE. Eaux aux Jambes, Fr. Greafy heels.
In the fourth chapter of the laft fedlion, N° 423. we
made a few obfervations on fwelling of the legs, and
we remarked that this complaint often terminated in
greafe.
Greafe is a complaint that is extremely common
among horfes, to whom it is peculiar, not being known
to affeft any other fpecies of animals, or at leaf! there
is no other animal in whom that peculiar fecretion
■which conftitutes the matter of greafe in horfes is
found to take place. There appears to be t wo varieties
of greafe, the one a mere local affection, the other a
more general affeflion of the fyflem attended with
fever.
The complaint firft appears by a flight fwelling about
the coronet and pattern, fometimes accompanied with
pain or itching, fo that the horfe rubs his feet againtt
each other, or ftamps and fliifts himfelf from fide to
fide. On feeling the fwelled part, it is commonly found
much hotter than ufual, and is evidently red and in¬
flamed. Very foon there may be perceived an oozing
through the fkin, of a yellowifli fluid that is very offen-
five, and of an un&uous greafy feel. This fwelling gra¬
dually extends up the canon towards the knee, and
when the horfe is taken out to work, he appears ftiffand
lame till he becomes heated ; and when he returns from
work, the leg appears lint and inflamed. The fwelling
and oozing of fetid greafy fluid gradually increafe till
cracks begin to make their appearance in the Ikin about
the heels, the hairs about thefe parts fall off, and the
Ikin below appears puffy, of a whitifh or livid colour ;
and on it are generally feen little bladders, from which
a matter of the fame kind as what we have deferibed
oozes out. Thefe, vefieles foo* become ulcers, and the
matter they contain affumes the appearance of pus,
which irritates and inflames the neighbouring parts,
fretting and excoriating the Ikin. Generally a number
of red granulations or excrefcences appear within the
ulcers, and from their form are commonly called grapes ;
and if the complaint continues long, the hoof becomes
fungous, or there is a luxuriant growth of foft fpongy
Vol. VIII. Part II.
I E R Y. • 537
horn. If the complaint be negle&ed, the ulceration of Difeafes.
the part increafes, and extends even to the bones, which ——v~—
become foft, fpongy, and at laft carious.
In what is called the confirmed ftate of greafe, the
affected parts are exquifitely fenfible, and they bleed
on the flighteft touch, and there are commonly produ¬
ced a number of horny excrefcences about the fetlock.
The hair {lands ere£t, and the horfe becomes lean,
weak, and exceflively irritable.
Such are the general appearances and progrefs of
greafe; but there are often fome little varieties in both.
Sometimes the cracks appear very early in the difeafe,
and fometimes there is confiderable fever; but whether
this precedes the appearance of the veficles, or is occa*-
fioned only by the pain and irritation that accompany
the complaint, we are uncertain. It ftiould feem, from
the obfervations of Dr Loy and others, that a fever,
fuch as accompanies eruptive difeafes, frequently at¬
tends greafe ; and in this cafe, as we have faid, it is to
be confidered as a general affeftion. It is deferibed as
fuch by Hazard, and other continental writers ; and
they even fpeak of the appearances that have been found
on diffe&ion of horfes that have died when affefted with v
this complaint, of the repercuflion of the eruption from
cold, &c. On the other hand, there is no doubt that
fever may be excited by the irritation of the parts, ef-
pecially if the horfe is obliged to work. It may take
t place in any of the legs, but is more common in the
hind legs.
Such horfes as have round fleftry legs, fuch as have
white hair upon their legs, and in general, fuch horfes
as are weak and phlegmatic, are more fubjeft than
others to greafe.
It may be brought on by various caufes. It is very
commonly produced by allowing horfes to ftand long
idle, in the liable. In this way the circulation, which is
naturally more languid in the legs, efpecially in the
hinder legs, than in other parts of the body, becomes
fo languid in the heels, that the veins cannot readily
propel forward their contents, and confequently an ac¬
cumulation takes place in the minute capillary branches ;
whence fwelling and inflammation. This accumulation
is aflifted by the perpendicular fituation of the legs, by
which a column of blood, that for want of the aftion. of
the mufcles is moved with difficulty, continually preffes
on the lower parts. Hence we find, that when horfes
are not allowed to ftretch themfelves at their eafe, they
are extremely fubjeft to fwelled legs and 'greafe. The
languid circulation is ftill greater in hprfes that are
naturally of a weak conftitution, or who have been de¬
bilitated by difeafe. So great is the efft’61 of diminiffi-
ed exercife in producing fwelled legs in greafe, that
fome horfes are always affe<ffed with this complaint when
brought into the liable, and can be preferved from it,
only by being regularly turned out into the field after
work. It is very commonly obferVed, that when horfes
firft come up from paftuue, or from a ftraw yard, they
are all more or lefs affeded with fwelled legs ; and if
thefe are not diligently attended to, they foon have
greafy heels. It is certain that horfes in their natural
{late, or while kept conftantly at pallure, are never af-
fefled with greafe.
Sudden changes from heat to cold, or vice verfat
frequently produce this complaint; but, according to
Mr Feron, it is mors commonly produced by fudden
3 Y changes
533 FARR
Difeafes. changes from cold to heat. “ If (fays he) a colt is
^ taken from grafs, and immediately kept in a warm fta-
ble, after having been ufed to the feverity of the atmo-
fphere, he then gets the diforder. When old horfes are
troubled with the greafe, we (hall find that their feet
have been expofed firft to cold, and afterwards to heat,
as when they have been in cold water or fnow for a
long time, and on coming into the liable have a large
bed of draw, or perhaps hot dung, to (land upon. This
fudden tranfition from cold to heat, produces a weak-
nefs in the legs, particularly in the {kin j when inflam¬
mation and cracks, fimilar to chilblains in the human
fubjedt, take place, and are called the greafe in
horfes.”
Nothing contributes more to the produftion of greafe
than negligence, with refpedl to keeping the legs
clean, and rubbing them often. It is a difputed point,
whether the hair that grows about the fetlock is preju¬
dicial or not to horfes that are fubjedt to greafe. It is
contended by Mr Richard Lawrence, that greafe is a
very common confequence of removing the hair ; and
confidering that the hair is a good prefervative againft
fudden tranfitions from heat to cold, we are difpofed to
think its removal improper, where the heels are not al¬
ready ulcerated. On the other hand, Mr Blaine re¬
marks, that whenever accidental wet occurs, this hair
mult retain a large quantity of it, and hence be long
in drying, occafioning a copious evaporation,, and thus
producing much cold, and that the hair renders it dif¬
ficult to keep the legs fo clean, as they might be pre-
ferved without it. Even fuppofing thefe arguments to
be juft, they only {how the neceflity of greater care and
attention in rubbing the heels dry and keeping the
hair free from dirt.
Greafe may alfo be produced by too much hard work,
after which the legs fwell, and if the fwelling be ne-
gledfted the heels may become greafy. This, however,
is probably not a very common caufe.
Greafe is faid to be moft common in fpring and
autumn, when horfes are moulting or calling their
coats.
On the whole, it appears that this complaint may
take place in two different ftates of the body y a ftate
of general weaknefs, the effefl of conftitution or dif-
eafe ; and a ftate of plethora, attended with propor¬
tional languid circulation in the veffels of the legs or
feet.
In the treatment of greafe, we muft confider whether
it be merely a local affedlion, or be connedled with
fome general morbid affedlion of the body ; and we
muft alfo attend to the ftate of the affedlion, as the na¬
ture of the local applications will depend much on the
progrefs that the difeafe has made.
In the early ftage of the complaint, when the in¬
flammation is flight, and the {kin is not yet broken, if
it has been owing to want of exercife and plethora, it
may be proper to draw blood from the veins of the
thighs, and a diuretic ball, fuch as N° 12. or 13.
fhould be given, and repeated every two or three days.
The hair muft be cut clofe, and the heels well waftied
with warm foap and water, after which they muft be
gently rubbed till they are perfedlly dry, and bathed
with fome ftimulating liniment. This plan, with gen¬
tle exercife and a cooling diet, efpecially bran malhes^
2
I E R Y.. yj.
with an ounce of nitre in each, every flight, will pro- Difeaf
bably prevent the complaint from going any farther.
If the inflammation be very confiderable, and the horfe
is plethoric, he muft be bled pretty largely from the
jugular vein, and have a mild purge. Cloths, dipped
in vinegar and water, or in a folution of fugar of lead,
fhould be applied to the heels after walhing, and kept
conftantly moift with the fame liquor. More than
walking exercife here will be improper ) but if it is
dry weather, a run for a few hours a-day in a field will
greatly contribute to removing the fwelling. Mr Fe-
ron, who is a great advocate for warm fomentations in
inflammatory affe&ions of the feet and legs, recom¬
mends the legs to be kept the whole day in warm wa¬
ter ; and when they are taken from the bath, to be well
wrapt up in a warm poultice of bran and water: If by
thefe means the inflammation fubfides, the legs may be
waflied with a folution of alum.
If cracks appear, great attention muft be paid to keep
them clean from dirt, and they ftiould be frequently,
waflied with a folution of blue vitriol. If grapes ap¬
pear, they may be touched with blue vitriol, or burnt
alum j or if they become large, they muft be cut away,
with a fliarp knife, and afterwards feared with a hot
iron. If the ulcers are foul, one of the beft applications
will be a folution of verdigrife, or the ointment com¬
monly called Egyptiacum, of which verdigrife forms onu
of the principal ingredients.
The ftrideft attention to diet, regimen, and cleanli-
nefs, muft be obferved during the whole treatment,
and gentle exercife muft be perfifted in. The beft diet
on thefe occafions will be cut grafs, lucerne, frefti clo¬
ver, carrots, or good fweet hay, and an occafional feed
of corn. The horfe ftiould not be tied up in the flail,
but fliould ftand loofe while he is in the liable, and
ftiould be allowed no litter, except at night. The lia¬
ble ftiould be kept perfeflly clean and well aired, and
not too warm.
Sometimes, even though the complaint fliould not at
firft have originated in debility, there will, if the dif¬
eafe is of long {landing, be produced a confiderable de¬
gree of weaknefs. In thefe cafes the cure will be
greatly aflifted by giving (Lengthening, remedies, fuch
as bark, horfe-chefnut bark, &c. And as in this weak
ftate of the body the difcharge from the ulcerated fur-
face is commonly thin and ichorous, the fore muft be
dreffed with ftimulating ointment; and if there appears
a tendency to mortification, as fometimes happens, a
powder of equal parts of Peruvian bark and opium
fhould be fprinkled on the fores, before applying the
plafter. If the difcharge is very oftenfive, a ferment¬
ing poultice, fuch as N° 64. may be applied over the
dreffings.
It will readily appear, that the beft means of pre¬
venting greafe, will be to give the horfe regular exer¬
cife, to drefs him well, and efpecially to keep his legs
dry and clean, and to avoid the extremes of heat and
cold.
Greafe might perhaps have been confidertd under
the head of fpecific inflammation j but as it is fometimes.
attended with a general affeflion of the body, and is
ultimately connefted with one of the moft interefting
eruptive difeafes, we thought it beft to treat of it in this
place.
Ckap,.
Part VI.
FARR
Difeafe8.
Ch AP. II. Of Inflammatory Difeafes.
I. Inflammation of the Brain. Phrenitis. Mad
Staggers, Phrerrzy, Megrim, or Sough. Mai de feu
ou d’Efpagne, Fr.
483
Inflamma- This is one of the molt ferious and fatal inflamma¬
tion of the tions which affeft the animal fyilem. It attacks occa-
fionally all the domellic animals, but horfes and cattle
are the mod fubjecl to it. In the former it is generally
called the ?nadflaggers, to diftinguifli it from apoplexy,
or fleepy flaggers j when it occurs in cat tie, it ufually takes
one of the other names which we have given asfynonyms.
Inflammation of the brain is foraetimes preceded by
giddinefs and partial blindnefs ; the animal holds his
head low, or refts it againft the manger j he appears
dull, heavy, and fleepy$ gradually, however, thefe fymp-
toms go off, and are fucceeded by others of a very dif¬
ferent nature. His eyes appear red, fiery, and fpark-
fling } he now holds his head higher, and appears for
fome time to look conflantly at any objefl before him :
foon he becomes very refllefs, till by degrees he is quite
unmanageable. He fometimes lies down, and tumbles
about, and then remains quiet for a while 5 but he fonn
gets up again, and is as ungovernable as before, render¬
ing it dangerous for any perfon to approach him. The
pulfe in this difeafe is full and hard, and there is confi-
derable throbbing of the temporal arteries. The pulfe
is not always the fame in every cafe, being in general
lefs frequent than in health, but fometimes more fo.
There is always a confiderable degree of fever, and the
head leems peculiarly affedted. The fecretions and ex¬
cretions are generally diminifhed, but itisfaid that they
are fometimes increafed.
Such are the fymptoms as they generally appear in
the horfe •, thofe which take place in cattle, as they are
deferibed in the beft books on the fubje<5t of cattle me¬
dicine, differ in a few particulars.
The animal is deferibed as looking frightfully, being
unufually watchful, ftarting often, groaning vehement¬
ly, as if affe&ed with fudden and violent pain ; his re-
fpiration flow, but he fometimes makes very long infpi-
rations, and appears for a time as if his breathing was
entirely fufpended. Suddenly the bead will rife, turn
about, and inftantly lie down again, {flowing marks of
great reftleffnefs and delirium. When the frenzy is
high, the eyes look red and furious j at other times
they bprder on languor and ftupefaftion ; but the beaft
always appears to labour under confiderable fear, and
dreads the approach of every thing 3 he is often quite
ungovernable, and fcarcely ever inclines to reft, except
in the latter ftage of the difeafe, ■when, if it has been
negle&ed, or has not yielded to the ufual remedies, a
lethargy takes place, and the animal finks. Sometimes
the urine is hot and high-coloured j but it is faid that
before a fit of phrenzy takes place, the urine is often of
a pale colour, and thinner than natural.
When the fymptoms of fury or irritation fuddenly
ceafe, and a lethargy takes place, while the pulfe be¬
comes feeble, and the ftrength diminifhes, the cafe is
pretty certainly hopelefs} but if the fever, rednefs, and
flafhing of the eyes gradually fubfide, without the pulfe
finking, or great debility coming on, the beaft may ge-
p.erally be pronounced recovering.
On opening the head of fuch animals as have died of
! S R Y. 539
this complaint, very evident marks of inflammation ap- Difeafes.
pear about the membranes of the brain, and very fre- f
quently in the fubftance of the brain itfelf. All the
vefiels are turgid with blood ; and on cutting into the
brain, innumerable little red points are to be feen,
which do not appear in the natural ftate. Very com¬
monly an effufion of blood, or of purulent matter, is
found to have taken place into the cavities of the brain,
or in fome part near its furface.
The caufes of inflammation of the brain are generally
the fame that produce inflammatory fever, applied in a
greater degree ; as great heat, exceflive exercife, a fud¬
den change from a poor to a rich diet.
The cure of this complaint requires the moft prompt
and decifive meafures. Blood muft be taken in large
quantities from the jugular vein or temporal Rrtery.
Not lefs than three quarts fflould be taken from an or¬
dinary horfe, ox, or cow 5 and if the animal is very
large, four may be taken •, and the bleeding muft be
repeated a few hours after, if the fymptoms do not
abate. When the beaft is very furious, it is often dan¬
gerous to bleed in a very deliberate way ; but as his re¬
covery will almoft certainly depend on a fufficient lofs
of blood in the early part of the difeafe, it will not be
amifs to bleed him in the manner deferibed by Mr
Blaine, as having been praftifed by an eminent veteri¬
nary furgeon, who being called to a horfe affhcled with
flaggers, and in fuch a ftate of delirium that none of
the ordinary precautions for fecuring him could be
adopted, plunged a lancet into each jugular, and per¬
mitted the animal to bleed till he fainted, by which
means, though the difeafe was far advanced, he faved
the horfe. After bleeding, a flimulant blifter fflould
be applied to the top of the head, and the fides of the
neck fflould be well rubbed with a mixture of powdered
cantharides and oil of turpentine, and other means ufed
to promote external inflammation, for the purpofe of
determining the blood from the head. Mr Coleman is
faid to recommend in thefe cafes the pouring of boiling
water on the pafterns, by which means bliftering will
fpeedily be produced in thefe parts. In defperate cafes
the determination of blood to the head may be moft ef-
fedlually flopped, by tying a ligature about one of the
external carotid arteries5 but in doing this great care
muft be taken not to include within the ligature the
nerves that run near the artery, as thefe nerves are the
principal branches that fupply the ftomach ; and if they
be included in the ligature, the fundlions of that organ
will be in a great meafure deftroyed. In addition to
thefe means coftivenefs muft be carefully guarded againft.
After back raking, a ftimulating purging clyfter fhould.
be injefted as foon as poflible, and if an interval of
quiet will permit, a purging ball, fuch as N° 15. may
be given by the mouth. If the above means are adopt¬
ed in proper time, the animal will generally be faved ;
but if fome days have elapfed before vigorous fteps are
taken, there can be little hope of a cure.
Mr Downing, in his work on cattle-dodloring, men¬
tioned in N° 87. advifes a method of treating inflamma¬
tion of the brain in cattle, that is extremely contradic¬
tory and inconfiftent. He at firft very properly advifes
bleeding j but he directs this to be followed by giving
diapente, a very powerful cordial medicine, the admini-
ftration of which completely counteradls the effefts of
the bleeding. Dr Downing deferibes a fever of the
3 Y 2 brain
54°
Difeafes,
4*4
Inflamma¬
tion of the
eye.
FARR
brain as diftmft from Inflammation ; and he then treats
of a lleepy fever. Thefe are evidently fymptomatic affec¬
tions, and ihould have been given as fuch, as well asgid-
dinefs, or fvvimming in the head, which is defcribed by
Dr Downing “ as a diftemper belonging to the cavities
of the eyes and optic nerves. It gives a wavering mo¬
tion to the body. For if the optic nerve, or its expan-
fion on the bottom of the eye called retina, be agitated
by any preternatural heat, or other emotion, objects will
change their fituation; therefore this difeafe is a fever
affefling the cavities of the eyes, or the optic nerves.”
2. Inflammation of the Eye. Ophthalmia Membra-
narum. Moon-blindnefs.
Though in the human fubjeft there are feveral fpe-
cies of ophthalmia, in the horfe there is but one, which
is in a great meafure fynonymous to what has been cal¬
led ophthalmia membranarum by medical writers. This
difeafe in the horfe is of confiderable importance, as it
is not merely a local difeafe, but appears to be connec¬
ted with fome conftitutional affection. Before we de-
fcribe the fymptoms and treatment of this complaint, it
xsili be proper to remark, that in the eye of the horfe
there is a firm cartilaginous fubftance, fituated at the
inner corner of the eye, the greater part of which is
hidden by the eyelids, but a fmall portion projeds beyond
them, and may be diftinguifhed by its black colour.
This is commonly called the haw, and by anatomifts the
membrana niBitans, and is fuppofed to be a production
of the retraCtor mufcle. Our reafon for mentioning
this part will appear immediately.
Inflammation of the eye fometimes makes its appear¬
ance very fuddenly ; at others it is gradual in its attack.
In general, one of the earliefi: fymptoms of it is a fwel-
ling of the eyelids, efpecially of the upper, which is
with difficulty held open j the eyes water confiderably,
and drops of tears may be feen at the extremity of the
lachrymal du£l, which do not appear in the healthy
ftate of the eye. The external tranfparent parts of the
eye become djfculoured and obfeured, appearing of a
blackifh glaffy hue ; fometimes of a dull white, at others
brown or bluiffi. Red veflels may. be feen running over
the white of the eye, efpecially at the corners, and
fometimes reaching to the centre of the eye. The cor¬
nea is faid to be molt obfeured on its upper part ; but
this is probably owing to the fituation of the perfon who
looks at the eye, who being below it, fees direClly
through the lower part of the cornea, and but oblique¬
ly through the upper. When the eyes are in this ftate,
the horfe is very impatient of light, and holds his head
down to guard againfl: it. The eyelids and ball of the
eye are evidently much hotter than ufual, and fome¬
times there may be feen through the cornea, a fmall
quantity of thickifli matter called pus, in the lower part
of the anterior chamber of the eye. The cartilaginous
membrane or haw is now much more vifible, and projefts
forward confiderably outward from the corner of the eye.
It not unfrequently happens, when the difeafe has
not proceeded farther than we have defcribed, that it
gradually, fometimes pretty fuddenly, difappears, and
is feen again in the courfe of a few weeks, although lome-
times it comes back in the courfe of a few days. The dif-
appearance of inflammation in the eye of the horfe is
fometimes fo hidden, that the eye, which one day is
4tonfiderably inflamed, will appear the next perfectly
1 E R Y. Part VI.
clear and healthy. Sometimes it lee ms to appear and Diftaf
difappear periodically ; and it lias been fuppoied by ig-
norant people, that in thefe periods it follows the
changes of the moon, whence it has received the name
©! lunatic bhndnejs. If the dileale does not thus difap¬
pear, or if it appears again, and reaches the height be¬
fore defcribed, the inflammation goes on, and the cor¬
nea becomes more obfeure j or, what very frequently
happens, the cornea recovers its tranfparency, and the
cryftalline humour becomes opaque, forming the difeafe
already fpoken of in N° 325.
In the horfe, one eye frequently only is affe&ed,
whereas in man, both eyes are generally inflamed at
the fame time. This difeafe more frequently occurs in
young horfes of five or fix years old, than in thofe of a
more advanced period. It is faid that horfes are never
affe&ed with inflammation of the eyes till they are bro¬
ken, or taken up from the pafture where they have re¬
mained from their birth.
A plethoric ftate of the body feems very much to
predifpofe to inflammation of the eye, and this feems to
account for its occurring fo frequently in horfes of five
or fix years old, as at that age they generally ceafe to
grow, and are, of courfe, more difpcled than at other
times to fulnels of blood. Sudden changes of tempera¬
ture form a very common exciting caufe cf this difeafe,
and the heat and foul air of a clofe liable frequently
produce it. Such horfes as are kept in dark ftables are
alfo more fubjecl to it, from the effect of fudden expo-
fure to broad day-light. Want of exercile, or extremes
of idlenefs and hard work, mayalfo aflift in producing
it. Mr Coleman conliders this difeafe in the horfe as
an inflammation of a fpecific nature, very different from
any that occurs in other animals. The principal reafons
for fuppofing that the conllitution is affedled are, that a
horfe affefted with an inflammation of the eye either
does not perfpire, or fweats profufely, indicating a flow
fever. If the animal is bled or purged, the eye fpeedi-
ly becomes clear ; and if the fame caufes are applied,
the fame eye, or more commonly the other, becomes
inflamed, and fometimes the difeafe appears alternately
in each eye.
Provided the proper means be taken in the early
ftage of the dileafe, the inflammation is commonly foon
removed 5 but when the cryftalline humour becomes
opaque, no means hitherto employed have, as we lhall
prefently fee, produced any benefit.
In the treatment of this affedtion, it mull be remem¬
bered, that the conftitution is deranged, and that our
remedies mull therefore not be confined to local appli¬
cations to the eye. General blood-letting will almoft
always be required 5 but, unlefs the horfe is very fat or
plethoric, this need not be repeated. It will be proper
alfo to apply a blifter or two to the head, as near the
eye as poffible, and the veins at the corners of the eye
Ihould be opened, to draw blood from that part. The
horfe muft be put on lower diet, and Ihould ufe only
very moderate exercife ; the liable Ihould be kept well
aired and cool •, and if the horfes eyes are very fenfi-
ble, and the liable happen to have windows, thefe
Ihould be darkened. It will generally be advifable to
give a purgative medicine 5 and the horfe may drink
frequently of fome cooling liquor, efpecially of water,
with nitre diffolved in it. Rowels have been fometimes
recommended ; and it is faid that conliderable benefit
' • has
Part VI. F A R R
r has followed the infertion of fetons as near the eye as
^!'ea e,‘; poffible. They have foraetimes been pafled through tlie
* white of the eye, juft below the tranfparent cornea ;
but to this we fhould obje£t, as being liable to produce
fpecks that may extend to the cornea. As there is ge¬
nerally confiderable dryntfs of the fkin in this com¬
plaint, it may be ufeful in fome cafes to adminifter a
gentle fudorific, fuch as a folution of two drachms of
emetic tartar, or N° 22. of the receipts may be given.
With refpeft to the applications to the eye itfelf,
thofe which appear the moft likely to be of advantage,
are ftimulating fubftances, fuch as tin&ure of opium,
folution of blue vitriol, red precipitate, in the form of
a foft ointment, fuch as N° 40. Sometimes, however,
thefe ftimulating applications do harm •, and it is ^ound
that a weak folution of fugar of lead, or acetate of zinc,
as prefcribed in N° 31. are moft ufeful. We muft
here take notice of an abfurd praflice that is in ufe
among common farriers, of cutting away the haw,
which they confider as a very principal part of the com¬
plaint. There is no doubt, howeVer, that relief may
have been procured by this operation, as it will gene¬
rally be attended with a pretty copious eftufion of blood,
that will relieve the diftended veffels j but as this effu-
lion can be more eafily produced by fcarifying the red
veffels of the white of the eye •, and, by opening the
angular veins, there is no occafion to take away a part,
which is certainly of confiderable ufe to the animal.
Sheep are fometimes affedted with inflammation of
the eye ; but in them, as in moft other animals, it is
merely a local difeafe, and is generally relieved by to¬
pical bleeding. In the corredted agricultural report of
Perth, it is ftated, that the common pradlice in that
diftridt for relieving inflammation in the eyes of Iheep
is, to open the veins in the corner of the eye ; and
hold down the animal’s head, fo as to allow the blood to
get within the eye. There is no doubt that this bleeding
does good; and the introdudlion of the blood within
the eye may, we believe, alfo be of ferviee ; not,
however, in the way fuppofed by the reporter, but be-
caufe it adts as a gentle ftimulus.
We have already, in N° 324. made fome obferva-
tions on cataradl, and noticed the inelficacy of all the
ufual methods of treatment. It may not be improper
here to add the refult of Mr Coleman’s experimental
attempts to relieve this complaint, as ftated by Mr
Feron.
“ The profeffor has begun with bleeding from the
jugular or angular veins, and, at the fame time, employ¬
ing purgatives frequently repeated, as well as diuretics
adminiftered one after another. After which he has
tried all the medicines of Meffrs Phipps and Wathen,
but without any degree of permanent fuccefs. 1 he lo¬
cal and furgical treatment has been as follows, viz.
“ 1 ft, He has ordered fcarifications, and to pafs a feton
through the membrana conjundtiva } but without ef-
fedl.
“ 2dly, We have removed fome of the larger veffels
going to the cornea, and divided them with the adlual
cautery, but with no fuccefs.
“ 3dly, We have applied leeches to the conjundliva,
but without effedl.
“ Laftly, we have taken up both carotid arteries,
which was of no avail, from the anaftomofes which the
rertebral arteries form with them.
3
I E R Y. 541
“ Therefore, the treatment is confined entirely to Difeafes.
bleeding, purging, and diuretics ; fomentations of warm —~~y—/
water, in order to diminifh the irritation from the tears
that run over the cheek ; and plenty of moderate and
continual exercife, fo as to increafe the perfpiration.”
3. Catarrh. Catarrhus. Mor Foundering, or Com¬
mon Cold.
485
Catarrh has been placed by Dr Cullen among the oatarrb, or
projiuvia, or fluxes attended with fever } we have ven-cold.
tured, with fome modern authors, to rank it as an in¬
flammation, beeaufe the increafed fecretion of mu¬
cus, which might entitle it to be called a prqfluvium,
though fometimes pretty confiderable, is not a conftant,
or often a very remarkable fymptom of the difeafe j and
in all cafes appears to be the effe£I of an inflammatory
ftate of the pituitary membrane. There are generally
reckoned two fpecies of catarrh, Ample cold, and epi¬
demic catarrh, or injiuen%ii. Though in the latter of
thefe the catarrh is probably only fymptomatic, we
{hall, in compliance with the ufual cuftom, confider it
immediately after common catarrh.
This difeafe attacks all the domeftic animals ; but
horfes and dogs are moft liable to it, and in them the
fymptoms are moft fevere. It ufually commences by a
general dulnefs and heavinefs, a drynefs and increaied
rednefs of the infide of the noftrils, from which there
foon proceeds an unufual fecretion of mucus ; a drynefs
of the eyes, or fometimes an increafed effufion of tears.
In a fhort time there is generally added iome degree
of cough and difficulty of breathing ; and fometimes
there is with thefe fymptoms a confiderable degree of
heat and drynefs of the fkin ; increafed thirft, and not
unfrequently a lofs of appetite. At firft the cough is
dry, and fometimes continues fo *, but more frequently,
when the complaint has remained for fome time, a
frothy whitifh mucus is coughed up. The pulfe is not
always much affefted in this diieafe j but in general it
is fuller and harder than natural. The firft fymptom
of the difeafe is not unfrequently a chillinefs and tremb-
ling.
The principal caufes of catarrh in domeftic animals,
as well as in man, are fudden changes of temperature,
efpecially cold applied when the body is in a ftate of
perfpiration, or entering a warm apartment after having
been long expoled to a cold air. Drinking cold water,
when fweating, is alfo a common caufe ^ and thefe
caufes are the more likely to produce their effeifk when
the animal is in a plethoric ftate.
If negle&ed, catarrh may go on to inflammation of
the lungs •, in the horfe it may produce thick wind, or
even broken wind } in cattle it may end in chronic
cough 5 and in fheep it may lay the foundation of con-
fumption or pulmonic rot. It is alfo not unfrequently
followed by the complaint called glanders, which we
are prefently to defcribe. An improper mode of treat¬
ment, efpecially giving cordials and other hot medi¬
cines, will haften on thefe terminations of the difeafe.
If attended to in time, and if the proper mode of treat¬
ment be adopted, the fymptoms are, in general, foon
removed.
If the complaint is flight, and there is little fever, it
will often be fufficient to take the animal within doors
into a warm liable, give him a warm mafh, and put a
cloth over him, when he will perfpire through the
nighty
486
Influenza.
FARR
night, and be nearly well next morning. This plan
will alfo anfwer, if it be adopted immediately, on per¬
ceiving the chillinefs, or fhivering. If, however, confi-
derable fever has taken place, and the animal’s pulfe is
hard, it will be proper to draw blood, according to the
urgency of the fymptoms, before giving any internal re¬
medy, or ufing warm clothing. After bleeding, R
drench, compofed of warm ale, with a drachm or two
of fait of hartlhorn, or half an ounce of fpirit of hartf-
horn ivveetened with molaffes, will prove an excellent
remedy ; after taking which, the animal Ihould be well
rubbed down, and clothed as before. If the animal is
collive, back-raking, followed by clyfters, will be ad-
vifable; and throughout the treatment coftivenefs muft
be avoided. If there is confiderable fever, the drench,
N 2 2. or 26. where coflivenefs is to be obviated,
fhould be given every fix hours. Some pradlitioners
advife^ balls in thefe cafes, as in moft others j but as
there is often feme fwelling of the throat, and always
confiderable irritation about the fauces^ it is better to
give the remedies in the form of drenches. The cough
feldom needs particular attention during the inflamma¬
tory ftate of the difeafe, as it rvill generally go off when
the inflammation is removed 5 if it fhould continue ob-
llinate, it becomes a chronic cough, and muft be treat¬
ed as direfled under N° 436.
4. Influenza, or Epidemic Catarrh.
The epidemic catarrh alfo affeds all thefe animals,
and has fometimes been known to attack a whole yard
of oxen, horfes, and cows, in one night. It differs from
common catarrh in the degree of fever, which, in this
-complaint, is always very confiderable, and is one of the
firfi: fymptoms. There is a fmart fhivering, followed by
confiderable heat and drynefsof the fkin, and the fever
is commonly attended with great heavinefs and pain of
the head, and affeftion of the eyes. In this complaint
there is alfo a great degree of weaknefs, which comes
on pretty early in the difeafe, and this weaknefs not
infrequently brings on a fatal termination of the dif-
o.afe. Sometimes there is a confiderable difcharge from
the noftrils; at others this difcharge is either trifling, or
the ncftrils are dry, in which cafes the fever is moft
confiderable.
i. he epidemic catarrh appears to depend on fome
peculiar ftate of the atmofphere 5 but there is no doubt
tnat it is capable of being propagated by contagion.
It is more prevalent in the fpring, efpecially when this
has been preceded by a mild winter. It is faid, that
when cattle are at thefe times expofed to currents of air
from the north-eaft, they are moft likely to be affe£led
with it.
In the commencement of this difeafe, it will be proper
to houfe the animals 5 button much warmth muft be
avoided, as it would tend to increafe the weaknefs that
forms a principal part of the difeafe. It may fometimes
be neceliary, when the fever runs very high, to draw
blood once ; and, at any rate, it will be proper to apply
a blifter to the head, or on each fide the neck. Though
warmth muft be avoided, great care fliould be taken
not to expole the animals to a draught of air. Warm
malhes may be given as in common catarrh, but when the
fever has fuofided, cordials and ftrengthening remedies
will be required j and if the appetite is tolerably good,
the diet may be more nourilhing than ufual. The ani-
1 E R Y. Part VI
mals fliould on no account be hard worked, but be al- jyf
lowed to reft from the time the difeafe is firft noticed,
except taking gentle exercife when their ftrength will
admit of it.
What is commonly called the diftemper in dogs is
now pretty generally confidered as a fort of epidemic or
contagious catarrh. We ftiall therefore treat of it in
this place.
S' Of ^e Distemper in Legs.
No diforder is more general among dogs than thatDiftfm
which is generally known by the name of the diftemper in dogs!
and none is fo deftruaive. It is afferted that, except
the plague, no difeale is fo fatal to the animal which it
attacks.
It appears that this dilorder has not been known in
Britain till within the laft 30 years, but, during that
time, it is aftoniftiing what numbers of dogs have fallen
Vidims to it. lor thefe laft fifteen or twenty years,
however, the diftemper has been lefs frequent, and has
affumed a milder form.
The fymptoms of the diftemper are not alike in every
cafe. The following are, according to Mr Blaine, its
ufual appearances. It generally begins with a dry hufky
cough, attended with dulnefs and want of appetite, a
running from the eyes and nofe, and lofs of flelh. As
the difeafe advances, the dog appears much emaciated,
and grows exceflively weak, particularly in the loins and
hind legs. Convulfive twitchings of different parts, ef¬
pecially of the head, come on, attended with dimnefs of
fight $ and, as the dileaie proceeds, and puts on a more
virulent form, thefe twitchings degenerate into ftrong
convulfive fits, which continue for a long time, and re¬
peatedly return. In thefe fits the dog foams at the
mouth, runs round, and appears to be in great pain, and
to have a conftant defire to dung. This is fometimes
attended with obftinate coftivenefs, at others with vio¬
lent purging. I he ftomach is extremely irritable;
every thing that the animal takes being immediately
thrown up. When the difeafe has reached this flate,
the animal fddom recovers, and is ufually carried off in
one of the convulfive fits.
In every part of this difeafe there prevails a want of
energy, and a particular paralytic affedion of the nerves.
This latter fymptom, in fome inftances, remains long
after the difeafe has been otherwife removed ; but, in
general, the ftrength returns almoft immediately on the
removal of the other fymptoms.
The diftemper in its worft form is often miftaken for
canine madnefs; but they may in general be diftinguifh~
ed, by attending to the following points.
1 ft, The diftemper feldom occurs except in puppies,
its moft common period being from fix to twelve months.
Madnefs may occur at any age, but feldom attacks
puppies.
2d, In the diftemper dogs drink freely ; in madnefs,
though they often attempt to drink, it does not appear
that they are capable of fwallowing the water.
3d, In the diftemper the animal does not attempt
to bite ; but, in madnefs, the propenfity to biting feems
to be inceffant.
4th, In madnefs there appears to be a lofs of reafon
at all times, though, as is faid, they are fo fen-
fible, as to know their mafter ; but in the diftemper,
though there is fometimes a lofs of reafon, it lafts no
longer
'per
’art VI. FARR
Difeafes. longer than during the continuance of the convulfive
If, therefore, a young dog will drink, as foon as
the effedt of the convulfion is removed, but more par¬
ticularly when his Weaknefs is exceffive, and ftrongly
apparent in the intervals between the fits, it may be
pretty fafely concluded, that he is affedted with the
diftemper, and not with madnefs. Thefe circumftances,
fays Mr Blaine, fhould be carefully remarked, as they
are unerring, and may fave many a valuable animal
from deftrudtion, and many a timid mind from the
molt dreadful apprehenfions.
The caufe of the diftemper is difficult to explain ;
nor do the moft careful difledlions, in every ftage of
the complaint, afcertain more than that there is a ge¬
neral inflammation of the mucous membrane ; but
whether the true feat of the difeafe is confined to that
membrane, and all the other fymptoms are the confe-
quences of it, or are real afFedlions of other parts, is
an undecided point, although it is certain that its
firft appearance is by an inflammation of the pituitary
membrane, and which is one of the moft lafting, as
well as conftant fymptoms. That this inflammation
is given from the membrane of the nofe, to the upper
part of the gullet and wind-pipe, is evident by the
fwelling of the glands of the throat, the tender-
nefs and dry cough ; and that this inflammation
extends from thence to the fame membrane of the
flomach and inteftines, is equally fo, producing
vomiting, coftivenefs, or purging. It has generally,
as wre have faid, been confidered as a fpecies of ca¬
tarrh ; but it has been fuggefted to us, by an ingeni¬
ous friend, that, from feveral fymptoms, as well as
from its attacking dogs only once in their lives, it is
more analogous topertujfit, or chincough, in the human-
fubjefh
With refpeft to the cure of the diftemper, Mr Blaine's
direftions and remedies appear to have been tolerably
fuccefsful. With the nature of his remedy we are un¬
acquainted, but believe it to be a preparation of mer¬
cury. This medicine has been made known by exten-
fively advertifing it, and although certificates of its uti¬
lity are numerous, they make no part of the advertife-
ment, but are to be feen at Mr Boofey’s, in Old Bond
Street, London, the wholefale agent j the form is a
powder. Explicit inftruflions accompany it j and the
price, confidered with its afierted efficacy, bears no pro¬
portion, as no fportfman would think five times the fum
too much for the prefervation of a valuable animal.
Although fo efficacious, it is neverthelefs innocent
enough for a child to take; nor muft thofe who are
advocates for ftrong remedies imagine, that, becaufe
the effedls of this ffiake not the whole conftitution,
that the difeafe will not be eradicated by it. When
the diforder is ftrong, after it is given, there is for the
moft part a gradual decreafe of the fymptoms, and no¬
thing but a fmall moifture at the nofe remains, which
fpeedily difappears the next day. If the attack is
flight, no more is feen of it, and the animal is at once^
well.
From the varieties in the fize, and confequent ftrength
of dogs, a difference in the quantity of the medicine is
neceflary ; the packets are therefore marked I, 2, and
3. For a maftiff, pointer, fetter, or dog of a large fize,
N° I. fhould be procured. Hounds, fpaniels, and thofe
I E R Y.
of a middling fize, require N° 2. ; and all the leffer
dogs, N° 3. _ ^
It has been already obferved, that, in the feverity
of the diforder, there is frequently fo great an irritabi¬
lity of the ftomach, that every thing taken into it is in-
flantly thrown up ; in fuch cafes, the powder ffiould be-
carefully mixed with a fmall piece of butter, at the fame
time adding to it thirty, forty, or fifty drops of lauda¬
num, according to the age, fize, and ftrength of the
dog; who is to be watched, whether the medicine is re¬
tained, and kept as ftill as poffible ; but fhould it be
thrown up, notwithfianding this addition, in tw7o hours
after the fame quantity of laudanum fliould be given-
with the powder, in a little broth or milk, and half
an hour afterwards the powder mixed into a pafte with
treacle, honey, or flour, and thus the vomiting will be
prevented. Should there be at the fame time obftinate
coftivenefs, it is probable that ficknefs may be the confe-
quence of it, and muft be removed before it will ceafe;
twenty grains of jalap, or, in preference, fifteen grains
of calomel, with four or five drops of laudanum, may be
given in a fmall ball ; or two table-fpoonfuls of eaftor
oil may, if more convenient, be ufed. Should thefe
not flay on the ftoma^h, a clyfter with milk, fait, and
oil, feldom fails to remove the coftivenefs, after which
the powder ffiould be given, if there has been great
ficknefs, with the laudanum ; if not, without it.
When, likewife, extenfive purging accompanies the
complaint, the laudanum ftiould not be omitted ; as
by running off rapidly by ftool, the effefl of the medi¬
cine is equally loft, as if it were vomited up. In fuch
cafes it will be proper to give before the powder thirty
or forty drops of laudanum, with two ounces of olive
oil. We fliould always attempt to remove the ficknefs
and purging, or coftivenefs, before adminiftering the
powder, as the effedt of this will be then more certain..
In the milder form of the difeafe, however, nothing is re-
quifite but to give the powder in fuch a way, as that the
dog may take the whole of it; for w'hich purpofe the
powder fliould be well mixed with a fmall quantity of
any thing that the dog will eat,, or, if he is averfe to
eating, it fliould be made up into a fmall ball with honey,
treacle, or butter, and forced doivn his throat. It muft:
not be mixed with any liquid, as it is fo heavy that it
would fall to the bottom, and thus will probably be loft.
Care fliould be taken to give the medicine on an empty
ftomach, as the effedl will otherwife be leffened or de*
ftroyed ; and the dog ftiould be carefully watched to fee
if the medicine be thrown up, as, if this is the cafe, or
if there is reafon to fuppofe that the whole dofe is not
given, a fecond flhould be adminiftered. Mr Blaine
concludes with obferving, that the fymptoms remove
without any particular appearance ; yet fo quickly, as
that there is feldom any remains of the difeafe two hours
after the medicines have been adminiftered.
Mr Daniel has witneffed the extraordinary effedls in
the diflemper, from Dr James’s powder, given in the
following manner. When the fymptoms of the diftemper
are apparent, a third part of one of the parcels inclofed
in the half-crown packets is to be given, mixed with a
little butter, and the dog is to have plenty of warm
broth, or milk and water, and, if poffible, he is to be
near a fire, or at leaf! kept very warm. Two hours after¬
wards another third part is to be adminiflered ; and,
ftiould neither of thefe operate by vomiting or purgings
at
543.
Difeafes.
* Daniel's
Rural
Sports,
vol. i.
544 FARR
Bifeafes. at the end of four hours, give the remaining third.
'" vShould the two firft portions have the effect, the remain¬
ing third Qiould not be given until four or fix hours
(according to the evacuations) after the expiration of
the four hours j in the interim the dog is to be en¬
couraged to lap, and if he refufes, be forced to
take plentifully of warm broth, or milk and water.
Very ieldom, even when the cafe is inveterate, but
the evacuations are brought on by the taking of one
packet, generally by the fecond dofe ; but fhould it fo
happen that there is no fuch proof of the powder’s
effe£t, the fecond parcel fliould be divided into fimilar
proportions, and applied in the fame manner, until the
ftomach is emptied. Warmth and w’arm liquids will
quickly perfeft the recovery. As foon as the dog’s ap¬
petite returns, let him be fed (at firfl: rather fparingly)
with animal food*.
Dr Darwin advifes, that the dog be permitted to go
about freely in the open air, and have conftant accefs to
frefli water. Ihe ufe of being as much as may be in
the air is evident, becaufe all the air which we breathe
paffes twice over the putrid floughs of the mortified
parts of the membrane which lines the noftrils, and
the maxillary and frontal cavities; that is, both during
infpiration and expiration, and muff therefore be load¬
ed with contagious particles. Frefli new milk and frefli
broth fliould be given them very frequently, and they
ffiould be fuffered to go among the grafs, which they
fometimes eat for the purpofe of an emetic, and, if
poflible, fliould have accefs to a running ftream of
water, as the contagious mucus of the noftrils, both
of thefe animals and horfes, generally drops into the
water when they attempt to drink. Bits of raw flefti,
if the dog will eat them, are preferred to cooked meat;
and from five to ten drops of opium may be given with
advantage, when fymptoms of debility are evident, ac¬
cording to the fize of the dog, every fix hours. If
floughs can be feen in the noftrils, they fliould be moif-
tened twice a-day with a folution of fugar of lead, or
of alum, by means of a fponge fixed on a bit of whale¬
bone, or by a fyringe. i he lotion may be made by
diffolving half an ounce of fugar of lead in a pint of
\ Darwin's water-f-.
Zoonomia,
x 6. Rheumatism.
There feems no doubt that horfes, and perhaps cattle,
are affe&ed with rheumatifm, but it is fometimes diffi¬
cult to afeertain the prefence of the complaint, or to
diftinguifli it from other caufes that produce lamenefs.
It may take place in any of the limbs, but it is more
frequently obferved to affea the hip-joint and the ad¬
jacent membranes ; and when feated here, it is called
the fciatica, and fometimes the hip-gout. It will require
confiderable judgment to diftinguifh this complaint;
but it may generally be known by attentively examin¬
ing the limb in which the lamenefs is feated, from the
hip down to the foot, and by attending to the caufes
that feem likely to have produced the lamenefs. In
rheumatifm, the fkin will be found dry, and the affefted
part fwelled, and the lamenefs attendant on it will be
more readily removed by exercife than that which has
Its caufe feated in the foot, or which arifes from bony
excrefcences. Rheumatifm in the horfe, as in the human
fubjeft, may be either acute or chronic, and the latter
Is the more obftinate.
vol. ii. 410.
48S
Itheuma
tifm.
I E k Y. PartVj^
Rheumatifm, like catarrh, is produced by fudden Difeafes ’
changes of temperature, and by expofure to a cold L t ^
moift atmofphere. It is no otherwife dangerous than
as it renders the animal lame.
The cure of rheumatifm differs according to its ftate.
In the acute one bleeding may be proper; after which
a warm math, with two drachms of emetic tartar dif-
felved in the water, lliould be given, and the horfe
treated as dire&ed under Catarrh. If a fweat is pro¬
duced, and kept up for fome hours, the complaint
will probably difappear, and its return may be pre¬
vented by frequent fridion of the affe&ed part, re¬
gular exercife, a nouriffiing diet, and attention to
avoid changes of temperature. In the chronic rheu-
maliim, bleeding will be improper; and the moft likely
means of relief will be, to rub the affefted parts fe-
veral times a-day with fome ftimulating liniment, or,
ir convenient, to ufe the warm bath for a confiderable
time together, or to foment the aftefted limb for an
hour or two every night, after which the limb muft be
rubbed perfectly dry. Pretty conftant exercife will
alfo contribute greatly to the cure, and coftivenefs muft
be avoided. A blifter applied over the affe&ed part
will fometimes do good. According to Mr Lawrence,
the only cure to be depended on is a month’s run of
fait marlhes in the fpring, and being continued abroad
in fome ffiady place till autumn, afterwards mercurial
phyfic, and the beft liable care.
7. Inflammation of the Lungs. Pleuritis. Peripneu¬
monia. Pleuri/y. Peripneumony. Rijing of the Lights.
Rot.
The lungs are frequently inflamed in the domeftic
animals; and, as in man, the inflammation may be feated
either in the membrane covering the lungs and liningiungs.
the cheft, or the pleura, or in the fubftance of the lungs,
conftituting the two varieties,Tj/farz/'y and peripneumony.
The difeafe has been called by common farriers, rijing
of the lights, from an idea that the lungs protruded
againft the throat, and caufed that difficulty of breath¬
ing which is one of the principal fymptoms of this com¬
plaint. The other vulgar appellation of rot feems to owe
its origin to the appearance which the lungs fometimes
prefent on diffeftion, being found in a ftate of mortifica¬
tion, and partial decompofition, as if they were rotten.
It is of little confequence to diftinguiffi thetwo varieties
of the difeafe, as the treatment is the fame in both.
According to Mr Feron, the fymptoms of inflamma¬
tion of the lungs in the horfe are invariably as follow.
The refpiration is quick, the breath hot, the extremities
cold, the tongue dry and hot, the flanks heaving, the
patient never lying down, which forms a very characte-
riftic fy mptom ; and fometimes he hangs down his head.
If nothing has been done, it is hardly poffible to fave
his life, after three days have elapfed; and, after death,
the right fide of the heart is found to have been inflam¬
ed, and, on fome occafions, fo much diftended with blood
as actually to burft, and the lungs are found to refem-
ble putrid liver, the cells filled rvith blood, from the
great diftention of the pulmonary arteries, and perhaps
fometimes effufions take place ; the puife is oppreffed,
from the great diftention occafioned by the blood in the
right fide of the heart, while the left fide of that organ
is weak from want of fufficient blood.
To Mr Feron’s account it may be added, that the
puife,
Part VI.
Difeafe;. pulfe, at the commencement of the difeafe, is generally
-y  more full, harder, and more frequent than natural; but,
as foon as the difeafe riches the ftage at Avhich it is
ufually firft obferved, the jrulfe has become fmall and
opprelfed, and but little mcreafed m frequencv j the
veins of the neck are fwelled and prominent, and the
eyes are generally red and darting. There is fometimes
cough, at others none ; but the difficulty of breathing is
always great, and the horfe ftands extended, panting for
breath, with heaving flanks and open noftrils, till, no
longer able to fupport himfelf, he drops down and dies.
This fatal termination fometimes takes place in a very
fhort period in 48, 36, or even 24 hours.
The only difeafe with which this can eafily be con¬
founded, is colic ^ and the difcriminating marks will be
mentioned when we treat of this difeafe. At prefent it
will be fufficient to remark, that when a horfe appears
dull, holds his head very low, breathes with difficulty,
efpecially during infpiration, ftands conftantly, has a
quick heaving of the flanks, a fulnefs of the eyes, and
rednefs of the infide of the noftrils, and when the pulfe
is fmall and oppreffed, he may almoft certainly be de¬
clared affe&ed with inflammation of the lungs.
It may not be improper to give a brief explanation
of the fyraptoms which we have enumerated ; and they
are chiefly to be explained from the difficulty with
which the blood pafles through the lungs, on account of
the unufual accumulation in the pulmonary veflels.
Hence the difficulty of breathing, and the averfion
that the horfe exprefles to lie down ; for it is evident,
that he will breathe more eafily in a Handing pofture
than if he were lying 5 becaufe, as was remarked in
the table of the extremities of the mufcles, fome of
thefe aft on the cheft when the fore legs are fixed,
and thus affift in carrying forward the ribs, and thus
increafing the cavity of the cheft. The impeded paf-
fage of the blood through the lungs alfo explains why
the pulfe is weak and opprefled 5 and hence, when this
obftruflion is relieved by leflening the quantity of blood,
the pulfe never fails to become ftronger and fuller.
The caufes of inflammation of the lungs are doubt-
lef» iudden changes of temperature, efpecially when the
animal is plethoric 5 it is probable that the moft common
caufe is a fudden change from heat to cold and moifture.
It is at prefent, however, more faffiionable to confider
the reverfe of this as the general caufe of pulmonary
complaints ; and we underftand that Mr Coleman goes
fo far as to fay, that horfes are never attacked with in¬
flammation of the lungs from expofure to fimple cold,
for, that the turning of horfes to grafs without prepara¬
tion, though it may render them emaciated, feldom pro¬
duces the complaint in queflion. Mr Feron alfo, who
may be confidered as a pupil of the veterinary college,
is of opinion, that inflammation of the internal vifcera
proceeds from a fudden tranfition from a cold to a hot
temperature, but feldom or never from a hot to a cold
one. We are aware that thefe gentlemen have bor¬
rowed their theory from Dr Beddoes, and it is of little
confequence to our prefent purpofe, whether it be cor-
redft or not.
The judgment to be formed with refpefl; to the ter¬
mination of this difeafe, which is always highly dan¬
gerous, will depend on the urgency of the fymptoms,
and on the changes that take place after the exhibition
of the ufual remedies. If the pulfe becomes fuller and
Vol. VIII. Part II.
S4S
ftronger after bleeding; if the breathing becomes lefs Difeafes.
difficult ; if the parts where blifters have been laid in- ^
flame foon, and the blifters rife well ; and, in particular,
if the horfe lies down, and feems lefs diftielfed, we may
hope that the danger is lefl'ened j and if thefe favour¬
able figns continue for 24 hours, we may confider a
cure as pretty certain : but, if the pulfe Hill continues
fmall and opprefled, more efpecially, if it becomes
quick and irregular ; if the difficulty of breathing con¬
tinues or increafes ; if there is a rattling in the throat,
with partial cold fweats and extreme dejedlion 5 a fatal
termination muff; be looked for, which will fpeedily
take place, if the breath becomes cold or fetid. It is
confidered as a very unfavourable fymptom when the
horfe appears infenfible to external ftimuli ; as when
blift ers do not rife well, nor rowels eafily fuppurate.
In the cure of inflammation of the lungs, every
thing will depend on the fpeedy adoption of the moft
vigorous mealures, and the firft and principal remedy
is bleeding. I his ftiould be performed as foon as pof-
fible, and to a greater extent than in moft inflamma¬
tory difeafes. It will fcarcely be proper to take lefs
than five or perhaps fix quarts at firft, and the bleeding
muft be repeated, though lefs copioufty, fome hours
after, if a confiderable remiffion of the fymptoms does
not take place. It muft not be expedit’d that the pulfe
will rife much after a fecond or third bleeding ; but,
if it is not confiderably weakened, and if the oppreffed
feel of it is removed, we may be fure that the bleeding
has not been carried too far. Another principal means
of checking the internal inflammation is, to excite an
inflammation externally near the feat of the complaint,
by every means in our power. A large blifter Ihould
be applied on each fide of the cheft, and to the infide of
the fore legs ; a rowel fiiould be inferted below the cheft,
and if the iymptoms are very urgent, another near the
belly. Mr Coleman recommends inflating the cellular
membrane below the Ikin with air, fo as to bring on an
inflammation between the fkin and mufcles 5 and if this
does not fucceed, he advifes that fome ftimulating fluid,
fuch as oil of turpentine, be injedled. We ftiould fup-
pofe this carrying inflammation rather too near the
lungs; but from fome trials that Mr Coleman has made,
and fome others of Mr Feron, this method feems to
have been attended with confiderable advantage. In
addition to thefe means, the fore legs fhould be well
rubbed two or three times a day with oil of turpentine,
or the liniment in N° 42. of the receipts. Thefe are
the external means that are chiefly to be relied on ; and
if thefe be followed up fpeedily, and with proper atten¬
tion, there will be feldom any occafion for internal re¬
medies. If thefe be given, they rnuft be fuch as are
calculated to cool the body, and to check inflammation,
fuch as the drenches N° 22. and 26. efpecially the
latter, as it is neceffary to keep the bowels open. Per¬
haps foxglove might here be given with advantage, as
diredfted under that article, at 2yo. Mr Feron recom¬
mends diuretics, and a ball compofed of an ounce and a
half of emetic tartar, a drachm of opium, and 15 or
20 grains of calomel. We do not know whether this
is the practice of the veterinary college, but it appears
to us to be inconfiftent with the bleeding and other
evacuants which are generally found moft fuccefsful.
As coftivenefs would tend to increafe the inflammatory
fymptoms, back-raking and the occafional ufe of mild
3 Z clyfters,
farriery.
54-6 FARR
Dife^afe?. clyfters, will be requifite. In general, warm water, or
'T~v'——' {jjjg a ]ittie Qlauber fait diffblved in it, will be
fufficient, as all heating purgatives would do harm.
The horfe Ihould be kept rather warm, (hould be
(•lothed, and {hould drink frequently of warm gruel.
Food will not be requifite, and, if fet before him, he
would probably not touch it. Exercife of every kind
mult be avoided, at lead fo long as the inflammatory
fymptoms continue.
The mod favourable termination of this complaint
is by refolution, when the inflammatory fymptoms go
off without producing fuppuration or ulceration of the
lungs 5 but fometimes this date is unavoidable, an ulcer
is produced, and, if the matter is not thrown off, it
may either produce fuffocation, or bring on heftic fever
and confumption. When it is found that a cough
remains after the inflammation has fubfided, and a
quantity of mucus is thrown off, the evacuation of
this fliould be promoted by gentle expeftorants, and
the horfe mud dill be kept warm. Though the matter
may be completely expeftorated, there will generally
remain a difficulty of breathing, or thick wind, when
inflammation of the lungs terminates by fuppuration.
Sometimes there is left an anafarcous or dropiical date
of the lungs, and in thefe cafes it is faid that blue
vitriol and turpentine, to the amount of two drachms of
each, mixed into a ball, with a proper quantity of
linfeed powder, and given every morning, have been
beneficial. It may alfo be proper to apply a Wider
over the wind-pipe.
Inflammation of the lungs in cattle differs little in
fymptoms, and nothing in the treatment, from that
4p0 which we have been defcribing in the horfe.
Fulmonic The lungs of fheep are very frequently affe&ed with
r°t in inflammation, which forms one of the difeafes that has
ftieeP* been confounded under the name of rot. It mod fre¬
quently attacks young fheep, efpecially thofe of the
more delicate breeds 5 and it is mod prevalent in damp
padures, and during unfavourable feafons. The fymp¬
toms of this difeafe in dieep have not been well de-
fcribed, but they probably differ from thofe in horfes
and cattle, only in degree. It does not appear to be fo
fpeedily fatal, although the animals feldom or never
recover from it. Towards the latter dage of the difeafe
there is confiderable weaknefsj and at this time there ap¬
pears below the jaw an redematous fwelling, containing
a quantity of fluid, which is eafily evacuated by piercing
the tumour. This tumour is called the pock in Scot¬
land. On opening the bodies of dieep that have died
of this fpecies of rot, the lungs are found full of knots
or tubercles, fimilar to thofe which appear in human
fubje&s that have died of pulmonary confumption, and
fometimes the lungs appear mortified or rotten. The
liver, however, in thefe cafes, is found, which difiin-
guidres this variety from the other difeafes called rot.
We do not know that this difeafe admits of a cure in
ffieep, though it might probably be prevented by houfing
them, or affording them flielter, at thofe feafons when
it is mod likely to occur.
Pleurify in Inflammation of the lungs occurs fometimes in dogs,
dogs. but it does not feem to be very frequent in thefe ani¬
mals. It requires pretty much the fame treatment as
in the horfe, except that here emetic tartar may be given
in fuch a quantity as to excite confiderable ficknefs,
without vomiting. This would be improper in the
I E R Y. Part VI.
horfe, as it would be difficult to regulate the dofe of Difeafes
the medicine, fo as not to produce fuch an irritation of *- .
the domach as might confiderably increafe the animal’s
didrefs, and augment the difficulty of breathing.
8. Inflammation of the Liver. Hepatitis.
We have no doubt that inflammation of the liver
takes place occafionally in mod of our domedic animals; tion of the
and it is probably a more frequent difeafe than is gene-liver,
rally fuppofed. Both fpecies of it, viz. the acute and
chronic, may appear in thefe animals, and it will ap¬
pear prefently, that the latter is a very common dif¬
eafe among dieep. Though diffedlion has clearly
(hewn, that the liver in cows, horfes, and fheep, has
been affefted with inflammation during the life of the
animal, yet any account of the fymptoms of this dif-
eafe that is given us by the veterinary writers, is fo
obfcure, that we cannot pretend to give any thing like
a perfpicuous hidory.
According to Mr Blaine, this difeafe, confidered as
a didinft affeftion, is feldom met with in the horfe,
though, when great abdominal inflammation exifis, the
liver often partakes of the general difeafe. In the de-
fcription of the fymptom^, this author dates that it is
ufually accompanied with codivenefs, for the gland
ceafes to fecrete the bile from its being in an inflamed
date y and that bile which was fecreted, is not poured
into the intedines, but becomes depofited in the {kin,
producing jaundice, which is known by the yellownefis
of the eyes and the tongue. The pulfe is generally full,
hard, and frequent, but the pain not very intenfe. It
w'ould be difficult to deleft it, unlefs by the fymptoms
of fever, accompanied with yellownefsof the mouth and
eyes. There vtn\A& pojfibly be pain in the dioulder as
in the human, in which cafe the horfe might on trial
be found lame.
It is eafy to fee, that this defcription is a fanciful
pifture of the difeafe, drawn from the analogy that the
author fuppofes to exid between inflammation of the
liver in man and the fame difeafe in horfes j and it is
probably not to be depended upon.
The writers on cattle medicine defcribe the fymptoms
of the difeafe in cattle to be a difficulty of breathing,
evident marks of fever, yellownefs of urine, a fwelling
about the fhort ribs, and an unufual didention about the
barren or womb. Here the fymptoms of an acute and
chronic didemper feem to be confounded.
As for the fymptoms of the difeafe in dieep, in whom jje 1^r0{
it forms one of the varieties of rot, we have feen no a',-;n flieep.
count of them any further than as they are confounded
with thofe of the other varieties of rot, and, as fuch,
they will be noticed when we come to treat of the rot
in general. If this difeafe could be detefted in its
acute date, the cure would probably not be difficult $
but when it appears in the chronic form, it is, we be¬
lieve, feldom removed.
When the bodies of fuch animals as have died of 494
inflammation of the liver are opened, the liver has been
found in various dates of difeafe ; fometimes it is harder
and firmer than ufual, and very frequently there are
parts of it that are fcirrhous and difcoloured, refiding
the knife when we attempt to cut through them. Some¬
times the biliary dufts are almod bony, and there is
commonly found in them, and fometimes in other parts
of the liver, a fpecies of worm called Jiuke; the fafciola
hepatic a
Difeirfes.
495
Part VI. FARR
hepatica of naturalifts. Sometimes there are ulcers or
abfcefies formed in the liver, and frequently, efpecially
in (lieep, this organ is mortified or decayed.
The caufes of this difeafe are very obfcure; in horfes
and cattle it is faid to be moft common in hot feafons
and warm climates, and that fuch of thefe animals as
are fat are more expofed to its attacks. It may alfo be
brought on by blows or bruifes on the fiiort ribs, by
•which the liver may have received fome injury. In
Iheep it is faid to be more common in dry weather,
efpecially when the animals have but a fcanty fupply
of food, and when they are of a coftive habit. It is
fuppofed by many, that this fpecies of rot owes its
origin to the flukes that we have defcribed, as found
in the liver after death •, but, as thefe flukes have been
found in the livers of fheep that had never been ap¬
parently affe&ed with the rot, and, as they are fre¬
quently found in the livers of old fheep, this caufe is
probably rather fanciful-, though when thefe animals are
very numerous, or when they are fituated in a very
fenfible part of the liver, they may excite a degree of
irritation, and confequent inflammation, jufl as a great
quantity of bots in the ftomach of horfes have been
found to bring on inflammation of that organ.
In attempting the cure of this difeafe, when it is
afcertained to be prefent, wTe muft confider whether it
is acute or chronic. When it occurs from injuries,
it will probably be of the former kind, but in moft
other cafes it will be chronic. Acute inflammation
will require bleeding, purging, blifters, and low diet,
as in all other cafes of internal inflammation but, in
chronic hepatitis, the moft likely remedy is mercury,
which may be adminiftered either internally, in the
form of calomel or corrofive fublimate, or externally
rubbed into the fkin on fome parts of the animal’s
body. This mercurial fri&ion may be performed with
tolerable eafe on the flieep, by pulling off the wool
from the infide of the thighs, and rubbing a drachm
or two of the ftrongeft mercurial ointment upon thefe
parts every night, till the general fyftem becomes af¬
fected, W'hich may be known by the fwelling of the
gums, offenfivenefs of the breath, and increafed flow
of faliva from the mouth. This, however, would be
an expenfive and tedious cure; and if many of the flock
appear affected, it would be better to kill them as fall
as poflible, before the difeafe has made fuch a pro-
grefs as to render the animals lean. If a mercurial
courfe (hould be attempted, the animals fliould be
houfed during the courfe, and ftiould be kept on
good nourifiling food. Coflivenefs muft be avoided
in all thefe cafes, by the adminiftration of gentle clyfters,
or occafional dofes of opening phyfic. A very good
medicine, in all cafes of liver complaints, is a ball com-
pofed of calomel and foap, as direCted under jaundice,
N° 441.
496
Itifiamma-
9. Inflammation of the Stomach. Gaftritis.
The ftomach may be inflamed, both in horfes and
‘ion of the cattle, from various caufes ; but this is a difeafe, the ex-
omac . . jpence 0£ whigh is eafily deteCted. Here alfo Mr
Blaine has fupplied the want of obferved fymptoms by
analogy, and has fuppofed that there would probably be
unfuccefsful efforts to vomit; and, as the ftomach is fe
effential an organ, the pulfe would probably be affeCl-
ed even more than in inflammation of the bowels; that
I E R Y. 547
the animal would perhaps point to the left fide about nifeafes.
the tenth or eleventh rib ; that there would be great w—>
diftrefs evident in the countenance and manner, and that
the lols of ftrength would be very great.
In cattle there are generally reckoned two fpecies of
inflammation of the ftomach, one affeCling the firft fto¬
mach or paunch, and the other the third ftomach or
the manyplies. This latter is commonly denominated
lake-burn. The fymptoms of the difeafe in thefe animals
are alfo very obfcure, but they are probably Gmilar to
what have been defcribed above.
If the reader looks back to N° 409. he will fee de¬
tailed, a cafe that occurred to Mr Clark, in which in¬
flammation of the ftomach was obferved, and detected
after death ; and though the fymptoms there defcribed
are few, they are probably more characteriftic of the
difeale in queftion, than any imaginary defcriptioa
which we can copy from writers who have never feen
the complaint.
This difeafe is extremely dangerous, and will not ad¬
mit of a cure, unlefs effedual means are taken at its
commencement.
Inflammation of the ftomach is commonly produced
by fome acrid irritating fubftance which the animal has
fwallowed, and this is the effeft produced by moft
poifons. A large quantity of cold water drunk while
the animal is in a violent perfpiration, will alfo produce
it. It not unfrequently accompanies inflammation of
the bowels, which we are immediately to defcribe. It
is faid to be fometimes produced in cattle by the giving
of too ftrong a dofe of aftringent medicines to cure the
red water or bloody urine ; and as we have feen in
N° 409. it may fometimes be occafioned by bots.
The difeafe can only be cured by very copious bleed¬
ing, frequently repeated ; by giving mucilaginous
drinks, fuch as water gruel or linfeed tea, applying a
large blifter juft behind the Ihort ribs, and the frequent
adminiftration of relaxing clyfters. If poifon has been
fwallowed, we muft proceed as recommended under
N° 407. though in moft cafes of inflammation of the
ftomach, it will be the moft humane plan to effeift a
radical cure by (hooting the animal through the head,
or cutting his throat.
10. Inflammation of the Bowels. Enteritis. Red
Colic. Inflammatory Colic. Dry Braxy in Sheep.
Tranchee Inflammatoire ou Rouge, Fr.
497
This is a difeafe, to which all the domeftic animals
are fubjeft, but it is attended with fomewhat different tion of thfc
fymptoms, in the feveral fpecies. bowels.
It is generally preceded by more or lefs fever. In
borfes, the firft remarkable fymptoms that appear, are
a great degree of reftlefsnefs, with lofs of appetite, third,
with confiderable heat, and drynefs of the mouth. The
animal evidently labours under violent pain, and is per¬
petually lying down and getting up again, fcraping and
(lamping with his feet, with which he fometimes (trikes
his belly. When the belly is touched with the hand,
the horfe betrays extreme fenfibility, and (brinks from
the touch. The pulfe is always increafed in frequency,
and is hard, giving the fenfation of a cord below the
finger. The (kin feels unufually hot, all over the body,
except at the ears, which are faid to be cold. The
tongue is commonly covered with a white fur. Coftive-
nefs is almoft a conftant fymptom of this difeafe, and
3 Z 2 till
548
Difeafes.
FARR
till the inflammation is fubdued, this continues very ob-
flinate, or, if the animal dungs, it is in very fmall quan¬
tity, and the excrement is very hard. The urine is
voided in very fmall quantities, and with great pain,
efpecially towards the latter period of the difeafe. The
fymptoms go on with more or lefs rapid it v, till the in¬
flammation is fubdued by the proper remedies, or till it
terminate in the death of the horie.
Returning health may be expeffed when the heat of
the body gradually leffens, while the pulfe becomes full,
regular, and of the natural frequency, when the horfe
dungs freely, and returns to his ufual appetite, and
cheerfulnefs. But when there appears a fudden relief
from pain, with a foft, feeble, or irregular pulfe, and a
purging of offenfive black matter comes on, mortifica¬
tion of the bowels has taken place, and the horfe will
expire in a few hours.
On opening the body, evident marks of high inflam¬
mation appear in many parts of the bowels, the outer
or membranous and mufcular coats of which will be
found red, and in fome parts black. The inflammation
is frequently found to have extended to other parts, as
the ftomach, liver, or bladder 5 to fome of which the
guts will be frequently found adhering. On opening
into the cavity of the bowels, thefe will be found great¬
ly diftended with air, and the great guts loaded with
hardened excrement ; and fometimes the inner mem¬
brane will appear highly inflamed, or even corroded,
fhewing evident marks of its having fuffered confidera-
ble irritation, from fome acrid fubftance.
Inflammation of the bowels is diftinguiflied from colie,
by the frequency and cord-like feeling of the pulfe, by
the prefence of fever, by the tendernefs of the belly,
and by there being little or no remiffion of the pain.
It is faid that in colic the borfe rolls much on his back,
but is notfo apt to do this in inflammation of the bowels.
It will be feen by and by, that a long protra&ed colic
frequently terminates in inflammation.
Inflammation of the bowels may be produced by acrid
or poifonous fubftances taken into the ftomach. *It has
been fometimes produced by giving hellebore to horfes,
as a purge ; and it is faid to arife fometimes from giving
purgatives at improper times, or in too large a dole. It
is very commonly brought on by giving the horfe cold
water, when he is much fatigued, and fo much over¬
heated, as to be in a profufe fweat, or by daftung cold
water upon him, by wading in cold water, or by Hand¬
ing in a draught of cold air, under fimilar circumftances
of fatigue and fweating. Coftivenefs too long ne-
gle&ed, or entangled rupture, is alfo not an uncommon
caufe.
In the treatment of the inflammation of the bowels,
as in all other internal inflammations, we muft begin
with copious and repeated bloodletting, after which a
free evacuation of the bowels muft be attempted by
back-raking and the injeftion of foftening clyfters, fuch
as warm water-gruel, mixed with half an Englilh pint
of caftor oil. All acrid clyfters muft be avoided, as
they will only tend to increafe the inflammatory affec¬
tion of the bowels, and even Glauber falls and other
faline purgatives are fcarcely proper, from the irritation
they may produce. After bleeding and evacuating the
bowels, warm fomentations applied to the belly may be
of fervice, and the cloths ftiould be applied as hot as
poflible. After the fomentation, the belly may be
a
IERY. partVl
rubbed.with fome flimulating liniment, fuch as oil of Dif
turpentine, or efience of muftard. Firing has been re- ^ ‘ ^
commended beloiv the belly, as alfo frequent friflion
with the curry-comb, fo as to irritate the Ikin, and al-
moft make it bleed. Probably no medicine fhould be
given by the mouth, farther than foftening, diluting
drinks, fuch as warm water-gruel or linfeed tea. Food
at the beginning of the difeafe is out of the queflion ;
but when the inflammation is a little relieved, the horfe
may have a bran mafli. The body fhould be kept
warm by clothing, and all exercife fhould be avoided.
Inflammation of the bowels in flieep is called dnj
braxy in Scotland, and of this difeafe we have an ex-
cellent account in Mr Findlater’s furvey of Peebles.
I his difeafe is moft fatal to young and robuft flieep r.
about fix or feven months old, called in many parts ofin
the ifland hogs. It is more deftru&ive upon fome farms
than others j and even upon thefe, in one feafon more
than another. In a hog fence, or pafture capable of
keeping 30 fcore of hogs, there is in fome years a lofs
from three to four fcore. This is a very ferious matter,
ns each of thefe would fell in the fpring, or beginning
of fummer, for half a guinea or 11s. This difeafe be^
gins at thofe times when inflammatory diforders are
moft apt to prevail, in the months of Oaober and No¬
vember, and is produced by the common eaufes of in¬
flammation, cold, exertion, external injury, &.c. During
tnefe.months, flight frofts fet in, and the ground in the
morning is often covered with hoar froft, or what is
called in fome parts of Scotland rhine. It is probable,
that eating grafs covered with hoar froft, may be one
caufe of the diforder. If fo, moving the animals aboutj
and preventing them from eating, until the froft is
melted by the fun, may tend to prevent the difeafe.
I his difeafe runs its courfe very rapidly. When
the ftiepherd leaves his flock at night upon their hires,
he fometimes obferves a hog look dull, loitering be¬
hind, and reftlefs ; fometimes lying down and fuddenly
getting up again : and in the morning, he will often find
it dead, or nearly fo. At other times he will difcover
no apparent ailment among his flock 5 and in the morn-
ing, he may find one or two dead or dying. From
this it appears that the difeafe is very acute.
1 his is further evinced by the appearances after death,
when the carcafes are opened. Their bellies are excef-
fively fwelled, and diftended with a putrid air: the
whole inteftines being red and inflamed, gangrenous,
and in fome degree mortified. This putrid taint feems
to be communicated to the whole carcafe, as all the
mufcular parts, and fat, fmeil ftrongly of corruption.
The hogs that die of this difeafe, are frequently fat
and in good order, which (hews that the difeafe "is of
fhort duration.
We have already mentioned the eating of grafs,
which is covered with hoar froft, as a very probable
immediate caufe of this diforder. But is there any pre-
difpofing caufe ?
In anfwer to this queftion, we fhall adduce a faft
which is -well authenticated. Many parts of theweftern
Highlands of Scotland, had been for ages occupied by
horfes and horned cattle. At the introdudion of fheep
into thofe diftrids, the beft grafs was that which had
fprung from the tath and excrements of thefe animals.
During many years after thefe diftrids were converted
into fheep farms, braxy remained unknown. It crept
ixa
Part VI.
Difeafes. in at laft, and the ftverity of the difeafe was long in
'-—v——' proportion to the length of time the pallures had been
occupied by Iheep.
From thefe we would infer that pafturing upon their
own tath, is a predifpofing caufe of braxy among (beep j
and that a frequent alteration of the fpecies of flock,
upon every fheep paflure, might ferve to prevent the
evil. This idea correfponds with the general laws of
the Supreme Being, who certainly never intended that
this earth fhould be monopolized by any particular fpe¬
cies of animals \ but has fo ordered matters, that the
happinefs of individuals (hall refult from the happinefs
of the whole family of animated beings.
Hence it would appear a beneficial practice in (lore
farmers, in place of one fence, to keep two or more
enclofures of this defcription, and change the flock up¬
on them every feafon. This we know to be contrary
to general praflice, and that what is called the hogs
fence, is carefully guarded againft the intrufion of every
other animal.
Lambs, immediately after they are weaned, are fre¬
quently fent to poor paflure, which is called burning
them. Now this appears to be a very bad pra£lice j for
the confequence is, that they fall off confiderably, be¬
fore they get at the rich grafs in the hog’s fence, of
which they eat too freely *, and thus become difpofed to
the difeafe t*reated of. Children, and all domeflicated
animals, are carefully fed with nourifhing food for a con-
fiderable time after they are weaned ; and yet they fall
off for feme time. It would certainly be better to give
the lambs the hogs fence at once, and ufe every precau¬
tion to prevent them from falling off.
As the difeafe is generally advanced to a dangerous
height before it is obferved, we fear that medicine af¬
fords but a very faint hope of cure. The difeafe being
inflammatory, the fhepherd fhould attempt to bleed the
ditlreffed creature as foon as pofilble 5 which he can
eafily do, by cutting off part of the tail, or by nicking
it underneath, or by cutting off part of the ears. The
animal fhould then be removed to a houfe or fired, and
attempts made to produce evacuations. In brute ani¬
mals, it is difficult to produce thefe by medicines ad-
miniflered by the mouth. The fpeediefl and mofl effec¬
tual method, is by injeflions into the redlum or anus.
Such injection may confifl of a fmall handful of chamo¬
mile flowers, two fpoonfuls of anifefeeds, and as much
caraway feeds j to be boiled flowly in a Scotch mutch-
kin or Englifh pint of milk and water, until the half is
evaporated. The liquor (hould then be flrained off, and
two tea fpoonfuls of caflor oil added, or if this is not at
hand, the fame quantity of fweet oil may be ufed. This
fhould be adminiflered warm by an injection bag and
pipe, or by an elaflic gum bottle with a pipe properly
fitted. Nothing can be eafier, than to give a fheep a
clyfler in this way 5 and in all probability it will have
a happy effect in evacuating the bowels and procuring
relief.
If this does not appear very foon, it may be repeated
an hour after, and a large fpoonful of common fait add¬
ed to the former ingredients. If, after all, the animal
does not feem relieved, another clyfler may be given,
confifling of a fmall tea cupful of warm milk and wa¬
ter, to which are added from 20 to 25 drops of lauda¬
num.
As there is a great diftention of the flomach and
549
bo-wels, arifing from aiis or elaflic vapours, generated Difeafes.
in the inteflines, Mr Walker of Cumberland, in a trea-*nr—^
tife he wrote upon the difeafes of brute animals, has
fuggefted a remedy for this diforder, which has often
proved fuccefsful in his ditlridl. It confifls in pufliing
down their throats a flexible tube, fuch as Dr Monro
has recommended, and which has proved fuccefsful in
relieving cows that had over gorged themfelves with red
clover early in the feafon (fee N° 405.). This feems
a probable means of affording temporary relief, and
every fhepherd that has the care of the hog flock, fhould
be furniflied with one of thefe tubes, adapted to the fize
of the fheep, for trying the experiment upon thofe that
labour under the difeale.
“ In regard to the quality of pafture (adds Mr Find-
later) as a caufe ofJicknefs, Tweeddale farmers feem of
opinion that it arifes from the foulnefs of the grafs at the
root in the hogs fences, which are never eaten bare.
Some, therefore, take care to have the land to be faved
for the hog fence, once eaten as bare as poffible early
ia fummer, by the black cattle upon the farm, or by old
flieep.
“ It feems afeertained in Tweeddale, that land which
has been in ufe to be paflured by older fheep, when con¬
verted into a hog fence, is not liable for fome time to
produce ficknefs. Two accidental experiments occur¬
ring in which this praflice took place, in confequence
of new arrangements in the farms of Harehop in Eddle-
flone pariffi, and of Lyne in Lyne parilh, confirm this
conelufion. It is farther confirmed by an experiment
of Mr Murray, tenant in Flemington mill. About 20
years ago, he bought in different parcels of lambs for
hogs, and laid them upon the hog fence of his farm
of Broughton-haup, in Broughton parifh. In one of
the parcels of much higher condition than the reft, the
ficknefs broke out to fuch extent, that they were dying
at the rate of two or three daily j fo that the whole par¬
cel feemed in imminent rifk. He transferred this whole
parcel to the farm of Fingland in Newlands parifh,
where only old fheep were kept, putting them on fome
of the lower pafture of that farm, which had been hain-
ed for feeding the crock ewes, and transferring a pro¬
portional quantity of thefe ewes to Broughton-haup hog
fence. Not one of the lambs died upon Eingland. To
the fame effedt, it deferves attention, that in fmall farms,
not admitting of diftindl hirfling, where, of courfe, old
and young fheep paflure mixed together, hogs are very
little liable to ficknefs, though perhaps vvorfe in other
refpedls.
“ From November at fmearing time till Chriftmas
(1797), two fadls with regard to the mode of cure have
been Hated to me, and which I am difpofed to think
authentic. In thefarmof Drummelzier, parifh ofDrum-
melzier, three hogs (out of four upon which the experiment
was tried) recovered, upon bleeding, and having poured
down their throats, a decoclion of tobacco ; about a
finger’s length of twill tobacco boiled in water till the
water has diminifhed to a gill, being the dofe for each.
In the farm of Broughton-haup, pariflr of Broughton, with¬
in the fame fpace of time, nine or ten (out of 16 or 17 up¬
on whom the experiment was made) recovered upon
bleeding, and having an injedlion of tobacco fmoke. ad¬
miniflered from a common tobacco pipe, by kindling
the tobacco, inferting the pipe ftiankinto the anus, and
blowing ; the experiment, however, was not fo fuccefs-
farriery.
* Find-
later's
Survey.
499
Kyfentery
«r molten
ffreafe.
FARR
ful in fome later inilances. I have long ago feen a ewe
cured by bleeding, and injeftion of Glauber falls from
a common clyfter-bag and pipe. When braxy breaks
out, it might be ufeful, where attainable, to’lay the
hogs, nightly, upon a dry ground, if the hog fence is
wet, the chillinefs of wet ground contributing no doubt
to the production of inflammation. Clover foggage or
turnips might be good preventatives, from inducing a
lax habit 6
xi. Dysentery. _ Molta.greafe, or Body-founder,
break-fjaw, (in fheep). Gras fondu, Fr.
Dyfentery is the other difeafe that, with catarrh
forms Dr Cullen’s order of profluvia ; but as there are
evident marks of inflammation of the bowels obferved
on infpeCting the bodies of fuch animals as have died of
this complaint, we have placed it immediately after in-
hammation of the bowels, in which we have followed
Ivi. Pinel and fome other late writers.
This difeafe is not uncommon in the horfe, and pro¬
bably it is flill more frequent in cattle and (beep. It
very commonly begins with fome degree of fever as a
trembling, drynefs of the mouth, lofs of appetite a
great degree of weaknefs, drooping of the head and
ears, fometimes a copious fweating, but more common¬
ly drynefs and heat of the fkin. There is ufually a
heaving of the flanks, and the animal turns his head
towards them, as if griped. There are frequent de-
jedions from the anus, but thefe feldom confift of the
natural excrement, but of a mucous, flimy difcharge,
accompanied with a peculiar fatty fubftance, like foft
fueC There is evidently much diftrefs during thefe eva¬
cuations, and fometimes the fundament appears excori¬
ated. It is not uncommon to lee blood pals with the
ftools, generally in ftreaks, but fometimes in ftich a
quantity as to tinge the whole difcharge of a red colour:
and in the latter itages of the difeafe there generally
appear membranous, filmy fubftances, which have been
compared to foaked leather. Thefe fubftances have
been fuppofed to be the inner membrane of the bowels
that has been eroded and thrown off by the violence of
the purging $ but they are merely coagulable lymph,
fuch as is very commonly thrown off from inflamed fur-
faces.. The pulfe, towards the beginning of the dif¬
eafe, is commonly hard and full, but as the complaint
goes on, it becomes quick, fmall, and fometimes irregu¬
lar. The animal is very ftiff, and much averfe to mo¬
tion, and if the difeafe continues long, there ufually
comes on a fwelling of the legs.
When animals that have died of this difeafe are dif¬
fered, the inner coat of the bowels is found inflamed,
in fome places covered with coagulable lymph, fuch as
we have defcribed as being thrown out in the difcharge,
and not unfrequently ulcerated in various parts, fome¬
times mortified and corroded.
This difeafe does not appear fo dangerous among the
inferior animals in this climate, as in warmer countries;
but it fometimes proves fatal, or terminates in a weak¬
nefs of the bowels and fcouring, that are not eafily re¬
moved. If the fever is but little or foon abates, if
the animal appears not to labour under much pain, and
if the difcharge of natural excrement foon returns, the
difeafe will probably terminate favourably in a ftiort
time; but if there is great pain and fever, with excef-
!5ve weaknefs; and if tjie mucous difcharges continue
1 E R Y. p ,
r , . "art Vi
very frequent, and nutted with much blood, the danger „ • '
is confiderable. ® H'feafe?.
It is neceffary to diftinguilh this complaint from the
common purging or fcouring, with which it is very p-e-
nerally confounded. It muft therefore beobferved, that
in fcouring, there is no fever, whereas this is common
in dyfentery ; that the difcharge in fcouring, though
Jim, has almoft always the appearance of excrement
is not bloody, and is fcarcely ever mixed with fattv
matter. J
Dyfentery is more common in hot weather, and in
bot feafons than at other times; but is very commonly
produced by the hidden application of cold, efpeciallv
to the legs or belly, while the body is overheated and
ratigued : hence fwimming in autumn, drinkino- lame
quantmes of cold water while in a profufe fweat, or
other hidden changes from heat to cold, have common-
y produced it. It is faid to be frequently brought on
by riding a horfe very hard in hot weather. Mr Law¬
rence fays that when a boy, he rode a horfe that had a
great deal of loofe grofs flefli about him, 21 miles in a
warm fummer morning, and thus brought on an attack
ot molten greafe It is alfo not an uncommon difeafe
among poft horfes.
From the appearance of the fatty matter in the dif¬
charge that takes place in this complaint, the older
writers on farriery were induced to give it the name of
molten greafe, conceiving that a principal part of the
dileale confifted in a melting down of the fat of the ani¬
mal, which being conveyed by the abforbents into the
circulation, is thrown out by the exhalants on the bowels
and carried off with the dung. Mr Blaine laughs very
heartily at this idea, and feems to pride himfelf on the
difcovery, that what has been miftaken for fat, is no¬
thing more than an increafed fecretion of the mucus of
the inteftines, and is as liable to a horfe with little fat,
as to one with much. Mr Lawrence, on the other hand*
argues ftrenuoufly that this matter is really greafy, and
fays, that “ with refped to the evidence of fenfe,’ had
Mr Blaine ever feen a horfe under the difcharge of
molten greafe, he might have found on experiment,
that part of the difcharge in queftion is inflammable
and liquefiable, which are not the charafters of albu¬
men, but of real greafe; and, (continues Mr Lawrence'*
viewing the matter through the medium of experience,
I can fee no fort of improbability in a colliquation of
loofe, fabftantial, internal fat, by hidden inflammation,
and its confequent effufion and difcbarge by an unufual
emunaory. Gibfon gives an inftance which convinced
him (apparently incredulous before) of the poflibility of
a horfe’s greafe being melted. He found the fat melt¬
ed and turned into an oil, and drawn off from its pro¬
per cells into the blood veffels.. He fays farther, this
difeafe is not unlike the greafy diarrhoea which hap¬
pens to men.” Not having ourlelves feen a cafe of dy¬
fentery in horfes, we are not prepared to decide the
difference between thefe two champions of the old and
new fchool ; but as Mr Lawrence is very worthy of
credit in whatever has pafled under his own oblervation,
we have no doubt that this debated fubftance is of a
fatty nature.
As it feems certain that dyfentery is of an inflamma¬
tory nature, it is proper to begin the cure by bleeding,
efpecially if the horfe is plethoric, or if the pulfe is full
and hard. It will then be proper to clear the bowels
by
o
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes. by a laxative clyfter, and to give internally a drench
i—-Y-— compofed of five or fix ounces of Glauber’s fait diffolved
in a quart of water-gruel, or the drench N° 26. of the
receipts; and this may be repeated every three or four
hours. This will probably, in the courfe of the day,
produce a plentiful difcharge of excrement, and when
the bowels appear well cleared, the horfe may have a
warm mafh, be covered up warm, and perhaps a per-
fpiration will be brought on, which, if the difeafe is
flight, will probably complete the cure. If the difeafe
Ihould continue, an Englifh pint, or pint and a half, of
caflor oil may be given, and clyfters, co’mpofed of wa¬
ter-gruel, or ftarch boiled in water, fhould be given
warm very frequently. When by thefe means a pretty
copious difcharge of excrement has been produced, the
horfe may have a ball compofed of two drachms of
opium, and half an ounce of ipecacuanha, or a drachm
of emetic tartar, wafhed down with a quart of good
porter. If there is confiderable pain, it may be ad-
vifable to foment the belly for half an hour at a time,
with flannels wrung out of a warm decoftion of poppy
heads. During this treatment the horfe fliould be kept
clothed, and currents of air in the liable fhould be
avoided. When the difeafe is fubdued, as the horfe
will probably remain very weak, it will be proper to
revive him by nouriftiing diet, and cordial and ftrength-
ening remedies.
The appearances of dyfentery in cattle are not un¬
like thofe that occur in the horfe, only that perhaps in
them there is not fo much of the gras fondu. The dif¬
eafe among thefe animals is commonly called far¬
del bound. The treatment is the fame as above de-
fcribed.
<CO
Breakfliaw This difeafe is not uncommon in ftieep, by the name
iolheep. of breakjhaw ; but fliepherds very commonly confound
it with diarrhoea or purging. Mr Loch of Kachan
very properly diftinguiflies between them, and obferves
that the breakjhaw is analogous to dyfentery in the hu¬
man fpecies, and occurs mofl: commonly in the end of
wet fummers. The difcharge is thin and greenifti (Mr
Loch fuppofes from the wet grafs becoming acid in the
ftomach, and turning the gall green) j it is more or lefs
mixed with blood, fometimes florid, fometimes black
and grumous *, the animal pines for a week or two, and
dies, though fometimes he recovers. The cure com¬
monly employed by Mr Loch’s herd, is warm milk
poured down the animal’s throat j but Mr Loch pro-
pofes to try, in addition to this, nitre in half drachm
dofes, with chalk or fome other abforbent powder, and
20 or 30 drops of laudanum twice or thrice a-day, with
frequent injeftions of warm milk and water. This plan
feems bell adapted to the latter ftages of the difeafe.
According to Mr Gillefpie of Glenquich (quoted by
Mr Findlater), this difeafe is often produced by over¬
heating, when the {beep are hunted by dogs, in folding
them, &c. or when otherwife feared and terrified. It
is Hated by Mr Gillefpie to be confiderably infe6tious;
and he confiders tarring part of the flock to be the bell
means of checking the infection, under the idea that
the fmell of the tar will overcome that of the con¬
tagion.
501
Mamma. 12. INFLAMMATION of the KlDNEYS. Nephritis. Strain
non of the of the Kidnei/s.
kidneys. J
This difeafe is not uncommon among Tiorfes and cat-
I E R Y. . 551
tie j but it is more frequent in the former, as they are Difeafes.
more expofed to thofe caufes that appear generally to
produce it.
The fymptoms of this difeafe in horfes, are tolerably
well marked. The horfe Hands wide with his hind-legs,
appears dull, and exprefles confiderable pain, often look¬
ing at his flanks. When preffure is made on his loins
the horfe flinches, and is evidently much diflreffed; the
pulfe is hard and full, and commonly more frequent
than natural. When both kidneys are inflamed, little
or no urine is fecreted, and what little is evacuated is
generally bloody j but when only one kidney is in¬
flamed, the other continues to fecrete urine, but the
natural quantity is on the whole much diminiflied,
and there is commonly confiderable pain during the
evacuation.
Inflammation of the kidneys is liable to be confound¬
ed with inflammation of the neck of the bladder; and
the belt means of diftinguifhing them, is to pafs the
hand up the fundament, by which the Hate of the blad¬
der beneath may be eafily afeertained. If the bladder
be confiderably diftended with urine, the inflammation
is almofi: certainly feated in the neck of the bladder j
but if the bladder be Ihrunk and empty, the difeafe is
probably fituated in the kidneys. It muft be allowed,
however, that this mark of diferimination will not hold
good till the difeafe of the kidneys is pretty far ad¬
vanced, as it very commonly happens that when a gland
is inflamed, its fecretion is at firfi: increafed. At the
commencement of the difeafe, therefore, the fymptoms
which we have enumerated, efpecially the fenfibility
which the horfe evinces on touching his loins, are chief¬
ly to be depended on. It muft be remarked that one
of the kidneys has been found difeafed, and even puru¬
lent, after death, when it Ihewed no marks of inflam¬
mation during life. This difeafe is attended with con¬
fiderable danger, and unlefs the inflammation be fpeedily
removed, matter will be formed, which, if it does not
pafs off by the urinary pipes into the bladder, will find
a paflage into the belly, or behind the peritoneum, and
produce hedlic fever and confumption, or the kidney
may mortify, and death will foon follow.
The kidneys may become inflamed, either from ex¬
ternal injury, or from irritating fubftances that pafs
through them in the courfe of the circulation. Inflam¬
mation of thefe organs is frequently produced by placing
the faddle too far back upon the loins, and riding hard
for a long time while it is in this pofition. It is fome¬
times the effedl of throwing cold water upon the body
while it is in a fweat j but according to Mr Blaine and
Mr Feron, it is mofl; frequently produced by the indif-
criminate ufe of ftrong diuretic medicines.
In the treatment of this difeafe, we muft vigoroufly
employ the means that we have fo often recommended
for the cure of internal inflammations; bleeding in its
full extent, emollient clyfters, and the produdlion of
external inflammation : but it is neceffary in this difeafe
to caution the pra&itioner againft the ufe of blifters, as
the matter of cantharides, when taken into the circula¬
tion, and carried to the kidneys, will confiderably in-
creafe the inflammation and diftrefs. A good fubftitute
for blifters of cantharides would be, to, pour hot water
on the loins, fo as to raife a blifter on each fide, which,
however cruel it may appear, could not produce fo much
pain, as the animal already feels from the difeafe.. It
ha^
552 FARR
Difeafes. lias been recommended, to excite a degree of inflamma-
v tion in the external part of the loins, by means of fir-
ingj but probably the hot water will do as well, and is
lefs painful. No medicine fhould be given by the
mouth, that is in the lead heating or irritating } and
nitre, turpentine, balfam of copaiva, &c. fo warmly re¬
commended by mod of the writers on farriery, would
only ferve to aggravate the difeafe. The horfe may
drink frequently of water gruel, linfeed tea, or fuch
other mild, mucilaginous liquors ; and if he feems to
require food, bran madres will be the mod proper article
of diet. If there is much codivenefs, purgative clyders
may be given, or in cafes of neceffity, fix or feven
drachms of focotorine aloes in a ball. All exercife
mud be avoided, and the horfe fhould have a good bed
of litter, on which he may lie down when fatigued.
13. Inflammation of the Bladder. Cyditis.
502 - J
tnflamma- The bladder may be inflamed either in its body, or
bladder^6 *ts nec^’ anc‘ fymptoms differ fomewhat in thefe
“lc‘ er' two varieties. When the body of the bladder is in¬
flamed, there is produced fuch a degree of irritation,
that the bladder becomes incapable of retaining its con¬
tents for any length of time ; and the animal is perpetu¬
ally making fmall quantities of urine. He alfo makes
frequent attempts to dung. On pafling the hand up
the fundament, the bladder will be found very hot and
fenfible ; and in this variety of the complaint, as in in¬
flammation of the kidneys, it is empty and collapfed.
When the neck of the bladder is inflamed, there is at
firfl: a fuppreflion of the urine, but afterwards it is con¬
tinually pafling off in drops j and on examining the
bladder by the fundament, it will be found more or lefs
diflended, according to the continuance of the com¬
plaint. There is ufually confiderable fever in both
cafes. The pulfe is hard and full at the beginning of
the difeafe, but after this has continued for fome time,
the pulfe becomes fmall and oppreffed.
Inflammation of the bladder takes place more fre¬
quently in male than in female animals ; but it is faid
to be fometimes produced in the latter, at leaf! in mares,
by pafling fome irritating fubftance up the urethra, in
order to make them horfy. Both cafes of this difeafe
are attended with confiderable danger ; but the latter
is generally the moft dangerous ; but in a mare a cure
is generally eafier than in a horfe.
The treatment of this complaint differs little from
that of the inflammation of the kidneys, and chiefly
confifls in bleeding, the frequent ufe of foftening clyf-
ters, low diet, and the produ&ion of external inflamma¬
tion by any other means than the ufe of cantharides
blifters. If the bladder be found confiderably diflended,
it will be neceffary to evacuate the urine, either by
the means of a catheter, which may be eafily paffed up
in a mare, or by making an opening into the bladder j
for performing which in the male, Mr Feron gives the
following diredlions. “ It happens that the urethra is fo
conftrufled, that it is not in our power to introduce an
inftrument immediately into the bladder, without per¬
forming an operation ; for the urethra of the horfe forms
two curvatures or angles, before it reaches the bladder,
and therefore it is not poflible to introduce an inftru¬
ment into the bladder, which will preferve its curvity
all the way. We therefore introduce a ftaff of a plia¬
ble wood, or whalebone, to the angle at the os pubis,
I E R Y. part vr
as near the redum as poffible with fafety ; we make a Difeafes.
cut upon it, and then introduce the female catheter, or  <
fome fimilar tube, without however removing the ftafF
to prevent our lofing the incifion, taking care to avoid
tne inftrument’s palling into the cellular membrane, in-
flead of entering the bladder. If fuch an accident was
likely to happen, it is advifable not to attempt the ope¬
ration, but to continue and infill upon all the emollient
remedies.
“ We may alfo pundlure the bladder Avith a trocar,
by the rectum, or through the inferior part of the ab¬
domen.
“ In either cafe we are likewife direfted by Mr Cole¬
man, to make the puncture as near the os pubis as pcf-
fible, tnat we may not wound the peritoneum anterior¬
ly. By this, method the operation recommended
through the rectum may be performed without expo-
fing or opening the cavity of the abdomen * Feron’s
In the female an opening may be eafily made into Farriery,
the bladder, with a trocar, introduced by the vagina. P* lS9*
It has been recommended in the mare to throw up an
injedlion of fome oily or mucilaginous fluid, to fupplv
the place of mucus, in Iheathing the bladder from the
irritation tff urine. As in the inflammation of the kid¬
neys, every thing that can heat or irritate the urinary
organs muft be carefully avoided.
14. Cords.
S°3
It is well known in moft breeding countries, that aCor<k-
great many calves die every year, of an unknown dif¬
eafe, with which they are affeded very Ihortly after
birth. The common name which this difeafe receives
in Scotland, is the cords ; and while its fatal and w’ide-
1, extended effeds are the fubjed of juft regret, the
difeafe itfelf is looked on as incurable, and no pains are
taken to inveftigate its nature, fymptoms and caufes,
and no remedies fuggefted as a cure or preventive.
Whatever be its nature, this difeafe is exceedingly dan¬
gerous, and fo extremely rapid, (terminating frequently
in a night’s time), that all means of relief are commonly
ufele fs even before it is obferved.
Almoft all calves, that are faid to have died of tlie
cords, appear, when they are opened up, exceedingly
red, and the fmall leaders, or ligaments, are confider¬
ably fwelled, and have fome refemblance to firings paf-
fing through the internal parts, from which probably
the difeafe has its name. Every fymptom indicates a
confiderable degree of plethora, if not a very high de¬
gree of inflammation.
It is commonly obferved, that calves are moft liable
to be affebled during the firfl days, or weeks, after they
are calved. If they outlive five or fix weeks, they are
feldom in any danger.
Calves that fuck their mothers, we believe, it will be
found, are not fo liable to the difeafe, as thofe who are
fed by the hand.
The greateft number of calves who fall a facrifice to
this difeafe, if not the whole of them, are thofe who are
clofely confined to the houfe from their birth, without
ever being expofed to the free open air without doors.
It is a well known fad!, that calves who are dropt with¬
out, and remain in the fields, are in little or no danger.
Cows that are laid on to graze for beef frequently turn out
to be in calf; and it is no uncommon thing to fee them
drop their calves in the midi! of froft andfnow, and yet
thefe
Part VI.
Difeafes. thefe young creatures, if they can once get to their feet,
v—* ' without being frozen to the ground, are hearty and
well. Calves, lambs, and foals, require exercife and
frelh air; and nature direfts them to take a great deal.
It is aftonithing to fee with what force and vigour,
(particularly the calf), and how long, thev will run.
But this free, unconlfrained, and fevere exercife without
doors, feems to be the Very thing that makes them
* Farm- thrive, and to be necelTary to their very exiftence *.
Mag. vol. The great objeft is to prevent this difeafe ; and the
*v' 59- following method of treating the new-born calves, prac-
tifed by a correfpondent of the Farmer’s Magazine,
. feems to be attended with complete fuccefs.
1 he time when this gentleman’s cows are bulled is re¬
gularly noted down in a book ; and when they are near
calving, they are watched frequently night and day.
As foon as the calf is dropped, it is received into a large
bafket or Ikull, made of willows, with a handle at
each end, and plenty of clean draw in it. It is
then carried by two perfons to the ftall in the calf-
houfe, where it is gently rubbed with draw. The
■calt-houfe is next to the cow-byre ; and is fitted up with
dalls like a dable, about three feet wide, and about five
feet long. Every dall (huts in by itfelf, with a door
and hinges, for fear of the calf lying back too far, to
choke itfelt in its binding. As foon as the mother has
had a little red after calving, (he is milked, and a little
of the milk given to the calf as early as podible. If
the weather is cold, and the mother long in giving milk,
it is taken to the fire, and warmed in a pan until it
is blood-warm, and then given to the calf; about fix or
according to the fize of the calf, and repeat¬
ed lour times in 24 hours. As the calf gathers drength,
the quantity may be increafed ; but too much milk at
one time is as bad as too little, until it is a month or fix
weeks old. When the calf is able to dand, it is tied to
a dake ; as it is more in the power of the fervants to give
it milk in that fituation, than when going about loofe.
If a calf gets cold milk, it is fure to bring on a tremb¬
ling : and the cords or fome other malady follows ;
which he has often feen exemplified amongd the neigh-
| lb. p. 25(C,bouring young dock f.
I J. FaRCY. Le Farcin, Fr.
504
Farcy. We (hall conclude this chapter with a brief account
of two difeafes ; or rather, as it fliould feem, of two mo¬
difications ot the fame difeafe, that frequently take place
in the horfe, to whom they are alrnod peculiar ; though
fomething like them is occalionally found in other ani¬
mal®. We diall hereafter take notice of what farriers
call the water farcy, which we confider as fimilar to
anafarca in the human body ; but the difeafe We are
about to defcribe, appears to be rather a peculiar in¬
flammatory aflfeflion of the abforbent veflels below the
ikin. There feem to be two varieties of farcv, acute
and chronic ; or rather a mild and a malignant variety.
The commencement of farcy appears to be rather ob-
fcure, and probably it is feldom obferved in the begin¬
ning of the inflammation. The fird appearances that
are defcribed by writers, are a number of fvvellings that
rife in almod every part of the body, particularly the
head, neck, and extremities. The lymphatic veffels be¬
low the fkin appear like knotted cords ; and this appear¬
ance is found to be owing to a didention and inflamma¬
tion that take place in thefe velfels, efpecially at their
Vol. VIII. Part II.
553
valves, where the knots are produced. As the difeafe Difeafes.
proceeds, thefe knotted fwellings burd, and ulcers are ——v ■ .-»
formed which are very difficult to heal. The forma¬
tion of thefe ulcers may be confidered as terminating
the mild dage, and commencing the malignant form of
the difeafe ; in which the horfe lofes his appetite, grows
lean and weak, and commonly has a degree of hedfic
fever. If the progrefs ot the dileafe has not been ar-
reded, a fu elling takes place in the head and nofe, and
there comes on from the latter a copious difcharge of a
peculiar glairy mucus, which (hews that the difeafe has
degenerated into glanders, under which name we (hall
proceed to defcribe it; and (hall afterwards confider the
nature, caufes, and treatment of both.
16. Glanders. Le Morve, Fr.
According to Mr Blaine, the ufual fymptoms of Glanders.
glanders are an increafed fecretion of the mucus of the
noie, which is at fird thick, and like the white of an
egg. He has feen it continue fo, while at other times
it becomes purulent ; but there is ufually a degree of
vifcidity and glueinefs about the matter, that as it were
fixes the Tides of the nodrils together, and is drongly
•chara£teridic of this difeafe. On examining the nodrils,
there may generally be perceived a number of ulcerated
furfaces, very fimilar to diankers that occur in the ve¬
nereal difeafe. 1 hele ulcers do not always appear
loon ; but they are produced in all virulent cafes, and
never fail to appear when the difeafe terminates fatailv.
They are at fird final], and difpofed in lines along the
lymphatic vellels ; but as the ulceration proceeds, it be¬
comes more extenfive, till the whole inner furface of
the nodrils is affe&ed, and at length the bones of the
nofe are affeffed, and become carious. When the ul¬
cers have continued for fome time, the matter changes
its glairy appearance, and becomes bloody and offenfive ;
and this is more particularly the cafe when the bones
become difeafed. In the latter dages of the complaint,
the emaciation and weaknefs of the animal are greatly
increafed ; he becomes affe£led with a (hort tickling
cough ; the hair, grows dry and harfh, and falls off on
the flighted touch, and thus the horfe gradually pines
away.
Sometimes only one fide of the head is affedled, but
more commonly both at the fame time.
I he bed account of the appearances of glanders on
di fled ion, has been given by M. Chabert, in a work
which he publiflied in 1785, on the means of afcertain-
ing the exiftence of glanders, and of preventing their
effeds. From the numerous bodies which he opened,
M. Chabert has drawn up the following general account
of the morbid appearances.
The lungs are generally more, affeded than any other
of the vifcera ; we find them often fwdled and filled
with hydatids, tubercles,and obflrudions. The bronchial
glands are very often fweiled and ulcerated, and this is
fometimes the only injury that we can perceive on dif-
fedions. The membrane that lines the bronchia and
the wind-pipe, is molt commonly inflamed and ulcerat¬
ed ; the bronchia are filled with a thick matter, that
commonly refe’mbles what the animal difcharges by the
noftrils. The internal furface of the,bones that form
the different cavities of the nofe, and the griilv parti¬
tion of the noftrils, are often carious, and covered with
purulent matter; and the membrane wffiich lines the
4 A noftrilg
farriery.
554
FARRIERY.
DAeafe';.
30 <5
noftrils is ulcerated. Thefpleen, tlie liver, and the kid¬
neys, are alfo fometimes eo ifiderably dil'eafed j and the
ulcerated ftate of the kidneys, not unfrequentlv appears
during life, by the purulent matter that is difeharged
with the urine. On opening the bead, we fometimes
find the brain fofter and more flaccid than in a healthy
animal. Ihere is often a great quantity of ferum in its
cavities, and the glands are much fwelled.
I he glanders is liable to be confounded with feveral
of thofe difeafes, in which an unufual difeharge proceeds
from the noftrils •, as catarrh, ftrangles, and confurrrp-
tions ; but chiefly with the two former. It may be dif-
tinguifhed from catarrh, by the abfence of fever in the
early ftage $ by the matter difeharged from the noflrils
being thick and glairy from the firtt ; whereas, in ca¬
tarrh, there is almoft always confiderable fever in the
beginning, and the difeharge is at firft watery. In a
common cold the general health is alfo more or lefs af-
fe&ed, and from the firft there is ufually a cough and
lofs of appetite ; whereas, thefe fymptoms fcarcely ever
come on in glanders, till the difeafe has fubfifted for a
confiderable time. Glanders may be diftinguiftsed from
ftrangles by the high fever which commences the latter,
and by the fwelling and fpeedy fuppuration ef the
glands of the mouth and throat.
Of thefe two affe&ions, glanders is the moft dange¬
rous ; as farcy, when taken at its commencement, may
frequently be removed ; but we believe the inftances of
a perfect cure in glanders are very rare.
The eaufes of thefe complaints are very obfeure. It
is faid that farcy may be brought on by the fame caufes
that predifpole to mange, as want of cleanlinefs, hard
work, and low diet j and there is no doubt that this dif-
eafe, as well as glanders, is contagious. Glanders, be¬
tides being produced by contagion, may alfo be the ter¬
mination of feveral diforders, as of catarrh, ftrangles,
and confumption, however different from thefe difeafes
in their commencement.
The nature of glanders is not well underflood, al¬
though, of late, many ingenious men have inveftigated
the fubjedt, and made confiderable difeoveries. It is
not certain when the difeafe was firft known. Mr
Lawrence dates it from the fame period with the Lues
Venerea i but there feems no doubt that the difeafe was
known to the ancients, though we do not know’ by what
name it was called. Vegetius {peaks of a difeafe which
he calls humiditas, which Mr Blaine fuppoles to be
the fame with our glanders ; but which the learned
Camper confiders as analogous to the murrain, fee N°
466. Blundevil, and after him Markham, give the
following defeription of its rife, progrefs, and comple¬
tion. “ Of cold firft cometh the pole, (that is ftoppage
of the head), and the cough, and then the glanders, and
laft of all the mourning of the chine.”’ The two
Meflieurs Lafoife, made, as we have feen, feveral difeo¬
veries with refpedl to glanders, efpecially the father,
who, in 1 749< demonftrated before the academy of feien-
ees at Paris, that the feat of the difeafe is wholly in the
pituitary membrane; and he propofed curing it by
injefiing the whole of this membrane through open¬
ings made witlv the trepan, into the frontal, nafal, and
maxillary finufes. Lafoffe divided the difeaffc into fe-
vei al fpecies; but it appears that all thefe may be redu¬
ced to two;, the mild and malignant,,or the chronic and.
Part VI.
Difeafes,
acute the chronic being that in which the running of
the nofe is trifling, and of a tranfparent colour, with no
appearance of ulceration in the noftrils ; while in the V
acute or malignant variety, there is confiderabJe ulcera¬
tion ; the difeharge is very offenfive ; there is a fwel¬
ling below the under jaw, and the bones of the nofe
are -carious.
The beft of the Englifti writers on farriery appear
to have known little or nothing of the difeafe more
than the fymptoms. Dr Bracken confidered it as not
contagious, and Gibfon gives but a poor account of it,
for which he feenrs indebted to Snape.
“ The late profeffor of the veterinary college (fays
Mr Blaine), pubiiihed his remarks on this difeafe; but
it is evident that he knew little or nothing relating to
it, but what he gained from Lafoffe, and confequently
his opinions offered nothing new. The prefent profef¬
for has profeeuted the inquiries relative to it much far¬
ther, and by an extenfive courfe of experiment has
thrown very confiderable light on the nature of the dif¬
eafe ; and though we are not yet much more fuceefs-
ful in attempts at the cure, yet we have lei's reafon to
defpair. By Mr Coleman’s experiments it is proved
beyond a doubt that farcy and glanders are fpeeifically
the fame difeafe, but affefting different parts : to eftab-
liftl this, borfes have been inoculated with the matter
of farcy, and glanders has been produced ; which put the
matter beyond a doubt. Farther, Mr Coleman produ¬
ced glanders in a found animal by the inoculation with
the matter of glanders. This M. St Bel afferted could
not be done. Farcy has likewife been produced by the
fame means, but it appears that it was fume time be¬
fore it could be effe&ed ; but it has been produced by
Mr White. It cannot therefore be inferred, that be-
caufe the farcy and glanders are fo different in their
apparent fituations they are diflinff difeafes : every poi-
fon has its preference of parts ; and likewife the fame
poifion, under different modifications, affefls different
parts.
Mr Coleman is of opinion, that in glanders, the
whole circulating fluids are afte£!ed. To prove this,
he bled an afs from the jugular vein till be was to all
appearance dead, when he introduced the blood from
the carotid artery of a horfe labouring under glanders,
till the afs was reanimated. In a few days the moft ma¬
lignant glanders appeared. I believe another afs was
inoculated from this, which became glandered.. This
experiment, I think, (adds Mr Blaine), throws great
light dn this complaint, and indeed on pathology in
general; and we may hence be led to hope, that internal
remedies may be more ufeful than external, which have
been thought to be the only means by which we could
hope for a cure ; for provided we could deftroy the
poifon exifting in the blood, and keeping up the a&ion
in the part ; the aft ion, or at leaft the fpecific part of
it, might ceafe in the affefted part, and we might in¬
duce a healing procefs by the ufual means. As fuch,
our only hope muft confift in exciting a new a<frion in
the fyft em, whereby the glanderous one will be fuf-
pended, till by the continuance of the new aflion the
virus of glanders is completely expelled by the change . ,
the fluids naturally undergo*.” Outlines*
The treatment of thefe difeafes will differ according vol^ii. ^
to their ftate and degree of malignity. For the cure525.
Part VI.
FARRIERY.
555
Difeates. of farcy, bliders are much extolled by Mr Feron, and
——v”—' the a£tuai cautery Is very generally employed to def-
troy the fwellings of the lymphatic*, and to excite thefe
veflels into greater aftion. To affilt this purpofe, diu¬
retics are to be adminiftered, and the horfe fliould take
as much exercife, efpecially draught labour, as he will
bear without confiderable fatigue. Two remedies have
af late been employed internally, when the fyftem be¬
comes confiderably affected 5 thefe are verdigrife, and
corrofive fublimate. Mr Feron direfts the former to
be given in the following manner. A ball compofed
of one drachm of verdigrife, and a quarter of an ounce
of common turpentine, is to be given every night and
morning, gradually increafing the quantity of verdi¬
grife till the horfe can take from three drachms to half
an ounce in the courfe of the day. If the animal be¬
comes coftive, he is to have a clyfter night and morn¬
ing, and a purgative ball of feven drachms of aloes,
and half a drachm of calomel, once a week. After bav-
ing gone through a regular courfe of pbyfic, he is to
have the following balls. An ounce of green cop¬
peras (e) in powder is to be mixed up with Venice tur¬
pentine, and a fufheient quantity of linfeed powder,
to make eight balls, one of which is to be given every
morning, while collivenefs is to be avoided as before
directed.
In giving the corrofive fublimate, we fhonld begin
with a fmall dofe (fee Stimulants), and gradually in-
creafe it fo long as the ftomach will eafily bear it. As
mercury in fome form frems to be the befl remedy that
can be employed in thefe affections, calomel, or the
common blue pill, may be given inflead of the corrofive
fublimate, if the latter ihould occafton much diforder,
or if the horfe is very much weakened. During this
courfe the animal muft be fupported by nourishing diet,
but (hould frequently have a change of fucculent vege¬
table food. Mr Blaine fpeaks of a borfe that was fo
far reduced (by glanders, we fuppofe) as not to be able
to (land, and who was drawn into a field of tares, and
fuffered to take his chance j the confequence was, that
when he had eaten all within his reach, he was able to
rife and fear eh for more, and eventually recovered.
The treatment recommended above has, it feems, of¬
ten been fiuccefsful in farcy, and the fame internal remer
dies have been recommended in glanders, but we be¬
lieve they have been employed with little fuecefs. Mr
Feron advifes to draw blood in the beginning of glan¬
ders, while the difeafe is ftill local, and to keep the
animal upon warm mafhes of bran, putting the fame
into a nofe-bag, for the purpofe of fomenting the nof-
trils. He is then to go through a courfe of gentle phy-
fic, while ftrift attention is paid to the neceffary direc¬
tion of the food, exercife, dreffing, cleanlinefs, and
water. The water mull be always warm, and made
white with bran or gruel. After this courfe, he re¬
commends balls made of opium, arfenic, and fulphur,
or of extrafl of hemlock, calomel, &c. avoiding cof-
tivenefs during their exhibition. He thinks it neceffary
to infert two rowels, one below the under jaw near the
fwelling, and another under the cheft ; and he recom- Difeafes.
mends frequently fyringing the noftrils with a lotion "* 1
made of two ounces of fpirit of wine, and the fame
quantity of vinegar, mixed with a gallon of water ; or
with a folution of corrofive fublimate. According to
this gentleman, if the diforder is attacked in its infan¬
cy, it will generally fuUtnit to the above courfe of treat¬
ment $ but if the diforder is fo far advanced as to ex¬
hibit the fymptoms of virulence, which we have de-
fcribed as conflituting the acute or malignant flage of
it, it will increafe in oppofition to all art, and it will be
neceffary to take away a life that every degree of afli-
duity would not render worth prefervation.
As the farcy is probably contagious, and the glan¬
ders in moft cafes is certainly fo, it is proper, as foon as
a horfe is affefled with either of thefe difeafes, to keep
him in a feparate liable, and to take caie that he doe*
not come near any other horfes : and no part of his
harnefs, or furniture fhuuld be ufed for any other horfe,
till it has been well waftied with foap and water, and
expofed for a long time to the pure air.
Glanders is confidered by Dr Darwin, and fome
other writers, as a contagious catarrh, and in fome
cafes it certainly is fo j but when it is the confi quence
of farcy, or of dangerous chronic difeafes, it appears
to be an affeclion of a peculiar kind. Mr Lawrence
confiders the glanders as fo perfectly incurable, that he
recommends the col/armnkers knife as the eafietl,
cheapell, and moft infallible remedy.
Chap. III. Of Lethargic or Comatofe Dfeafes.
I. Apoplexy. Vertige, Fr. Staggers, Sleepy Stag- Apoplexy
gers. Lethargy, or Vertigo. or daggers.
Staggers is one of the moft: comprehenfive terms in
farriery 5 and under it are confounded almoft every af-
fedion of the brain, or all thofe difeafes in which there
take place giddinefs, unufual heavinefs, drowftnefs, or
convuifions. We have already feen the term applied
to inflammation of the brain, and we have no doubt
that many cafes are defcribed as ftaggers, which are
really in (lances of epilepfy. Of this kind we confider
the cafe fo humoroufly related by Mr Lawrence in his
treatife on horfes, vol. ii. p. 406. “ Walking up Fleet-
ftreet, I obferved a crowd ot people wonderfully di¬
verted with the agonies of a cart-horfe beating bimfelf
almoft to pieces, in, I think, the moft violent convui¬
fions I ever witnefled. He threw urimfelf repeatedly
upon the foot-path, and was very near going headlong
into a (hop,” &c.
Mr Feron, who in general keeps very clear of the
errors of ordinary farriers, which he often ridicules with
much fycoefs, has confounded inflammation of the brain
and apoplexy, under the general name of flaggers, con-
fidering them as both inflammatory, and merely modifi¬
cations of the fame difeafe. Even Mr Blaine, who, as
Mr Lawrence expreffes himfelf, feems upon every uo-
cafion eager to catch the dernier gout of fcience, has
4 A 2 defcribed
(e) Mr Feron diredts green copper: but we fuppofe this is merely a typographical error, for copperas, or ful-
phate of iron 5 and we have therefore ordered it by this name, as fulphate of iron is a good tonic, and may be
very properly employed in this difeafe,
Dife:»fes
FARR
lielcr ibed daggers under the name of lethargy, and does
1U)*; even mention its identity with apoplexy in the hu¬
man body.
We iMwh&exflaggers properly fo called, as the fame
with apoplexy; the appearances, the caufes, and the
treatment ot both are the fame, making allowance for
fome flight variations in the flru£ture and economy of
the different animals whom they affefl.
I his complaint fometimes comes on fuddenly; but in
general it is preceded by fymptoms that mark a confi-
derable determination of blood to the head, fuch as
heavinefs, drowfinefs, infenfibility, (fee N° 317.) occa-
fional fits of giddinefs, (fee N° 318.) and partial blind-
nefs, (fee N° 321.). There feems no doubt that the
horfe is fometimes affected with headache, which ap¬
pears by the animal’s hanging down his head and
drooping his ears, by the eyes being dull and watery,
by dropping of urine, and coffivenels. Thefe fymptoms
often precede an attack of apoplexy, though they are
fometimes only figns of a difordered ftomach.
When a fit of flaggers comes on, the animal falls
fuddenly, and is perhaps convulfed for a few minutes,
but more commonly appears quite infenfible. The
pulfe during the fit is ufuaily flower than natural, and
much oppreffed ; the breathing is flow, heavy, and la¬
borious, and there is evidently an increafed accumula¬
tion of blood in the veffels of the head. The animal
remains for a longer or fhorter time in the fit, and
fometimes be never recovers ; but, in general, in eight
or ten minutes the fit goes off, and the animal rifes.
Sometimes after a fit of the flaggers, the animal ap¬
pears for a time more aclive and lively than before ;
but very often he remains heavy and fleepy, efpecially
after repeated attacks, and fometimes a paralytic af-
feiffion of fome of the limbs is the confequence of the
fit.
Apoplexy may be diflinguifhed from inflammation of
the brain, by the fever, refllefsnefs, and fiery appear¬
ance of the eyes, that never fail to ufber in the latter
complaint. We would diflinguifh it from epilepfy, by
the foaming at the mouth, and ftrong convulfions, by
which this latter is always accompanied.
An apople£tic fit may be the conicquence of an over¬
loaded or otherwife difordered flomach; and is no uncom¬
mon termination of feveral difeafes, as epilepfy, locked
jaw, &c. But it is generally the confequence of too
much fullnefs of blood, brought on by a full diet, at¬
tended by idlenefs or want of exercife. It is more
common to old fban to young animals, efpecially
fuch as have large heads and fhort necks. For the im¬
mediate and many of the exciting caufes of this com¬
plaint, fee Apoplexy, Medicine Index.
A fit of apoplexy is often produced in an animal that
is predifpofed to it, by fome fudden or violent exertion,
fuch as drawing a heavy load, &c.
I he means of preventing apoplexy when an attack of
it is threatened, have been already explained (in N°
3 17’ 31 ^5 and 407.). When a fit of apoplexy takes place,
if the animal is full of blood, which gejierally happens,
it will be proper to bleed, from the temporal artery, or
jugular vein, to an extent proportioned to the ftate of
the animal. If the animal appears weak, bleeding
ffion'd not be attempted $ but the determination of
blood to the head may be effeflually checked by mak¬
ing pteffure upon the carotid artery, taking care at the
I E R Y.
Part VL
Difeafes.
S°8
fame time, not to include the jugular veins. Mr Cole¬
man recommends tying up the carotid arteries in dan¬
gerous cafes of flaggers, and Mr Feron fays, that he has
otten repeated this experiment with fuccefs. The
bowels fhould be emptied in the ufual manner, as foon
as poffible ; and a ftrong ftimulating clyfter fhould be
inje&ed. When the animal comes to himfelf, if fat
and plethoric, he fhould have a good ftrong purgative
ball, and afterwards fome gentle diuretic medicines. He
fbould be kept quiet for fome hours after the fit ; but
when the phyfic has properly wrought, be fhould have
gende exercife, which muft be gradually increafed, ac¬
cording as he is able to bear it ; and great care Ihould
be taken to keep the bowels open, and to prevent too
great an accumulation of blood.
2. Palsy. Paralyfi®. Thortor-ill, (in fheep.)
The inferior animals fometimes become paralytic,?^?
and we have feen that a palfy in the hind legs is one
of the principal fymptoms of the diflemper in dogs. A
paralytic diforder is not uncommon among flieep, and
is called by the fhepherds the thortor-ill. It fometimes
anfes from their having eaten fome poifonous, or narco¬
tic plants, but is very generally the effeft of great
weaknefs produced by want of proper nourifhment.
The beft remedy feenTS to be white vitriol, given three
times a day j and the food Ihould be of the moll whole-
fome and nourifhing kind.
We had intended in this chapter to confider pretty-
much at large, the various cafes of fufpended animation,
or ofphyxia, fuch as drowning, hanging, fuflocation from
fixed air or other noxious gafes, as torpor from cold ;
but this article has already fwelled to an unexpedled
length, and we have yet much important matter on our‘
hands. We muft therefore refer our veterinary readers
to the article Medicine ; as the means to be there di-
reiffed for reftoring fufpended animation in man will,
with fome little modification, apply to fimilar cafes in
the domeftic animals.
Chap. IV. Of Spafmodic Difeafes.
1. Locked Jaw. Tetanus. Stag-evil. Mai de Cerf.
It has been remarked in N° 10. that horfes are ex- Lrcj^d
tremely fubjeft to the locked jaw, which proves one of jaw.
the moft obftinate. and fatal difeafes by which they are
affedled. It feems alio occafionally to appear among
cattle, but it occurs to them much lefs frequently than
to horfes. We do not know that any writer has de-
feribed this dift afe in the horfe better than Mr Gibfon,
whofe defeription we fhall therefore copy, though it is
expreffed in rather an uncouth ftyle.
“ As foon as a horfe is feized in this manner, his
bead is railed with his nofe towards his rack, his ears-
pricked up, and his tail cocked, looking with an eager-
nefs, as an hungry horfe when hay is put down to him,
or like an high-fpinted one, when upon his mettle ; ir*
fo much that thofe who are ftrangers to fuch things,,
when they fee a horfe Hand in this manner, will fcarce
believe any thing of confequence ails him; and I have
feen fueh perfons greatly furprifed when they have been
told of the danger. But they are foon convinced, when1
they lee other fymptoms ctme on apace; that his neck
grows
Fart VI. • FARR
pifeafes grows ftiff, cramped, and almofl immoveable ; and if a
^ h >rfe in this condition lives a few days, feveral knots
and ganglions will rife on the tendinous parts thereof j
and all the mufcles, both before and behind, will be fo
pulled and cramped and ftretched, that he looks as if
he was nailed to the pavement, with his legs ilifF, wide,
and ftraddling ; his {kin fo tight on all parts of his
body, that it is almoil impoffible to move it j and if
trial be made to make him walk, he is ready to fall at
every ftep, unlefs he be carefully fupported •, his eyes are
fo fixed with the inaftion of the mufcles, as gives him a
deadnefs in his looks. He fnorts and fneezes often,
pants continually with thortnefs of breath •, and this
fymptom increafes till he drops down dead, which ge¬
nerally happens in a few days, unltfs fome very fudden
and effe&ual turn can be given to the diftemper.
This difeafe is generally primary or idiopathic •, but
it is fometimes fymptomatic. The pulfe is not always
much affe&ed ; there is feldom any fever, and the in¬
ternal fun&ions are feldom impaired till towards the
latter flages of the difeafe.
We have not many accounts of the appearances that
have been difcovered on diffe&ing horfes which have
died of this,difeafe. In two diffeftions by M. Hazard,
the bowels within the belly, efpecially the ftomach and
large inteftines, were confiderably inflamed ; the liver
was full of black and fluid blood, and in one cafe a con-
fiderable quantity of blood had efcaped into the cavity
of the belly •, thefubftance of the liver was very tender,
as if it were decompofed or rotten. The other vifcera
of the belly, and the heart and lungs, were in their na¬
tural ftate. On opening the head, confiderable marks
of inflammation appeared in the brain, the choroid plex¬
us was diftended with blood, and in one cafe the maxil¬
lary and frontal finufes of the right fide were full of
black blood ; the dura mater was inflamed, and its vef-
fels, as well as thofe of the brain, were turgid with
blood ; the ventricles of the brain contained a quantity
of ferous fluid. In one of the cafes the inflammation
had extended even to the periofteum on the right fide,
which was much redder than that on the left.
It is difficult to fay whether the difeafe depended on
an inflammatory affe£lion of the brain, or whether this
was the confequence of the violent fpafmodic contraflion
of the mufcles during the height of the difeafe : but we
are inclined to think the latter was the cafe.
Inftances of recovery from this difeafe in horfes are
very rare; we (hall prefently give one from Mr Gib-
fon, which is rather remarkable. A cautious opinion
ought therefore to be given in every cafe of locked-
jaw.
This affe&ion may be produced by various caufes,
particularly from wounds, where the nerve is partially
divided ; from cold, when the body is in a profufe
fweat. It may arife alfo from internal irritation, as
from worms, which, in Mr Gibfon’s opinion, are a very
common caufe of it. Probably it more frequently pro¬
ceeds from wounds, as a pundlure in the foot or any
other part; and it has certainly often been brought on
by the barbarous operations of docking and nicking.
There feems no doubt that the brain is the principal
feat of the affection.
In the treatment of locked jaw, it is neceffary to ufe
fome vigorous meafures as early as poflible; but unhap¬
pily no method hitherto adopted has proved fuccefsful,
I E R Y. 557
even in a few cafes. Opium, aconite, hellebore, Sec. Diteafes.
have been tried in the veterinary college in very large   '
dofes, but without any beneficial effe&s. . From con-
fidering it as a difeafe of the brain, trepanning has been
ufed, with the view of making preffure on the brain,
and this has fometimes appeared to take off the fpafm
of the nmfcles ; but as foon as the preffure was removed,
the fpafms returned with nearly equal violence. An
infufion of tobacco, to the amount of two pounds, has
been given by Mr Coleman, but the fymptoms appear¬
ed to be aggravated. Mr Feron recommends bleeding,
and immerfing the animal in a warm bath at QO of
Fahrenheit, fo as to keep the whole body covered with
the water for two or three hours, which he has known
to be fuccefsful ; but the horfe muff; afterwards be
clothed and kept very warm. The moft probable
means to relieve the animal feem to be giving opium in
large dofes by way of clyrter, frequently repeated, and
rubbing the whole body frequently with fome flimulat-
ing liniment, fuch as oil of turpentine and tindlure of
cantharides. Mr Blaine recommends a clyfter com-
pofed of a ftrong decodfiion of poppy heads, with two
ounces of camphire diffolved in brandy ; or if this be
thought too expenfive, one with two ounces of ipirit of
bartfliorn and four ounces of oil of turpentine, mixed
with two or three yolks of eggs, and a pint of ale. -I h®
cold bath is found one of the moft effedual remedies in
the human body, and we ftiould conceive that it is more
likely than any other means to do good in the horfe y
but it will be neceffary to rub him as dry as poflible af¬
ter throwing the water over him.
If it is afeertained that the difeafe proceeds from a
punctured or lacerated wound, it will be proper imme¬
diately to fcarify the wounded part, fo as, if poflible,
completely to divide the affefted nerve, as in fome cafes
where this has been done, the fpafms have been removed.
It muft be confeffed, however, that even this has fre¬
quently failed. If it has proceeded from a punftured
wound in the foot, Mr Blaine thinks it advifable to take
up the nerves of that foot on each fide; for though this
might occafion temporary lamenefs, yet, if the horfe
were faved, this might be removed in a few weeks. SI@
The following cafe related by Mr Gibfon, in hiscafe.
laft work on the difeafes of horfes, is very inftruftive ;
even though it fhould be contended that the cure was
effeaed by nature, and not by Mr Gibfon’s remedies..
A young troop horfe was fuddenly feized with this
kind of convulfion, which was firff difcovered as he was
leading out to water, at the afternoon’s watering time.
“ I happened, (fays Mr Gibfon), to be then prefent,
and perceived him come reeling along with his nofe
turned out, his eyes fixed and immoveable, with all the
other figns that ufually attend this fatal diftemper ; and
when became to the trough he could not reach the water
becaufe of the cramp and ftiffnefs of his neck ; and when
it was held to him in a pail, could not drink, though he
fliewed an eagernefs for it ; his mouth being ftiut up fo
clofe, that it was fcarce poflible to put a knife between
his teeth. When we found it impoflible to adminifter
any kind of medicine, till by rubbing his cheeks, jaws,
and temples, and his whole neck, for a confiderable
time, we made a ftiifr, with great difficulty, to thruft
down part of a calomel ball, on the end of a fmall
flick, and then to put into his noftrils, a very fmall por¬
tion of a ftrong cephalic drink, thinking by that means
5 5 8
Difeafes. to convey the ball downwards Into his ftomach, which
'' , °'ye jer *iac^ 13111 little effect, any farther than this, that
ie had not fuch fudden fits and agitations as I have feen
m others in the like circuraftances, but continued more
quiet ; neither did his fever increafe, as ufually happens
When the diftemper is gaining ground $ but all this
while his mouth continued fo much {hut, that he could
.neither eat nor drink for three weeks ; only by continu¬
ally rubbing his jaws and neck, he would fometimes
make a fhift to fuck a handful of fcalded bran* or fome¬
times a little oat-meal, moiflened with warm water ;
but in fo fmall a quantity, that it is poffible he might
have ftarved, if other methods had not been taken to
keep him alive.
“ 1 hav5 often obferved that the forcing the jaws
open by violent means, puts a borfe into fuch agonies,
that it rather increafes than abates the fymptoms 5 and
therefore I contrived to give him both food and phy-
fic by the fundament, through a pipe fourteen inches
long, by which he feemed to receive great benefit 5 for
we could perceive the fymptoms to abate daily. ?His
flanks grew more quiet, he flood more flill, and free
from fudden fits and flartings j all which fymptoms are
uiual m the continuance and increafe of the dillem-
per. The clyflers were contrived in the following
manner. 6
“ Rue, pennyroyal, and chamomile flowers, of each
a handful j favin and box, of each a handful; garlic an
ounce ; caftor and affafetida, of each half an ounce.’
‘‘ In making this clyfter, the herbs are to be boiled
rfr, in two quarts of water, in a covered veflel, the
fpace of ten or fifteen minutes, with the caftor and affa-
loetida cut in fmall pieces, and tied in a rag j not only
to lave the caftor from wafte, but that it may be fqueez-
ed into feveral clyfters. Then the garlic to be added
&nd continued, clofe covered, over the fire the fpace of
ten minutes longer; after this the liquor to be poured
r i*nr° 3 P.an’ °r any ot^er convenient veflel ; then add
ot linfeedoil and treacle, of each four ounces, with half
an ounce of unre&ified oil of amber ; the treacle and
the oils are to be mixed with the deco&ion, when it is
put into the bag.
‘‘This clyfter was repeated once a-dav for a fort¬
night ; and by way of diet, was given every day three
or four quarts of milk, boiled with oat-meal and water
a bag with a long pipe being left in the liable for that
purpole. He retained every thing that was adminifler-
. , 1 'Iay> which he generally fucked up of himfelf
Without force. 1 his perhaps was in fome meafure ow¬
ing to the nature of this univerfal convullion, which
cauies fuch irregular motions in the midriff and muf-
cles of refpiration, as in fome meafure inverts the natural
motion of the guts ; and for the fame reafon borfes in
th.s condition feldom dung, but Hale often ; and when
they dung, it drops from them in a manner infenfibly
and often no more than one or two balls at a time :
and therefore as this borfe could receive little or no
luftenance-by the. mouth, I was determined to make
tria! how far he might receive nourifhtnent by way of
injeclmn backwards; whether a thin diluted food
thrown into the ftraight gut, and from thence over in-
to the fmall guts, by the help „f , 1„„g pipe> mi
not find a paffage into the blood through the lafleals
efpecially the experiments of this kind made on the
human body, both in adminiftering food and phyfic,
FARRIERY- Part Vi
particularly in giving the, bark, by way of clyfter, in ,
agues and intermitting fevers, which has been found ^
luccelTul where the ftomaeh was not able to br-ar its
aufterity. It was upon this footing that I treated him
in the manner I have defcribed, which I imagined was
not altogether without effea ; for he fcarce ate in three
weeks what was fufficient to fuftain him one day ; fo
that it was impoflible for him to have lived, had he not
been.lupported ^ what was thrown into his bowels-
and though by this means he loft his flelh very fenfibly
yet he Hill retained a good deal of vigour and vivaJi!
ty. He had two men conllantly to look after him
and thefe relieved by others, who had orders to rub
his whole body often, which greatly helped to relax
Ins ikm and remove the crampnefs of his muffles; and
though he had not for the firil fortnight recovered the
1 r /I-)!-8 -!aWS’ yet we nbferved him daily to move with
lets Iriftnels, and often to lick in his manger, as if he
craved after food. He alfo breathed with Itfsdifficulty
and had feveral other good figns. This encouraged
me to try another experiment with opium, from the
known quality of that drug in relaxing the animal
fibres ; which I therefore thought might be of ferviee
to remove the contraaions of the mufcles about his
mouth and jaws, which all this while continued in fome
tnealure obftinate, and without feme powerful relief
might prove fatal, even though the original caufe was
m a great meafure taken away ; therefore I cauftd an
ounce of crude opium to be diffolved in one of his clv-
fters which was followed with thefe circumfiances, that
the borfe foon lay down, began to point his ears back¬
wards and forwards, and could move his neck pretty
freely, and his mouth was fo far at liberty, that he
took his drink with little or no difficulty,'and could
eat hay and bran fufficient to fuftain him. He like-
wife moved his whole body fo readily, that we could
walk him an hour every day ; and that I might follow
what I imagined had been fo fuccefsfully begun by the
opiate clyfter, I ordered him fome days after an ounce
of the common Matthew’s pill, which contains about
two drachms of opium, and the fame quantity of afla-
foetida, made into a ball, which was given at his mouth
and wallied down with a hornful of gruel, which was’
done with great cafe, .his mouth being grown pretty
pnab.e. 1 his ball being once more repeated he re
covered daily, being continued for fome time in the
uie ot the drinks, wh.ch were now adminiftered only
twice a-week, with a good rubbing; and as foon as be
began to recover his floffi, he was gently purged. By
*11 !’e W3S Perfc<% cured, without any other
id cuect than a blemifti upon one eye, caufed by the
violent and ftrong contraftion of the mufcles during the
convulfions, which indeed were as bad as any I ever
fatv, even where they proved the molt fatal.”
We have related the above cafe thus particularly, in
the author’s own words, becaufe we have fcarcely ever
leen a cafe of locked-jaw in horfes fo well defcribed
both as to its progrefs and treatment. Whatever might
have been the caufe that produced the complaint in
this hone, it was evident that it did not depend upon
any congeftion of blood in the head, and Gibfon iudeed
very properly in not employing bleeding, purging, and
rowels, which appear to have been the indiscriminate
practice of farriers in his time ; and which might be
very proper where the convulfions proceed originally
fro®
Part VI. FARR
Difeafes. from flic head. Gibfon fay«i, that he has feen the far-
—v——' riers in fuch cafes put a rowel on each fide of the neck,
one on the belly, one on the forehead, and one on
each fide. It appears, however, that this pra&ice met
with but little fuccefs, as in this complaint the fkin is
drawn fo tight in all parts that the rowels feldom fup-
purate kindly, but very commonly produce a mortifica¬
tion, and thus increafe the animal’s diflrefs.
2. Epilepsy, or Falling-ficknefs. Convu/Jions.
511 We have already dated our opinion, that feveral cafes
that are commonly called flaggers are really inftances of
epilepfy, and we have no doubt that feveral ftrange con-
vulfive diforders that are defcribed as affecting dotneftie
animals may be referred to the fame head. Of this kind
we confider the fkipping complaint among lambs de¬
fcribed by Mr Lawrence; “ I remember in former
days, (fays he), on the borders of Suffolk, feveral fcores
of iambs were feized with an uncommon malady, leap¬
ing and jumping about the fold-yard in a ftrange man¬
ner ; and a dung-heap being railed to the level of the
eaves of a low tiled barn, a number of the lambs ran
{kipping up to the top of the roof, as though they had
been poffeffed by more devils than Mary Magdalen, or
even the nuns of Loudun. The whole parifti wifely
concluded they were bewitched, and a wretched and
aged pauper became the object of their fufpicions and
their deadly hatred. I do not precifely recollect, but
I fear the brutal, fenfelefs, and infernal fuppofed pre¬
ventive of witchcraft was recurred to, burning one of
the poor animals alive.” We fliould be difpofed to ac¬
count for fo many animals being feized with it at once,
on the principle of imitation, juft as we have feen a
number of children at fchool fall into fits from feeing
one of their number affedled with epilepfy. The treat-
- ment of this complaint muft be regulated by the ftate
of the body at that time. If this is plethoric, bleeding,
purging, and low diet, will be neceffary ; if it is weak, s
a {Lengthening plan muft be adopted.
3. Canine Madness. Hydrophobia.. Rabies Ca-
nina. La Rage, Fr.
"amnc mo^ dreadful malady, the nature of which is
madnefs. little underftood, and of which the cure ftill remains
a defideratum in medicine, the accounts hitherto given
are very imperfeft.
Our principal obje<R (hould certainly be to afcertain
the origin and progrefs of the fymptoms, as they appear
in the dog, in whom the difeafe appears to originate.
I he account of thefe fymptoms, as given by different
authors, is exceedingly contradictory. The belt ac¬
count that we have feen is that of Meynell of Quorn-
don in the county of Leicefter, and which is publilhed
by Dr Arnold in his account of a cafe of hydrophobia.
Before we give Mr Meynell’s view of the fymptoms,
we (hall quote a paffage from that part of Mr Law¬
rence’s treatife on horfes, in which he fpeaks of canine
madnefs. The paffage is as follows. “ The diagno-
ftics of canine madnefs are, hunger and thirft, without
power to eat or drink ; trembling, eyes fierce and
flaming, hanging of the ears and tail, which is bent in¬
wards ; lolling of the tongue, foaming, barking of the
dog at his own ftiadow, panting, running a ftraight
I E R Y.
and heedlefs courfe againft any thing in his way, biting
with violence ; other dogs fly him by inftinCL
By comparing the above diagnoftics with the follow¬
ing account of Mr Meynell’s, it.will be feen how little
dependence is to be placed on the defcription of thofe
who have not vvritten from their own aCIual obferva*
tion. We doubt not that Mr Lawrence derives his
account from what he conceived to be the beft infor¬
mation, and he is therefore not accountable for his er-
5$9
Difeafes.
 ^ *
rors. 513
According to Mr Meynell, the firft fymptom of Mr Mey-
canine madnefs in dogs appears to be a failure of ap-nefi’5ac-
petke in a fmall degree, that is, the dog does not eat^1^ “
his ufual food with his ufual eagernefs, though, if better t0£ns>
food be offered him, he may eat it greedily. A dif-
pofition to quarrel with other dogs comes on early in
the difeafe. A total lofs of appetite generally fucceeds,
though dogs fometimes eat and lap water the day before
their death, which generally happens between feven
and ten days after the firft fymptoms have appeared. A
mad dog will not cry out on being ftruck, or {how any
fign of fear on being threatened; though he will, very
late in the difeafe, appear fenfible of kind treatment,
A mad dog, in the height of the difordety has a difpofi-
tion to bite all other dogs, animals, or men. When not
provoked, he ufually attacks only fuch as come in hig
way ; but having no fear, it is peculiarly dangerous to
ftrike at or provoke him.
Mad dogs appear to be capable of communicating
the infe&ion early in the diforder, and as foon as they
begin to quarrel with and bite other dogs.
The eyes of mad dogs do not look red or fierce, but
dull, and have a peculiar appearance, which is eafily
diftinguilhed by fuch as have been ufed to obferve it^.
but which is not eafy to be defcribed.
Mad dogs never bark, but occafionally utter a moft
difmal and plaintive howl, expreflive of extreme dif-
trefs, and which they who have once heard can never
forget. So that dogs may be known to be going mad
without being feen, when only this difmal howl is heard'
from the kennel.
Mad dogs do not foam or froth at the mouth, but
their lips and tongue appear dry and foul or flimy.
Mad dogs are generally fufficiently fenfible to know
thofe to whom they have been accuftomed.
Mr Meynell is confident that dread of water is not a
fymptom of this difeafe in dogs.
Though mad dogs generally refufe both food and
drink, in the latter ftage of the diforder, yet they never
ftiow any abhorrence or dread of water, will pafs
through it without difficulty, and lap it eagerly to the
laft. But it is remarkable, that though they will lap-
water for a long time, and eagerly, and do not feem to
experience any uneafinefs from it, yet they do not ap¬
pear to fwallow a fingle drop of it; for however long
they may continue lapping it, no diminution of quanti¬
ty can be perceived.
He has never known a dog {hew fymptoms of the dif¬
eafe in lefs time after the bite than ten days ; and he
has known many inftances of dogs having died mad as
late as eight months after the bite. The fymptoms
generally appear between three and eight weeks after
the bite.
A dog had been bitten, and confined by accident,
and
560 P A II It
Difeafes. and not from any fufpicion of danger, for a whole
I-,,.. v—y-earj fo as to have no communication with any other
dog all the time ; and went mad at the end of that pe¬
riod.
Mr Meynell makes the following additional obfer-
Vations. “ I am perftiaded that the diforder never ori¬
ginates from hot weather, putrid provifions, or from
any other caufe but the bite. For however dogs may
have been confined, however fed, or whatever may
have been the heat of the feafon, I never knew the
diforder commence, without being able to trace it to
that caufe ; and it was never introduced into the ken¬
nel but by the bite of a mad dog. I do not fay that I
am certain that the diforder never originated from
any caufe except the bite •, but I fay that I never
knew a dog go mad that I had no reafon to believe had
been bitten.
“ Some dogs, in the laft ftage of the diforder, have a
locked jaw.
“ I do not recolleft ever to have heard a dog bark
after I have perceived fymptoms of madnefs upon him.
“ I confider an unufual difpojition to quarrel with
vther dogs as a certain Jign of beginning madnefs ; and it
is the only one I know,
“ I believe the diforder always comes on fo gradually
that mifchief may be prevented by proper care.
“ I believe after fymptoms have ever appeared, they
never go entirely off; and that the difeafe, though
fometimes very flow in its progrefs, always terminates
in death.
“ Dogs known to have been bitten frequently ef-
eape, but I believe not near fo frequently as men.
“ Almoft all the mad dogs that I have feen have
been confined.
“ The hairs of a mad dog do not (land eredt more
than thofe of other dogs.
“ I do not know that there is any thing remarkable
in the manner of a mad dog’s carrying his head or his
tail.
“ I do not know that there is any thing fierce in the
appearance of the eyes of a mad dog. I believe I
thould know a mad dog to be mad from the appearance
of his .eyes, but I cannot defcribe this appearance.
“ I do not know that a dog in the beginning of this
diforder, is difpofed to fneak away growling, or to fhun
the fociety of other dogs j but if I obferved any thing
particular in the manner of a dog, I fhould certainly
confine him.
“ I do not believe that dogs are more afraid of a
mad dog than they are of any other dog that feems
difpofed to attack them.”
(Mr Daniel was witnefs to an inftance of this innate
dread of a mad dog in other dogs, at Brad well in Ef-
iex, where he was hunting with the reverend H. Bate
Dudley. Mr Dudley walked his hounds to the water
to fwim them •, he had himfelf fwam over to an ifland
about a hundred yards from the fhore, and moft of the
hounds had followed him, but fome of them could not
be compelled to do fo. At this juncture an alarm of a
mad dog was given, who had been purfued many miles,
and done variety of mifchief in his progrefs j he feized
one of the hounds that would not go into the water,
* Daniel's anc* t^ie rema^ndt'r1 to the number of feven or eight, im-
JZtiral mediately upon his approach to them, took to the water,
Sports. and fwam acrofs to thofe in the Bland *).
I E R Y.
Part VI.
“ There are two kinds of madnefs, both of which I Dife„reS
have known to originate from the bile of the fame dog.  ;
Among huntfraen, one is known by the name of raging,
the other by that of dumb madnefs. In dumb madnef,
the nether jaw drops, and fixes* the tongue hangs out
of the mouth, and flavor drops from it. In raging*
madnefs, I believe the mouth is fliut, except when the !lyd™pl°K
dog fnaps or howls, and that no moifture drops from *'
it*.”
'I he following faffs and obfervations upon the con- 514
fequences of the madnefs among Earl Fitzwilliam’s
hounds, perhaps mark the attack and fymptoms of this
diforder more accurately than any other defcription of
a fimilar accident.
In the night of the 8th of June 1791, the man who
flept in the kennel was unufually dilfurbed by the
hounds fighting * he got up to quiet them feveral times,
and always found the lame hound quarrelling. Noticing
the riotous behaviour of this particular hound, and at
the fame time an appearance of flupidity in him, he
was induced to fuppofe that he was going mad, and ac¬
cordingly confined him in a place by himfelf, after
which the pack was quiet the remainder of the night.
When the huntfman came to the kennel in the morn¬
ing, he was told what pafled, and the fuppofed mad
hound fhewn to him 5 his appearance was fufpicious *
fome meat was given to him, part of which he ate, al¬
though there w'as an apparent difficulty in fwallowing.
Two days paffed in fufpenfe ; but at "the end of the
third day his diforder was confirmed * and at the end
of the fifth day he died mad. Immediate preparations
were made for confining 42 couple of hounds feparate-
ly, until the month of September, which was rigidly
adhered to. By this means, Mr Hopkinfon, a medi¬
cal gentleman of Peterlborough, had an opportunity
wherein he very Ikilfully and exa&ly minuted the
fymptoms and progrefs of this difeafe.
Six hounds went mad in the following order.
N° 1 attacked
2
3
4
5
6
July 1 ft.
Auguft 3d.
September 3d.
Ditto 4th.
November loth.
December 8th.
The hounds ivere firft taken from their chains in
September, and exercifed for about half an hour to¬
gether, not more than four or five couple at a time
and not trufted out of the fight of the attendant. When
this exereife was over, they were again confined ftpa-
rately, and fed at feparate troughs. In the beginning
of O(Sober, they were taken out ten couple at a time •
at the latter end of that month, twenty couple 5 flill ob-
ferving the fame caution with refpeft to feparate con¬
finement after they returned from exercife. In the be¬
ginning of November they were hunted, but were
chained up, as at firfi, after hunting, until the third
week of that month, when they were let loofe in differ¬
ent apartments of one, two, three, four, and five couple
together This regulation was continued till the month
of June 1792, as the huntfman, who has had much ex¬
perience in this -difeafe did not deem them fafe under a
year.
The only remedy employed was mercurial ointment *
and all the hounds, except the bitches that were in
whelp,
Part VI. FARR
D fe-ifes whelp, underwent two fri&tons, fo as to produce in fome
of them a violent falivation.
Mr Hopkinfon remarks, that from the above flate-
ment it feems that the diforder is as virulent, as to the
power of inoculation (by which procefs it is always
communicated) at its commencement, as at the advan¬
ced ftage of it; for all the (lx dogs that went mad were
probably infedted on the 8th of June, within a few hours
of each other.
It is a common opinion, that when a dog is bitten by
one that is mad, a few weeks confinement, fea-ba.hing,
or the popular noftrums, are either of them fufficient to
prevent his taking the difeafe, and from fpreading its
rnifchievous effeds $ but in this cafe, there was a fair
opportunity of proving that there is no fecurity after
fix months, perhaps not after twelve; that mercury has
no certain power to prevent it; and it appears that the
huntfman had repeatedly employed all the popular re¬
medies, without any effeft whatever. He had alfo obferv-
ed nearly the fame progrefs of the difeafe in feveral packs
of hounds, where no expellee had been fpared, for every
medicine in ufe, fea-batbing, &c. In the prefent in-
ftance, there was this remarkable difference, that no
internal medicine bad been given, and the huntfman
never knew fewer bounds attacked with the difeafe.
The refult of the huntfman’s experience in the pre¬
ventive plan is therefore in favour of a feparate con¬
finement ; for whenever he had depended on medicine,
and not on the above plan of treatment, the difeafe had
made dreadful bavock.
There is no reafon to fjppofe that the hound which
firfl went mad, was not bitten by any other dog, but
that it was in him a fpontaneous difeafe. The whole
pack were examined very attentively, and bites found
upon four couple, one of which was feen fighting with
the mad hound twice ; he underwent a longer confine¬
ment than the reft : however, none of them were at¬
tacked by the difeafe, and it is Angular that no bites
were difeovered upon the fix hounds that went mad.
The infedion taking place or not, is therefore perhaps
the refult of chance ; yet, although no bites were per¬
ceived upon the hounds which went mad, there is every
ground to believe they were bitten, but that tire wounds
being fmall, were concealed by the hair. Mr Daniel
fuggefts, that moft probably there Were bites within
fide*5 of the lips or jaws, where the venomous faliva
might be more fatally and quickly abforbed into the ha-
bitt than where the teeth bad to penetrate through the
thick outer Ikin of the dog.
Mr Hopkinfon continues his remarks with refpeft
to the fymptoms of madnefs in dogs, and ftates that
thofe which diftinguiftr the attack of the hydrophobia,
are in general a loathing of food, although this is not
univerfal, as they will fometimes eat folid food, but re-
fufe liquid. The firft and only fymptom that N° 3.
had of the difeafe, was eating his own excrement when
food flood by him ; the feeder knowing this to be con¬
trary to what the dog would do if he were well, he im¬
mediately confined him. For a day or two he was in
fome doubt whether his fufpicions were well founded ;
but he proved right, for the dog died raving mad upon
the fifth day.
At the commencement of the diforder, the mad dog
has a particular tendency (if loofe) to lick and fmell
the penis and fundament of another dog ; this fhould
Vol. VIII. Part II.
I E R Y. ^ 5<u
be looked upon as a very fufpicious fymptom. Ihe _ Pifeafes. ^
huntfman fpeaks of this as an almoft never failing
one.
There feems for the firft two or three days to be in¬
tervals of fenfe ; and during that time they ufually re-
cognife their mafter, their eyes look clear and well,
their tongues moift, and of the proper colour; but ii a
dog is loofe at this time, he will in general bite every
thing he meets with. He. will fometimes, during this
ftage of the difeafe, leave his home for feveral hours,
fpread his diforder by biting men and beafts, and return
home again. The mad dog, when confined, feldom
furvives the fifth day from the firft attack ; it fufifered
to rui about, there is reafon to believe his death is haf-
tened by a da}’ or two. At the end of the third or
fourth day, his appearance is much altered, his eyes are
funk, his tongue black and dry, he makes horrid bowl¬
ings, and feems much difturbed; indeed the concluding
feene is dreadful to witnefs. In the firft ftage of the
canine madnefs, it is difficult for a perfon not conver-
fant with the difpofition of dogs in general, and of the
mad dog in particular, to afeertain whether the dog is
really mad or not ; even Lord Fitzwilliam’s huntlman
w'as doubtful for a day or two refpefting the hound men¬
tioned in this account, as being the firft attacked with
the difeafe ; however, in the advanced ftage of it, no
one can be miftaken.
It is the generally received opinion, that mad dogs
will not take the water; but in the fummer of 1791,
there occurred in the neighbourhood of Peterfborough,
two inftances of mad dogs, when clofely purfued, fwim-
ming a large navigable river. A doubt might have ari-
fen, as to their being mad, but that two hogs went mad
from the bite of one, and the other was purfued for
many miles by Lord Fitzwilliam’s huntfman, wl'0> * Daniel's
from his experience in the difeafe, was not likely to j^urai
miftaken. Both dogs completely fwam the river *. Sports.
Of all the remedies that have been employed for the 5*5
cure of this dreadful diforder, none feems fo likely to
be fuccefsful as the cold bath. This reinedy was re¬
commended about 200 years ago by the Seigneur d’Ef-
parron, in his “ Fauconnerie,” and he gives a curious
inftance of its fuccefs in the cure of a mad dog. “ I
will relate (fays he), what happened to a gentleman
of my acquaintance. He difeovered that fome of his
dogs had been bitten by a mad dog ; and after fome
time, feveral of them betrayed fymptoms of the difeafe.
Thefe he ordered to be killed ; but it happened that
one which was a great favourite was feized, and he de-
fired his fervant to throw him into the river. By
chance, the dog in coming up from the bottom, got
entangled in the roots of a tree by the cord with which
he had been tied, but in fuch a manner that his nofe
juft remained above the water. In this fituation he re¬
mained for three days, at the end of which period he
got loofe and returned to the houfe, to the great af-
toniffiment of his mafter ; and here I afterwards faw
him, as cheerful and healthy as before. I have no
doubt (continues d’Efparron) that if mad^dogs could be
plunged into water without danger of their biting, they
svould all recover ; and I believe that if the fame prac¬
tice were purfued with men, which might eafilybe done,
many an unfortunate wretch might be faved. The
danger of being bitten might be prevented by firft put¬
ting a muzzle on the animal, and he might then be re-
4 B tained
562
Difeafes. tamed in the water, as long as may be judged prudent
' ' or neceffary
D F./par- Another writer, Defouilloux, who publifhed a work
ronraiicon- 1 • o , ,r . . ,
aerie,p.2()o.on hunting in 1583, recommends plunging into falt-
water fuch dogs as have been bitten, for the purpofe of
preferving them from the effe&s of the difeafe.
As the effeft of remedies when the complaint once
appears is fo uncertain, it (hould be our principal objedl
to ufe all the preventive means in our power. When,
therefore, it is difcovered that an animal has been bitten
by one that is mad, the wounded part fhould immedi¬
ately be cut out, where this can be done with fafety, or
at leaf! fhould be deeply fcarified to the very bottom of
the bite. The wound fhould then be repeatedly wafhed
with foap and water, or with a folution of foda poured
upon it in a ftream from a confiderable height j and
afterwards the wound fhould be feared to the bottom
with a hot iron ; or where this cannot conveniently be
done, a quantity of aquafortis, or oil of vitriol, fhould
be poured into it, fo as to deflroy all the remains of the
virus or poifon. If the part bitten be the ear, it
fhould be cut off and feared. After thefe means, it
will be proper to plunge the animal once a day into
cold water, or where convenient into the fea j and he
fhould be llri(511y watched, that if thefe means fhould
have proved unfuccefsful, the earlieft appearance of the
difeafe may be perceived.
Dr Arnold, to whom w-e are indebted for Mr Mey-
nell’s account of the fymptoms of madnefs in dogs,
gives the following advice with refpeft to the method
of treating a dog that is fufpedled of being mad.
5*$ “ Though every dog that is bitten does not receive
the diforder, yet, as the time of its appearance after the
bite is fo very uncertain, and as a great proportion of
thofe that are bitten do actually receive it, and as there
is no criterion by which we can afcertain whether a dog
has or has not received the infeftion, but the breaking
out of the diforder, it is earneflly to be wiflied that all
owners of dogs would immediately deilroy, or fecure
for a great length of time, every dog known, or but
fufpe&ed, to have been bitten by a mad dog.
“ It is alfo earneflly to be wifhed, that all perfons
poflefling dogs would immediately tie up or deftroy fuch
of their dogs, whether known to be bitten or not, as
fhall begin to be difordered in any way, of which the
nature and caufe is not perfeftly obvious $ and efpe-
cially if there be the fmalleft reafon to fufpedl that the
dog was bitten, and that the diforder is really an inci¬
pient madnefs.
“ It is Hill more to be wiflied that they would imme¬
diately deflroy all dogs known to be in any (late of
madnefs, if it be at the fame time known that they have
not yet bitten any other animal, and particularly no
perfon whatfoever ; and that no dog that has bitten
any animal or perlon be deftroyed as a mad dog if it
can be avoided, but that every dog be fecured and
tied up, that it may be certainly known whether be
be mad or not. If he has the fymptoms of confirmed
madnefs, they will plainly difcover themfelves, and he
will die in ten days and lefs ; if he is not, he may be
* Arnold cn fafely enlarged in the fpace of a fortnight, and the per-
Hydropho- jron bitten will be freed from the mod diftrefling appre-
'5I^ henfions
Worming Before we difmifs the fubjedl of canine madnefs, it
of dogs. will be expected that we Ihould take fome notice of the
FARRIERY. Part Vl
operation of worming dogs, fo Celebrated among Difeiir
huntfmen and breeders of dogs, as a fuppofed preven-
tive of this dreadful malady. This operation is as
old as the days of Pliny, and has ever fince been more
or lefs efieemed among the vulgar. But neither the
operation itfelf, nor its effeft, feem to have been well
underftood. The idea of a worm being lodged in the
tongue of the puppy, the extra61ion of which is to pre¬
vent the animal from going mad, is truly ridiculous;
and as fuch has been defervedly laughed at by fenfi-
ble people in all ages. But though it is neither a worm
that is extra&ed, nor is the extra&ion a preventive of
madnefs, it feems, however, pretty well afcertained,
that the performing of this operation is produdlive of
confiderable advantage, in preventing the dog from
doing mifchief, even though he {hould run mad. It
feems that in dogs who have been wormed, and are af¬
terwards feized with hydrophobia, the tongue fwells to
fuch a degree as to prevent the animal from clofing
his jaws upon the obje& which he attempts to bite.
The following obfervations of a late ingenious and
entertaining writer on the fubjedl are entitled to much
attention.
Very ftrong proofs have been adduced of its utility ;
nor is it natural to imagine, that fo eafy and effeftiveasi
operation would have been omitted, had no more vir¬
tue been, attributed to it than it really poffefles j and
wherein it failed, the abfolute prevention of madnefs
was faid to be the confequence ; whereas the fa& was
and is, that taking out the worm hath nothing to do
with annihilating the diforder, although it will moft
certainly hinder the dog, feized with it, from doing
any hurt to man or bead. A late author aflerts, he
had three dogs, that were wormed, bit by mad dogs at
three feveral periods, yet, notwithflanding they all
died mad, they did not bite to do any mifchief j that
being determined to make a full experiment, he ftiut
one of the dogs up in a kennel, and put to him a dog
he did not value •, the mad dog often run at the other
to bite him, but his tongue fo fwelled, that he could not
make his teeth meet. The dog was kept in the kennel
until the mad one died, and was purpofely referved for
two years afterwards, to note the effeft, but he never
ailed any thing, although no remedies were applied to
check any infection that might have been received
from the contaft of the mad dog.
Mr Daniel has had various opportunities of proving
the ufefulnefs of worming, and inferts three of the moft
linking inftances, under the hope of inducing its gene¬
ral pradlice.
A terrier bitch went mad that was kept in the ken¬
nel with 40 couple of hounds : not a fingle one was
bitten, nor was ftie feen to offer to bite. The bitch
being of a peculiar fort, every attention was paid to her,
and the gradations of the difeafe, (which were extreme¬
ly rapid) minutely noted. The hydrophobia was faft
approaching before {he was feparated from the hounds,
and ftie died the fecond day after. At firft warm milk
was placed before her, which {he attempted to lap, but
the throat refufed its fun&ions ; from this period Ihe
never tried to eat or drink, feldom rofe up, or even
moved j the tongue fwelled very much, and long be¬
fore her death the jaws were diftended by it.
A fpaniel was obferved to be feized by a ftrange
dog, and was bit in the lip ) the fervant who ran up to
part
part VI. r A R R
fe5 part them, narrowly efcaped, as the dog twice flew at
him ; a few minutes after the dog had quitted the yard,
the people who had purfued gave notice of the dog’s
madneft, who had' made terrible havock in a courfe of
ten miles from whence he had fet olf. The fpaniel was
a great favourite, had medicine applied, and every pre¬
caution taken •, upon the fourteenth day he appeared to
loathe his food, and his eyes looked unufually heavy j
the day following he endeavoured to lap milk, but
could fwallow none ; from that time the tongue began
to fwell, he moved himfelf but feldom, and on the third
day he died. For many hours previous to his death,
the tongue was fo enlarged, that the fangs or ca¬
nine teeth could not meet each other by upwards of
an inch.
The hounds were fome years after parted with, and
■were fold in lots. A madnefs broke out in the kennel
of the gentleman who purchafed many of them j and
although feveral of thefe hounds were bitten and went
mad, only one of them ever attempted to bite, and that
was a hound from the duke of Portland’s, who, in the
operation of worming, had the worm broke by his ftrug-
gling, and was fo troublefome that one half of it was
fullered to remain j the others all died with fymptoms
fimilar to the terrier and fpaniel, viz. a violent fwelling
of the tongue, and a ftupor rendering them nearly mo-
tionlefs, and both which fymptoms feemed to increafe
with the difeafe.
The idea that worming prevents a dog from receiv¬
ing the infection when bitten ftiould be exploded $
but the foregoing faffs Ihow how far it may be recom¬
mended for the reftri&ion of a malady horrid in its
effeffs where a human being is concerned, and which to
the fportfman and the farmer is attended with fuch
dangerous and expenfive confequences.
We cannot pretend to fay, what it is that the worm-
ers of dogs take away from the tongue *, but we cannot
fuppofe, that Mr Daniel, though he calls it a worm,
really believes that it is fo. The following are his di-
reffions for performing the operation.
“ The worming of whelps Ihould be previous to their
being fent out to quarters ^ this operation is to be per¬
formed with a lancet, to flit the thin fkin which immedi¬
ately covers the worm j a Imall awl is then to be intro¬
duced under the centre of the worm, to raife it up’, the
further end of the worm will with very little force make
its appearance, and with a cloth taking hold of that
end, the other will be drawn out eafily. Care mull be
taken that the whole of the worm comes awny without
breaking •, and it rarely breaks, unlefs cut into by the
lancet, or wounded by the awl
q. Colic. Colica. Spafmodic or T*latulent Colic, Gripes,
Bats, Fret, or Gulliom. Tranche^, Fr.
* Daniel'
Rural
Sports.
5*8
Colic.
This is one of the moft painful diforders with which
horfes are affeaed ; and it feems to occafion themes
much diftrefs as inflammation in the bowels, with
which it is very commonly confounded by ordinary
farriers. _ , . . , f
In this difeafe the horfe expreffes. his pain, by fre¬
quently lying down and rolling on his back, and after
having remained a fliort time in this pofltion, ftarting
up -again. The hair is flaring, and there are fometimes
cold fweats. He frequently makes attempts to ftale,
looks anxioufly at his flanks, and foraetimes ftrikes his
I E R Y.
belly with his hind feet. There is feldom any fever in
this difeafe j and when it does occur, it is only after the
difeafe has exifted for fome time. The pulle is feldom
affeaed ; but when the pain is very great, it is a little
quicker than natural. The belly commonly feels hard
and tenfe. Colic is almoft always accompanied with
coftivenefs, though griping pains not unfrequently at¬
tend fevere fcouring.
If the above fymptoms are attentively examined, they
will commonly ftrve to diftinguilh this difeafe from in¬
flammation of the bowels. It is generally obferved,
that the pain in colic returns only at intervals, and the
extremities are feldom cold. It muft not be overlooked,
however, that when colic continues for a confiderable
time, it may terminate in inflammation, fo that the dil*
tinguilhing fymptoms mentioned here and in N0 497*
are to be depended on, only in the early ftage of the
difeafe. t • • r
Cattle are extremely fubjefl to colic ", but it is laid
to be more common in young than in old cattle. .The
fymptoms do not differ from what we have defcribed,
only that it is faid, that thefe animals, when affeaed
with gripes, ftrike their heads and horns againft every
thing in their way.
Colic is eafily removed, when the proper remedies
are employed, before any fymptoms of inflammation
make their appearance •, but if the remedies be delay¬
ed till inflammation takes place, the cure is very pre¬
Difeafes
carious.
Colic is very commonly the confequence of neglect¬
ed coftivenefs, and by this it is always increafed. It
may be afcribed to improper food, efpecially fuch as
is apt to produce flatulence or fournefs in the ftomach
or bowels $ by drinking cold water immediately after
eating j and by expofure to cold, during violent fweat-
ing.
As it is not always eafy to diftinguifti flatulent co¬
lic from inflammation, it is the fafeft plan to begin
the treatment by bleeding, to the extent of three or
four Englilh quarts ; and the appearance of the blood
will generally inform us whether it will be neceffary
to repeat the operation. See N° 162. I he next cir-
cumftance to be attended to, is the evacuation of the
bowels by back-raking and foftening clyfters. In ge¬
neral, after this operation, a large quantity of air will
be evacuated, and confiderable relief will be afford¬
ed. After thefe means have been employed, fom.e
ftimulating aromatics, fuch as oil of turpentine, oil
of anifefeed, effence of peppermint, or fome of the
other ftimulants enumerated in N° 285, and 286,
ftiould be given by the mouth ; and if thefe do not
procure relief, it will be proper to give a ball contain¬
ing half an ounce of calomel, and immediately af¬
ter it, a drench of peppermint water, with five or fix
drachms of laudanum. The cure will be confiderably
aflifted by rubbing the belly gently with a warm cloth 5
and the animal ftiould be gently trotted, for a confider¬
able time, while led by the halter. Warm fomentai
tions to the belly have been recommended; but if there
is a confiderable accumulation of air in the ftomach and
bowels, thefe would do harm by increafimg the expan-
fion of the air, and thus adding to the animal s diftrefs,
for it muft be remembered, that a horfe cannot .eafily
belch up wind by the mouth ; and where there is any
cbftruftion backwards, every thing that can increafe the
4 B 2 expanfion
56+ FARR
JDifcafes. expanfion of the confined air, muft do harm. On the
. 'contrary, every thing that is capable of diminifhing the
volume of air, may probably relieve the pain. It
might be worth while to try how far the application of
cold to the belly would be attended with advantage :
and this might eafily and fafely be effeaed, by bathing
the belly with ftrong fpirit of wine, which fpeedily eva¬
porating, will confiderably diminilh the temperature of
the belly. It will be proper, where the difeafe conti¬
nues obftinate, to adminiiler warm foftening clyfters
every hour or two j as well for the purpofe of obviat¬
ing coftiyenefs, as for removing the fpafmodic connec¬
tion of the bowels. . We are affured, that where moft
other means have failed of procuring relief in flatulent
colic, this has been obtained by means of the fmoke of
tobacco drawn up the fundament. The fmipleft way
of adminikering this remedy, is to introduce the fmall
end of a tobacco pipe, after having filled the bowl and
ig ited itj when the fmoke will infenfibly be drawn
up by the a&ion of the horfe’s bowels.
Chap. V. Of Dropfical Dlfeafis.
519
Dropfy. Our domefiic animals are fometimes affe&ed with
dropfy ; and this may be either diffufed through the cel¬
lular membrane below the fkin 5 or the water may be
contained within one or more of the cavities, as the
540 head, the cheft> and the belly.
/- Extern,alrdr«Pfy* what medical writers call «««-
Jarca, and farriers water farcy, is not common, unlefs
it accompanies a dropfical colle6Kon within the body.
It lometimes afFeds particular parts, as the legs, the
fheath, or the lips; and at other times it is diffufed’over
the whole cellular membrane. It is known by the
1 welling of the part, which is cold, and retains the ira-
premon of the finger for fome time. The urine is ge¬
nerally more iparing and of a deeper colour than is na-
tural j and the animal appears confiderably weak. This
dneafe, when it has proceeded to any confiderable height
and when the animal is much debilitated, is not eafily
removed 5 but when it is flight and of no long Handing,
Jt will in general yield to remedies.
All the fpecies of dropfy more commonly affedt old
than young animals j and fuch as are debilitated by any
previous caufe, are more fubjeft to it. It is faid that
horfes are more likely to become dropfical in fpring and
autumn when they are moulting.
The cure of general dropfy is to be attempted by the
uie of diuretic medicines, accompanied with a nourifhino-
diet, gentle exercife, and frequent fridlion all over the
body, efpecially over thofe parts where the accumula-
tmn of fluid is fituated. The adion of the diuretics
muft be a {lifted by a fufficient quantity of drink ; and
it will be proper to give the animal fome of the more
powerful ftremgthening remedies, fuch as white vitriol,
oak bark, logwood, &c.
1. Dropsy of the Head. Hydrocephalus. Sturdy.
Turnjick.
Dropfy of the head feldom affedls horfes or cattle :
but a peculiar collection cf water in the head is very
common among fheep, in whom it is called the Sturdy
or Turnfick. One of the beft accounts of this difeafe
1 E R FartVl.
that we have feen is that which is given in the fecond Dif r
appendix to Mr Findlater’s furvey of Peebles, which
we^ftiall give nearly in the words of the author.
i his difeafe is peculiarly incident to young flieep or
hogs of a year or eighteen months old. It confifts of
a collection of water generally formed upon the exter¬
nal furface of the brain, immediately below the fkull •
and fometimes, though not often, in the centre or
ventricles of the brain. When the water forms in the
latt-mentioned parts, we apprehend it is almoft univer-
ially mortal.
. The border firft difcovered, by the animal not keep¬
ing up with the reft of the flock, and by its appearing
dull and ftupid. It is afterwards obferved to go round
in a giddy manner ; and at length it appears blind, and
the pupil of the eye Items wide and relaxed. It may
continue a long time in this fituation before it dies; and
it is believed that fheep fometimes recover of this dif¬
eafe without any thing being done for them. They
are often in good order when they die, as they continue
mm . rtolerabl>r well> until near the laft period.
J. hough fome recover, with or without means, perhaps
it may be moft advifeable to kill them early in the dif-
ea.e, provided they be in good order, as this local dif-
temper does not affect the goodnefs of the mutton.
When the colledion of water is on the outfide of the
brain, it is often cured .by thrufting a {harp wire up the
animal’s noflrils, until it reaches the water, and opens a
paifage for it to run off. In other cafes, it is cured by
an operation which fome fliepherds perform very dex-
teroufly. The water is contained in a bladder, or veficle,
(a hydatid} generally about the fize of a walnut. The
part of the fkull immediately above where it is fituated,
feels fofter than the other parts. This the fhepherd dif-
covers, by preffing with his thumb and fingers, upon dif¬
ferent parts of the fore and upper parts of the fkull.
1 he bone here has become thinner, and feels foft; from
which he is.certain that the watery colkaion is formed.
After the difeafe has gone on a confiderable time, and
he judges it ripe for the operation, he raifes the fcalp,
and lays.the bone bare to a fafficient breadth, with a
fharp knife ; he then difcovers more accurately the ex¬
tent of the thin foft part of the bone, and with a ftrong
and ftiarp-pointed knife, he makes a circular incifion in
the fcull, raifes up, and takes out the part. He then
fees the clear thin bladder underneath, which he lays
hold of with a. fmall hook, or the point of a needle, and
gently draws it out ; taking all poffible care that it be
not broken, or the water fpilled, which would prove
unfavourable to recovery. He finds a confiderable hol¬
low in the brain where the bag was fituated, over which
he brings the flap of fkin that was raifed, fo as to cover
it as neatly as poffible. Over the whole, he applies a
pla.fter of tar, and leaves the reft to nature. This ope¬
ration frequently proves fuccefsful.
Mr Findlater remarks, that in Tweeddale, one cafe
in. three, where a perforation is made by the pointed
wire, or the trepan, ufually ends favourably. Of late
it.has been the cuftom among the fhepherds of that dif-
trifl, to bore into the fkull of fheep affeffed with the
fturdy, with a common gimlet; and however rough
or apparently dangerous the operation, it feems fre¬
quently to prove fuccefsful. The perforation is made
by boring from the root of the noftrils, in an oblique
direftion
Part VI.
Difeafes. direction to the root of the horn on the oppofite fide of
-y——' the head.
2. Water in the Chest. Hydrothorax.
522
Dropiyof This complaint appears but feldom in the inferior
thecheft. an;mals: but it may take place from exceffive debility ;
and according to Mr Blaine, it is fometimes the confe-
quence of inflammation in the lungs. Here however
this writer is probably miftaken, and confounds water
in the chert with, empyema, or a colledtion of matter
within the chert, which is not an uncommon termina¬
tion oi pneumonia.
When dropfy in the chert does occur, the animal la¬
bours under a difficulty of breathing, efpecially when
lying down •, and the pulfe is feeble, and commonly ir¬
regular. The urine is fcanty and high coloured. If
the collection of water is pretty confiderable, it may be
perceived by the found that is produced, when the chert
is ftruck with the hand ; but this is often a deceitful
fign, and ffiould not be tried till a long time after the
animal has drunk j as, for fome time after drinking, the
■water that remains in the ftomach will, when the ribs
are ftruck, produce a found that might lead us to fup-
pofe there was water in the chert.
This complaint commonly proves fatal, both in man
and animals, and probably there is no means of cure,
except by evacuating the water, by an opening into the
chert j an operation which is always precarious, and
commonly as dangerous as the difeafe which it is in¬
tended to relieve. If it is determined however to try
the experiment, the opening Ihould be made between
the feventh and eighth rib, near the breaft bone, on that
fide of the cheft where the water is fuppofed to be ac¬
cumulated. In making the opening, the fkin fliould
be drawn tight towards the edge of the feventh rib ;
when a cut is to be made in the place above direCled,
with a (harp knife, not cutting too boldly, but rather
fcratching u'ith the point of the knife, till the Ikin and
the mufcles are completely divided. After this, a pipe
muft be introduced through the opening, and faftened
by a bandage round the animal 5 fome foft linen or a
piece of Iponge being placed over tiie opening, after as
much water as poffible has run off, to fuck up the re¬
maining moifture, and exclude the air.
3. Water in the Belly. Afeites.
DroSf3of is the moft common fpecies of dropfy, and is
the belly, known by the general fymptoms of dropfy that have
been defcribed in N° 319. and 320. attended with an
unufual fwelling of the belly ; while the fkin is cold,
and very tight. When the belly is ftruck with one
hand, while the other is held upon the oppofite fide, a
fiu&uation may be perceived, much more diftincrtiy than
in the laft fpecies.
It is brought on by the ufual caufes of dropfy that
we have already mentioned, and is not an uncommon
confequence of jaundice and other chronic diforders.
It is not quite fo dangerous as dropfy in the cheft, but
it is very apt to return after having been removed.
The treatment fhould be begun with diuretics, and
now and then a mercurial purge, while the body is
ftrengthened by tonic medicines, nourifhing diet, and
gentle exercife. If the accumulation of water becomes
very great, it may be eafily evacuated, by making a
pun&ure into the belly, and introducing a pipe as in the
FARRIERY.
laft cafe. Mr Lawrence has gone into the miftake ge-
524
nerally committed, of fuppofing that little drink fliould
be given in cafes of dropfy. It is now well afcertained
that moderate drinking confiderably increales the effica¬
cy of diuretic medicines.
Chap. VI. Of Anomalous Difeafes.
1. Diabetes. Profife Staling, or PiJJing-evil.
It fometimes happens, that liorfes or cattle make a Profufeftab
much greater quantity of urine than is natural j fo thatinS*
the quantity evacuated exceeds the quantity of fluid
drunk by the animal. Probably this difeafe occurs
more frequently among cattle than among hcrfes,
though it is fcarcely mentioned by the writers on cattle
medicine, and the account that is given of it by veteri¬
nary writers is extremely imperfedl. Mr Blaine de-
fcribes the urine, as being five or fix times the natural
quantity, as milky or watery, and depofiting a fedi-
ment which has the tafte and appearance of fugar. As
we have never obferved a cafe of this difeafe in horfes
or cattle, we cannot fay bow far this defer! ption of the
urine is correiff ; but if the urine evacuated by thefe
animals in diabetes refembles the human urine in the
fame difeafe, it is clear and almoft colourlefs, has the
fmell and tafte of honey, depofits little fediment, btrt
on being evaporated, leaves a thick fubftance like
treacle.
Confiderable thirft accompanies this difeafe; and
when it has continued long, the animal becomes ex¬
tremely weak and emaciated. The fkin is ufually dry
and harffi, the pulfe is fmall and quick, and the appe¬
tite in the early part of the difeafe is much increaftd.
This complaint commonly proves fatal ; few inftances
of a recovery having been obferved in man *, and we
do not know that any fuccefsful cafe in any of the do-
meftic animals is on record.
The caufes of diabetes are very obfeure, efpecially in
the inferior animals ; it feems to be the confequence of
great weaknefs, and fome unufual a&ion of the digeft-
ive organs. The various theories that have been given
in explanation of this difeafe, as far as relates to the
human body, will be noticed in the article Medicine j
and if we fhall meet with an opportunity of examining
the difeafe in horfes or cattle, we will endeavour to
give a more accurate account of it, under VETERINARY
Art.
In the treatment of diabetes in horfes, &c. the me¬
thod propofed by Dr Rollo for the cure of this difeafe
in man, has been recommended, and we believe adopted,
by Mr Coleman •, with what fuccefs we cannot fay.
This method confifts in making the animal abftain as
much as poffible from vegetable food 5 and giving him
broth and balls made of flelh, mixing up with parte of
wheat flour. He ftiould have as little drink as poffible.
Aftringent remedies are commonly employed in thefe
cafes, fuch as Japan earth, alum, white vitriol, muriate
of iron, oak bark. See receipts, N° 29.
2. Black-Quarter, Quarter-Ill, or Black
Spald.
There is a difeafe that proven very fatal in fome dif- Quarter-ill.
trids to calves or cattle of a year or two old, the na¬
ture of which is little underftood, but it feems nearly
allied
(
566
Difeafes
FARR
Killed to the llavohes or Hoch, defcrlbed in N° 428.
- Mr Lawrence confiders the difeafe as appearing under
various forms, to which he gives the following names 5
Jhewt of blood; vomit of blood; blood in the back;
blood in the legs, or era tench ; blain in the tongue, or
overflow of blood; flriking in, or riflng of the blood;
ngham, or iron-flnking ; joint murrain, or garget; black
quarter ; quarter-evil; black leg.
\\ e have given as a fynonym the name of black
fpald, becaufe we confider the difeafe fo called in Scot¬
land, as nearly, if not entirely, the fame with the black
quarter of the writers on cattle medicine. As we have
not feen the dtfeafe, we thall copy what Mr Lawrence
fays of it, in his treatife on cattle.
Ail our animals, oxen, fheep, and pigs, I have ob-
ferved, are fubjetf to fanguineous effufion or overflow of
tiie blood, on being put, in a low and weak Hate, to
rich or fucculent keep. 1 hey very commonly drop on
a fudden, and die in the blood, as it is termed ; when the
carcafes putrify almofl immediately, and are totally loft.
I igs which die in this way, have their fkins fo univer-
fally fuffufed with the blood, that they appear enve¬
loped, or rather fhrouded in Morocco leather. In oxen,
chiefly young cattle, nature commonly finds a vent for
the difeafe, in an eruption on the leg, quarter, or {boul¬
der, attended with pneumatofis or a colleftion of air in
the cellular membrane, or, as it is commonly termed, be¬
tween the flefh and the fkin $ whence the crepitating or
crackling noife, which is heard on preffure. Another
termination of the difeafe, is by a depofition of matter
upon the joints, whence the term of joint garget or
munain. I know not whether I am correct in referring
the crateuch to this clafs, which is faid, in Scotland, to
be a fwelling and lamenefs in the legs; but the old
writers particularly mention blood in the legs. Blain or
garget in the tongue, attended with inflammation and
vefieles or bladders in that part, is faid to be a fymp-
tom of the difeafe, and alfo to arife from heat and fatigue.
This difeafe lias fwept off great numbers of yearling
and two-year old cattle, and become indeed endemial
in certain diflri6ls, where any fuch fcourge was un¬
known, it is faid, previoufly to the introdudlion of arti¬
ficial giaffes, with the full feeding on which the animals
become forfeited^: thus the improvident ufe of good
produces evil. The breeders being alarmed at the ra¬
vages occafioned by this murrain, which generally car¬
ried off the forwardeft and beft of the cattle, no won¬
der that the fertile brains of cow-do£lors were put into
inteftine motion, and that the ideas of the favourite en¬
gines, the knife or fire, were whirled uppermofl. In
effeft, fome Ikilful leech introduced the folloiving moft
extraordinary operation, as a preventive of the difeafe
in queftion ; which I apprehend in the contemplation,
either of phyfiology or common-fenfology, could have
no better prophyladlic or preventive view, than {having
the animal would have ; which I beg leave to recom¬
mend in the Head, as at leaf! free from cruelty. The
ill-ftarred beafl is call, bound to a flake, all his four
legs are cut open from the claws upwards to the height
of feyeral inches, in order to find among the tendons
and ligaments a ftrong blood veflel of a bluifh colour,
which faid offending veffel, guilty of the original fin of
producing joint murrain, being caught with a crooked
needle, is cut away. It is great pity, for the fake of
hypothetical uniformity, that the above-faid blue blood-
3
I E R Y.
Part VI,
veffel had not been called a worm, fince the brains of nifp ,
lo many of our cattle folk have been infefted with 1 ^
worms from very high antiquity*.”
After much jocofe, but rather coarfe ridicule of me-*
thods that have been propofed for the cure of this dif- Cattle ”
eaie, Mr Lawrence thus proceeds. “ Prevention of P- 584.
this malady is the only cure worth notice: becaufe af¬
ter the attack, the very nature of the cafe renders all
remedy either uncertain, or of very little profit, even if
luccefsful, on account of the expence of time and mo-
ney. With this view the young cattle muft not be
puflied fo forward in condition ; and indeed the fame
precaution may be ufeful in fome degree, with refpeft
to the full aged. A piece of fliort or inferior keep
mould be referved, as a digefling place, in which the
cattle may be occafionally turned to empty and exercife
themfelves. Thofe obferved to advance very faft may
be bled monthly for feveral months : of the efficacy
of this practice, however, I have by no means fo
good an opinion as that of giving medicines which
prevent internal obftruiflion. I am well aware of the
difficulty, or rather total impraaicability, of fuch mea-
fures with a number of cattle in the field, or I am con¬
vinced, that occafional purges, or alterative medicines,
would prevent thofe difeafes which feem to take their
rife in oyer repletion and accumulation. Six drachms,
daily, of equal parts, fulphur and antimony, in fine
powder, would be fufficient for a young beaft ; but to
be of any permanent ufe, it muft be continued at leaft
a month ; or fait might be of ufe. Rowelling alfo
might be an efficacious preventative. Keep two rowels
or fetons open in each beaft during feveral months f.” +
In the jth vol. of the harmer’s Magazine, is thep.588.
following communication from a pra&ical farmer re-
fpefting the cure of this complaint.
“ ^ lie firft cure for this complaint that I ever faw
performed, was on an ox of four and a half years of age.
As he was going in the plough, I obferved him a little
lame in one of the hinder feet. At firft I thought he
had trampled upon a ftone; but as it ftill grew worfe,
I foon fufpefted it was the quarter-ill ; the more fo, as
there was a good year-old died of that diforder three
weeks before. By the time he was got to the byre,
the crackling between the fkin and the fleffi was very
perceptible on the top joint of the off-fide hinder leg.
As our blackfmith had fome fkill among live flock, he
was inftantly fent for. The firft thing he did was to
take a little blood from a vein in the neck. He then
pulled the fkin from the fleffi on the fide that feemed
moft pained, ftill keeping the beaft walking as much
as poffible. He then caufed cold water to be poured in
large quantities on the part affeaed, ftill rubbing and
keeping the fkin loofe on the affeaed part. Finding the
fkin to adhere much to the fleffi, he then made three cuts
with a penknife, two inches long, into which he rubbed
fait and water. In this manner he continued four
hours: the one time driving him, then pouring on
water, rubbing in fait, and loofening the fkin from the
fleffil By this time he was not near fo cripple, and
began to take his food. ^Ve were ordered, however,
to keep him in motion all night, and in the morning
he was well for his food, and never had any more figns
of the difeafe. Since that time I have followed the
blackfmith’s practice, and have often been fuecefsful.
Only inftead of pouring water on the place, I fallen a
rope
Fait VI. FARR
Difeafes. rope about the beait’s head, and take it to a deep pool,
u—v—- caufing it to fwitn up and down, and drive it frequent¬
ly, giving it an ounce or half an ounce of laudanum,
according to the fize or age of the beaft, but I never
did cut the Ikin. I have good reafon to believe that
the above method has been the means of curing feveral
of my young cattle, as I never favv any that took that
difeafe, and no means ufed for their recovery, but died $
thofe I opened, had all the blood colle&ed in the af-
fedted quarter. I find it more difficult to cure in the
fore quarters than in the hinder, and if it feize the
bowels, I hardly think that it will cure by any
means.”
3. On the Rot in Sheep. General or True Rot.
Hydropic Rot.
got‘’in The name of the rot in ftreep, and the ravages that
fheep. are annually made by it among the flocks of moft ftieep
diftridls, are familiar to every one; but little pains have
been taken to fix the precife meaning of the word, and
the particular difeafe, to denote which it ftiould be ex-
clufively employed. Some of thofe who appear to have
paid particular attention to the fubjedf, have yet follow¬
ed the example of (hepherds and farmers, in confound¬
ing under the name of roty feveral difeafes which differ
confiderably in their nature, caufes, and method of
treatment. Two medical men who have lately publilh-
ed; the one, Dr Dickfon, on the General Management
of Sheep, as connedled with pradlical agriculture j the
other, Dr Harrifon, on this particular fubjeff of the
rot, have ftill confidered it as one difeafe. In the fe-
cond appendix to Mr Findlater’s Survey of Peebles,
and in the fourth number of the Edinburgh Medical
and Surgical Journal, the diftimffion of the rot into
three different morbid affedtions, is, however, clearly
marked 5 and there feems no doubt that thefe three dif¬
eafes are very fimilar to confumption, hepatitis or in¬
flammation of the liver, and fcurvy, in the human body.
The firft of thofe which we have briefly noticed in N°
490. under the name of pulmonic rot, is diftinguiflied by
cough, he&ie fever, wafting of flefh, and in many cafes
by the formation of a watery fwelling below the chin.
The fecond, mentioned by the name of hepatic rot in
N° 493- is characterized by a degree of fever accom¬
panied by inflammation, and thickening of the outer coat
of the liver, or fome difeafed ffate of the biliary duCts or
pipes, connected with the prefence of flukes in the liver,
if not fometimes produced by them. The third fpecies
has been general rot, as in this the whole fyftem
is more or lefs affeCted ; true rot, becaufe it appears to
be the moft common of the three, and to be that to
which the name feems more peculiarly applicable 5 and
hydropic rot; becaufe, if the animal is fuffered to live,
the d feafe commonly terminates in partial or general
dropfy. This fpecies is what we are now to confider 5
and after having given as clear an account of it as we
can colled from the defcriptions that have been lately
publifhed, we fhall make a few obfervations on the
caufes, treatment, and prevention of the rot tn general,
endeavouring as much as poflible to dilcriminate between
the three varieties.
Symptoms It is probable that the firft fymptoms of the rot have
of general feldom been obferved. The earlieft marks of the difeafe
rot.
I E R Y. 5357
of which writers give an account, are, falling off in Difeafes.
flelh, and unufual dullnefs and heavinefs. The fleftrs——v  
feels loofe and flabby, efpecially about the loinsj and if
preffure is made about the hips, a crackling is fome¬
times perceptible. It is faid that thofe who are accuf-
tomed to handle the ears and legs of ftieep, may in the
earlieft ftage of rot difcover fymptoms of low fever, but
probably this is the cafe only in pulmonic and hepatic
rot. Now, or foon afterwards, the countenance looks
pale, as do the gums and tongue. On parting the
fleece, the fkin is found to have loft its fine rofy colour,
and is become of a pale red. As the difeafe advan ’.es,
the fkin appears dappled with yellow and black fpots.
The eyes have a peculiar appearance ; they lofe their
luftre, and look like the eyes of dead fifli. Mr Find-
later fays, that in Tweeddale, the principal mark of rot-
tennefs is taken from the appearance of the eye in the
corner next the nofe, when the eyeball is turned fo as
to look away from the nofe ; as the flefh that adheres
to the eyeball below the eyelids, in the corner next the
nofe, is in a found fheep of a florid red colour j where¬
as, in a rotten ftieep, the flefh is of a dull appearance,
and of a yellowifh red colour, refembling that of a rot¬
ten egg, when the white and the yolk are confounded
together. When the difeafe has continued long, the
breath becomes fetid, the gums fpongy, the teeth and
fometimes the horns loofe, the animal is commonly af-
fedled with a fcouring, the fleece looks torn and ragged,
and the wool feparates from the fkin with a flight pull.
Great weaknefs and emaciation attend the latter ftage
of the difeafe ; and thefe continually increafe till the
anirrihl dies, or till dropfy comes on, which always ter¬
minates fatally.
The principal appearance on diffe&ion is prefented
by the liver, which is found in various ftates, according'
to the progyefs or feverity of the difeafe. When a fheep
is killed a few days after contrafling the rot, the thin,
edge of the fmall lobe of the liver appears of a tranf-
parent white or bluifti colour, and this colour fpreads to
a greater extent according to the feverity of the com¬
plaint. Sometimes it does not extend more than an
inch from the edge ; at others it occupies a confiderable
part of the lobe. In fevere cafes, the whole external
coat of the liver is found difeafed, commonly affuming
an opaque colour interfperfed with lines or patches of a
darker red. The upper end of the liver is fometimes
found fpeckled like the back of a toad, to which it is
faid to bear a ftriking refernblance. Very commonly
the liver is found full of hard knots, and fometimes
there are ulcers in various parts of it. Are not fomo
of thefe appearances peculiar to the hepatic rot ?
When the liver of a fheep affe£led with the rot is boiled,
it lofes its confiftency, and breaks down into fmall pie¬
ces •, whereas it is well known that a found liver be¬
comes by the fame procefs firm and folid.
When ftieep have died fuddenly in the firft ftage of
this diforder, there may commonly be difcovered a
quantity of whe.yifh-coloured fluid in the cavity of the
belly ; and in thefe cafes the outfide of the liver is ge¬
nerally covered with a coat of coagulable lymph. This
is one of the appearancesdefcribed by Dr Harrifon; and
is fimilar to what is often obferved in the belly of
animals that have died of dropfy in the belly.
In ftating the caufes and treatment of general rot, 528
we.
568
FARR
Difeafes.
we cannot perhaps clo better than copy what is given
on this fubjeft in Mr Findlater’s Survey of Peebles,
to which we have already been fo much obliged. “ It
arifes from deficient or bad aliment, whether the food
itfelf be bad and fcanty, or the animal be inca¬
pable of digefting it properly. It is moft common from
the former caufe, want of food ; and the difeafe is
much the fame with fcurvy among the human race.
In addition to thefe caufes, whatever tends to deprefs
the fpirits, frequently excites, or at leaft exafperates,
the malady. It is faid that foldiers in a garrifon have
bef;n known to be feized with the fcurvy on hearing bad
news ; and I doubt not but terrifying flreep with dogs,
or other means, may produce or aggravate this difeafe.
We may hence fee what mifchief a fox chafe, or any
exhibition of that fort, is calculated to bring upon a
flock of {beep. The difeafe is alfo faid to be produced
by feeding upon watered grafs j and hence fliepherds,
in many parts of Scotland, are careful to keep off their
fheep from the tender grafs produced by the occafional
overflowing of rivulets. Feeding alfo in marfhy and
damp paftures, is known to be a powerful caufe of the
rot.
“ The only means of cure are, a fupply of good and
wholefome food, and invigorating the ftomach by per¬
mitting the animal to feed on thofe ftimulating and aro¬
matic herbs which are agreeable to its tafte. It is be¬
lieved that on dry fweet paftures, where there is a fuffi-
cient quantity of furze and broom, juniper, and other
flirubs that are palatable to Iheep, the rot is feldbm
heard of. When ground is fown down for fheep paf-
ture, parfley, thyme, peppermint, and other aromatic
herbs, fhould be fown with the grafs feeds, as thefe
* idla P^ant:s ferve both to prevent and to cure the rot. In
ter's Sur- a^dit:*on to thefe means of cure, every thing that tends
to annoy or deprefs the animal in its weakly flate ought
p. 404. to be avoided *.
529 The following fa£Is wTith refpedl to the production of
rot, confidered as a general difeafe, are chiefly taken
from Dr Harrifon’s Inquiry.
Poor, clayey, and loamy lands are moft fubjeCI to
rot.
Grounds that are always dry, or always under water,
and fuch as are always fufficiently wet to preferve a
conflant running of water, were never known to fuffer
from the rot.
Ponds of living water are equally fafe 5 but when at¬
tempts to drain lands have been made, and have not
fully fucceeded, fheep which feed on fuch lands are very
much expofed to the rot.
Grounds newly laid down for pafture, or ploughed
fields that have been exhaufted by repeated crops, where
the fward is thin, and where the water remains in
plafhes for want of proper outlets, are peculiarly fub-
jeCt to the rot.
Marfhes that are overflowed by the fea, and boggy
fituations, efpecially in Ireland, are feldom known to
rot.
Lands that have been limed, and many foils that are
chiefly compbfed of calcareous matter, are confidered
as very likely to produce the rot.
Ewes that are with lamb, or are giving fuck, are
lefs liable than other fheep to be affetted with the
Tot.
I E R Y. Part VI.
Eight caufes have been affigned for the produ&ion Difeafrs.
of rot, viz. v~-*(
1. A vitiated clew. It is ftated in the furvey of Lin-
colnfhire, that a fhepherd, who, when young, was fhep-
herd’s boy to an old man that lived at Nettlam near
Lincoln, a place famous for the rot, declared his per-
fuafion that fheep took the rot, only in a morning be¬
fore the dew was well off. His mafter’s fhepherd al¬
ways kept his flock in fold till the dew was gone, and
with only this attention his fheep were kept found when
all his neighbours loft their flocks. Dr Harrifon re¬
marks, that if this caufe W’ere juft, the rot fhould appear
equally on all lands.
2. The difeafe has been attributed to a cruft or ear¬
thy fediment that adheres to the grafs after wet weather,
or after the overflowing of running water.
3. It has been fuppofed to be owing to the luxuriant
and quick growing herbage that is produced in hot
moift feafons. But all luxuriant paftures do not pro¬
duce the rot.
4. It has been attributed to the fheep grazing on
fome particular herbs, fuch as the butterwort (pingui-
cula vulgaris'), the white rot (hydrocotyle vulgaris),
round-leaved fundew Qdrofera rotund folia), and long¬
leaved fundew (drofera longifolia) ; but thefe plants do
not grow on every rotting foil.
5. The diforder has been imputed to flukes in the
liver. We have already ftated our opinion, that flukes
may produce the hepatic rot.
6. The rot has been fuppofed to depend on the in¬
fection of Jheep pox. This opinion feems to have arifen
from a confufion of terms.
7. M. Daubenton confidered the difeafe to be produ¬
ced by poverty of food, and too much water. There is
no doubt that thefe caufes commonly produce the laft
fpecies of rot which we have mentioned. ^0
8. Dr Harrifon is of opinion that the rot is always Dr Har-
generated by the exhalation or effluvia produced by the nfon’3 thf**
aftion of the fun’s rays on foils that are partially cover-rjr l^e
ed with ftagnant water. After adducing a number of
ingenious arguments in fupport of his opinion, Dr Har¬
rifon fums up the amount of his doClrine in the following
manner.
“ From the various circumftances enumerated, I think
I am juftified in attributing the rot in fheep and other
animals to paludal effluvia *, but with refpeCt to their
nature and conftitution, it is very difficult to form any
rational judgment, as they have hitherto eluded the mofl
fubtle and delicate inquiries. It muft, however, be ad¬
mitted,caufa latet, vis ejl notifjima ; and confequently
the fubjeft, from its great importance to the public in
general, is entitled to a ferious inveftigation.
“ Without heat and moifture, no deleterious vapours
can be generated $ and yet it is equally certain, that
both thefe caufes are infufficient to produce either a re¬
current fever, or the rot, fince they are confined to par¬
ticular fituations. Other auxiliaries are therefore ne-
ceffary $ and I am inclined to believe that vegetable or
earthy particles, and probably both, are required, as
well as heat and moifture, to conftitute the noxious ema¬
nations or gaffes called miafmata paludum.
“ Probably it will be found, on further inquiry, that a
great variety of animal and vegetable effluvia are extri¬
cated in different places $ and that many diforders fhould
be
\ KK I K RV. PLATE CCXI
—TCAs'rti/&a/tl Srit
7.
ttg. S.
MCibr/iil>a/d Sculp.1
\
FARRIERY.
PLATE CCXIII.
FARRIERY.
PLATE CCXIV.
Engraved Try W^trchibald Eulii
FARRIERY.
PLATE CCXV.
Jig .14.
Jig.16.
-Engraved Tsy A- WtisonEctinV
WArcAibet/d -fcr/fp .
Index. FARR
Difejfes. be attributed to them, which are at this time imputed
' to other caufes.
“ Poifonous vapours are extremely a&ive and fudden
in their effefts, of which proofs may be found in the
hiftory of every contagious and endemic diforder. We
have, therefore, no reafon to be furprffed, that theep
and animals are fo immediately affefted by pafturing in
tnoifl: places, where thefe effluvia are copioufly produced
in hot weather. Other caufes operate flovvly, and re¬
quire fuch a long-continued application, that I do not
think the rot can be introduced by them, though I am
of opinion, that by occafioning general weaknefs, they
make the conftitution more fufceptible, and lay it more
open to morbid impreffions. In the human body, we
know that fatigue, cold, fading, and other debilitating
caufes, are efficacious auxiliaries, although of themfelves
they are totally inadequate to produce any contagious
diforder. They, therefore, feem to contribute equally,
and in the fame manner, to facilitate the operations
of marffl miafmata, upon the human body and other
*Hartifon animals*.”
in the Rot, jj. jg t|5at por a fhoj-f tJme after contradling the
P'^1* rot, theep feed more heartily than ufual ; and for this
reafon, butchers and graziers, when they with to fatten
theep fpeedily for the market, not unfrequently turn
them into a rotting pafture.
The prevention of the rot will be eatily fuggetled by
attending to the fa£ts and obfervations that have juft
I E R Y. 569
been given, as it contifts in avoiding the caufes that feem Difeafes.
to produce it, and avoiding or correfting the foil where —y——^
it is found mott readily to take place. “ It is confident¬
ly afferted, that deco&ions of bitter herbs, with fait,
have frequently preferved {beep from the rot. Salt is
fuppofed to conftitute part of Fleet’s celebrated nof-
trum ; and we know that bitters are defervedly recom¬
mended to prevent intermittents, the dyfentery, and
other diforders, which originate from exhalations.
“ In Oxfordshire, Dr Lower has frequently known fix
or feven fpoonfuls of ftrong brine, and ftale urine, with
foot fteeped in it, to be given with great fuccefs. This
is done at fpring and fall of the year, when the dew is
counted the moft dangerous. This courfe of phyfic is
continued eight or ten days, or till the fheep eat their
meat heartily $ and if they were taken in time, there
feldom died any.in a whole flock. For the fame pur-
pofe, Ellis recommends the following medicine in his
Pra&ical Hufflandry.
“ Take a peck or better of malt, and maffl it as though
you would brew it into ale or beer, and make eleven or
twelve gallons of liquor; then boil in it a quantity of
ftiepherds purfe, comfrey, fage, plantain, penny-royal,
wormwood, and bloodwort; add yeaft, and afterwards
fait, to the mixture ; then turn the liquor into a veffel.
After April comes in, give feven or eight fpoonfuls to * Harrifon
every (heep, once in the week, if the weather be wet; on the Rot,
and if dry, not fo often*.” p. 41.
INDEX,
Momcw, N° 462
Ahforbentt,, 293, b, e,f
Abforption, morbid, fymptoms of, 304
Abfyrtus, a writer on farriery, 27
Age of a horfe, mode of afcertaining, 101
Alexander's, Mr, probang, 403
Aloes, 273, a.
Alteratives, 285
Alutn, 281, a. 293, a.
Amaurojis, 3 23
Ammonia, 267, a. 285, a. 293, b.
Ammoniac, gum, 265, a.
Anatomy neceffary to a farrier, 13
Aneurifm, 431
Anger- berries, 3 26
Anifefeed, 285, c.
Anodynes, 289
receipts for, 290
Antalkalines, 293, It, i, k.
Antimonial powder, 263, b. 267, d.
Antimony, 263, a. 267, c.
butter of, 293, c.
calx or oxide of, 267, e.
Antifeptics, 285, 293, a, d, k, l.
Antifpafmodics, , 285
receipts for, 288
Anxiety, 314
Vox. VIII. Part II.
Appetite, lofs of, N° 416
Aromatics, 285
Arteries, wounds of, 430
Afafoetida, 265, b.
Afarabacca, 275, a.
Afcarides, 413
Afcites, 523
AJlringents, 281
receipts for, 282
B
BacLraking, 257
finew, clap or ftrain of, 356
rupture of, 360
Balls, dire&ions for preparing, 252
adminiftering, 253
cordial, 286
Balfam of copaiva, 265, d. 269, c. 285, a.
peru, 265, c.
fulphur, 265, e.
Bars of the horfe’s hoof, 124
Barbadoes tar, 265, /, 285, e.
Barret's work on farriery, 59
Barley, 277» a'
Barm, ^93’ ^
Bartlett's work on farriery, 64
Bats, 5l8
Bays, oil of, 295, f.
Biftort, N° 281,1*
Blade quarter, or black fpald, 525
Bladder, inflammation of, 302
Blaine's inftruftions for ftudying
farriery, 19
, works on veterinary me¬
dicine, pt
Bleeding, 139
place of performing, 161
cafes requiring, 165
cautions refpefting, 166
danger of a ligature in, 160
the blood to be faved, 162
fecuring the orifice, 163
in the temporal artery, 164
topical, 167
Blindnefs, • 319
partial, 321
total, 322
moon, 324
B lifters,' 285,^
Blown in cattle, 404
B/undeville's work on horfes, 56
Bqf-fpavin, 366
Boardman's diftionary, 83
IWy-founder, 499
Bones of the horfe’s foot, 114
Bots, 409, 411
4 C Bourgclat's
570
Bourgelat's works on farriery, N° 36
Bowels of the horfe defcribed, 107
Bracken's works on farriery, 63
Brain, intiammatron of, 483
Braxy, watery, 446
# 498
Brocklejhy's works on murrain, 66
defcription of do. 469
account of the appear¬
ances on difleftion, 470
method of treating it, 471
Bruifes, 245
Buffon's natural hiftory, 27
Bunion's works on farriery, 57
Burgundy pitch, 285, h.
Burjlennefs, 419
Byre, feeding, Mr Hunter’s, 236
conftrudion of, 206
Caecum of the horfe, m
Calculus, 448
Calomel, 273, i. 291, c.
Calves, mode of rearing in Effex, 235
Camper's works, j4
Camphor, 267, b. 287, a.
Canker, 2 85
of the ear in dogs, 297
Cantharides, 285, yf
Canine madnefs. See Hydrophobia.
Capjicum, 285, i.
Capulet, or capped hock, 268
Caraway, 285, k.
Cq/Jia, 285, /.
Cajling, 158
Cajlor oil, 273, b. 291, a.
Cajlration, 181
when beft performed, 182
CataradI, 2*4
unfuccefsfully treated, 484
Catarrh, 485
epidemic, 486
Cattle, food of, 230
medicine, rude ftate of, 88
Cauflics, _ _ 293, a, c, e, g, k.
Celfus writes on farriery, 25
Chabert's writings on farriery, 46
Chamomile, 277, b.
Chaps,' 24*
Charcoal, 293, d.
Chemical remedies, 293
receipts for, 294
Chemijlry neceffary to a farrier, 15
Choking in cattle, 402
Circulation, morbid, fymptoms of, 305
Clark's, James, works on horfes, 68
method of fhoeing, 138
Bracey, paper on bots, 78
Cleanhnefs, neceffity of, 203, 239
Clothing of horfes, 204
Cloves, 285, m.
C/yJlers, dire&ions for preparing, 256
adminiftering, 257
Coffin hone, 119
FARRIERY.
Cold, common, N° 485
Coleman, Mr, appointed profeffor of
the veterinary college, 75
works of, 77
artificial frog, 136
method of treating wounds
in the joints, 351
Colon of the horfe, 112
Colic, ' jiS
inflammatory, 497
Columella's writings on farriery, 24
Contracted feet, 283
Cooling remedies, 279
receipts for, 280
Cordials, 285
Cords, 375
Corns, 203
Coronary ligament, 129
Cornea, opacity of, 225
Cojlivenefs, 427
Cough, chronic, 436
Cows, delivery of, 187
London mode of feeding, 237
CW’-houfes, 206
pox, ^ 478
originates in greafe, 479
Cropping, 179
Crujl of the horfe’s hoof, 122
Gulley's work on cattle, 89
Cummin, 282, 0.
Curb, 272
Cutting, 291
D
Daniel's Rural Sports, 94
remarks on the worming
of dogs, . _ 21?
Dark ages, ftate of farriery in the, 29
Delivery, 186
of cows in crofs pofitions, 187
in cafes of preternatural
obftru&ion, 188
Denny's work on horfes, 80
Depreffion of fpirit, 215
Diabetes, 224
Diarrhoea, 422
Dickfon's practical agriculture, 92
Diet of domeftic animals, 218
Digejlion, morbid, fymptoms of, 303
Difeafes of man and animals fimilar, 10
claffification of, 312
Diftemper in dogs, 487
Diuretics, 269
receipts for, 270
Docking, firft ufed in England, 176
abfurdity of, 177
how performed, 178
Dogs, food of, 238
vegetable food, 240
oatmeal, 241
barley-meal, 242
Dog kennels. See Kennel.
Downing's work on cattle, 87
Drenches, directions for preparing, 234
adminifter-
25S
DreJJing of horfes,
Dropfy of the head,
of the cheft,
belly,
Drowjinefs,
Dyfentery,
Index
N°2o,
52]
525
52a
31?
E 499
Ears of horfes (hould not be tnm-
med, tcj
% ,3
Elecampane, 3o r J.
Emetics, ^
powder for dogs,
Emetic tartar, 263, a. 267 d
Emollients, 7’*
. . receipts for,
Enquiries to be made by farriers, 30q
Epilepfy, jji
Epifpajlics. See Stimulants.
Epfom fait, 273, /.
Err/lines, ^3
mode of rearing calves, 2qc
F„ther, 287,/.
Eurnelus, a writer on farriery, 27
Excretion, morbid, fymptoms of, 307
Exercife, ' ^3
Expe&orants, 263
•receipts for, 266
Eyes, inflammation of, 484
323
found, marks of, 320
Falling of the fundament, 420
of the penis, 460
womb, 461
Falfe quarter^ qQo
Earcy, 504
water, 32Q
Farriery, origin of the term, 1
extended application of, 3
defined, 4
importance of, 3
to farriers, 6
to farmers and country
gentlemen, 7
to medical men, 8
much indebted to medical
met», 9
knowledge requifite for the
praftice of, 12
inftrudions for ftudying, 19
means of improving, 20, 21
early hiftory of, obfcure, 23
progrefs of, in France, 46
on the reft of
the conti¬
nent, _ 47,54.
in Britain, 55
Fatigue, 316
Feeders of dogs, duties of, 238
Feeding, foul, 417
Fennel, 285, g.
Feron's works on farriery, 84
Fever, inflammatory, 464
putrid, 465
Find later's
Index.
findlater's furvey of Peebles, N° 92
remarks on ftieep (helter, 209
firing, 17 4
ufes of, 175
Flux, 452
Fly in (keep, 33°
fo^-ficknefs, ^ ’ 4°4
Fomentations, 261
Food of horfes, 219
beans, 221
carrots, 222
times of feeding, 223
hay, 224
cut ftraw, 2-27
ground corn, 228
of cattle, 230
dogs, _ 238
preparation of, 243
adminiftration of, 245
Foot of the horfe, anatomy of, p. 443
its importance, N° 97
rot in fheep, 387
Fou/s, 386
Founder, 37^
body, 499
Foxglove, 389, a.
FraBures, 361
of the haunch-bone, 362
Freeman's work on the foot of the
horfe, 85
Fret, 5x8
frog of the horfe’s foot, 125
does not fupport the weight of
the horfe, 126
importance of its receiving pref-
fure, 127
Coleman’s artificial, 156
fundament, falling of, 420
Gadfly, bite of,
G along a l,
Galls,
Gamboge,
Garble,
338
283, a.
281, c.
273, 291, b.
466
GarfaulCs work on horfes, 40
Garlic, j 265, g.
Generation, morbid, fymptoms of, 308
Gentian, 283, b.
Gibfon's works on farriery, 62
Giddinefs, 3x8
Ginger, 276, a. 285, r.
Glanders, 505
Glafs, 295, <r.
eyes, 3 23
Glauber's falls, 273, k.
Goelicke's work on murrains, 48
Goulard's extraft, 3 79> e>
Grain, whole, danger of giving too
much of it to horfes at once, 226
Grains of paradife, 285, s.
Greafe, 482
molten, 499
Grogginefs, 377
Gu/lion, 318
FARRIERY.
Gum ammoniac, N° 265, a.
arabic, 277, c.
dragant, 277, d.
GW/a ferena, 323
PI
Habitations for domeftic animals, 190
Harrifon on the rot, 95
theory of the rot in fheep, 530
Hartmann, 53
Hajlfer's work on fheep, 51
Have of the eye, 484
Huy, heated, much relifhed by horfes
and cattle, 224
Hellebore, white, 285, t.
Hemlock, 289, b.
Henbane, 289, c.
Hidebound, 32^
Hierocles, a writer on farriery, 27
Hidory of farriery, importance of, 22
Hocks, or haukes, 428
Hoof of the horfe, 121
Hoofe, 436
Hop, 289, d.
Horfe, fkeleton of the, 99
age of, means of afcertain-
ing, 101
mufcles of, 102
flomach of, 104
food of, 219
chefnut, 283, c.
radifh, 285, u.
Hoven in cattle, 404
Hunter's feeding byre, 236
Hazard's writings on farriery, 46
Hydrophobia, 512
fymptoms of, in dogs, as
related by Meynell, 513
progrefs of, among a pack
of hounds, 514
effedt of immerfion in cu¬
ring,.
prevention of, 5*6, 517
Hygeiology, importance of, 17
I
Jalap, 273, e.
Japan earth, , 281,
Jaundice, 441
Jaw, locked, 509
Jejunum and ilium of the horfe little
different from the human, 109
J^/rwerkf account of cow-pox, 478
Immerfion, effedts of, in curing canine
madnefs, 515
Inanition, 429
Indifference, 459
Indigejlion, acute, 4°^
Inflammation of the brain, 483
eye, 484
lungs, 489
liver, 492
ftomach, 496
inteftines, 497
kidneys, 501
571
N° 502
486
31?
108
no
497
281, d.
ib.
33°
Inflammation of the bladder,
Influenza,
Infenfibility,
Intejlines of the horfe, fmall,
large,
inflammation of,
Iron,
muriate of.
Itch,
K
Kennel, conftrudlion of,
duke of Richmond’s,
fize of,
lodging room of,
doors of,
inner court of,
Kidneys, inflammation of,
Kino,
L
Lafojfe's, fen. work on farriery,
method of ftioeing,
jun. works on farriery,
Zflde-burn,
Lamenefs,
Lampas,
Lard, hog’s,
Lawrence's, John, propofal for im¬
proving veterinary
pradlice,
works,
Rich, works on horfes,
Lawfon's food for horfes and cattle,
Layard's works on murrain,
account of do.
Lead, fugar of,
white,
Leannefs,
Lice and fleas,
Ligaments of the horfe’s foot,
injuries of,
Ligature in bleeding, danger of,
Lights, rifing of the,
Lime,
Linne's Pan Suecicus,
Lintfeed,
Liquorice,
Liver, inflammation of,
Lofts above ftables, improper,
Logwood,
Loofenefs,
Louvet,
Loy's experiments on the connexion
of greafe with cow-pox, 479
210
211
212
214
215
216
5°l
28i,/.
48
135
39
496
343
40 E
277,
21
86
82
229
67
472
279, d.
29S, d.
422
335
120
355
160
489
253. *•
52
277,/-
277^-
49 2
201
281,^.
452
480
Lumbrici,
Lungs, inflammation of the
412
/iSa
M
Mallenders and fallenders,
Mange in borfes,
cattle,
fheep,
dogs,
treatment of,
Markham's work on farriery,
Marfhmallows,
4 C 2
327
33°
S31
33z
333
334
58
277,^.
Materia
✓
572
Materia medica, knovvkdge'of, necef-
fary to a farrier, N° 18
Mledical knowledge ufeful to a farrier, ix
Medicines for domeftic animals, 249
not to be given to borfes
unnecelfarily, 297
Megrim, 483
Mercury, . 263, c. 276, b. 285, v.
red nitrate of, 4p
MeynelPs account of the appearances
of madnefs in dogs, 313
Mint, 285, is.
Mifcellaneous remedies, 295
receipts, 296
Molten greafe, 499
Monro's pliable tube, 405
jMoo«-blindnefs, 324, 484
Morecroft's work on fhoeing, 90
method of (hoeing, 133
Morfoundering, 483
Motion, morbid, fymptoms of, 302
Mouth, fore, 399
wounds in, 400
Murrain, appearance of, in Europe, 33
hi (lory of, 466
appearance of, in Britain 467
account of by Brocklefby, 469
by Layard, 472
caufes of, 473
means of checking the pro-
grefs of, . 474
queries refpe&ing, 473
Mufcles of the horfe enumerated, 102
extremities, table of, 103
Mujlard, 283, a,
Myrrh, 283, e.
N
Narcotics. See Anodynes.
Natural hiftory ufeful to a farrier, 14
Navicular bone, 118
Newcajlle's, duke of, work on horfes, 60
Nitre, 267,/. 269, c. 279, a.
O
Oak bark, 281, h. 283,./!
Oatmeal preferable to barley-meal for
dogs, 241
Oejlrus bovis, 338
ovis, 339
equi, 409
hsemorrhoidalis, , 410
Oil, caftor, 273, b.
olive, 277, i.
Ointments, 239
Opium, ^ 267, g, 287, c. 289, e.
Orifice of a vein, mode of fecuring, in
the horfe, 163
Ofmer's work on (hoeing, 63
(hoe, 136
Overfeeding, 404
Overreach, 346
0.v-houfes, 208
Oxen, (hoes for, 137
P
Talfy, 308
Pajiern bone, large, 113
farriery.
Prf/^Tv/bone, fmall, N* 1x7
Paulet's work on murrains, 43
Pelt rot, 340
Pembroke's, Lord, work on horfes, 69
remarks on (hoeing, 137
Pepper, 2&s,cc.
Peppermint, 283, b b.
Peruvian b^xk, 283, g.
Petagomus, a witter on farriery, 27
Peripneumomy, 489
Phrenfy, 483
Phyjiology neceffary to a farrier, 13
Pinning in lambs, a^c
P$%-evil, 324
of blood, a co
Plethora, 427
489
Poifon,' 40 y
Po/e-evil, 393
Pomegranate, 281,/.
Pm, 289,/
Potafh, 269, d.
Poultices, 260
Powders, 231
Pox, (heep, 4yy
cow, . 478
Pradiice of farriery, 19
Precipitate, red, 283, x.
Puck eridge, 338
Pulfe in different animals, 424
method of feeling, 423
Pummiced feet, 388
Purges, ... 270
abfurdity of giving to horfes
indifcriminately, 271
(hould not be preceded by
ftrong exercife, 272
receipts for, 274
Purging in horfes, 432
in cattle, 433
in calves, 434
in lambs 433
in dogs,, 436
Q
Quarter-i\\, r2c
283, h.
^uittor, 347
R
Relium of the horfe, 1x3
Refrigerants,
Refpiration, morbid, fymptoms of, 306
Rejllefsnefs, 3x4
Reynier's work on cattle, 31
Rheumatifm, 488
duke of, kennel, 211
Riding's veterinary pathology, 79
PzV/^-bone, 3^3
Roarer, . 436, 437
Ronden's work on. farriery, 41
_ 269,*
Rot, pulmonic, 490
hepatic, 493
pelt, 340
foot, 387
general, 326
Index
Rowels, mode of making, jj0 x&
fituations proper for,
when improper, j '
Roller's work on animals,
Ruelh's colle&ion on farriery,
Ruini's anatomy of the horfe,
Rupture, JC
s 415
St Bel, M. account of, y
Sal ammoniac, /
Indicus,
Salt, common, 273,/. 283, e 291’
fpint of, 279, c. 293, h,
offteel, 283)fl,
bander acks, . -g
Saunier's work on horfes, 4Q
Sauvage's work on murrain, 3/t
Scab, 331j ^2
Secretion, morbid, fymptoms of, 30*
Senfation, morbid, fymptoms of, 301
Senjibility, morbid, 313
Sedatives. See Anodynes.
Sefamoid bones, u#
Setons deferibed, xyj
ufe of, _ 172
mode of introducing, 17?
Sheep cots,
Shoeing horfes, principles of, 130, 14c
origin of Note (d) p. 44-
common method of, 133
its defers, 134
Lafoffe’s method 13 c
Ofmer’s do. 136
Lord Pembroke’s do. 137
Clark’s do. 138
Coleman’s do. 139, 134
Morecroft’s do. 133
(hoe to be adapted to the hoof, 144
changes to be made gradually, 146
Coleman’s ordinary (hoe, 132
of oxen, 137
Shoulder-Vdi'p, 334
Sialagogues, 276
Silver, ' 293, g.
Sinclair's, Sir J. remarks on cattle, 232
Skeleton of the horfe deferibed, 99
Slipping the calf or foal, 462
Snape's anatomy of the horfe, 61
Snores or fnivels, 433
s°ap, 269, f 273,
So/e of the hoof, horny, 123
fenfible, 128
Solleyfei's work on farriery, 32
Sough, 483
Spavin, 366, 371, 433
Spaying, 184
Spirits, 285, dd.
Sp/ents, 370
Squill, 265, h.
Stables (hould be dry and elevated, ip1
roomy, 192
double, improper, 193
(hould not be low in the roof, 194
(falls of,
flooring of.
Stalk
Index.
Stables, manger, N° 197
rack, I98
(hould not be too clofe, 199
mode of ventilating, 200
windows of, 201
fhould be apart from the dung¬
hill, 203
Staggers, mad, 483
fleepy, 5° 7
Stiffnefs, 344
Stifle-pain in dogs, 355
Starch, 277, k.
Stave/acre, 295,^.
Stimulants, . 285
receipts for, 286
Stomach of the horfe, ftrudlure of, 104
burftxng of, by fwelling of
grain, 226
inflammation of, 496
concretions in, 415
Storax, 265, 1.
Strains, 333
Strangles, 481
Straw, ufe of, as food, 227
Strengthening remedies, 283
receipts for, 284
Stringhalt, 393
Stubb's anatomy of the horfe, 70
Stubbed feet in dogs, 382
Sturdy, 521
Sublimate, corrofive, 285, w.
Sudoriflcs, 266
receipts, 267
Sugar of lead, 279, d.
Surfeit in horfes, 329
dogs, 418
Surgery neceffary to a farrier, 16
Swelled legs, 428
Syringes improper in giving clyfters, 258
Tapeworm, 4J4
Taplin'c works on farriery, 71
Tar, 285, //.
FARRIERY.
Teeth of the horfe defcribed, N° 100
Temporal artery, mode of opening, 164
Tenon's account of (heep-pox, 477
Theomenes, a writer on farriery, 27
Thorough-pin, 3^7
Thorter-ill, 508
Thrujh, running, 384
Ticks, 337
Tin, 291,/.
Tobacco, 269, g. 275,
Tonics, 283
Tbpz'ctf/bleeding, ^7
Tormentil, 281, h.
Tread, 34^
Trimming horfes ears abfurd, 180
Turbith mineral, 263, c.
Turnjick, 3l8
Turpentine, 269, h. 285, g g.
oil of, 269, i. 285, gg.
U
Varix, 433
Vegetius''s work on farriery, 26
Veins, wounds of, 351* 432
Veterinary art, 2
college of Lyons, _ 35
of London, eftablifti-
ed\ . . 72
examining commit¬
tee of, 76
regulations of, 77
method of (hoeing
in, 13?
Vinegar, 279,/. 293, t.
Viters work on veterinary medicine, 43
Vitriol, blue, 283, 1.
white, 281, /«.
Vitriolic acid, 279, g. 281, b. 293, h.
Ulcers, 394
Vomiting, why imprafticable in the
horfe, 105
Urine, incontinence of, 443
fuppreflion of, 444
from diftention
of the bladder, 445
573
Urine, fuppreffion of, from inflam¬
mation, N° 447*
from ftone, 448
from obftru£fion
at the neck of
the bladder, 449
bloody, 45°
W
Warbles, 338
Warts, 326
Water, red, 45°
black, 45I
Weight of horfe fhoes, 149
for a coach horfe, I5°
for a faddle horfe, . I5I
Wheat given to horfes on the conti¬
nent, 220
White's work on the veterinary art, 81
Wind, broken, 437
thick, 438
Wind-galls, 3^5
Withers, fiftulous, 39^
Womb, falling of the, 4^*
Worms, 4°8
Worm medicines, 291
receipts for, 292
War mils, 33 8
Worming of dogs, 5l7
Wounds, 348
of the feet, 349
of the joints, 35°
how belt treated, 351
pun£lured, SS2
in the mouth, 4°°
of arteries, 43°
of veins, 35L 43 2
X
Xenophon's work on horfemanlhip, 30
Teajl,
Yellows,
Zinc,
393>
441
295, lu
FAR
Farthing. FARTHING, a fmall Englifh copper coin, a-
1 v- mounting to one-fourth of a penny. It was anciently
called fourthing, as being the fourth of the integer or
penny.
FARTHING of Gold, a coin ufed in ancient times,
containing in value the fourth part of a noble, or 2od.
filver. It is mentioned in the flat. 9 Hen. V. cap. 7.
where it is enafled, that there {hall be good and
juft weight cf the noble, half-noble, and farthing of
gold.
FARTHING'of Land feems to differ from FarDING-
deal. For in a furvey-book of the manor of Weft-
Hapton in Devonlhire, there is an entry thus; A. B,
3
EM'  
FAS
holds fix farthings of land at 126I. per annum. So that Farthing,
the farthing of land muft have been a confiderable , Fatces- ;
quantity, far more than a rood.
FASCES, in Roman antiquity, axes tied up to¬
gether with rods or flaves, and borne before the
Roman magiftrates as a badge of their office and au¬
thority.
According to Floras, the ufe of the fafces was in¬
troduced by the elder Tarquin, the fifth king of Rome;
and were then the mark of the fovereign dignity. In
after times they were borne before the confuls, but by
turns only, each, his day ; they had each of them 12,
borne by as many littors, Xhefe fafces confifted oi
branches,
fafees
PAS
\
H ^‘an^ies of elm j having in the middle a fecuris or axe,
Fafcination 1 ^ ”ea<? wn‘c^ out beyond the reft. Publi-
 Jcola took the axe out of the fafces, as Plutarch affures
u*, to icmove from the people all occafion of terror.
After the confuls, the pretors affumed the fafces. In
the government of the decemvirs, it was the pra&ice at
brft for only one of them to have the fafces. After-
wards each <*f them had twelve after the manner of the
kings.
When the magiftrates who by right had the axes
carried before them, had a mind to ftiow fome defe¬
rence to the people, or fome perfon of Angular merit,
they either fent away the lifters, or commanded them
to lower the fafces before them, which was called fub-
mtttere fn/cer. Many inftances of this occur in Roman
hiltory.
. FASCETS, in the art of making glafs, are the
irons thruft into the mouths of bottles, in order to con-
vey them to the annealing tower.
FASCIA, in antiquity, a thin fafh which the Ro¬
man women wrapped round their bodies, next to the
ikm, in order to make them {lender. Something of
this fort feems alfo to have been in ufe amongft the
Grecian ladies, if we can depend upon the reprefenta-
tion given by Terence, Eun. aft ii. fc. 4.
Haudfimihs ejl virginwn nojlrarum, qnas matres Jludent
DemiJJis humeru ejfe—vinBo corpore, ut graciles Jiant.
Fascia, in Architetlure, fignifies any flat member
having a confiderable breadth and but a fmall projec-
ture, as .the band of an architrave, larmier, &c. In
brick buildings, the juttings out of the brick beyond
the windows in the feveral ftories except the higheft
are calledi/«/£7«lr or fafeice.
,FArCI-A Lata'> in Anat0.my-> a mufcle of the leg, called
iMofem-membranofus. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
FascIjE, in JJironomy, the belts feen on the difk
of the fupenor planets, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn—
See Astronomy, pajjim.
.FASCIAL IS, in Anatomy, one of the mufcles of the
thigh called fartorius. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles. J
FASCINATION (from the Greek /iuTKaimt, to
jajcinate or bewitch), a fort of witchcraft fuppofed to
operate either by the eye or the tongue.
Ancient writers diftinguifti two forts of fafeination,
one performed by looking, or the efficacy of the eye.
Such is that fpoken of by Virgil in his third eclogue :
Nefcio quis teneros ocu/us milu fafeinat agtios.
The fecondby words, andefpeciallyby malignant praifes.
Such is that mentioned by the fame poet in his feventh
eclogue :
« -ft u^ira pi ft turn laudarit, baccare frontem
Cingite, ne vati noceat mala lingua futuro.
Horace alludes to both kinds in his firft book of
epiftles :
Non ijhc ob/iquo oculo mea commoda quifquam
Limat, non odio obfeuro, morfuque venenat.
Fascination of ferpents, a faculty which thefe ani¬
mals are fuppofed to poffefs of attrafting birds from the
3 x
[ 574 ]
FAS
See Ophiology Farcing
air, and making them their prey.
Index.
FASCINES, in Fortification, faggots of fmall wood
of about a foot diameter, and fix feet long, bound in
the middle, and at both ends. They are ufed in raifin?
batteries, making chandeliers, in filling up the moa!
to facilitate the paffage to the wall, in binding the ram¬
parts where the earth is bad } and in making parapets
of trenches to fereen the men. Some of them are dip¬
ped in melted pitch or tar ; and, being fet on fire, ferve
to burn the enemy’s lodgments or other works.
In corrupt Latin fafeenina, fafeennia, and fafeinata
Sec are ufed to figmfy the pales, fafeines, &c. ufed to
enclofe ancient caftles, &c.
I'ASCIOLA, the Fluke or Gourd Worm, a genus
belonging to the order of vermes inteftina. See Hel¬
minthology Index.
FASHION-PiECES, in the fea language, the aflmoft
or hmdmoft timbers of a flflp, which terminate the
breadth, and form the fhape of the ftern. They are
united to the flern-poft, and to the extremity of the
wing-tranfom, by a rabbit, and a number of ftrong nails
or fpikes driven from without.
FAST, in general, denotes the abftinence from
iood, (fee Fasting) 5 but is more particularly ufed for
fuch abftinence on a religious account.
Religious falling has been praftifed by moft nations
from the remoteft antiquity. Some divines even pretend
its origin w'as in the earthly paradife, where our firft
parents were forbidden to eat of the tree of know-
ledge. . But though this feems carrying the matter too
far, it is certain that the Jewifh church has obferved
fafts ever fince its firft inftitution. Nor were the neigh-
boun.ng heathens, viz. the Egyptians, Phoenicians,
and Auynans, without their fafts. The Egyptians
according to Herodotus, facrificed a cow to Ifis, after
having prepared themfelves by falling and prayer • a
cuftom which he likewife aferibes to the women of Cy-
rene. Porphyry affirms, that the Egyptians, before
their ftated facrifices, always relied a great many days
fometimes for fix weeks j and that the leaft behoved to’
be for feven days; during all which time the priefts
and devotees not only abftained from flelh, fiffi, wine
and oil; but even from bread, and fome kinds of pulfe!
1 hefe aullerities were communicated by them to the
Greeks, who obferved their fafts much in the fame
manner. The Athenians had the Eleufinian and Thef-
mophorian fafts, the obfervation of which was very ri¬
gorous, efpecially among the women, who fpent one
whole day fitting on the ground in a mournful drefs
without taking any nourilhment. In the ifland of
Crete, the priefts of Jupiter were obliged to abftain all
their lives from fiffi, fleffi, and baked meats. Apu-
lems informs us, that whoever had a mind to be ini¬
tiated in the myfteries of Cybele were obliged to pre¬
pare themfelves by falling ten days; and, in Ihort, all
the pagan deities, whether male or female, required
this duty of thofe.that defired to be initiated into their
myfteries, of their priefts and priefteffes that gave the
oracles, and of thofe who came to confult them.
Among the heathens falling was alfo praftifed be¬
fore fome of their military enterprifes. Ariftotfe in¬
forms us, that the Lacedaemonians having refolved to
fuccour a city of the allies, ordained a fall throughout.
the
Faft.
FA S [ 575 ] FA S
r a- the whole extent of their dominions, without excepting ed 27 or 28 hours at a time •, beginning before fun- Fafting
JLj—'even the domeftie animals 5 and this they did for two fet, and not ending till fome hours after funfet next [j
ends } one to fpare provifions in favour of the befieged ; day. On thefe days they were obliged to wear ) Fafti*
the other to draw down the bleffing of heaven upon
their enterprife. The inhabitants of Tarentum, when
befieged by the Romans, demanded fuccours from their
neighbours of Rhegium, who immediately commanded
a fait throughout their whole territories. Their enter-
prife having had good fuccefs by their throwing a fup-
ply of provifions into the town, the Romans were
obliged to raife the fiege ; and the Tarentines, in
memory of this deliverance, inftituted a perpetual
fad.
Fading has always been reckoned a particular duty
among pbilofophers and religious people, fome of whom
have carried their abftinence to an incredible length.
At Rome it was pra&ifed by kings and emperors them-
felves. Numa Pompilius, Julius Csefar, Auguftus, Vef-
pafian, and others, we are told, had their dated faft
days : and Julian the Apoftate was fo exadl in this ob-
fervance as to outdo the priefts themfelves, and even the
mod rigid philofophers. The Pythagoreans kept a
continual lent; but with this difference, that they be¬
lieved the ufe of fiih to be equally unlawful with that
of flefli. Befides their conftant temperance, they alfo
frequently faded rigidly for a very long time. In this
refpe£l, however, they were all outdone by their ma-
der Pythagoras, who continued his fads for no lefs
than 50 days together. Even Apollonius Tyaneus,
one of his mod famous difciples, could never come up
to him in the length of his fads, though they greatly
exceeded thofe of the ordinary Pythagoreans. The
Gymnofophids, or Brahmans of the ead, are alfo very
remarkable for their fevere fadings *, and the Chinefe,
according to Father le Comte, have alfo their dated fads,
with forms of prayer for preferving them from barren-
nefs, inundations, earthquakes, &c. The Mahometans
too, who poffefs fo large a part of Afia, are very re¬
markable for the drift obfervance of their fads ; and
the exadtnefs of their dervifes in this refpeft is extra¬
ordinary.
Fading was often ufed by the heathens for fuperdi-
tious purpofes ; fometimes to procure the interpreta¬
tions of dreams •, at others, to be an antidote againd
their pernicious confequences. A piece of fuperdi-
tion prevails to this day among the Jews; who, though
exprefsly forbidden to fad on Sabbath days, think them¬
felves at liberty to difpenfe with this duty when they
happen to have frightful and unlucky dreams the night
preceding, that threatened them with great misfor¬
tunes. On thefe occafions they obferve a formal fad
the whole day; and at night the patient, having in¬
vited three of his friends, addreffes himfelf to them
feven times in a very folemn manner, faying, “ Pvlay
the dream I have had prove a lucky one!” And
his friends anfwer as many times, “ Amen, may it be
lucky, and God make it fo !” After which, in order
to encourage him, they conclude the ceremony with
thofe words of Ecclefiades, “ Go eat thy bread with
joy ;” and then fet themfelves down to table. They
have alfo added feveral fads not commanded in the law
of Mofes, particularly three, in memory of fore di-
dreffes their nation has fuffered at different times.
The abdinence of the ancient Jews commonly lad-
white robes in token of grief and repentance ; to cover »
themfelves with fackcloth, or their word clothes ;
to lie on adies ; to fprinkle them on their head, &c.
Some fpent the whole night and day following in the
temple or fynagogue, in prayers and other devotions,
barefooted, with a fcourge in their hands, of which
they foraetimes made a good ufe in order to raife their
zeal. Ladly, in order to complete their abdinence,
at night they were to eat nothing but a little bread
dipped in water, with fome fait for feafoning ; except
they chofe to add to their repad fome bitter herbs and
pulfe.
The ancients, both Jews and Pagans, had alfo their
fads for purifying the body, particularly the prieds
and fuch as were any way employed at the altars ; for
when nofturnal diforders happened to thefe, it was un¬
lawful for them to approach all the next day, which
they were bound to employ in purifying themfelves.
On this account, at great fedivals, where their numury
could not be difpenfed with, it was ufual for them, on
the eve thereof, not only to fad, but alfo tp abdain
from deep, for the greater certainty. For this purpofe
the high pried had under officers to wake him, if over¬
taken with deep ; againd which other prefervatives wrere
alfo made ufe of.
FASTERMANS, or Fasting-men, q. d. homines
habentes, was ufed in our ancient cudoms for men in
repute and fubdance ; or rather for pledges, fureties,.
or bondfmen ; who, according to the Saxon polity,
were fad bound to anfwer for one another’s peaceable
behaviour.
FASTI, in Roman antiquity, the kalendar wherein
were expreffed the feveral days of the year, with their
feads, games, and other ceremonies. ,
There were two forts of fadi, the greater and
lefs: the former being diftinguidied by the appella¬
tion fajli magiftrales, and the latter by that of fijli ha-
lendares.
I. The fajii kalendares, which were properly and
primarily called fajii, are defined by Fedus Pompeius
to be books containing a defcription of the whole year :
i. e. ephemerides, or diaries, didinguidiing the feveral
kinds of days, fejli, profejii; fafi, nefajli, &c. The
author of thefe was Numa, who committed the care
and direftion of the fadi to the pontifex maximus, whom
the people ufed to confult on every occafion. This cuf-
tom held till the year of Rome 450, when C. Flavius,
fecretary to the pontifices, expofed in the furum a lid of
all the days on which it was lawful to work ; which
was fo acceptable to the people, that they made him
curule sedile.
Thefe leffer fadi, or fadi kaleodares, were of two
kinds, urbani and rujlici.
The fajii urbani, or fadi of the city, were thofe
which obtained or were obferved in the city. Some,
will have them thus called, becaufe they were expofed
publicly in divers parts of the city ; though by the va¬
rious infcriptions or gravings thereof on antique dones,
one would imagine that private perfons had them like-
wife in their houfes. Ovid undertook to illudrate
thefe fadi urbani, and comment on them, in his Libri
Fadorum,
M,
t'afting.
FAS. [5
Faftorutn, whereof we have the firft fix books ftill re¬
maining j the laft fix, if ever they were written, being
;6 ]
F
' loft.
In the fajli rujlici, or country fafti, were expreffed
the feveral days, feafls, &c. to be obferved by the
country people : for as thefe were taken up in tilling
the ground, fewer feafts, facrifices, ceremonies, and ho¬
lidays, were enjoined them than the inhabitants of ci¬
ties ; and they had alfo fome peculiar ones not obferv¬
ed at Rome. Thefe ruftic fafti contained little more
than the ceremonies of the kalends, nones, and ides ;
the fairs, figns of the zodiac, increafe and decreafe
of the days, the tutelary gods of each month, and cer¬
tain directions for rural works to be performed each
month.
In the greater fafti, or fajli magi/I rales, were
2.
expreffed the feveral feafts, with every thing relat¬
ing to the gods, religion, and the magiftrates ; the
emperors, their birth-days, offices, days confecrated to
them, and feafts and ceremonies eflabliftied in their
honour, or for their profperity, &c. With a number
of fuch circumftanees did flattery at length fwell the
faftiwhen they became denominated Magni, to dif-
tinguilh them from the bare kalendar, or fafti kalen-
dares.
Fasti was alfo a chronicle or regifter of time, where¬
in the feveral years were denoted by the refpeftive con-
luls, with the principal events that happened during
their confulates 5 thefe were called alfo fafti confulares,
or confular fajli.
Fasti, or Dies Fajli, alfo denoted court days. The
word fafi faforum, is formed of the verb fari, “ to
fpeak, becaufe during thofe days the courts were
opened, caufes might be heard, and the praetor was
allowed fan, to pronounce the three words, do, dico,
addico : The other days wherein this was prohibited
were called nefafi: thus Ovid,
11 le nefafus ent, per quern tna verba f lentur :
Faf us erit, per quern lege licebit agi.
Thefe dies faf 1 were noted in the kalendar by the letter
/’ : but obferve, that there were fome days ex parte faf i,
partly/^, partly nefafi; i. e. juftice might be diftri-
buted at certain times of the day, and not at others.
Fnefe days were called intercif, and were marked
in the kalendar thus 5 F. P. faf os pritno, where
juftice might be demanded during the firft part of that
day.
FASTING, the abftaining from food. See Fast.
Many wonderful ftories have been told of extraordi¬
nary falling; great numbers of which undoubtedly
muff be falfe. Others, however, we have on very good
authority, of which fome are mentioned under the ar¬
ticle Abstinence. Another we have in the
Fjsting Woman. A full account of this very un¬
common cafe is given in the Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXVII.
Part i, the lubftance of which follows : The woman,
wbofe name was Janet MlLeod, an inhabitant of the
paiiili of Kincardine in Rofslhire, continued healthy
till fhe was 1 j years of age, when Ihe had a pretty fevere
epileptic fit; after this Ihe had an interval of health for
four years, and then another epileptic fit which conti- ’
nued a whole day and a night. A few days after¬
wards Ihe was feized with a fever, which continued
with violence feveral weeks, and from which ftie did
A S
not perfe&Iy recover for fome months. At this
•time ftie loft the ufe of her eyelids; fo that (he was
under a neceflity of keeping them open with the fin¬
gers of one hand, whenever (he wanted to look about
her. In other refpedls ftie continued in pretty good
health ; only (he never had any appearance of menfes
but periodically fpit up blood in pretty large quantil
ties, and at the fame time it flowed from the nofe.
This difcharge continued feveral years; but at laft
it ceafed : and foon after fhe had a third epileptic fit
and after that a fever from which ftie recovered very
flowly. Six weeks after the crifis, ftie ftole out of the
houfe unknown to her parents, who were bufied in
their harveft work, and bound the {heaves of a ridge
before ftie was obferved. In the evening ftie took to
her bed, complaining much of her heart (moft proba¬
bly her fomach, according to the phrafeology of that
country) and her head. From that time ftie never rofe
for five years, but was occafionally lifted out of bed.
She feldom fpoke a word, and took fo little food that
it feemed fcarce fufficient to fupport a fucking infant.
Even this fmall quantity was taken by compulfion ; and
at laft, about Whitfunday 1763, ftie totally refufed
every kind of food or drink. Her jaw now became fo
faft locked, that it was with the greateft difficulty her
father was able to open her teeth a little, in order to
admit a fmall quantity of gruel or whey ; but of this
fo much generally run out at the corners of her mouth,
that they could not be fenfible any had been fwallovv-
ed. About this time they got fome water from a not¬
ed medicinal fpring in Brae-Mar, fome of which they
attempted to make her fwallow, but without effett.
They continued their trials, however, for three morn¬
ings ; rubbing her throat with the water, which run
out at the corners of her mouth. On the third morn¬
ing during the operation, ftie cried out, “ Give me
more water ;” and fwallowed with eafe all that re¬
mained in the bottle. She fpoke no more intelligibly
for a year ; though ftie continued to mutter fome words,
which her parents only underftood, for 14 days. She
continued to rejeft all kinds of food and drink till
June 1765. At this time her After thought, by fome
figns ftie made, that ftie wanted her jaws opened; and
this being done, not without violence, ftie called in¬
telligibly for a drink, and drank with eafe about an
Englifti pint of water. Her father then alked her why
ftie would not make fome figns when ftie wanted a
drink ? to which ftie anfwered, why fhould ftie when
ftie had no defire. It was now fuppofed that ftie had
regained the faculty of fpeech ; and her jaws were kept
open for about three weeks by means of a wedge. But
in four or five days flie became totally filent, and the
wedge was removed becaufe it made her lips fore. She
ftill, however, continued fenfible ; and when her eye¬
lids were opened, knew every body, as could be gueffed
from the figns flie made.
By continuing their attempts to force open her jaws,
two of the under foreteeth were driven out; and of
this opening her parents endeavoured to avail them-
felves by putting fome thin nouriftiing drink into her
mouth ; but without effeft, as it always returned by the
corners. Sometimes they thought of thrufting a little
dough of oatmeal through this gap of the teeth, which
(he would retain a few feconds, and then return with
fomething like a {training to vomit, without one par¬
ticle
FAS [ 577 ] FAS
FatlinR- ticl® S°'n<? ^own- Nor were the family fenfible of
—V—^ any thing like fwallovving for four years, excepting the
fmall draught of Brae-Mar water and the Englifh pint
of common water. For the lad three years (he had not
any evacuation by ftool or urine, except that once or
twice a-week (lie paffed a few drops of urine, about as
much, to ufe the expreffion of her parents, as would
wet the furface of a halfpenny. In this fituation (lie
was vifited by Dr Mackenzie, who communicated the
account of her cafe to the Royal Society. He found
her not at all emaciated ; her knees were bent, and the
hamftrings tight, fo that her heels almoit touched her
buttocks. She flept much, and was very quiet: but
when awake, kept a conftant whimpering like a new¬
born weakly infant. She never could remain a mo¬
ment on her back, but always fell to one. fide or ano¬
ther ; and her chin was clapped clofe to her bread, nor
could it by any force be moved backwards.
The doftor paid his fird vifit in the month of Oc¬
tober; and five years afterwards, viz. in October 1772,
was induced to pay her a fecund vifit, by hearing that
die was recovering, and had begun to eat and drink.
The account given him was mod extraordinary. Her
parents one day returning from their country labours
(having left their daughter fixed to her bed as ufual),
were greatly furprifed to find her fitting upon her hams,
on the fide of the houfe oppofite to her bed place, fpin-
ning with her mother’s didaff. All the food die took
at that time was only to crumble a little oat or barley
cake in the palm of her hand, as if to feed a chicken.
She put little crumbs of this into the gap of her teeth ;
rolled them about for fome time in her mouth ; and
then fucked out of the palm of her hand a little water,
whey, or milk ; and this only once or twice a day, and
even that by compulfion. She never attempted to
fpeak ; her jaws were fad locked, and her eyes diut.
On opening her eyelids, the balls were found to be
turned up under the edge of the os frontis ; her coun¬
tenance was ghadly, her complexion pale, and her whole
perfon emaciated. She feemed fenfible, and tractable
in every thing except in taking food. This die did
with the utmod reluftance, and even cried before die
yielded. The great change of her looks Dr Macken¬
zie attributed to her fpinning flax on the didaff, which
exhaufied too much of the faliva ; and therefore he
recommended to her parents to confine her totally to
the fpinning of wool. In 1775, die was vifited again,
and found to be greatly improved in her looks as well
as drength ; her food was alfo confiderably increafed
in quantity; though even then die did not take more
than would be fudicient to fudain an infant of two
years of age.
The following remarkable indances of animals being
able to live long without food, are related by Sir Wil¬
liam Hamilton'in his account of the late earthquakes
in Italy (Fil'd. Trunf. vol. Ixxiii.). “ At Soriano
(fays he'), two fattened hogs that had remained buried
under a heap of ruins, were taken out alive the 42d day ;
they were lean and weak, but boon recovered. Again,
“ At Medina two mules bt longing to the duke de Bel-
vifo remained under a heap of ruins, one of them 22
davs, and the other 23 days; they would not eat for
fome days, but drank water plentifully, and are now
recovered. There are numberlefs indances of dogs
remaining many days in the fame fit nation; and a hen
Vol. VIII. Part II.
belonging to the Britidi vice-conful at Pvlefiina, tlat Faftinp,
had been clofely (hut up under the ruins of his houle, Fattolf.
was taken out the 22d day, and is now recovered; it -v——
did not eat for fome days, but drank freely ; it was
emaciated, and (bowed little figns of lite at firft. From
thefe indances, and thofe related before of the hogs
at Soriano, and feveral others of the fame kind that
have been related to me, but which being lefs re¬
markable I omit, one may conclude, that lung failing
is always attended with great third and total lofs of
appetite.”
An indance of a fimilar kind, not lefs remarkable
than either of the two preceding, we find in the Gentle¬
man’s Magazine for January 1785, communicated by a
correfpondent, as follows: “During the heavy fnow
which fell in the night ot the 7th of January J776, a
parcel of (beep belonging to Mr John Wolley, of Mat-
lock, in Derbyfhire, which were padured on that part
of the Fad Moor that lies within the manor of Mat-
lock, were covered with the drifted fnow : in the
courfe of a day or two all the (heep that were covered
with the fnow were found again, except two, which
were confequently given up as lod ; but on the
of February following (fome time after the break of
the fnow in the valleys, and 38 days after the fall), as
a fervant was walking over a large parcel of drifted
fnow which remained on the declivity of a hill, a dog
he had with him difeovered one of the two (deep that
had been lod, by winding (or feenting) it through a
fmall aperture which the breath of the iheep had made
in the fnow ; the fervant thereupon dug away the fnow,
and releafed the captive from its prifon ; it immediate¬
ly ran to a neighbouring fpring, at which it drank for
a confiderable time, and afterwards rejoined its old com¬
panions as though no fuch accident had befallen it. On
infpeffing the place where it was found, it appeared to
have flood between two large Hones which lay parallel
with each other at about two feet and a half diftance,
and probably were the means of proteiffing it from the
great weight of the fnow, which in that place lay fe¬
veral yards thick : from the number of ftones around
it, it did not appear that the fheep had been able to
pick up any food during its confinement. Spun after¬
wards its owner removed it to fome low lands ; but as
it had nearly loll its appetite, it was fed with bread and
milk for fome time : in about a fortnight after its
enlargement it loft its fight and wool: but in a few
weeks afterwards they both returned again, and in the
courfe of the following fummer it was quite recovered.
The remaining fheep was "found dead about a week
after the difeovery of the other.”
In the fame publication f is recorded the death of f ^uPPb ^
one Caleb Elliot, a vifionary enthufiaft, who meant °"
have faded 40 days, and actually iurvived 16 without I2I'/
food, having obilinately refufed fudenance of every
kind.
FASTOLF, SlR John,' a valiant and renowned
Englidi officer, a knight banneret and of the Garter,
who ferved in France under Henry IV. V. and VI.
was defeended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and
was born about the year 1377. He was as much dif-
tinguiffied for his virtue at home as for his valour
abroad ; and became no lefs amiable in his private,
than he had been admirable in his public charadler.
He died in 1457, upwards of 80 years of age, as we
4 D le^ra
h AT ■ [ 578 ] FAT
faftoff, learri from his noted cotemporary William Caxton the
1 ^ Englifl) printer. By an unaccountable miftake it
has been afferted, that Shakefpeare’s FaHlaflF was drawn
to ridicule this great man ; and this has made judici¬
ous biographers more ftudious to preferve his reputa¬
tion.
FAT, an oily concrete fubftance, depofited in dif¬
ferent parts of animal bodies. See Botany Index.
Strong exercife, preternatural heat, an acrimonious
flate of the juices, and other like caufes, by which the
oily parts of the blood are attenuated, refolved, or eva¬
cuated, prevent the generation of fat ; labours of the
mind alfo have this eft' ft, as well as labour or intempe-
ratnre of the body. Hence reft and plentiful food are
fufticient to fatten brutes j but with men it is often
other wife. It is furprihng how foon fome birds grow
fat ; ortolans, it is faid, in 24 hours, and larks ftill
fooner.
Fats may be divided, from their confiftence, into
three kinds : (1.) The foft and thin, which grow per-
feftly liquid in a very fmall heat 5 (2.) The thick and
corniftent, which liquefy lefs readily •, and, (3.) The
hard and firm, which require a ftill ftronger heat to
melt them. The firft is called Pinguedo ; the fecond
ylxungia; and the third, ddeps, as taken from the
animal ; and Sebum, or Sevum, when freed from the
fldns, &e. Phis ufe of the names, however, is not
conftant, fome employing them differently.
A great number of fats have been kept in the (hops,
for making ointments, plafters, and other medicinal
compofitions ; as hog’s lard, the fat of the boar, the
fox, the hare, dog, wild cat, Alpine moufe, beaver 5 that
of hens, ducks, geefe, (forks ; of the whale, pike, fer-
pents, viper, &c as alfo human fat.—In regard to all
thefe kinds of fubftances, however, much depends upon
the manner of purifying or trying, and of keeping
them.
1 o obtain fat pure, it muft be cut into pieces, and
cleaned from the interpofed membranes and veffels. It
muft then be cleanfed from its gelatinous matter by
waffling with water, till the water comes from it co-
lourlefs and infipid ; it is afterwards to be melted with
a moderate heat in a proper veflel with a little water j
and it is to be kept thus melted till the water be entire¬
ly evaporated, which is known by the difcontinuance
of the boiling, which is caufed by the water only, and
which lafts till not a drop of it remains ; yet it is after¬
wards to be put into an earthen pot, where it fixes; then
it is exceedingly white, fufficiently pure for the pur-
pofes of pharmacy or chemical examination.
Fat thus purified has very little tafte, and a weak,
but peculiar fmell. For its analyfis and chemical pro¬
perties, fee Chemistry Index.
One of the chief ufes of fat probably is, to receive
into its compofition, to blunt and correft a great part
of the acids of the aliments, and which are more than
are requifite to the compofition of the nutritive juice,
or which nature could not otherwife expel. This is
certain, that the greater the quantity of aliments
taken by healthy animals, above what is neceflary for
their nouriffiment and reproduftion, the fatter they be¬
come. Hence animals which are caftrated, which are
not much exercifed, or which are come to an age when
the lofs and produftion of the feminal fluid is lefs, and
which at the fame time confume much fucculent ali¬
ment, generally become fatter, and fometimes exceed- r
mgly fo. rF
Although fat be very different from truly animalized Mor
fubftances, and appears not eaiily convertible into nu- 1
tntive juices, it being generally difficult of digeftion,
and apt to become rancid, as butter does in the fto-
machs of many perfons ; yet in certain cafes it ferves
to the nouriffiment and reparation of the body. Ani¬
mals certainly become lean, and live upon their fat
when they have too little food, and when they have
difeafes which prevent digeftion and the produftion of
the nutritive juice ; and in thefe cafes the fatter animals
hold out longer than the leaner. The fat appears to
be then abforbed by the veffels defigned for this ufe,
and to be transformed into nutritive juice.
Fat, in the fea language, fignifies the fame with
broad. Thus a fhip is faid to have a fat quarter, if the
truffing in or tuck of her quarter be deep.
. Fat like wife denotes an uncertain meafure of capa¬
city. 1 hus a fat of ifinglafs contains from 3-J hundred
weight to 4 hundred weight ; a fat of unbound books,
halt a maund or four bales ; of wire, from 20 to 23
hundred weight; and of yarn, from 220 to 221
bundles.
Fat, or Vat, is ufed alfo for feveral utenfils : as, r. '
A great wooden vefftl, employed for meafuring of malt,
and containing a quarter or eight buftiels. 2. A large
brewing veflel, ufed by brewers to run their wort in.
3. A leaden pan or veffel for the making of fait at
Droit wich.
FATA morgana ; a very Angular phenomenon,
mentioned by different philofophical writers and travel¬
lers, particularly by Brydone and Swinburne. They •
inform us that it is feen in the ftraits of Medina, and
fometimes denominated the cc/J/es of the Fairy Morgana.
The accounts of this phenomenon differ confiderably from
eacn other, and travellers are not unanimous as to the
caufes which are neceffary for its produftion. It would
pt rh aps be difficult to determine how far the 1 magma lion
of thofe who have fpoken of it may be confidered ca¬
pable of producing aftoniffiment, yet the aftual exift-
ence of fuch a phenomenon admits of no difpute.
The firft chapter of Minafi, in his differtation on the
Fata Morgana, fpeaks of this phenomenon in the follow¬
ing manner. When the rifing fun (bines from that
point whence its incident ray forms an angle of 43° on
the fea of Reggio, and the bright furface of the water in
the bay is not difturbed either by the wind or the cur¬
rent, the fpeftator being placed on an eminence of the
city, with his back to the fun and his face to the fea;
on a fudden there appear in the water, as in a catoptric
theatre, various multiplied ubjefts, that is to fay, num-
berlefs feries of pilafters, arches, caftles well delineated,
regular columns, lofty towers, fuperb palaces, with bal¬
conies and windows, extended alleys of trees, delightful
plains with herbs and flocks, armies of men on foot and
horfeback, and many other ftrange images, in their
natural colours and proper aftions, paffitig rapidly in
fucceflion along the furface of the fea during the whole
of the ffiort period of time while the above-mentioned
caufes remain.
But if, in addition to the circumftances before
deferibed, the atmofphere be highly impregnated with
vapour and denfe exhalations, not previoufly difperfed by
the aftion of the wind or waves, or rarefied by the fun,
it
Fata
Morgana.
FAT [s
it then happens that in this vapour, as in a curtain ex¬
tended along the channel to the height of about 30 palms,
and nearly down to the fea, the obferver will behold the
fcene of the fame objedfs not only refledled from the
furface of the fea, but likewife in the air, though not fo
ditlindf or well defined as the former objedls from the fea.
“ If the air be flightly hazy and opake, and at the
f\me time dewy and adapted to form the iris, then the
above-mentioned objedfs will appear only at the furface
of the fea, as in the firft cafe, but all vividly coloured,
or fringed with red, green, blue, and other pril'matic
colours.”
' From this account of Minafi it appears, that there
are three different fpecies of Fata Morgana; the firft
appearing at the furface of the fea, denominated the
Marine Morgana; the fecond in the air, called the
Aerial Morgana, and the third only at the furface of
the fea, or Morgana fringed with prifmatic colours.
The fame ingenious author attempted to trace the ety¬
mology of the word Morgana, which he thinks is de¬
rived from trijlis, and Icetitia officio. 1 his
fplendid fight affedhs all defcriptions of men with fuch
joy, that they run towards the fea, exclaiming Morgana,
Morgana! This etymology of Minafi may feem at firft
view to be a contradidlion in terms ; but it will appear
moft natural, when we confider the joy which the Mor¬
gana infpires, and the correfponding forrow or dejedfion
which muft be felt when it vanifhes away. Our author
informs us, that he beheld this magnificent appearance
three times, and would rather behold it again than the
“ moft fuperb theatrical exhibition in the world.”
In his phyfical and aftronomical remarks on this phe¬
nomenon, he obferves that the fea in the ftraits of Mef-
fina exhibits the appearance of a large inclined fpecu-
lum; that, in the alternate current or tide which flows
and returns in the ftraits for fix hours each way, and is
conftantly attended by an oppofite current along fhore
to the medium diftance of about half a league, there
are many eddies and irregularities at the time of the
change of its diredflion ; and that the Morgana ufually
appears at this period. He afcribes the effedls produced
by it to the fuppofed inclination of the furface of the
fea, and its fubdivifion into different planes by the con¬
trary eddies. The effedfs produced in the air he confi-
ders as the refult of faline and other effluvia fufpended
in the air. Thefe appearances are produced by a calm
fea, and one or more ftrata of fuperineumbent air differ¬
ing in refradfive, and confequently in refledfive. power,
rather than from any confiderable change in the furface
of the water, with the laws of which we are much bet¬
ter acquainted than with thofe of the atmofphere.
To the above account we (hall add the following,
given by’ M. Houel, whole judgment and veracity len¬
der his authority highly refpedlable. In fine lummer
days, when the weather is calm, there arifes above the
great current a vapour, which acquires a certain denfi-
ty, fo as as to form in the atmofphere horizontal prifms,
whofe fide? are difpofed in fuch a manner, that when
they come to their proper degree of perfection, they
reflea and reprefent fucceffively, for fome time (like a
moveable mirror), the objeason the coaft or in the ad¬
jacent country. Ti hey exhibit bv turns the city and
ifuburbs of Medina, trees, animals, men, and mountains.
They are certainly beautiful aerial moving piaures.
There are fometimes two or three prifms, equally per-
79 1 . F A T. ' .
fea ; and they continue in this ftate eight or fen ml-
notes. After this, iome fhining inequalities are ob- Morgana
ferved upon the furface of the prifm, which render ( II
confufed to the eye the objeas which had been before . f at er‘'
fo accurately delineated, and the piaure vanifhes. The
vapour forms other combinations, and is diiperfed in
air. Different accounts have been given of this lingu¬
lar appearance ; which for my part 1 attribute to a bi¬
tumen that iffues from certain rocks at the bottom of
the fea, and which is often feen to cover a part of its
furface in the ftrait of Meffma. The fubtile parrs of
the bitumen being attenuated, combined, «nd exhaled
wflth the aqueous globules that are raifed by the air,
and formed into bodies of vapour, give to this con-
denfed vapour more confidence ; and contribute, by their
fmooth and polifhed particles, to the formation <ti a
kind of aerial cryftal, which receives the light, refleiffs
it to the eye, and tranfmits to it all the luminous points
which colour the objtfts exhibited in this phenomenon,
and render them vifible.”
FATE (faturn), denotes an inevitable neceflity de¬
pending upon a fuperior caufe. The word is formed
a fando, “ from fpeaking :” and primarily implies the
fame with ejffatum, viz. a word or decree pronounced
by God ; or a fixed fentence whereby the Deity has
preferibed the order of things, and allotted to every
perfon what (hall befal him.
The Greeks called it as it were a chain or
neceffary feries of things indifiolubly linked together.
It is alfo uftd to exprefs a certain unavoidable defig-
nation of things, by which all agents, both necefiaxy
and voluntary, are fvvayed and diiedb d to their ends.
See Necessity.
In this laft fenfe, fate is diftinguifhed into, I. Aftro-
logical fate, ariling from the influence and petition of
the heavenly bodies ; which (it was fuppofed) gave laws
both to the elements and mixed bodies, and to the wills
of men. 2. Stoical fate, defined by Cicero an order or
feries of caufes, wherein, caufe being linked to caufe,
each produces another, and thus all things flow from
one prime caufe. To this fate the Stoics fubjeft even
the gods.
Fate is divided by later authors into phyfical and di¬
vine. Phyfical fate is an order and feries of natural
caufes appropriated to their effects. By this fate it is
that fire warms, bodies communicate motion to each
other, &c. and the effe£ts of it are all the events and
phenomena of nature. 2. Divine fate is what is more
ufually called Providence. See Providence.
FATES, in mythology. See Parc^:.
FATHEMITES, Eatemites, or Fathjmites,
the defeendants of Mahomet by Fathema, or Fatima,
his daughter. They never enjoyed the caliphate of
Mecca or Bagdad, but reigned in Barbary and Egypt.
See the hiftory of thefe countries.
FATHER, a term of relation denoting a perfon who
hath begot a child. See Parent and Child.
By the laws of Romulus, a father had an unlimited
power over his children. Amongft the Lacedamio-
nians, as we learn from Ariftotle’s Politics, the father
of three children was excufed from the duty of mount-
ing guard for the fecurity of the city ; and a father of
four children was exempted from every public bur¬
den. The Poppaean law, amongft the Romans, granted
xnany valuable privileges to the fathers of three cbil-
4 D 2 dren ;
F A U
dren ; amongft which one was, that he fhould
cufed from civil offices, and that the mother ffiould
have liberty, in her father’s lifetime, to make a will,
and manage her eftate without the authority of tutors. ’
Natura/FATHER, is he who has illegitimate children.
See Bastard ; and Law Index.
Adoptive Father, is he who takes the children of
fome other, and acknowledges them as his own. See
Adoption.
Putative FATHER, is he who is only the reputed orfup-
pofed father. Jofeph was putative father of our Saviour.
FatHER-m-law, is a perfon married to a woman who
has children by a former hufband, &c. to which chil¬
dren he is faid to be a father-in-law.
Father is alfo ufed in theology for the Firft Perfon
in the Trinity.
Father is alfo uf^d in a figurative fenfe on divers
mora.i and fpiritual occafions. I hus, it is applied to
the patriarchs 5 as we fay Adam was the father of all
mankind, Abraham the father of the faithful, &c.
Father, in church hiltory, is applied to ancient
authors who have preferved in their writings the tra¬
ditions of the church. Thus St Chryfoftom, St Bafil,
&c. arc, called Greek fathers, and St Auguftine and
St Ambrofe Latin fathers. No author who wrote
later than the 12th century is dignified with the title
of Father.
Father, is alfo a title of honour given to prelates
and dignitaries of the church, to the fuperiors of con¬
vents, to congregations of ecclefiaftics, and to perfons
venerable for their age or quality. Thus we fay, the
right reverend father in God, the father general of
the Benedi&ines, the fathers of the council of Nice
father of his country, &.c. '
FA1 HERLASHER, a fpecies of filhes belonging
to the genus cottus. See Cottus, ICHTHYOLOGY In¬
dex.
FATHOM, a long meafure containing fix feet,
uled chiefly at fea for meafuring the length of cables
and cordage.
FATNESS. See Corpulency It is obferved,
that for one fat. perfon in France or Spain, there are
a hundred in England and Holland. This is fup-
pofed to be from the ufe of new malt liquors, more
than from the difference of climates or degrees of per-
fpiration. Indolence may caufe fatnefs in fome few
conflitutions ; but, in general, thofe who are difpofed
to this habit will be fat in fpite of every endeavour to
the contrary, but that of deftroying health.
FATUARII, in antiquity, were perfons who, ap¬
pearing infpired, foretold things to come. The word
F formed of Fatua, wife of the god Faunus, who was
fuppofed to infpire women with the knowledge of fu¬
turity, as Faunus himfelf did the men.—Fatua had her
name from/an, q. d. vaticinari, “ to prophefy.”
FAVERSHAM, a town of Kent, in England. See
Feversham.
FAVISSiE, in antiquity, were, according to Feftus
and Gellius, citterns to keep water in : but the favilffe
in the Capitol at Rome were fubterraneous cellars, where
the old ttatues, broken veffels, and other things ufed in
the temple, were laid up. They were much the fame
with the archives and treafury of modern churches.
FAUNA, a deity among the Romans. She was
daughter of Picus, and was originally called Marica.
r 58° ] F A W
be ex- Her marriage with Faunus procured her the name of
Fauna, and her knowledge of futurity that of Fatua
and Fatidica. It is faid that ttie never faw a man after
her marriage with Faunus, and that her uncommon
chattily occafioned her being ranked among the gods
after death. She is the lame, according to fome, as
Bona Mater.
FAUNALI A, in antiquity, Roman feafts celebrated
in honour of the god Faunus, who was the fame among
the Romans with the Pan of the Greeks.
The Faunalia were held on the day of the nones of
December j i. e. on the fifth day of that month. The
principal facrifice was a roe-buck 5 or rather, according
to Horace, a kid, attended with libations of wine and
burning of incenfe. It was properly a country feftival,
being performed in the fields and villages with peculiar
joy and devotion. Horace gives us a very gay deferip-
tion thereof in the 18th ode of his third book.;
———Tener plena cadit hcedus anno :
Larga nec defunt Veneris foda/i
Vina craterce: vetus ara niulto
Fumat adore.
Struvius in his Roman kalendar marks the feaft of
Faunus on the day of the ides of February, which is
the 30th day of that month ; and the Faunalia he
places on the fifth of the ides of December, or the 9th
of that month : and in chap. ix. he (hews, that there
really were two Faunalia ; the one in February, men¬
tioned by Ovid, Faft. lib. iv. ver. 246, the other on
the pth of December, mentioned by Horace in the
place juft cited.
FAUNS, (Fauni), among the ancients, were a
fpecies of demi-gods inhabiting the forefts; called alfo
Sy/vans (Sylvam), and little differing from the Satyrs.
They delighted more particularly in vineyards 5 and
they generally appear as attendants of Bacchus, in the
reprefentations of Bacchanal feafts and proceflions.—
They were reprefented as half men, half goats, having
the horns, ears, feet, and tail of a goat, a very flat nofe,
and the reft human. Though the Fauns were held for
demkgods, yet they were fuppofed to die after a long
life. Arnobius {hows that their father or chief, Faunus
himfelf, lived only 120 years.
FAUNUS, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Picus who
reigned in Italy about 1300 years before the Auguflan
age. His bravery, as well as wifdom, have given rife
to the tradition that he was fon of Mars. His great
popularity, and his fondnefs for agriculture, made his
fubjefts revere him as one of their country deities after
death. He was reprefented with all the equipage of
the fatyrs, and was confulted to give oracles.
FAVONIUS, amongft the Romans, the wind which
blew diredlly from the weft.
FAVORINUS, an ancient orator and philofopher
of Gaul, who flouriftied under the emperor Adrian,
and taught with high reputation both at Athens and
Rome. Many works are attributed to him ; among
the reft, a Greek mifcellaneous hiftory often quoted
by Diogenes Laertius.
FAUSTUS. See Fust.
FAWKES, Francis, an ingenious poet, had his
fchool education at Leeds j from whence he was tranf-
planted to Jefus College, Cambridge, where he took
the degrees in arts. Entering early into holy orders,
ha
Fauna
11
Fawkes.
TEA
[ 58
fawkei
«
Fealty.
lie fettled firft at Bramliam in Yorkfliire, near the ele¬
gant feat of that name (Mr Lane’s), which he cele¬
brated in verfe in 1745, in a 4U) pamphlet anonymous.
His firlf poetical publications were, Gawen Douglas’s
Defcription of May and Winter modernized. Re¬
moving afterwards to the curacy of Croydon in Surry,
he recommended himfelf to the notice of Archbiihop
Herring, then refident there on account of his health,
to whom, befides other pieces, he addrefled an ode on
his recovery in 1754, printed in Mr Dodfley’s collec¬
tion. In confequence, his grace collated him in 1755
to the vicarage of Orpington with St Mary Gray in
Kent •, and Mr Fawkes lamented his patron’s death in
1757 in a pathetic elegy ftyled Aurelius, firft printed
with his grace’s feven lermons, in ■^e marr*ed
about the fame time Mifs Furrier of Leeds. In April
1774, by the late Dr Plumtree’s favour, he exchanged
his vicarage for the reftory of Hayes. He was alfo
one of the5 chaplains to the princefs dowager of Wales.
He publilhed a volume of poems by fubfcription in
8vo, 1761 •, the Poetical Kalendar 1763; and Po¬
etical Magazine 1764, in conjunttion with Mr Wotyj
Partridge Shooting, an eclogue, to the honourable
Char. Yorke, 1767, 410; and a Family Bible, with
notes, in 4to, a compilation. But his great {Length
lay in tranflation, in which, fince Pope, few have
equalled him. Witnefs his fragments of Menander
(in his Poems) •, his works of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion,
Mofchus, and Mufseus, i2mo, 1760; his Idylliums of
Theocritus, by fubfcription, 8vo, 176? S an^ his Ar-
gonautics of Apollonius Rhodius, by fubfcription alfo
(a pofthumous publication, completed by the Reve¬
rend Mr Meen of Emanuel College, Cambridge), 8vo,
1780. He died Auguft 26. 1777-
FAWN, among fportfmen, a buck or doe of the
firft year } or the young one of the buck’s breed in its
firft year.
FE, Fo, or Fohi, the name of the chief god of the
Chinefe,, whom they adore as the fovereign of heaven.
They reprefent him fhining all in light, with his hands
hid under his robes, to ftiow that his power does all
things invifibly. He has at his right hand the famous
Confucius, and at his left Lanza or Lanca, chief of the
fecond fefr of their religion.
FEAL, a provincial term for fod or turf.
FEAL-Dikes, a cheap fort of fence common in Scot¬
land ; built with feal or fod dug up by the fpade from
the furface of grafs ground, conftfting of the upper
mould rendered tough and coherent by the matted
roots of the grafs thickly interwoven with it. If only
a very thin bit of the upper furface is pared off with
a paring fpade, the pieces are called divots. I hefe
being of a firmer confiftence, are more durable when
built into dikes than feal, but much more expenfive
alfo.
FEALTY, in Law, an oath taken on the admit¬
tance of any tenant, to be true to the lord of whom he
holds his land : by this oath the tenant holds in the
freeft manner, on account that all who have fee hold
per fideni et Jiduciam, that is, by fealty at the leaft.
This fealty, at the firft creation of it, bound the
tenant to fidelity, the breach of which was the lofs of
his fee. It has been divided into general and fpecial :
general, that which is to be performed by every
je£t to his prince j and fpecial, required only of fuch
i 1 F E A
as, in refpefl of their fee, are tied by oath to their
lords. To all manner of tenures, except tenancy at
will, and frank-almoign, fealty is incident, though it ^
chiefly belongs to copyhold eftates held in fee and for
life. The form of this oath, by flat. 17 Edw. II. is to
run as follows : “ I A. B. will be to you, my lord D.
true and faithful, and bear to you faith for the lands
and tenements which I hold of you ; and I will truly
do and perform the cuftoms and fervices that I ought
to do to you. So help me God.”
FEAR, one of the paffions of the human mind:
(fee Passion). It is defined, an apprehenfion of im¬
pending evil, attended with a defire of avoiding it.
Fear in the extreme is calledor terror. See
Fright.
Fear, in Scripture, is ufed in various fenfes.
The fear of God is either filial or fervile. The filial
fear is a holy affedlion or gracious habit in the foul,
whereby it is inclined to obey all God s command¬
ments, and to hate and avoid evil. Slavifh or fervile
fear is the confequence of guilt •, it is a judicial im-
preflion from the fad thoughts of the provoked ma>
jefty of heaven 5 it is an alarm within that difturbs
the reft of a finner. Though this fear be in wicked
men, yet it often proves preparative to faith and re¬
pentance.
Fear is likewife ufed for the objeEl of fear. Thus it
is faid, “ the fear of Ifaac,” to defcribe the God whom
Ifaac feared j (Gen. xxxi. 24-)j and in Prov. i. 16. ‘ I
will mock when your fear cometh j” that is, the
calamity you feared. God fays, that he will fend his
fear before his people ; that is, a dread wrought by
him, in order to terrify and deftroy the inhabitants of
Canaan.
Fear (Metus, Favor, or Timor), was deified by tha
Pagans. Tullus Hoftilius brought the worftiip of this
deity to Rome, d he Ephori of Sparta eiefted a tem¬
ple to Fear, near their tribunal, to ftrike an awe into
thofe who approached it. Fear was likewife worfhip-
ped at Corinth. The poets did not forget this ima¬
ginary deity. Virgil places her in the entrance of hell,
in company with difeafes, old age, &c. JEn. vi. 273.
Ovid places her in the retinue of Tifiphone one of the
furies, Met. iv. 483.
FEAST, or Festival, in a religious fenfe, is a ce¬
remony of feafting and thankfgiving. The word is
formed of the ToXxw fefum, which feme derive a fen an,
“ to keep holiday j” others from the Greek ismw, “ I
feaft or entertain,” of “ hearth, fire.”
Feafts, and the ceremonies thereof, have made great
part of the religion of almoft all nations and fedls j
witnefs thofe of the Greeks, Romans, Hebrews, Chri-
ftians, and Mahometans.
The firft feafts among the Greeks were celebrated in
folemn affemblies of the whole nation, on oecafion of
their games, as the Olympic, the Pythian, the Ifth-
mian, and Nemaean : in procefs of time they had many
others, the principal of which are enumerated in the
courfe of this work.
The Romans alfo had abundance of ftated feafts in
honour of their deities and heroes ; fuch were the Sa¬
turnalia, Cerealia, Lupercalia, Libeialia, Neptunalia,
Confualia, Portumnalia, Vulcanalia, Palilia, Divalia,
gtc. See Saturnalia, &c.
They had alfo feafts inftituted occafionally j as Car-
mentalia,
Fealty
u
Feaft.
t’eaft.
. F E A [ 58
menta’ia, Ouirinalia, I erminalia, Floralla, Compitalia,
Lemuria, Vernalia, befide other moveable and occafiunal
ones : as to give thanks to the gods for benefits re*
ceived ; to implore their affi(lance, or to appeale their
"rath,. &c. as the Paganalia, ieralia, Bacchanalia, Am-
barvalia, Ambuibana, Suovetaurilia, and divers others,
particularly denominatedyerffp ; as Sementinae, Latinee,
&c. See each of thefe feafts, and feri& in its proper
place. The fealts were divided into days of facrifice,
and days of banqueting and feafling; days of games,
and days of reft or ferice^
ihere being but little biftory written, or at lead
publiftied in thofe days, one end of feafts was to keep
up the remembrance of paft occurrences.
”1 he principal feafts of the Jews were the feaft of
trumpets, that of the expiation, of tabernacles, of the
dedication, of the paffover, of pentecoft, and that of
purification. See Expiation, &c.
The modern Jews have other feafts marked in their
kalendar, of modern inftitution. 1 he Mahometans,
befide.s their weekly feaft or Sabbath, which is kept
on Friday, have two folemn feafts, the firft of which
is called the Feajl of ViSlinu, and celebrated on the
tenth day of the laft month of their year 5 and the
fecond.called Bairatn. The Chinefe have two folemn
feafts in the year, in the memory of Confucius, be-
fides others of lefs note on the other days of the
-year.
Feafts among us are either immoveable or moveable.
Immoveable Feajfs are thofe conftantly celebrated on
the fame day of the year j the principal of thefe are
Chriftmas day or the Nativity, the Circumcifion, Epi*
phany, Candlemas or the Purification, Lady Day or
the Annunciation, called alfo the Incarnation and Con¬
ception^ All Saints and all Souls 5 befides the days of
the feveral Apoftles, St Thomas, St Paul, &c. which
with us are feafts, though not ferice. See each feaft
under its proper article.
Moveable Feafs are thofe which are not confined to
the fame day of the year. Of thefe the principal is
Eafter, which gives law to all the reft, all of them fol¬
lowing, and keeping their proper diftances from it j
fuch as Palm-Sunday, Good-Friday, Afh-Wednefday,
Sexagefima, Afcenfion Day, Pentecoft, and Trinity-
Sunday. See Easter, Sexagesima, Pentecost,
Trinity, &c.
The four feafts which the Englifti laws take fpecial
notice of are, the Annunciation of t^e blefted Vir°'in
Mary or Lady Day, the 25th of March ; the nativity
of St John the Baptift, held on the 24th of June 5 the
Feaft of St Michael the Archangel, on the 29th of
September ; and that of St Thomas the Apoftle, on
the 2ift of December: on which quarterly days rent
on leafes is ufually refervtd to be paid (5 and 6 Edw.
V F ca . 3. 3 Jac. I. cap. 1. 12 Car. II. cap. 30.).
Befidts thefe feaft', which are general, and enjoined
by the church, there are others local and occafonal,
enjoined by the magiftrate, or voluntarily fet on foot
by tue people ; fuch are the days of thankfgiving for
delivery from wars, plagues, &c. Such a!fo are the
vigils or wakes in commemoration of the dedications
of particular churches. See Vigil, &c.
The prodigious increafe of feaft days in the Cbri-
ftian church commenced towards the clofe of the
fourth century, and was occafioned by the difcovery
2' ] F E A
that was then made of the remains of martyrs and other
holy men, for the commemoration of whom they were
eftablifhed. Thefe, inftead of being fet apart for pious
ex.ercifes, were abufed in indolence, voluptuoufueft, and
criminal practices. Many of them were inftituted’on a
pagan model, and perverted to fimilar purpofes.
FEAt>l of Death, or Feajl of Souls, a folemn reli¬
gious ceremony in ufe among the favages of America-
lome oi whom thus teftify their refpett for the deceafed
every eight years ; and others, as the Hurons and
Iroquois, every ten years.
I he day of this ceremony is appointed by public
order; and nothing is omitted, that it may be cele¬
brated with the utmoft pomp and magnificence. The
neighbouring tribes are invited to be prefent, and to
join in the folemnity. At this time all who have died
tince the laft folemn occafion are taken out of their
graves ; thofe who have been interred at the greateft
diftanee from the villages are diligently fought for, and
brought to this great rendezvous of carcafes.
It is not ditficult to conceive the horror of this ge¬
neral difinterment ; but it cannot be defcribed in° a
more lively manner than it is done by Lafitau, to
whom we are indebted for the moft authentic account
of thofe nations.
“ Without queftion (fays he), the opening of thefe
tombs difplays one of the moft ftriking fcenes that can
be conceived ; this humbling portrait of human mj-
fery, in fo many images of death, wherein the fetros
to take a pleafure to paint herfelf in a thoufand va¬
rious ftiapes of horror, in the feveral carcafes, accord¬
ing to the degree in which corruption has prevailed
over them, or the manner in which it has attacked
them. Some appear dry and withered; others have a
fort of parchment upon their bones; fome look as if
they were baked and fmoked, without any appearance
of rottennefs ; fome are juft turning towards the point
of putrefaction ; whilft others are all fwarming with
worms, and drowned in corruption. 1 know not which
ought to ftrike us moft, the horror of fo (hocking a
fight, or the tender piety and affeClion of thefe poor
people toward their departed friends : for nothing de-
ferves our admiration more than that eager diligence
and attention with which they difcharge this melan¬
choly duty of their tendernefs ; gathering up careful¬
ly even the fmalleft bones, handling the carcafes,
difguftful as theyrare, with every thing loathfome,
cleanfing them frfcm the worms, and carrying them
upon their (boulders through tirefome journeys, of fe¬
veral days, without being difcouraged from the offen-
fivenefs of the fmell, and without fuffering any other
emotions to arife than thofe of regret, for having loft
perfons who Were fo dear to them in their lives, and fo
lamented in their death.
“ They bring them into their cottages, where they
prepare a feaft in honour of the dead ; during which
their great a&ions are celebrated, and all the tender
intercourfts which took place between them and their
friends are pioufly called to mind. The ftrangtrs, who
have come fometimes many hundred miles to be pre-
lent on the occafion, join in the tender condolence;
and the women, by frightful (hrieks, demonftrate that
they are pierced with the (harptft forrow. Then the
dead bodies are carried from the cabins for the general
re-interment. A great pit is dug in the ground, and
thither,
Feaft.
Feaft.
F E A [ 583 1 F E A
thither, at a certain time, each perfon attended by
his family and friends, marches in foie inn filence, bear¬
ing the dead body of a fbn, a father, or a brother.
When they are all convened, the dead bodies, or the
duft of thofe whrich were quite corrupted, are depofited
in the pit : then the torrent of grief breaks out anew.
Whatever they poffefs moft valuable is interred with
the dead. The ftrangers are not wanting in their ge-
nerolity, and confer thofe prefents which they have
brought along with them for the purpofe. Then all
prefent go down into the pit, and every one takes a
little of the earth, which they afterwards preferve with
the mod religious care. The bodies, ranged in order,
are covered with entire new furs, and over thefe with
bark, on which they throw ftones, wood, and earth.
Then taking their lalt farewell, they return each to his
own cabin.
“ We have mentioned, that in this ceremony the
favages offer, as prefents to the dead, whatever they va¬
lue mofl: highly. This cuftom, which is univerfal
among them, arifes from a rude notion of the immor¬
tality of the foul. They believe this dodfrine molt
firmly, and it is the principal tenet of their religion.
When the foul is feparated from the body of their friends,
they conceive that it dill continues to hover around it,
and require and take delight in the fame things with
which it formerly was pleafed. After a certain time,
however, it forfakes this dreary manfion, and departs
far wedward into the land of fpirits. They have even
gone fo far as to make a didinffion between the inha¬
bitants of the other world ; fome, they imagine, parti¬
cularly thofe who in their lifetime have been fortunate
in war, poffefs a high degree of happinefs, have a place
for hunting and fidiing, which never fails, and enjoy
all fenfual delights, without labouring hard in order to
procure them. The fouls of thofe, on the contrary,
who happen to be conquered or dain in war, are ex¬
tremely miferable after death.”
Feast is alfo ufed for a banquet, or a fumptuous
meal, without any immediate view to religion.
The ufe of the word, in this fenfe, arifes hence j
that a part of the ceremony of. many of the ancient
fedivals, both thofe of the heathens and the agapae of
the Chridians, was good eating ; though Mr Huet
ehoofes to derive the word from feJHnare, which, in an
ancient Latin verfion of Origen1s Comment on Mat¬
thew, dgnifies “ to fealt Ut veniens illuc Jefus fejli-
net, cum difcipulis fuis.
Social or civil feads were alfo exprefied bv the words
convivium and compotatio or conccenatio. Cicero fays,,
that in the Roman tongue, the word convivium, which
means “ people adembled at table,” is more fignifi-
cant than the Greek word compotatio or conccenatio :
the Roman, fays he, expreffes the conjun&ion of body
and mind which ought to take place at an entertain¬
ment j the Greek denotes what relates to the body
alone.
As food is neceffary to our exidence, it makes a
bond of adbciation among mankind. People at a fead,
fays one of the ancients, feem to form but one body,
one foul. All nations, whether favage or civilized, have
regarded the pleafure of the table as the occadon of
the mod agreeable fociety. This fpecies of enjoyment
(abdraCling from its fufceptibility of abufe) makes
but one family of all that it brings together. It levels
the didinClions introduced by policy or prejudice, and
difpofes men to regard one another as brethren. It is
here that people feel tlie equality edablifhed by nature;
here they forget the evils of life ; they extinguidi their
hatred, and make their enmities ceafe. For this reafon
Aridotle confiders as a breach of the focial principle
that cudom of the Egyptians of eating apart, and
praifes the convivial repaiis edablidied by Minos and
Lycurgns.
The Perfians generally deliberated on bufinefs at
table, but never determined or put their determina¬
tions in execution except in the morning before having
Feaft.
eaten.
When the Germans, fays Tacitus, wanted to recon¬
cile enemies, to make alliances, to name chiefs, or to
treat of war and peace, it was during the repad that
they took counfej; a time in which the mind is moft
open to the impredions of fimple truth, or mod eafily
animated to great attempts. Thefe artlels people du¬
ring the conviviality of the fead fpoke without dif-
guife. Next day they weighed the counfels of the for¬
mer evening ; they deliberated at a time when they
were not difpofed to feign, and took their refulution
when they were lead liable to be deceived.
People of rank among the Rhodians, by a funda¬
mental law of the date, were obliged to dine daily with
thofe who had the management of affairs, in order to
deliberate with them concerning fuch things as were
neceffary or ufeful for the country ; and on this ac¬
count the principal miniders of the kingdom were ob¬
liged to keep open table for all who could be of ufe to
the date.
Among the Romans, the place where they dipped
was generally the vedibule, that a more retired part of
the houfe might not encourage licentioufnefs and dif-
order. There were feveral laws that redrifted their
meals to thofe vedibules.
When luxury reigned at Rome, they had fuperb
halls for their entertainments. Lucullus had many,
each of which bore the name of fome deity ; and this
name was a mark which indicated to the fervants the
espence of the entertainment. The expence of a dip¬
per in Lucullus’s hall of Apollo amounted to 50,000
drachmas'.""
The hall in which Nero feaded, by the circular mo¬
tion of its walls and ceiling, imitated the revolutions of
the heavens^ and reprefented the different feafons of
the year, changing at every courfe, and diowering
down flowers and perfumes on the gueds.
The Romans did not, as we do, ufe but one table
at their feads ; they had generally two ; the fird was
for the fervices of animal food, which was afterwards
removed, and another introduced with fruits ; at this
lad they ding, and poured out their libations. The
Greeks and eadern nations had the fame cudom, and
even the Jews in their folemn feads and at facrifices.
The Romans,, in the time of Nero, had tables made
of citron wood brought from Mauritania ; they were
varnidied with purple and gold, and were raifed on
feet of carved ivory. It is faid that they were more
precious than gold. Dion Caffius adirms that Seneca
had 500 of thefe, which he made ufe of one after ano¬
ther ; and Tertullian tells us that Cicero had but one.
The Romans chofe the king of the fead by a throw of
the dice.
We
F E A [ 584 ] F E A
Feaft. We learn from Herodotus, that the ancients had
V neither cups nor bowls, but that they drank out of
little horns tipt with filver or gold.
Under the reign of Charles V. of France, the cullom
of placing the lights upon the table was not yet intro¬
duced. A number of domeftics held the candles in
their hands during the whole time of the repall.
The Greeks and Romans kept a domeltic for the
purpofe of reading during their meals and fealts.
Sometimes the chief of the family himfelf performed
the office of reader $ and hiltory informs us, that the
emperor Severus often read while his family ate. The
time of reading was generally at fupper j and guells
were invited to a reading as they are now a-days to
play cards.
The Greeks, in their flouriffiing times, did not
profane, according to their own expreffion, the holi-
nefs of the table j but rather adorned it with inge¬
nious and elegant converfation : they propofed mo¬
ral topics, of which Plutarch has preferved a collec¬
tion.
Ancient philofophers remark, that heroes rarely af-
fembled convivially without bringing affairs of confe-
quence into difcourfe, or deliberating upon thofe that
regarded either prefent events or future contingencies.
The Scythians, while at meat, ufed to make the
firings of their bows refound, left their warlike vir¬
tues might be enfeebled or loft in this feafon of plea-
fure.
When Rome was corrupted with luxury, fingers, dan¬
cers, muficians, llage-players, and people that told plea-
fant tales, were brought into the hall to amufe the guefts.
Plutarch informs us, that Csefar, after his triumphs,
treated the Roman people at 22,000 tables : and by
calculation it would feem that there were at thefe
tables upwards of 200,000 perfons.
At the end of the feaft the Romans drunk out of a
l^rge cup as often as there were letters in the name of
their miftreffes.
Feafting feems to have been the chief delight of the
Germans, Gauls, Britons, and all the other Celtic na¬
tions 5 in which they indulged themfelves to the ut-
Felloutier 2;i often as they had an opportunity. “ Among
Hi/l. Celt, thefe nations (fays an author who had carefully ftu-
1. ii. c. 11. died their manners) there is no public affembly, either
P- 463- for civil or religious purpofes, duly held j no birth¬
day, marriage, or funeral, properly celebrated ; no
treaty of peace or alliance rightly cemented, without
a great feaft.” It was by frequent entertainments of
this kind that the great men or chieftains gained the
affeftions and rewarded the fervices of their followers .;
and thofe who made the greateft feafts were fure to be
moft popular, and to have the greateft. retinue. Thefe
feafts (in which plenty was more regarded than ele¬
gance) lafted commonly feveral davs, and the guefts
feldom retired until they had confumed all the provi-
fions and exhaufted all the liquors. Athenseus de-
fcribes an entertainment that was given by Area nines,
a very wealthy prince in Gaul, which continued a
whole year without interruption, and at which all the
people of Gaul, anti even all ftrangers who paffed
through that country, were made welcome. At thefe
feafts they foro' limes confulted about the moft import¬
ant affairs of ftate, and formed refolutions relating to
.peace and war; imagining that men fpoke their real
fentiments with the greateft freedom, and were apt to
form the boldeft deligns, when their fpirits were exhi¬
larated with the pleafures of the table. The conveifa-
tion at thefe entertainments very frequently turned on
the great exploits which the guefts themfelves or their
anceftors had performed in war; which fometimes oc-
cafioned quarrels and even bloodffied. It was at a feaft
that the two illuftrious Britiffi princes, Cairbar and
Ofcar, quarrelled about their own bravery and that of
their anceftors, and fell by mutual wounds, (O/Jian
vol. ii. p. 8, &c.).
As to the drink ufed at thofe feafts, particularly in
Britain, it feems probable, that before the introduiftion
of agriculture into the ifland, mead, or honey diluted
with water, was the only ftrong liquor known to its in¬
habitants, as it was to many other ancient nations in
the fame circumftances. This continued to be a fa¬
vourite beverage among the ancient Britons and their
pofterity long after they had become acquainted with
other liquors. The mead-maker was the eleventh per-
fon in dignity in the courts of the ancient princes of
Wales, and took place of the phyfician. The follow¬
ing ancient law of that principality (hows how much
this liquor was efteemed by the Britiffi princes.—
“ There are three things in the court which muft be
communicated to the king before they are made known
to any other perfon : I. Every fentence of the judge ;
2. Every new fong; and, 3. Every calk of mead.”-
This was perhaps the liquor which is called by Offian
the joy and ftrength of (hells, with which his heroes
were fo much .delighted.— After the introduction of
agriculture, ale or beer became the moft general drink
of all the Britifti nations who praClifed that art, as it
had long been of all the Celtic people on the conti¬
nent (fee Ale). If the Phoenicians or Greeks im¬
ported any wine into Britain, it was only in very fmall
quantities ; that moft generous liquor being very little
known in this ifland before it was conquered by the
Romans. The drinking veffels of the Gauls, Britons,
and other Celtic nations, were, for the moft part, made
of the horns of oxen and other animals ; but thofe of
the Caledonians confifted of large (hells, which are (till
ufed by feme of their pofterity in the Highlands of
Scotland.
The diffies in which the meat was ferved up were
either of wood or earthen ware, or a kind of balkets
made of ofiers. Theft- laft were moft ufed by the Bri¬
tons, as they very much excelled in the art of making
them both for their own ufe and for exportation. The
guefts fat in a circle upon the ground, with a little
hay, grafs, or the (kin of fome animal under them. A
low table or (tool was fet before each perfon,, with the
portion of meat allotted to him upon it. In this diftri-
bution, they never neglefted to fet the largeft and
beft pieces before thofe who were moft diftinguiflied
for their rank, their exploits, or their riches. Every
gut ft took the mtat fet before him in his hands, and
tearing it with his teeth, fed upon it in the beft man¬
ner he could. If any one found difficulty in feparating
any part of his meat with his hands and teeth, he made
ufe of a large knife, that lay in a particular place for
the benefit of the whole company. Servants, or young
boys and girls, the children of the family, flood be¬
hind the guefts, ready to help them to drink or any
thing they wanted.
As
Feaft.
fVol.ii.
p. 9-.
|»ol. >•
ip- 37-
J Ibid.
»ol. i-
p. 87. 209.
F E A [
As the ancient Britons greatly excelled and very
' much delighted in mulie, all their feafts were accom¬
panied with the joys of fong, and the mufic of harps.
In the words of Offianf, “ whenever the feaft of Ihells
I? prepared, the fongs of bards arife. The voice of
fprightly mirth is heard. The trembling harps of joy
are ftrung. They ling the battles of heroes, or the
heaving breads of love.” Some of the poems of that
illuftrious Britifh bard appear to have been compofed
in order to be fung by the hundred bards of Fingal |
at the feaft of Selma. Many of the fongs of the bards
which were fung and played at the feafts of the ancient
Britons, were of a grave and folemn ftrain, celebrating
the brave actions of the guefts, or of the heroes of other
times-, but thefe were fometimes intermixed with more
fprightly and cheerful airs, to which the youth of
both fexes danced, for the entertainment of the com¬
pany.
It has been often obferved by authors, that there is
no nation in the world comes near the Englilh in the
magnificence of their feafts. Thofe made at our co¬
ronations, inftalments, confecrations, &c. tranfcend the
belief of all foreigners; and yet it is doubted whether
thofe now in ufe are comparable to thofe of our fore¬
fathers.
William the Conqueror, after he was peaceably
fettled on the throne of England, fent agents into dif¬
ferent countries, to collett. the moft admired and rare
difties for his table j by which means, fays John of
Salilbury, this ifland, which is naturally productive.of
plenty and variety of provifions, was overflowed with
every thing that could inflame a luxurious appetite.
The fame writer tells us, that he was prefent at an en¬
tertainment which lafted from three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon to midnight ; at which delicacies were ferved
up, which had been brought from Conftantinople, Ba¬
bylon, Alexandria, Paleftine, Tripoli, Syria, and Phoe¬
nicia. Thefe delicacies, we may prefume, were very
expenfive. Thomas Becket, if we may believe his hif-
torian, Fitz-Stephen, gave 5I. equivalent to 75I. at
prefent, for one di(h of eels. The fumptuous enter¬
tainments which the kings of England, and of other
countries, gave to their nobles and prelates, at the fef-
tivals of Chriftmas, Eafter, and Whitfuntide, in which
they fpent a great part of their revenues, contributed
very much to diffufe a tafte for profufe and expenfive
banqueting. It was natural for a proud and wealthy
baron to imitate in his own caftle the entertainments
he had feen in the palace of his prince. .Many of the
clergy too, both feculars and regulars, being very rich,
kept excellent tables. The monks of St Swithins, at
Winchefter, made a formal complaint to Henry II.
againft their abbot, for taking away three of the 13
difties they ufed to have every day at dinner. The
monks of Canterbury were ftill more luxurious: for
they had at leaft 17 difties every day, befides a deffert j
and thefe difhes were dreffed with fpices and fauces ;
which excited the appetite as well as pleafed the
tafte.
Great men had fome kinds of provifions at their
tables that are not now to be found in Britain. M btn
Henry II. entertained his own court, the great officers
of his army, with all the kings and great men of Ire¬
land, in Dublin, at the feaft of Chriftmas A. D. 1.T71,
the Irifh princes and chieftans were quite aftonifhed
VOL. VIII. Part II.
585 ] F E A
at the profufion and variety of provifions which they
beheld, and were with difficulty prevailed upon by
Henry to eat the flefh of cranes, a kind of food to
which they had not been accuftomed. In the remain¬
ing monuments of this period, we meet with the
names of feveral difhes, as dellegTout, maupigyrnun,
karumpie, &c. the compofition of which is now un¬
known.
The coronation feaft of Edward III. coft 2835I.
18s. 2d. equivalent to about 4o'oool. of our money.
At the inftallation of Ralph abbot of St Auguftine,
Canterbury, A. D. 1309, 6000 guefts were entertain¬
ed with a dinner, eonfifting of 3000 difhes, which
coft 287I. 5s. equal in efficacy to 4300I. in our
times. “ It would require a long treatife (fays Mat¬
thew Paris) to defcribe the aftonifhing fplendour, mag¬
nificence, and feftivity with which the nuptials of
Richard earl of Cornwall, and Cincia daughter of Rei-
mund earl of Provence, were celebrated at London,
A. D. 1243. To give the reader fome idea of it, in
a few words, above 30,000 difties were ferved up at
the marriage dinner.” The nuptials of Alexander III.
of Scotland, and the princefs Margaret of England,
were folemnized at York, A. D. 1251, with ftill great¬
er pomp and profufion. “ If I attempted (fays the
fame hiftorian) to difplay all the grandeur of this, fo-
lemnity,—the numbers of the noble and illuftrious
guefts,—the richnefs and variety of the dreffes,—the
fumptuoufnefs of the feafts,—the multitudes of the
minftrels, mimicks, and others whofe bufinefs it was to
amufe and divert the company, thofe of my readers
who were not prefent would imagine that I was im-
pofing upon their credulity.” The following particular
will enable them to form a judgment of the whole.
The archbifhop of York made the king of England a
prefent of 60 fat oxen, which made only one article of
provifion for the marriage feaft, and were all confumed
at that entertainment.
The marriage feaft of Henry IV. and his queen
Jane of Navarre, confifted of fix courfes *, three of
fleffi and fowls, and three of fifli. All thefe courfes
were accompanied and adorned with futtleties, as they
were called. Thefe futtleties were figures in paftry, of
men, women, beafts, birds, &c. placed on the table
to be admired, but not touched. Each figure had a
label affixed to it; containing fome wife or witty fay¬
ing, fuited to the occafion of the feaft, which was the
reafon they were called futtleties. The inftallation feaft
of George Neville, archbiffiop of York and chancel¬
lor of England, exceeded all others in fplendour and
expence, and in the number and quality of the guefts.
The reader may form fome idea of this enormous feaft:
from the following lift of provifions prepared for it.
In wheat, quarters, 300 5 in ale, tuns, 300 j in wine,
tuns, 100; in ipocraiTe, pipes, 1 j in oxen, 104 j in
Avild bulls, 6in muttons, icoo; in veals, 3045 in
porkes, 304-, in fwanns, 400-, in geefe, 2000; in.
cappons, 1000 j in pigs, 2000; in plovers, 400; in
quailes, 1200 j in fowls, called rees, 2400 ; in pea¬
cocks, 104-, in mallards and teals, 4000 ; in cranes,
204 ; in kids, 204 in chickens, 2000 ; in pigeons,
2000 j in connies, 4000 ; in bittors, 204 ; in heron-
ffiaws, 400 j in pheafants, 200 in partridges, 500 j
in woodcocks, 400 ; in curliews, 100 ; inegrits, ioooj
in ftaggs, bucks, and roes, 500 and more j in pafties
4 E of
Feaft.
F £ A
Pea ft,
Feather.
of venifon, cold, 4000; in parted dlllies of jellies,
^  i Iooo j in plain didies of jellies, 3000 •, in cold tarts,
baked, 4000 j in cold cultards, baked, 300O ; in hot
pafties of venifon, 1500; in hot coflards, 2000; in
pikes and breams, 3085 in porpoifes and feals, 12 j
fjiices, fugared delicate?, and waters, plenty. No turkeys
are mentioned in this enormous bill of fare, becaufe they
were not then known in England. Cranes, heron-
Ihaws, porpoifes, and feals, are feldom feen at modern
entertainments.
One of the mofl expenfive Angularities attending
the royal feafts in thofe days confided in what they
called intermeats. Thefe were reprefentations of battles,
fieges, &c. introduced between the courfes for the
amufement of the guefts. The French excelled in
exhibitions of this kind. At a dinner given by
Charles V. of France to the emperor Charles IV.
A. D. 1378, the following intermeat was exhibited:
A fhip with mafts, fails, and rigging, w'as feen firft :
(he had for colours the arms of the city of Jerufalem:
Godfrey de Bouillon appeared upon deck, accompanied
by feveral knights armed cap-a-pee : the fhip advanced
into the middle of the hall, without the machine which
moved it being perceptible. Then the city of Jerufa¬
lem appeared, with all its towers lined with Saracens.
The fhip approached the city ; the Chriflians landed,
and began the affault j the befieged made a good
defence : feveral fcaling ladders were thrown down ;
but at length the city w’as taken. Intermeats at
ordinary banquets confided of certain delicate difhes
introduced between the courfes, and defigned rather
for gratifying the tafte than for fatisfying hunger.
At thofe feafts, befides the ordinary drinks, ale and
€yder, there were great quantities of wines of various
kinds. Of thefe laft, the following lines of a poet
who vyrote in the fourth century, contain an ample enu-
ineration.
Ye fhall have rumney and malefpine,
Both ypocrafle and vernage wyne j
MountrefTe and wyne of Greke,
Both algrade and defpice eke,
Antioche and baftarde,
Pyment alfo, and garnarde,
Wyne of Greke and Mufcadell,
Both clare, pyment, and Rochell.
Some of thefe liquors, as ypocrafs, pyment, and claret,
were compounded of wine, honey, and fpices of different
kinds, and in different proportions.
FEATHER, in Phyjtology, a general name for the
covering of birds j it being common to all the animals
of this clafs to have their whole body, or at leafl the
greateft part of it, covered with feathers or plumage.
See Ornithology Index.
Feathers make a confiderable article in commerce,
particularly thofe of the oftrich, heron, fwan, peacock,
goofe, &c. for plumes, ornaments of the head, filling of
beds, writing pens, &c.
Geefe are plucked in fome parts of Great Britain five
times in the year: and in cold feafons many of them die
by this barbarous cuftom. Thofe feathers that are
t See the brought from Somerfetfhire are efteemed the beft, and
article thofe from Ireland the worft,
Dewn. Eider down f is imported from Denmark j the ducks
[ S«6 1
F E C
that fupply it being inhabitants of -Hudfon’s Bay
Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. Our own iflands
weft of Scotland breed numbers of thefe birds, which
Uirn out a profitable branch of trade to the poor
inhabitants. Hudfon’s Bay aifo furnilhes very fine
feathers, fuppofed to be of the goofe kind. The down
of the fwan is brought from Dantzic. The fame place
alfo fends us great quantities of the feathers of the cock
and hen. 1 he London poulterers fell a great quantity
of the feathers of thofe birds, and of ducks and turkeys:
thofe of ducks being a weaker feather, are inferior
to thofe of the goofe ; and turkeys feathers are the worlt
of any. I he belt method of curing feathers is to lay
them in a room, in an expofure to the fun ; and when
dried, to put them in bags, and beat them well with
poles to get the dirt off.
FEBRih UGE, an appellation given to fuch medi¬
cines as mitigate or remove a fever.
FEBRUARY , in Chronology, the fecond month of
Numa s year, and under the protedfion of the god
Neptune. This month is not found in the kalendar of
Romulus, but was added to the year by Numa. It had
its name from Februa, Februaca, or Februalis, all names
of Juno, who prefided over the purifications of women j
and in this month the Lupercalia were held in honour
of Juno, and women were purified by the priefts of Pan
Lyceus at that feilival. See LufERCalia.
February, in a common year, confifts only of 28
days j but in the biffextile year it has 29, on account of
the intercalary day added that year.
FECI ALES, or Foeciales, an order of priefts or
officers, confifting of 20 perfons, among the ancient
Romans, appointed to proclaim war, negotiate peace,
&c.
Feftus derives the word from ferio, “ I ftrike as
ferire fcedus fignifies “ to conclude a treaty j” and ac¬
cordingly, inftead oifeciales, he would have it written
fenales. Others derive it from foedus, which was an¬
ciently written fedus ; or from Jdes, “ faith.” Others
from facio, feci, “ I make,” &c. becaufe they made
war and peace. Voffius choofes to derive it from
fatu, of the verb fari, “ to fpeak”: in which fenfe
the feciales ftiould be the fame with oratores; which
fentiment is alfo confirmed by the anthority of Varro,
who fays they were called indifferently feciales and
or at ores.
rI he feciales were a fort of heralds, who, when the
Romans had any difpute with their neighbours, were
fent firft to demand the thing intended to be ufurped,
or require fatisfa&ion for the injury alleged to be done.
If an anfwer was not returned by them that was fatis-
fadtory to the people and the fenate, they were defpatch-
ed again to declare war, and the like in treating for
peace ; the feciales being the only perfons appointed to
negotiate between the fenate, &c. and the enemy.
Plutarch in the life of Numa, and Halicarnaffeus
(lib. ii.), obferves, that they were firft inftituted by
that prince. The latter adds, that they were firft cho-
fen out of the beft families in Rome 5 that their office,
which was reputed a fort of facerdotium, or priefthood,
only ended with their life j that their perfons were fa-
cred and inviolable, as thofe of other priefts} that they
were even charged to fee the republic did not declare
war unjuftly 5 that they were to receive the complaints
and
Feather
!!
Feciales.
FEE [ 587 ] FEE
Feciales ani remonftrances of nations who pretended to have
|1 been any way injured by the Romans ; that if thofe
Fee. complaints were found juft, they were to fe-ize the cri-
finals, and deliver them up to thofe they had offended j
that they were invefted with the rights and privileges
of ambafladors ; that they concluded treaties of peace
and alliance, and took care they were executed ; and,
laftlv, abolilhed them, if they were found not to be
equitable. Livy, lib, i. cap. 24. afcribes their infti-
tution to Ancus Martius, in the year of Rome 114.—
Varro afiures us, that in his time moft of thefe func¬
tions of the feciales were fet afide $ though Plutarch
obferves, that they had ftill fume authority in his
time.
The feciales were crowned with verbena, vervain,”
when they went to declare war. Their head was
covered with a veil, over which the crown was applied.
In this equipage they proceeded to the frontiers of the
new enemy’s country, and threw a bloody dart or
javelin into the ground within the fame. In Livy and
other ancient authors we have the formula ufed in fueh
declarations.
FECUNDITY, the fame with Fertility.
FEE, in Law, fignifies a complete feudal property.
Hence, where the bare liferent of any feudal fubjeft
is meant to be conveyed to A, and the abfolute
property to B, that meaning is exprefled thus ; “ to
A in liferent, and to B in fee.” See Law, N° Ixix.
clxiv.
Fees are commonly divided into abfolute, otherwife
called fees-fimple *, and limited, one fpecies of which
we ufually call fee-tail.
^iackjl. L Tenant in fee-fimple (or as he is frequently ftyled,
Cmment. tenant in fee), is he that hath lands, tenements, or he¬
reditaments, to hold to him and his heirs for ever ;
generally, abfolutely and limply •, without mention¬
ing what heirs, but referring that to his own pleafure,
or to the difpofition of the law. The true meaning of
the word fee ffeodum') is the fame with that of feud or
'^ttYeoiatfief and in its original fenfe it is taken in contradi-
Syftem. ftinftion \.a allodium ; which latter the writers on this
fubjeft define to be every man’s own land, which he
poffefieth merely in his own right, without owing any
rent or fervice to any fuperior. This is property in its
higheft degree ; and the owner thereof hath abfolutum
et dire Bum dominium, and therefore is faid to be feized
thereof abfolutely in domimco fuo, in his own demefne.
But feodum or fee, is that which is held of fome fupe¬
rior, on condition of rendering him fervice j in which
fuperior the ultimate property of the land refides. And
therefore Sir Henry Spelman defines a feud or fee to
be, The right which the vaffal or tenant hath in lands
to ufe the fame and take the profits thereof to him
and his heirs, rendering to the lord his due fervices *,
the mere allodial property of the foil always remain¬
ing in the lord. This allodial property no fubjeft in
Britain has ; it being a received and now undeniable
principle in the law, that all the lands are holden me¬
diately or immediately of the king. The king there¬
fore only hath abfolutum et direBum dominium ; but all
fubjefts lands are in the nature of feodum or fee, whe¬
ther derived to them by defcent from their anceftors,
or purchafed for a valuable confideration ; for they can¬
not come to any man by either of thofe ways, unlefs
accompanied with thofe feudal clogs which ivere laid
upon the firft feudatory when it was originally granted. Fee.
A fubjeft therefore hath only the ufufruft, and not the—v—
abfolute property, of the foil •, or, as Sir Edward Coke
exprefles it, he hath dominium utile, but not dominium
direBum. And hence it is, that, in the moft folemn a£ts
of law, we exprefs the ftrongeft and higheft eftate that
any fubjeCt can have, by thefe words, “ he is feifed
thereof in his demefne, as of fee.” It is a man’s de¬
mefne, dominium, or property, fince it belongs to him
and his heirs for ever : yet this dominium, property,
or demefne, is ftriftly not abfolute or allodial, but
qualified or feodal : it is of his demefne, as of fee; that
is, it is not purely and (imply his own, fince it is held
of a fuperior lord, in whom the ultimate property re¬
fides.
This is the primary fenfe and acceptation of the
word fee. But (as Sir Martin Wright very juftly ob¬
ferves) the dodlrine, “ that all lands are holden f hav¬
ing been for fo many ages a fixed and undeniable axiom,
the Engliftr lawyers do very rarely (of late years efpe-
cially) ufe the word fee in this its primary original
fenfe, in contradiftindlion to allodium or abfolute pro¬
perty, with which they have no concern j but gene¬
rally ufe it to exprefs the continuance or quantity of
effate. A fee therefore, in general, fignifies an eftate
of inheritance ; being the higheft and moft extenfive
intereft that a man can have in a feud : and when the
term is ufed (imply, without any other adjuntft, or has
the adjundl offmple annexed to it (as, a fee, or a fee-
fimple), it is ufed in contradiftinftion to a fee-condi¬
tional at the common law, or a fee-tail by the ftatute ;
importing an abfolute inheritance, clear of any condi¬
tion, limitation, or reftridlions to particular heirs, but
defcendible to the heirs-general, whether male or fe¬
male, lineal, or collateral. And in no other fenfe than
this is the king faid to be feifed in fee, he being the
feudatory of no man.
Taking therefore fee in this its fecondary fenfe, as a
date of inheritance, it is applicable to, and may be had
in, any kind of hereditaments either corporeal or incor¬
poreal. But there is this diftin&ion between the two
fpecies of hereditaments; that of a corporeal inheri¬
tance a man (hall be faid to be feifed in his demefne, as
of fee ; of an incorporeal one he (hall only be faid to be
feifed as of fee, and not in his demefne. For as incor¬
poreal hereditaments are in their nature collateral to,
and iflue out of, lands and houfes, their owner hath no
property, dominium, or demefne, in the thing itfelf, but
hath only fomething derived out of it; refembling the
fervitutes, or fervices, of the civil law. The dominium,
or property, is frequently in one man, while the ap¬
pendage or fervice is in another. Thus Gaius may be
feifed as of fee, of a way going over the land, of which
Titius is feifed in his demefne as of fee.
The fee-fimple or inheritance of lands and tenements
is generally veiled and refides in fome perfon or other ;
though divers inferior eftates may be carved out of it.
As if one grants a leafe for 21 years, or for one or two
lives, the fee-fimple remains veiled in him and his heirs;
and after the determination of thofe years or lives, the
land reverts to the granter or his heirs, who (hall hold
it again in fee-fimple. Yet fometimes the fee may be
in abeyance, that is (as the word fignifies) in expecta¬
tion, remembrance, and contemplation in law ; there
being no perfon in eJJ'e, in whom it can veft and abide,
4 E a though
FEE
Fee.
though the law confiders it as always potentially exift-
ar*^ ready to veil whenever a proper owner appears.
Thus, in a grant to John for life, and afterwards to
the heirs of hichard, the inheritance is plainly neither
granted to John nor Richard, nor can it veil in the heirs
of Richard till his death, nam nemo cjl hares viventis:
it remains therefore in waiting, or abeyance, during the
life of Richard. This is likewife always the cafe of a
parfon of a church, who hath only an eftate therein
for the term of his life ; and the inheritance remains in
abeyance. And not only the fee, but the freehold al-
fo, may be in abeyance ; as, when a parfon dies, the
freehold of his glebe is in abeyance until a fucceffor be
named, and then it veils in the fucceffor.
Ihe word heirs is neceffary in the grant or donation,
in order to make a fee or inheritance. For if land be
given to a man for ever, or to him and his affigns for
ever, this veils in him but an eftate for life. This very
great nicety about the infertion of the word heirs in all
feoffments and grants, in order to veft a fee, is plainly
a relick oi the leodal ftridtnefs : by which it was requir¬
ed, that the form of the donation ftiould be pun&ually
purmed : or that, as Craig expreffes it, in the w'ords of
Baldus, donationes pit JtriBi juris, nc quis plus donate
prccfumatur quam in donatione expre/Jerit. And there¬
fore, as the perfonal anilities of the donee were original¬
ly fuppoled to be the only inducements to the gift, the
donee’s eftate in the land extended only to his own per-
fon, and fubfifted no longer than his life ; unlefs the
donor, by an exprefs provilion in the grant, gave it
a longer continuance, and extended it alfo to his
heirs. But this rule is now foftened by many excep¬
tions.
For, i. It does not extend to devifes by will ; in
which, as they were introduced at the time when the
feodal rigour was apace wearing out, a more liberal
conftrudlion is allowed : and therefore bv a devife to a
man for ever, or to one and his afligns for ever, or to
one in fee-fimple, the devifee hath an eftate of inherit¬
ance 5 for the intention of the devifor is fufficiently
plain from the words of perpetuity annexed, though he
hath omitted the legal words of inheritance. But if
the devife be to a man and his afligns, without an¬
nexing words of perpetuity, there the devifee lhall
take only an eftate for life $ for it does not appear that
the devifor intended any more. 2. Neither does this
rule extend to fines or recoveries, confidered as a fpe-
cies of conveyance ; for thereby an eftate in fee paffes
by aft and operation of law without the word heirs;
as it does alfo for particular reafons, by certain other
methods of conveyance, which have relation to a for-
grar>t or eftate, wherein the word heirs was ex-
preffed. 3. In creations of nobility by writ, the peer
fo created hath an inheritance in his title, without ex-
prefling the word heirs; for they are implied in the
cieation, unlefs it be otherwife fpecially provided : but
in creations by patent, which areJiriclijuris, the word
heirs mull be inferted, otherwife there is no inherit¬
ance. 4. In grants of lands to foie corporations and
their fucceftors, the word fucccjjors fupplies the place
of heirs; for as heirs take from the anceftor, fo doth
the fuccefior from the predeceffor. Nay, in a grant
to a biftiop, or other foie fpiritual corporation, in
frankalmoign, the woxA frankalmoign fupplies the place
vifuccejfors (as the word fucccffors fupplies the place of
. 3
[ 588 ]
FEE
heirs') ex vt termini; and in all thefe cafes a fee-fimple
veils in fuch foie corporation. But, in a grant of lands
to a corporation aggregate, the word fucceffors is not
neceffary, though dually inferted : for, albeit fuch Am¬
ple grant be ftriftly only an eftate for life, yet as that
corporation never dies, fuch eftate for life is perpetual,
or equivalent to a fee-fimple, and therefore the law al¬
lows it to be one. Laltly, In the cafe of the king, a
fee-fimple will veft in him, without the words heirs or
fucceffbrs in the grant; partly from prerogative royal,
and partly from a reafon fimilar to the laft, becaufe the
king, in judgment of law, never dies. But the gene¬
ral rule is, that the word heirs is neceffary to create an
eftate of inheritance.
II. We are next to confider limited fees, or fuch
eftates of inheritance as are clogged and confined with
conditions or qualifications of any fort. And thefe we
may divide into two forts: \. Qualified qx bafe fees;
and, 2. Fees conditional, fo called at the common law;
and afterwards fees-Za//, in confequence of the ftatute
de donis.
I- A base or qualified fee, is fnch a one as has a
qualification fubjoined thereto, and which mull be de¬
termined whenever the qualification annexed to it is at
an end. As, in the cafe of a grant to A and his heirs,
tenants in the manor of Dale; in this inftance, when¬
ever the heirs of A ceafe to be tenants of that manor,
the grant is entirely defeated. So, when Henry VI.
granted to John Talbot, lord of the manor of King-
fton Lille in Berks, that he and his heirs, lords of the
faid manor, fhould be peers of the realm, by the title
of Barons of Life; here John Talbot had a bafe or qua¬
lified fee in that dignity; and the inftant he or his
heirs quitted the feigniory of this manor, the dignify
was at an end. 1 his eftate is a fee, becaufe by pofli-
bility it may endure for ever in a man and his heirs;
yet as that duration depends upon the concurrence of
collateral circumftances, which qualify and debafe the
purity of the donation, it is therefore a qualified or bafe
fee.
2. As to {^-conditional, or fee tail, fee the article
Tail.
Fee alfo fignifies a certain allowance to phyficians,
barrifters, attorneys, and other officers, as a reward for
their pains and labour.
If a perfon refufe to pay an officer his due fees, the
court will grant an attachment againft him, to be com¬
mitted till the fees are paid ; and an attorney may
bring an aftion of the cafe for his fees againft; the cli¬
ent that retained him in his caufe.
I EE alfo denotes a fettled perquifite of public officers,
payable by thofe who employ them.
The fees due to the officers of the cuftom-houfe are
exprefsly mentioned in a fchedule, or table, which is
hung up in public view in the faid office, and in all other
places where the faid fees are to be paid or received.
And if any officer lhall offend, by afting contrary to
the regulations therein contained, he ffiall forfeit his
office and place, and be for ever after incapable of any
office in the cuftom-houfe.
The other public offices have likewife their fettled
fees, for the feveral branches of bufinefs tranfafted in
them.
Fee Farm, a kind of tenure without homage, feal¬
ty, or other fervice, except that mentioned in the feoff¬
ment y
F E L
[ 5^9 3
F E L
Fee
II
Felling-
{ leget
Wallica,
p. 58.
tnent •, which is ufually the full rent, or at leall a fourth
part of it.
The nature of this tenure is, that if the rent be be-
' hind, and unpaid for two years, then the feoffer and
his heirs may have an a£tion for the recovery of the
lands.
FEELERS, in Natural Bijlory, a name ufed by
fome for the horns of insects.
feeling, one of the five external fenfes, by
■which we obtain the ideas of folid, hard, foft, rough,
hot, cold, wet, dry, and other tangible qualities. See
Anatomy Index.
FEET. See Foot.
FEET-Bearcr, the name of an officer in the courts of
the ancient Anglo-Saxon and Welfh kings. He was
a young gentleman whofe duty it was to fit on the floor,
with his back towards the fire, and hold the king’s
feet in his bofom all the time he fat at table, to keep
them wafrn and comfortable f : a piece of flate and
luxury unknown in modern times.
FEINT, in fencing, a ffiow of making a thruft at
one part, in order to deceive the enemy, that you may
really ftrike him in another.
A Ample feint is a mere motion of the wrift, without
ftirring the foot.
FELAPTON, in Logic, one of the fix firft modes
of the third figure of fyllogifms 5 whereof the firft pro-
pofition is an univerfal negative, the 'fecond an univer-
fal affirmative, and the third a particular negative.
FELIBIEN, Andre, was born at Chartres in
1619, and went fecretary under the Marquis de Fonte-
nay Mareuil ambaffador to the court of Rome in 1647*
On his return, M. Colbert procured him the place of
hiftoriographer to the king, luperintendant of his build¬
ings, and of the arts and manufa&ures in France. He
became afterwards deputy comptroller general of the
bridges and dykes in that kingdom j and died in 1695.
He wrote feveral pieces relating to the fine arts : the
principal of which is his “ Dialogues on the Lives and
Works of the moft eminent Painters.”
FELICITAS, (Felicity, or Happinefs), was dei¬
fied by the ancient Pagans. Lucullus built a temple
to her. She had another erefted by Lepidus. The
Greeks paid divine worffiip to Macaria, daughter of
Hercules, the fame with Fe/icitas. This deity is often
piftured upon medals, and generally with a cornucopia;
in one hand, and a caduceus in the other. The infcrip-
tions are, Felicitas Ternporutn, Fe/icitas Augujli, Fehci-
tas Publica, &c.
FELIS, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the or¬
der of ferse, and clafs mammalia. See Mammalia
itidcx»
FELLING 0/Timber.—Many circumftances are
well known and conftantly obferved in the felling of
timber for building, which, though to a hafty obferver
they might appear trifling, yet prove, on experi¬
ence, to be of the utmoft confequence. One thing cb-
ferved by M. de Buffon, which very greatly increafes
the folidity and ftrength of timber, is, that the trees
intended to be felled for fervice fliould firft be ftripped
of their bark, and fullered to (land and die upon the
fpot before the cutting. The fappy part or blea of
the oak becomes by this means as hard and firm as
the heart \ and the real ftrength and denfity of the
wood has been proved, by many experiments, to be Feiling
greatly ‘increafed by it : nor is this a practice of any
detriment to the proprietor, fince the remaining flumps, 1 e A,.,
of thefe trees fend up their young ffioots as vigoroufly as
if they had been cut down in their natural condition.
When any tree is to be cut down for timber, the firft
thing to be taken care of is a Ikilful dilbranching of
fuchHmbs as may endanger it in its fall: many treesare
utterly fpoiled for want of a previous care of this kind.
In arms of timber that are very great, it is always ne-
ceffary to chop or fink in them clofe to the bole, and
then meeting it with downright ftrokes, it will be fe¬
vered from the tree without fplitting. In felling the
tree, take care always to cut it as clofe to the ground
as poffible, unlefs it is intended to be grubbed up . and
the doing this is of advantage both to the timber and
to the wood j for timber is never fo much valued, if it
be known to grow out of old flocks.
FELLOWSHIP, Company, or Dijlributive Pro¬
portion, in Arithmetic. See ARITHMETIC.
FELO DE se, in Law, a perfon that lays deliberate¬
ly violent hands on himfelf, and is the occafion of his
untimely death, whether by hanging, drowning, ftab-
bJng, (hooting, or any other way.
FELON, in Law, a perfon guilty of felony. See
Felony.
FELONY, in the general acceptation of the law',
comprifes every fpecies of crime, which occafions at
common law the forfeiture of lands or goods. This
moft frequently happens in thofe crimes for which a
capital punifhment either is or was to be inflidled : for
thofe felonies that are called clergyable, or to which the
benefit of clergy extends, were anciently punifned with
death in all lay or unlearned offenders ; though now,
by the ftatute law, that puniffiment is for the firft
offence univerfally remitted. Treafon itfelf, fays Sir
Edward Coke, was anciently comprifed under the name
ni felony ; and in confirmation of this we may obferve,
that the ftatute of treafons, 25 Edw. III. c. 2. fpeaking
of fome dubious crimes, direfls a reference to parliament j
that it may be there adjudged, “whether they be
treafon or other felony.” All treafons, therefore, ftrkft-
ly fpeaking, are felonies; though all felonies are not
treafon. And to this alfo we may add, that all offences,
now capital, are in fome degree or other felony 5 but x
this is likewife the cafe with fome other offences, which
are not punifhed with death *, as filicide, where the
party is already dead *, homicide by chance-medley, or
in felf-defence ; and petit-larceny, or pilfering; all
which are (ftriaiy fpeaking) felonies, as they fubjeft
the committers of them to forfeitures. So that, upon
the whole, the only adequate definition of felony feems
to be that which is before laid down ; viz. an offence
which occafions a total forfeiture of either lands or goods,
or both, at the common law 5 and to which capital or
other puniffiment may be fuperadded, according to the
degree of guilt.
To explain this matter a little farther : The word
felony, or felonia, is of undoubted feudal original, being
frequently to be met with in the books of feuds,. &c.
but the derivation of it has much puzzled the juridical
lexicographers, Prataeus, Calvinus, and the reft : fome
deriving it from the Greek, “ an impoftor or de¬
ceiver }” others from the \j>2\Yt\,fallo,fefelli, to counte¬
nance.
F E L
[ 59°
Felony, nance winch they would have it called felloma. Sir Ed-
" v~ ward Coke, as liis manner is, has given us a ftill ftranger
etymology ; that it is crimen animo felleo perpetratum,
“ with a bitter or gallifh inclination.” But all of them
agree in the defcription, that it is fuch a crime as
' works a forfeiture of all the oifender’s lands or goods.
And this gives great probability to Sir Henry^Spel-
nian’s Teutonic or German derivation of it: in which
language, indeed, as the word is clearly of feodal ori¬
ginal, we ought rather to look for its lignification, than
among the Greeks and Romans. Fe-lon then, accord¬
ing to him, is derived from two northern words : fee,
which fignifies (we well know) the fief, feud, or bene-
ficiaiy ell ate ; and LON, which fignifies price or value.
1 elony is therefore the fame as pretiutn feudi^ the con-
fideration for which a man gives up his fief; as rve
fay in common fpeech, fuch an a£l is as much as
. your life or elf ate is worth. In this fenfe it will
clearly fignify the feodal forfeiture, or aft by which an
eftate is forfeited, or efcheats to the lord.
To confirm this, we may obferve, that it is in this
fenfe of forfeiture to the lord, that the feodal writers
conftantly ufe it. For all thofe ads, whether of a cri¬
minal nature or not, which at this day are generally
forfeitures of copyhold eftates, are ftyled felonice in the
feodal law : li fcihcet, per quas feudum amxttiturd'1 As
“7? domino defervire noluent ;—Ji per annum ct diem
ce([averit in petenda mvejiitura }—-ft dommum ejuravit,
i . e. negavit fe a domino feudum habere ;—Ji a domino in
jus eum vacante, ter citatus non comparuerit—all thefe,
with many others, are flill caufes of forfeiture in our
copyhold eftates, and were denominated felonies by the
feodal conftitutions. So likewife injuries of a more
fubftantial or criminal nature were denominated felonies,
that is, forfeitures : as aflaulting or beating the lord ;
vitiating his wife or daughter, “y? dominum cucurbi-
taverit, i. e. cum uxore ejus concubueritall thefe are
efteemed felonies, and the latter is exprefsly fo deno¬
minated, f fecent felomam, dominum forte cucurbit
tando.'1'' And as thefe contempts or fmaller offences,
were felonies or afts of forfeiture, of courfe greater
crimes, as murder and robbery, fell under the fame de¬
nomination. On the other hand, the lord might be
guilty of felony, or forfeit his feignory to the vaffal, by
the fame af! as the vaffal would have forfeited his feud
to the lord. “ Si dominus commift feloniam, per quam
vaftllus amitteret feudum ft earn commiferit in domi¬
num, feudi propnetatem etiam dominus perdere debet^
One inftance given of this fort of felony in the lord is
beating the fervant of his vaffal, fo as that he lofes his
fervice ; which feems merely in the nature of a civil in-
jury, fo far as it refpe&s the vaffal. And all thefe felo¬
nies were to be determined, “ per laudamentum fve ju¬
dicium parium fnorumf in the lord’s court; as with us
forfeitures of copyhold lands are prefentable by the
homage in the court-baron.
Felony, and the ad of forfeiture to the lord, being
thus fynonymous terms in the feodal law, we may eafi-
ly trace the reafon why, upon the introdudion of that
law into England, thofe crimes which induced fuch
forfeiture or efcheat of lands (and, by a fmall defledion
from the original fenfe, fuch as induced the forfeiture
of goods alfo) were denominated felonies. Thus it was
that filicide, robbery, and rape, were felonies ; that is,
the confequence of fuch crimes was forfeiture ; till by
3
F E L
long ufe we. began to fignify by the term of felonu
the adual crime committed, and not the penal confel
quence. And upon this fyftetn only can we account
for the caule, why treafon in ancient times was held to
be a fpecies of felony ; viz. becaufe it induced a forfei
ture.
Hence it follows, that capital punifiiment does by no
means enter into the true idea and definition of felon v
relony may be without ir.fliding capital puniihment
as. m the cafes inftanced cf felf-murder, excufable ho¬
micide, and petit-larceny : and it is poffible that capi
tal puniftiments may be inflided, and yet the offence
be no felony; as in cafe of herefy by the common
law, which, though capital, never worked any forfei¬
ture of lands or goods, an infeparable incident to fe¬
lony. And of the fame nature was the puniftiment of
ftanding mute, without pleading to an indidment •
which at the common law was capital, but without any
forfeiture, therefore fuch ftanding mute was no felony.
In (hurt, the true criterion of felony is forfeiture : for*
as Sir Edward Coke juftly obferves, in all felonies
rvhich are punifliable with death, the offender lofes all
his lands in fee-fimple, and alfo his goods and chattels ;
in fuch as are not puniftiable, his goods and chattels
only.
Ihe idea of felony is indeed fo generally conneded
with that of capital puniftiment, that we find it hard
to feparate them ; and to this ufage the interpretations
of the law do now conform. And therefore, if a ftatute
makes any new offence felony, the law implies that it
ftiall be puniftied with death, viz. by hanging, as well
as with forfeiture : unlefs the offender prays’ the be¬
nefit of clergy ; which all felons are entitled once
to have, unlefs the fame is exprefsly taken away by
ftatute. } J
Felonies by ftatute are very numerous; and as this
work will not admit of a proper enumeration, we muft
refer to the table of the quarto edition of the Statutes
where they are fet forth in alphabetical order.
FELT, in Commerce, a fort of fluff deriving all
its confidence merely from being fulled, or wrought
with lees and fize, without either fpinning or weav¬
ing. Felt is made either of wool alone or of wool and
hair.
FELTING, the method of working up hair or wool
into a fpecies of cloth, independent of either Ipinning
or weaving. Felting in Britain is not much pradifed,
excepting in the manufaduring of hats; and as the gene¬
rality even of thofe who are employed in making them,
are unacquainted with the principles on which they ad,
a few obfervations on the method of felting, may, to
fuch, be both ufeful and agreeable.
If wool, the hair of a rabbit, hare, beaver, or human
hair, be examined with a microfcope of the greateft
magnifying power, the furface of each hair appears per-
fedly fmooth, or if any inequalities are obferved, they
do not appear fo much to arife from an irregular furface,
as from fome peculiar difference in the colour and tranf-
parency of the fubftances examined ; for if their image
be viewed by a folar microfcope, it terminates in even
lines, without the fmalleft veftige of any roughnefs. Yet
nothing is more evident than that the furfaces of hairs
are not perfedly fmooth, but either compofed of lamel
lae covering each other from the root to the point, re-
fembling the fcales of fifties; or what fome have deemed
more
F E L
[ 591 1
F E M
Feiting- Riore probable, of zones placed over each other, fimi-
—-y—* lar to the ftruflure of horns j and to this texture hair,
■wool, &.c. owe their difpoiition for what is denominated
felting.
Let a perfon take hold of a hair by the root with one
hand, and draw it between two fingers of the other,
from the root towards the point, he will fcarcely per¬
ceive any fridlion, or hear any found j but fliould he
hold the hair by the point, and draw it between his
fingers from the point towards the root, he will feel a
fenfible oppofition or refiftance which could not be felt
before. A fort of tremulous motion islikewife produced,
which can be diftinguilhed by the ear. From this fimple
experiment it is obvious that the texture of the furface
of a hair is not the fame from the point to the root, as
it is from the root to the point. If a hair is taken hold
of by the fore-finger and thumb, and rubbed in a longi¬
tudinal direflion, a progreflive motion is the refult,
which is invariably towards the root. This is wholly
independent of the texture or nature of the fkin of the
fingers j for if the hair be turned, and the point of it
placed where the root formerly w:as, the movement be¬
comes contrary, or, in other words, it is ftill dire&ed to¬
wards the root.
It is found a very difficult talk to unite a knot made
in the middle of a hair, on account of its extreme thin-
Uefs; but if the hair is placed in the bend of the hand,
the knot being in a line with the little finger, and if the
hair is grafped by clofing the hand, and the fill ftruck
feveral times againfl the knee, the knot is thereby open¬
ed, becaufe the afperities of one end of the hair are in a
contrary direflion tothofeofthe other, by which means
each end of it recedes a little. By the intrcdudf ion of a
pin into the eye thus formed at the knot, it is eafily un¬
tied. Although thefe obfervations have a diredl refer¬
ence to long hair j yet they are equally applicable to
woo), furs, and almoft every fpecies of animal hair. The
furface of all thefe confill of hard latnellce, placed upon
each other like tiles, in the direflion from the root to
the point.
By attending to thefe remarks, it is eafy to fee why
the contadl of woollen fluffs is rough to the fkin. The
afperities on the furface of the fibres of wool produce a
difagreeable fenfation, by fixing themfelves in the fkin,
which can only be endured by being accuftomed to feel
it frequently. The injury done to wounds by the ap¬
plication of wool, is not the refult of any chemical pro¬
perty, but is entirely occafioned by the afperities of its
furface.
A hatter feparates the hairs from each other, by
flriking the wool with the firing of bis bow, caufing
them to fpring up in the air, which fall on the table
in every poffible direction, forming alayer of a particular
thicknefs, which is covered by the workmen with a
cloth, preffing it with his hands, and moving the hairs
backwards and forwards in different directions. In this
manner the hairs are brought againfl each other, and
their points of contaCl confiderably multiplied^ and the
agitation gives each hair a progreffive motion towards
the root, in confequence of which the hairs become
twifted together. As the mafs becomes compaCl, the
preffure ought to be increafed, in order to keep up the
progreffive motion and twilling of the hairs, which is
then performed with greater difficulty.
The hair defigned for the manufacturing of hats is al¬
ways cut off with a fharp inflrument, ana not pulled Felting
out by the roots, becaufe the bulb ot t-u; hair which II _
would come out with it in the latter cafe, would render Feminine^
the end which was fixed in the fkin very obtufe, and *
nearly deftroy its difpofition to unite with the adjacent
hairs. But in addition to the tendency of hairs to move
progreffively towards the root, they ffiould not beflraight
like needles, for in this cafe they could not produce any
compaClnefs in the fluff. The fibres of wool having
naturally a crooked form, that fubfiance is well adapted
to the operation of felting. The hair of beavers, rabbits,
hares, &c. being ftraight, it cannot be employed in
felting by itfelf, till it has been fubjeCled to a previous
preparation, viz. rubbing and combing on the fkin, the
brufh being dipped in a folution of mercury in nitric
acid. This fubftance, by aCling only on one fide of the
hairs, gives them the difpofition to felting which is na¬
tural to wool.
When it is not intended that the hairs (hall enter in¬
to the body of the mafs, but ferve only as an external
coating, which is fometimes given to the outer furface
of hats, the operation with the nitric acid need not be
performed. They mull be uniformly fpread upon the
furface to which the coating is to be applied, and being
covered with a cloth, it is preffed with the hands, and
agitated for fome time. They receive a particular di-
redlion afterwards by means of a bruffi, and are enabled
to keep it by having a hot iron paffed over them.
Woollen cloth is thickened by fulling, on the fame
principles that wool and hair become capable of felt-
ing.
FELT-Spar, FELD-Spar, or Fel Spar, a mineral
fubftance. See Mineralogy Index.
FELTRIA, in Ancient Geography, a town on the
borders of Rhaetia towards Italy. Now Felitri, in the
territory of Venice, on the Piava. E. Long. 12. 16.
N. Lat. 46. o.
FELUCCA, in fea affairs, a little veffel rowed with
fix oars, frequent in the Mediterranean •, which has this
peculiarity, that its helm may be applied either in the
head or flern, as occafion requires.
FEMALE, (foemina), a term peculiar to ani¬
mals, fignifying that fex which conceives and gene¬
rates its young within itfelf. See Sex and Genera¬
tion.
Female is alfo applied, figuratively, to things
without life, from the refemblanee they bear to the
females of animals. Thus we fay a
Female Screw. See Screw.
FEMALE Flower. See Fcemineus Flos.
FEMALE Plant. See Fceminca PLANTA.
FEMME covert, in Law, a married woman. See
Coverture.
FEMME Sole, an unmarried woman, whofe debts, con-
tradled before marriage, become thofe of her hufband
after it.
A femme foie merchant, is where a woman, in Lon¬
don, ufes a trade alone, without her hufband $ on which
account the fhall be charged without him.
FEMININE, in Grammar, one of the genders of
nouns. See Gender.
The feminine gender is that which denotes the noun
or name to belong to a female. In the Latin, the fe¬
minine gender is formed of the mafculine, by altering
its termination j particularly by changing m into a-.
Thus3
FEN [ 592 3
Thus, of the mafculine bonus equus, “ a good horfe,” is
formed the feminine bona equa, “ a good mare j” fo, of
parvus homo, “ a little man,” is formed parva fcemina,
“ a little woman,” &c.
In French, the feminine gender is expreffed, not by
a diiferent termination, but by a different article: thus,
le is joined to a male, and la to a female.
In Englifh, we are generally more ftrift, and ex¬
press the difference of fex, not by different termina¬
tions, nor by different particles, but different words $
as boar and fow, boy and girl, brother and filler, &c.
—though fometimes the feminine is formed by vary¬
ing the termination of the male into efs; as in abbot,
abbefs, &c.
FEMUR, os femoris, the thigh bone. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
FEN, a place overflowed with water, or abounding
with bogs. See Bog and Draining, in Agricul¬
ture Index.
Fens are either made up of a congeries of bogs ; or
confift of a multitude of pools or lakes, with dry fpots
of land intermixed, like fo many little iflands.
Several ftatutes have been made for the draining of
fens, chiefly in Kent, Cambridgefhire, Bedfordfhire,
and Lincolnlhire $ and by a late a£l, n Geo. II. com-
miflioners Ihall be appointed for the effe&ually draining
and preferving of the fens in the ifle of Ely, who are
authorized to make drains, dams, and proper works
thereon $ and they may charge the landholders therein
with a yearly acre-tax, and in default of payment, fell
the defender’s lands.
The wet grounds called fens, in Lincolnfhire and
elfewhere in England, bring many advantages to the
inhabitants of thofe counties. Fowl and fifli are very
plentiful in them. The pike and eels are large and
eafily caught, but they are ufualiy coarfe. The duck,
mallard, and teal, are in fuch plenty as is fcarce to be
conceived. They are taken by DECOYS in prodigious
flocks at a time. They fend thefe fowl from Lincoln¬
fhire to London, twice a-week, on horfeback, from
Michaelmas to Lady-day •, and one decoy will furnifb
20 dozen, or more, twice a-week, for the whole feafon
in this manner. The decoy-men contradl with the
people, who bring them to London at a certain rate,
and they are obliged to take off their hands the whole
number that is.catched. Two teal are ufually reckon¬
ed equal to one duck; and fix ducks and twelve teal are
accounted a dozen of wild fowl ; and the ufual mar¬
ket price is about 95. for fuch a dozen. About mid-
fummer, during the moulting feafon, a great number
alfo are deftroyed by the people in the neighbour¬
hoods. The poor birds at this feafon are neither able
to fwim nor fly well; and the people going in with
boats among the reeds where they lie, knock them
down with long poles. A little before Michaelmas,
vaft flights of thefe birds arrive at the decoys from
other places; they foon grow fat in them, and continue
there a prey to the mafters or owners, as long as the
decoys are unfrozen ; but, when they are iced over,
they fly away again, and go to the neighbouring feasfor
food.
The fens alfo abound in a fort of herbage that is
very nourifhing to cattle. Sheep and horfes always
grow fat upon it. The fens are common, and the
owners of cattle mark them that they may be known.
It is remarkable, that, though all is open, the cattle
ufed to one particular fpot of ground feldom leave it,
but the owner may always find them in or near the
fame place. The fens have many large and deep
drains. In thefe the pike and eel grow to a vaft fize :
and they are full of geefe which feed on the grafs ;
but thefe eat rank and muddy, and may even be fmelt
as foon as a perfon comes into the room where they are
roafling. But the people have another very great ad¬
vantage from thefe birds befides the eating of them,
namely, their feathers and quills ; and the produce of
thefe is lo great, that the cuflomhoufe books in the
town of Bofton Ibow, that there are frequently fent
away in one year 300 bags of feathers, each containing
a hundred and a half weight. Each pound of feathers
brings in the owner twopence 3 and it may be thought
ftrange by people unacquainted with thefe things, but
it is a certain truth, that the owners pull them five or
fix times a year for the feathers, and three times for
the quills. Each pulling comes to about a pound,
and many people have 1000 geefe at a time, or
more. They are kept at no charge, except in deep
fnowy weather, when they are obliged to feed them
with corn.
Oats alfo grow very well in haany of the fen coun¬
tries, and in good feafons bring great increafe and
advantage to the owners. There is alfo another ve¬
getable of great profit to them. This is the rapum
Jilvefre ; the feed of which they call cole-feedand
they make an oil from it of great ufe in trade. They
grind the feed between two large ftones, the one Hand¬
ing perpendicularly on the other. The ftones are made
of a fort of black marble, and are brought from Ger¬
many. They fometimes turn them by fails, and fome¬
times by the drains which carry off the water from the
fen lands.
The fens lying low, and being of a vaft extent, are
very fubjeft to be overflowed by waters from the neigh¬
bouring high countries ; and though great care and ex¬
pence is ufed to keep them dry, they are often like a
fea; and the ftreep are obliged to be carried off in boats,
and the people to live in their upper rooms, and to be
fupplied with provifions alfo with boats.
FENCE, in Gardening and HuJbandnj, a hedge,
wall, ditch, bank, or other enclofure, made round gar¬
dens, fields, woods, &c.
In hot climates, where they have not occafion for
walls to ripen their fruit, their gardens lie open, where
they can have a water fence, and profpe£ls ; or elfe
they bound their gardens with groves, in which are
fountains, walks, &c. which are much more pleafing
to the fight than a dead wall : but, in colder countries,
we are obliged to have walls to {belter and ripen our
fruit, although they take away much from the plea-
fant profpe£l of the garden. Brick walls are account¬
ed the beft and warmeft for fruit : and thefe walls, be¬
ing built pannelwife, with pillars at equal diftances,
will fave a great deal of charge, in that the walls may
be built thinner than if they were made plane without
thefe pannels, for then it would be neceffary to build
them thicker everywhere ; and, befides, thefe pannels
make the walls look the handfomer. Stone walls,
however, on account of their durability, are to be pre¬
ferred to thofe of brick, efpecially thofe of fquare
hewn ftones, Thofe that are made of rough ftones,
FEN f 593 1 FEN
pence though they are very dry and warm, yet, by reafon of
^ . their unevermefs, are inconvenient to nail up trees to,
except pieces of timber be laid in them here and there
for that purpofe.
But, in large gardens, it is better to have the pro-
fpeft open to the pleafure garden ; which fliould be
furrounded with a foffe, that from the garden the ad¬
jacent country may be viewed. But this muft depend
on the fituation of the place: for, if the profpeft from
the garden is not good, it had better be flmt out from
the fight than be open. As alfo, when a garden lies
near a populous town, and the adjoining grounds are
open to the inhabitants ; if the garden is open, there
will be no walking there in good weather, without be¬
ing expofed to the view of all paffengers, which is very
difagreeable.
Milter's Where the foffes are made round a garden which is
Gardener s gtuated in a park, they are extremely proper •, becaufe
Dictionary- jiere^y the profpedl of the park will be obtained in the
garden, which renders thofe gardens much more agree¬
able than thofe that are confined.—In the making
thefe foffes there have been many inventions j but, up¬
on the whole, none feem preferable to thofe which
have an upright wall next the garden, which (where
the foil will admit of a deep trench) fliould be five or
fix feet high •, and, from the foot of this wall, the
ground on the outfide fhould rife with a gradual eafy
Hope, to the diflance of 18 or 20 feet ; and where it
can be allowed, if it Hopes much farther it will be ea-
fier, and lefs perceptible as a ditch, to the eye, when
viewed at a diftance ; but, if the ground is naturally
wet, fo as not to admit a deep foffe, then, in order to
make a fence againft cattle, if the wall be four feet
high, and flight polls of three feet high are placed juft
behind the wall, with a fmall chain carried on from
poll to poll, no cattle or deer will ever attempt to
jump againft it ; therefore it will be a feeure fence
againft them ; and if thefe are painted green, they will
not be difeerned at a diftance, and at the fame time
the chain will fecure perfons walking in the garden
from tumbling over.
In places where there are no good profpe&s to be
obtained from a garden, it is common to make the en-
clofure of paik paling j which, if well performed, will
laft many years, and has a much better appearance than
a wall *, and this pale may be hid from the fight within,
by plantations of fhrubs and evergreens ; or there may
be a quick hedge planted within the pale, which may
be trained up, fo as to be an excellent fence by the
time the pales begin to decay.
Fences round parks are generally of paling; which,
if well made of winter-tallen oak, will laft many years.
But a principal thing to be obferved, in making thefe
pales, is not to make them too heavy : for, when they
are fo, their own weight will caufe them to decay :
therefore the pales fliould be cleft thin ; and the rails
fliould be cut triangular, to prevent the wet lodging
upon them ; and the polls fliould be good, and not
placed too far afunder. If thefe things are obferved,
one of thefe pales will laft, with a little care, up¬
wards of 40 years very well. ’I he common way of
making thefe fences is, to have every other pale nine
or ten inches above the intermediate ones; fo that the
fence may be fix feet and a half high, which is enough
for fallow deer ; but. where there are red deer, the
Vol. VIII. Part II.
fence ftiould be one foot higher, otherwife they will Fence-
leap over. _ Worth,
Some enclofe their parks with brick walls ; and in Fen':1:'g•
countries, where ftone is cheap, the walls are built
with this material ; fome with, and others without,
mortar.
A kitchen garden, if rightly contrived, will contain
walling enough to afford a fupply of fuch fruits as re¬
quire the aflittance of walls, for any family ; and this
garden, being fituated on one fide, and quite out of
fight of the houfe, may be furrounded with wralls
which will feretn the kitchen garden from the fight of
perfons in the pleafure garden ; and, being locked up,
the fruit will be much better preferved than it can be
in the public garden ; and the having too great a quan-
rity of walling is often the occafion that fo many ill
managed trees are frequently to be feen in large gar¬
dens.
The height of garden walls ftiould be 12 feet, which
is a moderate proportion ; and, if the foil be good, it
may in time be well furnithed with bearing wood in
every part, efpecially that part planted with pears, not-
withftanding of the branches being trained horizontally
from the bottom of the walls.
With regard to the different kinds of fences, fee
Agriculture Index.
FENCE-Month, the month wherein deer begin to
fawn, during which it is unlawful to hunt in the foreft.
It commences 15 days before Midfummer, and ends
1 5 days after it. This month, by ancient forefters, is
called defence month.
FENCING, the art of making a proper ufe of the
fword, as well for attacking an enemy as for defending
one’s felf.
This art is acquired by pra&ifing with foils, called
in Latin rudes ; whence fencing is alfo denominated
gladiatura rudiaria.—It is one of the exercifes learnt
in the academies (fee Exercise and Academy); and
is an accomplifliment both agreeable and ufeful :—A~
greeable, as it affords gentlemen a noble and diftin-
guiftied amufement:—Ufeful, as it forms their body ,;
and furnilbes them with the faculty of defence, whe¬
ther it be of their honour or their life, when the one
or the other is attacked by thofe turbulent and dan¬
gerous perfons whofe correftion is of fervice to fociety
in general.
Pyrard affures us, that the art of fencing is fo highly
efteemed in the Eaft Indies, that none but princes
and noblemen are allowed to teach it. They wear a
badge or cognizance on their right arms, called in
their language efaru; which is put on with great ce¬
remony, like the badges of our orders of knighthood,
by the kings themfelves.
Fencing is divided into two parts, fimple and com¬
pound.
Simple is that performed dire&ly and nimbly, on the
fame line; and is either offenfive or defenfive The
principal obje& of the firft, is whatever may be at¬
tempted, in puftiing or making paffes from this or
that point, to the moft uncovered part of the enemy.
The fecond confifts in parrying and repelling tie
thrufts aimed by the enemy.
The compound\nc\xv\es all the poflible arts and inven¬
tions to deceive the enemy, and make him leave that
part we have a defign on bare and unguarded, upon
4 F finding
FEN [ 594 ] F E O
Fencing finding we cannot come at it by force, nor by the agi-
II lity of the fimple play. The principal means hereof are,
Fenton. on 0ffenflve feints, appeals, clafliings, and en-
v tanglings of fwords, halt thrutfs, &c. and, on the defen-
five, to pmli in parrying. Of all which a detail would
be here ufelefs, as they are only to be underftood and
acquired from perfonal inftrudions conjoined with prac¬
tice.
FENELON, Francis dkSalignacde la Motte,
was of an ancient and illuilrious family, and born at
the caiile of Fenelon in Perigord in 1651. In 1689,
he was appointed tutor to the dukes of Burgundy and
Anjou 5 and in 1655 was confecrated archbifhop of
Cambray. After this preferment, a ftorm arofe againft
him, that obliged him to leave the court for ever, oc-
cafioned by his performance entitled, An Explication of
the Maxims of the Saints concerning the Interior Life ;
in which he was fuppofed to favour the extravagant no¬
tions of Madame Guyon, and the principles of Quiet-
ifm. A conlroverfy on this occafion was for fume time
carried on between him and M. Boffuet, bifhop of
Meaux : which terminated in an appeal to the pope j
when his holinefs condemned the archbifhop’s book,
by a brief dated March 12. 1699. Some friends in¬
deed pretend, that there was more of court policy than
religious zeal in this affair : but be this as it may, the
archbifhop fubmitted patiently to this determination ;
and, retiring to his diocefe of Cambray,' acquitted
him felt pundfually in all the duties of his ffation, and
led a moft exemplary life. The work that gained him
the greateft reputation, and which will render his me¬
mory immortal, is his Adventures of Telemacbus 5 the
ffyle of which is natural, the fidlions well contrived, the
moral fublime, and the political maxims tending all to
the happinefs of mankind. Hence it is thought, as
the printing of this work Was flopped at Paris, that
the prelate’s herefy was in polities infltad of religion ;
and though his difgrace was prior to this work, he
had, while he was tutor to the young princes, taught
them the fame principles afferted and exemplified in
Telemachus. Fenelon died in 1715 j and a colle&ion
of all his religious works was afterwards printed at
Rotterdam, under the care of the marquis de Fene¬
lon his grand-nephew, when ambaffador to the States-
General.
FENNEL. See Anethum, Botany Index.
FEN I ON, Sir Geoffroy, privy counfellor and fe-
cretary in Ireland during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth
and King James 1. is well knoum for his tranflation of
Guicciardini’s Hiffory of the Wars of Italy, dedicated
to Queen Elizabeth in 1579. He died at Dublin in
1608 ; after having married his daughter to Mr Boyle,
afterward the great earl of Corke.
Fenton, Elijah, defeended from an ancient fami¬
ly, was born at Shelton near Newcaftle, but in what
vear is uncertain. He was the youngeft of 12 chil¬
dren, and was intended for the miniftry ; but embra-
cing principles contrary to the government, while at
Cambridge, he became difqualified for entering into Fentor
holy orders. Alter he quitted the univerlity, he was |i
fecretary to the earl ol Orrery ; but feems to have Feudal
fpent the moft of his life amongft his friends and rela- S^cm‘ 1
tions, and ufed to pay an annual vifit to his elder bro- v~~"*
ther who enjoyed an eft ate of 1000I. a-year. He
was a man of great tendernefs and humanity, enjoyed
the faireft reputation, and was much efteemed by Mr
Pope j who, when he died in 1730, paid him the
tribute of a very elegant epitaph. He publfthed a
volume of poems in the year 1717 ; and in 1723 was
afled his tragedy ot Mariamne, built upon her ftory
collected from Jofephus in the third volume of the
Speftator.
FENUGREEK. SeeTRiGONELLA, Botany/«</gv.
FEOD, or Feud, is defined to be a right which a
vaflai hath in lands or fume immoveable Thing of his
lord’s, to ufe the fame, and take the profits thereof
hereditarily, rendering unto the lord fueh feodal du¬
ties and fervices as belong to military tenure, &c. and
the property of the foil always remaining to the lord.
FEODAL, of or belonging to a Feud or Fee.
Feodal Syjlem, the conftitution of Fiefs or Feuds.
About 12 centuries ago, this fyftem was fo univer-
fally received ;.n Europe, that Sir Henry Spelman calls
it the law of nations in our wejlern world. Hence it
deferves our attention in a particular manner : a know¬
ledge of the different feuds being indifpenfably requi-
fite for a proper underftanding either of the civil go¬
vernment of our own country, or of the laws by which
its landed property is regulated. x
The military policy of the Celtic or northern na-Origin of
tions, known by the names of Goths, Vandals, Franks, feuds.
Hunns, and Lombards, furniflied the original conftitu¬
tion or fyftem of feuds. Thefe people pouring out in
vaft multitudes from the fame officinagentium or “ ftore-
houfe of nations,” overran all the European countries
on the declenfion of the Roman empire. They brought
the feudal fyftem along with them from the countries
out of which they emigrated $ and, fuppofing it to be
the moft proper method of fecuring their new con-
quefts, they introduced it into their more foutherly
colonies.
According to this fyftem, the vi£torious general al¬
lotted confiderable trafts of land to his principal offi¬
cers ; while they, in like manner, divided their poffef-
fions among the inferior officers, and even thofe com¬
mon foldiers who were thought to be the moft deferving.
Allotments of this kind were named feoda, fiefs, fees,
or feuds, from a combination of words, in the language
of thefe barbarians, fignifying a reward or ftipend be-
flowed on certain conditions (a). The condition up¬
on which thefe rewards were given was, that the pof-
feiiors ftiould faithfully ferve the perfon from whom
they were received, both at home and abroad, in the
military way. To this they engaged themfelves by a
juramentumfidelitutis, or oath of fealty -j- : in the eventf Seethe
of a breach of which, either by not performing the article
fervice Fecdal Tt
nure.
$ See Mac- (a) We were informed by Pontopiddan, that ODH in thefe northern languages is the fame withproprietas, and
dowall's AI with totum in the Latin. Hence among the northern nations, he tells us, that ODHALL fignifies right;
hi/litut. ancj jience we may conjecture that the UDAL right in Finland is derived By tranfpofing thefe two northern
Frt *• 1 fyllableSj,
Feodal
Syftem.
General
nature of
the feudal
affutiation.
3 .
Of allodi-
ality.
FED [ 59
fervice agreed upon, by deferting their lord in time of
battle, &c. the lands were to return to their original
P°Thus* the poffeffors of feodal allotments became in-
terefted in the defence of them; and not only the re¬
ceivers but thofe who gave them, were equally and
mutually bound to defend' their poffe(lions, none of
them being able to pretend any right but that of con-
queft. For purpofe government and fubordma-
tion were abfolutely necefl'ary ; it being impoffible to
conduft any fyftem of defence where every thing was
tumultuous'and irregular. Every perfon, therefore,
who was a feudatory, i. e. who had received lands, was
bound to do every thing in his power to defend the lord
of his fee ; while, on the other hand, the latter was no
lefs fubordinate to his immediate fuperior ; and foon to
the prince himfelf. In like manner a reciprocal bond
of defence exifted down from the prince to the lowed
Such were the foundations on which the feodal fyf-
tem was properly ellablilhed ; and the natural confe-
quence was, a military fubjeftion throughout the whole
community. The prince could always colleft an army
of feudatories ready to defend not only the kingdom m
general, but the particular poffeffions of each perion ;
and the propriety of this conditution was foon apparent
in the drength which thefe newly erefted kingdoms
acquired, and the valour with which their conqueds
were defended. .
Befides thefe feodal grants, however, which were
held only on the terms of military fervice above men¬
tioned there wese others called allodial, which were
given upon more enlarged principles. To thefe every
free man had a title; and could not only claim his
territory as well as the red, but difpofe of it at his
TVodal
Sy Item.
Si F E 0
pleafure (b) ; and this freedom was denominated allo-
diality. Thefe allodials, however, were not exempted
from military fervice. A part of their freedom con¬
fided in liberty to go to the wars; for this, in the bar¬
barous times we fpeak of, was the only way to acquire
any degree of renown. Only the Haves were dedined
to follow the arts of peace ; while every tree perfon
was not only at liberty to defend his country, but
under an obligation to do it in cafe of any urgent ne-
cotTity ^
Ct Thus there was a feodal and a national militia. The FeodaUnd
free people only were allowed to poffefs property; t*16
feudal vafe/s condituted the army, properly fo called ;
while the national militia was compofed of the allodial
proprietors. This allodiality, however, was not con¬
fined to landed property, but included likewife move-
able edates or money; fo that proprietors of the lat¬
ter kind were obliged alfo in times of danger to bear s
arms and appear in the field. Between the feudal and Different
allodial proprietors, however, there was this farther Rations
difference, that the latter had no concern with any (lal an(. of
private quarrels which might take place among the the ai]0j|al
lords themfelves; fo that they were never obliged to proprietor,
appear in the field unlefs when called forth by the fo-
vereign againd the enemies of the nation at large.
This circumdance we might fuppofe to be an advan¬
tage, but it ultimately operated otherwife ; becoming
the means of changing the allodial right into a feodal
tenure. For fome time the holders of fiefs had an
eminent advantage over the allodial proprietors. I his
was owing to the imperfeiffion of government in thofe
days ; fo that the nobles had it in their power to re¬
venge their own quarrels, while the weak were equally
expofed to the infults-of both parties. . I he lord and
his vaffals therefore were always formidable ; but the
4 F 2 allodial
r j ATinnH- -whence we have the etymology of the aZ/W/w/w or property, claim-
dbvetheTolS of6 fiefs or feuds ; ’and combining ODH, figuring “ property,” with the word>, figmiying
'^condition” ftipend or reward,” we have the word feodh, figmfjing “ a property given by way of flipend
''TrTTe^nthTr ofAvtTof’society in Europe, has traced the remote fourees of the feodal laws In an ele-
(B) 1 he. author ot A y Tacitus informs us, that the individuals of each of
gant and fpinted manner (bo . P-^ ^ ^ ^ rtionable to their number, for the ufe of the
the German nations cultiva by ^ ^ allotrJienPt of the cultivated trad as his dignity feemed to
whole; after which each ind nolkical principles at the time they overran the Roman empire;
require. Thefe nations had no a <■ tbe }farae manner. The moft confiderable allotment
and hence the ProvI"ce" °f ‘t • the raoft dignified perfon in the community, and this allotment was ftyled
was beftowed on the king, a g ^ fnd Swarri which were likewife in proportion to the merit or
Ins domain; ^hl1® ^ ^,haf was caUed But as it often happened that all the land was not
dignity of each, conitituted vvn . ntinfidered as the property of the community, and in the
exhaufted by thefe In fuch German nations as had thus obtained a fettlement, it was
barbaric codes was called the lan J tb fovere;pn and the chiefs, as well as between
^h3 j than'^othei^f "xhls "was effeaed by meaos of the lands of the#-; for of thefe the
the chiefs and people than in oM ^ ^ the chief8 under the burden of appearing in arms whenever he
fovereign took poffeflion, deal g like mannPr dealt out lands to thofe called their retainers who were
fliould pleafe to call ; while the chiefs • afes 0f neceffUy. Hence a political fyftem was
alfo obliged to fupply them wit mi i aiT ^ ^ tbofe coUntries where it prevailed. The intention and
founded, which had a prodigious e tec ;nd dent both at home and ,abroad ; for, while the people
tendency of this fyitem was to rend . , i P e alfo properly guarded againft the attacks of defpo-
proper ^rrier'agalnff ariftcKratical^ppreffion* for a chief who oppreffed his vaffals evidently aUed aga.nft hts
©wn intereft. I
F E O
Feudal
Sjitein.
[
allodial proprietors had fcarce any means of defending
themfelves. The reaibn of this was, in the firft place,
that the law did not allow them to commit any holti-
lities 5 and in the next, they were too diftant and un-
conne&ed to form any proper league for mutual de¬
fence j and hence proceeded the neceffity already hint¬
ed at, of converting allodial property into feudal te¬
nure. .This was indeed owing in a great meafure to
the abfurdity and violence of the times, by which gifts
of property, burdened with fervice, and which might
return to the perfon who granted them, were rendered
fuperior in value to the abfolute and unconditional
poffeffion of a fubjeft. Other conliderations, how¬
ever, befides that juft mentioned, contributed to pro¬
duce the fame eflfea:. As in thofe dark ages no right
exifted but what had its origin in conqueft, it thence
followed, that the greateft conqueror or warrior was
the moft honourable perfon. The king, in whom the
whole exploits of the community centered, as being
their head, was the moft honourable perfon : all others
derived from him that portion of honour which they
enjoyed, and which was moft nicely adjufted in propor¬
tion as they approached him. Allodial proprietors,
therefore, having no pretenfions of this kind, were
treated with contempt as a kind of poltroons. From
this difagreeable lituation they wilhed to free them-
Syitem.
596 ] F E O
felves, by converting their allodial property into feodal
tenures; while the princes, fuppoling it their intereft
to extend thofe tenures as much as poffible, difcouraged
the allodial poffeflions. As the feodifts fupported the , 6
importance of the nation and dignity of the monarch,
it was not thought proper to allow the allodial pro-'int^ua
prietors any greater compenfations than what were
given to vaffals in fimiiar cafes. Thus they were ex-
pofed to continual mortifications in the courts of juf-
tice : they were negieded by the king ; denied fuffi-
cient protection from the laws; expofed not only to
continual mfuits ; but to have their property on all oc-
cafions deftroyed by the great: fo that they were
without refource except from the feodal tenures, and
were obliged even to folieit the privileges which were
bellowed in other cafes on vaflals. In thefe unhappy
circumftances, they were glad to yield up their lands
to any fuperior whom they thought moft agreeable,
and to receive them back from him as a feudal gift.
Thus the landed property was everywhere changed
into feudal tenures,, and fiefs became univerfal (c).
For fome time the feodal fyftem was not only ufeful
in itfelf, but honourable in its principles ; but this
continued no longer than while the importers of it
into Europe adhered to their original Ample and noble
maxims. During that period, the lord exercifed his
bounty
. ^ ^as been an objeCt of inquiry to the learned, in what nation of barbarians fiefs had their origin ? But
it is probable, that they took place in all thefe nations nearly about the fame time, on the fame principles :
and were continued by reafon of a fimilarity of manners, conquefts, &c. fo that we cannot afcribe the preva¬
lence of them to imitation. r
In France, we find mention made of fiefs as early as the age of Childebert. They were introduced into
* r- j t”e '•> amongft whom the cuftoms and laws relating to fiefs feem very early to have made
Hifrof0”6 r3^1° ac*van‘;es ‘ hey were introduced into Spain before the invafion of the Moors and Saracens in the year
Naples, Lands were granted for fervice and attachment among the Goths; among whom alfo the perfon who
book iv. received the gift was the retainer of him who granted it. If he refufed his fervice, the grant was forfeited
^e<?’ 3' ann pe was laid to receive it in patrocimo ; he alio fwore fealty to his lord ; and on this footing the national
* * jlb 7as regulated f. . There can be very little doubt that the feodal law was known in England in the
tit. 3. * ^axon t,mes> as is mentioned' in the text %. In Scotland, however, the hiftory of fiefs is flill more uncertain
lib. iv. tit. than anywhere elfe ; which has been afcribed partly to the mutilated ftate of the Seottifti records, and partly
7 1. xx. to the want of able antiquaries in the nation. But, according to a late writer §, allodiality and feudality have
Wanker's e,xlfte^ ever t*ie foundation of the Scottilh monarchy, and have moft probably arifen from a fimilarity of
Hi/l. of manner® and cuftoms in Scotland to thole of other nations. It has indeed been fuppofed that thefe cuf-
Manchef. tnms were introduced from fome foreign model by Malcolm II. According to fome, they were introduced
ter. dire£l!y from England ; and the policy of Malcolm in eftablilhing them has been highly extolled • but ao-
ifZZnt C?ridin?.t0 °Ur author there is no foundation for any notion of that kind. Both the opinions juft mentioned
or imply, that the feudal maxims were introduced into this country upon the principle
and Coiifti- 1 nutation ; but it is very improbable that they could be imported from one people to another, on account
tution of of their exceffive contrariety to the common ufages and precepts of government among mankind. It muft
Scotland, undoubtedly have been very abfurd, if not altogether impradicable, to tranfplant the feudal tenures when the
grants of land were precarious, or depending entirely on the will of the prince, to a country which had never
known fuperiority or vaifalage. This would have required an alteration of all the orders of fociety from the
king to the pealant ; while the whole chain of cuftoms, as well as the jurifdiftion of the kingdom, both high
and low, muft have fuftained a correfponding alteration, in order to conform them to the new fyftem. It is
likewite obvious, that no conqueft could be made on purpofe to obtain a fettlement by any nation who had
already received the knowledge of fiefs. The eftablHhment of them implied, that the people had already a
fixed and fettled refidence ; and accordingly hiftory does not furnilh us with an account of a nation among
whom fiefs were known, who ever migrated from the country they already pofleffed, to feek for one in which
they might fettle. Feudal inftitutions muft have originated wherever they have been obferved to flourifh.—
Scotland was formerly a feudal kingdom, and we know pretty nearly the time when the fiefs were hereditary
there ; but in that form they could not be introduced by the fovereign ; and there was not any nation among
whom fiefs were already known who conquered, or made an eftablilhment by conqueft, in Scotland. Fiefs
iherefoie muft have gradually advanced to fuch a ftate of pcrfediou. The progrefs they made may be likewife
eafily
F E O
[ 597 1
F E O
frocfal
Syftem,
_rhe t'eodal
icidents.
8
dappinefs
if the
eodal
nation
bounty to the vaflhl, which the latter repaid by a<5bs of
gratitude ; fo that the intercourfe betwixt them was of
the moft tender and affetftionate kind •, and this gave
rife to what are called the feodal incidents.
The expedants of fiefs were educated in the hall of
the fuperior, while the tenures were precarious or only
for life : and even when they became hereditary, the
lord took, care of the fon and eifate of his deceafed
vaffal ; not only proteding his perfon, but taking
charge of his education, and direding the manage¬
ment of his affairs. He took pleafure in obferving his
approach to maturity •, and when he came of age, never
failed to deliver to him the lands, with the care of
which he had been entrufted, and which he had been
careful to improve. This was called the incident of
wardjhip.
The incident of reiief was founded upon the gratitude
of the vaflal ; who, upon entering on his fief, brought a
prefent to his lord, as an acknowledgement of his care
of him during the early part of his life, and in order to
conciliate his future regard.
The incident of marriage proceeded alfo upon the
principle of gratitude on the part of the vafifal. The
latter, confcious of the favours he had received, did
not choofe to ally hirafeif with a family inimical to
his chief; while the fuperior himfelf, ambitious to
aggrandize and augment the importance of his family,
fought how to find the moil advantageous match for
his vaffal.
Sometimes the fuperior himfelf was reduced in his
circumftances by war or other accident : but from
whatever caufe his diftrefs proceeded, even though it
had arifen from his own extravagance or prodigality, or
when only deftitute of means to fupport his ambition or
grandeur, his vaffals were bound to fupport and relieve
him according to their circumftances $ and this was cah
led the incident of aid.
The incident of efcheat took place on the part of the
vaffal, when, through cowardice, treachery, or any re¬
markable mifbehaviour, he rendered himfelf unworthy
of his fief. In that cafe, the taking it from him, and
giving it to one more worthy, was called an efcheat.
While the lords and vaffals thus vied with one
another in mutual a£ls of friendfhip and benevolence,
affo^univerfal happinefs, liberty, and aftivity, were diffufed
'■ through the fociety. The vaffals behaved courteoufly
towards the retainers, who were immediately below
them ; while they again were courted by the lords as
conftituting their importance and ftrength •, the lords,
laftly, giving a like importance and dignity to the fo-
vereign himfelf. Thus a regular, powerful, and corn-
pad fyftem of government took place ; an unanimity
and attention pervaded the various departments of ftate j
fo that, while the fubjeds were free, the nation at large
was formidable. _
During this happy ftate of affairs, the members ot
the national affembly in every country in Europe ap- Teodal
peared there in arms, whether they came perfonally or S>item. ^
by their reprefentatives. Such particularly was the cale J
under the Anglo-Saxon government; and the happr-Its deydeiTi,
nefs they at that time enjoyed made the oppreflion and
tyranny of the Normans appear the more intolerable.
In procefs of time, however, the ftate of fociety began
to fuffer a remarkable alteration. The high and diiin-
tereited notions, from which the happinefs above men¬
tioned took, its origin, declined : the romantic ideas of
chivalry f ceafed ; and much more interefted notions of |See cyn
property came in their ftead. The feparation of the Vnlry and
interefts of the lords from their vaffals was the firft ftep Knights.
towards the deftrudion of the feodal lyftem. Thus.^1®
the incidents, which, as has juft now been mentioned, verj[;on 0f
promoted their happinefs, did the very reverfe. Pro- its inci-
perty being now looked upon as a diftindion fuperior dents,
to perfonal merit, naturally introduced the moft^ mer¬
cenary views. In confequence of thefe the infant
ward, the care of whom was wont to be confidered as a
facrtd and honorary truft, was now only looked upon
as a mean of procuring emolument to the fuperior.
The latter now regarded the profits of his- vaffals as fo
many diminutions of his own wealth. Inftead of taking"
care to improve the eftate of his ward as formerly,
he impoverilhed it ; not only negleding the education
of the heir, but offering infults to himfelf; infomuch
that the relations of the unfortunate vaffal were fre¬
quently obliged to ranfom from the avaricious fuperior
both his perfon and effeds. By merchandife of this
kind the coffers of princes were filled, and. wardlhips
let out to ftrangers, who might exercife their rapacity
with greater freedom. When the vaflal at laft attained
the years of maturity, he came to the pofleflion of his
land without any of that joy and feftivity which ufually
took place on the occaiion. He received an inheri¬
tance wafted and deftroyed, while new grievances daily
prefented themfelves to augment the horrors of his „
fituation. All the incidents, which in former times Opprefied
were fo many expreffions of gratitude on the part of the fituation of
vaffal, were now changed into taxes which might betheVaffals*
exaded at the pleafure of the lord. Before the vaffal
was invefted in his land, the fuperior exaded from him
a certain fum or other gift, to be meafured.only by his
own rapacity ; and in cafe of delay or inability to
pay this demand, the fuperior continued in poffeflion
of the eftate. Such fcandalous oppreflion could not
but produce the greateft difcontent and clamour. Ap¬
plications were made to the law without fuccefs ; nor
were even the laws regarded which were fabricated on
purpofe for their relief. The incident of marriage now
proved a fource of the moft dreadful oppreflion. The
lord affumed a right of marrying his vaffal to whom he
pleafed ; and he not only exerted this right himfelf, but
would fell it to a ftranger, or allow the vaflal to buy it
himfelf; while the penalty annexed to a marriage wilh-
eafflv nointed out At firft they were precarious, or at the pleafure of the lord ; afterwards they were granted
for lifeP- then for'a courfe of vears longer than the natural life of a man ; and, laftly, they became hereditary,
which was their moft perfea llage. This progrefs has been obferved in every country where feudal tenures exift ;
and L "me muft ha/e been knLn in Joti, though, in confident^ it, we are neeeffarfty earned back to
periods of remote antiquity ; for as fiefs were hereditary as early as-the time of. Malcolm II. they muft have been
in-their precarious flate feveral centuries before.
F E O [
’FeoJu.l out tlie confent of the fuperh'r involved no lefs punilli-
Syftern. ment than the lofs of the eftate itfelf, or feme grievous
v ~ infliction as for a crime of the firft magnitude. The
cafe was ftill wotfe with the female ward 5 whofe beauty
and accomplitliments became a fource of gain to the fu-
perior, or were facrificed to pleafe his whim or caprice ;
fo that her relations wTere frequently obliged to buy
from him the privilege of marrying her to the perfon
flie or they thought molt proper. In like manner the
aid which was formerly a voluntary gift from the vaf-
fal in csfes of diltrefs happening to his lord, now be¬
came an unavoidable tax. An aid formerly was de¬
manded when the eldeft daughter of the fuperior was
married, when his eldeft fon was knighted, or when
the fuperior himfelf was taken prifoner in battle. Thefe
■were the only legal caufes of making a demand of this
kind; but in the fubfequent times of degeneracy, the
moft frivolous pretences were every day made ufe of
by the prince to opprefs the lords, and by the lords to
opprefs their vaffals; demanding fubfidies at pleafure,
which their inferiors were always obliged to comply
with. Laftly, The efeheat, which in former times took
place only in cafes of cowardice, treachery, or fome
other heinous crime, was now infli&ed on the moft
trifling occafions. If the vaffal happened to be too long
in attending the court of his fuperior to take the oath
of fealty ; if he committed any a£Hon which could in
the leaf! be conftrued an infringement of the oath ; if he
negledled to give his lord warning of any misfortune
which he might fuppofe was about to befal him ; re¬
vealed any thing concerning him ; made love to his
lifter or daughter, &c.; or even if he ftiould grant a
tenure of land to another perfon in form different from
that in which he held his own; all thefe, nay others ftill
more ridiculous, were judged fufficient reafons for the
fuperior to feize on the eftate of the vaffal, and involve
13 him and his family in ruin.
•Confequent Notwithftanding thefe oppreflions, however* the vaf-
dcgeneracy fal was ftill obliged to fubmit to his lord ; to own him
djftmilkia 35 ^'S ^uPer*or ’ an<^ everb appearance, to pay him
the fame refpefl as formerly when thegreateft unanimi¬
ty and cordial affeftion fubfifted between them. Still
he was obliged to perform the fame military fervice ;
becaufe a failure in that refpeiSl: would have fubje&ed
him to a forfeiture of lands according to the original
agreement. A vaft difference, however, now took
place in the valour and aftivity which infpired the ar¬
my. The vaffals, forced into the field with defpond-
ing hearts, were indifferent as to the fuccefs of the
caufe in which they were engaged, and frequently ob-
ftrufted inftead of forwarding the operations of the
field. Hence the fovereign found himfelf embarraffed ;
and, though nominally at the head of a martial and
powerful people, was frequently unable to effecl any
thing, by reafon of the mutual hatred and diffenfion
13 which everywhere prevailed.
Expedient Thus the feodal Hates of Europe became unnaturally
iov its re- weak • a remedy was neceffary ; and it is remarkable
eovety.
59S 1 P E O
that the fame remedy was applied all over the continent. t
1 his was, in ftiort, the making fiefs hereditary, which Syftetn.
till now had only been granted for a long term of v^>
years ; and, in return, burdening the lands with a cer¬
tain number of fuldiers, which were not to be refufed
under any pretence whatever. Hence was derived the
tenure of knight-fervice. A certain portion of land,Ipv14.
burdened with the fervice of one foldier or knight, wasot k'ni'ht*
called a knight1 s-fee ; and thus an eftate, furnilhing anytervice. "
number of foldiers, was faid to contain as many knight’s
fees ; fo that now the manors, baronies, &c. became
powerful according to the number of foldiers they were
bound to furniih. In the grants from the crown, the
nobility were obliged to furnith a certain number of fol¬
diers for the fervice of the fovereign ; and in tbofe from
the nobility to their vaffals, the like fervice was re¬
quired. Even the commons who had grants from the
crown furnifhed a certain proportion of knights. The
force of the nation was called into adion by grants
in capite, or from the fovereign and nobility. A nu¬
merous and powerful army was inftantly affembled.,
and at once ready for adion. Of this army the king
was the general, the nobility the officers, and the vaf-
fals foldiers ; the whole being exadly arranged, and
capable of entering upon any expedition without the
lea ft delay.
Thus a remedy was found in fome meafure for the
weakness of the feodal fovereigns : but though the
knights tenure could accompliffi this, it could not bring
back the former affedion and cordiality which fubfifted
between the various ranks of people. On the contrary,
by uniting them more firmly to one another by legal
ties, it rendered matters rather worfe. The oppreffion
originating from the operation of the feodal incidents,
ftill continued with unremiting violence. The grants
of knights tenure were attended with the fame oaths
of homage and fealty ; the fame incidents of relief,
wardffiip, marriage, aid, and efeheat, with the feodal
tenures. The princes promifed to abate fomewhat of
their rigour in demanding the feodal perquifites, but
did not keep their word. Laws were occafionally pro¬
mulgated, and for fome time had an effed ; but pal¬
liatives foon became ineffedual, and a new ftate of
weaknefs began to commence.
The two remarkable eras in the feodal hiftory are, Twocrasin
the time before the invention of knight-fervice (d), and1*16
that during which.it continued. Fiefs were in a ftate01 eS‘
of fluduation from the deftrudion of the Roman em¬
pire till the ninth century ; but they were rendered
perpetual in France about the year 877, and were ge¬
nerally become fo in every country of Europe about the
beginning of the tenth. Du Cange, voce Militias gives
as an example of a knight fee in the year 880. By the 1(;
year 987, when Hugh Capet was raifed to the throne Doubtscon-
of France, knight fervice was become general all overcern‘nSt*ie
Europe, and was introduced into England after having
made its appearance in other countries (e). In Eng-fe0(iai laws
land, however, there have been feveral doubts and in-into En¬
quiries
(d) For the difference between the knights produced by this fervice and the more ancient ones, or knights of
honour, fee the article Knight.
(e) Dr Stuart informs us, that it appears from the records of Malcolm IV. in 1153, t^iat knights-fervice
was
F E O [ 599 ] F E O
FVodal quiries among the learned concerning the introdu&ion
S)(tern, oi' the feodal laws. Many are of opinion, that they
were firft introduced by William the Conqueror •, ^nd,
confequently, that they were entirely unknown to the
Anglo Sax ns : but others think, that they e,xifttd
among the latter in the fame form under which they
were continued1* by the Normans. Dr Stuart is of
opinion that the Saxons who fettled in England could
not be ftrangers to fiefs. He fuppofes the conformity
of manners, which undoubtedly prevailed between the
Saxons and other barbarians, a fufficient proof that the
hereditary grant of land, as well as the fluctuating flate
of feodal tenures which preceded it, were known to the
former. Collateral proofs are derived from the fpirit
and tenure of the Anglo-Saxon laws, but efpeeially
from the grants of hereditary eftates on condition of
military fervice (f). The condition of fiefs under the
Anglo-Saxons was very different from what it was af¬
terwards. In their times vve find no mention made of
thefe oppreflions of which fo much notice has already
been taken ; and this may eafily be accounted for from
the alteration ot the feodal fpirit in different ages. Du¬
ring the time that a warm and generous affeCIion fub-
fifled between the feodal fuperiors and vaffals, the in¬
cidents were marks of generofity on the one part, and
gratitude on the other ; but as foon as a variance had
taken place, by reafon of the interefted difpofition
which the introduClion of luxury produced, the fame
incidents became fources of the moft flagrant oppref-
fion. This was remarkably the cafe in the time
of William the Conqueror $ and, during the reign of
King John, matters were come to fuch a crifis, that
the people everywhere complained loudly, and de¬
manded the refforation of the laws of Edward the Con-
feffor (g). “ What thefe laws of Edward the Confeffor
were (fays Mr Hume), which the Englifli every reign
during a century and a half defired fo paflionately to Feoclal
have reftored, is much difputed by antiquarians •, and Syitem.
our ignorance of them Hems one of the greateft defefts ^
of the ancient Englifh hiflory.” Dr Stuart has offeredInfuffi7cient
an explanation j but this is in ia£t no more than a con-f0iut;0n of
jefture, that “ by the laws or cufloms of the Confeffur,them by
that condition of felicity was expreffed which bad been Stuart*
enjoyed during the fortunate ftate of the feodal affo-
ciation. The cordiality, equality, and independence^
which then prevailed among all ranks in fociety, con¬
tinued to be remembered in lefs profperous times, and
oecafioned an ardent defire for the revival of thofe laws
and ufages which were the fources of fo much happi-
nefs.” . iS
Befides the great diftinflion (of which an accountDfibrntlion
has already been given) between the flate oi fiefs under
the Anglo-Saxons and under the Normans, they were yn?q0)sax_
no lefs diflinguiflied by the introduftion oi knight-on aRd the
fervice. Hitherto the refinement of the Engliih had Anglo-
been obftrufted by the invafion of the Danes, and the^oiman
infular iituation of the kingdom ; but after the Nor¬
man conquefl the fiefs were made perpetual. Still,
however, the knight-fee and knight-fervice were al¬
together unknown. William, the fixth prince who
enjoyed the duchy of Normandy, was well acquainted
with every thing relating to fieff ; for that duchy had
experienced all the variety incidental to them from
the time of its being granted to Hollo by Charles the
Simple in the year 912, to the year 1066, when Wil¬
liam was put in poffeflion of England by the battle of
Haftings.
On his acceflion to the throne, a number of forfei¬
tures took place among thofe who had followed the
fortune of Harold. Their eflates were to be difpofed
of at the pleafure of the conqueror ; and it was natural
to fuppofe that he would follow the method pradtifed
in
*
was known in Scotland^ and that it was not a novelty at that time. The fame author thinks it even probable,
that it was known in the time of David I.
(f) The ufe of entails was known to the Anglo-Saxons $ and this practice, as well as the fucceffion to al¬
lodial eflates, muft have contributed very much to eftablilh hereditary fiefs. This opinion feems alfo to be con¬
firmed by the accounts we have of the great power of many of the nobility among the Anglo-Saxons, and the
natural tendency that fiefs muft have, in the courfe of things, to become perpetual, though analogical argu¬
ments cannot entirely be depended upon in this cafe. There is indeed pofitive evidence that the territory
which anciently confti'tuted the kingdom of Mercland belonged to Ethelred as an hereditary fief and earldom.
The grant was given him by Alfred when he married his daughter Ethelfleda : and it is likewife attefled by
Camden, that in the time of Ethelred the earldom of Leicefter was an inheritance, and the regular fucceflion
of its earls is ftill known. We are informed alfo by creditable hiftorians, that Bernicia and Deireland
were feodal and inheritable earldoms among the Saxons. The fame was true of the county of Cumberland
when poffeffed by the Scottifb monarchs. This laft appears from the Saxon Chronicle : in which the grant was
conveyed by Edmund king of England to Malcolm of Scotland in the following terms : “ Edmundus rex totam
Cumberland prmdavit et contrivit, et commendavit earn Malcolmo regi Scotia; ; hoc padlo, quod in auxilio fibi
foret terra et mari.” From the ufe of the word commendavit, indeed, Spelman takes occafion to fay, that a
feodal homage was not intended : but the contrary may be proved by the original Saxon from which the fore¬
going is a Latin tranflation ; and the word, according to feveral learned critics, fignifies feodal homage with the
moft ftrift propriety. Thus Du Cange informs us, that commendure fe alicui was the general expreflion iox faire
I'kommage a un fuferain.
(g) The laws which are now extant under the name of Edward, are generally allowed to be of doubtful au¬
thenticity ; nor are they, even fuppofing them to be genuine, of any ufe in anfwering the prefent queftion.
They determine indeed the exiftence of fiefs among the Anglo-Saxons : and Dr Stuart is of opinion, that the
compilation which goes under the name of this prince, though pofterior to the date it bears, neverthelefs merits
greater attention than has ufually been beftowed upon it. M. Honard, a foreign lawyer, is the lateft writer who
has made it his fludy } but he is better acquainted with the Norman than the An^o-Saxon cuftoms. ;
iFeodal
19
Introduc¬
tion of
knight-
fervice
into £ng-
laad.
40
Idea of the
feodal mi¬
litia.
F E O r
In Ins own country. Hence the origin of knight fer-
vice In England. A grant of land, to any perfon
whatever, was eftlmated at a certain number of knights
fees •, and each of thefe required the fervice of a
knight. The grants of lands were even renewed to
the old tenants under this tenure •, fo that by degrees
the whole military people in the kingdom acquiefced in
it. To accomplifli this, Domesday Book is fuppofed
to have been compiled, which contained an exaft ac¬
count of all the landed property of the kingdom.—*
Hence it is to be concluded, not that William introdu¬
ced fiefs into England, as fome have imagined, but
that he brought them to their ultimate ftate of perfection
by the introduction of knight-fervice. This is evident
from the laws enaCted during his reign. In thefe it is
not only mentioned that knight-fervice was enaCted, but
that it was done exprefsly with the confent of the com¬
mon council of the nation ; which at that time was
equivalent to an aCt of parliament (h).
The invention of knight-fervice proved generally
agreeable : for, as only a few of the Anglo-Saxon fiefs
were hereditary, the advancement of the reft to per¬
petuity, under the tenure of knight-fervice, muft
have been accounted an acquifition of fome import¬
ance $ as not only augmenting the grandeur and dig¬
nity of the fovereign, but fecuring the independence
of the fubjeCt, and improving his property. In the
happy ftate of the feodal affociation, there was indeed
no neceffity for the knight’s fee $ but when the dif-
cordance and oppreflion fo often mentioned began to
take place, it became then neceffary to point out par¬
ticularly every duty of the vaffal, as well as of the
lord *, and this was fully done by the invention of
knight-fervice. The nobles pofleffed duchies, baronies,
and earldoms ; which extenfive poffefiions were divided
into as many fees, each of them to furnilh a knight
'for the fervice of the king, or of the fuperior ; fo that
every feudal ftate could command a numerous army
and militia to fupport and defend it in cafe of any
'emergency. The knights were alfo bound to affemble
in complete armour whenever the fuperior thought
proper to call, and to hold themfelves in readinefs for
a&ion whenever the king or fuperior found it conve¬
nient to take the field : fo that thus the militia might
be marched at the (horteft notice to defend or fupport
the honour of the nation.
The knights were ufually armed with a helmet,
fword, lance, and fhield ; and each was befides obliged
to keep a horfe. This laft requifite was owing to the
contempt into which the infantry had fallen through
the prevalence of tournaments and luxuries of various
'kinds, though it was by means of the infantry that the
barbarians had originally diftinguifhed themfelves in
their wars with the Romans, and became able to cope
Feodal
Syftem,
600 ] P E O
with thefe celebrated warriors. All proprietors of
fees or tenants by knigbt-fervice fought or. foot : the
cavalry were diftinguifhed by the name of battle ; and
the fuccefs of every encounter was fuppofed to depend
on them alone. They only were completely armed ;
the infantry, being furnifhed by the villages under the
jurifdidfion of the barons, had at firft only bows and
llings*, though afterwards they were found worthy of
much greater attention. tl I
While the feodal affoeiation remained in perfe£Hon,It< ineffiJ
the fuperior could at any time command the military <7 and co
fervice of his vaffals ; but in the fubfequent degeneracy,’“P11®11,
this fervice could neither be depended upon when
wanted, nor was it of the fame advantage when obtain¬
ed as formerly. The invention of knigbt-fervice
tended in a great degree to remedy this inconvenience.
Thofe who were poffeffed of knights fees were now
obliged to remain 40 days in the field at their own
expence *, and this without exception, from the great
crown vaffals to the fmalleft feudatories j but if longer
fervice was required, the prince was obliged to pay
his troops. In thofe times, however, when the fate of
nations was frequently decided by a fingle battle, a
continuance in the field for 40 days was fufficient for
■ordinary occafions.
Thus matters fcemed once more to be reftored near¬
ly to their former ftate. It was now, as much as ever,
the intereft of the nation to adl with unanimity in its
defence, not only againft foreign enemies, but againft
the tyranny of the prince over his lubjefts, or of one
part of the fubje6!s over the other. New inconveni¬
ences, however, foon began to take place, owing to
the gradual improvements in life and the refinement
of manners. From the firft inftitution of military fer¬
vice, a fine had been accepted inftead of aflual appear¬
ance in the field. In the times of barbarity, however,
when men accounted rapine and bloodfhed their only
glory, there were but few who made an offer of this
compenfation $ but as wealth and luxury increafed,
and the manners of people became fofter, a general
unwillingnefs of following the army into the field be¬
came alfo prevalent. A new tenure, called efcuage,
was therefore introduced, by which the vaffal was only
obliged to pay his fuperior a fum of money annually, in¬
ftead of attending him into the field *. Hence origi-* See th;
nated taxes and their mifapplication ; for as the kingPart'cula
was lord paramount of the whole kingdom, it thence
happened that the whole efcuage money collefled un(]er
throughout the nation centred in him. The princes article
then, inftead of recruiting their armies, frequently fill-
ed their coffers with the money, or diffipated it other-3ei',1iC®'
wife, hiring mercenaries to defend their territories
when threatened with any danger. Thefe being com- (landing 1
pofed of the dregs of the people, and difbanded at the armies,.
end
(h) The following law of William the Conqueror not only makes exprefs mention of the knight’s fee and fer¬
vice, but alludes to a former law of William and bis parliament, by which this tenure was aftually eftablilhed.
“ Statuimns etiam et firmiter praecipimus, ut omnes comites, et barones, et milites, et fervientes, et nniverli h-
“ beri homines totius regni noftri priedidli, habeant et teneant fe femper bene in amis et in equis, ut decet et
“ oportet, et quod fint femper prompt! et bene parati ad fervittum fuum integrum nobis explendum, et peragen-
“ dum, cum femper opus adfuerb, fecundum quod KOBis debent de feodis et tenementis fuis de-jure facere, et .fi-
“ cut illis ftatuimus per commune conjilium totius regni noftri prsedi&i, et dedimus et concefliraus in feodojur*
“ hpereditario.” LL. Guill. c. 58.
FEE. [ 601 ] FEE
Feodal end of every campaign, filled all Europe with a dif-
Syftem orderly banditti, who frequently proved very danger-
11 . ous to fociety. To avoid fuch inconveniences, ftand*
^ef^'a‘ , ing armies were introduced, and taxations began to be
raifed in every European kingdom. New inconveni¬
ences arofe. The fovereigns in moft of thefe king-
dom«, having acquired the right of taxation, as well as
the command of the military power, became complete¬
ly defpotic : but in England the fovereign was de¬
prived of this right by Magna Charta, which was ex¬
torted from him, as related under the article England,
N°[i53]; fo that, though allowed to command his
armies, he could only pay them by the voluntary con¬
tributions of the people, or their fubmitting to fuch
taxations as were virtually impofed by themfelves.
FEOFFMENT, in Law, (from the verb feojfare or
infeudare, “ to give one a feud”) ; the gift or grant of
any corporeal hereditament to another. He that fo
gives, or enfeoffs, is called the feoffer, and the perfon
enfeoffed is denominated the feoffee.
This is plainly derived from, or is indeed itfelf the
very mode of, the ancient feodal donation; for though
it may be performed by the word “ enfeoff,” or
“ grant,” yet the apteft wmrd of feoffment is do or
dedt. And it is ftill directed and governed by the
fame feodal rules ; infomuch that the principal rule
relating to the extent and effe£t of the feodal grant,
tenor ejl qui legem dal feudo, is in other words become
the maxim of our law with relation to feoffments mo¬
dus legem dat donatiom. And therefore, as in pure feo¬
dal donations, the lord, from whom the feud moved,
muft exprefsly limit and declare the continuance or
quantity of eftate which he meant to confer, ne quis
plus donaffe prcefumatur, quam in donatione exprefferit ;
fo if one grants by feoffment lands or tenements to
another, and limits or expreffes no eftate, the grantee
(due ceremonies of law being performed) hath barely
an eftate for life. For, as the perfonal abilities of the
feoffee were originally prefumed to be the immediate
or principal inducements to the feoffment, the feoffee’s
eftate ought to be confined to his perfon, and fubfift
only for his life j unlefs the feoffer, by exprefs provifion
in the creation and conftitution of the eftate, bath
given it a longer continuance. Thefe exprefs provi-
fions are indeed generally made j for this was for ages
the only conveyance, whereby our anceftors were wont
to create an eftate in fee-fimple, by giving the land to
the feoffee, to hold to him and his heirs for ever;
though it ferves equally well to convey any other eftate
of freehold.
But by the mere words of the deed the feoffment is
by no means perfefled : there remains a very material
ceremony to be performed, called livery of feijin, with¬
out which the feoffee has but a mere eftate at will. See
Seisin.
FER.ZE, an order of quadrupeds, belonging to the
clafs Mammalia. See Mammalia Index.
FERALIA, in antiquity, a feftival obferved among
the Romans on February 2ift, or, according to Ovid,
on the tyth of that month, in honour of the manes of
their deceafed friends and relations.
Varro derives the word from inferi, or from fero ,* on
account of a repaft carried to the fepulchres of fuch as
the laft offices were that day rendered to. Feftus de¬
rives it from ferio, on account of the victims facrificed.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
Voffius obferves, that the Romans called death fera,
“ cruel,” and that the word feralia might arife thence.
—Macrobius, Saturn, lib. i. cap. 13. refers the origin
of the ceremony to Numa Pompilius. Ovid, in his
Fafti, goes back as far as ^E,neas for its inftitution. He
adds, that on the fame day a facrifice was performed
to the goddefs Muta, or Dumb j and that the perfons
who officiated were an old woman attended with a num¬
ber of young girls.
During the continuance of this feftival, which lafted
eleven days, prefents were made at the graves of the
deceafed, marriages were forbidden, and the temples
of the gods ffiut up. While the ceremonies continued,
they imagined that the ghofts fuffered no puniffiments
in hell, but that their tormentors allowed them to
wander round their tombs, and feaft upon the meats
which their furviving friends had prepared for them.—-
For a more particular account of the offerings and fa-
crifices and feafts for the dead, fee Inferls: and SlLI-
cernium.
Sometimes at the feralia public feafts were given to
the people, at the tombs of the rich and great, by their
heirs or particular friends.
FER de fourchette, in Heraldry, a crofs having
at each end a forked iron, like that formerly ufed by
foldiers to reft their mulkets on. It differs from the
crofs-fourche, the ends of which turn forked j whereas
this has that fort of fork fixed upon the fquare end.
See Heraldry.
Feu de Moulin, Milrinde, Inhe de Moulin, in Heraldry,
is a bearing fuppofed to reprefent the iron ink, or ink
of a mill, which fuftains the moving millftone.
. FERDINAND V. king of Spain, called the Ca¬
tholic, which title was continued to his fucceffors. He
married Ifabella of Caftile, by which that kingdom was
united to the Spaniffi crown. This illuftrious couple
laid the foundation of the future glory and power of
Spain. The conqueft of Granada, and the difcoveries
of Chriftopher Columbus, made this reign a celebrated
era in the hiftory of Spain. He died in 1516, aged 63.
See (Hi/lory of') Spain.
FERENTARII, in Roman antiquity, were auxiliary
troops, lightly armed j their weapons being a fvvord,
bow, arrows, and a fling.
FERENTINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Hernici in Latium, which the Romans, after fubdu-
ing that nation, allowed to be governed by its own laws.
Now Feretino, an epifcopal city in the Campagna di
Roma. E. Long. 14. 5. N. Lat. 41. 45.
FERENTUM, or Forentum, \n Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a town of Apulia in Italy. Now Forenza, in the
Bafilicata of Naples.
FERETRIUS, a furname of Jupiter, a ferendo, be-
caufe he had affifted the Romans : or aferiendo, becaufe
he had conquered their enemies under Romulus. He
had a temple at Rome built by Romulus. It was there
that the fpoils called opima were always carried.
FERETRUM, among the Romans, the bier ufed
in carrying out the bodies of the dead, which duty
was performed by the neareft male relations of the de¬
ceafed : thus, fons carried out their parents, brothers
their fifters, &c.
FERG, or Fergus, Francis Paul, a charming
landfcape-painter, was born at Vienna in 1689, and
there learned the firft principles of his art. He fuc-
4 G ceflively
F E R [ 602 ] F E R
Ferg ceffively pra&ifed under Hans Graf, Orient, and Thi-
SI ele. This laft, who was painter to the court of Sax-
, erg^ °|,;^ ony, invited him to Drefden to infert fmall figpres in
his landfcapes. Ferg thence went into Lower Saxo¬
ny, and painted for the duke of Brunfwick and for
the gallery of Salzdahl. From Germany he went to
London, where he might have lived in the higheff
efteem and affluence, if, by an indifcreet marriage, he
had not been fo effectually depreffed, that he was ever
after involved in difficulties. The neceffities which arofe
from his domeftic troubles compelled him to diminifh
the prices of his paintings in order to procure an imme¬
diate fupport $ and as thofe neceflities increafed, his
pictures were ftill more funk in their price, though not
in their intrinfic value. By a feries of misfortunes he
was overrun with debts, and to avoid the purfuit of
his creditors, he was conftrained to fecrete himfelf in
different parts of London. He died fuddenly in the
ffreet one night as he was returning from fome friends,
about the year 1738, before he had attained his 50th
year : and left four children. This pleafing artift,
Mr Walpole obferves, had formed a manner of his
own from various FJemifh painters, though refembling
Poelemburg molt in the enamelled foftnefs and mellow-
nefs of his colouring •, but his figures are greatly fu-
perior ; every part of them is fufficiently finilhed,
every aCHon exnreffive. He painted fmall landfcapes,
fairs, and rural meetings, with the molt agreeable
truth ; his horfes and cattle are nflt inferior to Wou-
vermans ; and his buildings and diftances feem to owe
their refpedive foftnefs to the intervening air, not to
the pencil. More faithful to nature than Denner, he
knew how to omit exaCtnefs, when the refult of the
whole demands a lefs precifion in parts. The greatefl:
part of his works are in London and Germany ; and
the price they now bear is the bed proof of their real
merit. He alfo etched well with aquafortis j and his
prints- of that kind are generally efleemed by the cu¬
rious.
FERGUS, the name of three kings of Scotland.
See (Hijlory of) Scotland.
FERGUSON, James, an eminent experimental
philofopher and mechanic, was born in Scotland, of
very poor parents. At an early age his extraordi¬
nary genius began to exert itfelf. He firft learned to
read by overhearing his father teach his elder brother:
and he had made this acquifition before any one fu-
IpeCted it. He foon difeovered a peculiar tafte for
mechanics, which firft arofe on feeing his father ufe a
lever. He purfued this ftudy a confiderable length,
even while very young •, and made a watch in wood¬
work, from having once feen one. As he had no in-
ftru&or, nor any help from books, every thing he
learned had all the merit of an original difeovery ; and
fuch, with infinite joy, he believed it to be. As foon
as his age would permit he went to fervice j in which
he met with hardfhips which rendered his conftitution
feeble through life. Whilft he was fervant to a farmer
(whofe goodnefs he acknowledges in the modeft and
humble account of hirnfelf which he prefixed to his laft
publication), he frequently contemplated the ftars j
and began the ftudy of aftronomy, by laying down,
from his own obfervations only, a celeftial globe. His
kind mafter obferving thefe marks of his ingenuity,
procured him the countenance and afliftance of his fu-
periors. By their help and inftru&ions, he went on Feiw
gaining farther knowledge, and was lent to Edin--v^
burgh. There he began to take portraits ; an em¬
ployment by which he fupported himfelf and family
for feveral years, both in Scotland and England, whilft
he was purfuing more ferious ftudies. In London he
firft publilhed fome curious aftronomical tables and cal¬
culations j and afterwards gave public leisures in ex¬
perimental philofophy, which he repeated (by fub-
feription) in moft of the principal towns in England,
with the higheft marks of general approbation. He
was eledted a fellow of the Royal Society, without pay¬
ing for admiffion (an honour fcarcely ever conferred
on a native) 5 and had a penfion of 50I. per. ann. given
him, unfolicited, by our gracious king, at his accef-
fion, who had heard ledlures from him, and frequent¬
ly fent for and converfed with him on curious topics.
He alfo received feveral prefects from his majefty, the
patron of real merit. To what a degree of confidera-
tion Mr Fergufon mounted by the ftrength of his na¬
tural genius, almoft every one knows. He was uni-
verfally coniklered as at the head of aftronomy and me¬
chanics in this nation of philofopbers. And he might
juftly be ftiled felf-taught, or rather heaven-taught ;
for in his whole life he had not above half a year’s in-
ftruftion at fchool. He was a man of the cleareft
judgment and the moft unwearied application to ftudy;
benevolent, meek, and innocent in his manners as a
child ; humble, courteous, and communicative ; inftead
of pedantry, philofophy feemed to produce in him only
diffidence and urbanity,—a love for mankind and for
his Maker. His whole life was an example of refigna-
tion and Chriftian piety. He might be faid to be an
enthufiaft in his love of God, if religion, founded on
fuch fubftantial and enlightened grounds as his was,
could be ftyled enthufiafm. He died in 1776.
Ferguson, Robert, a Scottifh poet, who acquired a
confiderable ftiare of celebrity at a very early period of
life, was born at Edinburgh on the 5th of September
1750, of which we are affured from unqueftionable au¬
thority, although fome have placed it in 1751. His-
father’s name was William, who, as well as the fon,
likewife paid court to the mufes i but he wifely relin-
quifhed the ftudy of poetry for the more certain emolu¬
ments of trade and commerce, being employed in dif¬
ferent mercantile houfes both in Edinburgh and Aber¬
deen. He was an accountant in the Linen Hall when
he died, but never acquired any thing like an indepen¬
dent fortune.
The fubjeft of the prefect Iketch svas of a weak and
delicate conftitution during infancy,—indeed to fuch a
degree, that fmall hopes were entertained of his ever
reaching the years of manhood. Yet fuch were the
care and attention of his parents, that he was able to
attend an Englifh fchool by the time he was fix years
of age, when his progrefs was confidered as very extra¬
ordinary. It was no lefs rapid at the high fchool of
Edinburgh, which he attended four years, acquiring a
competent, knowledge of the Latin tongue with very
little labour or exertion. From that he went to the
grammar fchool of Dundee, and in two years after to
the univerfity of St Andrews, which place his father
preferred to Edinburgh, becaufe a gentleman ©f the
name of Fergufon had left two burfaries for the educa¬
tion of two boys of the fame name.
FEU [ 603 ] F E R
pefgufon. HIs health was never impaired at any time by fevere
—-y—ftudy j yet he kept alive at the univerfity the opinion
•which had been entertained of him while at fchool, and
he was decidedly the firft mathematician of the fame
Handing. He was patronized by Dr Wilkie, profeffor
of natural philofophy, who was perhaps as much attach¬
ed to him for his poetical as his mathematical talents,
the do&or himfelf being a poet, and author of the Epigo-
niad. This kindnefs was repaid by Fergufon, on the
death of Dr Wilkie, by a beautiful eclogue to his me¬
mory, written in the Scottith dialed!. A little before
he left the univerfity, Fergufon had conceived the idea
of writing a tragedy on the death of Sir William Wal¬
lace, for which he had colledled materials ; but as
he afterwards met with a work on the fame fubjedt, he
abandoned the defign, after he had completed two adts.
His own reafon for doing fo he thus expreffed : “ What¬
ever I publilh (hall be original, and this tragedy might
be conlidered as a copy.”
He returned to Edinburgh when he had finiflied his
Hudies, without having fixed on any particular employ¬
ment 5 for although he was deftined for the church by
his father, on his death he paid little attention to the
expoflulations of his mother. He declined alfo the
ftudy of phyfic, afligning this as a reafon, that when
he read the defcription of difeafes, he believed that
he felt the fymptoms of them all in himfelf. He was then
induced to attempt the ftudy of the law, in which, as
was natural to expedf, he made no proficiency. He
feems to have turned a wilhful eye to feme finecure
place, to obtain which he paid a vifit to an uncle who
refided at Aberdeen, a man of literature and opulence,
hoping that through his influence he might be fettled
in fome place fuited to his merit. In this rational hope
he was completely difappointed ; for although his uncle
ftiewed him every mark of attachment, his fondnefs de¬
cayed by degrees, and in fix months he defired him in
an abrupt manner to leave his houfe, without attempt¬
ing to procure for him any kind of living. It would
perhaps be rafli and uncandid to reprobate this conduct
of his uncle, whofe penetration probably beheld, if not
the actual commiflion, at leafl the germinating feeds of
thefe too falhionable vices and follies into which he af¬
terwards plunged. We only give this as a conjecture
of our own $ but it feems to derive confiderable counte¬
nance from the contrail between the manner in which
his uncle received him, and the nature of their repara¬
tion. Be this as it may, the conduft of his uncle ope¬
rated powerfully on the mind of Fergufon, which, with
the fatigue of his journey back to Edinburgh, brought
on him a fevere illnefs, on his recovery from which he
compofed two elegies ; one on the decay of friendlhip,
and the other againft repining at fortune j both which
were fuggefted by this adventure at Aberdeen. The
difappointment of his hopes, and the effeCt it produced
on his mind, are very evident from the following ftanzas.
But, ah ! thefe youthful fportive hours are fled,
The feenes of jocund mirth are now no more ;
No healing flumbers ’tend my humble bed,
No friends condole the forrows of the poor.
And what avail the thoughts of former joy ?
What comfort bring they in the adverfe hour ?
Can they the canker-worm of care deftroy,
Or brighten fortune’s difeontented lour ?
So great were his neceflities at this period, that he Fergufou,
copied papers in the commiffary clerk’s office for fo Ferise.
much per Iheet, which employment he foon left in dif- ——v—"
gull.
So boundlefs was his wit, which was only equalled
by his good nature, modefly,and goodnefsof heart, that
all who knew him received him with affection : but his
powers of long and talents for mimicry often led him
into the company of the diflipated, whole example could
not fail of doing him effential injury, but who had nei¬
ther the power nor inclination to provide for him
through life. The irregularities into which he was thus
frequently led, often awakened upon him the dictates
of confcience ; and the converfation of a minilter who
underltood his manner of life, made a deep impreflion
on his mind. In Ihort, his remorfe foon after aflumed
the appearance of abfolute delpair. His fprightlinefs
entirely forfook him : but he gradually recovered from
his defpondency, and his health was fully reftored.
Soon after he cut his head fo dreadfully in confo-
quence of a fall, that from the lofs of blood he became
delirious, in which condition he remained for fome
months, till the want of fleep and perpetual talking put
a period to his exiltence on the 16th of October 1774.
He was buried in the Canongate churchyard. Over
his grave his admirer Robert Burns has fince erected a
monument.
Had he joined prudence to his bright genius
and good heart, he would have no doubt rilen to
diflinguilhed eminence in the literary world. His
poems in the Scottith diaieft have been univerfally ad¬
mired by his countrymen 5 and when we reflect that
they were compofed in a round of diflipation, they muft
be confidered as unequivocal evidences of his genius
and tafte.
FERINE, in Roman antiquity, holidays, or days
upon which they abstained from work. Proclamation
was generally made by the herald, by command of the
Rex Sacrorum or Flamines, that ail Should abflain from
bufinefs j and whoever tranfgreffed the order was fe-
verely fined.—The feriae were of two kinds, public and
private.
The public feriae were fourfold. 1. Stativce, which
were kept as public feafts by the whole city upon cer¬
tain immoveable days appointed by their kalendar j—
fuch were the Compitalia, Garment alia, Lupercalia, iyc.
2. Ferice Conceptivce, which were moveable feafts, the
days for the celebration of which were fixed by the
magistrates or priefts 5 of this fort were the Ferice La-
tince, Paganalia, Compitalia, &c. which happened every
year, but the days for keeping them were left to the
diferetion of the magistrates or prielts. 3. Ferice Irn-
perativae, which were fixed and instituted by the mere
command of confuls, praetors, di<5tators, upon the gain¬
ing of fome vidlory or other fortunate event. 4. Nun-
dince. See the articles Nundin^:, Agonalia, Car-
MENTALIA, &C.
The private feriae were holidays obferved by parti¬
cular perfons or families on feveral accounts, as birth¬
days, funerals, &c. The feriae belonged to, and were
one division of the dies fejli. See Festi.
FeMM Latince, a feftival at which a white bull was
facrificed, and the Latin and Roman towns provided
each a fet quantity of meat, wine, and fruits j and du¬
ring the celebration, the Romans and Latins fwore
4 G 2 eternal
PER
I 604 ]
FEE
FerisS
il
Ferma.
nagh.
eternal friendftiip to each other, taking home a piece
of the viftim to every town. The feflival was infti-
tuted by Tarquinius Superbus when he overcame the
^ Tufcans and made a league with the Latins, propof-
ing to build a common temple to Jupiter Latialis, at
which both nations might meet and offer facrifices for
their common faftrty. At firft the folemnity lafted but
one day, but it was at different times extended to ten.
It was held on the Alban mount, and celebrated with
chariot races at the Capitol, where the vidlor was treat¬
ed wdth a large draught of wormwood drink.
FERIA, in the Romifli breviary, is applied to the
feveral days of the week ; thus Monday is the feria fe-
cunda, Tuefday the feria tertia ; though thefe days are
not working days, but holidays. The occafion of this
was, that the firft Chriftians were ufed to keep the
Eafter week holy, calling Sunday the prima feria, &c.
whence the term feria was given to the days of every
week. But befides thefe, they have extraordinary
feriae, viz. the three laft days of Paffion week, the
two following Eafter day, and the fecond ferise of Ro¬
gation.
FERIANA, the ancient city of Thala in Africa,
taken and deftroyed by Metellus in the war with Ju-
gurtha. It was vifited by Mr Bruce in his late travels
through Africa, who expefted to have found many
magnificent ruins in the place, but was difappointed.
The only remarkable objefts he met with were the baths,
which are excefiively warm. Thefe are without the
town, and flow from a fountain named El Tarmid.
Notwithftanding the exceflive heat of its water, the
fountain is not deftitute of fifties. They are of the
lhape of a gudgeon, above four inches in length j and
be fuppofed that there might have been about five or
fix dozen of them in the pool. On trying the water
with a thermometer, he found the heat fo great, that
be was furprifed the fifti were not boiled in it. That
filh fhould exift in this degree of heat, is very furprif-
ing j but it feeras no lefs wonderful that Mr Bruce,
while ftanding naked in fuch water, ftiould leifurely
make obfervations on its heat, without fufpe&ing that
be himfelf would be boiled by continuing there. We
have to regret that the accidental wetting of the leaf
on which he wrote down his remarks has deprived the
public of the knowledge of the precife degree to which
the thermometer is raifed by this water. The fifti are
faid to go down the ftream to fome diftance during
the day, and to return to the fpring or warmeft part
at night.
FERMANAGH, a county of Ireland, in the pro¬
vince of Ulfter j bounded by Cavan on the fouth, Tir-
Oen on the north and north-eaft, by Tyrconnel on
the north-weft, Leitrim on the fouth-weft, and Mona¬
ghan on the weft. It is 38 miles, long, and 24 broad.
A great part of it is taken up with bogs j and the
great lake called Lough-Earne, which is near 20 miles
in length and in fome places 14 in breadth, diverfified
with upwards of 300 illands, moft of them well wood¬
ed, inhabited, and covered with cattle. It abounds
alfo with great variety of fifti, fuch as huge pike, large
bream, roach, eels, trout, and falmon. The water of
the lake in fome places is faid to have a particular foft-
nefs and fliminefs, that bleaches linen much fooner than
could be done by other water. The lake is divided
into the upper and lower, between which it contra&s
itfelf for five or fix miles to the breadth of an ordinary
river. In one part of the country are marble rocks 50
or 60 feet high. This county formerly fent four mem¬
bers to the Irifti parliament, viz. two for the (hire, and
two for Innilkillen the capital. Fermanagh gives the
title of vifcount to Earl Verney.
FERMENT, any body which being applied to an¬
other, produces fermentation.
Ferments are either matters already in the aft of fer¬
mentation, or that foon run into this aft. Of the firft
kind are the flowers of wine, yeaft, fermenting beer,
or fermenting wine, &c. and of the fecond are the new
expreffed vegetable juices of fummer fruit.
Among diftillers, ferments are all thole bodies which*
when added to the liquor, only correft fome fault,
therein, and, by removing fome obftacle to fermenta¬
tion, forward it by fecondary means : as alfo fuch as,
being added in time of fermentation, make the liquor
yield a larger proportion of fpirit, and give it a finer
flavour.
FERMENTATION, may be defined a fenfible in¬
ternal motion of the conftitucnt particles of a moift,
fluid, mixed or compound body $ by the continuance
of which motion, thefe particles are gradually removed
from their former fituation or combination, and again,
after fome vifible feparation is made, joined together
in a different order and arrangement, lb that a new
compound is farmed, having qualities very fenfibly dif¬
ferent from thofe of the original fluid.
Fermentation, properly fo called, is confined to the
vegetable and animal kingdoms for the effervefcences
between acids and alkalies, however much they may
referable the fermentation of vinous liquors, are never-
thelefs exceedingly different. It is divided into three
kinds j or rather, there are three different ftages of it*
viz. the vinous, the acetous, and the putrefaftive. To
thefe has been added a fourth, the panary, or the fer¬
mentation of bread. Of the firft, vegetables alone are
fufceptible ; the flefli of young animals is in fome
flight degree fufceptible of the fecond (a) j but animal
fubftances are particularly fufceptible of the third, which
vegetables do not fo eafiiy fall into without previoufty
undergoing the firft and fecond. The produce of tho
firft ftage is wine, or fome other vinous liquor ; of the
fecond, vinegar j and of the third, ammonia or volatile al¬
kali.
Ferma¬
nagh
Fermenta¬
tion.
(a) Under the article China, N° 115. a faft is mentioned which feems to fhow that animal fubftances are
likewife capable of the vinous fermentation ; viz. that the Chinefe make ufe of a certain liquor called lamb wine,
and likewife that they ufe a kind of fpirit diftilled iraxn-fheep‘ls fefh. This is related on the credit of M. Grofier:
but as he does not mention the, particulars of the procefs, we are at liberty to fuppofe that the flefh of thefe
animals has been mixed with rice, or fome other ingredients naturally capable of producing a vinous liquor ; fo
that inftead of contributing any thing to the fermentation in queftion, they may in reality be detrimental, and
fumilh only that firong and difagreeable fmell complained of in the liquid.
F E R
kali. For the explanation of this procefs, according to
the principles of modern chemiftry, fee Chemistry In¬
dex-, and for the more general details of the procefs, fee
Brewing, Matting, and
FERN, Filin. See Filices, Botany Index.
Fern is very common in dry and barren places. It
is one of the worft weeds for lands, and very hard to
deftroy where it has any thing of a deep foil to root in.
In fome grounds, the roots of it are found to the depth
of eight feet. One of the moft effe&ual ways to de¬
ftroy it is often mowing the grafs j and, if the field is
ploughed up, plentifully dunging thereof is very good :
but the moft certain remedy for it is urine. However,
fern, cut while the fap is in it, and left to rot upon the
ground, is a very great improver of land.
In fome places of the north, the inhabitants mow it
green j and, burning it to allies, make thofe alhes up
into balls, with a little water. They then dry them
in the fun, and make ufe of them to clean their linen
with; looking upon it to be near as good as foap for
that purpofe.
Male Fern. See Polypodium, Botany Index.
Female Fern. See Pteris, Botany Index.
FERNANDO, or Fernandes, an illand in the
Pacific ocean. See JUAN Fernandes.
FERNELIUS, John, phyfieian to Henry II. king
of France, was born in Picardy, in the latter end of
the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century.
Being fent to Paris to ftudy rhetoric and philofophy,
he applied himfelf in a moft intenfe manner. All
other pleafure was infipid to him. He cared neither
for play nor for walking, nor for entertainments, nor
even for converfation. He read Cicero, Plato, and
Ariftotle. The reading of Cicero procured him this
advantage, that the leftures he read on philofophical
fubjefts were as eloquent as thofe of the other mailers
were barbarous at that time. He alfo applied himfelf
very earneftly to the mathematics. This continual
ftudy drew upon him a long fit of ficknefs, which
obliged him to leave Paris. On his recovery, he returned
thither with a defign to ftudy phyfic •, but before he
applied himfelf entirely to it, he taught philofophy in
the college of St Barbara. After this, be fpent four
years in the ftudy of phyfic ; and taking a dodlor’s de¬
gree, confined himfelf to his clofet, in order to read
the bell authors, and to improve himfelf in the mathe¬
matics j that is, as far as the bufinefs of his profeflion
would fuffer him. Never was a man more diligent than
Fernel. He ufed to rifa at four o’clock in the morn¬
ing, and ftudied till it was time either to read leflures
or to vifit patients. He then examined the urine that
was brought him $ for this was the method of thofe
times, with regard to the poor people, who did not fend
for the phyfician. Coming home to dine, he fluithim-
felf up among his books till they called him down to
table. Rifing from table, he returned to his ftudy,
which he did not leave without necelfary occafions.
Coming home at night, he did juft as at noon : he ftaid
among his books till they called him to fupper ; re¬
turned to them the moment he had flipped ; and did
not leave them till 11 o’clock, when he went to bed.
In the courfe of thefe ftudies he contrived mathema¬
tical inftruments, and was at great charges in making
them. But his wife murmuring at the expence, he
difinifled his inftrument-makers, and applied himfelf in
2
C 6o5 ]
F E R
Ferrara.
good earneft to pra&ife phyfic. But as vifiting pa- FerneHus
tients did not employ his whole time, he read public
leflures upon Hippocrates and Galen. This foon gain¬
ed him a great reputation through France and in fo¬
reign countries. His bufinefs increafing, he left off
reading leflures ; but as nothing could make him ceafe
to ftudy in private, he fpent all the hours he could
fpare in corapofing a work of phyfic, entitled PlnjJio-
logia, •which was foon after publiftied. He was pre¬
vailed with to read ledlures upon this new work, which
he did for three years : and undertaking another
work which he publiftied, Devencefellione, he laid him¬
felf under the neceflity of reading lectures fome years
longer, in order to explain this new book to the youth.
While he was thus employed, he was fent for to court,
in order to try whether he could cure a lady, whofe
recovery was defpaired of. He was fo happy as to cure
her 3 which was the firft caufe of that efteem which
Henry II. who was then but dauphin, and was in love
with that lady, conceived for him. This prince offered
him, even then, the place of firft phyfician to him j but
Fernel, who infinitely preferred his ftudies to the hurry
of a court, would not accept the employment. When
Henry came to the throne, he renewed his entreaties:
but Feme! reprefented that the honour which was of¬
fered to him was due, for feveral reafons, and as an he¬
reditary right, to the late king’s phyfician ; and that,
as for himfelf, he wanted fome time to make experi*
ments concerning feveral difcoveries he had made re¬
lating to phyfic. The king admitted this : but as
foon as Francis I.’s phyfician died, Fernel was obliged
to go and fill his place at Henry II.’s court. And
here juft the contrary of what he dreaded came to pafs 3
for he enjoyed more reft and more leifure at court than
he had done at Paris ; and he might have confidered
the court as an agreeable retirement, had it not been
for the journey which the new civil war obliged the
king to take. He died in 1558, leaving behind him
a great many works, befides what have been mention¬
ed 3 as, De abditis rerum caujis, feven books of Pa¬
thology, a book on Remedies, &c. They have been
printed feveral times with his life prefixed, written by
William Plantius his difciple.
FERONIA, the Pagan goddefs of woods and orch¬
ards. This deity took her name from the town Fero-
nia, fituated at the foot of Mount Sorafte in Italy,
where was a wood and temple confecrated to hen
That town and wood are mentioned by Virgil, in the
catalogue of Turnus’s forces. Strabo relates, that
thofe who facrificed to this goddefs, walked barefoot
upon burning coals, without being hurt. She was
the guardian deity of freed men, who received their
cap of liberty at her temple.
FERRARA, a city of Italy, in the territory of the
pope, capital of a duchy of the fame name. It is feat-
ed in an agreeable and fertile plain; watered by the ri¬
ver Po, which is a defence on one fide; and on the other
is encompafied by a tlrong wall and deep broad ditches
full of water, as well as by a good citadel, finiftied by
Pope Paul. In the middle of the city is a magnificent
caftle, which was formerly the palace of the dukes, and
is not now the leaft ornament of Ferrara. It is quite
furrounded with water; and the arfenal, which is near
it, deferves the obfervation of travellers. Over againft
the palace is the duke’s garden 3 with a park, called
Belviders-
Ferrars.
F E II
Ferrara Behidere on account of its beauty. Behind the t^ar-
den there is a palace, built with white marble, called
 the palace of diamonds, becaufe all the ftones are cut
diamond falbion.
Ferrara had formerly a confiderable trade j but it is
now almoft deferted, being very poor, infomuch that
there is hardly a perfon to be lien in the ftreets.
This is owing to the exa&ions of the popes. The for¬
tifications are now neglected, and the ancient univerfi-
ty is dwindled into a wretched college of the Jefuits.
However, in I75i> was advanced to an archbilhop-
ric by Pope Clement XIL The country about it is
fo marthy, that a Ihower or two of rain renders the
loads almoft impaffable. It is 24 miles north-eaft of
Bologna, 38 north-weft of Ravenna, 70 north-by-weft
of Florence, and 190 north of Rome. E. Long, 1 2.
14. N. Lat. 44. 36.
Ferrara, the duchy of 5 a province in the pope’s
territory, bounded on the north by the ftate of Venice,
on the weft by the duchies of Mantua and Mi rand ol a,
on the fouth by the Bolognefe and by Romagna, of
which it was formerly a part, and on the eaft by the
gulf of Venice. It is 50 miles in length, and 43 in
breadth along the coaft ; but grows narrower and nar¬
rower towards the Mantuan. I his country is almoft
fuirounded by the branches of the Po, which often over¬
flow the country, and form the great morafs of Coma-
chio, which has a bad effeft on the air. It is thin of
people, and indifferently cultivated, though fit for corn,
pulfe, and hemp. The Po and the lake of Comachio
yield a large quantity of filh. Ferrara is the capital
town; befides which there are Arano, Comachio, Mag-
navacca, Belriguardo, Cento, Buendeno, and Fieherola.
This duchy was formerly poffeffed by the houfe of Efte.
But the pope took poffeflion of it in 1598, after the
death of Alphonfo II. duke of Ferrara, it being a fief
of the church.
FERRARIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
gynandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the fixth order, F.nfatce. See Botany Index.
FERRARS, George, a lawyer, poet, hiftorian, and
accompliftied gentleman, w'as defcended from an an¬
cient family in Hertfordlhire, and born about the year
1510, in a village near St Alban’s. He w'as educat¬
ed at Oxford, and thence, removed to Lincoln’s Inn ;
where applying with uncommon diligence to the ftudy
of the law, he was foon diftinguithed for his elocution
at the bar. Cromwell, earl of Effex, the great minifter
of Henry VIII. introduced him to the king, who em¬
ployed him as his menial fervant, and in 1535, gave
him a grant of the manor of Flamftead, in his native
county. This is fuppofed to have been a profitable
eftate; neverthelefs, Mr Ferrars being a gay courtier,
and probably an expenfive man, about feven years af¬
ter was taken to execution by a thcriff’s officer for a
debt of 200 merks, and lodged in the compter. Be¬
ing at this time member for Plymouth, the houfe of
commons immediately interfered, and he foon obtained
his liberty. He continued in favour with the king to
the end of his reign, and in that of Edward VI. he
attended the lord prote&or Somerfet as a commiflion-
er of the army in his expedition to Scotland in 1548.
In the fame reign, the young king being then at
Greenwich, Mr Ferrars was proclaimed lord of mifrule,
that is, prince of fports and paftimes ; which office he
3
[ 606 ]
F E R
difcharged during 12 days, in Cbriftmas holidays, to the
entire fatisfaftion of the court. This is all we know
of Mr Ferrars; except that he died in 1579, a* Flam¬
ftead in Hertfordflnre, and was buried in the parith
church. He is not lefs celebrated for his valour in the
field, than for his other accomplithments as a gentle¬
man and a fcholar. He wrote, 1. Hiftory of the Reign
of Queen Mary; publithed in Grafton’s chronicle,
1569, fol. 2. Six tragedies, or dramatic poems; pub!
lilhed in a book called the Mirror for Magifrates, firft
printed in 1559, afterwards in 1587, and again in
1610.
FERRET. See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
Ferrets, among glafsmakers, the iron with which
the workmen try the melted metal, to fee if it be fit to
vyork.—It is alio ufed for thofe irons which make the
rings at the mouth of the bottles.
FERRETTO, in glafs-making, a fubftanee which
ferves to colour glafs.
I his is made by a fimple calcination of copper, but
it feryes for feveral colours : there are two ways of ma¬
king it. The firft is this. Take thin plates of copper,
and lay them on a layer of powdered brimftone, in the
bottom of a crucible; over thefe lay more brimftone
and over that another layer of the plates, and fo on al¬
ternately till the pot is full. Cover the pot, lute it well,
place it in a wind furnace, and make a Itrong fire about
it for two hours. When it is taken out and cooled, the
copper will be found fo calcined, that it may be crumb¬
led to pieces between the fingers like a friable earth.
It will be of a reddiffi, and, in fome parts, of a blackifli
colour. This muft be powdered and fifted fine for ufe.
Another way of making ferretto is as follows. Make
a number of itratifications of plates of copper and white
vitriol alternately in a crucible; which place on the
the floor of the glafs furnace near the eye ; and let it
ftand there three days; then take it out, and make a
new ftratification with more frelh vitriol; calcine again
as before. Repeat this operation fix times, and a moft
valuable ferretto will be obtained.
FERRO, (W. Long. 19. N. Lat. 28.), the moft
wefterly of the Canary iflands, near the African coaft,
where the firft meridian was lately fixed in moft maps;
but now, the geographersof almoft every kingdom make
their refpetftive capitals the firft meridian, as we do Lon¬
don. It is a dry and barren fpot, affording no water
except what is fupplied in a very furprifing manner by
a tree which grows in thefe iflands, called the Foun¬
tain-Tree.
Ferro, Faro, or Feroe IJlands; a clufter of little
iflands lying in the Northern ocean, between 6i° 15',
and 62° 2 ft N. Lat. and between 50 and 8° W.
Long. They belong to Denmark. There are 17 which
are habitable ; each of which is a lofty mountain arif-
jng out of the waves, divided from the others by deep
?nd rapid currents. Some of them are deeply indented
with fecure harbours ; Providence feeming to have fa¬
voured mankind with the fafeft retreats in the moft
boifterous feas. All are very fteep, and moft of them
faced with moft tremendous precipices. The furface of
the mountains confifls of a (hallow foil of remarkable
fertility ; for barley, the only corn fown here, yields
above 20 for one; and the grafs affords abundant paf-
turage for fheep. T. he exports are, failed mutton and
tallow, goofe quills, feathers, and eider down ; and,
by
Ferrar
Ferro,
F E ft
t 6°7 ]
F E ft
Ferro.
by the induflry of the inhabitants, knit woollen watft-
, C(jatc!j caps, and ilockings. No trees beyond the fize
of juniper or ftunted willows will grow here, nor are any
•wild quadrupeds to be met with except rats and mice,
originally efcaped from the {hipping. Vaft quantities
of lea fowl frequent the rocks ; and the taking of them
forniflies a very perilous employment to the natives, as
defcfibed under the article BlRB-Catching.
The fea which furrounds thefe iflands is extremely
turbulent. The tides vary greatly on the weftern and
eafiern fides. On the fir ft* where is received the un¬
interrupted flood of the ocean from tire remote Green¬
land, the tide rifes feven fathoms *, on the eaftern fide
it rifes only three. Dreadful whirlwinds, called by the
Danes oes, agitate the fea to a Arrange degree *, catch
up a vaft quantity of water, fo as to leave a great tem¬
porary chafm in the fpot on which it falls, and carries
away with it, to an amazing diftance, any fifties which
may happen to be within the reach of its fury. Thus
great ftioals of herrings have been found on the higheft
mountains of Feroe. It is equally refiftlefs on land ;
tearing up trees, ftones, and animals, and carrying them
to very diftant places.
Among the numerous whirlpools of thefe feas, that
of Suderoe, near the ifland of the fame name, is the
moft noted. It is occafioned by a crater 61 fathoms
in depth in the centre, and from 50 to 55 on the fides.
The water forms four fierce circumgirations. The
point they begin at is on the fide of a large bafon,
where commences a range of rocks running fpirally
and terminating at the verge of the crater. This range
is extremely rugged, and covered with water from the
depth of 12 to 8 fathoms only. It forms four equi-
diftant wreaths with a channel from 35 to 20 fathoms
in depth between each. On the outfide beyond that
depth, the fea fuddenly finks to 80 and 90. On toe
fouth border of the bafon is a lofty rock, called Sumboe
Munh, noted for the multitude of birds which frequent
it. On one fide, the water is only 3 or 4 fathoms
deep; on the other 15. The danger at moft times,
efpecrally in ftorms, is very great. Ships are irrefift-
ibly drawn in ; the rudder lofes its power; and the
waves beat as high as the mafts ; fo that an efcape is
almoft miraculous; yet at the reflux, and in vciy ftiil
weather, the inhabitants will venture in boats for the
fake of fiftiing.
Innumerable flocks of aquatic birds are continually
to be feen perched on the extremities of the rocks,
which make their nefts in the clefts above the preci¬
pices ; and vaft numbers of them may be killed by the
difcharge of a Angle mufket, and the reft will not ftir
fo little are they accuftomed to be difturbed. One ot
the iflands contains but a Angle habitation, which can
be vifited by the curate only in fummer. In the
fouthern parts of thefe iflands coal-mines were difcover-
ed about the beginning of the eighteenth century, and
trials of the coals were only made in I777> w.hen
it was judged that working them would be of lufticrent
intereft and confequence. The quarry was determined
by a commiffary to be about 12,000 feet long, 4000
broad on a medium, and five feet deep ; but fo great
did the difficulty of working it appear, that the idea
Was abandoned. The coals were analyzed by the cele¬
brated profeffor Kratzenftein of Copenhagen, who
found that they were fuperior to thofe of England, as
burning longer, and giving a more intenfe heat, but
not fo eafily kindled. A trial of them has been made
in Scotland, and they are allowed to be of a fuperior ^
quality. It is a favourable circumftance to the expor¬
tation of the produce of thofe iflands, that their har¬
bours are never frozen, and navigation of confequence
could meet with no interruption during the winter.
The meafles and fmallpox never attack the inhabi¬
tants but when they are brought there by ftrangers,
when the ravages they make are almoft as terrible
as thofe of the peftilence ; but for 70 years back they
have not been fubjeifled to this dreadful vifitation. The
air is temperate, and neither too hot in fummer, nor
extremely cold in winter. There are frequent mills on
thefe iflands, but they do not feem to be injurious to the
health of the inhabitants. The wind often blows-
with fuch violence, that the people on horfeback are
obliged to difmount at its approach, which is announced
by a whittling acrofs the rocks ; and perfons on foot
muft throw themfelves flat on their face, to avoid the
dreadful confequences of the irrefiftible hurricane.
So fudden is its approach at forae times, that a burning
candle might be carried in the open air but a few fe-
conds before it. There is feldom any thunder on thefe
iflands; but when the phenomenon does happen, its
awful and inceffant roar among the rocks is truly alarm¬
ing. Potatoes, the cultivation of which is rapidly ad¬
vancing, thrive well, and the fame is the cafe with ra-
difhes and turnips. Corn is not much cultivated, which
would require exceflive labour in a country fo moun¬
tainous, and the fpring fiflrery requires all the hands
that can be fpared. Trees cannot be made to grow
upon them, and of confequence there is no wood.
The number of inhabitants does not exceed 5000 5
and they are in general well made, with fair complexions,
and their whitenefs is very feldom impaired by the in¬
fluence of the fun. They are not deficient in under-
ftanding ; and although phlegmatic, yet they are benevo¬
lent and hofpitable, and are feldom known to quarrel.
They are fond of brandy, and yet it is faid that they
are very rarely feen in a ftate of intoxication. They
are frugal and upright, yet extremely credulous, and
much addi£ted to fuperllitious praflices. There are no
fchools among them, as parents educate their own chil¬
dren, and their knowledge of confequence is very cir-
cumfcribed. They abound in fid luff players at chefs,
but are wholly unacquainted with inftruments of mufic,
and dance to the found of the voice.
FERROL, a fea port town in Spain, in the pro¬
vince of Gallicia, feated on a bay of the Atlantic,
ocean. It h as a good harbour, and is frequented by
the Spanifti fleet in time of Avar. W. Long. 8. 46.
N. Lat. 43. 26.
FERRUGINOUS, any thing partaking of iron,
or which contains particles of that metal.
FERRUGO, Rust, or oxide of iron. See Iron?
Oxide of, Chemistry Index.
FERRUM, Iron. See Iron, Chemistry Index.
FERRY, a liberty by prefcription, or by the king’s
grant, to have a boat for paffage, on a frith or river,
for carrying paflengers, horfes, &.c. over the fame foY a
reafonable toll.
FERTILITY, that quality which denominates a
thing fruitful or prolific.
Nothing can produce fertility in either fex, but what
promotes
Fen®
11
Fertility-
F E S
Fertility promotes perhaps health ; nothing but good blood, fpi-
H _ rits, and perfect animal functions, that is, high health,
verfes!ne Can be^e.t Perfea fecundity j and therefore, all means
4 — t - ■ an^ medicines, all noftrums and fpecifics, to procure
fertility, different from thofe which procure good blood
and fpirits, are arrant quackery. Dr Cheyne fays, that
water-drinking males are very rarely infertile ; and
that, if any thing in nature can prevent infertility, and
bring fine children, it is a milk and feed diet perfever-
ed in by both parents.
To increafe the fertility of vegetables, fays Lord Ba¬
con, we muft not only increafe the vigour of the earth
and of the plant, but alfo preferve what would other-
wife be.loll:, whence he infers that there is much
faved by fetting, in comparifon of fowing. It is re¬
ported, continues he, that if nitre be mixed with water
to the thicknefs of honey, and after a vine is cut, the
bud be anointed therewith, it will fprout within eight
days. If the experiment be true, the caufe may be in
the opening of the bud, and contiguous parts, by the
fpirit of the nitre ; for nitre is the life of vegetables.
How far this may be true, is not perhaps fufficiently
ihown, notwithftanding the experiments of-Sir Kenelm
Digby and M. Homberg. Confult Mr Evelyn’s Syl-
vy, the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, the French Me¬
moirs, and Dr Stahl’s Philofophical Principles of Che-
miftry 5 but a proper fet of accurate experiments feems
ftill wanting in this view.
FERULA, a little wooden pallet or flice, reputed
the fchoolmafter’s fceptre, wherewith he chaftifes the
boys, by ftriking them on the palm of the hand. The
word is Latin, and has alfo been ufed to denote the
prelate’s crofier and ftaff. It is fuppofed to be formed
of the Latin fenre, “ to ftrike.” Under the eaftern
empire, the ferula was the emperor’s fceptre, as is feen
on divers medals : it confifts of a long Item or fhank
and a flat (quare head. I he ufe of the ferula is very
ancient among the Greeks, who ufed to call their prin¬
ces v«g0>j*(»<pogW, q. d. “ ferula-bearers.”
In the ancient eaftern church, ferula or narthex frg-
mfied a place feparated from the church 5 wherein
the penitents or the catechumens of the fecond order,
palled anfcuhantes, xK^ox^xny.oi, were kept, as not being
allowed to enter the church ; whence the name of the
place, the perfons therein being under penance or dif-
cipline : fub ferula erant ecclefue.
Ferula, Fennel-giant, a genus of plants belonging
to the pentandria clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 45th order, Umbellate. See Bota¬
ny Index. The drug affafetida is obtained from a fpe-
cies of ferula. r
FESCENNIA, or Fescennium, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a town of Etruria, above Falerii •, where the
Fefcennine vcrfes were firft invented. Now Go/e/'e in
the Ecclefiaftical State, near the Tiber. '
r verses, in antiquity, were a kind
ot iatincal verfes, full of wanton and obfcene expref-
hons, fung or rehearfed by the company, with many
indecent geftures and dances, at the folemnization of a
marriage among the Romans j (Hor. lib. v. ep. i. 14 c )
I he word is borrowed, according to Macrobius, from
jacinum, “ a charm the people taking fuch fongs to
be proper to drive away witches, or prevent their
^effect 5 but its more probable origin is from Fefcen-
[ 608 ]
mum,
ufed.
FET
a city of Campania, where fuch verfes were firftFeCcennin*
FEuSE, in Heraldry, one of the nine honourable
ordmai'ies. See Heraldry.
Fesse Point, is the exadl centre of the efcutcheon
See Point.
Fesse Ways, or in Fesse, denotes any thing borne
after the manner of a feffe j that is, in a rank acrofs
the middle of the (hield.
Party per FESSE, implies a parting acrofs the middle
of the ftiield, from fide to fide, through the feffe point.
FES 11 dies, in Roman antiquity, certain days in
the year devoted to the honour of the gods.
. Nrnna, when he diftributed the year into 12 months,
divided the fame into the dies fejli, dies profejli, and’
dies interciji.
The fejli were again divided into days of facrifices,
banquets, games, and feriae. See Ferine.
The profejli were thofe days allowed to men for the
adminiftration of their affairs, whether of a public or
private nature : thefe are divided into fafti, comitia-
les, &c. See Fasti, Comitiales, &c.
The interciji were days common both to gods and
men, fome parts of which were allotted to the fervice
of the one, and fome to that of the other.
FESTINO, in Logic, the third mood of the fecond
figure of the fyllogifm, the firft propofition whereof is
an univerfal negative, the fecond a particular affirma¬
tive, and the third a particular negative j as in the fol¬
lowing example :
FES No bad man can be happy.
TI Some rich men are bad men.
NO Ergo, Some rich men are not happy,
FESLIVAL, a time of feafting. See Feast.—
The term is particularly applied to anniverfary days of
civil or religious joy.
FES! OON, in ArchiteBure and Sculpture, &c. an
ornament in form of a garland of flowers, fruits, and
leaves, intermixed or twifted together.
-It is in the form of a firing or collar, fomewhat big-
gjeft in the middle, where it falls down in an arch 5 be¬
ing extended by the two ends, the extremities of which
hang down perpendicularly.
Feftoons are now chiefly ufed in friezes, and other
vacant places which want to be filled up and adorned j
being done in imitation of the long clufters of flowers,
which the ancients placed on the doors of their temples
and houfes on feftival occafions.
FES FUC A, Fescue Grass, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the tri^ndria clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 34th order, Gramina. See
Botany and Agriculture Index.
FES FUS Pompeius, a celebrated grammarian of
antiquity, who abridged a work of Verrius Flaccus, De
Signijicatione Verborum ; but took fuch liberties in ca*
ftration and criticifing, as, Gerard Voflius obferves, are
not favourable to the reputation of his author. A com¬
plete edition of his Fragments was publiihed by M.
Daeier in 1681, for the ufe of the Dauphin. Scaliger
fays, that Feftus is an author of great ufe to thofe who
would attain the Latin tongue with accuracy.
FEILOCK, in the manege, a tuft of hair growing
behind the pattern joint of many horfes j for thofe of a
low fize have fcarce any fuch tuft.
verfej
Fetlock,
FETTI,
F E V [6c
FETTI, Domenico, an eminent painter in the
ftyle of Julio Romano* was born at Rome in 1589,
and educated under Ludovico Civoli of Florence. He
painted but little for churches, but excelled in hiftory:
his pidfures are much fought after, and are fcarce.—
He abondoned himfelf to diforderly courfes j and put
an end to his life by exceffes, in the 35th year of
his age.
FETUS. See Foetus.
FEUD, in our ancient cufloms, Is ufed for a capital
quarrel or enmity, not to be fatisfied but with the death
of the enemy : and thence ufually called deadly feud.-—
Yeud, called alfo feida, and faida, in the original Ger¬
man, fignifies guerran, i.e. helium, “ war.” Lambert
writes it feeth, and faith it fignifies capitulis inimicitia,
or “ implacable hatred.”
In Scotland, and the north of England, feud is par¬
ticularly ufed for a combination of kindred, to re¬
venge the death of any of their blood, againft the
killer and all his race, or any other great enemy.
Feud (Feoda), the fame with Fief, or Fee. See
FeODAL Syjlem.
FEUDAL, or Feodal, of or belonging to a feud
or fee. See Feodal.
FEUDATORY, or Feudatory, a tenant who for¬
merly held his eftate by feodal fervice. See Feodal
Tenure.
FEU-DUTY, in Scots Law, is the annual rent or duty
which a vaffal, by the tenor of his right, becomes bound
to pay his fuperior.
FEU-Holding, in Scots Law, is that particular tenure
by which a vaflal is taken bound to pay an annual rent
or feu-duty to his fuperior.
FEVER. See Medicine Index.
The ancients deified the difeafes, as well as the
paflions and affedlions of men. Virgil places them in
the entrance into hell, Ain. vi. 273. Among thefe
Fever had a temple on Mount Palatine, and two o-
ther parts of ancient Rome } and there is fiill extant
an infeription to this goddefs. F EERI. DIVAi.
FEERI. SANCTAL. FEBRI. MAGNAi. CA¬
MILLA. AMATA. PRO. FILIO. MALE.
AFFECTO.
Fever, in Farriery, See Farriery Index.
FEVERFEW. See Matricaria, Botany In¬
dex.
FEVERSHAM, a town of the county of Kent in
England, fituated on a branch of the river I hames,
which is navigable for hoys. It was a royal demefne
A. D. 811, and called in Kenulf’s charter the King's
little Town, though it is now a large one. It was inha¬
bited by the Britons long before the invafion of Cae-
far. In 903, King Athelftan held a great council
here. King Stephen erefted a fiately abbey, 1147,
whole abbots fat in parliament and he was buried in
it, together with Maud his queen, and Eultace his
fon 5 but of this building, two mean gate-houfes are
all that now remain. The town was firlt incorporated
by the name of the barons of Feverlham $ afterwards
by Henry VIII. with the title of the mayor and com¬
monalty •, and laftly, by that of the mayor and jurats
and com monalty. It is a populous flourilhing place,
confilling chiefly of two long broad llreets, with a
market-houfe in the centre, built I574‘ anc>ent
church was rebuilt in I754> ^*ie exPtnce 2300I.
Vgl. VIII. Part II.
9 1
FEZ
Fez.
but was originally built in Edward II.’s reign. There Fevertfiaii*
is a tree grammar fchool in this place, built and en¬
dowed by Queen Elizabeth in 1582 , alfo two charity ^
fchools. It is a member of the cinque-port of Dover,
and has a manufadfory of gunpowder, i he London
markets are fupplied from hence with abundance of
apples and cherries, and the belt oyfters for Hewing.
Thefe laft were at one time carried away in fuch quan¬
tities by the Dutch, that many men and boats were
employed in the winter to dredge for them ; and it is
faid they carried home as many as amounted to above
20001. a-year. The filhermen admit none to take up
their freedom but married men.
FEVILDEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dioecia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 34th order. Cucurbit a cece. See Botany Index.
FEVRE, TaneGui LE, of Caen in Normandy, bom
in 1615, was an excellent fcholar in Greek and Roman
learning. Cardinal de Richelieu gave him a penfion of
2000 livres to infpeft all the works publilhed at the
Louvre, and defigned to have made him principal of
a college he was about to ereft at Richelieu. But the
cardinal’s death cut off his hopes } and Cardinal Ma¬
zarine having no great relilh for learning, his penfion
was ill paid. Some time after the marquis de Fran-
ciere, governor of Langres, took him along with him
to his government, and there he embraced the Prote-
ftant religion j after which he was invited to Saumur,
where he was chofen Greek profeffor. He there
taught with extraordinary reputation. Young men
were fent to him from all the provinces in the king¬
dom, and even from foreign countries, while divines
and profeffors themfelves gloried in attending his lec¬
tures. He was preparing to go to Heidelberg, whi¬
ther he was invited by the prince Palatine, when he
died, aged 57. He wrote, I. Notes on Anacreon,
Lucretius, Longinus, Phaedrus, Juftin, Terence, Vir¬
gil, Horace, &c. 2. A ihort account of the lives of
the Greek poets. 3. Two volumes of letters : and
many other works.
FEVRE, Claud le, an eminent French painter, was
born at Fountainbleau in 16331 ar|d ftudied in the pa¬
lace there, and then at Paris under Le Sueui and Le
Brun *, the latter of whom advifed him to adhere to
portraits, for which he had a particular talent, and in
his flyle equalled the bed mailers of that country. He
died in England in 1675, aged 42.
FEZ, the capital of a kingdom of the fame name in
Barbary, in Africa. It is deferibed as a vt rv large place,
furrounded with high walls, within which there are hills
and valleys, only the middle being level and fiaf. I he
river which runs through the city, is divided into two
ftreams, from which canals are cut inui every part of
the town : fo that the mofques, colleges, palaces, and
the houfes of great men, are amply fupplied with wa¬
ter. Thev have generally fquare marble bafons in the
middle of the court of their houfes, which are fupplied
with water by marble V‘Pes that through the
walls. They conftantly run over, and the ftream ifcturns
back into the flreet, and fo into the river. The houfes
are built with brick or ftone •, and are adorned on the
outfide with fine mofaic work, or tiles like thofe of
Holland. The wood work and ceilings are carved,
painted and gilt. The roofs are flat; for they lleep
on the tops of the houfes in fummer. Mod of the
4 H hnpfes
FEZ [ 61
noufes are two ftories high, and fome three. There are
~ pizzas and galleries running all round the court on the
inlide, fo that you may go under cover from one apart¬
ment to another. 1 he pillars are of brick, covered
with glazed tiles, or of marble, with arches between.
The timber work is carved and painted with gay co¬
lours, and mod of the rooms have marble cifterns of
water. Some of the great men build towers over their
houfes feveral dories high, and fpare no expence to ren¬
der them beautiful j from hence they have a fine prof-
pe£t all over the city.
There are in this city 700 mofques, great and fmall,
JO of which are magnificent, and fupported with mar¬
ble pillars and other ornaments. The doors are covered
with mats, as well as the walls to the height of a man.
Every mofque has a tower or minaret, like thofe in
urkey, with a gallery on the top, from whence they
call the people to prayers. The principal mofque is
, near a mde and a half in circumference. The middle
building is 150 yards in length, and 80 in breadth,
with a tower proportionably high. Round this to the
cad, wed, and north, there are great colonnades 30 or
40 yards long. There are 900 lamps lighted every
night j and in the middle of the mofque are large
branches, which are capable of holding 500 lamps
each. Along the walls are feven pulpits, from which
the doctors of the law teach the people. The bufi-
nefs of the Prieft i£i °nly to read prayers, and didribute
alms to the people j to fupport which, there are large
revenues. &
Befides the mofques, there are two colleges built in
the Moorifh manner, and adorned with marble and
paintings. In one of them there are ICO rooms, be-
lides a magnificent hall. In this there is a great marble
vale full of water, adorned with marble pillars of various
colours and finely polilhed. The capitals are gilt, and
the roof dunes with gold, azure, and purple. The walls
are adorned with Arabic verfes in gold charaaers. The
other colleges are not near fo beautiful, or rather are all
gone to rum fince the negleft of learning.
1 here are hofpitals in the city, where formerly all
rangers were maintained three days gratis. But the
eftates belonging to them have been confifeated for the
emperor s ufe. There are above 100 public baths, many
of which are dately buildings. People of the fame trade
or bunnels live in dreets by themfelves.
Though the country about Fez is pleafant and fer¬
tile, and in many places abounding with corn and cat¬
tle, yet a great part of it lies walte and uncultivated
not lo much for want of inhabitants as from the oppref-
ion of the governors j which makes the people choofe
to live at fome didance from the high roads, where they
cultivate jud aS much land as is neceffary for their own
iubliitence.
Round the city there are fine marble tombs, monu¬
ments, and gardens full of all manner of fruit trees.
buch are the common accounts of this city. The
following are given by M. Chenier, in Ms Reckerches
tl ijt oriques fur les Maures.
Fez was built in the end of the eighth century by
Edns, a defeendant of Mahomet and of Ali j whofe fa-
'n ordrr avojd the proferiptions of the caliph
Abdalla, retired to the extremity of Africa, and was
proclaimed fi.vereign by the Moors. Sidy Edris, hav-
iV.g fuccteded to the throne of, his father, built the
I F E. Z
city of Fez in the year 793. He caufed a mofque to
e erttfed, in which his body was interred, and the
ci y ever afterwards became an afylum for the Moors
and a place of devotion. In the firfi moments offer!
vour which a new worlhip infpires, another mofque was
lit called carubm, which is perhaps one of thiAaroed
nd mod beaut,hi edifices in Africa. Several others
ere fucceffivdy built, hefides colleges and hofpitals •
nd the city was held in luch veneration, that when
the pilgrimage to Mecca was interrupted in the fourth
nhutedth ,tfeFH,'?ira’ ,hrMai,„
we“. t Jtaru?lr m “S wl1*le the eaftern people
When the Arabs had overfpread Afia, Africa, and
Euiope, they brought to Fez the little knowledge they
had acquired in the fciences and artsj and that^capital
conjoined, with the fchools of religion, academies where
philofophy was taught, together with medicine and
a ronomy. I his lad gradually degenerated : igno¬
rance brought adrology into repute, and this quickly
engendered the arts of magic and divination. -
f ez foon became the common refort of all Africa.
I he Mahometans went thither for the purpofes of de¬
votion 5 the affluence of ftrangers introduced a tade for
plealure 5 libertinifm quickly followed j and, as its pro-
grels is mod rapid in warm countries, Fez, which had
been the nurfe of fciences and arts, became a harbour
for every kind of vice. The public baths, which health,
cleanlinefs, and cudom, had rendered neceffary, and
which were everywhere refpefted as facred places, be-
came feenes of debauchery; where men introduced
themfelves ,n the habits of women : youths in the fame
ifguife, with a didaffin their hands, walked the dreets
i lni°rdtI ;° entice flranSers to inns,
which were lefs a place of repofe than a convenience
for proditution.
I he tifurpers who difputed the kingdom of Fez after
the 16th century overffloked thefe abufes, and content¬
ed themfelves with fubjefting the maders of the inns to
furnijh a certain number of cooks for the army. It is
to this laxity of difeipline that Fez owed its fird fplen-
^ .,nhabitants are beautiful, the Africans
flocked thither m crowds; the laws were overturned,
morals defp,fed, and vice itfelf turned into an engine
of political refource. The fame fpirit, the fame incli-
n !inS\/She famtf dePrav,ty* fliR exid in the hearts of
all the Moors. BuUibertimfm is not now encouraged ;
it wears there, as in other places, the made of hvpo-
cniy ; and dares not venture to fhovv itfelf in the face
or day. ..
The Mahometans of Andalufia, thofe of Granada
and Cordova, migrated to Fez during the different re¬
volutions that agitated Spain; they carried with them
new cudoms and new arts, and perhaps fome flight
degree of civilization. The Spaniffl Moors carried
Rom Cordova to Fez the art of Aaining goat and fheep
flems with a red colour, which were then called Cor¬
dova leather, and now Morocco leather, from that city
where the art is lefs perfed. They manufacture gauzes
F-tl’ fi and g,rdles elegantly embroider¬
ed with gold and filk, which Ihow how far their in¬
genuity might be carried if indudry were more en¬
couraged.
1 here is dill fome tade for dudy preferved at Fez,
an t e. rabic language is fpoken there in greater
purity
FEZ ' r 6ri ] FEZ
purity tlian in any other part of the empire. The
rich Moors fend their children to the fchuols at Fez,
where they are better inftrudted than they could be
elfe where.
Leo Africanus, in the 16th century, gave a magni¬
ficent defeription of this city, from which mold of thefe
that have been afterwards m%de are copied 5 but its
fituation, its fchools, and the induftry and great urba¬
nity of its inhabitants, are the only circumftances that
give it any preference to the other cities of the em¬
pire. There are fome pretty convenient inns here,
confiding of two or three dories. The houfes have no
elegance externally : the ftreets are ill paved, and fo
{trait that two perions riding abroad can hardly paf-.
The drops are like dalls j and have no more room in
them than is fudieient to ferve for the owner, who is
always feated with his wares around him, which he
{hows to the paffengers. But though the Moors of
Fez are more civilized than the red, they are vain, fu-
perilitious, and intolerant $ and an order mud be ob¬
tained from the emperor before a Chridian or a Jew
can be allowed to enter the city.
The fituation of Fez is exceeding lingular. It lies
in the bottom of a valley furrounded by little hills in
the drape of a funnel-, the declivities are divided into
gardens planted with tall trees, orange dirubs, and all
dirts of fruit trees; a river meanders along the decli¬
vity, and turns a number of mills, which difperfe the
water abundantly to all the gardens, and aimed to every
houfe. The defeent to the city, which (lands in the
centre, is long; and the road lies through thefe gar¬
dens, which it traverfes in a ferpentine dire&ion.
The gardens, feen from the city, form a mod de¬
lightful amphitheatre. Formerly each garden had a
houfe in which the inhabitants fpent the dimmer. Thefe
houfes were dedroyed in the times of the civil wars,
and in the revolutions to which Fez has been fubjefl,
and few individuals have redored them. The fituation
of Fez, however, cannot be healthful ; moid vapours
fill the air in dimmer, and fevers are exceedingly com*
mon.
On the height above Fez, in a plain fufceptible of
rich cultivation, Hands New Fez, finely fituated, and
enjoying excellent air, containing fome old palaces, in
which the children of the emperor live, and where he
fometimes refides himfelf. New Fez is inhabited by
fome Moorilh families, but by a greater number of
Jews.
Fez is feated on the river Cebu. W. Long. 4. 25.
N. Lat. 33. 58.
FEZZAN, a kingdom of Africa, about 300 miles
long from north to fouth, and 200 broad from ead to
wed. It is bounded on the ead by the Harutfch and
line of the deferts ; by the country of the Tibboes on
the fouth and fouth-ead y by that of-the Nomadic Tua-
ricks on the fouth-wed ; and the country which forms
the wedern boundary is inhabited by Arabs. It con¬
tains 101 towns and villages, of which Mourzouk is the
metropolis. The climate of this kingdom is neither
temperate nor agreeable at any feafon whatever; for
the heat of fummer is almod intolerable, even to the
inhabitants, efpecially when the wind blows from the
fouth ; and the prevalence of the north wind during
winter makes the cold fo intenfe, as not only to chill
the natives, but thofe alfo who vifit it from northern Fezzaiw
regions. v-“*
Rain falls but feldom in this country, and in very
fmall quantities. Thunder is alio a rare phenomenon ;
Mr Horneman afl'ures us that there was not a fingle
dorm from November 1798 to June 1799; and that
on the lad day of Januaiy *799 there were fome faint
dallies of lightning unaccompanied by any claps of
thunder. Winds, however, blow very frequently, both
from the north and louth, whirling up the dud and land
in fuch a manner as to give the atmolphere a yellowilh
appearance. There is neither river nor rivolet of any
confequence in the whole country, according to Mr
Hormman, who informs us that the foil is a deep fand,
beneath which is found calcareous rock or earih, and
fometimes a Uratum of an argillaceous fubllance.
Date trees may be confidered as the natural produc¬
tion of Fezzan, in the wedern parts of which fome fen-
na grows, of a fupevior quality to that which L import¬
ed from the country of the Tibboes. Culinary plants,
and almod every vegetable peculiar to the garden, are
met with in abundance. Wheat and barley feem well
adopted to the nature of the foil, as well as to the cli¬
mate ; yet corn is not raifed in fufficient quantity for
home confumpt, which is brought from thofe parts of
Africa bordering on the northern parts of the king¬
dom. This is mod probably owing to tiie native indo¬
lence ol the people, the defpotifm of their govtrnment,
and the difficulties infeparable from their peculiar mode
of tillage.
They bedow little attention on the rearing of cattle,
which are only found in the mod fertile parts of the
country, and even in thefe their numbers are but fmall.
They are made ufe of to draw water from the wells,
and are never killed but in cafes of abfolute neceflity.
The common domedic animal is the goat; and although
flieep are reared in the fouthern parts of the country,
the mod abundant fupply is furnilhed by the Arabs
on the borders. They make coarfe cloths of the wool,
which conditute the apparel of the inhabitants in gene¬
ral. Their horfes are not numerous, as they make
mod ufe of affes, either for carriage, draught, or bur¬
then. Camels bear a mod extravagant price, being
only made ufe of by the higher ranks, or by opulent
merchants; and the common food of all thefe animals
is the fruit of the date tree.
Although the trade of Fezzan confids entirely of
foreign articles, it is nevertheless confiderable. Mour¬
zouk is the great market and place of general refort for
different caravans from Cairo, Bengali, Tripoli, and
other places, between the months of Offober and Fe¬
bruary. The caravans which come to Mourzouk from
the wed or fouth, deal in odrich feathers, tiger Ikins,
gold dud, and alfo in Haves of both fexes as articles of
commerce. Tobacco and fnuff, with other articles
manufaflured in Turkey, are brought to the capital by
the merchants from Bengali ; and paper, fire-arms,
fabres, knives, and woollen cloth, are conveyed to it
from Tripoli.
Fezzan is governed by a fultan, a defeendant of the
family of the Shereefs ; and according to the tradition
of the country, his ancedors came from the wedern
parts of Africa, invaded and made aconqued of it about
500 years ago. He reigns over his dominions with ab-
4 H 2 folute
FEZ
■Feurzan, fi/lute power, but is at the fame time tributary to the
   bathaw of Iripoli, who annually receives from him the
fum of 4000 dollars by the hands of an officer appoint¬
ed for that purpofe. The fultan who was upon the
throne when Mr Horneman in 1798 vifited the coun¬
try, a flamed the title of “ Sultan Muhammed ben. Sul¬
tan Manfur,” engraved on a feal which is applied to
all public a£ts, and alfo to correfpondence within his
dominions ; but he makes ufe of a fmaller feal when he
writes to the baffiaw of 1 ripoli. The crown is heredi¬
tary ; yet it defcends not in all cafes from father to fun,
for when the heir apparent dies, a nephew may fucceed
in preference to a fecond fon, which is frequently the
occafion of much bloodffied, when the right of fuccef-
fion comes to be warmly contefted. The palace of the
fultan is within the walls of the fortrefs of the capital,
where he leads a life of retirement attended by his
eunuchs. The harem is near the palace, into which
he never enters, as the female whom he inclines to fee
is conduced to his apartment. The harem confifls of
the fuitana and about 40 female flaves, which laft he
frequently difpofes of, and replaces them by others, un-
lefs they bear him children, or become the objedts of
his ardent attachment, either by their perfonal beauty
or other accompliffiments.
Ihofe who wiffi for an audience with the fultan, ap¬
proach the throne, which is an old elbow chair raifed a
few Iteps from the ground, kifs his hand, and raife it fo
as to touch their forehead, and then kneel before him to
give a ftatement of their bufinefs in common language,
taking care, however, to intermix it with fuch excla¬
mations as thefe ‘ * God prolong thy life, God protedf
thy country,” and to offer him fome fmall prefent. The
court of the fultan confifts of a firft and fecond minifter,
the general of his forces, a number of black and a fevv
white flaves. Some of the black flaves who are pur-
chafed while boys, and educated according to their dif-
tindtions and talents, often acquire confiderable influ¬
ence with the fultan.
The diefs of the fultan, when he appears in ftate,
confifts of a white frock of fluff, ornamented with gold
and filver, and fometimes of fatin interwoven with filver.
The appearance of his turban is remarkable, which
meafures not lefs than three feet from the fore to the
hinder part, and two feet in breadth. His revenue
aiifes from cerain taxes on all gardens and cultivated
lands, and from fines and requifitions impofed in an ar¬
bitrary manner. JThe flaves who are employed in col-
lefting thefe are often rigorous in the extreme, but it is
often poffible to procure their lenity by means of a bribe.
.1 he expenditure of this revenue is chiefly confined to
the fupport of the fultan, his court and palace ; for the
cadi and department of juftice, the religious order, and
principal officers of government, are fupported by the
produce of date-tree woods and gardens.
The admmiftration of juftice isvefted in the hands of
a cadi, whofe decifions are guided by the Mohammedan
law,. by antiquated cuftoms, and eftabliffitd pra&ice ;
but judgment in all criminal cafes is purely arbitrary,
or is referred to the fultan. The office of cadi has been
hereditary in one family, ever fince the conqueft of the
country by the anceftors of the prefent ffiltan; and
when he dies, his place is filled by one who is the moft
eminent for learning, or who can beft read and write,
which is all the learning that he is ever poffeffed of. ’
[ 612 ] FIB
It is difficult to afeertain any thing like an accurate Fezzan
ftatement of the population of Fezzan j but Mr Horne- H
man conjectures that they may amount to about Fil)re
75,000, all of them profeffing the religion of Maho- ~
met. The complexion of the people varies confider-
ably; thofe in the northern parts bearing in this refpeCt
a ftriking refemblance to the Arabians,' while thofe in
the fouthern diitrifts are very much like the Tibboes
and I uaricks. Thofe who are ftriCtly indigenous are
of ordinary ftature, and their limbs far from being muf-
cular j of a deep brown colour, thort black hair, with
their face formed like the people of Europe, and their
note not fo flat as that of the negro. Their walk, mien,
and gefture, indicate a total want of energy, either of
body or mind.
1 he women of this country are in general fond of
dancing, and the wanton manners and public freedoms
in which they are permitted to indulge, are frequently
aftoniffiing, even to Mahometans from other countries •
and the men are very much addifled to the vice of
drunkennefs, ufing the juice of the date-tree, or a
drink that is called Zw/h, which is of an intoxicating
nature. °
Different fpecies of the venereal difeafe prevail in
this country, but that which is brought from Soudan
is reckoned the moft inveterate. The common lues ve¬
nerea is called franx/, for the cure of which they make
ufe of falts and colocynth as powerful cathartics, heal¬
ing the fores with natron water or diffolved foda.
They are fometimes afflided with haemorrhoids, the cure
of which is no doubt rendered more difficult by the too
liberal ufe of red pepper ; and a fever and ague which
are very pernicious to foreigners. They are entirely
unacquainted with phlebotomy, yet they fometimes draw
blood by means of cupping ; and fome are as much ac¬
quainted with furgery as to be able to cure a Ample
fratfture.
Their houfes are miferable ftru&ures, compofed of
ft ones or bricks mi.x^d with clay, and dried in the fun,
and the hands of the labourer are all the tools which
are employed in building. When the walls are finifh-
ed, they are covered over with mortar made of calca¬
reous earth, which is alfo done with the hand. Their
houfes are extremely low, and there is no other entrance
for the light but by the door. They are uncommonly
abftemious in refpeft of diet. Indeed they can never
abftain from butcher meat when it is placed before
them } but this is not an article of food with the gene¬
rality, and their expreffion for a rich man is, “ Ma/ he
eats bread and meat every day.”
FEWEL. See Fuel.
F1ASCONE, a town of Italy, in the territories of
the pope, remarkable for its good wine. E. Long.
13. 12. N. Lat. 42. 20.
FIAT, in Law, a ffiort order or warrant figned by
a judge, for making out and allowing certain proceffes.
FIBKARIiE, an old term applied to minerals of a
fibrous ftnnfture.
FIBRE, in Anatomy, a perfe&ly Ample body, or at
leaft as Ample as any thing in the human ftrufture ;
being fine and flender like a thread, and ferving to
form other parts. Hence fome fibres are hard, as the
bony ones j and others foft, as thofe deftined for the
formation of all the other parts.
Fhe fibres are divided alfo, according to their pofition
and
F I C [ 61
Flbre and direclion, into fuch as are ftraight, oblique, tranf-
|| verfe, annular, and fpiral •, a? they are arranged in thefe
Ficinus. ^ireftions in different parts of the body.
Fibre is alfo ufed to denote the {lender Filaments
which compofe other bodies, whether animal, vegetable,
or mineral j but more efpecially the capillary roots of
plants.
FIBROSE, or Fibrous, fomething confiding of
fibres, as the roots of plants. See Root.
FIBULA, in Anatomy, the outer and fmaller of the
bones of the leg. See Anatomy Index.
Fibula, in Surgery, an inftrument in ufe among
the ancients for the clofing of gaping wounds.—Celfus
{peaks of the fibula as to be ufed when the wound was
fo patent as not eafily to admit of being fewed.
{Op. lib. vii. cap. 25. apudfind).
Fibula, in Antiquity, was a fort of button, buckle,
or clafp, made ufe of by the Greeks and Romans for
keeping clofe or tying up fome part of their clothes.
They are of various forms, and often adorned with
precious ftones. Men and women wore them in their
hair and at their {hoes. Players and muficians, by way
of preferving the voices of children put under their
care to learn their arts, ufed to keep clofe the prepuce
with a fibula, lelt they {hould have commerce with
women.
FICINUS, Marsilius, a celebrated Italian, was
born at Florence in 1433, and educated at the expence
of Lawrence de Medicis. He attained a perfedt know¬
ledge of the Greek and Latin tongues, and became a
great philofopher, a great phyfician, and a great divine.
He was in the higheft favour with Laurence and Cofmo
de Medicis, who made him a canon of the cathedral
church of Florence. He applied himfelf intenfely to
the ftudy of philofophy 5 and while others were {Living
who fhould be the deepeft read in Aridotle, who was
then the philofopher in fafliion, he devoted himfelf whol¬
ly to Plato. He was indeed the firft who refiored the
Platonic philofophy in the weft j for the better effedling
of which, he tranflated into Latin the whole works of
Plato. There goes a ftory, but we know not how
true it is, that when he had finiftred his tranflation, he
communicated it to his friend Marcus Mufurus, to have
his approbation of it; but, that Mufurus difliking it,
he did it all over again. He next traniiated Plotinus ;
and afterwards the works, or part of them at leaft, of
Proclus, Jamblicus, Porphyrius, and other celebrated
Platonifts.—Iq his younger years, Ficinus lived like a
philofopher ; and too much fo, as is faid, to the negledl
of piety. However, Savonarola coming to Florence,
Ficinus went with every body elfe to hear his fermons ;
and while he attended them for the fake of the preach¬
er’s eloquence, he imbibed a ftrong fenfe of religion,
and devoted himfelf henceforward more efpecially to
the duties of it. He died at Correggio in 1499 ; and
as Boronius affures us upon the teftimony of what he
calls credible authors, appeared immediately after his
death to his friend Michael Mercatus : to whom, it
feems, he had promifed to appear, in order to confirm
what he had taught concerning the immortality of the
foul. His writings, facred and profane, which are
very numerous, were colledled and printed at \ enice,
in 1516, at Bafil in 1561 and 1576, and at Paris 1641,
in two vols folio. Twelve books of his Epidles, among
which are many treatifes, were printed feparately in
3 ] F 1 C
folio at Venice 1495, and at Nuremberg, 1497, in
41°.
FICOIDES, the fpecific name given to feveral
plants, as the mefembryanthemum, mufa, and opuntia.
See Mesembryanthemum, &c. Botany Index..
FICTION. See Fable and Poetry.
FICUS, the Fig-tree •, a genus of plants, belong¬
ing to the polyga'mia clafs •, and in the natural method
ranking under the 53d order, Scabndce. See Botany
Index.
The ficus religiofa, or Banian tree, is a native of fe¬
veral parts of the Eaft Indies. It has a woody ftem,
branching to a great height and vaft extent, with heart-
ftiaped entire leaves ending in acute points. Of this
tree the following lines of Milton contain a defcription.
equally beautiful and juft :
 —There foon they chofe
The fig-tree : not that tree for fruit renown’d;
But fuch as, at this day to Indians known
In Malabar or Decan, fpreads her arms,
Branching fo broad and long, that in the ground
The bended twigs take root, and daughters grow
About the mother tree, a pillar’d {hade,
High overarch’d, and echoing walks between 5
There oft’ the Indian herdfman, ftiunning heat,
Shelters in cool, and tends his pafturing herds
At loop-holes cut through thickeft {bade.
Par. Lofi, Book ix. 1. 1100.
The Banian tree, or Indian fig, is perhaps the moft
beautiful of Nature’s produdlions in that genial cli¬
mate, where {he fports with the greateft profufion and
variety. Some of thefe trees are qf amazing fize and
great extent, as they are continually increafing, and,
contrary to moft other things in animal and vegetable
life, they feem to be exempted from decay. Every
branch from the main body throws out its own roots j
at firft, in fmall tender fibres, feveral yards from the
ground: thefe continually grow thicker until they
reach the furface ; and then {Liking in, they increafe
to large trunks, and become parent trees, ftiooting out
new branches from the top : thefe in time fufpend
their roots, which, fwelling into trunks, produce other
branches ; thus continuing in a ftate of pregreflion as
long as the earth, the firft parent of them all, contri¬
butes her fuftenance. The Hindoos are particularly fond
of the Banian tree ; they look upon it as an emblem of
the Deity, from its long duration, its outftretching
arms, and overfhadowing beneficence ; they almoft pay
it divine honours, and
Find a fane in every facred grove.
Near thefe trees the moft efteemed pagodas are general¬
ly eretted ; under their {hade the Brahmins fpend their
lives in religious folitude j and the natives of all cafts
and tribes are fond of recreating in the cool receffes,
beautiful walks, and lovely viftas of this umbrageous
canopy, impervious to the hotteft beams of a tropical,
fun.
A remarkable large tree of this kind grows on an
ifland in the river Nerbudda, ten miles from the city of
Baroche in the province of Guzerat •, a flourifhing
fettlement lately in poffeffipn of the Eaft India Com¬
pany, but ceded by the government of Bengal, at the
treaty of peace concluded with the Mahrattas in 1783,
FID [6
Ficus to Mahdajee Scindia a Mahratta chief. It is diftin-
F d ^ (T ^ie of Cubbeer Burr, which was given
it in honour of a fatuous iaint. It was once much
larger than at prefent ; but high floods hav7e carried
auay the banks of the ifland where it grows, and with
them fuch parts of the tree as had thus far extended
their roots : yet what remains is about 2000 feet in
circumference, meafured round the principal ftems ; the
overhanging branches, not yet ftruck down, cover a
n 1
F I E
FIDBI CGMMISSUM, in Roman antiquity, an eftate Fidoi.
much larger fpace. The chief trunks of this Angle
tree (which in fize greatly exceed our Englilh elms and
oaks), amount to 350 j the fmaller ftems, forming
into ftronger fupporters, are more than 3000 ; and
everv one of thefe is catling out new branches, and
hanging roots, in time to form trunks, and become the
parents of a future progeny. Cubbeer Burr is famed
throughout Hindoftan for its great extent and fur-
pafling. beauty : the Indian armies generally encamp
around it; and, at ftated feafons, folemn jatarras, or Hin¬
doo feftivals. are held there, to which thoufands of vo¬
taries repair from various parts of the Mogul empire.—
It is faid that 7000 perfons find ample room to repofe
under its fhade. J. he Englilh gentlemen, on their hunt¬
ing and (hooting parties, ufed to form extenfive en¬
campments, and fpend weeks together under this de¬
lightful pavilion, which is generally filled with green
wood pigeons, doves, peacocks, and a variety of feathered
fongfters; crowded with families of monkeys perform¬
ing their antic tricks; and (haded by bats of a large fize,
many of them meafuring upwards of fix feet from the’
extremity of one wing to the other. This tree not only
affords (helter, but fuftenance, to all its inhabitants,
being covered amid its bright foliage with fmall figs of
a rich fcarlet, on which they regale with as much de¬
light, as the lords of creation on their more coftly fare
in their parties.
FIDD, an iron pin ufed at fea to fplice or faften
ropes together ; it is made tapering and (harp at one end.
Fhere are alfo fidds of wood, which are much larger
than the iron ones.
. ^ *ie P’n a^° in the heel of the topmaft, which bears
it upon the chefs-tree, is called ayfoW.
FlDD-Harnmer, is ufed for a hammer, the handle of
which is a fidd, or made tapering into that form.
FIDDES, Richard, a learned divine and polite
writer, was born in 1671, and educated at Oxford. He
was prefented to the living of HaKham in Yorkftiire,
where he was (b admired for the fweetnefs of his voice
and the gracefulnefs of his delivery, that the people
for feveral miles round flocked to his fermons. Coming
to London in 1712, he was by the favour of Dean
Swift, introduced to the earl of Oxford, who made him
one of his chaplains, and the queen foon after appointed
him chaplain to the garrifon at Hull: but lofing his
patrons upon the change of the miniftry, he loft his
chaplainfhip; and being obliged to apply himfelf to
wilting, compoftd, 1. .A. body of Divinity ; 2. The
Life of Cardinal Wolfey ; 3. A Treatife of Morality,
&c. He died in 1725.
FIDDLE. See Violin.
Fiddle Wood. SeeCrniAREx ylon, Botany Index.
FIDE-jussores AJJidui. See Assiduus.
FlDE-Jiif/br, in the Civil Law, is a furety, or one that
obliges himfelf in the fame contraft with a principal
for the greater fecurity of the creditor or ftipulator. ’
ir.- „ . . 7 :   an riiaie
left in truft with any -perfon, for the ufe of another.
See Irustee.
FIDENA, or Fidenac, in Ancient Geograph, a
to'vn of the Sabines, five miles to the north of Rome
where traces of it are ftill to be feen. Fidenates the
people (Livy).
, .f1?,1"8’, FtITH or Fidelity, one of the virtues
deified by the Pagans. She had a temple near the Ca¬
pitol, founded by Numa Pompilius; but no animals
were offered, or blood fpilt, in her facrifices. During the
performance of her rites, her priefts appeared in white
veftments, with their heads and hands covered with
linen, to (how that fidelity ought to be facred.
FIDIUS, in Pagan worftiip, a god who prefided over
alliances and promifes. This deity, which the Romans
borrowed from the Sabines, was alfo called San&us,
Sernon, and Semi Pater.
FIELD, in Agriculture, a piece of ground enclofed,
whether for tillage or pallure.
.HELD, in Heraldry, is the whole furface of the
(hield or the continent, fo called becaufe it containeth
thole achievements anciently acquired in the field of
battle. It is the ground on which the colours, bear-
ing, metais, furs, charges, &c. are reprefented. A-
mong the. rood-rn heralds, field is lefs frequently ufed
in blazoning than (hield or efcutcheon. See Shield
&c. *
Field Booh, in Surveying, a book in which the an¬
gles. ftations, diflances, &e. are fet down.
FlELD-Colours. or Camp-Colours, in War, are fmall
flags of about a foot and a half fquare, which are car¬
ried along with the quartermafter general, for marking
out tne ground for the (quadrons and battalions.
Field Fare, in Ornithology. See Turdus, Orni¬
thology Index.
FIELD-Officers, in the art of war. See Officer.
FlELD-Pieces, fmall cannons, from three to twelve
pounders, carried along with an army in the field.
FlELD-Staf, a weapon carried by the gunners, about
.the length of a halbert, with a fpear at one end ; having
on each fide ears fcrewed on, like the cock of a match¬
lock, where the gunners (crew in lighted matches when
they are upon command ; and then the field-ftaffs are
faid to be armed.
FlELD-W orhs, in Fortification. are thofe thrown up
by an army in befieging a fortrefs, or by the befieged
to defend the place. Such are the fortifications of
camp«, highways, &c.
F.lysian FIELDS. See Elysian.
FIELDING, Henry, a well-known writer of the
prtfent age, fon of Lieutenant-general Fielding who
ferved under the duke of Marlborough, was'born in
1707. He had four fillers; of whom Sarah is well
known, as writer of The Adventures of David Simple.
On the death of his mother, his father married again ;
and Sir John Fielding, who fucceeded him in the com-
mifiion of the peace for Middlefex, is his brother by
this marriage. Henry was fent to fludy at Leyden ;
but a failure in his remittances obliged him to return in
two years, when his own propenfity to gaiety and pro-
fufion drove him to write for the ftage at 20 years of
age. His firft dramatic piece, Love in feveral Mafques,
which was well received, appeared in 1727; and all his
plays and farces, to the amount of 18, were written
before
com-
nullum
II
Fieldincr.
Fir [6,
Fieid'<'g before the vear 1737, and many of them are ftill a^ed
|| with applaufe. While he was thus employed, he mar-
Fifrlhre. rjeci a young lady with 1500I. fortune, and inherited
an elfate of 200I. a-year from his mother ; all which,
though on the plan of retiring into the country, he
contrived to diffipate in three years; and then applied
himfelf to the ftudy of the law for a maintenance. In
loling his fortune, he acquired the gout ; which, render¬
ing it impnflible for him to attend the bar, he with a
fhattered conffitution had recourfe to many extempore
applications of his pen for immediate fupplies ; until,
foon after the rebellion in 1745, he accepted the office of
acting juffice for Middlefex, an employment much
more profitable than honourable in the public effeem.
Reduced at length by the fatigues of this office, and by
a complication of diforders, he, by the advice of his phy-
ficians, went to Lifbon, where he died in 1754. He
wrote a great number of fugitive pamphlets and perio¬
dical efl’ays ; but is chiefly diftinguiflied by his Adven¬
tures of Jofeph Andrews, and Hilfory of Tom Jones.
His works have been collecfed and publuhed, with his
life prefixed, by Mr Murphy.
1 FIENUS, Thomas, an ingenious and learned phy-
fician, born at Antwerp in 1566. He went into Italy
to ftudy phyfic under Mercurialis and Aldrovandus ;
and on his return diftinguifhed himfelf fo much in the
univerfity of Louvain, that he was there chofen pro-
felfor of phyfic, and was afterwards made phyfician to
the duke of Bavaria. He wrote feveral works, among
which were, De viribus imnginationis ; and De forma*
tione fcetus. He died at Louvain in 1631.
FIERI facias, in Z<m>, a writ that lies where a
perfon has recovered judgment for debt or damages
in the king’s courts againft one, by which the flieriff
is commanded to levy the debt and damages on the de¬
fendant’s goods and chattels.
FIFE, in Mu/ic, is a fort of wind inftrument, being
a fmall pipe. See Pipe.
FIFESHIRE, a county of Scotland, lying between
the friths of Tay and Forth; bounded on the north and
north-eaft by the frith of Tay, which divides it from
Perth and Angus ; on the fouth by the frith of Forth,
which feparates it from tire Lothians ; the German
ocean bounds it on the eaft ; and on the weft it borders
with the counties of Perth and Kinrofs, and a fmall
corner of Clackmannan. It extends about 60 miles in
length from Culrofs to Fifenefs, and is about 18 in
breadth ; comprehending a fuperficies of nearly 480
fquare miles. The face of the country is agreeably
diverfified ; towards the weft it is mountainous, and
a ridge of hills extends eaft ward almoft its whole length,
occupying the central diftridf ; towards the north and
fiuth the furface gradually defcends to the friths, ex¬
hibiting the moft beautiful and enlivening profpeft of
fertile and well cultivated fields. It is watered by fe¬
veral ft reams, none of which deferve the name of ri¬
vers, except the Eden and Leven ; the former empties
itfelf into the ocean at St Andrews, arid the latter at
the village of Leven : both thefe rivers abound with
trout and faimon ; and on no coaft of Scotland is the
white fiftiing more produdive than on the Fife coaft.
From its fituation, it appears to have been very early
inhabited ; the fitbings, coal-mines, harbours, and other
advantages for navigation, attracted fettlers, and the
cuaft was firft peopled and beft cultivated: this appears
5 1 F I F
to have been the cafe, when King James VI. compared Fifefhire*
the county to a gray mantle with a gold fringe. The  '
whole coaft is covered with fmall burghs, which that
monarch regarded with particular attention, and very
early in his reign endeavoured to render them fubfer-
vient to his wiflies, of railing Scotland high in the world
as a commercial nation ; he granted them many privi¬
leges and immunities, and encouraged the inhabitants
by every means in his power, to profecute the advanta¬
ges which, by their local fituation, they pofltffed ; in¬
deed, the municipal privileges which they received from
that monarch, though rendered unimportant by the
union with England, will long remain a monument of
his political fagacity and difeernment. The county can
boaft of poffefling feveral ancient feats of royalty : at
Dunfermline, at Falkland, at Kinghorn, and at St An¬
drews, veftiges of royal fplendour are ftill to be feen.
It contains 13 royal boroughs, which poffefs parliamen¬
tary reprefentation, and feveral which have loft that
privilege from their being unable to defray the expence
which attended the fending a commiflioner to the Scot-
tifh parliament. To the county alfo belong the fmall
ifland of May, on which there is a lighthoufe, and
Inchgarvie. Fifeftiire is divided into 60 parifhes,
and contains, by the enumeration in 1801, 93,743
inhabitants, being nearly 196 to the fquare mile ; a
much greater proportion than is to be found in any
other county in Scotland. It was anciently an earldom
in the Macduff family, created by Malcolm III. for
the fervices performed by the thane of Fife, in re-
ftoring him to the throne of Scotland, when ufurped by
Macbeth. That title having expired, it was lately re¬
vived in the Duffs of Braco, lateral defcendants of the
ancient family : the ruins of the refidences of that power¬
ful nobleman are ftill evident in many parts of the
county. The whole of the fouth fide lies upon coal,
and many pits are wrought on every part of the coaft :
in many places is excellent limeftone ; and fome marl
is found in the county. Ironftone,of excellent quality,
is found in the weftern and middle quarters, and much
is forged in the caunty, or exported to the Carron
works. Lead ore is found in the Eaftern Lomond, one
of the two conical hills which rife nearly in the mid¬
dle of the county, and are feen at a great diftance : in
Kemback parifh alfo lead ore has been wrought. Th&
county of Fife fends one member to parliament. Cu¬
par isJthe county town.
The following account of the population of Fifefliire
at two different periods, is taken from the Stati/i. Hi/}*
of Scotland.
Parijhes.
I Abbot (hall
Abdie
Aberdour
Anftruther
5 Anftruther, Wefter
Auchterderran
Auchtermuchty
Auchtertool
Ballingry
10 Balmerino
Beath
Burntifland
Population Population
in 1755. in 179c—98.
1348 2136
822 494
II98 1280
1100 1000
385 37°
1143 1200
i3°8 1439
389 334
464 220
565 7°3
1099 450
1390 1210
Cameron
F I
G
[ 616 ]
F I G
Fifelhire
n
F igural.
Parijhes.
Cameron
Carnbee
15 Carnock
Ceres
Coleflie
Crail
Creich
20 Cult
Cupar
Dairfie
Dalgety
Den bog
25 Denino
Dunfermline
Dyfart
Elie
Falkland
30 Ferric
Flilk
Forgan
Inverkeithing
Kemback
3 c Kennoway
Kettle
Kilconquhar
Kilmeney
Kilrenny
40 Kinghorn
Kinglaflie
Kinglbarns
Kirkaldy
Largo
45 Lefly
Leuchars
Logie
Markinch
Monimail
50 Moonfie
Newburgh
Newburn
Pittenweem
St Andrew’s and St
Leonard’s
55 St Monance
Saline
Scoonie
Strathmiglo
Torryburn
60 Wemyfs
Population
>'n *755
1295
1293
5«3
2540
989
2*73
375
449
2192
469
761
255
598
8552
2369
642
*795
621
3l8
75*
1694
420
1240
1621
2131
781
1348
2389
998
871
2296
1396
113°
1691
4*3
2188
884
249
*347
438
939
49*3
780
*285
1528
*695
*635
3°4I
Total 81,570
1
Population
in 179c—98.
JJ65
IO4I
97O
2320
949
1710
306
534
3702
54°
869
255
383
9550
4862
620
2108
805
371
825
2210
588
1300
*759
2013
869
1086
1768
1200
807
2673
*9*3
1212
1620
425
2790
1101
171
1664
456
1157
4335
832
950
*675
980
1600
3025
87,250
8M7°
Increafe, 5680
FlFE-Rai/s, in a fhln, are thofe that are placed on
baniflers, on each fide of the top of the poop, and fo
along with haunces or falls. They reach down to the
quarter deck, and to the flair of the gangway.
FIFTH, in Mtijic. See Interval.
FIG, or Fig-tree. See Ficus, Botany Index.
FIG WORT. See Scrophularia, Botany Index.
FiGURAL, Figurate, or Figurative, a term ap¬
plied to whatever is expreffed by obfcure refeniblances.
The word is chiefly applied to the types and myfteries
of the Mofaic law j as alfo to any expitfiion which is
not taken in its primary and literal fenfe.
Ft GUI! ATE Numbers. See NUMBERS, Figurate.
FIG UK E, in Fhy'fics, expreffes the furface or termi¬
nating extremities of any body.
Figures, in Arithmetic, are certain chambers
whereby we denote any number which may be ex-
prefled by any Combination of the nine digits, &c.
See Arithmetic.
Figure, among divines, is ufed for the myfterie®
reprefented under certain types.
hlGURE, in Dancing, denotes the feveral Heps which
the dancer makes in order and cadence, confidered as
they mark certain figures on the floor. See Dancing.
Figure in Fainting and Dejigning, denotes the
lines and colours which form the reprefentation of any
animal, but more particularly of a human perfonage.
See Painting.
Figure, in the manufadlures, is applied to the'va-
rious defigns reprefented or wrought on velvets, da-
mafks, taffeties, fatins, and other fluffs and cloths.
The moft ufual figures for fuch defigns are flowers
imitated from the life j or grotefques, and comparti-
ments of pure fancy. Reprefentations of men, beads,
birds, and landfcapes, have only been introduced fince
the tafle for the Chinefe fluffs, particularly thofe called
furees, began to prevail among us. It is the woof of
the fluff that forms the figures ; the warp only ferves
for the ground. In working figured fluff's there is re¬
quired a perfon to fhow the workman how far he muff
raife the threads of the warp, to reprefent the figure of
the defign with the woof, which is to be paffed acrofs
between the threads thus raifed. This fome call read-
ing the dejign.
For the figures on tapeflry, brocade, &c. fee Ta¬
pestry, &c.
For thofe given by the calenders, printers, &c. fee
Calender, &c.
Figure, in Logic, denotes a certain order and dif-
pofition of the middle term in any fyllogifm.
Figures are fourfold. 1. When the middle term is
the fubje£l of the major propofition, and the predicate
of the minor, we have what is called the firfl figure.
2. When the middle term is the predicate of both the
premifes, the fyllogifm is faid to be in the fecond figure.
3. If the middle term is the fubjedl of the two premi-
fes, the fyllogifm is in the third figure : and laflly, by
making it the predicate of the major, and fubjeft of the
minor, we obtain fyllogifms in the fourth figure.
Each of thefe figures has a determinate number of
moods, including all the poffible ways in which propo-
fitions differing in quantity or quality can be combined,
according to any difpofition of the middle term, in or¬
der to arrive at a juft conclufion. See Logic.
Figure, in compofition. See Oratory 5 alfo Al¬
legory, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Metaphor,
Personification, &c.
A FIGURE, the means or injlrument conceived to be the
agent. When we furvey a number of conne£ted ob¬
jects, that which makes the greateft figure employs
chiefly our attention ; and the emotion it raifes, if
lively, prompts us even to exceed nature in the con¬
ceptions we form of it. ’lake the following examples.
For
'Figure.
F I G
•For Neleus1 fon Alcides’ rage had flam.
A broken rock the force of Pirus threw.
t Vid.
Him. of
Criticijm,
ch. ii. part
i fcct. 6.
In thefe inftances, the rage of Hercules and the force
of Pirus being the capital cireumftances, are fo far
exalted as to be conceived the agents that produce the
effects.
In thf firft of the following inftances, hunger being
the chief circumftance in the delcription, is itfelf ima¬
gined to be the patient.
Whofe hunger has not tafted food thefe three days.
Jane Shore.
    —As when the force
Of fubterranean wind transports a hill.
Paradife Lofl.
    As when the potent rod
Of Amram’s fon, in Egypt’s evil day,
Wav’d round the coaft, upcall’d a pitchy cloud
Of locufts. Paradife Loft.
A Figure, which, among related objects, extends the
properties of one to another. This figure is not dignified
with a proper name, beeaufe it has been overlooked by
writers. Giddy brink, jovial wine, daring wound, are
examples of this figure. Here are adjectives that can¬
not be made to fignify any quality of the fubftantives
to which they are joined $ a brink, for example, can¬
not be termed giddy in a fenfe, either proper or figu¬
rative, that can fignify any of its qualities or attributes.
When we examine attentively the expreffion, we dif-
cover that a brink is termed giddy from producing that
-effeft on thofe who ftand on it: in the fame manner, a
wound is faid to be daring, not with refpeCfc to itfelf,
but with refpeCl to the boldnefs of the perfon who in-
"flidls it : and wine is faid to be jovial, as infpiring
mirth and jollity. Thus the attributes of one fubjeCI
are extended to another with which it is connected ;
and the expreffion of fuch a thought muft be confidered
as a figure, becaufe the attribute is not applicable to
the fubjeCt in any proper fenfe.
How are we to account for this figure, which we
fee lies in the thought, and to what principle ftiall we
refer it ? Have poets a privilege to alter the nature of
things, and at pleafure to beftow attributes upon a
fubjeft to which they do not belong ? It is obfervedf,
that the mind pafleth eafily and fvveetly along a train
of connected objeCts j and where the objeCts are inti¬
mately connected, that it is difpofed to carry along the
good or bad properties of one to another j efpecially
when it is in any degree inflamed with thefe proper¬
ties. From this principle is derived the figure under
confideration. Language, invented for the communi¬
cation of thought, would be imperfeCt, if it were not
expreffive even of the {lighter propenfities and more
delicate feelings : but language cannot remain fo im¬
perfeCt among a people who have received any polifh ;
becaufe language is regulated by internal feeling, and
is gradually improved to exprefs whatever pafles in
the mind. Thus, for example, when a fword in the
hand of a coward is termed coward fword, the ex-
preffion is fignificative of an internal operation ; for the
mind, in paffing from the agent to its inftrument, is
difpofed to extend to the latter the properties of the
former. Governed by the fame principle, wTe fay Hjl-
*enin% fear, by extending the attribute lijlemng of the
Vol. VIII. Part H.
617 ] FIG
man who liftens, to the paffion with which he is moFed.
In the expreffion bold deed, or audax facinus, we extend
to the effeCl what properly belongs to the caufe. But
not to wafte time by making a commentary upon every
expreffion of this kind, the belt way to give a complete
view of the fubjeCl, is to exhibit a table of the different
relations that may give occafion to this figure. And
in viewing the table it will be obferved, that the figure
can never have any grace but where the relations are
of the moft intimate kind.
Figure.
1. An attribute of the caufe expreffed as an attribute
of the effeCl.
Audax facinus.
Of yonder fleet a bold difcovery make.
An impious mortal gave the daring wound.
     ——to—To my adventurous fong,
That with no middle flight intends to foar.
Paradife Lofl.
2. An attribute of the effeCl exprefled as an attribute
of the caufe.
Quos periifle ambos mifero cenfebam in mari.
Plautus.
No wonder, fallen fuch a pernicious height.
Paradife Lojl,
3. An effeCt expreffed as an attribute of the caufe.
Jovial wine, Giddy brink, Drowfy night, Mufing
midnight, Panting height, Aftonifh’d thought, Mourn*
ful gloom.
Calling a dim religious light. Milton, Comus.
And the merry bells ring round,
And the jocund rebecks found. Milton, Allegro.
4. An attribute of a fubjeCl bellowed upon one of
its parts or members.
Longing arms.
It was the nightingale, and not the lark,
That pierc’d the fearful hollow of thine ear.
Romeo and Juliet, aCl iii. fc. y.
■1 1 111 < i . Oh, lay by
Thofe moft ungentle looks and angry weapons :
Unlefs you mean my griefs and killing fears
Should ftretch me out at your relentlefs feet.
Fair Penitent, ad ilk
-And ready now
To ftoop with wearied wing and willing feet.
On the bare outfide of this world.
Paradife Lofl, book iii.
5. A quality of the agent given to the inftrument
with which it operates.
Why peep your coward fwords half out their fhells ?
6. An attribute of the agent given to the fubjeCl
upon which it operates.
High-climbing hill. Milton.
7. A quality of one fubjed given to another.
Icci, beat is nunc Arabum invides
Gazis. HOrat. Carm. lib. i. ode 29.
When faplefs age, and weak unable limbs,
Shall bring thy father to his drooping chair.
Shakespeare.
41 By
fig [6
Figure. By art, the pilot through the boiling deep,
w"r v And howling tempeft, fleers the fearlefs flrip.
Iliad, book xxiii. 1. 385.
Then, nothing loth, th’ enamour’d fair he led,
And funk tranfported on the confcious bed.
OdyJfcy* book viii. 1. 337.
KJlupid moment motionlefs (he flood.
Summer, 1. 1336.
8. A circumftance connected with a fubjefl:, ex-
prefled as a quality of the fubjeft.
Breezy fummit.
’Tis ours the chance otjighring fields to try,
Iliad, book v. 1. 301.
Oh ! had I dy’d before that well-fought wall.
Odyjfey, book v. 1. 395.
From this table it appears, that the adorning a caufe
with an attribute of the effea, is not fo agreeable as
the oppofite expreflion. The progrefs from caufe to
effeft is natural and eafy : the oppofite progrefs refem-
* See Per- ties retrograde motion * ; and therefore panting height,
''andIdeas in aJIo!liJh'd tfl°uSht^ are ftrain’d and uncouth expreflions,
a Train. which a writer of tafle will avoid.
It is not lefs ftrained, to apply to a fubjefl; in its
prefent ftate, an epithet that may belong to it in fome
future ftate :
Submerfafque obrue puppes. JBneid, book i. 1. 73
And mighty ruins fall. Iliad, book v. 1. 411.
Impious fons their mangled fathers wound.
Another rule regards this figure, That the property
<jf one fubjeft ought not to be beftowed upon another
with which the property is incongruous.
-How dare thy joints forget
K. Rich  ^  
To pay their awful duty to our prefence ?
Richard II. aft Hi, fc. 6.
The connexion between an awful fuperior and his fub-
miflive dependent is to intimate, that an attribute may
readily be transferred from the one to the other : but
awfulnefs cannot be fo transferred, becaufe it is incon-
fiftent with fubmiflion.
Figure of Speech, as peculiarly diftinguiflied from
the above and from thole firft referred to}. Under
the article METAPHOR and Allegory, a figure of fpeech
is defined, “ The ufing a word in a fenfe different
from what is proper to it;” and the new or uncommon
fenfe of the word is termed the fgurative fenfe. The
figurative fenfe muft have a relation to that which is
proper ; and the more intimate the relation is, the fi-
Elem. (f gure is the more happy. How ornamental this figure
Criticifm. ig to language, will not be readily imagined by any one
who hath not given peculiar attention ; and therefore
we (hall endeavour to unfold its capital beauties and
advantages. In the firft place, a word ufed figuratively,
or in a new fenfe, fuggefts at the fame time the fenfe
it commonly bears : and thus it has the effeft to pre¬
fent two objefts ; one fignified by the figurative fenfe,
which maybe termed the principal objeSt; and one fig¬
nified by the proper fenfe, which may be termed accef-
fory ; the. principal makes a part of the thought; the
acceflbry is merely ornamental. In this refpeft, a fi¬
gure of fpeech is precifely fimilar to concordant founds
18 ] FIG
in mufic, which, without con trbuting to the melodv r-
make it harmonious. * nietoay,
To explain the matter by examples. Youth, by a ^
figure of fpeech, is termed the morning of life: This
expreflion fignifies youth, the principal objeft ’which
enters into the thought; it fuggefts, at the fame time,
the proper fenfe of morning ; and this acceffory objeft
being m ftfelf beautiful, and connefted by refemblanee
to the principal objeft, is not a little ornamental. /,«.
penous ocean, \% an example of a different kind, where
an attribute is expreffed figuratively : Together with
formy,' the figurative meaning of the epithet imperious,
there is fuggefted its. proper meaning, viz. the ftern
authority of a defpotie prince; and thefe two are
ftrongly connefted by refemblance. Upon this figu¬
rative power of words, Vida defcants with elegance
Foet. lib. Hi. 1. 44. 6 *
In the next place, this figure poflefles a fignal power
of aggrandizing an objeft, .by the following means 
Words, which have no original beauty but what arifes
from their found, acquire an adventitious beauty from
their meaning : a word fignifying any thing that is
agreeable, becomes by that means agreeable ; for the
agreeablenefs of the objeft is communicated to its name.
This acquired beauty, by the force of cuftom, adheres
to the word, even when ufed figuratively ; and the
beauty received from the thing it properly fignifies, is
communicated to the thing which it is made to fignify
figuratively. Confider the foregoing expreflion Irnpe*
rious ocean, how much more elevated it is than Stormy
ocean.
Thirdly, This figure hath a happy effeft by pre¬
venting the familiarity of proper names. The familia¬
rity of a proper name is communicated to the thing
it fignifies by means of their intimate connexion ; and
the thing is thereby brought down in our feeling.
This bad effeft is prevented by ufing a figurative word
inftead of one that is proper : as for example, when we
exprefs the fky by terming it the blue vault of heaven;
for though no work of art can compare with the flcy
in grandeur, the expreflion however is reliftied, becaufe
it prevents the objeft from being brought down by the
familiarity of its proper name. With refpeft to the
degrading the familiarity of proper names, Vida has the
following pafiage:
Hinc fi dura mihi paflus dicendus Ulyffes,
Non ilium vero memorabo nomine, fed qui
Et mores hominum multorum vidit, et urbes,
Naufragus everfae poft faeva incendia Trojse.
Boet. lib. ii. 1. 460.
Laftly, By this figure, language is enriched, and
rendered more copious; in which refpeft, were there
no other, a figure of fpeech is a happy invention.
This property is finely touched by Vida ; Foet. lib,
iii. 1. 90.
1 he beauties we have mentioned belong to every
figure of fpeech. Several other beauties, peculiar to
one or other fort, we fhall have occafion to remark af¬
terwards.
Not only fubjefts, but qualities, aftions, effefts, may
be exprefled figuratively. Thus, as to fubjefts, gates
of breath for the lips, the watery kingdom for the ocean.
As to qualities, fierce for ftormy, in the expreffion
Fierce winter; Altus for profundus, Altus puteus, Ahum
Figure.
FIG [
mare ; breathing for perfpiring, Breathing plants.
' gain, as to aftions, The fea rages, Time will melt her
frozen thoughts, Time kills grief. An effedl is put
for the caufe, as lux for the fun j and a caufe for the
effect, as bourn labores for corn. The relation of re-
femblance is one plentiful fource of figures of fpeech j
and nothing is more common than to apply to one ob-
je£l: the name of another that refembles it in any re-
fpeft : Height, fize, and worldly greatnofs, refemble
not each other j but the emotions they produce re¬
femble each other, and, prompted by this refemblance,
we naturally exprefs worldly greatnefs by height or
fize: One feels a certain uneafinefs in feeing a great
depth j and, hence depth is made to exprefs any thing
difagreeable by excefs, as depth of grief, depth of de-
fpair : Again, Height of place, and time long part,
produce fimilar feelings j and hence the expreflion, TJt
altius repetam! Diftance in time paft, producing a
ftrong feeling, is put for any ftrong feeling j Nihil mild
antiquius nqjlra amicitia: Shortnefs with relation to
fpace, for fhortnefs with relation to time ; Brevis ejfe
laboro, obfcurus Jio : Suffering a puniihment refembles
paying a debt 5 hencependerepoenas. In the fame man¬
ner, light may be put for glory, funfiiine for profpe-
rity, and weight for importance.
Many words, originally figurative, having, by long
and conftant ufe, loll their figurative power, are de¬
graded to the inferior rank of proper terms. Thus the
words that exprefs the operation of the mind, have in
all languages been originally figurative ; the reafon
holds in all, that when thefe operations came firft un¬
der confideration, there was no other way of dtfcribing
them but by what they refembled : it was not pra£ti-
cable to give them proper names, as may be done to
objefls that can be afcertained by fight and touch. A
foft nature, jarring tempers, weight of woe, pompous
phrafe, beget compaffion, qffuage grief, break a vow,
bend \.he eye downward,/ftouw down curfes, drowning
in tears, wrapt in joy, warm'd with eloquence, loaded
with fpoils, and a thoufand other expreflions of the
like nature, have loft their figurative fenfe. Some
terms there are that cannot be faid to be altogether
figurative or altogether proper : originally^ figurative,
they are tending to fimplicity, without having loft al¬
together their figurative power. Virgil’s Regina faucia
cura, is perhaps one of thefe expreflions : with ordinary
readers, faucia will be confidered as exprefling Amply
the effect of grief-, but one of a lively imagination will
exalt the phrafe into a figure.
For epitomizing this fubjefi, and at the fame time
0/ £or g;v;ng a c|ear view of it, Lord Karnes f gives a lift
305. of tlie federal relations upon which figures of fpeech
are commonly founded. This lift he divides into two
tables; one of fubjeds expreffed figuratively, and one
of attributes.
Tab.. I. SubjeBs exprejfedfiguratively.
1. A word proper to one fubjed employed figura¬
tively to exprefs a refembling fubjed.
There is no figure of fpeech fo frequent, as what is
derived from the relation of refembling. Vouth, for
example, is fignified figuratively by the morning of life.
The life of a man refembles a natural day in feveral
particulars: the morning is the beginning of a day,
19 ] FIG
youth the beginning of life } the morning is cheerful,
fo is youth, &c. By another refemblance, a bold war¬
rior is termed the thunderbolt of war ; a multitude of
troubles, a fea of troubles.
This figure, above all others, affords pleafure to the
mind by variety of beauties. Befides the beauties
above mentioned, common to all forts, it poffeffes in
particular the beauty of a metaphor or a fimile : a
figure of fpeech built upon refemblance, fuggefts always
a comparifon between the principal fubjed and the ae-
ceffory 5 whereby every good efttd of a metaphor or
fimile may, in a ftiort and lively manner, be produced
by this figure of fpeech.
2. A word proper to the effed employed figurative¬
ly to exprefs the caufe.
Lux for the fun ; Shadow for cloud. A helmet is
fignified by the expreflion glittering terror; a tree by
fbadow or umbrage. Hence the expreflion,
Nec habet Pelion umbras. OriD.
Where the dun umbrage hangs. Spring, 1. 1023.
A wound is made to fignify an arrow :
Vulnere non pedibus te confequar. OviD.
There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure :
the word which fignifies figuratively the principal
fubjed, denotes it to be a caufe by fuggefting the
effed.
3. A word proper to the caufe employed figuratively
to exprefs the effed.
Boumque labores for corn. Sorrow or grief for tears.
Again Ulyffes veil’d his penfive head 5
Again unmann’d, a fliower offorrow (bed.
Streaming grief his faded cheek bedew’d.
Blindnefs for darknefs:
Csecis erramus in undis. Jtineid. iii. 200.
There is a peculiar energy in this figure, fimilar to
that in the former : the figurative name denotes the
fubjed to be an effed by fuggefting its caufe.
4. Two things being intimately eonneded, the pro¬
per name of the one employed figuratively to fignify
the other.
Day for light. Night for darknefs j and hence, A
fudden night. Winter for a ftorm at fea :
Interea magno mifceri murmure pontum,
Emiffamque Hyemem fenfit Neptunus.
JEneid. i. 128,
This laft figure would be too bold for a Britifti writer,
as a ftorm at fea is not infeparably conneded with win¬
ter in this climate.
5. A word proper to an attribute, employed figura¬
tively to denote the fubjed.
Youth and beauty for thofe who are young and beau¬
tiful :
Youth and beauty fhall be laid in dull.
Majefiy for the king :
What art thou, that ufurp’ft this time of night,
Together with that fair and warlike form
In which the Majefiy of buried Denmark
Did fometimes march ? Hamlet, ad i. fc. 1.
4 I a  Or
Figure.
FIG [620
' ’ Or have ye chofen this place,
After the toils of battle to repofe
Your weary’d virtue ? Paradife Loft.
Verdure for a green field. Summery 1. 301.
Speaking of cranes,
1 he pigmy nations, wounds and death they bring.
And all the war defcends upon the wing,
lliady book iii. 1. 10.
Cool age advances venerably wife.
Iliady book iii. 1. 149.
T. he peculiar beauty of this figure arifes from fug-
gefling an attribute that embellifhes the fubjeft, or puts
it in a ftronger light..
6. A complex term employed figuratively to denote
one of the component parts.
Yunus for a dead body. Burial for a grave.
The name of one of the component parts inftead
of the complex term.
Tada for a marriage. The EaJ for a country fitu-
ated eaft from us. Jovis vejligia fcrvat, for imitating
Jupiter in general.
8. A word fignifying time or place, employed figu¬
ratively to denote what is conneffed with it.
Clime for a nation, or for a conflitution of govern¬
ment : hence the expreflion, Merciful climey Yleecij win¬
ter, for fnow, Seculum felix.
9. A part for the whole.
The pole for the earth. The head for the perfon.
Plautus.
Ovid.
Horat.
Triginta minas pro capite tuo dedi.
Tergum for the man :
Fugiens tergum.
Vultus for the man :
Jam fulgor armorum fugaces
Terret equos, equitumque vultus..
Quis defiderio fit pudor aut modus
Tam chari capitis ?
Dumque virent genua ?
Thy growing virtues juftifyM my cares,
And promis’d comfort to my Jilver hairs.
Iliad, book ix. 1. 616.
 .Forthwith from the pool he rears
His mightyjtore. Paradife Lojl.
The filent heart which grief affails. Parnel.
Horat.
Horat.
The peculiar beauty of this figure confifts in marking
that part which makes the greateft figure.
10. The name of the container, employed figurative¬
ly to fignify what is contained.
Grove for the birds in it; Vocal grove. Ships for the
feamen ; Agonizing Ships. Mountains for the fheep
pafturing upon them j Bleating mountains. ’Zacijnthus,
Ithaca, &c. for the inhabitants ; Ex mcejlis domibus.
Livy.
11. The name of the fuftainer, employed figurative¬
ly to fignify what is fuftained.
Altar for the facrifice. Field for the battle fought
upon it ; Well-fought field.
12. The name of the materials, employed figurative¬
ly to fignify the things made of them,
Yerrum for gladius.
] fig
13. The names, of the Heathen deities, employed
figuratively to fignify what they patronize. 1
Jove for the air, Mars for war, Venus for beauty,
Cupid for love, Ceres for corn, Neptune for the fea*
Vulcan for fire.
This figure bellows great elevation upon the fubjeflj
and therefore ought to be confined to the higher ftrains
of poetry.
Figure,
Tab. II. Attributes cxprejftdfiguratively.
1. When two attributes are connefled, the name of
the one may be employed figuratively to exprefs the
other.
Purity and virginity are attributes of the fame per-
fon : hence the expreffion Virgin fnow, for pure fnow..
2. A word fignifying properly an attribute of one
fubjefl, employed figuratively to exprefs a refembling
attribute of another fubjefl.
Tottering ft ate. Imperious ocean. Angry flood.
ging tempeft. Shallow fears.
My fure divinity (hall bear the Afield,
And edge thy fword to reap the glorious field,
QdyJJey, book xx. 1. 61.
Black omen, for an omen that portends bad fortune.
Ater omen.. Virgil.
The peculiar beauty of this figure arifes from fuggefting
a comparifon.
3. A word proper to the fubjed, employed to exprefi
one of its attributes.
Mens for a refill ution :
Mens for intelleclus.
Warn, oro, exue, mentem.
When two fubjeds have a refemblance by a com¬
mon quality, the name of the one fubjed may be em-
ployed figuratively to denote that quality in the other
Summer life for agreeable life.
5. The name of the inftrutnent made to fignify the
power of employing it:
Melpomene, eui liquidam pater
Vocem cum cithara dedit.
The ample field of figurative expreffion difplayed in
thefe tables, affords great fcope for reafoning. Several
of the obfervations relating to metaphor f, are appli- f See Me*
cable to figures of fpeech : thefe {hall be {lightly re-
touched, with fome additions peculiarly adapted to the
prefent fubjeds.
I. As the figure under confideration is built upon
relation, we find from experience, and it muft be ob¬
vious from reafon, that the beauty of it depends on the
intimacy of the relation between the figurative and
proper fenfe of the word. A flight refemblance, in
particular, will never make this figure agreeable : the
expreffion, for example, Drink down a fecret, for liften-
ing to a fecret with attention, is harlh and uncouth,
becaufe there is fcarce any refemblance between lifiening
and drinking. The expreffion weighty crack, ufed by
Ben Johnfon for loud crack, is worfe if poffible ; a loud
found has not the flighteft refemblance to a piece of
matter that is weighty.
Phemius ! let ads of gods, and heroes old,
What ancient bards in hall and bow’r have told.
Attemper’d
FIG [ 621 ] FIG
Attemper’d to the lyre, your voice employ, and therefore to defcribe the effeds of weight, is to
Such the pleas’d ear will drink with filent joy. defert the principal fubjeft, and to convert the acceflbry
OdyJfeyr book i. 1. 433. into a principal :
Strepitumque exterritus haujit.
JEneid, book vi. 1.
     ■ —— Write, my queen.
And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you fend.
Cymbeline, aft i. fc. 2»
As thus th’ effulgence tremulous I drink.
Summer, 1. 1684.
Neque audit currus habenas.
Georg, book i. 1. 514,
O prince ! (Lycaon’s valiant fon reply’d),
As thine the fteeds, be thine the tafk to guide.
The horfes prafKs’d to their lord’s command,
Shall hear the rein, and anfwer to thy hand.
Iliad, book v. 1. 288.
The following figures of fpeech feem altogether wild
and extravagant, the figurative and proper meaning
having no connexion whatever. Moving foftnefs, Frefh-
nefs breathes. Breathing profpect, Flowing fpring, Dewy
light, Lucid coolnefs, and many others of this falfe
coin, may be found in Thomfon’s Seafons.
2. The proper fenfe of the word ought to bear
fome proportion to the figurative fenfe, and not foar
much above it, nor fink much below it. This rule, as
well as the foregoing, is finely illufirated by Vida,
Poet, book iii. 1. 148.
3. In a figure of fpeech, every circumftance ought
to be avoided that agrees with the proper fenfe only,
not with the figurative fenfe : for it is the latter that
expreffes the thought, and the former ferves for no
other purpofe but to make harmony :
Zacynthus green with ever-fhady groves,
And Ithaca, prefumptuous boaft their loves 5
Obtruding on my choice a fecond lord,
They prefs the Hymenean rite abhorr’d.
Odyffey, book xix. 1. 152.
Zacynthus here {landing figuratively for the inhabi¬
tants, the defcription of the ifland is quite out of place :
it puzzles the reader, by making him doubt whether
the word ought to be taken in its proper or figurative
fenfe.
■  ..... . ■ ■ ■ —-Write, my queen,
And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you fend,
Though ink be made of gall.
Cymbelinei aft i. fc. 2..
The difguft one has to drink ink in reality, is not to
the purpofe where the fubjeft is drinking ink figura¬
tively.
4. To draw confequences from a figure of fpeech, as
if the word were to be underftood literally, is a grofs
abfurdity ; for it is confounding truth with fiftion :
Be Moubray’s fins fo heavy in his bofom,
That they may break his foaming courfer’s back,
And throw the rider headlong in the lift?,
A caitiff recreant to my coufin Hereford.
Richard II. aft i. fc. 3.
Sin may be imagined heavy in a figurative fenfe : but
weight in a proper fenfe belongs to the acceflbry only j
Cromwell. How does your Grace ?
Wolfey. Why, well j
Never fo truly happy, my good Cromwell.
I know myfelf now, and I feel within me
A peace above all earthly dignities,
A ftill and quiet confcience. The king has cur’d me,
I humbly thank his Grace : and, from thefe {boulders,
Thefe ruin’d pillars, out of pity, taken
A load would fink a navy, too much honour.
Henry VIIL aft iii. fc. 6.
Ulyfles fpeaking of Heftor—
I wonder now how yonder city Hands,
When we have here the bafe and pillar by us.
Troilus and CreJJida, aft iv. fc. 9.
Othello. No j my heart is turned to ftone : I ftrike
it, and it hurts my hand. Othello, aft iv. fc. 5.
Not lefs, even in this defpicable now,
Than when my name fill’d Afric with affrights,
And froze your hearts beneath your torrid zone.
Don Sebajlian King of Portugal, aft i.
How long a fpace, fince firft I lov’d, it is !
To look into a glafs I fear,
And am furpris’d with wonder, when I mifs
Gray hairs and wrinkles there.
Cowley, vol. i. p. 86.
I chofe the flourifliing’ft tree in all the park,
With freftieft boughs and faireft head j
I cut my love into its gentle bark,
And in three days behold ’tis dead j
My very written flames fo violent be,
They’ve burnt and wither’d up the tree.
Cowley, vol. i. p. 136.
Ah, mighty Love, that it were inward heat
Which made this precious limbeck fweat !
But what, alas ! ah, what does it avail,
That file weeps tears fo wond’rous cold,
As fcarce the afs’s hoof can hold.
So cold, that I admire they fall not hail !
Cowley, vol. i. p. 132.
Such a play of words is pleafant in a ludicrous poem.
Almeria. O Alphonfo, Alphonfo !
Devouring feas have waftr’d thee from my fight.
No time {hall raze thee from my memory:
No, I will live to be thy monument:
The cruel ocean is no more thy tomb ;
But in my heart thou art interr’d.
Mourning Bride, aft i. fc, r.
This would be very right, if there were any inconfift-
ence in being interred in one place really, and in ano¬
ther place figuratively.
From confidering that a word ufed in a figurative
fenfe fuggefts at the fame time its proper meaning, we
difcover a fifth rule, That we ought not to employ a
word in a figurative fenfe, the proper fenfe of which is
inconfiftent or incongruous with the fubjeft : for every
inconfiftency, and even incongruity, though in the ex-
preflion only and not real, is unpleafant;
Intere®
F I G
Figure, Interea genitor Tyberini ad fluminis undam,
-—v  VulneraJiccabat lymphis 
JEneid. book x. 1. 833.
Tres adeo incertos caeca caligine foies
Erramus pelago, totidem fine fidere nofles.
JEneid, book iii. 1. 203.
The foregoing, rule may be extended to form a
fixth, That no epithet ought to be given to the figu¬
rative fenfe of a word that agrees not alfo with its pro¬
per fenfe : r
"    Dicat Opuntiae
Frater Megillae, quo beatus
Vulnere. Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 27.
Parcus deorum cultor, et infrequens,
Infanientis dum fapientiae
Confultos erro. Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 54.
Seventhly, The crowding into one period or thought
different figures of fpeech, is not lefs faulty than crowd¬
ing metaphors in that manner : the mind is diftradted
in the quick tranfition from one image to another, and
is puzzled inftead of being pleafed :
l am of ladies moft dejeft and wretched,
J hat fuck’d the honey of his mufic vows. Hamlet.
My bleeding bofom fickens at the found.
Ody ffey^ book i. 1. 439.
——————— ■ Ah mifer,
Quanta laboras in Charybdi! —-
/ Digne puer meliore famma.
Quae faga, quis te folvere Theffalis
Magus qua poterit Deus:
Vix illigatum tetriformi
Pegafus expediet Chimera.
Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 27.
Eighthly, If crowding figures be bad, it is ftill worfe
to graft one figure upon another : For inftance,
While his keen falchion drinks the warriors lives.
Iliad, book xi. 1. 211.
A falchion drinking the warriors blood, is a figure built
upon refemblance, which is paffable. But then in the
expreflion, lives is again put for blood; and by thus
grafting one figure upon another, the expreflion is ren¬
dered obfcure and unpleafant.
Ninthly, Intricate and involved figures, that can
fcarce be analyzed, or reduced to plain language, are
leaft of all tolerable :
Votis incendimus aras. JEneid, book iii. 1, 279.
    Onerentque caniftris
Dona laboratee Cereris. lEneid, book viii. 1. 180.
Vulcan to the Cyclops :
Arma acri facienda viro : nunc viribus ufus,
Nunc.manibus rapidis, omni nunc arte magiftra :
Prceeipitate moras. JEneid, book viii. 1. 441.
*  —Huic gladio, perque serea fcuta,
Per tunicam fqualentem auro, latus haurit apertum.
JEneid, book x. 1. 313.
Scriberis Vario fortis, et hoftium
Vidor, Maeonii carminis alite.
Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 6.
i 622 ] FIG
Elfe ftialt our fates be number’d with the dead.
Iliad, book v. 1. 294,
Commutual death the fate of war confounds,
Iliad, book viii, 1. 85, and book xi. 1. 117.
Speaking of Proteus.
Inflant he wears, elufive of the rape,
I he mimic force of every favage fhape.
Odyjfey, book iv. 1. 363,
Rolling convulfive on the floor, is feen
l he piteous objed of a proftrate queen.
Ibid, book iv. 1. 652.
The mingling tempeft weaves its gloom.
Autumn, 1. 337,
A various fweetnefs fwells the gentle race.
Ibid. i. 640.
The diftant waterfall fwells in the breeze.
Winter, 1. 738.
. In t^e tentk P^ce, When a fubjed is introduced by
its proper name, it is abfurd to attribute to it the pro¬
perties of a different fubjed to which the word is fome-
times applied in a figurative fenfe :
Hear me, Oh Neptune ! thou whofe arms are hurl’d
.trom fhore to fhore, and gird the folid world.
Odyjfey, book ix. 1. 617.
Neptune is here introduced perfonally, and not figu*
rativeiy, for the ocean: the defcription, therefore,
which is only applicable to the-latter, is altogether im¬
proper. 0
It is not fufficient that a figure of fpeech be regu¬
larly conftruded, and be free from blemifh: it re¬
quires tafte to difcern when it is proper, when impro¬
per j and tafte perhaps is our only guide. One, however,
may gather trom refledion and experience, that orna¬
ments and graces fuit not any of the difpiriting paf-
. ns, nor ^ proper for exprefling any thing grave and
important. In familiar converfation, they are in fome
meafure ridiculous : Profpero, in the Temfief, fpeaking
to his daughter Miranda, fays, 1 6
The fringed curtains of thine eyes advance
And fay what thou feeft yond.
No exception can be taken to the juftnefs of the fi¬
gure ; and circumftances may be imagined to make it
proper ; but it is certainly not proper in familiar con-
verfation.
In the laft place, Though figures of fpeech have a
charming effed when accurately conftruded and pro-
perly introduced, they ought, however, to be fcattered
with a fparing hand ; nothing is more lufcious, and no¬
thing confequently more fatiating, than redundant or¬
naments of any kind.
Figure is ufed, in Theology, for the myfteries re-
prefented or delivered obfcurely to us under certain
types, or adions in the Old Teftament. Thus manna
is held a figure or type of the eucharift ; and the death
ot Abel a figure of the fuffering of Chrift.
. Ma"y divines and critics contend, that all the ac¬
tions, hiftories, ceremonies, &c. of the Old Teftament,
are only figures, types, and prophecies, of what was
to happen under the New. The Jews are fuppofed
to
F 1 sL [ 623 ] F
to have had the figures or fhadovvs, and we the fub- pound after preparation
a like fenfe to profane
enigmas, fables* fymbols,
fiance.
Figure Is alfo applied In
matters; as the emblems,
and hieroglyphics, of the ancients.
FIGURED, in genera), fomething marked with
figures.
The term figured is chiefly applied to fluffs, where-
on the figures of flowers, and the like, are either wrought
or ftamped.
Figured, in Mufic, is applied either to Ample notes
or to harmony : to Ample notes, as in thefe figur¬
ed bafis, to exprefs a bafs whofe notes carrying chords
are fubdivided into many other notes of leffer value:
to harmony, when, by fuppofition and in a diatonic
procedure, other notes than thofe which form the chord
are employed. See Supposition.
To figure is to pafs feveral notes for one ; to form
runnings or variations; to add fome notes to the air,
in whatever manner it be done ; in Ihort, it is to give
to harmonious found-, a figure of melody, by connefting
them with other intermediate founds.
FILAGO, a genus of plants, belonging to the fyn-
genefia clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compofitce. See Botany Index.
FILAMENT, in Anatomy, Natural Hifiory, &c. a
term ufed in the fame fenfe with fibre, for thofe fine
threads whereof the flefli, nerves, Ikin, plants, roots,
&c. are compofed. See Fibre.
Vegetable FILAMENTS form a fubftance of great ufe
in the arts and manufa&ures ; furnifiiing thread, cloth,
cordage, &c.„
For thefe purpofes the filamentous parts of the Can¬
nabis and Linum, or hemp and flax, are employed
f See among us f. But different vegetables have been em-
Tkx. ployed in different countries for the fame ufes. Putre-
faftion deftroys the pulpy or flefhy matter, and leaves
the tough filaments entire : By putrefying the leaf of
a plant in water, we obtain the fine flexible fibres, which
conftituted the bafis of the ribs and minute veins, and
which now form as it were a Ikeleton of the leaf.
Alkaline lixivia, in fome degree, produce fimilar efftdts
to putrefaftion.
The Sieur de Flacourt, in his hiftory of Madagaf-
car, relates, that different kinds of cloth are prepared
in that ifland from the filaments of the bark of certain
trees boiled in ftrong lye ; that fome of thefe cloths
are very fine, and approach to the foftnefs of filk, but
in durability come fhort of cotton ; that others are
coarfer and ftfonger, and laft thrice as long as cotton $
and that of thefe the fails and cordage of his veffel were
made. See alfo the article Bark.
The fame author informs us, that the ftalks of nettles
are ufed for the like purpofes in his own country,
France. And Sir Hans Sloane relates, in one of his
letters to Mr Ray, that he has been informed by feve¬
ral, that muflin and callico, and moft of the Indian li¬
nens, are made of nettles.
In fome of the Swedifh provinces, a ftrong kind of
cloth is faid to be prepared from hop ftalks : and in
the tranfa&ions of the Swedifti Academy for the year
I7J°> there is an account of an experiment made in
confequence of that report. Of the ftalks, gathered
in autumn, about as many were taken as equalled in
bulk a quantity of flax that would have produced a
3
I L
«. *. The ftalks were put into Filaments,
water, and kept covered therewith during the winter. j-y—J
In March they were taken out, dried in a ftove, and
dreffed as flax. T he prepared filaments weighed near¬
ly a pound, and proved fine, foft, and white: They
were fpun and woven into fix ells of fine ftrong cloth.
The author, Mr Shifter, obferves, that hop ftalks take
much longer time to rot than flax ; and that, if not
fully rotted, the woody part will not feparate, and the
cloth will neither prove white nor fine.
Hemp, flax, and all other vegetable filaments, and
thread or cloth prepared from them, differ remarkably
from wool, hair, filk, and other animal productions,
not only in the principles into which they are refoluble
by fire, but likewife in fome of their more interefting
properties, particularly in their difpofition to imbibe
colouring matters; fundry liquors, which give a beau¬
tiful and durable dye to thofe of the animal, giving no
ftain at all to thofe of the vegetable kingdom,
A folution of copper in aquafortis, which had been
changed blue by an addition of volatile fpirit, on beino-
mixed with a little folution of tin, became turbid and
greenifh. Pieces of white filk and flannel boiled, with¬
out any previous preparation, in this mixture, received
a bright deep yellow dye 5 whilft pieces of linen, pre¬
pared and. unprepared, came out as colourlefs as thev
were put in.
Filhing nets are ufually boiled with oak bark or other
like aftringents, which render them more lafting.
Thofe made of flax receive from this decoCHon a brown-
ilh colour, which, by the repeated alterations of wa¬
ter and air, is in a little time difcharged, whilft the fine
gloffy brown, communicated by the fame means to
filken nets, permanently refills both the air and water,
and Hands as long as the animal filaments themfelves.
In like manner the flam of ink, or the black dye from
folutions of iron, mixed with vegetable aftringents*
proves durable in filk and woollen j but from linen,
the aftringent matter is extra&ed by walking, and only'
the yellow iron mould remains.
. I he red decoClion of cochineal, which, heightened
with a little folution of tin, gives the fiery fcarlet dye
to wool or filk that have been previoully impregnated
with folution of tartar, makes no impreflion upon linen
or cotton prepared in the fame manner. M. du Fay
informs us, in the Memoirs of the French Academy for
the year 1737, that having prepared a mixed cloth
whofe warp v'as of wool and the woof of cotton, and
thoroughly blended the two together by fulling, he ftill
found the cotton to refill the adtion of the fcarlet liquor,
and the wool to receive the fame colour from it as wool
by itfelf, the Huff coming out all over marbled fiery
and white.
Many other inftances of this kind are known too
well to.the callico printer j whofe grand delideratum it
is, to find means of making linen receive the fame co¬
lours that wool does. The phyfical caufe of the dif¬
ference js wholly unknown ; and indeed, of the theory
°f dyes in general, we know as yet extremely little.
(See Dyeing). Are animal filaments tubular, and the
colouring atoms received within them ? Are vegetable
filaments folid, and the colour depofited on the furface ?
Or, does not their different fufceptibility of colour de¬
pend rather on the different intrinfic properties of the
two ? There are many inftances of a like diverfity, even
in.
Filaments
il
File.
F I L [ 624 ]
in the metallic kingdom, where a mechanical difference turning to the fame.
F I L
in texture can fcarcely be prefumed to be the caufe
j hus filver receives a deep Itain from fulphureous or
putrid vapours, or the yolk of a boiled egg, which have
no effodt upon tin.
Filaments, among botanifts. See Botany Index.
I1LANDERS, in falconry, a difeafe in hawks, &c.
con fitting of filaments or firings of blood coagulated j
and occafioned by a violent rupture of fome vein, by
which the blood, extravafating, hardens into thefe fi¬
gures, and incommodes the reins, hips, &.c.
Filanders, are alfo worms as fmall as thread, and
about an inch long, that lie wrapt up in a thin fkin or
net, near the reins of a hawk, apart from either gut or
gorge.
I his malady is known by the hawk’s poverty ; by
ruffling her tail ; by her draining the fift, or perch,
w'ith her pounces; and laftly, by croaking in the
night, when the filanders prick her. The difeafe pro¬
ceeds from bad food; and mull; be remedied in time, to
prevent its fpreading over the whole body, and deftroy-
ing the bird. 1 hele mull not be killed as other worms
are, for Fear of impofthumes from their corruption, be¬
ing incapable of palling away with the hawk’s meat.
Ihey mull only be ftupified, to prevent their being of-
ffenfive , and this is done by giving the hawk a clove
of garlic, after which Ihe will feel nothing of the filan¬
ders for 40 days. It will be prudent in the falconer,
when he obferves the hawk poor and low, to give
her a clove of garlic once a month by way of pre¬
vention.
FILBERT , or FiLBERD, the fruit of the corylus,
-or hazel. See Corylus, Botany Index.
FILE, among mechanics, a tool ufed in metal, &c,
in order to ftnooth, polifh, or cut.
Rhis infirument is of iron or forged fteel, cut in
little furrows, with chiffels and a mallet, this and that
way, and of this or that depth, according to the grain
or touch required. After cutting the file, it mult be
tempered with a compofition of chimney foot, very
hard and dry, diluted and wrought up with urine,
vinegar, and fait, the whole being reduced to the con^-
fiftence of muftard. Tempering the files confifis in
rubbing them over with this compofition, and covering
them in loam ; after which they are put in a charcoal
fire, and taken out by that time they have acquired a
cherry colour, which is knorvn by a fmall rod of the
fame fteel put in along with them. Being taken out
of the fire, they are thrown into cold fpring water ;
and when cold, they are cleaned with charcoal and a
rag ; and being clean and dry, are kept from ruft by
laying them up in wheat bran. Iron files require more
heating than fteel ones. Files are of different forms,
fizes, cuts, and degrees of finenefs, aceording to the
different ufes and occafions for which they are made.
See Filing.
File, in the art of war, a row of foldiers, ftanding
one behind another, which is the depth of the battalion
or fquadron. The files of a battalion of foot are gene¬
rally three deep; as are fometimes thofe of a fquadron
of horfe. The files nruft be ftraigbt and parallel one
to another.
File, in Law, a thread, firing, or wire, upon which
writs and other exhibits in courts and offices are faft-
ened or filed, for the more fafe keeping, and ready
A file is a record of the court; Fi,p
and the filing of a procefs of a court makes it a record Filili.
of it. An original writ may be filed after judg- v-«*■
ment given in the caufe, iffued forth before; decla¬
rations, &c. are to be filed, and affidavits muft be
filed, fome before they are read in court, and fome
prefently when read in court. Before filing a record
removed by certiorari, the juftices of B. R. may refufe
to •L'ceive it, if it appears to be for delay, &c.; and
remand it back for the expedition of juftice : but if the
certiorari be once filed, the proceedings below cannot
be revived. An indi&ment, &c. cannot be amended
after it is filed.
FILIAL, fomething belonging to the relation of
fon. See Son.
The divines ufually diftinguilh between a fervi/e and
a Jihal fear. The moft abandoned may have a fervile
fear of God, filch as that of a fiave to his mafter ; but
not a filial fear, i. e. a fear refulting from love and re-'
fpedt. See Fear.
FILIAL Piety, the affe&iohate attachment of children
to their parents; including in it love, reverence, obedi¬
ence, and relief. *1 hefe are duties prompted equally by
nature and by gratitude, independent of the injun&ions
of religion. For where ftiall we find the perfon who
hath received from any one benefits fo great or fo
many, as children from their parents ? And it may be
truly faid, that if perfons are undutiful to their pa¬
rents, they feldom prove good to any other relation.
Profane hiftory furnifties many fine examples of this
amiable virtue ; a few of which we fhall feleft, accord¬
ing to the plan obferved in other fimilar articles.
1. The Roman diflator T. Manlius having exer*
cifed great cruelty over the citizens, was cited at the
expiration of his office to anfwer for his condu£L
Among other things that were laid to his charge, he
was. accufed of treating with barbarity one of his own
fons. Manlius, according to Livy, had no other caufe
of complaint againft this fon than his having an impe--
diment in his fpeech. For this reafon he was banifhed
far from the city, from his borne, and the company of
thofe of his own age and fortune, and condemned to
fervile works. All were highly exafperated againft
fuel) inhuman conduft, except the fon himfelf, who,
under the greateft concern that he ftiould furnifti mat¬
ter of accufation againll his father, refolved upon a
moft extraordinary method to relieve him. One morn¬
ing, without apprifing any body, he came to the city
armed with a dagger, and went direcftly to the houle
of the tribune Pomponius, who had accufed his fa¬
ther, Pomponius was yet in bed. Voung Manlius
fent up his name, and was immediately admitted by
the tribune, who did not doubt but he was come to
difeover to him fome new inftances of his father’s fe-
verity. But Manlius, as foon as he was left alone
with the tribune, drew out his dagger, and prefented
it to his breaft ; declaring he would ftab him that mo¬
ment if he did not fwear in the form he ftiould dic¬
tate, “ Never to hold the affembly of the people for
accufing his father.” Pomponius, who faw the dag- Liv-1- 7»
ger glittering at bis breaft, himfelf alone without arms,c* 4- S1
and attacked by a robuft young man, full of a bold
confidence in his own ftrength, took the oath demand¬
ed of him ; and afterwards confeffed with a kind of
complacency in the thing, and a fincerity which fuffi-
ciently
Filial.
F I L [ g25
ciently argued he was not forry for what he had done, that
which obliged him to defift
'V"—' that it was that violence
from his defign.
2. Among the multitude of perfons who were pro-
fcribed under the fecond triumvirate of Rome, were
the celebrated orator Cicero and his brother Quintus.
The fate of the former, in endeavouring to make his
efcape, is related under the article Cicero. The lat¬
ter found means to conceal himfelf fo effe£tually at
home, that the foldiers could not find him. Enraged
at their difappointment, they put his fon to the torture,
in order to make him difcover the place of his father’s
concealment j but filial affe&ion was proof againft the
moft exquifite torments. An involuntary figh, and
fometimes a deep groan, was all that could be extorted
from the youth. His agonies were increafed ; but
with amazing fortitude he Hill perfifted in his refolu-
tjon of not betraying his father. Quintus was not far
off} and it may be imagined better than can be expref-
ftd, how his heart muft have been affe&ed with the
fighs and groans of a fon expiring in tortures to fave
his life. He could bear no longer; but quitting
the place of his concealment, he prefented himfelf to
the affaffins, begging of them to put him to death, and
diftnifs the innocent youth, whofe generous behaviour
the triumvirs themfelves, if informed of the fa£t, would
judge worthy of the higheft approbation. But the in¬
human monfters, without being the leaft affected with
the tears either of the father or the fon, anfwered, that
they both muft die ; the father becaufe he was profcrib-
ed, and the fon becaufe he had concealed his father.
Then a newr conteft of tendernefs arofe who (hould die
firft ; but this the affaftins foon decided, by beheading
them both at the fame time.—This anecdote is related
by Appian, Dio, Plutarch, Valerius Maximus, and
other hiftorians.
Porrifi'l'!>lta Cinna, who fcrupled no attempt, how atrocious
foever, which could ferve his purpofe, undertook to
get Pomponius Strabo murdered in his tent; but his
fon faved his life, which was the firft remarkable ac¬
tion of Pompey the Great. The treacherous Cinna,
by many alluring promifes, had gained over one Te-
rentius, a confidant of Pompey’s, and prevailed on him
to affaftinate the general, and feduce his troops. Young
Pompey being informed of this defign a few hours be¬
fore it was to be put in execution, placed a faithful
guard round the praetorium ; fo that none of the con-
fpirators could come near it. He then watched all
the motions of the camp, and endeavoured to appeafe
the fury of the foldiers, who hated the general his
father, by fuch a&s of prudence as were worthy of the
oldeft commanders. However, fome of the mutineers
having forced open one of the gates of the camp, in
order to defert to Cinna, the general’s fon threw him¬
felf flat on his back in their way, crying out, that they
Ihould not break their oath and defert their command¬
er, without treading his body to death. By this
means he put a flop to their defertion, and afterwards
wrought fo effedlually upon them by his affecting
fpeeches and engaging carriage, that he reconciled
them to his father. &
4- Olympias, Alexander’s own mother, was of fuch
an unhappy difpofition, that he would never allow her
Curtius. *° have any concern in the affairs of the government.
She ufed frequently to make very fevere complaints on
Vol. VIII. Part II.
] F I L
account; but he always fubmitted to her ill
humour with great mildnefs and patience.
 ..r i_:_ r’. i :  j  
Filia!.
Antipater,1
one of his friends, having one day written a long letter
againft her to the king then abfent, the latter, after
reading it, replied, “ Antipater does not know that one
fingle tear fhed by a mother will obliterate ten thou-
fand fuch letters as this.” A behaviour like this, and
fuch an anfwer, (how at one and the fame time, that
Alexander was both an affeflionale fon and an able
politician.
5. Epaminondas is univerfally acknowledged to have
been one of the greateft generals and one of the belt
men which Greece ever produced. Before him the
city of Thebes was not diftinguiihed by any memorable
adlion, and after him it tvas not famous for its vir¬
tues, but its misfortunes, till it funk into its original
obfcurity ; fo that it faw its glory take birth and ex¬
pire. with this great man. The vidlory he obtained at
Leuflra had drawn the eyes and admiration of all the
neighbouring people upon Epaminondas, who looked
upon him as the fupport of Thebes, as the triumphant
conqueror of Sparta, as the deliverer of Greece : in
a word, as the greateft man, and the moft excellent
captain, that ever was in the world. In the midft of
this univerfal applaufe, fo capable of making the gene¬
ral of an army forget the man for the viflor, Epami¬
nondas, little fenfible to fo affefting and fo deferved a
glory, “ My joy (faid he) arifes from my fenfe of that
which the news of my vi&ory will give my father and
my mother.”
6. Among an incredible number of illuftrious per¬
fons who were falfely accufed and put to death by
Nero, was one Bareas Soranus; a man, as Tacitus in¬
forms us, of fingular vigilance and juftice in the dif-
charge of his duty. During his confinement, his
daughter Servilia was apprehended and brought into
the fenate, and there arraigned. The crime laid to
her charge w;as, that (lie had turned into money all her
ornaments and jewels, and the moft valuable part of her
drefs, to defray the expence of confulting magicians.
To this the young Servilia, with tears, replied, That
fire had indeed confulted magicians, but the whole of
her inquiry was to know whether the emperor and fe¬
nate would afford proteflion and fafety to her dear
and indulgent parent againft his accufers. “ With
this view (faid ftie) I prefented the diviners, men till
now utterly unknown to me, with my jewels, apparel,
and the other ornaments peculiar to my quality, as I
would have prefented my blood and my life, could my
blood and life have procured my father’s liberty. But
whatever this my proceeding W'as, my unfortunate fa¬
ther was an utter ftranger to it ; and if it is a crime,
I alone am the delinquent.” She was, however, toge¬
ther with her father, condemned to die ; but in what
manner, biftory is filent. [Vid. Taciti Ann ales, lib. vi.
cap. 20.].
7. Valerius Maximus f likewife relates a very fingu-f Lib. v. 4.
lar faift upon this fubjedf. A woman of illuftrious H'Ji-
birth had been condemned to be ftrangled. The Ro-llb'v“'
man prdetor delivered her up to the triumvir, who
caufed her to be carried to prifon, in order to her be-
ing put to death. The gaoler, who was ordered to
execute her, was ftruck with compaflion, and could not
refolve to kill her. He chofe therefore to let her die
of hunger. Befides which, he fuffered her daughter
4 K to
F I L [ 626 ] F I L
Filial to fee her in prifon; taking care, however, that fhe
!1 brought her nothing to eat. As this continued many
1 'n£' , days, he was furprifed that the prifoner lived fo long
without eating $ and fufpe&ing the daughter, upon
watching her, he difcovered that {he nourilhed her
mother with her own milk. Amazed at fo pious, and
at the fame time fo ingenious an invention, he told
the faft to the triumvir, and the triumvir to the prae¬
tor, who believed the thing merited relating in the af-
fembly of the people. The criminal was pardoned,
and a decree was paffed that the mother and daughter
Ihould be fubfilled for the reft of their lives at the ex¬
pence of the public.
The fame author gives a fimilar inftance of filial
piety in a young woman named Xantippe to her .aged
father Cimonus, who was likewife confined in prifon,
and which is univerfally known by the name of the
Roman Charity. Both thefe inftances appeared fo very
extraordinary and uncommon to that people, that they
could only account for them, by fuppofing that the
love of children to their parents was the firft law of
nature. Putaret aliquis (fays our author) hoc contra
naturam faBum eff'e, niji prima naturcc lex ejjet diligere
parentes.
In addition to the foregoing examples, we may re¬
fer to the article Altna, where a very noble inftance of
filial piety is taken notice of. See alfo the article Pietas.
FILIBEG, or Philibeg. See Philibeg.
FILICACIA, Vincent, a celebrated Italian poet,
was born at Florence in 1642. He was a member of
the Academy della Crufca and of that of the Arcadi,
and became fecretary to the duke of Tufcany. Pie died
in xyoy* Poems are much efteemed for the deli¬
cacy and noblenefs of their fentiments. Scipio de Fi-
licacia, his fon, had them all printed together, under
the title of Poejie Fojiano di Vicenzo da Filicacia, in
1707, 4to.
FILICES, (from Ji/um, “ a thread,” quaji Jilatim
mcifa'), Ferns ; one of the feven tribes or families of
the vegetable kingdom, according to Linnaeus, by
whom it is thus chara&erized : “ having their fructifi¬
cation on the back fide of the frondes.” They conftitute
the firft order in the clafs cryptogamia; and confift of
16 genera, which are divided into frufiijicationes, fpi-
catce,frondof(e, et radicales. This order comprehends
the entire 16th elafs of Tournefort, in whofe fyfiem
the filices make only a fingle genus, in the firft feftion
ef the above mentioned clafs.
Filices, is alfo an order of plants in the fragmenta
methodi naturalis of Linnaeus. See Botany Index.
FILIGRANE, Filigree, or Fillagree, Work.
See Fillagree.
FILING, one of the principal operations in fmith-
ery, &c. fucceeding to forging. See File.
The coarfer cut files are always to be fucceeded by
finer ; and in all the kinds the rule is, to lean heavy
on the file in thrufting it forwards, becaufe the teeth of
\he file are made to cut forwards. But in drawing the
file back again for a fecond ftroke, it is to be lightly
lifted juft above the work, by reafon it cuts not coming
dack.
The rough or coarfe-toothed file (which, when large,
is called a rubber) ferves to take off the unevenneffes
of the work, left by the hammer in forging.
3
1 he baftard toothed file is to take out too deep
cuts and file ftrokes made by the rough file. The fine¬
toothed file takes out the cuts or file-ftrokes the baf-
taid file made j and the fmooth file thole left by the
fine file.
In this order, the files of feveral cuts are to fucceed
each other till the work is as fmooth as it can be filed.
After which it may be made yet fmoother with emery
tripoli, &c. See Polishing.
FILIPENDULA, Dropwort, a fpecies of fpirtea.
See Spiraea, Botany Index.
FILIX, Fern. See Filices, Botany Index.
FILLAGREE, Filigree, or Filigrane, Work,
a kind of enrichment on gold or filver, wrought deli¬
cately, in manner of little threads or grains, or both in
termixed. The word is compounded of Jil or Jilum,
thread,” and granum, “grain.” In Latin it is called
Jilatim elaboratum opus, argentum, aurum.
There is no manufacture in any part of the world,
that has been more admired and celebrated, than the
fine gold and filver fillagree of Sumatra. And what
renders it a matter of greater curiofity is the coarfenefs
of the tools employed in the workmanftiip, and which,
in the hands of an European, would not be thought
{efficiently perfeCl for the moft ordinary purpofes.—
They are rudely and inartificially formed, by the gold-
fmith (pandi) from any old iron he can pick xxy. MarfAen's
When you engage one of them to execute a piece Account of
of work, his firft requeft is ufually for a piece of iron ^umatra>
hoop, to making his wire drawing inftrumentj an old^*1^1*
hammer head, ftuck in a block, ferves for an anvil j
and a pair of compaffes is often compofed of two old
nails tied together at one end. The gold is melted
in a piece of & preeoo or earthen rice-pot, or fometimes
m a crucible of their own make, of ordinary clay. In
general they ufe no bellows, but blow the fire with
their mouths, through a joint of bamboo; and if the
quantity of metal to be melted is confiderable, three or
four perfons fit round their furnace, which is an old
broken quallee or iron pot, and blow together. At
Padang alone, where the manufaClure is more confi¬
derable, they have adopted the Chinefe bellows. Their
method of drawing the wire differs but little from that
ufed by European workmen. When drawn to a fuf-
ficient finenefs, they flatten it by beating it on their
anvil; and when flattened, they give it a twift like
that in the whalebone handle of a punch ladle, by rub¬
bing it on a block of wood with a flat flick. After
twilling they again beat it on the anvil, and by thefe
means it becomes flat wire with indented edges. With
a pair of nippers they fold down the end of the wire,
and thus form a leaf, or element of a flower in their
work, which is cut off. The end is again folded and
cut off, till they have got a fufficient number of leaves,
which are laid on fingly. Patterns of the flowers or
foliage, in which there is not very much variety, are
prepared on paper, of the fize of the gold plate on which
the fillagree is to be laid. According to this, they begin
to difpofe on the plate the larger compartments of the
foliage, for which they ufe plain flat wire of a larger
fize, and fill them up with the leaves before mentioned.
To fix the work, they employ a gelatinous fubftance,
made of the red-hot berry called boca fago, ground to
a pulp on a rough ftone. This pulp they place on a
young
F I L [ 627 ] F I L
Fillagree, young cocoa nut about the fize of a walnut, the top and
Fillet, bottom being cut off. After the leaves have been all
L~ y placed in order, and ftuck on, bit by bit, a folder is pre¬
pared of gold filings and borax, moiftened with water,
which they ftrew over the plate 5 and then putting it in
the fire for a Ihort time, the whole becomes united.
This kind of work on a gold plate, they cal! c(wrong pa-
pan : when the work is open, they call it carrang troufe.
In executing the latter, the foliage is laid out on a card,
or foft kind of wood, and ftuck on, as before defcrib-
ed, with the fago berry ; and the work, when finidi¬
ed, being ftrewed over with their folder, is put into
the fire, when the card or foft w'ood burning away, the
gold remains conne6ted. If the piece be large, they
folder it at feveral times. In the manufadture of bad-
joo buttons, they firft make the lower part flat, and
having a mould formed of a piece of buffalo’s horn, in¬
dented to feveral fizes, each like one half of a bullet
mould, they lay their work over one of thefe holes,
and with a horn punch they prefs it into the form of
the button. After this they complete the upper part.
When the fillagree is finifhed, they cleanfe it, by boil¬
ing it in water with common fait and alum, or fome-
times lime juice ; and in order to give it that fine purple
colour which they call fapo, they boil it in water with
brimftone. The manner of making the little balls
with which their works are fometimes ornamented, is
as follows : They take a piece of charcoal, and having
cut it flat and fmooth, they make in it a fmall hole,
which they fill with gold duft, and this melted in the
fire becomes a little ball. They are very inexpert at
finifhing and polifhing the plain parts, hinges, fcrews,
and the like, being in this as much excelled by the
European artifts, as thefe fall fhort of them in the fine-
nefs and minutenefs of the foliage. The Chinefe alfo
make fillagree moftly of filver, which looks elegant, but
wants likewife the extraordinary delicacy of the Malay
work. The price of the workmanfhip depends upon the
difficulty or uncommonnefs of the pattern. In fome ar¬
ticles of ufual demand, it does not exceed one-third of
the value of the gold $ but in matters of fancy, it is ge¬
nerally equal to it.
FILLET, or Filet, in Archite&ure, denotes a
little fquare member or ornament ufed in divers places,
and on divers occafions, but generally as a fort of co¬
rona over a greater moulding.
The fillet is the fame with what the French call
r eg let, bande, and bandelette; the Italians HJla or lif-
tella.
Fillet, in Heraldry, a kind of orle or bordure,
containing only a third or fourth part of the breadth
of the common bordure. It is fuppofed to be with¬
drawn inwards, and is of a different colour from the
field. It runs quite round, near the edge, as a lace
over a cloak.
Fillet is alfo ufed for an ordinary drawn like the
bar from the finifter point of the chief acrofs the ftiield,
in manner of a fearf •, though it is fometimes alfo feen
in the fituation of a bend, feffe, crofs, &c.
According to Guillim, the fillet is a fourth part of
the chief, and is placed in the chief point of the efeut-
cheon.
Fillet is alfo ufed among painters, gilders, &c.
for a little rule or reglet of leaf gold, drawn over cer¬
tain mouldings j or on the edges of frames, pannels,
&c. efpecially when painted white, by way of enrich- Fillets
ment. . II
Fillets, in the Manege, are the loins of a horfe, Fllter-
which begin at the place, where the hinder part of the
faddle refts.
FILLY, a term among horfe-dealers, to denote the
female colt.
FILM, a thin Ikin or pellicle. In plants, it is ufed
for that thin, woody Ikin, which feparates the feeds in
the pods, and keeps them apart.
FILTER, or FlLT&E, in Chemijlry, &c. a piece of
woollen cloth, linen, paper, or other matter, fome of
which are in the form of hollow inverted cones, ufed to
filtrate or ftrain liquors through. The filtre has the
fame ufe and effedt with regard to liquids that the fieve
or fearce has in dry matters.
Filtres are of two forts. The firft are Ample pieces
of paper or cloth, through which the liquor is paffed
without farther trouble. The fecond are twifted up
like a Ikain or wick, and firft wetted, then fqueezed,
and one end put in the veffel that contains the liquor
to be filtrated : the other end is to be out, and hang
down below the furface of the liquor j by means hereof
the pureft part of the liquor diftills drop by drop out
of the veffel, leaving the coarfer part behind. This
filter acts as a fyphon.
Water is freed from various impurities by means of
bafins made of porous ftones, which veffels muft be pe¬
culiarly beneficial in long voyages, and even upon land
they are of confiderable benefit, when none but flag¬
rant waters are to be found, or fprings iffuing through
clay.
A patent was granted in 1790 to a female potter, for
inventing a ccmpofition to make filtering bafins, as a
fuecedaneum for that porous Hone which is not every
where to be found. She took four out of nine equal
parts of tobacco-pipe clay, and five out of nine equal
parts of fea, river, or pit land, w hich fhe ufed for mak¬
ing fmall bafins fufficient to contain one gallon of wa¬
ter. Her next proportions were equal parts of fea,
river, or pit fand, and tobacco-pipe clay $ her third
proportions were three out of nine equal parts of tobac¬
co-pipe clay ; one out of nine equal parts of Stourbridge
clay, or one out of nine equal parts of Windfor or other
loam : and her fourth proportions were four out of eight
equal parts of the burnt ground clay of which crucibles
are made.
A patent was alfo granted to Mr Joftiua Collier of
Southwark, for a moft ingenious method of filtering
and fweetenittg water, oil, and every other liquid. The
following is the contrivance, which combines the appli¬
cation of machinery with the antifeptic properties of
charcoal.
Filh oil is one of the liquids which he had particular¬
ly in view, to free it from every thing difagreeable, ei¬
ther in tafte, fmell, or colour, to accomplifti which he
poured a quantity of oil into a convenient veffel, heated
to the temperature of 120° of Fahrenheit’s thermome¬
ter, adding cauftic mineral alkali of the fpecific gravity
of 1.25. He then agitated the mixture, afterwards al¬
lowing it to Hand till the fediment fubfifted ; and then
drew it off into another veffel, with a fufficient quantity
of burnt charcoal finely powdered, and a fmall quan¬
tity of diluted fulphuric acid, to decompofe the fapona-
ceous matter ftill fufpended in the oil, when the oil be-
4 K 2 came
t I L [ 628 ] F I L
filter, came clear at the furface. He then agitated the contents
* * r this veffel, and left the coaly, faline, and aqueous
particles to fubfide ; afterwards palling it through pro¬
per ftraiuers, when it became quite tranfparent and fit
for ufe.
The principle of the improved filtering machines
confills in combining hydroftatic preffure with the mode
of filtering per afcenfum, which procures the peculiar
advantage of caufing the fluid and itsfediment take op-
polite direftions. The filtering furface remains the
fame, while the dimenfions of the chamber in which the
fediment is received may be varied. To adapt the ma¬
chines to every purpofe for which they are intended,
chambers muft be provided of various capacities, for
the precipitated matter. The fpace required is very
great with refpeft to the oil trade, and as all dimenfions
will be required occafionally, no particular limits can
be fixed. For diftilleries and breweries they may be
(mailer in proportion, and a very fmall chamber will be
fufficient for domeflic economy. If water is to be freed
from noxious particles, it muft be made to pafs through
an iron box in its way to the filtering chamber, and the
box mult contain charcoal finely powdered. The water
is received into this box and delivered by two apertures,
which are opened and clofed by cocks.
Another part of the invention confifts in filtering
machines in the form of ftills, in which charcoal may
be repeatedly burnt after any fluid fubftances have paf-
fed through it, for the purpofe of freeing them from
noxious particles, or difcharging their colouring mat¬
ter.
To the filtering apparatus of Mr Collier, inftruments
are attached for difcovering the comparative qualities
of oils, which depend in fome meafure on their fpecific
gravities; fpermaceti oil, when compared with fifti oils
being as 875 to 920. To do this, a glafs veffel of any
fhape moft convenient is employed, with a glafs bubble,
and a thermometer. If the oil is pure, the bubble
finks, when the mercury rifes to a particular ftandard.
When fpermaceti oil is pure, the bubble floats, though
of the temperature required.
To determine the tendency of oils ufed for burning
to congeal in cold weather, a freezing mixture may be
put into a phial of thin glafs, into which let a thermo¬
meter be immerfed, and a Angle drop of the oil per¬
mitted to fall on the outfide of the veffel, where it will
inftantly congeal. As the cold produced by the mix-
ture, decreafes, let the temperature be obferved by the
thermometer at which the oil becomes fluid, and runs
down the fide of the glafs.
Plate The following is a ftiort defcription of the apparatus
CCXVII. contrived for this purpofe. A (fig. 1. Plate CCXVII.)
I* is the ciftern, into which the water or other liquor to be
filtered is put. B B, is a tube opening into the bottom
of the ciftern A, and being put along the bottom of the
machine, conveying the fluid into C C C, the filtering
chamber, which is covered with leather bound down
round its circular rim, and through which leather the
water is percolated. DD, The bafon rifing above the
level of the chamber, and receiving the filtered li¬
quor. E, The fpout by which it runs off into a pitcher
or other veffel. F, Another fpout furnifhed with a
cock to draw off the foul water from the chamber when
neceffary. G G G, The air tube, which begins above
the level of the chamber, is covered with a button,
3
which faves the leather from being cut, and has a fmall tm
lateral aperture for the air to be carried off. This ■ ‘ ^
pipe paffes along the bottom and up the fide, and ri- ^
iing above the level of the water in the ciflern, is there
clofed, except a {mall lateral aperture through which
the air efcapes. H, A guard or rim with crofs bars
pK; over the leather, to keep it from being forced up
by the water. It is faftened down by means of two
notches on oppofite fides of the ground, by which it
locks into two ftaples rivetted into the bottom of the
bafon. I, The lid Aiding down to cover the water
from duft, and fufpended at pleafure by means of
K K, two fprings on each tube for that purpofe. L IVt
N O, A cylindrical box containing charcoal, which
is connefted with the above by means of the tube P,
and a continuation of the tube B. LM, The water
tube B continued below the charcoal apparatus, fo that
the fluid may pafs through the fame into the cylinder,
from whence it enters the chambers at P, fo as to be
filtered through the leather as before defcribed. R R,
Collars which may be unfcrewed at pleafure, fo as to
detach the charcoal apparatus whenever the charcoal
requires to be purified by heat. SS, Two cocks to
diredt the fluid through the charcoal cylinder or imme¬
diately into the filtering chamber.
Fig. 2. A, A tub or ciftern containing the oil to be Fig. 2.
filtered, and fupplying a tube of fufficient height for
the hydroflatic preffure to operate. B B, A main
tube of wood, tin, leather, or cloth, to which any
number of bags, C C, of the fize and ffiape of corn
facks, or any convenient fize or ffiape, may be connedled.
Thefe are bound to D D D, ftraight double iron bars,
furnifhed with a hinge at one end and a fcrew at the
other, by opening which the bags may be emptied.
F, A trough underneath, made to receive the filtered
oil from the receivers FEE.
Fig. 3. A, A funnel, cafk, or ciftern into which theFia ^
fluid is put which paffes down. B, A tube fitted into ° ^
the Erne through which it enters. C, An iron ftill,
or ftill of any other fubftance capable of fuitaining heat,
full of finely powdered and fifted charcoal, through
the head of which the fluid paffes into any receiver.
D, A fire-place of any conftruffion to drive over the
fluid remaining interfperfed among the charcoal, and
alfo to purify the charcoal by an increafe of tempera¬
ture when required. E, A cock to let water into the
flues to cool the apparatus for a fubfequent operation.
Fig. 4. The trial glafs with its thermometer. Fig. 4.
Filter is alfo a charm, fuppofed to have a virtue
of infpiring love. The word is derived from
which fignifies the fame thing, of arno, “ I
love.”
The Greeks, when their love was without fuccefs,
had feveral arts to procure the affeftions of their belov¬
ed. The Theffalian women were famous for their
(kill in this as well as other magical practices. The
means \vhereby it ivas effedled were of divers forts; it
was fometimes done by potions called (pttfgx, which are
frequently mentioned in authors of both languages..
Juvenal fpeaks thus :
Hie tnagicus cjfert cantus, hie TheJJala vendit
Philtra, quibus valeant mentem vexare maritu
Their operations were violent and dangerous, and com¬
monly deprived fuch as drank them of their reafon,.
Plutarck
FIRE SHIP
S. A4itc/&J/y<Yj^f!
FIN [ 629 ] FIN
Filter
fi
Finch.
Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos report, that Lucullus
the Roman general firft loft his reafon, and afterwards
his life, by one of them. Lucretius the poet ended his
life by the fame way •, and Caius Caligula, as Sueto¬
nius reports, was driven into a fit of madnefs by a fil¬
ter given him by his wife Caefonia, which ftory is men¬
tioned by the fame poet. Ovid likewife aflures us, that
this was the ufual effect of fuch potions.
The ingredients they were made of were of various
forts ; feveral of which applied by themfelves were
thought effectual.
FILTRATION, the aft of palling any liquor
through a filter, called alfo colature, 'percolation, and
tranfcolation. See Filter.
FIMBRI/E, Fringes. The extremities or borders
of the tubse Fallopianae were formerly fo called ; the
word fignifying a fringed border, which that part re-
fembles.
FIMBRIATED, in Heraldry, an ordinary with a
narrow border or hem of another tinfture.
FIN, in Natural Hifory, a well known part of
filhes, confifting of a membrane fupported by rays, or
little bony or cartilaginous oflieles.
The office of the fins has commonly been fuppofed to
be analogous to that of feathers in fowls •, and to affift
the fiffi in its progreffive motion, orfwimming; but the
later naturalifts find this a miflake.
The tail is the great inftrument of fwimming : the
fins only ferve to keep the filh upright, and prevent
vacillation or wavering. See Ichthyology Index.
FINAL, in general, whatever terminates or con¬
cludes a things as final judgment,y5W/ fentence, &c.
Final Caufie, is the end for which the thing is done.
The final caufe is the firft thing in the intention of a
perfon who does a thing j and the laft in the execution.
See Cause.
Final Letters, among the Hebrew grammarians,
five letters fo called, becaufe they have a different figure
at the end of words from what they have in any other
fituation.
Final, in Geography, a port town of Italy, fubjeft
to Genoa, and fituated on the Mediterranean, about
37 miles fouth-weft of that city. It was fold to the
Genoefe in 1713, by the emperor Charles VI.—
E. Long. 9. 12. N. Lat. 44. 30.
FINANCES, in political economy, denote the re¬
venues of a king or ftate : analogous to the treafury or
exchequer of the Engliffi, and the fifeus of the Ro¬
mans. The word is derived from the German
“ feraping, ufury.” Though Du Cange choofes rather
to deduce it from the barbarous l.?i\.\x\financia, prefiatio
pccuniaria.
Council of the FINANCES, under the former French
government, correfponds to our lords commiffioners of
the t~eafury ; the comptroller general of the finances,
to our lord high treafarer, &c.
The French had a peculiar kind of figures, or nu¬
merical charafters, which they call chijfre definance.
FINCH-kind, in Ornithology, a genus of birds
known by the name of Fringilla. See Fringilla,
Ornithology Index.
Finch, Heneage, earl of Nottingham, the fon of
Sir Heneage Finch, fome time recorder of London,
and of a younger branch of the Winchelfea family, was
born in 1621. By his good parts and diligence, he
became a noted proficient in the municipal lawsj was Finch,
made folicitor general by Charles II. on his reftora- ^ne*
tion, and was very aftive in the profecution of the re- ^
gicides. In 1670 he was appointed attorney gene¬
ral ; about three years after, lord keeper of the great
feal, on the removal of the earl of Shaftelbury •, and
lord chancellor in 1675. He was created earl of Not¬
tingham in 1681 } and died in the year following, be-BIachft-
ing quite worn out by the fatigues of bufinefs. He omment’
publiffied feveral fpeeches on the trials of the judges of
King Charles I. with fome few other things j and left
behind him Chancery Reports in MS.
FINE, that which is pure and without mixture.
The term is particularly ufed in fpeaking of gold or
filver.
Fine, in Law, hath divers applications. Sometimes
it is ufed for a formal conveyance of lands or tenements,
or of any thing inheritable, being in effe temporis finis,
in order to cut off all controverfies. Others define it
to be a final agreement between perfons, concerning
any lands or rents, &c. of which any fuit or writ is de¬
pending between them in any court.
Fine, fometimes fignifies a fum of money paid for
entering lands or tenements let by leafe } and fome¬
times a pecuniary mulft for an offence committed a-
gainft the king and his laws, or againft the lord of the
manor.
FINES for Alienation, in Feodal Law. One of the
attendants or confequences of tenure by vaffalffiip,
KNIGHT-Service, was that of fines due to the lord for
every alienation, whenever the tenant had occafion to
make over his land to another. This depended on the
nature of the feodal connexion ; it not being reafon-
able, nor allowed, that a feudatory ftiould transfer his
lord’s gift to another, and fubftitute a new tenant to
do the fervice in his own ftead, without the confent of
the lord : and, as the feodal obligation was confidered
as reciprocal, the lord alfo could not alienate his feigr
nory without the confent of his tenant, which confent
of his was called an attornment. The reftraint upon
the lord foon wore away 5 that upon the tenant conti¬
nued longer. For, when every thing came in procefs
of time to be bought and fold, the. lords would not
grant a licenfe to their tenants to aliene, without a fine
being paid ; apprehending that, if it was reafonable
for the heir to pay a fine or relief on the renovation of
his paternal eftate, it was much more reafonable that
a ftranger ffiould make the fame acknowledgement on
his admiffion to a newly purchafed feud. In England,
thefe fines feem only to have been exafted from the
king’s tenants in capite, who were never able to aliene
without a licenfe : but as to common perfons, they
were at liberty by magna charta, and the ftatute of
quia emptores (if not earlier), to alienate the whole of
their eftate, to be holden of the fame lord as they
themfelves held it of before. But the king’s tenants
in capite, not being included under the general words
of thefe ftatutes, could not aliene without a licenfe :
for if they did, it was in ancient ftriftnefs an abfolute
forfeiture of the land ; though fome have imagined
otherwife. But this feverity was mitigated by the fta¬
tute 1 Edw. III. c. 12. which ordained, that in fuch
cafe the lands fhould not be forfeited, but a reafonable
fine be paid to the king. Upon which ftatute it w7as
fettled, that one-third of the yearly value Ihould be
F I N
paid for a licenfe of alienation ; but,
prefumed to aliene without a licenfe, a full year’s va¬
lue ftiould be paid. Thefe fines were at laft totally
taken away by llatute 12 Car. II. c. 24. See KnIGHT-
Service.
FINE-Drawing, or Rentering, a dexterous fewincpup
or rejoining the parts of any cloth, fluff, or the like,
torn or rent in the drefling, wearing, &c.
It is prohibited to Jine-draw pieces of foreign manu-
fa&ure upon thefe of our own, as has formerly been
praftifed. See Rentering.
FlNE-Stil/er, in the diflillery. That branch of the
art which is employed on the diflilling the fpirit from
treacle or other preparations or recrements of fugar, is
fine-Jlilling, by way of diflinftion from malt-flill-
ing ; and the perfon who exercifes this part of the trade
is called a fine-fiiller.
"I he operation in procuring the fpirit from fugar is
the fame with that ufed in making the malt fpirit j a
waflr of the faccharine matter being made with water
from treacle, &c. and fermented with yeafl. It is ufual
to add in this cafe, however, a conliderable portion of
malt, and fometimes powdered jalap, to the ferment¬
ing backs. I he malt accelerates the fermentation,
and makes the fpirit come out the cheaper, and the
jalap prevents the rife of any mufty head on the fur-
face of the fermenting liquor, (o as to leave a greater
opportunity for the free accefs of the air, and thus to
fhorten the work, by turning the foamy into a hilling
fermentation.
, FINERS of Gold and Silver, are thofe who pu¬
rify and part thofe metals from other coarfer ones by
fire and acids. They are alfo called parters in our old
law books, and fometimes departers.
FINERY, in the iron works, is one of the two
forges at which they hammer the fow or pig iron.
. Into the finery they firft put the pigs of iron, pla¬
cing three or four of them together behind the fire,
with a little of one end thruft into it j where, foften-
ing by degrees, they ftir and work them with long
bars of iron, and expofe at different times different
parts to the blaft of the bellows, in order to refine it
as equally as polfible, till the metal runs together with
a round mafs or lump, which they call a half bloom.
They then take this out, and give it a few ftrokes with
their Hedges ; afterwards they carry it to a great heavy
hammer, raifed by the motion of a water wheel j where
applying it dexteroully to the blows, they prefently
beat it out into a thick Ihort fquare. This they put
into the finery again, and heating it red hot, they
work it under the fame hammer till it comes to be in
the lhape of a bar in the middle, but with two fquare
knobs at the ends, which they call an ancony. It is
then carried into the other forge called the chaffrv.
F1NEERING. See Veneering.
FINESSE, a French term, of late current in Eng-
lifh. . Literally, it is of no farther import than our
'EngWVafinenefs ; but among us it is chiefly ufed to de¬
note that peculiar delicacy or fubtility perceived in
works of the mind, and the niceft and moft fecret and
fublime parts of any fcience or art.
It is fometimes ufed to exprefs that kind of fubtility
made ufe of for the purpofes of deception.
FINGAL, king of Morven, in ancient Caledonia.
He flourilhed in the third century : and according to
[ 630 ] FIN
if He tenant He Irifli liiflories died in the year 283, althoupli Here
IS feme reafon from Oflian’s poems for placing his‘
death a few years later. Fingal was defeended in all
probability from thofe Celtic tribes who were the firft
inhabitants of Britain. Tradition, and the poems of
Oman, give him along line of royal anceitors, fueh as
Combal, Trenmor, Trathal, &c. who had all remned
over the fame territory. Whether this territory was
bounded by the Caledonian foreft, or extended fome-
what farther to the fouth, towards the Roman pro¬
vince, is uncertain ; but there is no doubt of its hav¬
ing extended over all the north and weft Highlands
comprehending the Hebrides, whole petty chiefs were
all fubjeft to the king of Morven. His principal place
of refidence was Selma, which was probably in the
neighbourhood of Glenco, fuppofed to be the Cona
of Oflian *, though feme imagine it to have been in
Strath-Conan in Moray. The truth feems to be,
that as Fingal and his people lived by hunting, they
often fhifted their habitations. Hence, in all parts of
the Highlands we find, in the names of places, build-
mgs, &c. fueh monuments as juftify their feveral
claims for the honour of Fingal’s refidence. Fingal
acquired great fajne by his prowefs in arms. He made
many fuccefsful incurfions into the Roman province
from whence he carried away thofe fpoils which his
fon fo often mentions under the names of the wine of
thefiranger, and the wax of thefiranger. By fea we
find him frequently making voyages to Scandinavia,
the Orkneys, and Ireland ; called bv Oflian Lochlin.
Inniflore and Filin. Several of thefe expeditions were
celebrated by his fon in epic poems, of which two only
remain, Fingal and Temora. In the laft of thefe
poems, we find Fingal fighting together with his
grandfon Ofcar. How long he lived afterwards is un¬
certain. He is faid to have died a natural death j and
therefore none of his fon’s poems relate to this event
though it is occafionally mentioned in many of them!
“ F>id thy beauty laft, O Ryno ? Stood the ftrength
of car-borne Ofcar ? Fingal himfelf paffed away ; and
the halls of his fathers have forgot his fteps. The blaft
of the north opens thy gates, O king, and I behold
thee fitting on mill, dimly gleaming in all thine arms.
1 hy form now is not the terror of the valiant: but
like a watery cloud, when we fee the ftars behind it,
with their weeping eyes. Thy Ihield is like the aged
moon 5 thy fvvord, vapour half kindled with fire. Dim
and feeble is the chief who travelled in brightnefs be¬
fore. But thy fteps are on the winds of the defert, and
the ftorms darken in thy hand. Thou takeft the fun
m thy wrath, and hideft him in thy clouds. The fons
of little men are afraid, and a thoufand Ihowers de-
feend.”—Berrathon.
.The charafter of Fingal (Dr Blair oblerves) is
perhaps the moft perfeft that ever was drawn by a
poet, for we may boldly defy all the writers of anti¬
quity to Ihew us any hero equal to Fingal. Through¬
out the whole of Oflian’s works, he is prefented to us
in all that variety of lights which give the full difplay
of a chara£ler. In him concur almoft all the qualities
that can ennoble human nature ; that can either make
Us admire the hero, or love the man. He is not only
unconquerable .in war, but he makes his people happy
by his wifdom in the days of peace. He is truly the
father of his people. He is known by the epithet of
‘ Fingal
F'ngal.
FIN [ 631 J FIR
Fingal. ‘ Fingal of the mildeft look,’ and diftinguifhed on
y—~ every occafion by humanity and generofity. He is
merciful to his foes, full of affection to his children,
full of concern about his friends, and never mentions
Agandecca, his firlt love, without the utmoft tender-
nefs. He is the univerfal protedlor of the diftreffed j
none ever went fad from Fingal.—‘ O Ofcar ! bend
the ftrong in arms, but fpare the feeble hand. Be
thou a llream of many tides again!! the foes of thy
people •, but like the gale that moves the grafs to
thofe who alii, thine aid : fo Trenmor lived j fuch Tra-
thal was •, and fuch has Fingal been. My arm was the
fupport of the injured ; the weak relied behind the
lightning of my lleel.’ Thefe were the maxims of
true heroifm to which he formed his grandfon. His
fame is reprefented as everywhere fpread j the greatell
heroes acknowledge his fuperiority j his enemies trem¬
ble at his name *, and the highelt encomiums that can
be bellowed on one whom the poet would moll exalt,
is to fay, That his foul was like the foul of Fingal.
Wherever he appears, we behold the hero. The ob-
je6ls he purfues are always great ; to bend the proud,
to proteft the injured, to defend his friends, to over¬
come his enemies by generolity more than by force.
Some llrokes of human imperfedlion and frailty are
■what ufually give us the moll clear view and the moll
fenfxble impreffiqn of a charafler, becaufe they prefent
to us a man fuch as we have feen } they recal known
features of human nature. When poets go beyond
this range, and attempt to defcribe a faultlefs hero,
they, for the moll part, fet before us a fort of vague
undillinguilhable character, fuch as the imagination
cannot lay hold of, or realize to itfelf as the objefl of
affedlion. But Fingal, though exhibited without any
of the common human failings, is neverthelefs a real
man ; a character which touches and interells every
reader.”
We may obferve, that Fingal appears to have been
no lefs a poet than a warrior ; at lead, in all thofe
pafiages afcribed to him in the poems of his fon, there
is a grandeur and loftinefs that elevates them above
the common llyle even of Offian. The following paflage
from the poem of Carthon may be taken as a fpeci-
men of Fingal’s poetry.—‘ Raife, ye bards,’ faid the
mighty Fingal, ‘ the praife of the unhappy Moina.
Call her ghod, with your fongs, to our hills ; that die
may red with the fair of Morven, the funbeams of other
days, and the delight of the heroes of old.—I have feen
the walls of Balclutha, but they were defolate. The
fire had refounded in the halls ; and the voice of the
people is heard no more. 1 he dream ot Clutha was
removed from its place by the fall of the walls. the
thillle diook, there, its lonely head : the mofs whidled
to the wind. The fox looked out from the windows j
the rank grafs of the wall waved round his head. De¬
folate is the dwelling of Moina: filence is in the houfe
of her lathers. Raife the fong of mourning, O bards,-
over the land of drangers. i hey have but laden be¬
fore us ; for, one day we mud fall.—Why doll thou
build the hall, fon of the winged days? Ihou looked
from thy towers to-day •, yet a few years, and the mad
of the defert comes ; it howls in thy empty court, and
whidles round thy half-worn Ihield.—And let the blad
of the defert come ! We {hall be renowmed in our day.
The mark of my arm lhall be in the battle, and my
name in the fong of bards. Raife the fong; fend round Fingai
the Ihell : and let joy be heard in my hall. When jl
thou, fun of heaven, {halt fail ! if thou fhalt fail, thou , Fire~
mighty light ! if thy brightnefs is for a feafon, like
Fingal; our fame lhall furvive thy beams.’—Such was
the joy of Fingal in the day of his joy. His thoufand
bards leaned forward from their feats, to hear the voice
of the king. It was like the mufic of the harp on the
gale of the fpring. Lovely were thy thoughts, O
Fingal ! Why had not Oflian the drength of thy foul?
But thou danded alone, my father; and who can equal
the king of Morven ?” See OssiAN.
FINGERS, in Anatomy, the extreme part of the
hand, divided into five members. See Anatomy,
N° 56.
FINING of Liquors. See Clarification.
FINISTERRE, the mod wederly cape or promon¬
tory of Spain, in’ 10. 15. W. Long, and 43. N. Lat*
This cape is like wife the mod wederly part of the con¬
tinent of Europe.
FINITE, fomething bounded or limited, in contra-
dillindlion to infinite.
FINLAND, the duchy of, is bounded on the wed
by the gulf of Bothnia, on the ead by Mufcovy, on
the fouth by the gulf of Finland and Ingria, and on
the north by Bothnia and Lapland. It is about 200
miles in length, and almoit as much in breadth. It
contains many lakes; on which are feveral illands,
which are generally rocks or inaccefiible mountains.
The inhabitants are fmall of dature, capable of endur¬
ing harddups, and good foldhrs. The Ruffians have
for fome time rendered themfelves mailers of a good
part of this province ; the red belongs to Sweden. It
is divided into feven provinces: 1. Finland ; 2. Caja-
na ; 3. Thavadhia ; 4. Nyeland ; 5. Savolaxia ; 6. Ca-
relia ; and, 7. Kexholmia.
Finland Proper is an agreeable country, and lies
over-againd the city of Stockholm, near the place
where the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland meet. It
is divided into South and North Finland. It is di-
verfified with mountains, foreds, lakes, meadows, and
pleafant fields. The inhabitants fait the filh they do
not confume themfelves, and fend it into foreign
countries.
FINNINGIA, or Fenninia, \x\ Ancient Geography,
the true reading for Eningia in Pliny, which he makes
an illand, but is more truly a peninfula. Now Fin¬
land, a province of Sweden. Fenm, or Finni, the
people ; whofe ferocity was extraordinary, poverty ex¬
treme, herbs their food, Ikins their covering, and the
ground their couch : regardlefs of man and of gods,
they attained to a very difficult thing, not to have a
fingle widi to form, (Tacitus),
FIR-tree. See Pinus, Botany Index.
FIRE, in Physiology, fignifies that fubtile invifible
fubdance by which bodies are expanded or enlarged in
bulk, and become hot to the touch ; ffuids are rarefied
into vapour ; folid bodies become duid, and in like
manner are at lad drflipated, or, if incapable of being
carried off in vapour, are at length melted into glafs.
It feems likewife to be the chief agent in nature on
which animal and vegetable life have an immediate
dependence, and without which it does not appear that
nature itfelf could fubfiil a fingle moment.
The difputes concerning fire, which for a long time
divided
divided philofophers, have now in a great meafure,
though not wholly, fubfided. The celebrated philo¬
fophers of the laft century, Bacon, Boyle, and Newton,
were of opinion that fire was no diftindl fubftance from
-other bodies, but that it confifted entirely in the vio¬
lent motion of the parts of any body. As no motion,
however, chtj be produced without a caufe, they were
obliged to have recourfe to a mechanical force or im-
pulfe as the ultimate caufe of fire in all cafes. Thus
Boyle tells us, that “ when a piece of iron becomes hot
by hammering, there is nothing to make it fo, except
the forcible motion of the hammer imprelling a vehement
and varioufly determined agitation on the fmall parts of
the iron.” Bacon defines heat, which he makes fyno-
nymous with fire, to be “ an expanfive undulatory mo¬
tion in the minute particles of a body, whereby they
tend with fome rapidity from a centre towards a cir¬
cumference, and at the fame time a little upwards.”
Sir Ifaac Newton faid nothing pofitive upon the fub-
je£t j but conjectured that grofs bodies and light might
be convertible into one another ; and that great bodies
of the fize of our earth when violently heated, might
continue and increafe their heat by the mutual aCtion
and reaCtion of their parts.
But while the mechanical philofophers thus endea¬
voured to account for the phenomena of fire upon the
fame principles which they judged fufficient to ex¬
plain thofe of the univerfe in general, the chemift as
ftrenuoufly aflerted that fire was a fluid of a certain
kind, diftinCt from all others, and univerfally prefent
throughout the whole globe. Boerhaave particularly
maintained this doCtrine j and in fupport of it brought
the following argument, that fteel and flint would flrike
fire, and produce the very fame degree of heat in Nova
Zembla, which they would do under the equator. Other
arguments were drawn from the increafed weight of
metalline calces, which they fuppofed to proceed from
the fixing of the element of fire in the fubftance v hofe
weight was thus increafed. By thefe experiments Mr
Boyle himfelf feems to have been ftaggered ; as he pub-
lifhed a treatife on the pofiibility of making fire and
flame ponderable ; though this was direftly contrary to
his own principles already quoted. For a long time,
however, the matter was moft violently difputed ; and
the mechanical philofophers, though their arguments
were equally inconclufive with thofe of their adverfa-
ries, at laft prevailed through the prejudice in favour of
Sir Ifaac Newton, who indeed had fcarce taken any
aCIive part in the conteft.
That the caufe of fire cannot be any mechanical
motion which v'e can imprefs, is very evident; becaufe
on mechanical principles an effe& muft always be pro¬
portionable to the caufe. In the cafe of fire, however,
the eflfeft is beyond all calculation greater than the caufe,
iuppofing the latter to be only a mechanical percuf-
fion, as in the cafe of hammering iron till it be red
hot. By a few ftrokes of a hammer, the particles of
a piece of iron, we fhall allow, may be fet in a violent
motion, and thus produce fire. If, however, we di-
re£I the motion of thefe particles upon another body
whofe parts are at reft, and in fome degree coherent,
it is plain that the latter will refill and diminilh that
motion of the particles already moved, in proportion
to their vis inertia:, as well as the cohefion of the parts
of the fecond body, if indeed we can fuppofe the vis
inertia of matter to be dififerent from the effe<3 of gra¬
vitation, cohefion, or fome other power afting upon
it. By no argumentation whatever, then, can we ftiow
upon mechanical principles, why fire Ihould have fuch
a tendency to increafe and multiply itfelf without end,
as we fee it has, even abftra6ting from all confidera-
tion of the neceflity of air for continuing the aftion of
fire.
The aftion of the air in augmenting and continu¬
ing the. power of fire, feems fcarce at all to have been
confidered by thofe who firft undertook an inveftiga-
tion of the fubject. It evidently gave rife to the
Hutchinfonian hypothefis, that fire, light, and air,
were convertible into one another. This, however, is
equally untenable wdth the mechanical hypothefis ; for
later difcoveries have fhown, that our atmofphere is
compofed of two diftin£t fluids, only one of which is
fit for fupporting flame ; and if we ftiould fuppofe this
to be the only proper air, it is in like manner demon-
ftrated, that this pure fluid is not homogeneous, but
compofed of a gravitating and non-gravitating fub¬
ftance ; the latter of which only has the properties of
fire 5 fo that this element is ftill as invifible as ever;
nor can it be fhown by any experiment that Jire perfe
has ever been changed into a palpable or gravitating
fubftance.
The experiments which firft feemed to bring this
difpute to a decifion were thofe of Dr Black, concern¬
ing what he called latent heat; on which fome other
names, fuch as abfolute heat,fpecific Jire, &c. have been
bellowed, very little to the advancement of fcience in
general. From thefe difcoveries it appears, that fire
may exift in bodies in fuch a manner as not to difcover
itfelf in any other Avay than by its adiion upon the
minute parts of the body 5 but that fuddenly this
adlion may be changed in fuch a manner as no longer
to be diredled upon the particles of the body itfelf,
but upon external objedls : in which cafe we then per¬
ceive its adlion by our fenfe of feeling, or difcover it
by the thermometer, and call it fenfible heat. This ex-
preftion, it muft be owned, is improper; and the ufe of
the word heat, inftead of Jire, has produced fome confu-
fion, which it is not now eafy to avoid in fpeaking on
thefe fubjedls. By the word heat, we ought always to
underftand the effedl of fire, or the fluid adling in a
certain manner, rather than the mere element itfelf,
which, it is certain, from the experiments juft men¬
tioned, may exift in fubftances actually cold to the
touch.
From this difcovery made by Dr Black, along with
many others in eledlricity, and recorded at length in
various articles of this work, it is now' almoft univer¬
fally allowed, that fire is a diftindl fluid, capable of be¬
ing transferred from one body to another. But when
this was difcovered, another queftion no lefs perplex¬
ing occurred, viz. what kind of fluid it was ; or whe¬
ther it bears any analogy to thofe with which we are
better acquainted P Here we find two fluids, viz. the
folar light, and the eleftric matter, both of which oc-
cafionally a£t as fire, and which therefore feem likely
to be all the fame at bottom. By the vulgar, indeed,
the matter has long ago been determined; and the
rays of the fun, as well as the eleftrical fluid, have been
promifcuoufly denominated elementary Jire. Philofo-
phers, indeed, have withheld their affent; though
their
FIR [ 633 ] FIR
tTieir reafons for.fo doing are by no means apparent.
The moft Orange? fuppofitions, however, have been
made concerning the nature of both thofe fluids ; and
on the moft (lender grounds imaginable, or rather on
no grounds at all, they have been fuppofed to be phlo-
gifton itfelf, or to contain a h*rge proportion of it.
Mr Scheele went fo far in this way as to form an hypo-
thefis, which he endeavoured to fupport by fome expe¬
riments, that fire is compofed of dephlogifticated air
and phlogifton. But it is now afcertained beyond all
poffibility of difpute, that the refult of fuch a combina¬
tion is not fire, but fixed air 5 fo that we need not take
any farther notice of this hypothefis than juft to obferve,
that it would have been altogether untenable, even
though this difcovery had not been made •, becaufe the
dephlogifticated air itfelf is not a Ample but a com¬
pound fubftance, as has already been obferved ; and
that in all cafes of combuftion the one part of the air is
fe.parated from the other.
It was long ago obferved by Sir Ifaac Newton, that
heat was certainly conveyed by a medium more fubtile
than the common air ; becaufe two thermometers, one
included in the vacuum of an air pump, the other
placed in the open air, at an equal diftance from the
fire, would grow equally hot in near the fame time.
The confequence of this, had he purfued the thought,
was, that fire itfelf was equally prefent in all places, and
as aflive where there^ was no terreftrial matter as where
there was. New improvements in the air pump have
enabled fucceeding philofophers to make more perfect
vacuums, fuch as it has been fuppofed even the eleftric
matter cannot pafs through. It is not to be doubted,
however, that, even there, the thermometer would be
heated by a fire as well as in the open air. Fire, there¬
fore, exifts and a£!s where there is no other matter,
and of confequence is a fluid per fe, independent of
every terreftrial fubftance, without being generated or
compounded of any thing we are yet acquainted with.
To determine the nature of the fluid, we have only to
confider whether any other can be difcovered which
will pafs through the perfeft vacuum juft mentioned,
and aft there as fire. Such a fluid we find in the folar
light, which is well known to a£l even in vacuo as the
moft violent fire. The folar light will likewife aft in
the very fame manner in the moft intenfe cold •, for
M. de Sauflure has found, that on the cold mountain
top the funbeams are equally, nay more powerful, than
on the plain below. It appears, therefore, that the
folar light will produce heat independent of any other
fubftance whatever ; that is, where no other body is
prefent, at leaft as far as we can judge, except the light
itfelf and the body to be a£led upon. W e cannot
therefore avoid concluding, that a certain modification
of the light of the fun is the caufe which produces heat,
expanfion, vapour, &c. and anfwers to the reft of the
characters given in our definition of fire, and that inde¬
pendent of any other fubftance whatever.
For a further difcuflion of this fuojeff, fee CHEMIS¬
TRY and Electricity Index.
Wild FlRE, a kind of artificial or faftitious fire,
which burns even under water, and tnat with greater
violence than out of it.
It is compofed of fulphur, naphtha, pitch, gum, and
bitumen ; and i« only exlingniftiable by vinegar mixed
with fand and urine, or by raw hides.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
Its motion or tendency is faid to be contrary to that Fire.
of natural fire, and always follows the direction in  /—
which it is thrown j whether it be downwards, fide-
wife, or otherwife. The French call it Grteh fire, or
ftu Grequois, becaufe firit ufed by the Greek-, about
the year 660 : as is obferved by the Jefuil Petavius, on
the authority of Nicetas, Theophanes, Cedrenus, &c.
The inventor, according to the fame Jefuit, was an
engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, named Calimicus, v ho
firft applied it in the fea-fight commanded bv Conttan-
tine Pogonates, again ft the Saracens, near Cyzicus, in
the Hellefpont; and with fuch effect, that he burnt
the whole fleet therewith wherein were 30,000 men.
But others will have it of a much older date, and hold
Marcus Gracchus the inventor : which opinion is f ip-
ported by feveral palfages both in the Greek and Ro¬
man writers, which (hows it to have been anciently ufed
by both thefe nations in their wars.
Conftantine’s fucceffors ufed it on divers occafion*
with equal advantage as himfelf: and what is remark¬
able enough is, that they were fo happy as to keep the
fecret of the compofition to themfelves, fo that no other
nation knew it in the year 960.
Hugh king of Burgundy, demanding fhips of the
emperor Leo, for the fiege of Frefne, defired likewife
the Greek fire.
F. Daniel gives a good defcription of the Greek
fire, in his account of the fiege of Damietta under St
Louis. Every body, fays that author, was aftonifhed
with the Greek fire, which the Turks then prepared ;
and the fecret whereof is now loft. They threw it out
of a kind of mortar ; and fometimes ftiot it with an
odd fort of crofs-bow, which was ftrongly bent by
means of a handle or winch, of much greater force
than the mere arm. That thrown with the mortar
fometimes appeared in the air of the fize of a tun, with
a long tail, and a noife like that of thunder. The
French by degrees got the fecret of extinguiftiing it,
in which they fucceeded feveral times.
Machine for prefierving from FlRE. This machine Ann Reg.
confifts of a pole, a rope, and a bafket. The pole isKVlu‘Il7‘
of fir, or a common fcaffbld pole, of any convenient
length from 36 to 46 feet ; the diameter at bottom, or
greateft end, about five inches; and at the top, or fmal-
left end, about three inches. At three feet from the
top is a mortife through the pole, and a pulley fixed to
it of nearly the fame diameter with the pole in that
part. The rope is about three quarters of an inch dia¬
meter, and twice the length of the pole, with a fpring
hook at one end,, to pafs through the ring in the handle
of the bafket when ufed : it is put through the mortife
over the pulley, and then drawn tight on each fide to
near the bottom of the pole, and made faft there till
wanted. The bafket fliould be of ftrong wicker-work,
three feet and a half long, two feet and a half wide,
rounded off at the corner, and four feet deep, round¬
ing every way at the bottom. To the top of the bafket
is fixed a flrong iron curve or handle, with an eye
or ring in the middle ; and to one fide of the bafket,
near the top, is fixed a fmail cord or guide-rope of
about the length of the pole. When the pole is raifed,
and fet again!! a houfe over the window from which
any perfons are to efcape, the manner of ufing it is fo
plain and obvious, that it needs not be defciibed. The
moft convenient diftance from the houfe for the foot
4 L of
FIR [ 63+ ] FIR
ot tlie pule to (land, where pradticable, Is about 12 or
14 feet. If two ftrong iron llraps, about three feet
long, rivetted to a bar acrofs and fpreading about 14
inches at the foot, were fixed at the bottom of the pole,
this would prevent its turning round or Hipping on the
pavement. And if a ftrong iron hoop, or ferrule, ri-
vetted (or welded) to a femieircular piece of iron
fpreading about 12 inches, and pointed at the ends,
were fixed on at the top of the pole, it would prevent
its Aiding againft the wall.
When thefe two laft mentioned irons are fixed on,
they give the pole all the fteadinefs of a ladder ; and
becaufe it is not eafy, except to perfons who have been
ufed to it, to raife and fet upright a pole of 40 feet or
more in length, it will be convenient to have two fmall
poles or fpars of about two inches diameter, fixed to
the fides of the great pole at about two or three feet
above the middle of it, by iron eyes rivetted to two
plates fo a« to turn every way ; the lower end of thefe
fpars to reach within a foot of the bottom of the great
pole, and to have ferrules and fhort fpikes to prevent
Aiding on the pavement, when ufed occafionally to fup-
port the great pole like a tripod. There ftiould be
two ftrong afh trundles let through the pole, one at
four feet and one at five feet from the bottom, to ftand
out about eight inches on each fide, and to ferve as
handles, or to twift the rope round in lowering a very
heavy weight. If a block and pulley were fixed at about
the middle of the rope, above the other pulley, and the
other part of the rope made to run double, it would di-
minilh anv weight in the bafket nearly one half, and be
very ufeful in drawing any perfon, up, to the aftiftance
of thofe in the chambers, or for removing any effects
out of a chamber, which it might be dangerous to at¬
tempt by the flairs.
It has been proved by repeated trials, that fueh a
p ile as we have been fpeaking of can be raifed from
the ground, and two or three perfons taken out of the
upper windows of a houfe, and fet down fafely in the
ftreet, in the fpace of 35 feconds, or a little more than
half a minute. Sick and infirm perfons, women, chil¬
dren, and many others, who cannot make ufe of a
ladder, may be fafely and eafily brought down from
any of the windows of a houfe on fire by this machine,
and, by putting a fhort pole through the handles of the
bafket, may be removed to any diftance without being
taken out of the bafket. The pole muff always have
the rope ready fixed to it, and may be conveniently
laid up upon two or three iron hooks under any (hade
or gateway, and the bafket fhould be kept at the
wateh-houfe. When the pole is laid up, the two fpars
fhould always be turned towards the head of it. The
bafket (hould be made of peeled rods, and the pole and
fpars painted of a light ftone colour, to render it more
vifible when ufed in the night.
Machines for extinguijhing FlRE. In the year 1734,
the ftate of Sweden offered a premium of 20,000 crowns
for the hefl method of flopping the progrefs of acci¬
dental fires ; when one Mr Fuches, a German phyfician,
made a preparation for that end, and- the experiment
was made on a houfe built on purpofe of dry fir, at
Legard ifland. In the building were placed feveral
tubs of tar and pitch, and a great quantity of chips,
ail which were fet on fire; flames iffuing through the
top of the houfe, windows, &c. when he threw in one
of the barrels containing the preparation, which imme¬
diately quenched the flames •, a fecond barrel entirely
cleared the fmoke away j and the whole was executed
to the fatisfaftion of the fpettators, and to the no fmall
fatisfaffion of the inventor, who was about to return
home, when unexpe&edly the flames broke out again,
fuppofed to be occafioned by a fmall quantity of com-
buftible matter being introduced and fet on fire fecretly
by fome malicious perfon. Upon this the wrong-head¬
ed mob fell upon Mr Fuches, and beat him moft un¬
mercifully, fo that he narrowly efcaped with his life.
He foon after left the country, and never could be
prevailed on (though ftrongly perfuaded by fome of
the moft eminent citizens) to return. It is faid, another
experiment of the fame kind was tried in the year 1761
in Holland ; but rendered abortive through the per-
verfenefs of the populace.
Attempts of a fimilar nature have met with a better
reception in England. Of thefe the moft fuccefsful
was that of Mr Godfrey, whofe contrivance is thus
deferibed by Mr Ambrofe Godfrey, grandfon to the
inventor. “ I he machine to be employed confifts of a
fmall portion of gunpowder clofely confined j which,
when animated by fire, aifts by its elaftic force upon a
proper medium, and not only divideth it into the mi-
nuteft atoms, but difperfeth it alfo in every diredlion, fo
as immediately to extinguifh any fire within a certain
diftance. This medium is a liquor ftrongly impregnated
with a preparation of antiphlogiftic principles, wftich by
their aftion upon burning materials extinguilh the flames
and reduce them in general to the ftate of a black coal $
and, by its oppofite nature to fire, hinders the remaining
fpark*-, notwithftanding the admiflion of the air, from
kindling the flames afrefti. By this means, the great
point is obtained, in giving fufficient time for totally
extinguifhing any remains of fire.
They who prefume that water only will perform
this will find themfelves greatly niiftaken,as the draught
of air will certainly rekindle the neighbouring mate¬
rials, which are very fit to receive a frefh flame, the fire
not being extinguiftied by the quantity of water, but
rather by the expanfion and rarefaction of its particles.
There are feveral fizes of thefe machines, from five to
fifty pounds weight, in a portable and rather fmall com-
pafs, and may generally be carried to any place where
a man can go himfelf.
“ But though thefe machines will prevent great fires
by a timely application, they will not extinguilh them
after they have reached a frightful height, and feveral
houfes, perhaps near a whole ftreet, are in flames. The
floors mult be ftanding, and accefs to the building
fafe, otherwife no perfon can be fuppofed to approach
near enough to apply them in a proper manner. Every
fire has its beginning for the moft part in fome apart¬
ment \ and, as foon as difeovered, the family, inftead of
lofing all prefence of mind, ftiould immediately apply
one or more of thefe machines, which will then fully
anfwer the intention. The proper time of applying
them, fuppofes that they are ready at hand. It will
be in vain to think of fetching them from any confider-
able diftance, as it wil) then be too late for them to
perform any important ftrvice t except indeed being the
probable means of faving fome adjacent houfe, by ex-
tingui living
F I R
FIR [6
p;re tinguiftiing the flames as often as they break out, till
—y—^ the building firfl. on fire is totally confumcd, and, by
falling into ruins, leaves the other in perfeft fafety.”
On the 19th of May 1761, at noon, Mr Godfrey’s
experiment for extinguifliing fire, was tried in a houfe
ere&ed for that purpofe, m ar Mary le bone. Their
royal highneffes, the duke of York, Prince William
Henry, Prince Henry Frederick, a great number of
perfons of rank and diflinflion, and many of the learn¬
ed world, gave their attendance on this Angular occa-
fion. The houfe, which was of brick, confifted of three
rooms one above another, a ftaircafe, chimney, lath
and plafter ceilings, and a kind of wainfcotting round
the rooms, of rough deal. Exadliy at 12 o’clock the
ground room, and that up one pair of flairs, were fet
on fire bv lighting the faggots and lhavings laid in
there for that purpofe : in about 15 minutes the wain-
fcot of the under room was thought to be fufficiently
in flimes, and three of the machines were thrown in j
which, bv almoft immediate and fudden expiofions, in-
ftantaneoufly extinguiflie.d the flames, and the very
fmoke in that apartment in a few minutes totally dif-
appeared. By this time, the firemen, &c. who had the
care of throwing in the machines,.gave an alarm that
the ftaircafe had taken fire, and that it was neceflary
diredtly to go to work upon the next room 5 which was
accordingly done, and with the fame effedh The expe¬
riment, however, hitherto did not univerfally fatisfy :
in the laft inftance efpecially it was thought to be too
haftily put in execution j and the populace without fide,
the paling, who were fuppofed to amount to near
20,000, and whofe curiofity, from the very nature of
their fituation, remained much diflatisfied, began to
grow rather riotous, and talked of a fecond bottle con¬
juror. For the fake of the experiment, therefore, and
to remove all manner of doubt, Mr Godfrey confented
to a third experiment in the upper room, which was
entirely of wood. The flames were now fuffered to get
to a confiderable height, and even the window frames
deflroyed, before the machines were thrown in : which,
however, anfwered exa<51ly as the former had done ;
and, being quite in fight of the out-ftanders, met with
univerfal approbation.
Thefe machines of Mr Godfrey’s, it is evident, would
be of great ufe in extinguifliing fires on ftiipboard ; and
might be confidered as a no lefs neceflary part of a
flop’s lading, than her ftores or ammunition.
The hint of thefe machines is faid to have been ta¬
ken by Mr Godfrey from the invention of one Zachary
Greyl, who exhibited machines fimilar to thofe of Mr
Godfrey, before perfons of the firfl rank, but without
meeting with any encouragement. His machines were
made of wood, and the liquor employed was only water,
and confequently inferior to Mr Godfrey’s in its power
of extinguifliing fire. The latter is faid to have mixed
his water with a certain quantity of oil of vitriol, or
with fal ammoniac. Thefe mac hines, however, as al¬
ready obferved, are found to be only ferviceable in the
beginning of a fire. When the roof had fallen in, they
had no effieft.
Compofition for extingui/htng FlftE. For this purpofe
the following has been invented by M. Von Aken, of
which the account is taken from Nicholfon's Journal,
vol. ii. 4to.
30 lbs.
40
fire
35 1
Burnt alum
Green vitriol powdered
Cinabrefe or red ochre in powder 20
Potter’s clay, or other clay, alfo powdered 200
Water 630
With 40 meafures of this mixture an artificial
was extinguiftied under the diredFn of the inventor
by three perfons, which would have required the labour
of 20 men and 1500 meafures of common water. Sig.
Fabbroni was commiflioned to examine the value of
this invention, and found in his comparative trials with
engines of equal power, worked by the fame number of
men, that the mixture extinguiftied the materials in
combuftion in one-fixth part lefs time, and three eighths
lefs of fluid, than when common water was uled. He
obferved, as might indeed have been imagined from
the nature of the material, that the flame difappeared
wherever the mixture fell, and that the faline, metallic,
and earthy matters formed an impenetrably lute round
the hot eombufiible matter, which prevented the accefs
of the air, and confequently the renewal of the deftruc-
tive procefs.
It is fcarcely probable that this prafb’ce in the large
way, with an engine throwing upwards of 200 gallons
(value about 3I. 10s.) each minute, would be thought
of or adopted, or that a fufficient ftore of the materials
would be kept in readinefs ; fince at this rate the ex¬
penditure for an hour would demand a provifion to the
amount of 210!. fterling. But in country places the
procefs, or fume variation of it, might be applied with
fufficient profit in the refult; more efpecially if it be
confidered that common fait or alum, or fuch ialine
matter as can be had and mixed with the water, toge¬
ther with clay, chalk, or lime, ochreous earth or com¬
mon mud, or even thefe laft without any fait, may an-
fwer the purpofe of the lute with more or lefs effect,
and extinguifh an accidental fire with much greater
fpeed and certainty than clear water would do.
Water-Engine for extinguijhing Fire. See Hydro¬
statics.
In ufing this machine we have the following im¬
provement by Dr Hoffman, which promifes to be of
great efficacy. As fooh as the engine is in readinefs
to work, ftir into the water that immediately is to be
difcharged, feven or eight pounds of pearl aihes in
powder, and continue to add it in this manner as occa-
fion requires $ taking care that it be directed againfl:
the timber or Wainfcot, 82c. juft beginning to burn,
and not wafted againft the brick-work : or, where time
will admit, diffolve any quantity of pearl allies in a
copper with water, and as faft as it diffolves, which
will be in few minutes, mix a pailful with the water
in the engine, pretty often ; and whatever burning
wood it is played upon, will be extinguilhed as if it was
dipped in water, and will not burn afrefh in the part
extingui filed.
F.afy Method of Extinguijhing FlRE in Chimneys. It
is well known, that the inner parts of chimneys eafily
take fire ; the foot that kindles therein emits a greater
flame, according as the tunnel is more elevated, be-
caufe the inferior air feeds the fire. If this air could
therefore be fuppreffed, the fire would foon be extin-
guiflied. In order to this, fome difebarge a piflol into
the chimney, which produces no effedt $ others lay
4 L 2 under
Fue.
F I R
Fire.
under the chimney a copper full of water ; but the va
*’ pour- that rife from it, far from exting ifliing the fire,
feem to give it new force. Water thrown into the
chimney at top is equally of no (ffei'd, becaufe it comes
down through the middle of the tunnel, and not along
the fides. It would be more advifeable to flop with
dung the upper orifices of the tunnel for quenching
the fire. But the fureft and readi* ft method is, to take
a little gunpowder, and having hume&ed it with fpitile
for binding it. to form it into fmall maffes, and fo throw
it into the heart of the chimney. When it is burnt, and
has produced a confiderabie vapour, a fecund, after¬
wards a third, are thrown, and fo on, as much as is
neceffary. In a little time the fire is extinguifhed, and,
as it were, choked by this vapour ; and cakes of in¬
flamed foot are feen to fall from the tunnel, till at lalt
not the leaft veftige of fire appears.
Securing buildings again]} blRE. Dr Hales propofes
to check the progrefs of fires by covering the floors of
the adjoining houfes with earth. The propofal is
founded on an experiment which he made with a fir
board half an inch thick, part of which he covered
with an inch depth of damp garden mould, and then
lighted a fire on the furface of the mould ; though the
fire was kept up by blowing, it was two hours before
the board was burnt through, and the earth prevented
it from flaming. The thicker the earth is laid on the
floors, the better ; however, Dr Hales apprehends that
the depth of an inch will generally be fufHcient $ and
he recommends to lay a deeper covering on the flairs,
becaufe the fire commonly afcends by them with the
greateft velocity.
Mr Hartley made feveral trials in the years 1775
and 1776) ’n order to evince the efficacy of a method
which he had invented for reftraining the fpread of fire
in buildings. For this purpofe thin iron plates are
well nailed to the tops of the joifts, &c. the edges of
the fides and ends being lapped over, folded together,
and hammered clofe. Partitions, flairs, and floors, may
be defended in the fame manner ; and plates applied
to one fide have been found fufficient. The plates are
fo thin as not to prevent the floor from being nailed on
the joifts, in the fame manner as if this preventive
were not ufed : they are kept from ruft by being
painted or varniflied with oil and turpentine. The
expence of this addition, when extending through a
whole building, is eftimated at about five per cent.
Mr Hartley has a patent for this invention, and par¬
liament has voted a fum of money towards defray¬
ing the expence of his numerous experiments. The
fame prefervative may alfo be applied to {hips, furni¬
ture, &c.
Lord Mahon has alfo difcovered and publiftied a very
fimple and effeclual method of fecuring every kind of
building againft all danger of fire. This method he
has divided into three parts, viz. under-flooring, extra-
lathing, and inter-fecuring.
1 he method of under-flooring, is either Angle or dou¬
ble. In fingle under-flooring, a common firong lath
of oak or fir, about one-fourth of an inch thick, fliould
be nailed againft each fide of every joift, and of every
main timber, fupporting the floor which is to be fe-
cured. Other fimilar laths are then to be nailed along
the whole length of the joifts, with their ends butting
againfl each other. The top- of each of thefe laths
[ 636 ]
F I R
or fillets ought to be at inch below the top of the
joifts or timbers againft which they are nailed ; and
they will thus form a fort of fmall ledge on each fide
of all the joifts. I he.fe fillets are to be well bedded in
a rough plafter hereafter mentioned, when they are
nailed on, fo that there may be no interval between them
and the joills: and the fame plafter ought to be fpread
with a trowel upon the tops of all the fillets, and along
the fides of that part of the joifts which is between the
top of the fillets and the upper edge of the joifts. In
order to fill up the intervals between the joifts that
fupport the floor, ihort pieces of common laths, whofe
length is equal to the width of thefe intervals (hould
be laid in the contrary direction to the joifts, and clofe
together in a row, fo as to touch one another : their
ends muft reft upon the fillets, and they ought to be
well bedded in the rough plafter, but are not to be
fattened with nails. They muft then be covered w ith
one thick coat of the rough plafter, which is to be
fpread over them to the level of the tops of the joifts :
and in a day or two this plafter fhould be trowelled
over clofe to the fides of the joifts, without covering
the tops of the joifts with it.
In the method of double flooring, the fillets and
ftiort pieces of laths are applied in the manner already
deferibedj but the coat of rough plafter ought to be
little more than half as thick as that in the former
method. Whilft this rough plafter is laid on, fome
more of the fhort pieces of laths above mentioned muft
be laid in the intervals between the joifts upon the firft
coat, and be dipped deep in it. They ftiould be laid
as clofe as poflible to each other, and in the fame di-
redfion with the firft layer of ftiort laths. Over this
fecond layer of ftiort laths there muft be fpread another
coat of rough plafter, which fliould be trowelled level
with the tops of the joifts without rifing above them.
The rough plafter may be made of coarfe lime and
hair 5 or, inftead of hair, hay chopped to about three
inches in length may be fubftituted with advantage.
One meafure of common rough fand, two meafures of
flaked lime, and three meafures of chopped hay, will
form in general a very good proportion, when fuffi-
ciently beat up together in the manner of common
mortar. The hay ihould be put in after the two other
ingredients are well beat up together with water.
This plafter fhould be made ftiff; and when the floor¬
ing boards are required to be laid down very foon, a
fourth or fifth part of quicklime in powder, formed
by dropping a fmaH quantity of water on the limeftone
a little while before it is ufed, and well mixed with
this rough plafter, will caufe it to dry very fait. If any
cracks appear in the rough plafler work near the joifts
when it is thoroughly dry, they ought to be clofed by
walhing them over with a brufti wet with mortar waffi r
this waffi may be prepared by putting two meafures of
quicklime and one of common fand in a pail, and
ftirring the mixture with water till it becomes of the
confiftence of a thin jelly.
Before the flooring boards are laid, a fmall quantity
of very dry common fand fhould be ftrewed over the
plafter work, and- ftruck fmooth with a hollow rule,
moved in the direction of the joifts, fo that it may lie
rounding between each pair of joifts. The plafter
work and fand fhould be perfectly dry before the
boards are laid, for fear of the dry rot. The method
FIR [637
of unde'-flooring may be fuccelsfully applied to a wood¬
en llaircafe j bill no fand is to be laid upon the rough
plafter work. The method of extra-lathing may De ap¬
plied to ceiling joifts, to (loping roofs, and to wooden
partitions.
The third method, which is that of inter-fecuring, is
very fimilar to that of under-flooring ; but no fand is
afterwards to be laid upon it. Inter fecuting is appli¬
cable to the fame parts of a building as the method of
extra-lathing, but is feldom neceffary.
Lord Mahon has made feveral experiments in order
to demonftrate the efficacy of thefe methods. In muff
houfes it is only neceffary to fecure the floors j and the
extra expence of under-flooring, including all mate¬
rials, is only about ninepence per fquare yard, and
with the ufe of quicklime a little more. The extra
expence of extra-lathing is no more than (ixpence
per fquare yard for the timber fide wdls and par¬
titions •, but for the ceiling about ninepence per
fquare yard. But in mod houfes no extra-lathing is
neceffary.
FlRE-Eater. We have a great number of mounte¬
banks who have procured the attention and wonder of
the public by eating of fire, walking on fire, walking
their hands in melted lead, and the like tricks.
The mod celebrated of thefe was our countryman
Richardfon, much talked of abroad. His fecret, as re¬
lated in the Journal des Spavans, of the year 1680,
confided in a pure fpirit of fulphur, wherewith he rub¬
bed his hands, and the parts that were to touch the fire j
which burning and cauterizing the epidermis, hardened
and enabled the Ikin to refid the fire.
Indeed this is no new thing: Amb. Par6e affures us
he has tried it on himfelf; that after waffling the hands
in urine, and with unguentum aureum, one may fafely
waffi them in melted lead.
He adds alfo, that by waffling his hands in the juice
of onions, he could bear a hot (hovel on them while it
melted lead.
Fire, in Theology. See Hell.
We read of the facred fire in the firff temple of Je-
rufalem, which came down from heaven ; it was kept
with the utmoft care, and they were forbidden to carry
any ((range fire into the temple. I his fire is one of
the five things which the Jews confefs were wanting in
the fecond temple.
The Pagans had their facred fires, which they kept
in their temples with the mod religious care, and which
were never to be extinguiffied. Numa ivas the firfl who
built a temple to Fire as a goddefs at Rome, and infli-
tuted an order of priedeffes for the prefervation of it.
See Vestals.
Fire was the fupreme god of the Chaldeans j the
Magi were worfliippers of fire ; and the Greeks and
Armenians dill keep up a ceremony called the holyjire,
upon a perfuafion that every Fafter day a miraculous
fire defcends from heaven into the holy fepulchre, and
kindles all the lamps and candles there.
FlRE kindled fpontaneoujly in the Human Body. See
Extraordinary Cafes of BURNING.
FlRE-Barrel. See FlRE-S/w/i, Note (b).
FlRE-Bavins. Ibid. Note (d).
FlRE-Hrrow, in naval artillery, is a fmall iron dart
furniffied with fprings and bars, together with a match
impregnated with fulphur and powder, which is wound
]
FIR
about its (haft. It is intended to fire the fails of the
enemy, and is for this purpofe difcharged from a muf- -
quetoon or fwivel gun. 1 he match being kindled by
the explofion, communicates the flame to the (ail againil
which it is directed, where the arrow is fattened by
means of its bars and fprings. The weapon is pecu¬
liar to hot climates, particularly the Weft Indies,
where the fails being extremely dry by reaibn of the
great heat, they inliantiy take fire, and of courfe let
fire to the mails and rigging, and laftly to the veffel
itfelf.
FlRE-Ba/ls,in artillery, a compofitionof meal powder,
fulphur, faltpetre, pitch, &c. about the bignefs of a
hand grenade, coated over with flax, and primed with
the (low compofition of a fuze. I his is to be thrown
into the enemy’s works in the night time, to difcover
where they are, or to fire houfes, galleries, or blinds
of the befiegers j but they are then armed with fpikes,
or hooks of iron, that they may not roll off, but (lick
or hang where they are defired to have any effedt. See
FYre-BALLS, and Zz^lBalls.
Balls of Fire, in Meteorology, a kind of luminous
bodies, generally appearing at a great height above the
earth, with a fplendour furpafling that of the moon j
and fometimes equalling her apparent fize. They ge¬
nerally proceed in this hemifphere from north to fouth
with vaft velocity, frequently breaking into feveral
fmaller onesy fometimes vanifhing with a report, fome¬
times not.
Thefe luminous appearances no doubt conftitute one
part of the ancient prodigies, blazing Kars or comets,
which laft they fometimes refemble in being attended
with a train j but frequently they appear with a round
and well-defined di(k. The firft of thefe of which we
have any accurate account, was obferved by Dr Halley
and feme other philofophers at different places, in the
year 1719. From the flight obfervations they could
take of its courfe among the Kars, the perpendicular
height of this body was computed at about 70 miles
from the furface of the earth. The height of others
has alfo been computed, and found to be various j
though in general it is fuppofed to be beyond the li¬
mits afligned to our atmofphere, or where it lofes its
refradlive power. The moft remarkable of thefe on
record appeared on the 18th of Augull 1783, about
nine o’clock in the evening. It was feen to the north¬
ward of Shetland, and took a foutherly dirediion for
an immenfe fpace, being obferved as far as the fouthern
provinces of France, and one account (ays that it was
feen at Rome alfo. During its courfe it appears fre¬
quently to have changed its ftiape ; fometimes appear¬
ing in the form of one ball, fometimes of two or more •,
fometimes with a train, fometimes without one. It paf-
fed over Edinburgh nearly in the zenith, and had then
the appearance of a well-defined round body, extremely
luminous, and of a greeniftt colour ; the light which it
diffufed on the ground giving likewife a greenifh caff
to objedis. After pafling the zenith it was attended by
a train of confiderable length, which continually aug¬
menting, at laft obliterated the head entirely j fo that it
looked like a wedge, flying with the obtufe end fore-
moft. The motion was not apparently fwift, by realon
of its great height j though in reality it mud have mov¬
ed with great rapidity, on account of the vail fpace it
travelled over in a (hurt time. In other plates its ap¬
pearance
Fire-
FIR r 638 ^ ] FIR
ire. pearance was very different. At Greenwich we are told,
V——' that “ two bright balls parallel to each other led the
way, the diameter of which appeared to be about two
feet; and were followed by an expult'ion of eight others,
not elliptical, feerning gradually to mutilate, for the lait
was finalI. Between each two balls a luminous ferra-
ted body extended, and at the laft a blaze iffued which
terminated in a point. Minute particles dilated from
the whole. The balls were tinted firft by a pure bright
light, then followed a tender yellow, mixed with azure,
red, green, &c.; which, with a coalition of bolder lints,
and a reflection from the other balls, gave the moft
beautiful rotundity and variation of colours that the
human eye could be charmed with. The fudden illu¬
mination of the atmofphere, and the form and Angular
tranfition of this bright luminary, tended much to make
it awful : neverthelefs, the amazing vivid appearance of
the different balls, and other rich connective parts not
very eafy to delineate, gave an effeCl equal to the rain¬
bow in the full zenith of its glory.”
Dr Blagden, in a paper on this fubjeCf in the 74th
volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, has not only
given a particular account of this and other meteors
of the kind, but added feveral conjectures relating to
the probable caufes of them. The firft thing which
occurred to philofophers on this fubjeCf was, that the
meteors in queftion were burning bodies riling from
the furface of the earth, and flying along the atmo¬
fphere with great rapidity. But this hypothefis was
foim abandoned, on confidering that there was no
power known by which fuch bodies could either be
raifed to a fufficient height, or projeCled with the ve¬
locity of the meteors. The next hypothefis was, that
they do not conflft of one fingle body, but of a train of
fulphureous vapours, extending a vaft way through the
atmofphere, and being kindled at one time difplay the
luminous appearances in queftion by the fire running
from one end of the train to the other. To this hypo¬
thefis, which was invented by Dr Halley, Dr Blagden
objeCfs that no juft explanation is given of the nature
of the vapours themfelves, the manner in which they are
raifed up, or in which they can be regularly arranged in
ftraight lines ofTuch vaft extent.; or how they can be
fuppofed to burn in fuch rarefied air. “ Indeed,
(fays he) it is very difficult to conceive how vapours
could be prevented, in thofe regions where there is in
a manner no preffure, from fpreading out on all fides in
eonfequence of their natural elafticity, and inftantly
lofing that degree of denfity which feems neceffary
for inflammation. Befides, it is to be expe&ed, that
fuch trains would fometimes take fire in the middle,
and thus prefent the phenomenon of two meteors at
the fame time, receding from one another in a direft
line.”
For thefe and other reafons this hypolhefis of Dr
Halley was abandoned, and another fubflituted in its
place. This was, that the meteors we fpeak of are
permanent folid bodies, not riling from the earth, but
revolving round it in very eccentric orbits, and thus
in their perigeon moving with inconceivable rapidi¬
ty. But the do&or fliows, that, even on this fup-
pofition, the velocity of fuch bodies mu.fl fcarce be
one third of that with which fire-balls move and
which has been caculated at upwards of 1000 miles
per minute. The hypothefis is like wife liable to a
number of other obje&ions which cannot be anfwered,
paiticulaily trom the variations in their appearance;
for it is impoffib’e to fliow in what manner one folid
and permanent body could affume the appearance of
eight or ten, as was the cafe with the meteor of
1783: nor can it be Ihown why a body, which in
pafimg over Edinburgh appeared with a dilk evident¬
ly lets than liiat of the lun, liiould, in palling over
Greenwk-h, affume the appearance ot two bodies, each
of which had a diik conliderably larger than the ap¬
parent diik of that luminary. To obviate, in force
meafure, objections of this kind, it has been fuppofed
that the revolving bodies are furrounded by a kind of
eleflrii al atmofphere by which they are rendered lumi¬
nous ; “ but (lays the doftor) I think, whoever careful¬
ly perufes the various accounts of fire-balls, and efpeci-
aily ours of the iblh of Auguft, when it divided, will
perceive that their phenomena do not correfpond with
the idea of a folid nucleus involved in a fubtile fluid,
any more than with the idea of another learned gentle¬
man, that they become luminous by means of a con¬
tained fluid, which occafionally explodes through the
thick folid outer fliell.”
Another hypothefis, which Dr Blagden has not men¬
tioned, is, that the meteors in queftion are a kind of bo¬
dies which take fire as foon as they come within the at-
molphere of the earth. But this cannot be fuppofed,
without implying a previous knowledge of thefe bodies,
which it is altogether impoflible we can have. The
only opportunity we have of feeing them is when they
are on fire. Before that time they are in an invifible
and unknown flale ; and it is furely improper to ar¬
gue concerning them in this ftate, or pretend to de¬
termine any one of their properties, when we have it
not in our power to fee or inveftigate them in the
leaf!. As the meteors therefore never manifeft them-
ftlves to our fenfts but when they are on fire, the on¬
ly rational conclufion we can draw from thence is, that
they have no exiftence in any other ftate; and confe-
quently that their fubftance muft be compofed of that
fluid which, when aifting after a certain manner, be¬
comes luminous and fliows itfelf as fire ; remaining in¬
vifible and eluding our refearches in every other cafe.
On this hypothefis we muft conclude that the fire-balls
are great bodies of eltdlric matter, moving from one
part of the heavens where, to our conception, it is fu-
perabundant, to another tvhere it is deficient. This
opinion is adopted by Dr Blagden for the following
reafons :
1. On account of their prodigious velocity, which is
not Ids than i2oo miles in a minute, and feems incom¬
patible with any other fubftance we know befiues the
eledlric fluid. “ This (fays he) is perhaps the only
cafe in which the courfe or dirc&ion of that fluid is
rendered perceptible to our fenfes, in conftquence of
the large fcale on which thefe meteors move.”
2. Various ele&rical phenomena have been obferved
to attend them, iuch as lambent fires fettling upon
men, horfes, &.c. and fparks coming from them, “ or
the whole meteor itfelf (adds our author), it is find,
have damaged (hip*, houfes, &c. after the manner of
lightning.” This laft circumltance, however, we can
believe only of another kind of fire-balls, of which
we (hall afterwards treat, which keep at a fmall diftancc
from the eafth, cr run along its furface; for the great
meteors
F 1 K [ 639 ] FIR
meteors of which we now fpeak, flying at the difiance
of 50 or 60, or more miles from the furface of the
earth, cannot be lefs from their apparent fize than a
mile or a mile and a half in diameter. Such an im-
menfe body of ele&ric matter defoending on the earth,
would by its explofion ruin a large tradl of country ;
and there is no probability that when engendered in
fuch a rare atmofphere it could break through the
whole body of grofs and denfe air which lies between
thefe regions and the earth, and which we know re¬
fills the paflage of the eleftric fluid very ftrongly.
Notwithftanding this, there is no impoflibility that the
atmofphere may be eledlrified to a great degree by
fuch a meteor palling over it; and thus electrical ap¬
pearances may attend thefe bodies without any aftual
emiffion of their fubftance, as Dr Blagden fuppofes.
“ If there be really (fays he) any hilling noife heard
while the meteors are palling, it leems explicable on
no other fuppofition than that of ftreams of eleClric
matter iffuing from them and reaching the earth with
a velocity equal to that of the meteor, namely, in two
or three feconds. Accordingly, in one of our late me¬
teors, the hilling was compared to that of eleClricity
ifluing from a conduClor. The fparks flying off fo
perpetually from the body of fire-balls may poffibly
have fome connexion with thefe llreams. In the fame
manner the found of explofions may perhaps be brought
to us quicker than if it were propagated to us by the
air alone. Should thefe ideas be well founded, the
change of direction, which meteors feem at times to
undergo, may polfibly be influenced by the ftate of the
furface of the earth over which they are palling, and
to which the ftreams are fuppofed to reach. A fimilar
caufe may occafion the apparent explofion, the opening
of more channels giving new vent and motion to the
eleCtric fluid. May not the deviation and explofion
which appear to have taken place in the fire-ball of
the 18th of Augult over Lincolnfhire, have been
determined by its approach towards the fens, and
an attraction produced by that large body of moif-
ture ?
The explofion mentioned by our author over Lin-
colnlhire does not feem to have been the only one
which happened during the courfe of this meteor. Se¬
veral people heard reports after it had vanilhed j and
thefe were fometimes fingle and fometimes double. At
Edinburgh two reports were heard, the one immediate¬
ly following the other, at the diftance of fix or feven
minutes after the meteor had paffed. Thefe reports no
doubt indicated a temporary diffolution of the body ;
but it is by no means probable that the diffolution could
have taken place either on account of the ftate of the
earth or atmofphere. We mull confider that both
earth and atmafphere are always full of eleClric fluid j
and if there happens to be what is called a deficiency
in one of them, the other inftantly fupplies it. It is
impollible, therefore, that either the earth or atmo¬
fphere could receive fuch an immenfe additional quan¬
tity in one part without a vent being provided for it
fomewhere elfe. In thunder-ftorms we naturally con¬
clude that a vaft quantity of eleClrical matter is put in
motion •, but from the effeCls of lightning it appears
that this quantity muft be very trifling in comparifon
with what the meteor we now fpeak of contained. A
violent Hath of lightning has been known to perforate
I
a looking-glafs, and make only a hole of about an inch
diameter. Now we have no reafon to fuppofe that the
Hath, tremendous as it might appear to our eyes, was
any other than an eleChic i’park of an inch in diame¬
ter. The meteor, on the other hand, appears not to
have been left, than a wile in diameter ; fo that the
difproportion betwixt i: and a tingle flath of lightning
appears almolt beyond calculation; and we may rea-
fonably conclude that it could not have been equalled
by 10,000 thunder-ftorms. Had this amazing body
of electric fire defeended through the atmofphere and
diflipated itfelf on the fens of Lincolnfhire, it. mutt
have produced the moft violent and unheard-of effeCls,
not only in that place, but probably throughout the
whole ifland. Its diflipation muft: therefore have been
in the higher regions, where there was ample fpace to
receive it; and where its explofion, whatever concuf-
fion it might make among the ethereal matter itfelf,
could not affeCt our earth or atmofphere in any re¬
markable degree. Its re-appearance was owing to the
fame tendency in the fluid to circulate which had ori¬
ginally produced it ; and which probably was the vio¬
lent earthquake in Calabria, and the eruption in Ice¬
land.
3. Another argument adduced by Dr Blagden in
favour of the eleClrical origin of fire-balls, is their con¬
nexion with the aurora borealis, and the refemblance
they bear to this phenomenon, which is now almoft
univerfally allowed to be eleClrical. “ Inftances (fays
he) are recorded, where northern lights have been feen
to join, and form luminous balls, darting about with
great velocity, and even leaving a train behind them
like the common fire-balls. This train I take to be
nothing elfe but the rarefied air left in fuch an eleClri-
fied Hate as to be luminous; and fome ftreams of the
northern lights are very much like it.” The aurora
borealis appears to occupy as high, if not a higher re¬
gion above the furface of the earth, as may be judged
from the very diftant countries to which it has been
viiible at the fame time ; indeed the great accumula¬
tion of eleClric matter fe.ems to lie beyond the verge of
our atmofphere, as eftimated by the ceffation of twi¬
light. Alfo with the northern lights a luffing noife is
faid to be heard in fome very cold climates: Gmelin
fpeaks of it in the moft pointed terms, as frequent and
very loud in the north-eaftern parts of Siberia ; and
other travellers have related fimilar faCls.”
4. Oar author thinks that the ftrongeft argument
for the eleClrical origin of thefe meteors is the direc¬
tion of their courfe, which is conftantly either from
the north or north-weft quarter of the heavens, or to¬
wards it ; or, as our author thinks, nearly in the di¬
rection of the magnetical meridian. Such a courfe,
however, feems only to belong to the very large fire¬
balls of which we now fpeak ; the fmaller ones, called
Falling Stabs, being moved in all directions ; “ per¬
haps (fays the doCtor), becaufe they come further within
the verge of our almofphere, and are thereby expoftd
to the aCtion of extraneous caufe«. That the fmaller
fort of meteors, fuch as {hooting ftars, are really lower
down in the atmofphere, is rendered very probable by
their fwifter apparent motion : perhaps it is this very
circumftance which occafions them to be fmaller, the
eleClric fluid being more divided in more refilling air.
But as thofe maffes of ekftric matter which move
•where
F I R [6
wliere ttiere is fcarce any refiftance., fo generally aff< £t
the diredion of the magnetic meridian, the ideas which
have been entertained of fome analogy between thtfe
two obfcure powers of nature feem not altogether
without foundation. If the foregoing conjedures be
juft, diftind regions are allotted to the eledrical pheno¬
mena of our atmofphere. Here below we have thun¬
der and lightning, from the unequal diftribution af
the eledric fluid among the clouds ; in the loftier re¬
gions, whither the clouds never reach, we have the
various gradations "of falling ftars $ till, beyond the
limits of our corpufcular atmofphere, the fluid is put
into motion in fufficient maflts to hold a determined
courfe, and exhibit the different appearances of what
wre call Jire-halls ; and probably at a Itill greater ele¬
vation above the earth, the eledricity accumulates in
a lighter and lefs condenfed form, to produce the won¬
derfully diverfified ftreams and corufcations of the au¬
rora borealis.”
T. he paper from whence thefe extrads are taken was
written before Mr Morgan’s account of the non-con-
duding power of a perfed vacuum made its appear¬
ance. The meteor in queftion, and others of the fame
nature, afford a proof of the theory of the deficiency of
eledric fluid propofed by fome. Dr Halley, fpeaking
of the fire ball of 1719. the height of which he calcu¬
lated at very little lefs than 70 miles, expreffes his fur-
prife that found fhould be propagated through a me¬
dium near 300,600 times rarer than the common air,
and the next thing to a perfed vacuum. Now it re¬
mains, and for ever will remain, to be proved, that
Mr Morgan’s moft perfed vacuum, formed bv boiling
quickfilver in a tube ever fo long, contains a medium
more than 300,000 times rarer than the common atmo¬
fphere. From Mr Cavallo’s experiments it appears,
that when air is only rarefied IOOQ times, the eledtic
light is excefflvely weak ; fo that there is not the leaft
probability that in an aerial medium 300,000 times
rarer than the prefent, if indeed fuch a medium can
exifi, there could be any light made vifible in the ordi¬
nary experiments. We fee, however, by the many ex¬
amples of meteors which have occurred at prodigious
•heights in the atmofnhere, that the eledric light in
fuch a rarefied atmofphere is not only vifible, but ads
as vigoroufiy in everv refped as if it were on the fur-
face of the earth. This circumflance therefore affords
a complete demonftration of the fallacy of Mr Mor¬
gan’s argument, and a dired proof that the eledric
fluid pervades fpace as completely divefled of air as
•the beft artificial vacuum we can make $ nay, where it
is generally believed by mathematicians that the at¬
mofphere has ceafed altogether. His other arguments
drawn a prion are ftill more inconchifive than that we
have juft mentioned. He tells us, that if a vacuum
was a condudor, the whole quantity of eledric matter
-contained in the earth and atmofnhere would be per¬
petually flying off through the regions of infinite fpace,
as being furrounded by a boundle'fs condudor. But
even this does not follow, though we fhould fuppofe
thefe regions to be an abfolute vacuity *, for we know
that eledricity does not fly to a conduding fubflance
merely betaufe it is a condudor, but becaufe it opens
a paflage to fome place whither it has a tendency to
-go though the condudor was not there. Now, on
4be prefent bypothefis, as the condudor would lead to
+0 1 FIR
no place to which the eiedric matter had any previous
tendency, we cannot aflign any reafon why it ihould
acquire a tendency to fly off merely on account of the
neighbourhood of a condudor, even though boundkfs.
His other objedion (that, on the fuppofition of a va-
cuum being capable of conduding eledricity, the whole
fpace in the univerfe would be filled with eledric fluid)
may be admitted in its fulleft extent, without any de¬
triment whatever to fcience j and indeed, if we allow
the eledric fluid to be only a modification of the light
of the fun, we muft own that the whole univerfe is fil¬
led with it. The meteors in queftion then will be no
other than difeharges of eledrieity from one part of the
celeftial fpaces to another, fimilar to the difeharges be¬
tween the pofitive and negative fide of an eledrified
bottle ; thus intimating, that a circulation has taken
place in the fluid, which the meteor at once completes
and puts an end to. See METEOROLOGY.
Befides thefe already juft mentioned of fuch vaft mag¬
nitude, there are others much fmaller and nearer the
furface of the earth, rolling upon it, or falling upon
it, exploding with violence, as is the cafe with thofe
which appear in the time of thunder, and frequently-
producing mifehievous effeds. One of thefe is mention¬
ed by fome authors as falling in a ferene evening in the
ifland of Jamaica *, exploding as foon as it touched the
furface of the ground, and making a confiderable hole
in it. Another is mentioned by Dr Prieftley as rolling
along the furface of the fea, then rifing and ftriking the
top-maft of a man of war, exploding, and damaging
the ftsip. In like manner, we hear of an eledrified
cloud at Java in the Eaft Indies5 whence, without any
thunder ftorm, there iffiied a vaft number of fire-balls
which did incredible mifehief. This laft phenomenon
points out to us the true origin of balls of this kind,
viz. an exet flive accumulation of eledricity in one part,
or a violent tendency to circulate, when at the fame
time the place where the motion begins is at fo great
a diftance, or meets with other obflacles of fuch a na¬
ture, that it cannot eafily get thither. Urged on, how¬
ever, by the vehement preflure from behind, it is for¬
ced to leave its place ; but being equally unable to
difplace the great quantity of the fame fluid, which
has no inclination to move the fame way with itfelf, it
is colleded into balls, which run hither and thither, ac¬
cording as they meet with condudors capable of lead¬
ing th em, into fume part of the circle. This is even
confirmed by an experiment related at the end of Dr
Prieftley’s fifth volume on Air. He relates, that a gen¬
tleman having charged, with a very powerful machine,
a jar, which had the wire fupporting the knob of a
confiderable length, and patted through the glafs tube,
a globe of fire xvas feen to iffue out of it, This globe
gradually afeended up the glafs tube till it came to the
top of the knob, where it fettled, turning fwiftly on
its axis, and appearing like a red-hot iron ball of three
quarters of an inch diameter. On continuing to turn
the machine, it gradually defeended into the jar ; which
it had no fooner done, than there enfued a moft vio¬
lent expbfion and flafti, the jar being difeharged and
broken at the fame time. This experiment, however,
is Angular in its kind ; for neither the gentleman who
performed it, nor any other, has yet been able to re¬
peat it. Single as it is, however, we may yet gather
from it, that a fire-ball will be the confequence of a
very
FIR [ 64.1 ] FIR
very violent ele&rification of any fubftance, provided
1 al the fame time that the air be in a very non-condu£t-
ing ftate, fo that the electricity may not evaporate
into it as faft as it is collected $ for this would produce
only lucid ftreams and flalbes, as in the common expe¬
riments with the Leyden phial j and it is probably an
inattention to this circumftance which has hitherto
prevented the repetition of the experiment above men¬
tioned. The cafe is the fame in thunder florms, where
an exceffive accumulation of eleftric matter always
produces fire-balls, the moft mifchie.vous kind of light¬
ning, as is explained under that article.
With regard to the ufes which fire-balls ferve in the
fyftem of nature, it is plain that they are the means
of preferving the equilibrium in the eleClric fluid in the
atmofphere, which would otherwife produce the moft
dreadful tempefts. As there muft be a conftant current of
eleftric matter through the bowels of the earth from the
equator to the poles, and from the poles to the equa¬
tor, through the atmofphere, the great meteors ferve
for keeping up the equilibrium in this great atmofphe-
rical current, while the fmaller ones anfwer a like pur-
pofe in the general mafs of eledfric matter difperfed
over the furface of the earth, and therefore are feen to
move in all direftions, as the equilibrium happens to
require them in different parts. With regard to thofe
which are obferved in the lower regions of the earth,
or rolling on the furface of the ground itfelf, they un¬
doubtedly anfwer purpofes of a fimilar kind in thefe
lower regions } for as fire-balls in general are produced
by a great excefs of eleCfricity in one place, there muft
of courfe be an equal deficiency in another j and to
reftore the equilibrium, or, to fpeak more properly, to
prevent a dangerous commotion from taking place
throughout the whole mafs of ele&ric fluid, the fire-
"bali breaks forth, and either puts a flop at once to the
difturbance by an explofion, or by a filent and invifible
evaporation. From fome accounts indeed it would
feem that even the large celeftial meteors detached
part of their fubftance to accomplilli this purpofe 5
though, for the reafons already given, it would feem
more probable that they operated by electrifying the
atmofphere, or fetting the fluid contained in it in mo¬
tion, fo as to produce fmall fire-balls of itfelf, rather
than by detaching any part of their own bodies to fuch
a diftance. Dr Blagden, in the paper above quoted,
gives an account of an appearance of this kind. It was
defcribed in a letter to Sir Jofeph Banks from the
Abbe Mann, dire&or of the academy at Bruflels. “ It
happened (fays the Abbe) at Mariekercke, a fmall vil¬
lage on the coaft, about half a mile weft of Ohend.
The curate of the village was fitting in the dulk of
the evening with a friend, when a fudden light lur-
prifed them, and immediately after, a fmall ball of
light-coloured flame came through a broken pane of
glafs, croflVd the room where they were fitting, and
fixed itfelf on the chink of a door oppofite to the win¬
dow where it entered, and there died gradually away.
It appeared to be a kind of phofphoric light carried
along by the current of air. i he curate and nis friend,
greatly furprifed at what they faw, apprehended fire in
the neighbourhood ; but going out, found that the fire
which had come in through the window had been detach¬
ed from a large meteor in its pafiage.”
FlRE-Cockr. Churchwardens in London and with-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
in the bills of mortality, are to fix fire-cocks at proper
diftances in ftreets, and keep a large engine and hand-'
engine for extinguilhing fire, under the penalty of 10I.
flat. 6 Ann. c. 31.
On the breaking out of any fire in London or Weft-
minfter, the conftables and beadles of parifties (hall re¬
pair to the place with their ftaves, and aflift in ex-
tinguifliing it, and caufe the people to work for that
end, &c.
FlRE-Engme. See SlEAM-Engine.
FlRE-Flair, in Ichthyology. See Raja, ICHTHYO¬
LOGY Index.
FlRE-F/ieSy a fpecies of flies common in Guiana, of
which there are two fpecies. The largeft is more than
an inch in length, having a very large head conne&ed
with the body by a joint of a particular ftrufture, with
which at fome times it makes a loud knock, particular¬
ly when laid on its back. The fly has two feelers or
horns, two w’ings, and fix legs. Under its belly is a
circular patch, which, in the dark, {bines like a candle;
and on each fide of the head near the eyes is a promi¬
nent, globular, luminous body, in fize about one-third
larger than a muftard feed. Each of thefe bodies is like
a living ftar, emitting a bright, and not fmall, light ;
fince two or three of thefe animals, put into a glafs
veffel, afford fufficient light to read without difficulty,
if placed clofe to the book. When the fly is dead,
thefe bodies will ftill afford confiderable light, though
it is lefs vivid than before; and if bruifed, and rubbed
over the hands or face, they become luminous in
the dark, like a board fmeared over with phofpho-
rus. They have a reddilh brown or chefnut colour ;
and live in rotten trees in the day, but are always abroad
in the night. The other kind is not more than half as
large as the former : their light proceeds from under
their wings, and is feen only when they are elevated,
like fparks of fire appearing or difappearing at every
fecond. Of thefe the air is full in the night, though
they are never feen in the day. They are common not
only in the fouthern but in the northern parts of Ame¬
rica, during the fummer.
FlRE-Lock, or Fu/i/y a fmall gun which fires with a
flint. It is diflioguiftied from the old mufket, or match¬
lock, which was fired with a match. The firelock is
now in common ufe in the European armies.
Fire-Philofophersy or philqfophi per igneniy a fanatical
feel of philofophers who appeared towards the clofe of
the 16th century, and made a figure in almoft all the
countries of Europe. The diftinguiftiing tenet from
which they derived this appellation was, that the inti¬
mate effences of natural things were only to be known
by the trying efforts of fire, direfted in a chemical
procefs. They were alfo called Theojpphi/ls, from
their declaring againft human reafon as a dangerous,
and deceitful guide, and reprefenting a divine and fu-
pernatural illumination as the only means of arriving
at truth ; they were likewife denominated ParcicelfiJlsj
from the name of Paracelfus, the eminent phyfician and
chemifi, who was the chief ornament and leader of this
extraordinary fedl. It was patronized in England by
Robert Flood or Fludd, who endeavoured to illuftrate
the philofophy of Paracelfus in a great number of trea-
tifes: in France it was zealoufly propagated by Ri-
vier ; in Denmark, by Severinus; in Germany, by
Kunratbj an eminent phyfician of Drefden ; and in
4 M other
FIR [ 642 ] -FIR
other countries by warm and fuccefsful votaries, who
aflumed a ftriking air of piety and devotion, and pro-
pofed to themfelves no other end than the advance¬
ment of the divine glory, and the reftoration of peace
and concord in a divided church : accordingly they
were joined by feveral perfons eminent for their piety,
and diftinguithed by their zeal for the advancement of
true religion. One of the moft celebrated of thefe was
Daniel Hoffman, profeffor of divinity in the univerfity
of Helmftadt, who, availing himfelf of fome unguarded
paffages in the writings of Luther, extravagantly main¬
tained, that philofophy was the mortal enemy of reli¬
gion ^ that truth was divilible into two branches, the
philofophical and theological $ and that what was true
in philofophy was falfe in theology. Hoffman was
afterwards obliged, by the interpofition of Henry Juli¬
us, duke of Brunfwick, to retraft his inveftives againft
philofophy, and to acknowledge in the moft open man¬
ner the harmony and union of found philofophy with
true and genuine theology.
FlRE-P/aces are contrivances for communicating heat
to rooms, and alfo for anfwering various purpofes of
art and manufacture. See Chimney, Furnace, and
Stove.
The ingenious Dr Franklin, having recounted the
inconveniences and advantages of fire-places in com¬
mon ufe, propofes a new contrivance for this purpofe,
called the Pennfyhania fire-place. 1. This machine
confifts of a bottom-plate, or hearth-piece, fig. 1.
Plate CCXVII. with a rifing moulding before for a
fender, two perforated ears F, G, for receiving two
fcrew-rods; a long air-hole a a, through which the
outward air paffes into an air-box 5 and three fmoke-
holes, reprefented by dark fquares in BC^ through
which the fmoke defcends and paffes away ; befides,
double ledges for receiving between them the lower
edges of the other plates. 2. A back-plate without
holes, and furnifhed with a pair of ledges to receive,
3. The two fide-plates, each of which has a pair of
ledges to receive the fide edges of the front plate, with
a fhoulder on which it refts ; two pair of ledges to re¬
ceive the fide edges of the two middle plates which
form the air-box, and an oblong air-hole near the top,
through which the air warmed in the box is difcharged
into the room, and a wing or bracket as H, and a fmall
hole as F, for the axis of the regifter to turn in. See
fig. 2. which reprefents one of thefe plates. 4. An air-
box, compofed of the two middle plates DE and FG,
fig. 3. and 4. The firft has five thin ledges or parti¬
tions caft on it, the edges of which are received into
fo many pair of ledges caft in the other : the tops of
all the cavities formed by thefe thin deep ledges are alfo
covered by a ledge of the fame form and depth caft with
them ; fo that when the plates are put together, and
the joints luted, there is no communication between
the air-box and the fmoke. In the winding paffages
of this box, frefti air is warmed as it paffes into the
room. 5. A front plate, which is arched on the under
fide, and ornamented with foliages, &c. 6. A top
plate with a pair of ears, JLV, (fig. 5.) anfwerable to
th' fe in the bottom plate, and perforated for the fame
purpofe. It has alfo a pair of ledges running round
the under fide to receive the top edges of the front,
back, and fide plates. The air-box does not reach up
to the top plate by 2^ inches.
All thefe plates are of caft iron ; and when they are
all in their proper places, they are bound firmly toge¬
ther by a pair of flender rods of wrought iron with
fcrews, and the machine appears as in fig. 5. There
are alfo two thin plates of wrought iron,°viz. 7. The
ftiutter which is of fuch a length and breadth as to
dole well the opening of the fire-place, and ferving to
blow up the fire, and to fecure it in the night. It is
raifed or depreffed by means of two brafs knobs, and
Aides into a groove left between the foremoft ledge of
the fide plates and the face of the front plate. 8. The
regifter, which is placed between the back plate and
air-box, and furnilbed with a key ; fo that it may be
turned on its axis, and made to lie in any pofition be¬
tween level and upright. The operation of this ma¬
chine, and the method of fixing it, may be underftood
by obferving the profile of the chimney and fire-places
in fig. 6. M. is the mantle-piece or breaft of the
chimney ; C the funnel ; B the falfe back, made of
brick work in the chimney, four inches or more from
the true back, from the top of which a doling is to
be made over to the breaft of the chimney, that no air
may pafs into the chimney except that which goes
under the falfe back, and up behind it: F the true back
of the chimney ; T the top of the fire-place j F the
front of it; the place where the fire is made ; Z>
the air-box 5 K the hole in the fide plate, through which
the warmed air is difcharged out of the air-box into
the room j H the hollow, formed by removing fome
bricks from the hearth under the bottom plate filled
with frefti air, entering at the paffage /, and afeend-
ing into the air-box through the air-hole in the bot¬
tom plate near G, the partition in the hollow, defign-
ed to keep the air and fmoke apart j P the paffage un¬
der the falfe back, and part of the hearth, for the
fmoke j and the arrows in the figure fliow the courfe
of the fmoke. The fire being made at the flame
and fmoke will afcend, ftrike the top T, and give it
a confiderable heat ; the fmoke will turn over the air-
box, and defcend between it and the back plate to the
holes near G in the bottom plate, heating in its paf¬
fage all the plates of the machine ; it will then proceed
under and behind the falfe back, and rife into the
chimney. The air of the room contiguous to the fe¬
veral plates, and warmed by them, becomes fpecifical-
ly lighter than the other air in the room, and is oblig¬
ed to rife j but being prevented by the clofure over
the fire-place from going up the chimney, is forced
out into the room, and rifing by the mantle-piece to
the ceiling, is again driven down gradually by the
fleam of newly-warmed air that follows ; and thus the
whole room becomes in a little time equally warmed.
The air alfo, warmed under the bottom plate and in
the air-box, rifes and comes out of the holes in the
fide plates, thus warming and continually changing
the air of the room. In the clofing of the chimney,
a fquare opening for a trap door fhould be left for
the fweeper to go up : the door may be made of flate or
tin, and fo placed, that by turning up againft the back
of the chimney when open, it clofes the vacancy be¬
hind the falfe back, and ftioots the foot thatf'fflB^in
fweeping out upon the hearth. It will alfo be conve¬
nient to have a fmall hole, about five or fix inches
fquare, cut near the ceiling through into the funnel,
and provided with a ftmtter j by occafionally opening
which.
F I H
t <5+3 1
FIR
Tire.
wlndh, tlie heated air of the room and fmoke of tobac-
&c. may be carried off without incommoding the
company. For a farther account of the manner of
ufing this fire-place, the advantages attending it, an-
fwers to objections, and diredtions to the bricklayer in
fixing it, the curious reader may confult Franklin’s Let¬
ters and Papers on Philofophical Subjects, p. 284—
318. edit. 1769.
FlRE-Pots, in the military art, fmall earthen pots,
into which is put a charged grenade, and over that
powder enough till the grenade is covered ; then the
pot is covered with a piece of parchment, and two
pieces of match aerofs lighted : this pot being thrown
by a handle of matches where it is defigned, it breaks
and fires the powder, and burns all that is near it,
and likewife fires the powder in the grenade, which
ought to have no fufe, to the end its operations may
be the quicker.
FlRE-Reeds. See the next article, Note (c).
FlRE-Ship, an old veffel filled with combuftible ma¬
terials, and fitted with grappling irons to hook, and
let fire to, the enemies fhips in battle, &c.
As there is nothing particular in the conftruflion of
this (hip, except the apparatus by which the fire is in-
ftantly conveyed from one part to another, and from
thence to the enemy, it will be fufficient to defcribe
the fire-room, where thefe combuftibles are enclofed,
together with the inftruments neceffary to grapple the
Ihip intended to be deftroyed.
The fire-room is built between decks, and limited on
the after part by a bulk-head, L, behind the main-
maft, from which it extends quite forward, as.repre-
fented in Plate CCXVII. The train enclofed in this
apartment is contained in a variety of wooden troughs,
D, G, which interfeft each other in different parts of
Fire.
the (hip’s length j being fupported at proper diftances
by crofs pieces and ftanehions. On each fide of the
(hip are fix or feven ports, H, about 18 inches broad
and 15 inches high j and having their lids to open
downward, contrary to the ufual method.
Againft every port is placed an iron chamber (a)
which, at the time of firing the ftiip, blows out the
port-lid, and opens a paffage for the flame. Immedi¬
ately under the main and fore-fhrouds is fixed a wood¬
en funnel M; whofe lower end communicates with a
fire-barrel (b), by which the flame palling through
the funnel is conduced to the ftirouds. Between the
funnels, which are likewife called Jire-trunis, are two Falconer's
fcuttles, or fmall holes, in the upper deck, ferving alfo Marine
to let out the flames. Both funnels muft be flopped P*R*on*ry.
with plugs, and have failcloth or canvas nailed clofe
over them, to prevent any accident happening from
above to the combuftibles laid below.
The ports, funnels, and fcuttles, not only commu¬
nicate the flames to the outfide and upper works of
the ftiip and her rigging; but likewife open a paffage
for the inward air, confined in the fire-room, which is
thereby expanded fo as to force impetuoufly through
thefe outlets, and prevent the blowing up of the decks,
which muft of neceflity happen from fuch a fudden
and violent rarefaftion of the air as will then be produ¬
ced.
On each fide of the bulk-head behind is cut a hole,
L, of fufficient fize to admit a trough of the fame di-
menfions as the others. A leading trough, LI, whofe
foremoft end communicates with another trough with¬
in the fire-room, is laid clofe to this opening, from
whence it extends obliquely to a fally-port, I, cut
through the {hip’s fide. The decks and troughs are
well covered with melted rofin. At the time of the
4 1M 2 firing
00 The iron chambers are 10 inches long and 3.5 in diameter. They are breeched againft a piece of
wood fixed acrofs the ports, and let into another a little higher. When loaded, they are almoft filled with
corn-nowder, and have a wooden tompion well driven into their muzzles. Ihey are primed with a fmall piece
of quick-match thruft through their vents into the powder, with a part of it hanging out. When the ports
are blown open by means of the iron chambers, the port-lids either fall downwards or are carried away by the
lofion
fB'l The fire-barrels ought to be of a cylindrical form, as moft fuitable to contain the reeds with which they are
filled, and more convenient for flowing them between the troughs in the fire-room. Their infide chambers ftiould
not be lefs than 21 inches, and 30 inches is fufficient for their length. The bottom parts are firft well ftored
with ftiort double-dipped reeds placed upright j and the remaining vacancy is filled with fire-barrel compofition
well mixed and melted, and then poured over them. The compofition ufed for this purpofe is a mafs of fulphur,
1,1 Thererare" five^oles, of three-fourths of an inch in diameter and three inches deep, formed in the top of the
compofition while it is yet warm ; one being in the centre and the other four at equal diftances round the fides
of the barrel When the compofition is cold and hard, the barrel is primed by filling thefe holes with fufe
< omnofition which is firmly driven into them, fo as to leave a little vacancy at the top to admit a ftrand of quick
match twice 'douWed. The centre hole contains tno Stands at their whole length and every ftrand muft be
driven home with mealed powder. The loofe ends of the quick match being then laid within the barrel the
while is covered with a dipped curtain, fattened on with tt hoop that flips over the head of the barrel, to which
’'•Tlm'batels (hould be made very ftrong, not only to fupport the weight of the compofition before firing, when
they are moved or carried from place to place, but to keep them together whilft burning : for if the Haves are
toolight and thin, fo as to burn very foon, the remaining compofition will tumble out and be dlffipated, and the
intention of the barrels to carry the flame aloft, will accordingly be fruftrated.
The curtain is a piece of coarfe canvas, nearly a yard in breadth and length, thickened with melted compcfi-
tion.
and covered with faw-duft on both fides.
F I R
Fire. firing eithec of the leading troughs, the flame is imme-
—V— diately conveyed to the oppofite fide of the (hip, where¬
by both fides burn together.
The fpaces N, 0, behind the fire-room, reprefent the
cabins of the lieutenant and mailer, one of which is on
the ftarboard, and the other on the larboard fide. The
captain’s cabin, which is feparated from thefe by a bulk¬
head, is exhibited alfo by P.
Four of the eight fire-barrels are placed under the
four fire-trunks ; and the other four between them,
two on each fide the fire-fcuttles, where they ar6 fe-
curely cleated to the deck. The longeft reeds (c) are
put into the fore and aft trough, and tied down : the
Ihorteft reeds are laid in the troughs athwart, and tied
down alfo. The bavins (d), dipped at one end, are
tied fall to the troughs over the reeds, and the cui tains
are nailed up to the beams, in equal quantities, on each
fide of the fire-room.
The remainder of the reeds are placed in a pofition
nearly upright, at all the angles of every fquare in the
fire-room, and there tied down. If any reeds are left
they are to be put round the fire-barrels, and other va¬
cant places, and there tied fall.
Inftru&ions to Prime.
Take up all your reeds, one after another, and
firew a little compofition at the bottom of all the
troughs under the reeds, and then tie them gently down
again : next ftrew compofition upon the upper part of
the reeds throughout the fire-room ; and upon the faid
compofition lay double quick match upon all the
reeds, in all the troughs : the remainder of the com-
pofition llrew over all the fire-room, and then lay your
bavins loofe.
Caft off all the covers of the fire-barrels, and hang
the quick match loofe over their fides, and place lead¬
ers of quick match from the reeds into the barrels, and
from thence into the vent of the chambers, in fuch a
manner as to be certain of their blowing open the
ports, and fetting fire to the barrels. Two troughs of
communication from each door of the fire-room to the
fally ports, muft be laid with a ftrong leader of quick-
match, four or five times double : alfo a crofs-piece to
go from the fally-port, when the fhip is fired, to the
communication trough, laid with leaders of quick-
match, that the fire may be communicated in both fides
at once.
What quick-match is left place fo that the fire may
be communicated to all parts of the room at once,
efpecially about the ports and fire-barrels, and fee that
the chambers are well and frefh primed. [N. B. The
C 644 ]
F I R
port-fire ufed for firing the fhip, burns about 12 minutes.
Great care muft be taken to have no powder on board
when the (hip is fired.]
The fheer hooks (reprefented by 4) are fitted fo
as to faften on the yard-arms of the fire-fhip, where
they hook the enemy’s rigging. The fire-grapplings
(B) are either fixed on the yard-arms, or thrown by
hand, having a chain to confine the ihips together, or
faften thofe inftruments wherever nectffary.
When the commanding officer of a fleet difplays the
fignal to prepare for adion, the fire-ffiips fix their fheer
hooks, and difpofe their grapplings in readinefs. The
battle being begun, they proceed immediately to prime,
and prepare their fire-works. When they are ready
for grappling, they inform the admiral thereof by a
particular fignal.
To avoid being difabled by the enemy’s cannon dur¬
ing a general engagement, the fire-ffiips continue fu£-
ficiently diftant from their line of battle, either to wind¬
ward or to leeward.
They cautioufly ffiun the openings or intervals of
the line, where they would be diredly expofed to the
enemy’s fire, from which they are covered by lying on
the oppofite fide of their own ffiips. They are atten¬
tively to obferve the fignals of the admiral or his fe-
conds^ in order to put their defigns immediately in exe¬
cution.
Although no fhip of the line fhould be previoufly
appointed to proted any fire-ffiip, except a few of the
fmalleft particularly deftined to this fervice, yet the ffiip
before whom ftie paffes in order to approach the ene¬
my, fhould efcort her thither, and affift her with an
armed boat, or whatever fuccour may be neceffary in
her fituation.
The captain of the fire-fhip fhould himfelf be parti¬
cularly attentive that the above inftrudions are punc¬
tually executed, and that the yards may be fo braced
when he falls alongfide of the ffiip intended to be de-
ftroyed, that the fheer-hooks and grapplings faftened
to the yard-arms, &c. may effedually hook the enemy,
fie is expeded to be the laft perfon who quits the vef-
fel j and being furniftied with every neceflary affiftance
and fupport, his reputation will greatly depend on the
fuccefs of his enterprife.
Lambent FlRES^ as the finning of meat at certain
feafons, the luminoufnefs of the fea, of infeds, vapours,
&c. See Light, Chemistry Index; Fire-Flies, En¬
tomology Index ; GLOW-Worm, &c.
Port Fire. See Port-Fire.
Spur-Fire. See Spur-Fire.
FlRE- Works, are preparations made of gunpowder,
fulphur,
tied1L«tr7ndnr Tde UP'An fma11 77“ °f a fcl>‘ in circumference, cut „en at bl)th end and
wlthfr f VT P4Ceu' , They arerd,ftlnguifred into two kinds, viz. the long and ffiort ; the former of
which are four feet, and the latter two feet five inches in length. One part of them are fingly dipped i e at
one end , the reft are dipped at both ends in a kettle of melted compofition. After being immerfed about
a u„nned hfde. 'n PreParatlon' a"d tb'" ‘»'ainad. 'bey =>re fpriukled ever „ith pulverized fulpbur upon
7r iw bavms are rnade of liircli, heath, or other brulh-vvood, which is tough and readily kindled. They
Josether with0fmall eo^r1 ‘tI'"8 ’ j !T-Ve ““ lh7 b"(h-“ds way, the other ends being tied
together with fmall cords. They are dipped in compofition at the buffi-ends, whofe branches are afterwards.
£erceYv Aft'er h" ’ j“F7"t 'Y? frum break“« »ff by about: and alfo ,o make them burn more
fiercely. After being dipped in the fame manner as the reeds, they alfo are fprinkkd with fulphur.
FIR [ 645 ] FIR
Fi,-e fulphur, and other inflammable and combuftible ingre-
Firing. dients, ufed on occafion of public rejoicings and other
—y—"1 folemnities.
The invention of fire-works is by M. Mahudel at¬
tributed to the Florentines and people of Sienna j who
found out likewife the method of adding decorations
to them of ftatues, with fire iffuing from their eyes and
mouths.
The art of preparing and managing thefe is called
pyrotechny. See Pyrotechny.
FIRING, in the military art, denotes the difcharge
of the fire-arms; and its object is to do the utmoft ex¬
ecution to the enemy.
The method of firing by platoons is faid to have
been invented by Guftavus Adolphus, and firft ufed
about the year 1618 ; the reafon commonly given for
this method is, that a conftant fire may be always
kept up. There are three different ways of platoon
firing ; viz. {landing, advancing, and retreating. But
previous to every kind of firing, each regiment or bat¬
talion mufl be told off in grand divifions, fubdivifions,
and platoons, exclufively of the grenadiers, which form
two fubdivifions or four platoons of themfelves. In
firing ftanding, either by divifions or platoons, the firfl:
fire is from the divifion or platoon on the right 5 the
fecond fire from the left ; the third from the right
again ; and fo on alternately, till the firing comes to
the centre platoon, which is generally called the co/our
platoon, and does not fire, remaining as a referve for
the colours. Firing advancing is performed in the fame
manner, with this addition, that before either divifion
or platoon fires, it advances three paces forward. Fir¬
ing retreating varies from either of the former me¬
thods; for before either divifion or platoon fires, if
they are marching from the enemy, it muft go to
the right about, and after firing, to the left about
again, and continue the retreat as flow and orderly as
poflible.
In hedge firing the men are drawn up two deep, and
in that order both ranks are to fire Handing. Oblique
firing is either to the right and left, or from the right
and left to the centre, according to the fituation of
the objeft. The Pruflians have a particular contri¬
vance for this purpofe ; if they are to level to the
right, the rear ranks of every platoon make two quick
but fmall paces to the left, and the body of each fol-
dier turns one-eighth of a circle, and vice verfa. Pa¬
rapet firing depends on the nature of the parapet over
which the men are to fire, and alfo upon that of the
attack made to poflefs it. Phis method of firing is
fometimes performed by fingle ranks flopping on the
banquette and firing ; each men inftantly handing his
arms to the centre rank of the fame file, and taking
his back in the room of it ; and the centre rank giv¬
ing it to the rear to load, and forwarding the arms
of the rear to the front rank ; by which means the
front rank men can fire fix or feven rounds in a minute
with exadlnefs. Parapet firing may alfo be executed
two deep, when the banquette is three feet broad, or in
field works where no banquettes are made. Square
firing is performed by a regiment or body of men
drawn up in a hollow fquare, in which cafe each front
is generally divided into four divifions or firings, and
the flanks of the fquare, being the weakeft part, are
covered by four platoons of grenadiers. I he firft fire
is from the right divifion of each face; the fecond Firing
from the left divifion of each face, &c. and the grena- |1
diets make the laft fire. Street firing is pradtifed in * nmicus.
two ways ; either by making the divifion or platoon
that has fired to wheel by half-rank to the right and
left outwards from the centre, and to march in that
order by half divifions down the flanks on each fide of
the column, and to draw up in the rear, and go on
with their priming and loading ; or, to make the eiivi-
fion or platoon, after firing, to face to the right and
left outwards from the centre, and one half rank to
follow' the other; and in that order to march in one
centre file down on each fide of the column into the
rear, and there draw up as before.
FIRING Iron, in Farriery, an infirument not unlike
the blade of a knife ; which being made red hot is ap¬
plied to a horfe’s hams, or other places ftanding in
need of it, as in preternatural fuellings, farcy, knots,
&c. in order to difcufs them.
FIRKIN, an Englifh meafure of capacity for things
liquid, being the fourth part of the barrel: it contains
eight gallons of ale, foap, or herrings; and nine gal¬
lons of beer.
F1RLOT, a dry meafure ufed in Scotland. The-
oat firlot contains 2l^th pints of that country ; the
wheat firlot contains about 2211 cubical inches ; and
the barley firlot, 31 ftandard pints. Hence it appears
that the Scotch wheat firlot exceeds the Englith bufhel
by 33 cubical inches.
FIRMAMENT, in the ancient aftronomy, the
eighth heaven or fphere ; being that wherein the fixed
flars were fuppofed to be placed. It is called the
eighth, with refpeft to the feven heavens or fpheres of
the planets which it furrounds.
It is fuppofed to have two motions ; a diurnal mo¬
tion, given it by the primum mobile, from eaft to weft,
about the poles of the ecliptic ; and another oppofite
motion from weft to eaft; which laft it finifhes, accord¬
ing to Tycho, in 25,4x2 years ; according to Ptolemy,
in 36,000 ; and according to Copernicus, in 258,000 ;
in which time the fixed ftars return to the fame precife
points wherein they were at the beginning. This
period is commonly called Plato’s year, or the great
year.
In various places of Scripture the word firmament is
ufed for the middle region of the air. Many of the
ancients allowed, with the moderns, that the firma¬
ment is a fluid matter ; though they, who give it the
denomination of firmament, muft have taken it for a
folid one.
FIRMAN, is a paflport or permit granted by the
Great Mogul to foreign veffels, to trade within the
territories of his jurifdiftion.
FIRMICUS Maternus, Julius, an ecclefiaftical
writer, who lived about the middle-of the fourth centu¬
ry. Nothing is known with certainty refpedh'ng his
country, proieflion, or charafler, as we find no mention
made of him in the writings of ancient authors. Some
fay. that he was by birth a Sicilian, and pra£tifed in the
forum as a barrifter for loine time, becoming a convert
to Chriftianity when far advanced in years ; which ap¬
pears to derive confiderable fupport from different paf-
fages in his writings. He was author of a treatife F^e
erroreprofanarum religionum, which was dedicated to
the emperors Conftantius and Conftans. This work
muft
F I R [ 646 ] FIS
Firmicus thaft hare been Written between 340 and 350, in which
II . Conflans was flam by Magnentius. It is allowed to be
, ir -t nuts>a able, and well %vritten performance, in which
the reafonablenefs of the Chriftian religion is ftrongly
contrafted with the abfurdity and immorality of the gen¬
tile creed. It muft not be diffembled, however, that he
fometimes betrays fuch a fpirit of intolerance as is whol¬
ly incompatible with the genius of the Chriftian reli¬
gion, which breathes nothing but benevolence towards
the whole human race. The arguments employed by
him in its defence are difgraced by an exhortation to
the civil power to propagate it by force of arms, and to
crtilh the advocates of error by fevere edifls. This
work, was firft publiftied at Strafburg in 1562, at Hei¬
delberg in 1559, anc! at Paris in 1610.
The greater part of critics afcribe to him a work en¬
titled AJlronomicorum, feu de Mathef, lib. viii. In it
he treats of the power and influence of the liars, agree¬
ably to the do&rine of the Egyptians and Babylonians,
blending a confiderable degree of mathematical know¬
ledge with the unmeaning jargon of judicial allrology.
Thofe who imagine that fo good a man as Firmicus
could not have been the author of fuch an abfurd per¬
formance, Ihould remember that it was probably com-
pofed prior to his converfion, when fuch abfurdities
would conftitute a part of his creed.
FIRMNESS, denotes the confidence of a body,
or that date wherein its fenfible parts cohere in fuch a
manner, that the motion of one part induces a motion
in the red.
FIRST-born. See Primogeniture, for the li¬
teral meaning of the term.
In Scripture it is alfo ufed often in a figurative fenfe
for that which is fird, mod excellent, mod didinguidi-
ed in any thing. Thus it is faid of Chrid (Col. i. 5.),
that he is “ the fird-born of every creature j” and in
Revelation (i. 5.) he is called “ The fird-begotten of
the dead j” that is, according to the commentators,
begotten of the Father before any creature was pro¬
duced ; and the fird who rofe from the dead by his own
power. “ The fird-born of the poor,” (Ifa. xiv. 30.)
fignifies, The mod miferable of all the poor •, and in
Job (xviii. 13.) “ The fird-born of death j” that is,
The mod terrible of all deaths.
FIRST Fruits (primitive), among the Hebrews, were
oblations of part of the fruits of the harved, odered
to God as an acknowledgment of his fovereign domi¬
nion. The fird of thefe fruits was offered in the name
of the whole nation, being either two loaves of bread,
or a dieaf of barley which was thradied in the court
of the temple. Every private perfon was obliged to
bring his fird fruits to the temple ; and thefe confided
of wheat, barley, grapes, figs, apricots, olives, and
dates.
There was another fort of fird fruits which were
paid to God. When bread was kneaded in a family,
a portion of it was fet apart and given to the pried
or Levite who dwelt in the place j if there was no pried
or Levite there, it was cad into the oven, and confumed
by the fire. Thefe offerings made a confiderable part
of the revenues of the Hebrew priedhood.
_ Firfi Fruits are frequently mentioned in ancient Chri-
dian writers as one part of the church revenue. One
of the councils of Carthage enjoins, that they diould
3
confid only of grapes and corn ; which diows, that this
was the pra£Hce of the African church.
First Fruits in the church of England, are the
profits of every fpiritual benefice for the firft year,
according to the valuation thereof in the king’s
books.
FISC, (Fifcm\ in the Civil Law, the treafury of a
prince or ftate ; or that to which all things due to the
public do fall. The word is derived from the Greek
<p«7*oj, “ a great bafket,” ufed when they went to mar¬
ket.—By the civil law, none but a fovereign prince has
a right to have a fife or public treafury.
At Rome, under the emperors, the term cerariuni
was ufed for the revenues deftined for fupport of the
charges of the empire ; the fifeus for thofe of the em¬
peror’s own family. The treafury, in effe& belonged
to the people, and the fifeus to the prince. Hence the
goods of condemned j>erfans, if appropriated to the
ufe of the public, were faid publicari; if to the fupport
of the emperor or prince, conffcari.
FISCAL, in the Civil Law, fomething relating to
the pecuniary intereft of the prince or people. The
officers appointed for the management of the fife, were
called procuratores ffei, and advocatiffei; and among
the cafes enumerated in the conftitutions of the empire
where it was their bufinefs to plead, one is againft
thofe who have been condemned to pay a fine to tire
fife on account of their litigioufnefs or frivolous ap¬
peals.
FISCUS. See Fisc.
Fish, in Natural Hifory, an animal that lives in the
waters as the natural place of its abode.
Fiffies form the fourth clafs of animals in the Lin-
naean fyftem. T heir moft general or popular divifion
is \x\\.o frejh zn&falt water ones. Some, however, are
of opinion, that all fiffies naturally inhabit the fait
waters, and that they have mounted up into rivers
only by accident. A few fpecies only fwim up into
the rivers to depofit their fpawn j but by far the great-
eft number keep in the fea, and would foon expire in
freffi water. There are about 400 fpecies of fifties
(according to Linnaeus) of which we know fomething:
but the unknown ones are fuppofed to be many more \
and as they are thought to lie in great depths of the
fea remote from land, it is probable that many fpecies
will remain for ever unknown.
For the fubdivifions, charafters, and natural hiftory
of this clafs of animals, fee Ichthyology Index.
Blowing of Fish, is a pra&ice fimilar to that of
blowing fleffi, poultry, and pigs, and adopted for the
fame deceitful purpofes. The method of blowing fifti,
efpecially cod and whitings, is by placing the end of a
quill or tobacco-pipe at the vent, and pricking a hole
with a pin under the fin which is next the gill j there¬
by making the fiffi appear to the eye large and full,
which when dreffed will be flabby, and little elfe than
fkin and bones. But this impofition may be difeover-
ed by placing the finger and thumb on each fide of the
vent, and fqueezing it hard; the wind may be perceiv¬
ed to go out, the fldn will fall in, and the fifti appear
lank, and of little value.
Breeding of FISHES may be turned to great advan-
tage ; for, befides furnifliing the table, obliging one’s
friends, and raifing money, the land will be thereby
greatly
Firft Fruit!
H
Fifli.
FIS X 647 ] FIS
Fifh. greatly improved, fo as to yield more this way than by
‘"Y—"' any other employment whatever. See FlSH Pond.
Ccjlration of FlSH, is a method firfl: pra&ifed by Mr
Tull in order to prevent the exceflive increafe of filh in
fome of his ponds, where the numbers did not permit
any of them to grow to an advantageous fize. But he
afterwards found, that the caftrated fifh grew much
larger than their ufual lize, were more fat, and always
in feafon. This operation may be performed both on
male and female fifh j and the moll eligible time for it
is when the ovaries of the female have their ova in
them, and when the veffels of the male, analogous to
thefe, have their feminal matter in them; becaufe, at
this time, thefe veflels are more eafily diftinguifhed
from the ureters, which convey the urine from the kid¬
neys into the bladder, and are fituated near the feminal
veffels on each fide of the fpine j which, without fuffi-
cient attention, may be miflaken for the ovaries, efpe-
eially when thefe laft are empty. The time leaf! pro¬
per for this operation, is juft after they have fpawned,
becaufe the filh are then too weak and languid to bear,
with fuccefs, fo fevere an operation 5 however, with
Ikill and care, it may be performed almoft at any time.
When a filh is to be caftrated, it muft be held in a wet
cloth with its belly upwards j then with a (harp pen¬
knife, having its point bent backwards, the operator
cuts through the integuments of the rim of the belly,
taking care not to wound any of the inteftines. As
foon as a fmall aperture is made, he carefully inferts a
hooked pen-knife, and with this dilates the aperture
from between the two fore-fins almoft to the anus. He
then, with two fmall blunt filver-hooks, five or fix
inches long, and of this form P, by the help of an af-
fiftant, holds open the belly of the filh ; and with a
fpoon or fpatula, removes carefully the inteftines from
one fide. When thefe are removed, you fee the ure¬
ter, a fmall veflel, nearly in the direflion of the fpine,
and alfo the ovary, a larger veffel, lying before it, nearer
the integuments of the belly. This laft veflel is taken
up with a hook of the fame kind with thofe before
mentioned, and, after detaching it from the fide far
enough for the purpofe, divided tranfverfely with a pair
of (harp fciflfars, care being taken that the inteftines
are not wounded or injured. After one of the ovaries
has been divided, the operator proceeds to divide the
other in the fame manner ; and then the divided inte¬
guments of the belly are fewed with filk, the flitches
being inferted at a fmall diftance from one another.
Mr Tull obferves farther, that the fpawning time is
very various; that trouts are full about Chriftmas ;
perch in February ; pikes in March, and carp and
tench in Mav ; and that allowance muft be made lor
climate and fituation, with regard to the fpawning of
fifh. When the fifh are caftrated, they are put into
the water where they are intended to continue ; and
they take their chance in common with other fifh, as
though they were not caftrated. With tolerable care,
few die of the operation. P/ii/. Tranf. vol.xlviii. Part
2. art. 106.
Although we could not properly avoid infer ting the
above detail, it is prefumed that few will be pleafed
with the invention. The operation is peculiarly cruel,
and the purpofe of it only a deteftable piece of Apician
refinement.
Feeding of FISHES. When they are fed in large
pools or ponds, either malt boiled, or frelh grains, is Fifh.
the beft food ; thus carps may be raifed and fed like v~—^
capons, and tenches will feed as well. The care of
feeding them is beft committed to a gardener or the
butler, who fhould be always at hand. When fed in
a flew, any fort of grain boiled, efpecially peas, and
malt coarfely ground, are proper food ; alfo the grains
after brewing, while frefh and fweet; but one bulhel
of malt not brewed will go as far as two of grains.
Stealing of FlSH, by perfons armed and difguifed, is
felony without benefit of clergy, by 9 Geo. I. cap. 22.
See BLACK A6i. And by 5 Geo. III. cap. 14. the pe¬
nalty of tranfportation for feven years is infli&ed on
perfons ftealing or taking fifh in any water, within a
park, paddock, orchard, or yard; and on the receivers,
aiders, and abettors ; and a forfeiture of five pounds
tp the owner of the fifhery is made payable by perfons
taking or deftroying (or attempting fo to do) any fifh
in any river or other water within any enclofed ground,
being private property.
Preferving of FlSH for Cabinets. Linnaeus’s me-Amcen.
tbod is, to expofe them to the air ; and when they ac- tom'
quire fuch a degree of putrefaction that the fkin lofes111*
its cohefion to the body of the fifh, it may be Aid off
almoft like a glove ; the two fides of this fkin may
then be dried upon paper like a plant, or one of the
fides may be filled with plafter of Paris to give the fub-
jeCt a due plumpnefs.
A fifh may be prepared, after it has acquired this
degree of putrefaftion, by making a longitudinal inci-
lion on the belly, and carefully diflefting the flefhy
part from the fkin, which is but flightly attached to
it in confequence of the putrefcency. The fkin is then
to be filled with cotton and the antifeptic powder
as direCled for birds; and, laftly, to be fewed up
where the incifion was made.
Gold Fish. See Cyprinus, Ichthyology Index.
Gilding on FlSH. In the poll humous papers of Mr
Hooke, a method is defcribed of gilding live craw fifhr
carps, &c. without injuring the fifh. The cement for
this purpofe is prepared, by putting fome burgundy
pitch into a new earthen pot, and warming the veffel till
it receives fo much of the pitch as will flick round it ;
then ftrewing fome finely powdered amber before the
pitch when growing cold, adding a mixture of three ,
pounds of linfeed oil and one of oil of turpentine, co¬
vering the veflel, and boiling them for an hour over a
gentle fire, and grinding the mixture, as it is wanted,
with fo much pumice-ftone in fine powder as will re¬
duce it to the confiftence of paint. The fiih being
wiped dry, the mixture is fpread upon it ; and the gold-
leaf being then laid on, and gently preffed down, the
fifh may be immediately put into water again, without
any danger of the gold coming off, for the matter
quickly grows firm in water.
FlSH, in a fhip, a plank or piece of timber, faftened
to a fhip’s mail or yard, to ftrengthen it; which is done
bv nailing it on with iron fpikes, and winding ropes
hard about them.
Fishes, in Heraldry, are the emblems of filence and
watehfulnefs; and are born either upright, imbowed,
extended, endorfed refpefting each other, furmounting
one another, fretted, &c.
In blazoning fifties, thofe borne feeding, fhould be
deemed devouring ; all fifties borne upright and having
finsj,
PIS r 648 1 Pis
Pifiv fins, ftiould be blazoned hauriant ; and tbofe borne
!1 tranfverfe the efcutcheon, muft be termed naiant.
_‘^er' . Fish Ponds, thofe made for the breeding or feeding
Fifti ponds are no fmall improvement of watery and
boggy lands, many of which are fit for no other ufe.
In making of a pond, its head fhould be at the loweft
part of the ground, that the trench of the flood-gate or
fluice, having a good fall, may not be too long in emp-
tying. The beft way of making the head fecure, is to
drive in two or three rows of flakes above fix feet long,
at above four feet diftance from each other, the whole
length of the pond head, whereof the firft row ftiould
be rammed at leaft about four feet deep. If the bot¬
tom is falfe, the foundation may be laid with quick¬
lime ; which flaking, will make it as hard as a ftone.
Some lay a layer of lime, and another of earth dug out
6f the pond, among the piles and flakes ; and when
thefe are well covered, drive in others as they fee 00
cafion, ramming in the earth as before, till the pond
head be of the height defigned.
The dam fliould be made floping on each fide, leav¬
ing a wafte to carry off the over abundance of water
in times of floods or rains ; and as to the depth of the
pond, the deepeft part need not exceed fix feet, rifing
gradually in Ihoals towards the fides, for the fifli to fun
themfelves, and lay their fpawn. Gravelly and fandy
bottoms, efpecially the latter, are beft for breeding ;
and a fat foil with a white fat water, as the wafliings
of hills, commons, ftreets, finks, &c. is beft for fat¬
tening all forts of fifti. For ftoring a pond, carp is to
be preferred for its goodnefs, quick growth, and great
increafe, as breeding five or fix times a-year. A pond
of an acre, if it be a feeding and not breeding one,
will every year feed 200 carps of three years old, 30O
of two years old, and 400 of a year old. Carps de¬
light in ponds that have marl or clay bottoms, with
plenty of weeds and grafs, whereon they feed in the
hot months.
Ponds fliould be drained every three or four years,
and the fifti forted. In breeding ones, the fmaller ones
are to be taken out, to ftore other ponds with j leav¬
ing a good flock of females, at leaft eight or nine
years old, as they never breed before that age. In
feeding ponds, it is beft to keep them pretty near of a
fize.
FISHER, John, biftiop of Rochefter, was born
at Eeverly in Yorkfliire, in the year 1459, and e^u-
cated in the collegiate church of that place. In 1484,
he removed to Michael houfe in Cambridge, of which
college he was elefled mafter in the year 1495. Hav¬
ing applied himfelf to the ftudy of divinity, he took
orders j and, becoming eminent as a divine, attradled
the notice of Margaret countefs of Richmond, mother
of Henry VII. who made him her chaplain and con-
feffor. In 1501, he took the degree of do&or of di¬
vinity, and the fame year was elefted chancellor of the
univerfity. In the year following, he was appointed
-Lady Margaret’s firft divinity profeffor; and in 1504,
confecrated bifliop of Rochefter; which fmall bifliopric
he would never refign, though he was offered both Ely
and Lincoln. It is generally allowed, that the foun¬
dation of the two colleges of Chrift church and St
John’s, in Cambridge, was entirely owing to Biftiop
IFilher’s perfuafion and influence with the countefs of
Richmond : he not only formed the defign, but fuper- FifW
intended the execution. On the promulgation of Mar- Fift/ry,
tin Luther’s doftrine, our bifhop was the firft to enter' v"—
the lifts againft him. On this occafion he exerted all
his influence, and is generally fuppofed to have written
the famous book by which Henry VIII. obtained the
title of Defender of the Faith. Hitherto he continued
in favour with the king ; but in 1527, oppofing his di¬
vorce, and denying his fupremacy, the implacable
Harry determined, and finally effe£ted, his deftruftion.
I*1 I543> the parliament found him guilty of mifpri-
fion of treafon, for concealing certain prophetic fpeech-
es of a fanatical irapoftor, called the Ho/y Maid of
Kent, relative to the king’s death ; and condemned
him, with five others, in lofs of goods, and imprifonment
during his majefty’s pleafure ; but he was releafed on
paying 300I. for the king’s ufe.
King Henry being now married to Anne Boleyn,
his obfequious parliament took an oath of allegiance
proper for the occafion. This oath the biftiop of Ro¬
chefter fteadily refufed ; alleging, that his confoience
could not be convinced that the king’s firft marriage
was againft the law of God. For refufing this oath of
fucceflion, he was attainted by the parliament of 1534;
and committed to the Tower, where he was cruelly
treated, and where he would probably have died a na¬
tural death, had not the pope created him a cardinal.
The king, now pofitively determined on his deftruc-
tion, fent Rich the folicitor general, under the pre¬
tence of confulting the biftiop on a cafe of confidence,
but really with a defign to draw him into a converfa-
tion concerning the fupremacy. The honeft old bi¬
fliop fpoke his mind without fufpicion or referve, and
an indidlment and conviction of high treafon was the
confequence. He was beheaded at Tower Hill on the
22d of June 1535, in the 77th year of his age. Thus
died this good old prelate; who, notwithftanding his
inflexible enmity to the Reformation, was undoubtedly
a learned, pious, and honeft man. He wrote feveral
treatifes againft Luther, and other works, which were
printed at Wurtzburg in 1597, in one volume folio.
FISHERY, a place where great numbers of fifti are
caught.
i he principal fiftieries for falmon, herring, mackrel,
pilchards, &c. are along the coafts of Scotland, Eng¬
land, and Ireland : for cod, on the banks of Newfound¬
land : for whales, about Greenland ; and for pearls, in
the Eaft and Weft Indies.
Free-FlSHER T, in Law, or; an exclufive right of fifli-
ing in a public river, is a royal franchife ; and is con-
fidercd as fuch in all countries where the feudal po¬
lity has prevailed : though the making fuch grants, and
by that means appropriating, what it feems unnatural to
reftrain, the ufe of running water, was prohibited for
the future, by King John’s Great Charter ; and the ri¬
vers that were fenced in his time were direCled to be
laid open, as well as the forefts to be disforefted. This
opening was extended by the fecond and third charters
of Henry III. to thofe alfo that were fenced under
Richard I.; fo that a franchife of free fiftiery ought now
to be as old at leaft as the reign of Henry II. Tbis^f^’
differs from a feveral of pifcary, becaufe he that has a ConmenU
feveral fiftiery muft alfb be the owner of the foil, which
in a free fifhery is not requifite. It differs alfo from a
common fiftiery in that the free filhery is an exclufive
right.
1
F1 I S [ 649 ] FIS
Fifliery. common fifliery is not fo : and therefore, in a
-^v—' free fiihery, a man has property in the fith before they
are caught; in a common pifcary, not till afterwards.
Some indeed have confidered a free fifhery not as a royal
franchife j but merely as a private grant of a liberty to
filh in the feveral fiihery of the grant. But the confi-
dering fuch right as originally a flower of the preroga¬
tive, till reltrained by Magna Charta, and derived by
royal grant (previous to the reign of Richard I.) to
fuch as now claim it by prefcription, may remove fume
difficulties in refpedl to this matter with which our law
books are embarraffed.
Fishf.ry, denotes alfo the commerce of fiffi, more
particularly the catching them for file.
Were we to enter into a very minute and particular
confideration of filheries, as at prefent eftabliffied in
this kingdom, this article would fwell beyond its pro¬
per bounds; becaufe, to do juftice to a fubjeft of fuch
concernment to the Britiffi nation, requires a very am¬
ple and diltinft difcuflion. We ffiall, however, ob-
ferve, that fince the Divine Providence hath fo emi¬
nently ftored the coafts of Great Britain and Ireland
with the moft valuable fiffi j and fince filheries, if fuc-
cefsful, become permanent nurferies for breeding ex¬
pert feamen ; it is not only a duty we owe to the Su¬
preme Being, not to defpife the wonderful plenty he
hath afforded us, by neglefling to extend this branch
of commerce to the utmoft •, but it is a duty we owe
to our country, for its natural fecurity, which de¬
pends upon the llrength of our royal navy. No nation
can have a navy where there is not a fund of bufinefs
to breed and employ feamen without any expence to
the public, and no trade is fo well calculated for
training up thefe ufeful members of fuciety as filhe-
ries.
The fituation of the Britifh coafls is the moft advan¬
tageous in the world for catching filh: the Scottilh
illands, particularly thofe to the north and weft, lie
moft commodious for carrying on the fiftiing trade to
perfection ; for no country in Europe can pretend to
come up to Scotland in the abundance of the fined fiffi,
with which its various creeks, bays, rivers, lakes, and
coafts, are replenilhed. Of thefe advantages the Scots
feem indeed to have been abundantly fenfible •, and their
traffic in herrings, the moft valuable of all the fiffieries,
is noticed in hiltory fo early as the ninth century.
The frequent law's which were enafted in the reigns of
James III. IV. and V. difeover a fteady determined
zeal for the benefit of the native fubje&s, and the full
reftoration of the filheries, which the Dutch had lat¬
terly found means to engrofs *, and do honour to the
memory of thofe patriots whom modern times affect to
call barbarians.
The expedition of James V. to the Hebrides and
weftern parts of the Highlands, and his afliduity in
exploring and founding the harbours, difeovered a fix¬
ed refolution in that aCtive prince, to civilize the in¬
habitants, to promote the valuable fiffieries at their
doors, and to introduce general induftry. His death,
at an early period, and the fubfequent religious and
civil commotions in the kingdom, fruftrated thofe
wifedefigns, and the weftern fiffieries remained in their
original ftate of negleft. At length, 1602, James VI.
refumed the national purpofes which had been thus
chalked out by his grandfather. “ Three towns
Vol. VIII. Part II.
(fays Dr Robertfon) which might ferve as a retreat Fiihery.
for the induftrious, and a nurfery for arts and com- v——-y—.
merce, were appointed to be built in different parts of
the Highlands ; one in Cantire, another in Lochaber,
and a third in the ifie of Lewis; and in order to draw
the inhabitants thither, all the privileges of the royal
boroughs were to be conferred upon them. Finding
it, however, to be no eafy matter to infpire the inhabi¬
tants of thofe countries with the love of induftry, a
reffilution was taken to plant amongft them colonies of
people from the more induftrious counties. The firft
experiment was made in the ifle of Lewis ; and as it
was advantageoufly fituated for the fifliing trade (a
fource from which Scotland ought naturally to derive
great wealth), the colony tranfported thither was drawn
out of Fife, the inhabitants of which were well fkilled
in that branch of commerce. But before they had
remained there long enough to manifeft the good ef¬
fects of this inftitution, the iflanders, enraged at fee¬
ing their country occupied by thofe intruders, took
arms, and furprifing them in the night time, murdered
fome of them, and compelled the reft to abandon the
fettlement. The king’s attention being foon turned
to other objefts, particularly to his fucceffion to the
Englifh crown, we hear no more of his falutary pro¬
ject.”
The Scottifti fiffieries were, however, refumed by
Charles I. who “ ordained an affociation of the three
kingdoms, for a general fithing within the hail feas
and coafts of his majefty’s faid kingdoms; and for
the government of the faid affociation, ordained, that
there ffiould be a Handing committee chofen and no¬
minated by his majefty, and his fucceffors from time
to time,” &c. &c. Several perfons of diftin£lion em¬
barked in the defign, which the king honoured with
his patronage, and encouraged by his bounty. He al¬
fo ordered lent to be more ftriflly obferved ; prohibited
the importation of fifti taken by foreigners ; and agreed
to purchafe from the company his naval ftores and the
fifti for his fleets. Thus the fcheme of eftabliffiing a
fifhery in the Hebrides began to affume a favourable
afpeft ; but all the hopes of the adventurers were fruf¬
trated by the breaking out of the civil wars, and the
very tragical death of their benefactor.
In 1661, Charles II. the duke of York, Lord Claren¬
don, and other perfons of rank and fortune, refumed the
bufinefs of the fiffieries with greater vigour than any of
their predeceffors. For this purpofe the moft falutary
laws were enadted by the parliaments of England and
Scotland ; in virtue of which, all materials ufed in, or
depending upon the fiffieries, were exempted from all
duties, excifes, or imports whatever. In England, the
company were authorifed to fet up a lottery, and to
have a voluntary colle&ion in all parifti churches ; houfes
of entertainment, as taverns, inns, ale-houfes, were
to take one or more barrels of herrings, at the ftated
price of 30s. per barrel; and 2s. 6d. per barrel was to
be paid to the ftock of this company on all imported fifh
taken by foreigners. Some Dutch families were alfo in¬
vited, or permitted to fettle in Stornaway. The her¬
rings cured by the Royal Engliffi company gave ge¬
neral fatisfadlion, and, as mentioned above, brought
a high price for thofe days. Every circumftance at¬
tending this new eftablilLment feemed to be the refult
of a judicious plan and thorough knowledge of the
4 N bufinefs,
FIS [ 650 ] FIS
Fifliery. bufinefs, when the neceflities of the king obliged him
—v——' to withdraw his fubfcription or bounty ; which gave
fuch umbrage to the parties concerned, that they foon
after diffblved*
In 1677, a new royal company was eftablilhed in
England, at the head of which was the duke of York,
the earl of Derby, &c. Befides all the privileges which
former companies had enjoyed, the king granted this
new company a perpetuity, with power to purchafe
lands; and alfo 20I. to be paid them annually, out
of the cuftoms of the port of London, for every dog¬
ger or bufs they Ihould build and fend out for feven
years to come. A flock of 10,980b was immediately
advanced, and afterwards 1600b more. This fmall
capital was foon exhaufled in purchafing and fitting
out buffes, with other incidental expences. The com¬
pany made, however, a fuccefsful beginning ; and one
of their buffes or doggers aftually took and brought
home 32,000 cod fiffi j other veffels had alfo a favour¬
able fifliery. Such favourable beginnings might have
excited frelh fubfcriptions, when an unforefeen event
ruined the whole defign beyond the poffibility of reco¬
very. Moft of the buffes had been built in Holland,
and manned with Dutchmen •, on which pretence the
French, who were then at w'ar with Holland, feized
fix out of feven veffels, with their cargoes and fiftiing
tackle: and the company being now in debt, fold, in
1680, the remaining ftores, &c. A number of gen¬
tlemen and merchants raifed a new fubfcription of
60,000b under the privileges and immunities of the
former charter. This attempt alfo came to nothing,
owing to the death of the king, and the troubles of the
fubfequent reign.
Soon after the Revolution this bufinefs was again re¬
fumed, and upon a more extenfive {bale ; the propofed
capital being 300,000b of which ico,ooob was to
have been raifed by the furviving patentees or their
fucceffors, and 200,000b by new fubfcribers. Copies
of the letters patent, the conftitution of the company,
and terms of fubfcription, w'ere lodged at fundry
places in London and Weftminfler, for the perufal of
the public, while the fubfcription was filling. It is
probable, that King William’s partiality to the Dutch
fifheries, the fucceeding war, or both of thefe circum-
ftances, fruftrated this new attempt j of which we
have no farther account in the annals of that reign or
fince.
The Scottifli parliament had alfo, during the three
laft reigns, paffed fundry afts for erecting companies
and promoting the fiftieries j but the inteftine commo¬
tions of that country, and the great exertions which
were made for the Darien eftabliftiment, enfeebled all
other attempts, whether colledtively or by individuals,
within that kingdom.
In 1749, his late majefty having, at the opening
of the parliament, warmly recommended the improve¬
ment of the fifheries, the houfe of commons appointed
a committee to inquire into the flate of the herring
and white fifheries, and to confider of the moft proba¬
ble means of extending the fame. All ranks of men
were elevated with an idea of the boundlefs riches
that would flow into the kingdom from this fource. A
fuhfcription of 500,000b was immediately filled in the
city, by a body of men who were incorporated for 21
years by the name of The Society of the Free Britijh
3
Fijhery. Every encouragement was held out by go¬
vernment, both to the fociety, and to individuals who
might embark in this national bufinefs. A bounty of
36s. per ton was to be paid annually out of the cuftoms,
for 14 years, to the owners of all decked veffels or buf¬
fes, from 20 to 80 tons burden, which fhould be built
after the commencement of the aft, for the ufe of, and
fitted out and employed in, the faid fifheries, whether
by the fociety or any other perfons. Al the fame time
numerous pamphlets and newfpaper effays came forth :
all pretending to elucidate the fubjeft, and to convince
the public with what facility the herring fifheries might
be transferred from Dutch to Britifh hands. This
proved, however, a more arduous talk than had been
forefeen by fuperficial fpeculators. The Dutch were
frugal in their expenditures and livings perfect mafters
of the arts of fifhing and curing, which they had carried
to the greateft height and perfeftion. They were in
full poffeflion of the European markets; and their fifh,
whether deferving or otherwife, had the reputation of
fuperior qualities to all others taken in our Teas. With
fuch advantages, the Dutch not only maintained their
ground againft this formidable company, but had alfo
the pleafure of feeing the capital gradually finking,
without having procured an adequate return to the ad¬
venturers ; notwithftanding various aids and efforts of
government from time to time in their favour, particu¬
larly in 1757, when an advance of 2.0s. per ton was
added to the bounty,.
In 1786 the public attention u*as again called to th&-
ftate of the Britifh fifheries, by the fuggeftions of Mr
Dempfter in the houfe of commons, and by different
publications that appeared upon the fubjeft : in confe-
quence of which the minifter fuffered a committee to
be named, to inquire into this great fource of national
wealth. To that committee it appeared, that the befl
way of improving the fifheries was to e.ncourage the in¬
habitants living neareft to the feat of them to become
fifhers : And it being found that the north weftern
coaft of the kingdom, though abounding with fifh and
with fine harbours, was utterly deftitute of towns, an aft
was paffed for incorporating certain perfons therein
named, by the ftyle of “ The Britijh Society for extend¬
ing of the fifheries and improving the fea coafts of the
kingdom and to enable them to fubfcribe a joint
flock, and therewith to purchafe lands, and build there¬
on free towns, villages, and fifhing ftations, in the
Highlands and iflands in that part of Great Britain
called Scotland, and for other purpofes. The ifle of
Mull, Loch Broom, the ifles of Sky and of Cannay,
have already been pitched upon as proper fituations for
fome of thefe towns. The progrefs of fuch an underta¬
king from its nature muft be flow, but ftill flower when
carried on with a limited capital arifing from the fub¬
fcriptions of a few public-fpirited individuals. But it is
not to be doubted but that it will ultimately tend to
the increafe of our fifheries, and to the improvement of
the Highland part of this kingdom. Its tendency is
alfo to leffen the emigration of a brave and induftrious
race of inhabitants, too many of whom have already
removed with their families to America.
1. Anchovy FlSHERT. The anchovy is caught in the
months of May, June, and July, on the coafts of Cata¬
lonia, Provence, &c. at which feafon it conftantly re¬
pairs up the ftraits of Gibraltar, into the Mediterranean*
Collins
Fifherj.
FIS [65
Collins fays they are alfo found in plenty on the weft-
ern coafts of England and Wales.
The filhing for them is chiefly in the night time ;
when a light being put on the ftern of their little filhing
veflels, the anchovies flock round, and are caught in the
nets. But then it is afferted to have been found by-
experience, that anchovies taken thus by fire, are nei¬
ther fo good, fo firm, nor fo proper for keeping, as thofe
which are taken without fire.
When the fifliery is over, they cut off the heads,
take out their gall and guts, and then lay them in bar¬
rels and fait them. The common way of eating an¬
chovies is with oil, vinegar, &c. in order to which they
are firft boned, and the tails, fins, &c. flipped off.—
Being put on the fire, they diffolve almoft in any liquor.
Or they are made into a fauce by mincing them with
pepper, &c. Some alfo pickle anchovies in fmall delft
or earthen pots, made on purpofe, of two or three
pounds weight, more or lefs, which they cover with
plafter to keep them the better. Anchovies Ihould be
chofen fmall, frefli pickled, white on the outfide and
red within. They mull have a round back j for thofe
which are fat or large are often nothing but fardines.
Beudes' thefe qualities, the pickle, on opening the pots
or barrels, mull be of a good tafte, and not have loft
its flavour.
2. Cod Fisher T. There are two kinds of cod fifti j
the one green or white cod, and the other dried or cur¬
ed cod ; though it is all the fame fifti, differently pre¬
pared *, the former being fometimes failed and barrel¬
led, then taken out for ufe $ and the latter having lain
fome competent time in fait, dried in the fun or fmoke.
We (hall therefore fpeak of each of thefe apart j and
firft of the
Green. The chief fiftieries for green cod are in
the bay of Canada, on the great bank of Newfound¬
land, and on the ifle of St Peter, and the ifle of
Sable j to which places veffels refort from divers parts
both of Europe and America. They are from 100
to 150 tons burden, and will catch between 30,000 and
40,000 cod each. The moft effential part of the
fifliery is, to have a matter who knows how to cut up
the cod, one who is Ikilled to take off the head pro¬
perly, and above all a good falter, on which the pre-
ferving of them, and confequently the fuccefs of the
voyage depends. The beft leafon is from the begin¬
ning of February to the end of April j the fifti, which
in the winter retire to the deepeft water, coming then
on the banks and fattening extremely. What is
caught from March to June keeps well; but thofe
taken in July, Auguft, and September, when it is warm
on the banks, are apt to fpoil ibon. Every fiftier takes
but one at a time : the moft expert will take from 350
to 400 in a day j but that is the moft j the weight of
the fifti and the great coldnefs on the bank fatiguing
very much. As foon as the cod is caught, the head
is taken off; they are opened, gutted, and failed 5 and
the falter flows them in the bottom of the hold, head
and tail, in beds a fathom or two fquare ; laying layers
of fait and fifti alternately, but never mixing fifti caught
on different days. When they have lain thus three or
four days to drain off the water, they are replaced in
another part of the ftiip, and failed again 5 where they
remain till the veffel is loaded. Sometimes they are cut
r ] FIS
in thick pieces, and put in barrels for the conveniency Fifliery.
of carriage. c—y——.
Dry. The principal fiftiery for this article is, from
Cape Rofe to the Bay des Exports, along the coaft of
Placentia, in which compafs there are divers com¬
modious ports for the fifti to be dried in. Thefe,
though of the fame kind with the frefti cod, are
much fmaller, and therefore fitter to keep, as the fait
penetrates more eafily into them. The filhery of both
is much alike j only this latter is moft expensive, as it
takes up more time and employs more hands, and yet
fcarce half fo much fait is fpent in this as in the other.
The bait is herrings, of which great quantities are
taken on the coaft of Placentia. When feveral veffels
meet and intend to fifti in the fame part, he whofe ftial-
lop firft touches ground becomes entitled to the qua¬
lity and privileges of admiral: he has the choice of his
ftation, and the refufal of all the wood on the coaft at
his arrival. As faft as the matters arrive, they unrigg
all their veffels, leaving nothing but the ftirouds to fu-
ftain the maft ; and in the mean time the mates pro¬
vide a tent on ftiore, covered with branches of trees,
and fails over them, with a fcaffold of great trunks of
pines, 12, 15, 16, and often 20 feet high, commonly
from 40 to 60 feet long, and about one-third as much
in breadth. While the fcaffold is preparing, the crew
are a-fiftiing •, and as faft as they catch, they bring their
fifti aftiore, and open and fait them upon moveable
benches; but the main falling is performed on the
fcaffold. When the fifti have taken fait, they wafti and
hang them to drain on rails ; when drained, they are
laid on kinds of ftages, which are fmall pieces of wood
laid acrofs, and covered with branches of trees, having
the leaves ftripped off for the paffage of the air. On
thefe ftages, they are difpofed, a fifti thick, head againft
tail, with the back uppermoft, and are turned carefully
four times every 24 hours. When they begin to dry,
they are laid in heaps 10 or 12 thick, in order to re¬
tain their warmth 3 and every day the heaps are en¬
larged till they become double their firft bulk 3 then
two heaps are joined together, which they turn every
day as before : laftly, they are failed again, beginning
with thofe firft failed 3 and being laid in huge piles,
they remain in that fituation till they are carried on
board the (hips, where they are laid on the branches
of trees difpofed for that purpofe, upon the ballaft, and
round the ftiip, with mats to prevent their contradting
any moifture.
There are four forts of commodities drawn from cod,
viz. the founds, the tongues, the roes, and the oil ex-
tradled from the liver. The firft is failed at the fiftiery
together with the fifli, and put in barrels from 600 to
700 pounds. The tongues are done in like manner, and
brought in barrels from 400 to 500 pounds. The roes
are alfo failed in barrels, and ferve to caft into the fea
to draw fifti together, and particularly pilchards. The
oil comes in barrels, from 400 to 5 20 pounds,, and is
ufed in drefling leather. In Scotland they catch a
fmall kind of cod on the coafts of Buchan and all along
the Murray frith on both fides ; as alfo in the friths of
Forth, Clyde, &c. which is much efteemed. They
fait and dry them in the fun upon rocks, and fome¬
times in the chimney.
2. Coral Fisher r. See Coral.
4 N 2 4. Herring
f 1 s p 65
, Fifliery- , 4-HerrwgFlSHERT. Our great rtatio^s for this fifhery
are off the Shetland and Weftern ifles, and off the coart
or Norfolk, in which the Dutch alfo fhare. There
are two feafons for filhing herring ; the fnrt from June
to the end of Auguft ; and the fecond in autumn, when
the fogs become very favourable for this kind of fil¬
ing. I he Dutch begin their herring filhing on the
24ta _°f June, and employ a vaft number of veffels
therein, called bu/jes, being between 45 and 60 tons
urden eacn, and carrying three or four fmall cannon,
ley never ftir out of port, without a convoy, unlefs
there be enough together to make about 18 or 20 can-
pon among them, in which cafe they are allowed to go
in company. Before they go oiit they make a verbal
agreement, which has the fame force as if it were in
writing. The regulations of the admiralty of Holland
are partly followed by the French and other nations,
and partly improved and augmented with new ones;
as, that no firtier (hall cart his net within 100 fathoms
ot another boat : that while the nets are cart, a light
ihall be kept on the hind part of the veffel: that when
a boat is by any accident obliged to leave off fithing,
the light (hall be cart into the fea ; that when the
greater part of a fleet leaves off fifhing, and carts anchor,
the reft (hall do the fame, &c.
^ Hift. of Mr Anderfoh * gives to the Scots a knowledge of
antiquity in the herring fifhery. He fays that the
Netherlanders relorted to thefe coaits as early as A. D.
.83to purchafe falted fifh of the natives, but, impof-
ing on the grangers, they learned the art, and took up
the trade, in after-times of fuch immenfe emolument
to the Dutch.
Sir Walter Raleigh’s obfervations on that head, ex¬
tracted from the fame author, are extremely worthy
the attention of the curious, and excite refleaions on
the vaft ftrength refulting from the wifdom of well ap¬
plied induftry. L
In 1603, he remarks, the Dutch fold to different
nations as many herrings as amounted to 1,759,000].
fteriing. In the year 1615, they at once lent out
2000 buffes, and employed in them 37,000 fifhermen.
In the year 1618, they fent out 3000 (hips, with
50,000 men to take the herrings, and 9000 more (hips
to traniport and fell the ffth ; which by fea and land
employed 150,006 men, befides thofe firft mentioned.
All this wealth was gotten on our coafts, while our
attention was taken up in a diftant whale fifhery.
The Scottifli monarchs for a long time feemed to di¬
rect all their attention to the prefervation of the falmon
fifhery, probably becaufe their fubjeCts were fuch no¬
vices in fea affairs. At length James HI. endeavoured
to annulate his great men to thefe patriotic undertak¬
ings : for by an aCl of his third parliament, he com¬
pelled “ certain lords fpiritual and temporal, and bur¬
rows, to make flaps, buffes, and boats, with nets and
other pertinents, for fifhing. That the fame fhould be
made in each burgh ; in number according to the
lubuance of each burgh, and the leaf! of them to
be of twenty tons: and that all idle men be com¬
pelled by the fire riffs in the country to go on board the
fame. ’
j.^unierous. ^eec* ^ave been the attempts made at
different periods to fecure this treafure to ourfelves, but
without fuccefs. In the late reign, a very ftrong effort
was made, and bounties allowed for the encouragement
2
]
F I S
Flfherv
of Britifh adventurers: the firft was of 30s. per ton to
every bufs of 70 tons and upwards. This bounty was
aiter wards raffed to 50s. per ton, to be paid to fuch *
adventurers as were entitled to it by claiming it at the
places of rendezvous. The buffes are from 20 to 90 tons
burden, but the beft fize is 80. A veffel of 80 tons ought
to take ten lafts, or 120 barrels of herrings, to clear
expences, the price of the fifh to be admitted to be a
guinea a barrel. A (hip of this fize ought to have 18
men, and three boats: one of 2o tons fliould have fix
men ; and every five tons above require an additional
hand. To every ton are 280 yards of nets; fo a veffel
of 80 tons carries 20,000 fquare yards : each net is
12 yards long, and 10 deep, and every boat takes out
from 20 to 30 nets, and puts them together fo as to
form a long train ; they are funk at each end of the
tram by a ftone, which weighs it down to the full ex¬
tent : the top is fupported by buoys, made of fheeps-
fkin, with a hollow flick at the mouth faftened tmht:
through this the fldn is blown up, and then flopped with
a peg, to prevent the efcape of the air. Sometimes
thefe buoys are placed at the top of the nets : at other
times the nets are fuffered to fink deeper, by the length¬
ening the cords faflened to them, every cord bein^
for that purpofe 10 or 12 fathoms long. But the beft
fifheries are generally in more (hallow water.
. °f tfie Scots fift^ry in the Weftern Ides, the follow¬
ing account is given by Mr Pennant f. “ The fifhing is+
al ways performed in the night, unlefs by accident. The to th'X-
bufles remain at anchor, and fend out their boats a little^r/rfa.
before funfet : which continue out, in winter and fum-
mer, till day-light ; often taking up and emptying their
nets, which they do 10 or 1 2 times in a night, in cafe
of good fuccefs. During winter it is a moft dangerous
and fatiguing employ, by reafon of the greatnefs and
frequency of the gales in thefe feas, and in fuch gales
are the mod fuccefsful captures : but by the Providence
of heaven the fiftiers are feldom loft ; and, what is won¬
derful, few are vifited with illnefs. They go out well
prepared, with a warm great coat, boots, and (kin
aprons, and a good provifion of beef and fpirits. The
fame good fortune attends the buffes, which in the tem-
pefluous feafon, and in the darkeft nights, are conti¬
nually flnfting in thefe narrow feas, from harbour to
harbour. Sometimes 80 barrels of herrings are taken
in a night by the boats of a fingle veffel. It once hap¬
pened m Loch Slappan, in Sky, that a bufs of 80
tons might have taken 200 barrels in one night, with
10,000 fquare yards of net ; but the mafter was obliged
to defift, for want of a fufficient number of hands to
preferve the capture. The herrings are preferved by
falling, after the entrails are taken out. This laft is
an operation performed by the country people, who ^et
three halfpence per barrel for their trouble ; and fome-
times, even in the winter, can gain fifteen pence a-day.
This employs both women and children ; but the fall¬
ing is only intruded to the crew of the buffes. The
fifli are laid on their backs in the barrels, and layers of
fait between them. The entrails are not loft, for they
are boiled into an oil : 8000 fiili will yield ten gal¬
lons, valued at one (lulling the gallon. A veffel of
80 tons, takes out 144 barrels of fait; a drawback of 2S.
8d. is allowed for each barrel ufed by the foreign or
Irilh exportation of the fifli; but there is a duty of
is. per barrel for the home confumption, and the fame
for
FIS [ 653 ] FIS
Firtiery. f°r thofe fent to Ireland. The barrels are made of oak
Y"—*’' ftaves chiefly from Virginia •, the hoops from feveral
parts of our own ifland, and are either of oak, birch,
hazel or willow j the laft from Holland, liable to a du¬
ty. The barrels coft about 3s. each, they hold from
500 to 800 fifh, according to the fize of the fifh •, and
are made to contain 32 gallons. The barrels are in-
fpe£ted by proper officers $ a cooper examines if they
are ftatutable and good ; if faulty, he deflroys them,
and obliges the maker to ftand to the lofs.
“ Loch Broom has been celebrated for three or four
centuries as the refort of herrings. They generally
appear here in July $ thofe that turn into this bay are
part of the brigade that detaches itfelf from the weft-
ern column of that great army which annually deferts
the vaft depths of the ardlic circle, and comes, heaven-
diredled, to the feats of population, offered as a cheap
food to millions, whom wafteful luxury or iron-hearted
avarice hath deprived, by enhancing the price, of the
wonted fupports of the poor. The migration of the
fiffi from their northern retreat is regular; their vifits
to the Weflern ifles and coafts certain ; but their at¬
tachment to one particular loch extremely precari¬
ous. All have their turns ; that which fwarmed with
fiffi one year, is totally deferted the following ; yet
the next loch to it may be crowded with the ffioals.
Thefe changes of place give often full employ to
the buffes, who are continually (hiftirig their harbour
in quell: of news refpefting thefe important wanderers.
They commonly appear here in July ; the latter end
of Auguft they go into deep water, and continue
there for fome time, without any apparent caufe :
in November, they return to the {hallows, when a new
fiffiery commences, which continues till January: at
that time the herrings become full of roe, and are ufe-
lefs as articles of commerce. Some, doubt, whether
thofe herrings that appear in November are not part
of a new migration ; for they are as fat, and make
the fame appearance, as thofe that compofed the firft.
The figns of the arrival of the herrings are flocks of
gulls, who catch up the fiffi while they fkim on the
furface, and of gannets who plunge and bring them
up from confiderable depths. Both thefe birds are
clofely attended to by the fiffiers. Cod fifh, haddocks,
and dog fiffi, follow the herrings in vail multitudes:
thefe voracious fiffi keep on the outfides of the co¬
lumns, and may be a concurrent reafon of driving the
ffioals into bays and creeks. In fummer, they come
into the bays generally with the warmeft weather,
and with eafy gales. During winter, the hard gales
from north-well are fuppofed to affill in forcing them
into {belter. Eafl: winds are very unfavourable to the
fifhery.1’
Herrings are cured either white or pickled, or red.
Of theyfr/?, thofe done by the Dutch are the moft
elleemed, being didinguiffied into four forts, accord¬
ing to their fizes; and the bed are thofe that are fat,
fleffiy, firm, and white, faded the fame day they are
taken, with good fait, and well barrelled. The Bri-
tidi cured herrings are little inferior, if not equal, to
the Dutch : for in fpite of all their endeavours to con¬
ceal the fecret, their method of curing, lading, or
calking the herrings, has been difcovered, and is as
follows. After they have hauled in their nets, which
they drag in the Hern of their veffels backwards and
forwards in traverfing the coall, they throw them upon Fifhery.
the {hip’s deck, Avhich is cleared of every thing for'■——v-—
that purpofe : the crew is feparated into fundry divi-
fions, and each divifion has a peculiar talk ; one part
opens and guts the herrings, leaving the milts and
roes; another cures and falls them, by lining or rub¬
bing their infide with fait ; the next packs them, and
between each row and divifion they fprinkle handfuls
of fait; ladly, the cooper puts the finiffiing hand to all, -
by heading the calks very tight, and flowing them in
the hold. ^
Red herrings mud lie 24 hours in the brine, in-
afmuch as they are to take all their fait there ; and
when they are taken out, they are fpitted, that is, drung
by the head on little wooden fpits, and then hung in a
chimney made for that purpofe. After which, a fire
of bruffiwood, which yields a deal of fmoke, but no
dame, being made under them, they remain there till
fufficiently fmoked and dried, and are afterwards bar¬
relled up for keeping.
5. Lobjler Fisher T. Lobders are taken along the
Britiffi channel, and on the coad of Norway, whence
they are brought to London for fale ; and alfo in the
frith of Edinburgh, and on the coad of Northumber¬
land. By 10 and 11 W. III. cap. 24. no lobder is to
be taken under eight inches in length, from the peak
of the nofe to the end of the middle fin of the tail ;
and by 9 Geo. II. cap. 33. no lobders are to be taken
on the coad of Scotland from the id of June to the
id of September."
6. MackerelFlSHERT. The mackerel is a fummer fiffi
of paffage, found in large ffioals, in divers parts of the.
ocean, not far north ; but efpecially on the French and
Engliffi coads. The fiffiing is ufually in the months
of April, May, and June, and even July, according to
the place. They enter the Engliffi channel in' April,
and proceed up to the draits of Dover as the fummer
advances ; fo that by June they are on the coads of
Cornwall, Suffex, Normandy, Picardy, &c. where the
fiffiery is mod confiderable. They are an excellent
food freffi ; and not to be defpifed, when well prepar¬
ed, pickled, and put up in barrels ; a method of pre-
ferving them chiefly ufed in Cornwall.
The fiffi is taken two ways ; either with a line or
nets : the latter is the more confiderable, and is ufually
performed in the night-time. The rules obferved in
the fifhing for mackerel are much the fame as thofe al¬
ready mentioned in the fiffiery of herrings.
There are two ways of pickling them : the fird is,
by opening and gutting them, and filling the belly
with fait, crammed in as hard as poffible, with a flick ;
which done, they range them in drata or rows, at the
bottom of the veffel, drewing fait between the layers.
In the fecond way, they put them immediately into
tubs full of brine, made of freffi water and fait; and
leave them to deep, till they have imbibed fait enough
to make them keep ; after which, they are taken
out, and barrelled up, taking care to prefs them clofe
down.
Mackerel are not cured or exported as merchandife,
except a few by the Yarmouth and Leodoff merchants,
but are generally confirmed at home; efpecially in
the city of London, and the fea-ports between the
Thames and Yarmouth, ead, and the Land’s End of
Cornwall, wed.
7. Oijpr
Fifhery.
| See Of-
trea, Con-
cholozv
Index.
„ F T 3 f 654 ]
Oyjter FlSHERr%. TJiis fifhery is principally car- bittern
ried on at Colchefter in Eflex; Feverfham and Milton
in Kent; the Ifle of Wight; the Swales of the Med-
way j and lenby on the coaft of Wales. From Fever-
fliam, and adjacent parts, the Dutch have fometimes
loaded a hundred large hoys with oyfters in a year.
They are alfo taken in great quantities near Portfmouth,
and in all the creeks and rivers between Southampton
and Chichefter : many of which are carried about by
fea to London and to Colchefter, to be fed in the pits
about Wavenhoe and other places.
8. Pearl FlSHERT. See Pearl, CoNCHOLOGY /t?-
dex, and Ceyeon.
9- PilchardFlSHER T. The chief pilchard fifheries are
along the coafts of Dalmatia, on the coaft of Bretagne,
and along the coafts of Cornwall and Devonfhire. That
' Dalmatia i.s very plentiful: that on the coafts of
Bretagne employs annually about 300 {hips. Of the
pilchard fifhery on the coaft of Cornwall the following
account is given by Dr Borlafe : “ It employs a great
number of men on the fea, training them thereby to
naval affairs; employs men, women, and children, on
land, in faking, prefling, wafhing and cleaning j in
making boats, nets, ropes, cafks, and all the trades
depending on their conftruftion and fale. The poor
are fed with the offals of the captures, the land with
the refufe of the fifli and fait j the merchant finds the
gains of commiflion and honeft commerce, the fifher-
man the gains of the fifh. Ships are often freighted
hither with fait, and into foreign countries with the
fifh, carrying off at the fame time part of our tin. Of
the ufual produce of the great number of hogfheads ex¬
ported each year for ten years, from 1747 to 1756 in-
clufive, from the four ports of Fowey, Falmouth, Pen¬
zance, and St Ives, it appears that Fowey has exported
yearly 1732 hogfheads j Falmouth, 14,631 hogftieads
and two thirds j Penzance and Mounts-Bay 12,149
hogfheads and one-third; St Ives, 1280 hogfheads:
in all amounting to 29,793 hogfheads. Every hogfhead
for ten years laft paft, together with the bounty allow¬
ed for each hogfhead exported, and the oil made out of
each hogfhead, has amounted, one year with another
at an average, to the price of il. 13s. 3d.; fo that the
cafh paid for pilchards exported has, at a medium, an¬
nually amounted to the fum of 49,532!. 10s.” The
numbers that are taken at one fhooting out of the nets
are amazingly great. Mr Pennant fays, that Dr Bor-
lafe affured him, that on the jjth of October 1767,
there were at one time enclofed in St Ives’s Bay 7000
hogflieads, each hogfhead containing 35,000 fifh : in all
245 millions.
.The pilchards naturally follow the light, which con¬
tributes much to the facility of the fifhery j the feafon
is from June to September. On the coafts of France
they make ufe of the roes of the cod fifh as a bait 5
which, thrown into the fea, makes them rife from the
bottom, and run into the nets. On our coafts there
are perfons pofted afhore, who, fpying by the colour
of the water where the fhoals are, make figns to the
boats to go among them to caft their nets. When
taken, they are brought on (here to a warehoufe,
where they are laid up in broad piles, fupported with
backs and fides ; and as they are piled, they fait them
with bay fait; in which lying to foak for 30 or 40 days,
they run out a deal of blood, with dirty pickle and
Fifliery,
F I s
then they wafh them clean in fea water ; and
when dry, barrel and prefs them hard down to fqueeze
out the oil, which iffues out at a hole in the bottom of
the calk.
10. Salmon FlSHERT\. The chief falmon fifheries in t See Sal.
Europe are in England, Scotland, and Ireland, in theOT<,>
rivers, and fea coafts adjoining to the river mouths. 0^0<^,
The moft diftinguifhed for falmon in Scotland are, the**"
river Tweed, the Clyde, the Tay, the Dee, the Don
the Spey, the Nefs, the Bewly, &c. in moft of which
it is very common, about the height of fummer, elpe-
cially if the weather happens to be very hot, to catch
four or five fcore falmon at a draught. The chief ri¬
vers in England for falmon are, the Tyne, the Trent,
the Severn, and the 1 hames. Fhe fifhing is performed
with nets, and fometimes with a kind of locks or wears
made on purpofe, which in certain places have iron or
tvooden grates fo difpofed, in an angle, that being im¬
pelled by any force in a contrary direaion to the courfe
of the river, they may give way and open a little at the
point of contact, and immediately fhut again, clofing
the angle. 1 he falmon, therefore, coming up into the
rivers, are admitted into thefe grates, which open, and
fuffer them to pafs through, but (hut again, and pre¬
vent their return. The falmon is alfo caught with a
fpear, which they dart into him when they fee him
fwimming near the furface of the water. It is cuftom-
ary likewife to catch them with a candle and lanthorn,
or vyifp of ftraw fet on fire ; for the fifti naturally fol¬
lowing the light, are ftruck with the fpear, or taken in
a net fpread for that purpofe, and lifted with a fudden
jerk from the bottom.
“ The capture of falmon in the Tweed, about the
month of July (fays Mr Pennant is prodigious. In f Rrit.
a good fifhery, often a boatload, and fometimes near^00^^
two, are taken in a tide: fome few years ago there were
above 700 fifh taken at one haul, but from 50 to 100
is very frequent. The coopers in Berwick'then begin
to fait both falmon and grilles in pipes and other large
yeffels, and afterwards barrel them to fend abroad, hav¬
ing then far more than the London markets can take
off their hands.
“ Moft of the falmon taken before April, or to the
fetting in of the warm weather, is fent frefh to Lon¬
don in bafkets: unlefs now and then the veffel is dif-
appointed by contrary winds of failing immediately ; in
which cafe the fifh is brought afhore again to the coopers
offices, and boiled, pickled, and kitted, and fent to
the London markets by the fame fhip, and frefh fal¬
mon put in the bafkets in lieu of the ftale ones. At
the beginning of the feafon, when a fhip is on the
point of failing, a frefh clean falmon will fell from a
fliilling to eighteen pence a pound ; and moft of the
time that this part of the trade is carried on, the prices
are from five to nine fhillings per ftone; the value riling
and falling according to the plenty of fifh, or the pro-
fpeft of a fair or foul wind. Some fifti are fent in this
manner to London the latter end of September, when
the weather grows cool; but then the fifti are full of
large roes, grow very thin bellied, and are not efteem-
ed either palatable or wholefome.
“ 1 he feafon for fifhing in the Tweed begins No¬
vember 30th, but the fifhermen work very little till af¬
ter Chriftmas : it ends on Michaelmas day ; yet the
corporation of Berwick (who are confervators of the
river)
P I S' [ 6
Fifhery. river) indulge the fithermen with a fortnight paft that
v—~ time, on account of the change of the ftyle.
“ There are on the river 41 confiderahle filheries,
extending upwards about 14 miles from the mouth,
(the others above being of no great value), which are
rented for near 5400I. per annum : the expence at¬
tending the fervants wages, nets, boats, &c. amount
to 5000I. more j which together makes up the fum
10,400!. Now, in confequence, the produce muft
defray all, and no lefs than 20 times that fum of fiih
will effeft it •, fo that 208,000 falmon muft be caught
there one year with another.
“ Scotland poffeffes great numbers of fine fiftieries
on both fides of that kingdom. The Scotch in early
times had moft fevere laws againft the killing of this
filh ; /for the third offence was made capital, by a law
of James IV. Before that, the offender had power to
redeem his life. They were thought in the time of
Henry VI. a prefent worthy of a crowned head : for
in that reign the queen of Scotland fent to the duchefs
of Clarence 10 calks of failed falmon ; which Henry
directed to pafs duty free. The falmon are cured in
the fame manner as at Berwick, and a great quantity
is fent to London in the fpring; but after that time,
the adventurers begin to barrel and export them to fo¬
reign countries ; but we believe that commerce is far
lefs lucrative than it was in former times, partly owing
to the great increafe of the Newfoundland fifhery, and
partly to the general relaxation of the difcipline of ab-
ftinence in the Romifh church.
“ Ireland (particularly the north) abounds with this
fifh : the moft confiderable fifhery is at Cranna, on the
river Ban, about a mile and a half from Coleraine.
When I made the tour of that hofpitable kingdom in
J754> vvas rented by a neighbouring gentleman for
620I. a-year; who affured me, that the tenant, his
predeceffor, gave r6ool. per annum, and was a much
greater gainer by the bargain, for the reafons before
mentioned, and on account of the number of poachers
who deftroy the fifh in the fence months.
“ I he mouth of thi- river faces the north •, and is
finely fituated to receive the fifh that roam along the
coaft in fearch of an inlet into fome frefli water, as
they do along that end of the kingdom which op-
pofes itfelf to the northern ocean. We have feen near
Ballicaftle, nets placed in the fea at the foot of the
promontories that jut into it, which the falnion ftrike
into as they are wandering clofe to fhore j and numbers
are taken by that method.
“ In the Ban they fifh with nets 18 fcore yards
long, and are continually drawing night and day the
whole feafon, which we think lafts about four months,
two fets of 16 men each alternately relieving one ano¬
ther. The beft drawing is when the tide is coming
in : we were told, that at a Angle draught there were
once 840 fifh taken.
“ A few miles higher up the river is a wear w’here
a confiderable number of fifh that efcape the nets are
taken. We were lately informed, that, in the year
1760, about 320 tons were taken in the Cranna fifh¬
ery.”
Curing Salmon. When the falmon are taken, they
open them along the back, take out the guts and gills,
and cut out the greateft part of the bones, endeavour¬
ing to make the infide as fmooth as poffible : they then
55 ] FIS
fait the fifh in large tubs for the purpofe, where they Fifhery.
lie a confiderable time foaking in brine j and about v~““J
Odfober they are packed clofe up in barrels, and fent
to London, or exported up the Mediterranean. They
have alfo in Scotland a great deal of falmon failed in
the common way, which after foaking in brine a com¬
petent time, is well preffed, and' then dried in fmoke :
this is called kipper, and is chiefly made for home con-
fumption $ and if properly cured and prepared, is reck¬
oned very delicious.
Sturgeon f FlSHER T. ’ The greateft fturgeon fifhery f See Acci-
is in the mouth of the Volga, on the Cafpian fea. \ penfer, Ich-
where the Mufcovites employ a great number of hands,
and catch them in a kind of inclofure, formed by hugeIndex'
flakes reprefenting the letter Z repeated feveral times.
Thefe fiftieries are open on the fide next the fea, and
clofe on the other j by which means the filh afcending
in its feafon up the river, is embarraffed in thefe nar¬
row angular retreats, and fo is eafily killed with a
harping iron. Sturgeons, when frefh, eat delicioufly 5
and in order to make them keep, they are faked or
pickled in large pieces, and put up in cags from 30 to
50 pounds. But the great objeft of this filhery is the
roe, of which the Muicovites are extremely fond, and
of which is made the cavear, or kavia, fo much efteem-
ed by the Italians. See Cavear.
Tunny FlSHERT. The tunny (a fpecies of Scom¬
ber), was a fifh well known to the ancients, and
made a great article of commerce : And there are ftill
very confiderable tunny fiftieries on the coafts of Sici¬
ly, as well as feveral other parts of the Mediterranean.
The nets are fpread over a large fpace of fea by
means of cables faftened to anchors, and are divided
into feveral compartments. The entrance is always
directed, according to the feafon, towards that part of
the fea from which the fifh are known to come. A
man placed upon the fummit of a rock high above the
water, gives a fignal of the fifh being arrived ; for he
can difcern from that elevation what paffes under the
waters infinitely better than any perfon nearer the fur
face. As foon as notice is given that the fhoal of fifh
has penetrated as far as the inner compartment, or the
chamber of death, the paffage is drawn clofe, and the
flaughter begins.
1 he undertakers of thefe fifheries pay an acknow¬
ledgment to the king, or the lord upon whofe land
they fix the main flay or foot of the tonnara ; they
make the befi bargain they can : and, till fuccefs has
crowned their endeavours, obtain this leave for a fmall
confideration j but the rent is afterwards raifed in pro¬
portion to their capture.
The tunny enters the Mediterranean about the vernal
equinox, travelling in a triangular phalanx, fo as to cut
the waters with its point, and to prefent an extenfive
bafe for the tides and currents to a£t againft, and impel
forwards. T. hefe fifh repair to the warm feas of Greece
to fpawn, fleering their courfe thither along the Euro¬
pean fhores, but as they return, approach the African
coaft j the young fry is placed in the van of the fquadron
as they travel. They come back from the eaft in
May, and abound on the coaft of Sicily and Calabria
about that time. In autumn they fleer northward, and
frequent the neighbourhood of Amalfi and Naples;
but during the whole feafon ftragglers are occafionally
caught,
When.
FIS [ 6
Fifhery. When taken in May, the ufual time of their ap-
v pearance in the Calabrian bays, they are full of fpaavn,
and their flefh is then elleemed unwholefome, apt to
occafion headachs and vapours j the milts and roes are
particularly fo at that feafon. To prevent thefe bad
effefts, the natives fry them in oil, and afterwards fait
them. ihe quantity of this fifh confumed annually
in the I wo Sicilies almoft exceeds the bounds of calcu¬
lation. From the beginning of May to the end of Oc¬
tober it is eaten frefh, and all the reft of the year it is
in ufe failed. The moft delicate part is the muzzle.
1 he belly failed was called tarantallum, and accounted
a great delicacy by the Romans j its prefent name is
Surra. I he reft of the body is cut into llices, and
put into tubs.
Turbot FISHERY. Turbot grows to a large fize,
fome of them weighing from 23 to 30 pounds. They
are taken chiefly oft: the north coaft of England, and
others off the Dutch coaft. The large turbot (as well
as feveral other kinds of flat fifti) are taken by the hook
and line, for they lie in deep water; the method of
taking them in wears or flaked nets being very preca¬
rious. When the fiftiermen go out to fifti, each perfon
is provided with three lines, which are coiled on a flat
oblong piece of wicker work ; the hooks being baited,
and placed regularly in the centre of the coil. Each
line is furniftied with 14 fcore of hooks, at the diftance
of fix feet two inches from each other. The hooks are
faftened to the lines upon fneads of twifted horfe hair
2,7 inches in length. Wken fiftiing, there are always
three men in each coble, and confequently nine of
thefe lines are faftened together, and ufed in one line,
extending in length near three miles, and furniftied
with 2520 hooks. An anchor and a buoy are fixed at
the firft end of the line, and one more of each at the
end of each man’s lines 5 in all four anchors, which
are common perforated ftones, and four buoys made
of leather or cork. 1 he line is always laid acrofs the
current. Fhe tides of flood and ebb continue an equal
time upon our coaft, and, when undifturbed by winds,
run each way about fi\ hours; they are fo rapid that
the fiftiermen can only ftioot and haul their lines at the
turn of tide, and therefore the lines always remain
upon the ground about fix hours ; during which time
tmjxine glutmofa of Linnaeus will frequently pene¬
trate the fifti that are on the hooks, and entirely devour
them, leaving only the fkin and bones. The fame
rapidity of tides prevents their ufing hand lines ; and
therefore two of the people commonly wrap themfelves
in the fail, and fleep while the other keeps a ftrift
look-out, for fear of being run down by (hips, and to
obferye the weather. For florms often rife fo fuddenly,
that it is with extreme difficulty they can fometimes
efcape to the fhore, leaving their lines behifid.
Befides the coble, the fiftiermen have alfo a five-men
boat, which is 40 feet long and 15 broad, and 25 tons
burden ; it is fo called, though navigated by fix men
and a boy, becaufe one of the men is commonly hired
to cook, &c. and does not (hare in the profits with
the other five.. This boat is decked at each end, but
open in the middle, and has two large lug fails. All our
able fiftiermen go in thefe boats to the herring fiftiery
at Yarmouth in the latter end of September, and re¬
turn about the middle of November. The boats are
then laid up till the beginning of Lent, at which time
;6 ] FIS
they go off in them to the edge of the logger, and Fifliery
other places to fifti for turbot, cod, ling, fkates, See. Fifhgard,
They always take two cobles on board ; and when they *■"-v
come upon their ground, anchor the boat, throw out
the cobles, and fifli in the fame manner as thofe do
who go from the fliore in a coble : with this difference
Qnly, that here each man is provided with double the
quantity of lines, and inftead of waiting the return of
the tide in the coble, return to their boat and bait their
other lines ; thus hauling one fet and (hooting ano¬
ther every turn of tide. They commonly run into har¬
bour twice a-week to deliver their fifti.
The belt bait is frelh herring cut in pieces of a
proper fize ; the five-men boats are always furniflied
with nets for taking them. Next to herrings are the
leffer lampreys. The next baits in efteem are fin all
haddocks cut in pieces, land worms, and limpets, here
jlidders; and when none of thefe can be had,
they uiie bullock’s liver. The hooks are two inches and
a half long in the (hank, and near an inch wide between
the (hank and the point. The line is made oi fmali
cording, and is always tanned before it is ufed.
Turbots are extremely delicate in their choice of
baits j for if a piece of herring or haddock has been 12
hours out !of the fea, and then ufed as bait, they will
not touch it.
Whale Fishery. See Bal^na, Cetology Index.
Whales are chiefly caught in the north feas j the
largeft fort are found about Greenland or Spitzbergen.
At the firft difeovery of this country, whales not being
ufed to be difturbed, frequently came into the very bays,
and were accordingly killed almoft clofe to the (bore j
fo that the blubber being cut off was immediately boiled
into oil on the (pot. The drips in thofe times took in
nothing but the pure oil and the whalebone, and all the
bufinefs was executed in the country ; by which means
a (hip could bring home the produft of many more
whales than (Ire can, according to the prefent method
of conducing this trade. The fifliery alfo was then fo
plentiful, that they were obliged lometimes to fend
other drips to fetch off the oil they had made, the
quantity being more than the filhing drips could bring
away. But time and change of circumftances have
drifted the fituation of this trade. The drips coming in
fuch numbers from Holland, Denmark, Hamburgh,
and other northern countries, all intruders upon the
Engliftr, who were the firft difeoverers of Greenland,
the whales w’ere difturbed, and gradually, as other filh
often do, forfaking the place, were not to be killed fo
near the (hore as before : but are now found, and have
been foever fince, in the openings and fpace among the
ice, w’here they have deep water, and where they go
fometimes a great many leagues from the ftrore.
The whale fiftiery begins in May, and continues all
June and July ; but whether the (hips have good or
bad fuccefs, they muft come away, and get clear of
the ice by the -end of Auguft ; fo that in the month
of September at fartheft they may be expe&ed home $
but a (hip that meets with a fortunate and early fiftiery
in May may return in June or July.
But, for the manner of taking whales, and for a
farther account of the whale fiftiery, as a trade, fee Ce-
TOLOGY.
FISHGARD, or Fisgard, a town of Pembroke-
ftrire, fituated on a deep cliff on the fea ftrore, 254 miles
from
FIS [6
Fiiliery, from London, at the influx of the river Gvvaine into
Fiflung, the fea, which here forms a fpacious bay. It is govern.
V ed by a mayor, a bailiff, and other officers; and here
veffels may he fafely in five or fix fathoms water. The
inhabitants have a good trade in herrings, and annually
cuie, between Fifgard and Newport, above tooo bar¬
rels of them, ihe town fends one member to parlia¬
ment. r
FISHING, in general, the art of catching fiffi,
whether by means of nets, of fpears, or of the line and
hook.
Fishing In the great, performed by the net, fpear,
or harpoon, for fiffi that go in Ihoals, has been explain¬
ed in the preceding article. That performed by the
rod, line, and hook, for folitary fiffi, is ufually termed
Angling : See that article ; and for the particular
manner of angling for the different kinds of fiffi fee
thei- refpeftive names, as Dace, Eel, Perch, under
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Here we (hall give an account of the following :
L**,. y{cb. [* 1 he Bt>rbel\, (fo called on account of the barb
j thyology ' °: bt,ard ‘hf >' u,Hier his chops), though a coarfe fiffi,
Index. confiderable exercife to the angler’s ingenuity.
1 hey fwim together in great ffioals, and are at their
woid in April, at which time they fpawn, but come
foon in feafon j the places whither they chiefly refort,
are fuch as are weedy and gravelly rifing grounds, in
which tliis fifli is faid to dig and root with his nofe like
a (wine. In the fummer he frequents the ftrongeft,
fwifteft, currents of water ; as deep bridges, wears, &te.
and is apt to fettle himfelf among the piles, hollow
places, and mofs or weeds ; and will remain there im¬
moveable ; but in the winter he retires into deep wa¬
ters, and helps theyfemale to make a hole in the fands
to hide her fpavvn in, to hinder its being devoured by
other fiffi. He is a very curious and cunning fifli ; for
. baLs be not fweet, clean, well fcoured, and kept
m fweet mofs, he will not bite ; but well ordered and
curioufly kept, he will bite with great eagernefs. The
bell bait for him is the fpawn of a falraon, trout, or
any oilier fiffi ; and if you would have good fport with
him, bait the places where you intend to fifli with it a
night or two before, or with large worms cut in pieces ;
and the earlier in the morning or the later in the
evtuing that you fifli, the better it will be. Your rod
and line mult be both flrong and long, with a runninfr
plummet on the line; and let a little bit of lead be
placed a foot or more above the hook, to keep the bul¬
let from falling on it ; fo the worm will be at the bot¬
tom, where they always bite ; and when the fifli takes
the bait, your plummet will lie and not choke him.
% Lie bending of your rod you may know when he
bites, as alfb with your hand you will feel him make a
flrong foatcli ; then flrike, and you will rarely fail, if
you play him well ; but if you manage him not dex-
teroufiy, he will break your line. The befl time for
fifliing is about nine in the morini rr, and the mofl pro-
p< r a afon is the latter end of May, June, July, and the
beginning of Augufl.
,See£V 2. 1 ne Bleuh\, is an eager fiffi, caught with all
M-fors of worms bred on trees or plants; as alfo with
dndfx?* d,e!i* ,Pade’ ffit' p’s blood, &c. Thoy may be angled
for With half a fcore of hooks at once, if they can be
all fattened on ; he will alio in fhe evening take a na¬
tural or artificial fly. If the day be warm and clear,
Vol. VIII. Part II.
57 ] F I S
there is no fly fo good for him as the fmall fly at the Fithii g,
top of the water, which he will take at any time of the
day, efpecially in the evening ; but if the day is cold
and cloudy, gentles and caddis are the belt ; about two
leet under water. No fifli yields better fport to a young
angler than the bleak. It is fu eager, that it will leap
out of the water for a bait.
There is another way of taking bleak, which is by
whipping them in a boat, or on a bank fide in freffi
water in a fummer’s evening, with a hazel top about
five or fix feet long and a line twice the length of the
rod. But the belt method is with a drabble, thus :
Tie eight or ten fmall hooks acrols a line two inches
above one another; the biggeft hook the lowermoft,
(whereby you may fometinaes take a better fifli), and
bait them with gentles, flies, or fome fmall red worms,
by which means you may take half a dozen or more at
a time.
3. For the Bream ||, obferve the following directions, li ^.ee ^-v'
which will alfo be of ufe in carp fifliing.—Procure about
a quart of large red worms ; put them into freffi mofs Indev^^
well waffied and dried every three or foi r days, feeding
them with fat mould and chopped fennel, and they will
be thoroughly fcoured in about three weeks.
Let your lines be fiik and hair-, but all filk is the
befl ; let the floats be either fwan-quills or goofe-quills.
Let your plumb be a piece of lead in the fliape of a
pear, with a (mall ring at the little end of it ; fatten the
lead to the line, and the line hook to the lead, about
ten or twelve inches fnuee between lead and hook will
be enough ; and take care the lead be heavy enough to
fink the float. Having baited your hook well with a
ftrong worm, the worm will draw the hook up and
down in the bottom, which will provoke the bream to
bite the more eagerly. It will be beft to fit up three
or four rods or lines in this manner, and fet them as
will be direCled, and this will afford you much the
better fport. Find the exaCl depth of the water if
polfible, that your float, may fwim on its furface direCtly
over the lead ; then provide the following ground bait.
Take about a peek of fweet grofs-ground malt ; and
having boiled it a very little, (train it hard through a
bag, and carry it to the water fide where you have
founded ; and in the place where you fuppofe the filh
frequent, there throw in the malt by handfuls fqueezed
hard together, that the flream may not feparate it before
it comes to the bottom ; and be lure to throw it in at
leaf! a yard above the place where you intend the hook,
dial! lie, other wife the flream will carry it down too far.
Do this about nine o’clock at night, keeping fome of
the malt in the bag, and go to the place about three
the next morning ; but approach very warily, left you
ffiould be feen by the fifli ; for it is certain that tley
have their centinels watching on the top of the water,
while the reft are feeding below. Having baited your
hook lo that the worm may crawl to and fro, the better
to allure the filh to bite, caft it in at the place where
you find ihe fiffi to flay mofl, which h generally in the
bn.adeft and deepeft part of the river, and fo that it
may reft about the midft of your bait that is on the
ground. Caft in your fecond line fo that it may reft a Sportf.
yard above that, and a third about a yard below
Let your rods lie on the bank, with fome flunes to keep
them down at the great ends ; and then withdraw your-
felf, yet not fo far but that you can have your eye
4 O upon
FIS [6,
F fhinp-, upon all the floats ; and when you fee one bitten and
carried away, do not be too hafly to run in, but give
time to the fifh to tire himfelf, and then touch him
gently. When you perceive the float fink, creep to
the water fide, and give it as much line as you can.
IF it is a bream or carp, they will run to the other fide ;
which ftrike gently, and hold your rod at a bent a little
while ; but do not pull, for then you will fpoil all ;
but you mufi firft tire them before they can be landed,
ior they are very Ihy. If there are any carps in the
river, it is an even wager that you take one or more of
them; but if there are any pike or perch, they will be
fure to vifit the ground bait, though they will not
touch it, being drawn thither by the great refort of the
fmall fifh ; and until you remove them, it is in vain to
think of taking the bream or carp. In this cafe, bait
one of your hooks with a fmall bleak, roach, or gud¬
geon, about two feet deep from your float, w'ith a little
red worm at the point of your hook ; and if a pike be
there, he will be fure to fnan at it. This fport is good
till nine o’clock in the morning ; and in a gloomy day,
till night j but do not frequent the place too much, left
the fifh grow fliv.
wf ^ A perfon wh o angles for carp muft
1 arm himlelf with abundance of patience, becaufe of its
extraordinary fubtility and policy ; they always choofe
to lie in the deepeft places, either of ponds or rivers,
where there is but a fmall running ftream.
Further, obferve, that they will feldom bite in cold
weather j and you cannot be too early or too late at
the fpot in hot weather; and if he bite, you need not
fear his hold 5 fur he is one of thofe leather-mouthed
fifh that have their teeth in their throat.
Neither muft yuu forget, in angling for him, to
have a ftrong rod and line ; and fince he is fo very wary,
it will be proper to entice him, by baiting the ground
with a coarfe pafte.
He feldom refufes the red worm in March, the
caddis in June, or the grafhopper in June, April, and
September.
This fifh does not only delight in worms, but alfo in
fweet pafte $ of which there is great variety j the beft
is made of honey and fugar, and ought to be thrown
into the water fome hours before you begin to angle;
neither will fmall pellets thrown into the water two or
three days before be worfe for this purpofe, especially
if chickens guts, garbage, or blood mixed with bran
and cow dung, be alfo thrown in.
But more particularly, as to a pafte very proper for
this ufe, you may make it in the manner following:
Take a fufficient quantity of flour, and mingle it with
veal, cut fmall, making it up with a compound of
honey ; then pound all together in a mortar till they
are fo tough as to hang upon the book without wafhing
off. In order to effect which the better, mingle whitilb
wool with it ; and if you keep it all the year round,
add fome virgin wax and clarified honey.
Again, If you fifh with gentles, anoint them with
honey, and put them on your hook, with a deep fcarlet
dipped in the like, which is a good way to deceive the
fifh.
Honey and crumbs of wheat bread, mixed together^
make alfo a very good pafle.
In taking a carp either in pond or river, ifthe angler
intends to add profit to his pleafure, he muft take a
8 ] FIS
peck of ale-grains, and a good quantity of any blood Fiflfir
to mix with the grains, baiting the ground with it  J!
where he intends to angle. 'I bis food will wonder-
fui y attra61 the fcale-fifh, as carp, tench, roach, dace,
and bream.
Let him angle in a morning, plumbing his ground,
and angling for carp with a ftrong line : the bait muft
be either pafte or a knotted red worm $ and by this
means he will have fport enough.
Defcription of proper Baits for the feveralforts ofFlSH
referred to in the annexed Table.
Flies.1. Stone fly, found under hollow ftones at
the lides of rivers, is of a brown colour, with yellow
ftreaks on the back and belly, has large wings, and is
in feafon from April to July. 2. Green drake, found
among ftones by river fides, has a yellow body ftripped
with green, is long and {lender, with wings like a
butterfly, his tail turns on his back, and from May to
Midfummer is very good. 3, Oak-fly, found in the
body of an oak or afli, with its head downwards, is of a
brown colour, and excellent from May to September.
4. Palmer fly or worm, found on leaves of plants, is
commonly called a caterpillar, and when it comes to a
fly is excellent for trout. 5. Ant fly, found in ant hills
from June, to September. 6. The May fly is to be
found playing at the river fide, efpecially againft rain.
7. Ihe black fly is to be found upon every hawthorn
after the buds are come off.
Pafes.'] 1. lake the blood of (beep’s hearts, and
mix it with honey and flour worked to a proper con¬
fidence. 2. Take old cheefe grated, a little butter
fufficient to work it, and colour it with faffron : in
winter ufe rufty bacon inftead of butter. 3. Crumbs
of bread chewed or worked with honey or fiigar, moift-
ened with gum ivy water. 4. Bread chewed, and
worked in the hand till ftiff..
Worms.1. Ihe earth bob, found in Tandy ground
after ploughing ; it is white, with a red bead, and big¬
ger than a gentle : another is found in heathy ground,
with a blue head. Keep them in an earthen veffel well
covered, and a fufficient quantity of the mould they
harbour in. They are excellent from April to No¬
vember. 2. Gentles to be had from putrid flefh : let
them lie in wheat bran a few days before ufed.
3. Flag worms, found in the roots of’flags; they are
of a pale yellow colour, are longer and thinner than a
gentle, and muft be fcowered like them. 4. Cow-
turd bob, or clap bait, found under a cow turd from
May to Michaelmas ; it is like a gentle, but larger.
Keep it in its native earth like the earth bob. 5. Caddis
worm, or cod bait, found under loofe ftones in (hallow
rivers j they are yellow, bigger than a gentle, with a
black or blue head, and are in feafon from April to
July. Keep them in flannel bags. 6. Lob worm,
found in gardens *, it is very large, and has a red head ;
a ftreak down the back, and a flat broad tail. 7. Marfh-
worms, found in marfhy ground j keep them in mofs
ten days before you ufe them : their colour is a bluifh
red, and are a good bait from March to Michaelmas.
8. Brandling red worms, or blood worms, found in
rotten dunghills and tanners bark ; they are fmall red
worms, very good for all fmall fifhj have fometimes a
yellow tail, and are called tag-tail.
Fijh
FIS l 6
'Plfhir.g. t'i/h and InfeSis.~\ l. Minnow. 2. Gudgeon. 3.
  Roach. 4. Dace. 5. Smelt. 6. Yellow frog. 7.
Snail flit. 8. Grafhopper.
FISHING Fhj, a bait ufed in angling for divers kinds
of fifti. See Fishing.
The fly is either naturai or artificial.
I. Natural flies are innumerable. The more ufual
for this purpofe are mentioned in the preceding page.
There are two ways to filh with natural flies ; ei¬
ther on the furface of the water, or a little under¬
neath it.
In angling for chevin, roach, or dace, move not
your natural fly fwiftly when you fee the filh make at
it: but rather let it glide freely towards him with the
ftream : but if it be in a ftill and flow water, draw the
fly flowly fidewife by him, which will make him eager¬
ly purfue.
II. The artificial fly is feldom ufed but in hinder¬
ing weather, when the waters are fo troubled by the
winds, that the natural fly cannot be feen, nor reft upon
them. Of this artificial fly there are reckoned no lefs
than I 2 forts, of which the following are the principal.
1. For March, the dun flv ; made of dun wool, and
the feathers of the partridge’s wing ; or the body made
of black wool, and the feathers of a black drake. 2. For
April, the ftone fly ; the body made of black wool,
dyed yellow under the wings and tail. 3. For the
beginning of May, the ruddy fly $ made of red wool,
tind bound about with black filk, with the feathers of
a black capon hanging dangling on his fides next his
tail. 4. For June, the greeniih fly; the body made of
black wool, with a yellow lift on either fide, the wings
taken off the wings of a buzzard, bound with black
broken hemp. 5. The moorifh fly, the body made of
dufkifh wool, and the wings of the blackifh mail of a
drake. 6 The tawney fly, good till the middle of
June ; the body made of tawney wool, the wings made
contrary one againft the other of the whitifh mail of
a white drake. 7. For July, the wafp fly; the body
made of black wool, caft about with yellow fiik, and
the wings of drakes feathers. 8. The fteel fly ; good
in the middle of July ; the body made with greenifh
wool, caft about with the feathers of a peacock’s tail,
and the wings made of thofe of the buzzard. 9. For
Auguft, the drake fly ; the body made with black
Wool caft about with black filk ; his wings of the mail
of a black drake, with a black head.
The beft rules for artificial fly filhing are,
1. To fifti in a river fomewhat difturbed with rain :
or in a cloudy day, when the waters are moved by a
gentle breeze : the fouth wind is beft ; and if the wind
. blow high, yet not fo but that you may conveniently
guard your tackle, the filh will rife in plain deeps; but
if the wind be fmall, the beft angling is in fwift ftreams.
2. Keep as far from the water fide as may be ; fifti
down the ftream ivith the fun at your back, and touch
not the water with vour line. 3. Ever angle In clear
rivers, with a ftnall flv and flender wings ; but in mud¬
dy places, ufo a larger. 4. When, after rain, the wa¬
ter becomes brownifli, ufe an orange fly ; in a clear
day, a light-coloured fly ; a dark fly for dark waters,
&c. 5. Let the line be twice as long as the rod, un-
lefs the river he encumbered with wood. 6. For e-
very fort o* fly, have feveral of the fame differing in
-colour, to fuit with the different complexions of feve-
59 1 Fis
ral waters and weathers. 7 H. ve a nimble eye, and
aftive hand, to ftrike prefently with the rifing of the
filh ; or elie he will be apt to fpue out the hook.
8. Let the fly fall firft into the water, and not the line^
which will Rare the fith. 9. In flow rivers, or ftill
places, caft the fty acroF the river, and let it fink a
little in the water, and draw it gently back with the
current.
Salmon flies (hould be made with their wings (land¬
ing one behind the other, whether two or four. This
fiih delights in the gaudieft colours that can be ; chief¬
ly in the wings, which muft belong, as well as the tail.
FISHING by means of birds, a method peculiar to the
Chmtfe, who train certain birds for the purpofe in the
fame manner as falcons are taught to purfue game.
For this purpofe they have trained a fpecies of pelican,
refembling the common corvorant, which they call the
Leu-t%e, or filhing bird. Sir George Staunton, who,
when the embaffy was proceeding on the fouthern
branch of the great canal, faw thole birds employed,
tells us, that on a large lake, clofe to the eaft fide, of
the canal, are thoufands of fmall boats and rafts, built
entirely for this fpecies of filhery. On each boat or
raft are ten or a dozen birds, which, at a fignal from
the owner, plunge into the water ; and it is aftoniftiing
to fee the enormous fize of fifti with which they return,
grafped within their bills. They appeared to be fo well
trained, that it did not require either ring or cord about
their throats to prevent them from fvvallowing any por¬
tion of their prey, except what their mafter was pleafed
to return to them for encouragement and food. The
boat ufed by thefe fifhermen is of a remarkable light
make, and is often carried to the lake, together with
the filhing birds, by the men who are there to be fup-
ported by it.
The fame author faw the fiftiermen bufy on the great
lake Wee chaung-hee ; and he gives the following ac¬
count of a very lingular method pradtifed by them for
catching the filh of the lake without the aid of birds,
of net, or of hooks. To the one fide of a boat a flat
board, painted white, is fixed, at an angle of about 4;
degrees, the edge inclining towards the water. Ou
moonlight nights the boat is fo placed that the painted
board is turned to the moon, from whence the rays of
light ftriking on the whitened furface, give to it the
appearance of moving water; on which the fifh
being tempted to leap on their element, the boat¬
men railing with a firing the board, turn the fifti into
the boat.
Water-fowl are much fought after by the Chinefe,
and are taken upon the fame lake by the following in¬
genious device. F.mpty jars or gourds are fuffered to
float about upon the water, that fuch objedfs may be¬
come familiar to the birds. The filherman then wades
into the lake with one of thefe empty veffels upon his
head, and walks gently towards a bird ; and lifting up
his arm, draws it down below the furface of the water
without any difturbance or giving alarm to the reft,
feveral of whom he treats in the fame manner, until he
fills the bag he had brought to hold his prey. The
contrivance itfelf is not fo lingular, as it is that the fame
exadtly {hould have occurred in the new continent, as
Ulloa afferts, to the natives of Carthagena, upon the
lake Cienega de Tefias.
FISHING Floats, are little appendages to the line,
.4 O 2 ferving
Filliinf.
O)
FIS [ 660
ferving to keep the hook and bait fufpended at the able
F I S
proper depth, to difeover when the fi(h has hold of
them, &c. Of thefe there are divers kinds 5 fome
made of Mufcovy duck quills, which are the beft for
flow waters j but for ftrong dreams, found cork, with¬
out fiiws or holes, bored through with a hot iron, into
which is put a quill of a fit proportion, is prefer-
pare the cork to a pyramidal form, and make it
fmooth.
FISHING Hook, a final! inftrument made of fteel wire,
of a proper form to catch and retain filh.
The filhing hook in general ought to be long in the
fliank, fomewhat thick in the circumference, the point
even and ftraigbt ; let the bending be in the thank.
Fifliir
FIS [ 661 ] FIT
Fifhing,
Fiffures.
Jacob's
Law DiCl.
For felting the hook on, ufe ftrong but fmail filk,
laying the hair on the infide of your hook ; for if it be
on the outfide, the filk will fret and out it a funder.
There are leveral fizes of thefe filhuig hook1), fome
big, fome little: and of thefe, fame have peculiar
names; as, I. Single hooks. 2. Double hooks ; which
have two bendings, one contrary to the other. 3. Snap¬
pers, or gorgers, which are the hooks to whip the artifi¬
cial fly upon, or bait with the natural fly. 4. Springers,
or fpring hooks ; a kind of double hooks, with a fpring,
which flies open upon being ftruck into any fifh, and
fo keeps its mouth open.
FlSHING-Lme, is either made of hair twitted; or fiik;
or the Indian grafs. The belt colours are the forrel,
white, and gray ; the two laft for clear waters, the fir ft
fur muddy ones. Nor is the pale watery green de-
fpilable ; this colour is given artificially, by fteeping
the hair in a liquor made of alum, foot, and the juice
of walnut leaves, boiled together.
FISHING Rod, a long (lender rod or wand, to which
the line is fattened, for angling.—Of thefe there are
feveral forts; as, i. A troller, or trolling rod, which
has a ring at the end of the rod, for the line to go
through when it runs off a reel. 2. A whipper, or
whipping rod ; a top rod, that is weak in the middle,
and top heavy, but all (lender and fine. 3. A dropper;
which is a ftrong rod and very light. 4. A fnapper,
or fnap rod ; which is a ftrong pole, peculiarly ufed
for the pike. 5. A bottom rod ; being the fame as
the dropper, but fomewbat more pliable. 6. A hag¬
gling or procking (tick ; a forked (tick, having a (hurt
ftrong line, with a needle, baited with a lob worm :
this is only for eels in their holes.
Fishing Frog-, or Angler. See Lophius.
Right of FISHING, and property of fifti. It has been
held, that where the lord of the manor hath the foil
on both fides of the river, it is good evidence that he
hath a right of filhing ; and it puts the proof upon him
who claims liberam pifcariant: but where a river ebbs
and flows, and is an arm of the fea, there it is common
to all, and he who claims a privilege to himfelf muft
prove it ; for if the trefpafs is brought for filhing there,
the defendant may juftify, that the place where is bra-
cluum marls, in quo unufquifque fubclitus domini refs ha-
bet et habere debet liberam pifcariam. In the Severn the
foil belongs to the owners of the land on each fide ;
and the foil of the river Thames is in the king, but the
fiihing is common to all. He who is owner of the foil
of a private river, hath feparalis pifcaria ; and he that
hath libera pifcaria, hath a property in the n(h, and may
bring a pofleffory a<ftion for them ; but communis pif¬
caria is like the cafe of all other commons. One that
has a clofe pond in which there are filh, may call them
pifccs fuos, in an indi&ment, &c. but he cannot call
them bona et catalla, if they be not in trunks. There
needs no privilege to make a fifti pond, as there doth
in the cafe of a warren. See Franchise.
FISSURES, in Geology, certain interruptions, that
in a horizontal or parallel manner divide the feveral
ftrata of which the body of our globe is compofed.
See Geology Index.
FISSURE of the Bones, in Surgery, is when they are
divided either tranfverfely or longitudinally, not quite
through, but cracked after the manner of glafe, by any
external force. See Surgery.
FISTULA, in the ancient mufic, an inttrument of
the wind kind, refembling our flute or flageolet.
The principal wind inltruments of the ancients, were
the tibia and the fiftula. But how they were confti-
tuted, wherein they differed, or how they were played
upon, does not appear. All we know is, that the
fiftula was at firli made of reeds, and afterwards of other
matters. Some had holes, fome none; fome again were
(ingle pipes; others a combination of feveral; witnefs
the fyringa of Pan.
Fistula, in Surgery, a deep, narrow, and callous
ulcer, generally arifing from abfceffes.
It differs from Jtnus, in its being callous, the latter
not. See Surgery Index.
Fistula, in Farriery. See Farriery Index,
FISTULAR1A, or Tobacco-Pipe Fish; a genus
of fillies, belonging to the order of abdommaies. See
Ichthyology Index.
FIT. See Paroxysm.
Dr Cheyne is of opinion, that fits of all kinds, whe¬
ther epileptic, hyfteric, or apople&ie, may be cured
lolely by milk diet, of about two quarts of cows milk
a-day, without any other medicine.
FITCHES, in Hufbandry, a fort of pulfe, more ge¬
nerally known by the name of chich-pea. See Cicer,
Botany and Agriculture Index,
Fitches are cultivated either for feeding cattle, or
improving the land. They make a wholeforoe and nou-
rifliing food, whether given in the draw or thrafhed
out. When fown only to improve the foil, they are
ploughed in juft as they begin to bloffom, by which
means a tough ((iff clay (oil is much enriched.
FITCH FT, a name ufed in fome places for the
weafel, called alio the foumart. See Mustela, Mam¬
malia Index.
FITCHY, in Heraldry, (from the Frenchy£/?>/, i.e,
fxed) ; a term applied to a crofs when the lower branch
ends in a (harp point: and the reafon of it Mackenzie
Cup poles to be, that the primitive Chriftians were wont
to carry croffes with them wherever they went; and
when they (lopped on their journey at any place, they
fixed thofe portable croffes in the ground for devotion’s
fake.
FITZ, makes part of the furname of fome of the na¬
tural Tons of the kings of England, as Fifz-roy ; which
is purely French, and fignifies the “ king’s Ion.”
FITZHERBERT, Sir Anthony, a very learned
lawyer in the reign of King Henry VIII. was defcended
from an ancient family, and born at Norbury in Der-
byfhire. He was made one of the judges of the court
of common pleas in 15 23; and diftinguifhed himfelf by
many valuable works, as well as by fuch an honourable
difcharge of the duties of his office, as made him
efteetned an oracle of the law. His writings are, The
Grand Abridgement; The Office and Authority of
Juftices of Peace ; the Office of Sheriffs, Bailiffs of Li¬
berties, Efcheators, Conftables, Coroners, &c. ; Of the
Diverfitv of Courts ; The New Natura Brtvium ; Of
the Surveying of Lands, and The Book of Huffiandry.
He died in 1538.
FiTZ-S 1 EPHEN, William, a learned monk of
Canterbury, of Norman extra&ion, but born of refpe<5t-
able parents in the city of London. He lived in the
12th century ; and being attached tothe fervice of Arch-
bithop Becket, was preient at the time of his murder.
In
Fiftula
Fifz-Ste-
phen.
FIX [ 662 ] FIX
fives In the year 1174, he wrote in Latin, Tie Life of St
Fixlmtllner ^'^l0mas' (irchbifbop and martyr; in which, as Becket
- was a native of the metropolis, he introduces a defcrip-
tion ol the city of London, with a mifcellaneous detail
of the manners and ufages of the citizens : this is de-
fervedly confidered as a great curiofity, being the ear-
lied profeffed account of London extant. Fitz-Stephen
died in 1191.
FIVES, or ViVES. See FaRRIERY.
FIXATION, in Chemifry, the rendering any vo¬
latile fubdance fixed, fo as not to dy off upon being ex-
pofed to a great heat : hence,
FIXED BODIES, are thofe which bear a confiderable
degree of heat without evaporating, or lofing any of
their weight. Some of the mod fixed bodies are dia¬
monds, gold, &c.
FlXET) or Ftxable Air, an invifible and permanently
eladic duid, fuperior in gravity to common atmofphe-
ric air and mod other aerial duids, exceedingly' dedruc-
tive to animal life ; produced in great tjuantities, natu¬
rally from combudible bodies, and artificially by many
chemical proceffes. From its acid properties it has
obtained the name of aerial Acid, cretaceous acid, and
carbonic acid; from its noxious qualities, it has been
called mephitic air, or mephitic gas ; and, from the cir-
cumdance of being produced in vad quantities during
the combudion of charcoal, it fird obtained from Van
Helmont the name of gas fylvefre, ’Mbs icrta fixed air
has been given from its property of readily lofing its
eladicity, and fixing itfelf in many bodies, particularly
thofe of the calcareous kind ; and though fome objected
to the propriety of the term, the fluid in quedion is fo
well known by the name of fixed air, that we choofe dill
to retain it. See CHEMISTRY Index. For an account
ot the apparatus for impregnating water with fixed
air or carbonic acid, fee Materia Medica Index.
Fixed Stars, are fuch as conflantly retain the fame
pofition and didance with refpefr to each other ; by
which they are didinguidied from erratic or wandering
dars, which are continually drifting their fituation and
didance. The fixed dars are properly called ,*
the red have the peculiar denomination of planet and
comet, S»e ASTRONOMY Index.
FIXITY, or Fixedness, in Chemijlry, is in a pe¬
culiar manner ufedTor the affe&ion oppofite to volati¬
lity ; i. e. the property Whereby bodies bear the action
of the fire, without being didipated in fumes.
FIXLMILLNER, PlaciDus, an eminent adro-
nomer, was born at Achleiten near Linz, in Audria,
on the 28th of May, 1720. He received the rudiments
of his education in the monadery of Kremfmunder, of
which his uncle Alexander was abbot. Here he flu-
died during fix years, and delighted fir much in drawing
draight and curve-line figures, that his mother called
him the almanack-maker. He went afterward to Salz-
burg, where he fludied a regular courfe of philc'fuphy,
and particularly turned his attention to mathematics
under a profeffor Stuard, whofe method of teaching that
fcience was truly extraordinary, as he never made ufe
. any figures, and yet conveyed fuch a clear idea of
every propofition as made it perfe.<511y eafy. He was
admitted as a novice into Kremfmunder in 1737, and
the next year he took the folemn vow in prefence of
'his uncle. After being two years in this monadery,
^during which time he devoted every leifure hour to the
dudy of mathematics and philofophy, he went to f'hd'uillner,
Salzburg to finith his fludies in divinity and jurifpru- H
dence, acquiring at that time a competent knowledge
of oriental and modern languages, hiflory and antiqui¬
ties. In the year 1745* he obtained the degree of L. D.
atter which he received prieit’s orders in his own monad
tery, and was created profeffor of ecclefiadical law,
which office he held for 40 years, difcharging the du¬
ties belonging to it till within a few days of his death.
He was alfo chofen dean of the higher fchools, and re¬
gent of the young nobility, which he retained during
life.
He wrote a commentary on the Jus Canonicum, not-
withdanding his extenfive epidolary correfpondence,
and the management of the whole bufinefs of the mo¬
nadery, but this work was never pubiiflied. He was,
by the intreaties of his friends, induced to publiffi his
Reipublicce facnv origihes divince, feu F.cclefice Chritii ex-
tenor junSiura, imperitim, et hierarchia, ex primigenia
ejus inflitutione eruta et demonfrata. His commendable
diligence procured him univerfal efleem, but it was his
‘knowledge of atlronomy which rendered him illuftri-
ous. His uncle Alexander fitted up an apartment for
containing the indruments neceffary for the diffemina-
tion of mathematical knowledge, and he alfo ere&ed an
obfervatory, which was begun in 1748, and completed
in 1758, under the dire&ion of Anfelm Dering of Emf-
dorf, a celebrated architedL While the obfervatory
was building, Fixlmillner led a life of retirement and
fevere dudy, his favourite fubjed during thefe ten
years being aflronomy. When it was finiflied, one
Dobler, a celebrated mathematician, was appointed firft
adronomer ; but the fucceffors of Fixlmillner’s uncle
having difcovered his extenfive mathematical know¬
ledge, made him an offer of the adronomical depart¬
ment, and the foie direction of the obfervatory. This
place he accepted in the year 1762, dill retaining
his chair as profeffor of ecclefiadical law. He was not
yet mafler of the learning which pra&ical adronomy
requires, to remedy which defeO he attentively perufed
Lalande’s F.xpofition du Calcul Aflronomique, foon after
which he obtained the large adronomical work of the
fame great man, and in 1766 he publifhed his Mcridi-
anus fpeculee Aflronomicce Cremfanenfis, by which he
acquired confiderable reputation. Ten years after this
period he gave the World his Dccennium AJlronomicum,
containing many curious and important particulars re-
fpe&ing the theory and practice of adronomy. His
ABa AJlrqnomica Cremfanenjis, which did not appear
till after his deceafe, dill farther increafed his aflro-
nomical reputation ; and he was a large contributor
to many periodical publications in different coun¬
tries.
He made and collefted a number of obfervations of
the planet Mercury, which were at that period both
fcarce and difficult, the importance of which was pub¬
licly acknowledged by Lalande, as they greatly affided
him in condrufting his tables of that planet. Fixlmill¬
ner was one of the firil aflronomers %vho calculated the
•orbit of the new planet Uranus (Georgium Sidus), and
his tables refpe£Hng it-may be feen in the Berlin al¬
manack for 1789. He alfo proved the truth of what
wa^formerly conjeiflured, that the 34th flar of Taurus,
which Flamdead obfervtd in 1690, was the new planet.
It may be faid of mod philofophers, that they obierve a
great
F L A / [ 663 ] FLA
Fixlinillner ^reat deal, and calculate little, but tbe conduct of
II Fixlmillner was exadtly the reverfe. He turned his
L attention to the ohfervation of the folar fpots more than
any of bis predeceffors, which he noticed in the years
1767, 1776, 1777, 1778, and 1782, from which he
deduced important inferences refpedling the revolution
of the fun on his axis.
He had a genius uncommonly adapted to the ftudy
of mechanics, by which he was enabled to invent a new
micrometer, and a machine for grinding concentric
circles. As an additional proof of his profound inven¬
tive genius, he refided in the country, by which means
he was in a great meafure deprived of literary afliftance,
yet to the very clofe of life he was a Angular inftance
of the moft indefatigable zeal, diligence, and perfever-
ance. He was little fubjeft to the influence of the tur¬
bulent paflions 5—perhaps lefs fo than moft other men.
Like the laws of nature, which it was his chief delight
to ftudy, he was Ample, uniform, and conftant; and
fuch were the mildnefs and integrity of his charadler,
that he could not fail to acquire the love and efteem of
mankind. His high reputation never infpired him
with vanity, and he rather wilhed to conceal than to
propagate what was written in his praife. It gave gene-
ral joy to his monaftie brethren to celebrate the anni-
verfary of the ftftieth year of his reAdence in it, which
he did not long furvive. His health was very, much
impaired by his intenfe application, and he Anifhed his
career on the 27th of Auguft 1791, in the 71ft year
of his age.
FLACCUS, Caius Valerius, an ancient Latin
poet, of whom we have very imperfeft accounts remain¬
ing. He wrote a poem on the Argonautic expedition }
of which, however, he did not live to flnifh the eighth
book, dying at about 30 years of age. John Baptifto
Pius, an Italian poet, completed the eighth book of
the Argonautics ; and added two more from the fourth
of Apollonius ; which fupplement was Arft added to
Aldus’s edition in 1523.
FLAGS, in the army, are fmall banners of diftinc-
tion ftuck in the baggage waggons to diftinguifti the
ka£gage of one brigade from another ; and of one bat¬
talion from another; that they may be marflialled by
the waggon-mafter general according to the rank of
their brigades, to avoid the confuAon that might other-
wife arife.
Flag, in the marine, a certain banner or ftandard,
by which an admiral is diftinguiftied at fea from the
inferior fhips of his fquadron ; alfo the colours by which
one nation is diftinguilhed from another. See Plate
CCXV1II.
In the Britifli navy, flags are either red, white, or
blue $ and are difplayed from the top of the main-maft,
fore-maft, or mizen-maft, according to the rank of the
admiral. When a flag is difplayed from the flag-ftaflf
on the main-maft, the officer diftinguiftied thereby is
known to be an admiral ; when from the foremaft, a
vice-admiral j and when from the mizen-maft, a rear-
admiral.
The Arft flag in Great Britain is the royal ftandard, ,
which is only to be hoifted when the king or queen are
on board the veffel : the fecond is that of the anchor
of hope, which charaflerizes the lord high admiral, or
lords commiffioners of the admiralty : and the third is
the union flag, in which the croffes of St George and
St Andrew are blended. This laft is appropriated to Fla?,
the admiral of the fleet, who is the ftrft military officer Flagellan-
under the lord high admiral. tes-
The next flag after the union is that of the white T f
fquadron at the main-maft head 5 and the laft, which
characterizes an admiral, is the blue, at the fame mail
head.
For a vice-admiral, the firft flag is the red, the fe¬
cond the white, the third the blue, at the flag ftaff on
the fore-maft.
The fame order proceeds with regard to the rear-ad¬
mirals, whofe flags are hoifted on the top of the mizen-
maft : the loweft flag in our navy is accordingly the
blue on the mizen-maft.
To Lower or Strike the FLAG, in the marine, is to
pull it down upon the cap, or to take it in, out of '
the refpedt, or fubmiffion, due from all (hips or fleets
inferior to thofe any way juftly their fuperiors. To
lower or ftrike the flag in an engagement is a fign of
yielding.
The wray of leading a {hip in triumph is to tie the
flags to the fhrouds, or the gallery, in the hind part
of the fliip, and let them hang down towards the wa¬
ter, and to tow the vefiels by the ftern. Livy relates,
that this was the way the Romans ufed thofe of Car¬
thage.
To Heave out the FLAG, is to put out or put abroad
the flag.
To Hang out the White FLAG, is1 to afk quarter ; or
it {hows when a veflel is arrived on a coaft, that it has
no hoftile intention, but comes to trade or the like.
The red flag is a fign of defiance and battle.
Flag is alfo ufed for a fedge, a kind of rufh.
Corn-FLAG. See Gladiolus, Botany Index.
Sweet fcented FLAG. See Acorus, Botany Index.
FLAG-Ojjicers, thofe who command the feveral fqua-
drons of a fleet; fuch are the admirals, vice-admirals, .
and rear-admirals.
The flag officers in our pay, are the admiral, vice-
admiral, and rear-admiral, of the white, red, and blue.. -
See Admiral, Flag, and Fleet.
FLAG-Ship, a fliip commanded by a general or flag-
officer, who has a right to carry a flag, in contradi-
ftindtion to the fecondary veffels under the command
thereof.
FLAG-Stone, a kind of fand-ftone of a flaty ftruflure,
on account of which it is much employed for the pur-
pofe of paving foot-paths or the floors of apartments in
which wood is unfuitable.
FLAGELLANTES, a fet of wild fanatics who
chaftifed and difciplined themfelves with whips in pub¬
lic.
The fe6! of the Flagellantes had its rife in Italy in
the year 1260 ; its author was one Rainier a hermit ;
and it was propagated from hence through almoft all
the countries of Europe. It was in all probability no
more than the effect of an indifcreet zeal. A great
number of perfons of all ages and fexes made procef-
Aons, walking two by two with their flioulders bare,
which they whipped till the blood ran down, in order
to obtain mercy from God, and appeafe his indigna¬
tion againft the wickednefs of the age. They were
then called the devout; and having eftablifhed a fupe-
rior, he was called the general of the devotion. Though
the primitive Flagellantes were exemplary in point of
moral
FLA [ 664 1 FLA
Flagellan- morals, yet they were joined by a turbulent rabble
res who were infe<51ed with the molt ridiculous and itnpi-
Flake 0US °P'n*ons 5 ^hat the emperors and pontiffs thought
» ■ proper to put an end to this religious frenzy, by de¬
claring all devout whipping contrary to the divine law,
and prejudicial to the foul’s eternal intereft.
X'his fe£t revived in Germany towards the middle
of the next century, and rambling through many
provinces, oocafioned great difturbances. They held,
among other things, that flagellation was of equal
virtue with baptifm and the other facrements; that
the forgivenefs of all fins was to be obtained by it
from God without the merits of Jefus Ciiritl ; that the
old law of Chriit was foon to be abolifhed, and that a
new law enjoining the baptifm of blood to be admini-
itered by whipping was to be fubftituted in its place ;
Upon which Clement VII. by an injudicious as well as
unrighteous policy, thundered out anathemas againit
the Flagellantes, who were burnt by the inquilitors in
feveral places ; but they were not eafily extirpated.
They appeared again in Thuringia and Lower Saxony
in the 15th century, and rejected not only the facra-
rnents, but every branch of external worfhip, and pla¬
ced their only hopes of falvation in faith and flagella¬
tion, to which they added other ftrange dodlrines con¬
cerning evil fpirits. Their leader Conrad Schmidt and
many others were committed to the flames by German
inquifitor® in and after the year 1414.
FLAGEOLET, or Flajeolet, a little flute, ufed
chiefly by fhepherds and country people. It is made of
box or other hard wood, and fometimes of ivory ; and
has fix holes befides that at the bottom, the mouth¬
piece, and that behind the neck.
FLAIL, an inftrument for thrafhing corn. It con-
fifts of the following parts. 1. The hand flaff, or piece
held in the thrafher’s hand. 2. The fwiple, or that part
which firikes out the corn. 3. The caplins, or ftrong
double leathers, made fafl: to the tops of the hand-ftaff
and fvviple. 4. The middle band, being the leather
thong nr fifh fkin that ties the caplins together.
1LAIR, in lea language. The feamen fay that
the work doth flair over, when a fliip is houfed in
near the Water, fo that the work hangs over a little too
much, and this is let out broader aloft than the due
proportion will allow.
FLAKE, in the cod fifliery, a fort of fcfeffbld or
platform, made of hurdles, and fupported by flaUehions,
ufed for drying cod fifh in Newfoundland. Theft:
flakes are ufually placed near the {bores of fifliing har¬
bours.
Flake, in Gardening, a name given by the florifts
to a fort of carnations which are of two colours only,
and have very large firipes, all of them going quite
through the leaves.
White FLAKE, in Painting, is lead corroded by means
of the prefling of grapes, or a cerufi* prepared by
the acid of grape-. It is brought from Italy, and
far fur fli-s, both with regard to the purity of its
whitenefs and the certainty of its {landing, all the ce-
rnfe or white lead made with us in common. It is
ufed in oil or varnilh painting for all purpofes where
a very clean white is required. The white flake, fhould
be procured in lumps as it is brought over, and levi¬
gated by thofe who ufe it; becauft that which the co
lourmen fell in a prepared Rate is levigated and mixed
up with ftarcb, and often with white lead, and worfe fm.
fophiflications. y *
t LAM BEAU, or Flamboy, a luminary made of Flame,
feveral thick wicks, covered over with wax, ferving to ’’“““'V"-"*
burn at nights in the ft reels ; as alfo at funeral proeef-
fions, illuminations, &e.
Flambeaux differ from links, torches, and tapers.-—
They are made iquare, fometimes of white wax and
fometimes of yellow. They ufually confift of four
wicks or branches near an inch thick, atid about three
feet long, made of a fort of coarfe hempen yarn half
twitted. They are made with the ladle much as torches
or tapers are j viz. by firft pouring the melted wax on
the top of the feveral fufpended wicks, and letting it
run down to the bottom. This they repeat twice.
After each wick has thus got its proper cover of wax,
then lay them to dry ; then roll them on a table, and
fo join four of them together by means of a red hot
iron. When joined, they pour on more wax till the
flambeau is brought to the fize required, which is
ufaally from a pound and a half to three pounds. The
lait thing is to tinifh their form or outfide, which they
do with a kind of polifhing inftrument of wood by
running it along all the angles formed by the union of
the branches.
The flambeaux of the ancients were different from
ours. They were made of woods dried in furnaces or
otherwife. They ufed divers kinds of wood for this
purpofe 5 the wood moft ufually was pine. Pliny lays,
that in his lime .hey frequently alfo burnt oak, elm,
and hazel. In the feventh book of the iEneid, men¬
tion is made of a flambeau of pine ; and Servius on
that paffage remarks, that they alfo made them of the
•cornel-tree.
FLAM BOROUGH HEAD, in Geography, a cape
or promontory on the eaftern coaft of Yorkihire, five
miles eaft of Burlington, and 215 from London.—
E. Long. 20°, N. Lat. 54. 15.—This was the Fleam-
burg of the Saxons ; fo called, as feme think, from the
lights made on it to dire<R the landing of Ina, who in
547 joined his countrymen in thefe parts w ith a large
reinforcement from Germany, and founded the king¬
dom of Northumberland. In the time of Edward the
Confeffor, Flamborough U'as one of the manors of
Harold, earl of the Weft Saxons, afterwards king of
England. On his death, the Conqueror gave it to
Hugh Lupus who, in perpetual alms, bellowed it
on the monaftery of Whitby.—The town is on the
north fide, and eonfifts of about Ijofmall houfes, en-
tirfcly inhabited by fi(hermen ; few of whom, as is faid,
die in their beds, but meet their fate in the element
they are fo converfant in. The cliffs of the Head are
of a tremendous height and amazing grandeur. Be¬
neath are feveral vaft caverns •, feme doled at the end,
others pervious, formed with a natural arch. In fume
places the rocks are infulatcd, and of a pyramidal
figure, {oaring up to a vaft height. The bales of moft
are folk!-, but in foffie pierced through and arched.
The colour of all thefe recks is while, from the dung
of the innumerable flocks of migratory birds, which
quite cover the face of them, filling every little projec¬
tion, every hole that will give them leave to reft.
FLAME, is a general name for every kind of lu¬
minous vapour, provided the light it emits hath any
confiderable degree of intenfity. The name jlame, how¬
ever,
FLA [ 665 ] FLA
Flame, ever, is mofl: generally applied to fucli as are of a coni-
~^V—cal figure, like thofe arifing from our common fires $
without this they are commonly called luminous vapours,
or fituple lights.
According to Sir Ifaac Newton, flame is only red-
hot fmoke, or the vapour of any fubftance raifed from
it by fire, and heated to fuch a degree as to emit
light copioufly. This definition feems to be the moft
accurate and expreffive of any. It is certain, that
bodies are capable of emitting flame only in proportion
to the quantity of vapour that rifes from them. Thus
wood, coals, &.c. which emit a great quantity of
vapour, flame violently j while lead, tin, &c. which
•emit but a fmall fume, can fcarce be perceived to flame
at all.
This rule, however, is by no means to be depended
upon in all cafes. Some vapours feem to be in their
own nature uninflammable, and capable of extinguifh-
ing flame ; as thofe of water, the mineral acids, fal-am-
moniac, arfenic, &c.: while others take fire on the
flighted: approach of a flaming fubftance 5 fuch as ether,
fpirit of wine, &c. Thefe laft-mentioned fubftances
alfo exhibit a remarkable phenomenon ; namely, that
they cannot be made to flame without the approach of
fome fubftance a&ually in flames beforehand. Thus,
fpirit of wine poured on a red-hot iron, though inftant-
ly diffipated in vapour, will not flame ; but il a burn¬
ing candle touch its furface, the whole is fet in a flame
at once. The cafe is otherwife with oils, efpecially
thofe of the groffer kind ; for the vapours will readily
be changed into flame by the mere increafe of heat,
without the approach of any flaming fubftance.
There is, however, no kind of vapour, perhaps, that
is incapable of being converted into flame, provided it
is expofed to a fufficient degree of heat. .Thus the va¬
pour of water made to pafs through burning coals
produces an exceedingly ftrong and bright flame.—
It is remarkable, that this kind of vapour feems to be
more powerful than almoft any other in abforbing heat,
and detaining it in a latent ftate. When any quantity
of aqueous vapour is condenfed, more heat will be fepa-
rated from it than would have been fufticient to heat an
equal bulk of iron red hot.—It is moft probably to this
property which all vapours have of abforbing heat, and
detaining it in a latent ftate., that we are to attribute
the phenomena of flame, and alfo the exceeding great
elafticity of fteam. It is certain, that vapours, of wa¬
ter at leaft, have a much greater power of abforbing
and retaining heat, than the water from which they are
raifed. In open veffels, water cannot be heated more
that to 212 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer ; but
in Papin’s digefter, where the vapour is forcibly con¬
fined, it has been heated to 400 of the fame degrees ;
and, no doubt, might have been heated a great deal
more, had the veffels been ftrong enough to bear the
expanfile force of the fteam. On opening the veffels,
however, the excefs of heat was found to have refided
entirely in the vapour; for the water in the veffel very
foon funk down to 212, while the fteam iffued forth
with great violence.
From thefe experiments it appears, that the fteam of
water, after it has abforbed as much heat in the latent
ftate as it can contain, continues to abforb or detain
among its particles, aw unlimited quantity of fenfible
heat; and if the fteam could be confined till this quan-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
tity became great enough to be vifible by emiffion of Flame,
light, there cannot be the leaft doubt that the vapour t Flaxen,
would then be converted into flame. '_v
In what manner the heat is detained among the par¬
ticles of fteam, is perhaps impoflible to be explained ;
but to this heat we muft undoubtedly aferibe the vio¬
lent expanfive force of fteam of every kind. It feems
probable, that when fmoke is converted into flame, the
latent heat with which the vapoftr had combined, or
rather that which made an effential part of it, breaks
forth, and adds to the quantity of fenfible heat which
is already prefent. This feems probable, from the
hidden explofion with which all flames break out. If
a veffel full of oil is fet over the fire, a fmoke or vapour
begins to arife from it; which grows gradually thicker
and thicker ; and at laft begins to (bine in fome places
very near the furface of the oil, like an ele&ric light,
or fulphur juft kindled. At this time the oil is very
hot, as well as the fteam which iffues from it. But this
laft is continually giving off its fenfible heat into the at-
mofphere ; fo that at the diftance of an inch or two
from the furface of the oil, the heat of the fteam will
not exceed 400 degrees of Fahrenheit, or perhaps may
not be fo much ; but if a burning candle is held in the
fteam for a moment, the whole is immediately con¬
verted into flame, with fomething like an explofion ;
after which the oil burns quietly until it is all con-
fumed. The flame, as foon as it appears, is not only
much hotter than the fteam from whence it was pro¬
duced, but even than the oil which lies below it.
Whence, then, has this fudden and great increafe of
heat arifen ? It could not be the fenfible heat of the va¬
pour, for that was greatly inferior ; nor could it be
communicated from the oil, for that could communi¬
cate no more than it had to itfelf. The candle, in¬
deed, would communicate a quantity of heat to the va¬
pour which touched its flame ; but it is impoflible that
this quantity ftiould extend permanently over a furface
perhaps too times larger than the flame of the candle,
in fuch a manner as to make every part of that furface
equally hot with the flame of the candle itfelf; for this
would be to fuppofe it to communicate 100 times more
heat than really was in it. The heat therefore muft
have originally refided in the vapour itfelf ; and as, in
the freezing of water, its latent heat is extricated and
becomes fenfible, and the water thereupon lofes its flui¬
dity ; fo, in the afeenfion of vapour, the latent heat
breaks forth with a bright flafli, and the vapour is then
totally decompofed, and converted into foot, afhes, or
water, according to the different nature of the fub¬
ftances which produce it, or according to the intenfity
of the heat.—Several other hypothefes have been in¬
vented to folve the phenomena of burning and flaming
bodies ; for an account of which, fee IGNITION and
Heat, Chemistry Index.
Flames are of different colours, according to the fub¬
ftances from which they are produced. Thus, the
flame of fulphur and fpirit of wine is blue ; the flame
tif nitre and zinc, of a bright white ; that of copper, of
a greenilh blue, &c.—Thefe varieties afford an oppor¬
tunity of making a number of agreeable reprefentations
in fireworks, which could not be done if the flame
produced from every different fubftance was of the lame
colour. See Pyrotechnics.
FLAMEN, in Roman antiquity, the name of an
4 P order
F £ A [ 666 ] FLA
Plamen order of priefts, inftituted by Romulus or Numa : au-
II thors not being agreed on this head.
t laminms. They were originally only three, viz. the Flamen
Diahs, Flamen Martiahs, and Flamen ^uirinalis. The
.Flamen Dialis was facred to Jupiter, and a perfon of
the higheft confequence and authority in the ftate.
He difcbarged feveral religious duties which properly
belonged to the kings, and was honoured with many
eminent privileges beyond all other officers, but was
obliged to obferve feveral fuperftitious reflraints. The
Flamen Martialis was facred to Mars, and was ordain¬
ed to infpeft the rites of that god. The Flamen
Quirinalis was facred to, and fuperintended the rites
of, Quirinus Romulus. The Flamines laft mentioned,
though of high authority, were much inferior to the
Mamen Dialis. All three were chofen by the people,
and confecrated by the Pontifex Maximus. In latter
times feveral prietts of the fame order and name were
added to them, but inferior in power. The whole
number at laft amounted to 15 ; the three firft of
whom were fenators, and called Flamines majores; the
other 12 taken from among the people, being deno¬
minated Flamines minores.—Some authors tell us the
Romans had a Flamen for every deity they worfhip-
ped. The greater Flamines wore the robe edged with
purple, like the great magiftrates ; had an ivory chair,
and a feat in the fenate. They wore a little band of
thread about their heads, whence their name is faid to
be derived, quafi Ff/Wmej-.—The wife of the Flamen
Dialis was called Flaminica, and wore a flame-colour¬
ed habit, on which was painted a thunderbolt, and
above her head-drefs ftie had green oak boughs, to
indicate that (he belonged to Jupiter the thunderer, to
whom the oak was facred. The Flamines wore each
of them a hat or cap called Flammeum or Apex.
FLAMINGO, in Ornithology. See Phoenicof-
terus, Ornithology Index.
FLAMINIUS, or Flamininus, T. £). a cele¬
brated Roman, railed to the confullhip in the year of
Rome 554, though under the age of 30. He was trained
in the art of war againft Hannibal j and he (bowed him-
felf capable in every refpeft to difcharge with honour
the great office with which he was intruded. He was
fent at the head of the Roman troops againft Philip king
of Macedon, and in his expedition he met with uncom¬
mon fuccefs. The Greeks gradually declared themfelves
his firmeft fupporters j and he totally defeated Philip on
the confines of Epirus, and made all Locris, Phocis,
and Theflaly, tributary to the Roman power. He
granted peace to the conquered monarch, and proclaim¬
ed all Greece free and independent at the Ifthmian
games. This celebrated aftion procured the name of
Patrons of Greece to the Romans, and infenfibly paved
their way to univerfal dominion. Flaminius behaved
among them with the greateft policy 5 by his ready
compliance to their national cuftoms and prejudices, he
gained uncommon popularity, and received the name of
father and deliverer of Greece. He was afterwards
fent ambaflador to King Prufias, who bad given refuge
to Hannibal ; and there his prudence and artifice haften-
cd out of the world a man who had long been the ter¬
ror of the Romans. Flaminius was found dead in his
bed, after a life fpent in the greateft glory, in which he
had imitated with fuccefs the virtues of hii model
ficipio. 3
Flaminius, or Flaminio, Mark Antoni/, one of r- • ■
the beft Latin poets in the 16th century, of Imola in lai(jlmU5
Italy, fon and grandfon of very learned men. The Flamfteed.
pope had chofen him fecretary to the council in 154 c*
but he refufed that employment, becaufe, favouring
the new opinions, he would not employ his pen in
an aflembly where he knew thefe opinions were to be
condemned.—He paraphrafed 38 of the pfalms in Latin
verfe, and alfo wrote notes on the Pfalms j and fome let¬
ters and poems which are efteemed. He died at Rome
in 1550. '
FLAMSTED, a town of Hertfordfhire in England,
five miles from St Albans and Duftable, Hands on the’
river Verlam and was of old called Verlamftede. The
land in the vicinity is a clay fo thickly mixed with
flints, that, after a ffiower, nothing appears but a heap
of ftones; and yet it bears good corn even in dry fum-
mers. This fertility is imputed to a warmth in the flint,
which preferves it from cold in the winter ; and to its
clofenefs, which keeps it from the fcorching rays of the
fun in the fummer. Edward VI. when an infant, was
brought hither for his health ; and, it is faid, the bed-
ftead he lay on, which is curioufly wrought, is flill pre-
ferved in the manor houfe near the town.
FLAMS I EED, John, an eminent Engliffi aftrono-
mer, and the firft who obtained the appointment of af-
tronomer-royal, ivas born at Derby in 'the year 1646.
He was educated at the free fcbool of Derby, where he
was head fcholar at 14 years of age, at which period his
conftitution, naturally tender and delicate, was much
tried by a fevere illnefs. When Ibme of his companions
went to the univerfity, the ftate of his health prevented
him from accompanying them. He afterwards met with
a book De Spheera, written by John Sacrobofco, which
was perfectly fuited to the natural turn of his genius,
and therefore he perufed it with uncommon fatisfa&ion,
tranflating as much of it into Engliffi as he thought
would be neceffary for him ; and from the Ajlronotnia
Carolina: of Strut he learned the method of calculating
eclipfes, and afcertaining the places of the planets. Mr
Hatton, a mathematician, fent him Kepler’s Tabula Ru-
dolphince, and RicciolCs Almagejlum Novum, together
with fome other aftronomical works to which he was
as yet a ftranger. In 1669 he calculated an eclipfe of
the fun, which had been omitted in the Ephemerides
for the following year, together with five appulfes of the
moon to fixed ftars, and fent them to Lord Brouncker^
prefident of the Royal Society, who fubmitted them to
the examination of that learned body, by which they were
greatly applauded, and he received a letter of thanks
from Mr Oldenburg the fecretary. He likewife receiv¬
ed a letter of thanks from Mr Collins, one of the mem¬
bers.^ In 1670 he was invited to come up to London
by his father, that he might become perfonally acquaint¬
ed with his learned correfpondents, of which he gladly
accepted, and had an interview with Mr Oldenburg
and Mr Collins, by the latter of whom he was intro¬
duced to Sir Jonas Moore, who became the warm friend
and patron of Mr Flarnfteed. In confequence of this
journey he became acquainted with many aftronomical
inftruments, and was prefentedby Sir Jonas Moore with
Townley’s micrometer, who alfo affifted him in pro¬
curing glaffes at a moderate rate for the conftrudtion of
telefcopes. On his way home again he returned by
Cambridge, where he paid a vilit to the celebrated Dr
Barrow
FLA [ 667 ] FLA
Flamfleed, BaiTOW and Sir Ifaac, then Mr Newton, and entered a
Flanders. (Indent of Jefus college.
In the year 1672, he made large extradls from the
letters of Gafcoigne and Crabtree, by which his know¬
ledge of dioptrics was very much improved j and during
the fame year he made a number of celeftial obferva-
tions when the weather would permit, which were af¬
terwards publiftied in the Philofophical Tranfaftions.
In 1673 he compofed a treatife on the true and ap¬
parent diameters of the planets, when at their greateft
and lead didance from the earth, which even the great
Newton did not fcruple to borrow, and made fome ufe
of it in his Principia in 1685. He publifhed an Ephe-
meris in 1674, in which he expofed the folly and
abfurdity of adrology, and the fame year he drew up a
table of the tides for the ufe of the king, with an afti o-
nomical account of their ebbing and flowing, which Sir
Jonas Moore affured him would be well received by his
majefly. Sir Jonas received from Mr Flamdeed a pair
of barometers, with directions how to ufe them, which
he prefented to the king and the duke of York, to whofe
notice he embraced every opportunity of introducing
Mr Flamfleed.
Having taken the degree of M. A. at Cambridge,
he formed the refolution of entering into holy orders,
when Sir Jonas wrote to him to come to London,
where he had an appointment for him very different
from that of the church. But as he found that nothing
could make him abandon the refolution he had formed,
he obtained a fituation for him which was perfectly con¬
fident with the charafter of a clergyman. This was
the new office of aftronomer to the king, with a falary
of 100I. per annum. He received ordination at Ely-houfe
by Biffiop Gunning, in Eafter 16^y, and on the 10th
of Auguft in the fame year the foundation ftone of the
royal obfervatory at Greenwich was laid, which receiv¬
ed the defignation of Flamfteed houfe, in honour of the
firft aftronomer royal. Till this edifice was ereCted, he
made his obfervations in the queen’s houfe at Greenwich,
and in 1681 his DoCtrine of the Sphere was publifhed
by Sir Jonas Moore in his Syftem of the Mathematics.
Notwithffanding his extraordinary merit, he never rofe
higher in the church than to the living of Burflow in
Surrey, although he was defervedly effeemed by the
greateft men in the nation. He correfponded with the
great Newton, Dr Plalley, Mr W. Molyneux, Dr Wal¬
lis, and many others j and M. Caflini and he imparted
their difcoveries to each other with the utmoft confi¬
dence and cordiality. But none of his works contri¬
buted fo much to render his fame immortal as his “ Hif-
toria Casleftis Britannica,” in three volumes folio.
Mr Flamfteed was fuddenly carried off by a ftrangury
on the 31ft of December 1719; and notwithftanding
the extreme delicacy of his conftitution and incelfant
labours, he reached the 73d year of his age.
FLANDERS, a province of the Netherlands, bound¬
ed by the German fea and the United Provinces on the
north, by the province of Brabant on the eaft, by Hain-
ault and Artois on the fouth, and by another part of
Artois and the German fea on the weft j being about
60 miles long and 50 broad.
Flanders is a perfectly champaign csonlry, with not Flanders,
a rifing ground or hill in it, and watered with many Fiand.
fine rivers and canals. Its chief commodities are fine
lace, linen, and tapeftry.
In this country fome important arts were invented
and improved. Weaving in general was greatly im¬
proved, and that of figures of all forts in linen was in¬
vented ; alfo the art of dyeing cloths and fluffs, and
of oil colours j the curing of herrings, &c. The ma-
nufaftures of this country are not now in the flourifhing
(late they were formerly ; yet fi!k, cotton, and woollen
fluffs, brocades, camblets, tapeftry, lace, and linen, are
ftill manufa&ured here in great quantities. This pro¬
vince had counts of its own from the ninth century to
the year 1369, when it went by marriage to the dukes
of Burgundy j and afterwards from them, by marriage
alfo, to the houfe of Auftria. France, in 1667, feized
the fouthern part j and the dates general obtained the
northern, partly by the treaty of Munfter, and partly
by the barrier treaty of 1715.
For a more particular hiftory of Flanders, with a
continuation down to the prefent times, fee the article
Netherlands.
FLANEL, or Flannel, a kind of flight, loole,
woollen fluff, compofed of a woof and warp, and wove
on a loom with two treddles, after the manner of
baize.
Dr Black afligns as a reafon why flanel and other
fubftances of the kind keep the body warm, that they
compofe a rare and fpongy mafs, the fibres of which
touch each other fo lightly, that the heat moves flowly
through the interftices, which being filled only with air,
and that in a ftagnant ftate, give little afliftance in con-
dudling the heat. From the experiments of Count
Rumford, it appears, that there is no relation betwixt
the power which the fubftances ufually worn as clothing
have of abforbing moifture, and that of keeping the
body warm. Having provided a quantity of each of
thefe fubftances mentioned below, he expofed them,
fpread out upon clean china plates, for the fpace of 24
hours to the warm and dry air of a room which had
been heated by a German ftove for feveral months, and
during the laft fix hours had raifed the thermometer to
85° of Fahrenheit; after which he weighed equal quan¬
tities of the different fubftances with a very accurate
balance. They were then fpread out upon a china
plate, and removed into a very large uninhabited room
upon the fecond floor, where they were expofed 48
hours upon a table placed in the middle of the room,
the air of which was at 450 of Fahrenheit. At the end
of this fpace they were weighed, and then removed in¬
to a damp cellar, and placed on a table in the middle
of the vault, where the air was at the temperature of
450, and which by the hygrometer feemed to be fully
faturated with moifture. In this fituation they were
fuffered to remain three days and three nights ; the
vault being all the time hung round with wet linen
cloths, to render the air as completely damp as poflible.
At the end of three days they were weighed, and the
weights at the different times were found as in the fol¬
lowing table.
4 P 2 Sheep’s
/
FLA [ 668 ] FLA
Flanel.
Weight af¬
ter being
dried in the
hot room.
Sheep’s wool
.Beaver’s fur
The fur of a Ruffian hare
Eider down
f Raw fingle thread
Silk ■< Ravellings of white 1
i. taffety § *
^ Fine lint
Linen Ravellings of fine 1
L linen
Cotton wool
Ravellings of filver lace
Parti-
ICOO
Weight af¬
ter coining
mt of thi
cold room.
1084
I072
1065
1067
I054
1046
I044
I043
1000
Weight af-
terremain-
ing ^-zh. in
the vault.
1163
II25
“15
1 11 2
IIO7
IIO3
1102
1082
1089
1000
On thefe experiments our author obferves, that though
linen, from the apparent eafe with which it receives
dampnefs. from the atmofphere, leems to have a much
greater attradlion for water than any other j yet it
would appear from what is related above, that thofe
bodies which receive water in its unelaftic form with
the greateft eafe, or are moft eafily wet, are not thofe
which in all cafes attraft the moifture of the atmo¬
fphere with the greateft avidity. “ Perhaps (fays he),
the apparent dampnefs of linen to the touch, arifes
more from the eafe with which that fubftance parts
with the water it contains, than from the quantity of
water it adlually holds: in the fame manner as a body
appears hot to the touch, in confequence of its parting
freely with its heat $ while another body which is really
at the fame temperature, but which withholds its heat
with great obftinacy, affedts the fenfe of feeling much
lefs violently. It is well known that woollen clothes
fuch as flanels, &c. worn next the Ikin, greatly promote
infenfible perfpiration. May not this arife principally
from the ftrong attradlion which fubfifts between wool
and the watery vapour which is continually iffuing from
the human body ? 1. hat it does not depend entirely on
the warmth of that covering, is clear; for the fame de¬
gree of warmth produced by wearing more clothing of
a different kind, does not produce the fame effea. The
peripiration of the human body being abforbed by a
covering of fianel, it is immediately diftributed through
the whole thicknefs of that fubftance, and by that
means expofed, by a very large furface, to be carried
off by the atmofphere 5 and the lofs of this watery va¬
pour which the flanel fuftains on the one fide by eva¬
poration, being immediately reftored from the other, in
confequence of the ftrong attraaion between the flanel
and this vapour, the pores of the fkin are difencumber-
ed, and they are continually furrounded by a dry and
falubrious atmofphere.”
Our author expreffes his furprife, that the cuftom of
wearing flanel next the fkin fhould not have prevailed
more univerfally. He is confident it would prevent a
number of difeafes } and he thinks there is no greater
luxury than the comfortable fenfation which arifes from
wearing it, efpecially after one is a little accuflomed to
it. “ It is a miftaken notion (fays he), that it is too
warm a clothing for fummer. I have worn it in
the hotteft climates, and at all feafons of the year ;
and never found the leaft inconvenience from it. It
is the warm bath of perfpiration confined by a linen
ffiirt, wet with fweat, which renders the fummer heats
2
of fouthern climates fo unfupportable ; but flanel pro- Fian
motes perfpiration, and favours its evaporation; and 'h'*
evaporation, as is well known, produces pofitive cold. Flats.
It has been obferved that new flanel, after fome time
wearing, acquires the property of fhining in the dark,
but lofes it on being wafhed. Phi/ofophicai TranfaBions
N° 483- \ 7-
FLANK, or Flanc, in the manege, is applied to
the fides of a horfe’s buttock, &c. In a ftridt
fenfe, the flanks of a horfe are the extremes of the
belly, where the ribs are wanting, and are below the
loins.
The flanks of a horfe fhould be full, and at the top
of each a feather. The diftance between the laft rib
and haunch-bone, which is properly the flank, fhould
be fhort, which they term well coupled, fuch horfes be¬
ing moft hardy, and fit to endure labour.
A horfe is faid to have no flank if the laft of the
fhort ribs be at a confiderable diftance from the haunch-
bone ; as alfo when the ribs are too much ftraitened
in their compafs.
Flank, in War, is ufed by way of analogy for the
fide of a battalion, army, &c. in contradiftin&ion to
the front and rear.
2'o attack the enemy in flank, is to difcover and fire
upon them on the fide. See File.
Flank, in Fortification, is a line drawn from the
extremity of the face towards the infide of the work.
Or, flank is that part of a baftion which reaches from
the curtain to the face, and defends the oppofite face,
the flank, and the curtain. See Fortification.
Oblique or Second Flank, or Flank of the Curtain,
is that part of the curtain from whence the face of the
oppofite baftion can be feen, being contained between
the lines rafant and fichant, or the greater and lefs lines
of defence •, or the part of the curtain between the
flank and the point where the fichant line of defence
terminates.
Covered, Lew, or Retired Fl.ank, is the platform of
the cafement which lies hid in the baftion; and is other-
wife called the Orillon.
Fichant Flank, is that from whence a cannon play¬
ing, fires direftly on the face of the oppofite baf¬
tion.
Rafant or Rao&ant Flank, is the point from whence
the. line of defence begins, from the conjunftion of
which with the curtain, the (hot only rafeth the face
of the next baftion, which happens when the face can¬
not be difcovered but from the flank alone.
FLAT, in fea-language, denotes a level ground ly¬
ing at a fin all depth under the furface of the fea, and
is alfo called a Jhoal ox fhallow.
Flat-Bottomed Boats are fuch as are made to fwim in
fhallow water, and to carry a great number of troops,
artillery, ammunition, &c. They are conflru&ed with
a 12 pounder, bow-chafe, and an 18 pounder, ftern-
chafe ; their keel is from 90 to 100 feet, and from 12
to 24 feet beam : they have one maft, a large fquare
main-fail, and a jib-fail j are rowed by 18 or 20 oars,
and can carry 400 men each. The gun takes up one
bow, and a bridge the other, over which the troops are
to march. Thofe that carry horfes have the fore-part
of the boat made to open when the men are to mount
and ride over a bridge.
FLATS, in Mufic. See Intep.val.
FLATUS,
Flatus
II
Flax.
FLA [
FLATUS, Flatulence, in Medicine; vapours ge¬
nerated in the fiomach and inteftines, chiefly occafion-
ed by a weaknefs of thefe parts. They ocdafion diften-
fions, uneafy fenfation, and ficknefs, and often a con-
fiderable degree of pain. See MEDICINE Index.
FLAVEL, John, an eminent non-conformift mini-
fter, was educated at Univerlity-college, in Oxford ;
and’became minifter firft of Deptford, and afterwards of
Dartmouth in Devonihire, where he refided the great-
eft part of his life, much refpefted and admired for his
preaching ; although he was perfecuted on account of
his principles, when in 1685, feveral of the aldermen of
the town, attended by the rabble, carried about a ridi¬
culous effigy of him, to which were affixed the Bill of
Exclufion and the Covenant. Upon this occaffon, he
thought it prudent to withdraw from the town 5 not
knowing what treatment he might meet w'ith from a
riotous mob, headed by magiftrates who were thera-
felves among the loweft of mankind. Part of his Diary,
printed with his Regains, muff give the reader a high
idea of his piety. He died in 1691, aged 61 } and af¬
ter his death, his works, which confifted of many pieces
of praftical divinity, were printed in two volumes folio.
Among thefe, the moft famous are his “ Navigation
Spiritualized, or a New Compafs for feamen, confifting
of 32 points of pleafant obfervations and ferious reflec¬
tions ” of which there have been feveral editions in
8vo \ and his “ Huffiandry Spiritualized, &c. with oc-
cafional meditations upon beafts, birds, trees, flowers,
rivers and feveral other obje&s,” of which alfo there
have been many editions in 8vo.
FLAX, in Botany. See Linum, Botany Index.
The following particulars with regard to the manner
of raifing flax, have been fome years part warmly re¬
commended by the truflees for fiffieries, manufa&ures,
and improvements in Scotland.
Of the choice of the Soil, and preparing the ground for
Flax. A ikilful flax-raifer always prefers a free open
deep loam; and all grounds that produced the preced¬
ing year a good crop of turnip, cabbage, potatoes,
barlev, or broad clover, or have been formerly laid
down rich, and kept for fome years in pafture.
A clay foil,-the fecond or third crop after being
limed, will anfwer well for flax *, provided, if the
ground be ftill ffiff, that it be brought to a proper
mould, by tilling after harveft to expofe it to the win¬
ter frofts.
All new grounds produce a ftrong crop of flax, and
pretty free of weeds. When a great many mole heaps
appear upon new ground, it anfwers the better for flax,
after one tilling.
Flax feed ought never to be fown on grounds that
are either too wet or dry ; but on fuch as retain a na¬
tural moifture: and luch grounds as are inclined to
weeds ought to be avoided, unlefs prepared by a care¬
ful fummer fallow.
If the linfeed be fown early, and the flax not al¬
lowed to ftand for feed, a crop of turnip may be got
after the flax that very year ; the fecond year a crop
of bear or barley may be taken ; and the third year,
grafs feeds are fometimes fown along with the linfeed.
This is the method moftly pradifed in and about the
counties of Lincoln and Somerfet, where great quanti¬
ties of flax and hemp are every year raifed, and where
thefe crops have long been capital articles. J. here, old
669 ] FLA
ploughed grounds are never fown with linfeed, unlefs
the foil be very rich and clean. A certain worm, called v
in Scotland the coup worm, abounds in grounds newly
broken up, and greatly hurts every crop but flax. In
fmall enclofures furrounded with trees or high hedges,
the flax, for want of free air, is fubjedt to fall before
it be ripe; and the droppings of rain and dew from
the trees preyent the flax, within the reach of the trees,
from growing to any perfedlion.
Of preceding crops, potatoes and hemp are the beft
preparation for flax. In the fens of Lincoln, upon
proper ground of old tillage, they fow hemp, dunging
well the firft year $ the fecond year, hemp without
dung j the third year, flax without dung •, and thatdame
year, a crop of turnip eaten on the ground by Iheep j
the fourth year, hemp with a large coat of dung ; and
fo on for ever.
If the ground be free and open, it (houid be but once
ploughed; and that as (hallow as poffible, not deeper
than 2^ inches. It {houid be laid flat, reduced to a
fine garden mould by much harrowing, and all ftones
and fods ffiould be carried off.
Except a little pigeons dung for cold or four
ground, no other dung {houid be ufed preparatory for
flax •, becaufe it produces too many weeds, and throws
up the flax thin and poor upon the ftalk.
Before fowing, the bulky clods fhould be broken, or
carried off the ground j and ftones, quickenings, and
every other thing that may hinder the growth of the
flax (hould be removed.
Of the choice of Linfeed. The brighter in colour,
and heavier the feed is, fo much the better ; that
which when bruifed appears of a light or yellowilh
green, and freffi in the heart, oily and not dry, and
fmells and taftes fweet, and not fully, may be depend¬
ed upon.
Dutch feed of the preceding year’s growth, for the
moft part, anfwers beft ; but it feldom fucceeds if kept
another year. It ripens fooner than any other foreign
feed. Philadelphia feed produces fine lint and few
bolls, becaufe fown thick, and anfivers beft in wet cold
foils. Riga feed produces coarfer lint, and the greateft
quantity of feed. Scots feed, when well winned and
kept, and changed from one kind of foil to another,
fometimes anfwers pretty well j but {houid be fown
thick, as many of its grains are bad, and fail. It fprings
well, and its flax is fooner ripe than any other; but its
produce afterwards is generally inferior to that from fo¬
reign feed.
A kind has been lately imported called Memmelfeeds
which looks well, is {hurt and plump, but feldom grows
above eight inches, and on that account ought not to
be fown.
Of fowing Linfeed. The quantity of linfeed fown
fhould be proportioned to the condition of the foil ,
for if the ground be in good heart, and the feed fown
thick, the crop will be in danger of falling before it is
ready for pulling. From ll to 12 pecks Linlithgow
meafure of Dutch or Riga feed, is generally fufficient
for one Scots acre 5 and about 10 pecks of Philadelphia
feed, which, being the fmalleft grained, goes fartheft.
Riga linfeed, and the next year’s produce of it, is pre¬
ferred in Lincolnfln’re.
The time for fowing linfeed is from the middle of
March to the end of April, as the ground and feafon
Flax,
anfwers 3
FLA [ 670
Flax, ^rinvers j but the earlier the feed is fovVn, the lefs the
-nr—^ crop interferes with the corn harveft.
Late fown linfeed may grow long, but the flax upon
the ilalk. will be thin and poor.
Alter fowing, the ground ought to be harrowed till
the feed is well covered, and then, (fuppofing the foil,
as before mentioned, to be free and reduced to a fine
mould} it ought to be rolled.
When a farmer fows a large quantity of linfeed, he
■may find it proper to fow a part earlier and part later,
that in the future operations of weeding, pulling, wa¬
tering, and grafling, the work may be the eafier and
more conveniently gone about.
It ought always to be lown on a dry bed.
Of Weeding Flax. It ought to be weeded when the
crop is about four inches long. If longer deferred, the
weeders will fo much break and crook the ftalks, that
they will never perhaps recover their ftraightnefs again;
and when the flax grows crooked, it is more liable to
be hurt in the rippling and fwingling.
Quicken grafs fhould not be taken up 5 for, being
flrongly rooted, the pulling of it always loofens a deal
of the lint.
If there is an appearance of a fettled drought, it
is better to defer the weeding, than by that opera¬
tion to expofe the tender roots of the flax to the
drought/
How foon the weeds are got out, they ought to be
carried off the field, inflead of being laid in the fur¬
rows, where they often take root again, and at any rate
obflrudl: the growth of the flax in the furrows.
Of Fulling Flax. When the crop grows fo fhort
and branchy, as to appear more valuable for feed than
flax, it ought not to be pulled before it be thoroughly
ripe ; but if it grows long and not branchy, the feed
fhould be difregarded, and all the attention given to
the flax. In the laft cafe it ought to be pulled after
the bloom has fallen, when the ftalk begins to turn
yellow, and before the leaves fall, and the bolls turn
hard and (harp-pointed.
When the ftalk is fmall, and carries few bolls, the
flax is fine $ but the ftalk of coarfe flax is grofs, rank,
branchy, and carries many bolls.
When the flax has fallen, and lies, fuch as lies ought
to be immediately pulled, whether it has grown enough
or not, as otherwife it will rot altogether.
When parts of the fame field grow unequally, fo
that fome parts are ready for pulling before other parts j
only what is ready (hould be pulled, and the reft fhould
be fuffered to ftand till ready.
The flax-raifer ought to be at pains to pull and keep
by itfelf, each different kind of lint which he finds
in his field j what is both long and fine, by itfelf j
what is both long and coarfe, by itfelf j what is both
fhort and fine, by itfelf j what is both fhort and coarfe,
by itfelf; and in like manner every other kind by it¬
felf that is of the fame fize and quality. If the differ¬
ent kinds be not thus kept feparate, the flax muft be
much damaged in the watering and the other fucceed-
ing operations.
What is commonly called under-growth may be ne-
gletted as ufelefs.
Few perfons that have feen pulled flax, are ignorant
f «.he method of laying it in handfuls acrofs each
]
FLA
other ; which gives the flax fufficient air, and keeps the
handfuls feparate and ready for the rippler.
Of Stacking up FlAX during the Winter, and Winning
the Seed. If the flax be more valuable than the feed
it ought by no means to be flacked up ; for its own
natural juice aflifts it greatly in the watering; whereas,
if kept long unwatered, it lofes that juice, and the
narle adheres fo much to the boon, that it requires
longer time to water, and even the quality of the flax
becomes thereby hardier and coarfer. Befides, the flax
flacked up over year, is in great danger from vermine
and other accidents ; the water in fpring is not fo foft
and warm as in harveft ; and near a year is thereby
loft of the ufe of the lint: but if the flax be fo fliort
and branchy as to appear mod valuable for feed, it
ought, after pulling, to be flocked and dried upon the
field, as is done with corn ; then (lacked up for win¬
ter, rippled in fpring ; and after (heeling, the feed
(hould be well cleaned from bad feeds, &c.
Of Rippling Flax. After pulling, if the flax is to
be regarded more than the feed, it (hould be allowed
to lie fome hours upon the ground to dry a little, and
fo gain fome firmnefs, to prevent the (kin or harle,
which is the flax, from rubbing off in the rippling ; an
operation which ought by no means to be negle£led, as
the bolls, if put into the water along with the flax,
breed vermine there, and otherwife fpoil the water. The
bolls alfo prove very inconvenient in the grafling and
breaking.
In Lincolnfliire and Ireland, they think that rip-
pling hurts the flax; and therefore, in place of rip»
pling, they ftrike the bolls againft a done.
The handfuls for rippling (hould not be great, as
that endangers the lint in the rippling comb.
After rippling, the flax-raifer will perceive, that he
is able to affort each fize and quality of the flax by it¬
felf more exa&ly than he could before.
Of Watering FLAX. A running ftream wades the
lint, makes it white, and frequently carries it away.
Lochs, by the great quantity and motion of the wa¬
ter, alfo wafte and whiten the flax, though not fo much
as running dreams. Both rivers and lochs water the
flax quicker than canals.
But all flax ought to be watered in canals, which
(hould be digged in clay ground if poflible, as that
foil retains the water beft : but if a firm retentive foil
cannot be got, the bottom or (ides of the canal, or
both the bottom and (ides, may be lined with clay ; or
inftead of lining the (ides with clay, which might
fall down, a ditch may be dug without the canal, and
filled with clay, which will prevent both extraneous
water from entering, and the water within from run¬
ning off.
A canal of 40 feet long, fix broad, and four deep,
will generally water the growth of an acre of flax.
It ought to be filled with frefti foft water from a
river or brook, if poflible, two or three weeks before
the flax is put in, and expofed all that time to the heat
of the fun. The greater way the river or brook has
run, the fofter, and therefore the better, will the water
be. Springs, or (hort runs from hills, are too cold,
unlefs the water is allowed to ftand long in the canal.
Water from coal or iron is very bad for flax. A little
of the powder of galls thrown into a glafs of water,
will
Flax,
F L A r 671
wiir immediately difcover if it comes from minerals of
that kind, by turning it into a dark colour, more or
lefs tinged in proportion to the quantity of vitriol it
contains.
The canal ought not to be under (hade : which, be-
fides keeping the fun from foftening the water, might
make part of the canal cooler than other parts, and fo
water the flax unequally.
The flax-raifer will obferve, when the water is
brought to a proper heat, that fmall plants will be
rifing quickly in it, numbers of fmall infefts and rep¬
tiles will be generating there, and bubbles of air rif¬
ing on the furface. If no fuch figns appear, the wa¬
ter muft not be warm enough, or is otherwife unfit for
flax.
Mofs holes, when neither too deep nor too fhallow,
frequently anfwer well for watering flax, when the wa¬
ter is proper, as before defcribed.
The proper feafon for watering flax is from the end
of July to the end of Auguft.
The advantage of watering flax as foon as poflible
after pulling, has been already mentioned.
The flax being forted after rippling, as before men¬
tioned, (hould next be put in beets, never larger than
a man can grafp with both his hands, and tied very
flack with a band of a few flalks. Dried rufhes an¬
fwer exceedingly well for binding flax, as they do not
rot in the water, and may be dried and kept for ufe
again.
The beets fhauld be put into the canals Hope wife,
or half (landing upon end, the root end uppermofl.
Up on the crop ends, when uppermoft, there frequent¬
ly breeds a deal of vermine, deftru&ive of the flax,
which is effeftually prevented by putting the crop end
, downmoft.
The whole flax in the canal ought to be carefully
covered from the fun with divots j the grafly fide of
which fhould be next the flax, to keep it clean. If it
is not thus covered, the fun will difcolour the flax,
though quite covered with water. If the divots are
not weighty enough to keep the flax entirely under wa¬
ter, a few ftones may be laid above them. But the flax
fhould not be preffed to the bottom.
When the flax is fufficienlly watered, it feels foft to
the gripe, and the harle parts ealily with the boon or
flow, which laft is then become brittle, and looks whit-
ifh. When thefe figns are found, the flax fliould be
taken out of the water, beet after beet ; each gently
rinfed in the water, to cleanfe it of the nallinefs which
has gathered about it in the canal ; and as the lint is
then very tender, and the beet flackly tied, it mufl be
carefully and gently handled.
Great care ought to be taken that no part be over¬
done ; and as the coarfeft waters foonefl, if different
kinds be mixed together, a part will be rotted, when
the reft is not fufficiently watered.
When lint taken out of the canal is not found fuffi¬
ciently watered, it may be laid in a heap for 12, 18,
or,24 hours, which will have an effeftlike more water¬
ing j but this operation is nice, and may prove danger¬
ous in unfkilful hands.
After the flax is taken out of the canal, frefh lint
fhould not be put a fecond time into it, until the former
water be run off, and the canal cleaned, and fupplied
with frefh water.
] FLA
Of GroJJlng FLAX. Short heath is the belt field for
grafling flax j as, when wet, it fattens to the heath,v
and is thereby prevented from being blown away by
the wind. The heath alfo keeps it a little above the
earth, and fo expofes it the more equally to the wea¬
ther. When fuch heath is not to be got, links or
clean old lea ground is the next beft. Long grafs
grounds fliould be avoided, as the grafs growing
through the lint frequently fpots, tenders, or rots it -r
and grounds expofed to violent winds (hould alfo be
avoided.
The flax, when taken out of the water, mufl; be
fpread very thin upon the ground : and being then
very tender, it muft be gently handled. The thinner
it is fpread the better, as it is then the more equally
expofed to the weather. But it ought never to be
fpread during a heavy (bower, as that would wafh and
wafte the harle too much, which is then exceflively
tender, but foon after becomes firm enough to bear the
rains, which, with the open air and funftiine, cleans,
foftens, and purifies the harle to the degree wanted,
and makes it blifter from the boon. In (hort, after the
flax has got a little firmnefs by being a few hours
fpread in dry weather, the more rain and funftiine it
gets the better.
If there be little danger of high winds carrying off
the flax, it will be much the better of being turned
about once a-week. If it is not to be turned, it ought
to be very thin fpread. The fpreading of flax and
hemp requires a deal of ground, and enriches it
greatly.
The fkilful flax-raifer fpreads his firft row of flax
at the end of the field oppofite to the point from
whence the moft violent wind commonly comes, pla¬
cing the root-ends foremoft ; he makes the root-ends
of every other jrow overlap the crop ends of the former
row three or four inches, and binds down the laft row
with a rope j by which means the wind does not eafily
get below the lint to blow it away ; and as the, crop
ends are feldom fo fully watered as the root ends, the
aforefaid overlapping has an effeft like giving the crop
ends more watering. Experience only can fully teach
a perfon the figns of flax being fufficiently graffed : then
it is of a clearer colour than formerly j the harle is blif-
tered up, and eafily parts with the boon, which is then
become very brittle. The whole fhould be fufficiently
gralfed before any of it is lifted ; for if a part be lifted
fooner than the reft, that which remains is in great
danger from the winds.
A dry day ought to be chofen for taking up the
flax ; and if there is no appearance of high wind, it
(hould be loofed from the heath or grafs, and left loofe
for fome hours, to make it thoroughly dry.
As a great quantity of flax can fcarcely be all equal¬
ly watered and grafled, and as the different qualities
will beft appear at lifting the flax off the grafs; there¬
fore at that time each different kind fliould be gathered
together, and kept by itfelf j that is, all of the fame co¬
lour, length, and quality.
The fmaller the beets lint is made up in, the better
for drying, and the more convenient for (lacking, houf-
ing, &c. and in making up thefe beets, as in every
other operation upon flax, it is of great confequence
that the lint be laid together as it grew, the root ends
together, and the crop ends together.
Follows
Flax.
FLA
[ 672 3
FLA
Follows an ejlimate of the Expence, Produce, and Profit of a Scots Acre of FLAX,—fuf>pofing the feafon favourable,,
that no accidental Ioffes happen, and that the farmer is neither unfhilful nor negligent.
Ground rent, labouring the ground, and leading the flax
Linfeed from 2I. to 4I. per hogftiead, the medium
3s. 4d. per peck — —
Clodding and fowlng — —
Weeding — — —
Pulling, rippling, putting in, and covering in the
water — — —
Taking out of the water, grafling, and flacking
Breaking and fcutching, at 2s. per ftone —
Total
expence
Produce at 10s. per ftone.
Linfeed fold for oil at is. per peck —
The chaff1 of the bolls is well worth the expence of
drying the feed } as it is good food, when boiled
and mixed with bear, for horfes.
Total produce
Balance for profit — —
A medium crop.
L. 2 io o
1 16 8
for 11 pecks.
020
0120
o 14 o
080
300
for 30 ftones.
L. 9
8
L. 15 o o
for 30 ftones.
O 16 o
L. 15 16
L. 6 14
A great crop.
L.
10
1100
for 9 pei-ks.
020
080
o 15 o
0 12 O
4 0 0
for 40 ftones.
L. 10 17
L. 20 o o
for 40 ftones.
o 18 o
L. 20 18
L. 10
An extra crop.
L. 5 o o
1 6 8
for 8 pecks.
020
nothing.
100
018 o
600
for 60 ftones.
L. 14
8
L. 30 o o
for 60 ftones.
IOO
L. 31
L. 16 13 4
The above eftimate being made feveral years ago,
the expence and profit are now different ; but the pro¬
portions of each are probably the fame. There is
nothing ftated here as expence of the canal in which
the flax is watered j becaufe that varies much according
to circumftances.
It is a certain faff, that the greater the crop is, the
better is the quality of the fame kind of flax.
The advantage of having both a crop of flax and a
crop of turnip the fame year—or of fowing grafs feeds
along with the linfeed—and of reducing the ground to
a fine garden mould, free of weeds, ought to be attend¬
ed to.
For Cambric and fine Lawn. The ground muft be
a rich light foil, rather fandy, but cannot be too rich.
It ought to be ploughed in September, or the be¬
ginning of October, firft putting a little hot rotten
dung upon it. In January it ought to have a fecond
ploughing, after a hard froft j and when you intend
to fow it, plough it a third time, or rather hoe it, re¬
ducing the clods very fine j but make no furrows : the
land muft be made level like a garden ; but never work
the land when wet.
The feed (hould be fown the beginning of April,
and about double the quantity that is generally fown
by our farmers; if the land be very rich, it will require
rather more than double.
As foan as fown (if the weather be dry) it will be
neceffary to roll the ground.
The lint muft: be weeded very clean when about
three inches high ; diredlly after which you muft fet
forked flicks, of about one and a half inch thick (which
ought to be prepared before), every four or five feet,
according to the length of the poles you are to lay upon
them ; they ftiould be well fixed in the ground, the
forked part to receive the poles about fix or feven inches
above the lint; each row of poles ftiouldbe two, three, or
four feet afunder, according to the length of the brufti-
wood you are to lay upon them.
The poles ought to be from to to 15 feet long,
and ftrong enough to fupport the brufh acrofs the
poles; take the longeft brufh wood you can get, the
more branchy the better, very thick, filling up the va¬
cancies with fmaller brufh, and any of the branches
that rife higher than 18 or 20 inches ought to be
lopt off to make the brufh lie as level as pofiible :
any fort of brufh will do except oak, as that tinges the
lint.
Your lint muft be pulled as foon as the feed is fully
formed, which is a few days after it is out of the bloom,
before the lint turn yellow.
It muft be pulled above the brufhwood, and every
handful laid upon it as foon as poflible : if it is fine
weather, leave it four or five hours in that manner : then
carry it to a fereen near a barn, to put it under a cover
in cafe of rain ; there it muft be fpread four or five
days, and always put in the barn at night, or when it ap¬
pears to rain : the bundles muft be opened in the barn,
or made hollow, to prevent it from heating.
Thefe operations muft be performed until the lint is
perfeflly dry, and out of danger of heating ; taking
care all the time to keep the roots as even as poflible,
and if poflible keep it from rain or wet : if you cannot
prevent it from being wet, it will be better to leave it
on the grafs till dry; becaufe when once wet, the put¬
ting it under cover before dry will make it turn black;
a thing which muft be prevented at all events.
If any of the lint upon the border, or through the
piece of ground, be coarfer than another, it muft be fe-
parated from the reft.
The
F
FLA [ 673 ]
The utmoft care mufl: be taken to preferve the lint and by keeping it warm
' entire or unbroken j for this reafon they beat off the
feed with a round mell or bittle.
The moft proper ground is fummer fallow, or after
potatoes or lea j if poflible near a wood, to prevent the
expence of carrying brulh.
As foon as the feed is off, if you intend to water it
that feafon, it muft be tied in bundles about as large as
you can grafp with your two hands.
The water proper for it, is a very ftnall rivulet or
foft fpring free of any mineral matter •, taking care that
no flood or foul water enters your pit; which mufl: be
at leafl five feet deep, about nine or ten broad at the
top, and feven or eight at the bottom ; the length
will depend on the quantity of flax you have to water.
A very fmall ftripe of water, when clear, (hould always
be running in and off from your pit when the lint
is in it.
The pit ought to be made three or four months be¬
fore it be ufed.
You muft drive poles about four inches thick, with
a hook inclining downwards, in this form 7, all along
the fides of the pit, above five feetafunder. The hooks
muft be level with, or rather under, the furface of the
water. A long pole, the whole length of the pit, muft
be fixed into thefe hooks on each fide ; and crofs poles
put under that, to keep the lint under water j but the
crofs poles are not ufed till the lint is put in. You
muft order it fo, that all the lint ftiould be three or
four inches under water. You next bring your lint to
the fides of the pit j then put your (heaves head to
head, caufing each to overlap the other about one-third,
and take as many of thefe as make a bundle of two or
two and a half feet broad, laying the one above the
other, till it is about four or four and a half feet high *,
then you tie them together in the middle, and at each
root end : after this you wrap your bundle in draw,
and lay it in the water, putting the thin or broad fide
undermoft, taking care that none of your lint touch the
earth •, after it is fully preffed under water, put in your
crofs poles to keep it under. The bundles ought to
lie in the pit a foot feparate from each other. This
renders it eafy to take out; for, if the bundles en¬
tangle, they will be too heavy to raife.
The time of watering depends fo much upon the
weather, and foftnefs or hardnefs of the water, that it
is impoflible to fix any certain time. This muft be left
to the (kill of the farmer. If the flax be intended for
fpinning yarn foft and fit for cambric, it ought to be
fpread upon (hort grafs for four or five days before you
put it into the water ; but if for lawns, lace, or thread,
it is belt to dry it outright. In either cafe avoid as
much as poflible to let it get rain •, as much rain blanches
and wafhes out the oil, which is neceffary to preferve
the ftrength.
The great property of this flax is to be fine and
long. Thick fowing raifes all plants fine and (lender $
and when the ground is very rich, it forces them to
a great length. Pulling green prevents that coarfe
hardnefs which flax has when let (land till it be full
ripe, and gives it the fine filky property. 1 he brufti-
wood, when the flax fprings up catches it by the middle,
and prevents it from lying down and rotting ", infallible
confequences of fowing thick upon rich ground. It
likewife keeps it ftraight, moift, and foft at the roots 5
Vol. VIII. Part II.
Flax-
Plate
L A
and (haded from the fun,
greatly promotes its length. "Ihe keeping it from
rain, heating, taking proper care of your water, pre-
ferves the colour, and prevents thofe bars in cloth fo
much complained of by bleachers.
FLAX-DreJJing. For many ages it was the practice
to feparate the boon or core from the flax, which is the
bark of the plant, by the following Ample hand me¬
thods. Firft, for breaking the boon, the (talks in fmall
parcels were beat with a mallet; or, more dexteroufly,
the break (Plate CCXVIII. fig. 1. and 2.) was ufed
thus : The flax being held in the left hand acrofs the
three under teeth cr/words of the break (J, fig. 1. and la’1' <ir<‘
a fig. 2.), the upper teeth (£, fig. 1. and b, fig. 2.) were
with the right hand quickly and often forced down
upon the flax, which was artfully (hifted and turned
with the left hand. Next, for clearing the flax of the
broken boon : the workman with his left hand held
the flax over the/ock (fig. 3. and 4.), while with his
right hand he (truck or thrafhed the flax with the
fcutcher (fig. 5.).
Thefe methods of breaking and fcutching the flax
being (low and very laborious, a water-mill was invent¬
ed in Scotland about the year 1750 ; which, with fome
improvements, makes great difpatch, and in (kil-
ful and careful hands gives fatisfa£tion. It has been
generally conftrufted to break the boon by three dent¬
ed rollers, placed one above the other. Fhe middle
one of which, being forced quickly round, takes the
other two along with it, and one end of the handfuls of
the flax being by the workman directed in between
the upper and middle rollers, the flax is immediately
drawn in by the rollers ; a curved board or plate of
tin behind the rollers direds the flax to return again
between the middle and undermoft rollers ;—and thus
the operation is repeated until the boon be fufficiently
broke. Great weights of timber or (lone at the ends
of levers, prefs the upper and under rollers towards the
middle one.
The fcutching is next carried on by the mill in the
following manner: Four arms, fomething like the
hand-fcutchers before defcribed, project from a per¬
pendicular axlej a box around the axle enclofes thefe
projedting fcutchers j and this box is divided among
the workmen, each having fuffieient room to (land and
handle his flax, which, through flits in the upper part
and fides of the box, they hold in to the ftroke of the
fcutchers $ which, moving round horizontally, ftrike
the flax acrofs or at right angles, and fo thrafli out or
clear it of the boon.
The breaking of the flax by rollers is fcarcely fub-
je£t to any objedtion, but that it is dangerous to work¬
men not fufficiently on their guard, who fometimes
allow the rollers to take hold of their fingers, and
thereby their whole arm is inftantly drawn in : thus
many have loft their arms. To avoid this danger, a
break, upon the general principles of the hand break
before defcribed, has been lately adapted to water-
machinery, and ufed in place of rollers. The hori¬
zontal ftroke of the fcutchers was long thought too
fevere and wafteful of the flax ; but very careful, ex¬
periments have difcovered that the wade complained
of muft be charged to the unlkilfulnefs or negligence
of the workmen, as in good hands the mill carries
away nothing but what, if not fo fcutched off, muft
4 0- be
FLA [ 674 ] FLA
Fiax. be taken off in the heckling, with more lofs both of
■—v—— time and flax. But to obviate this objection of the
violence of the horizontal /catchers, an imitation of
hand-fcutching has lately been applied to water. The
fcutchers then project from a horizontal axle, and
move like the arms of a check reel, ftriking the flax
neither acrofs nor perpendicularly down, but Hoping
in upon the parcel exaftly as the flax is ftruck by the
hand-fcutcher. This Hoping flroke is got by raifing
the fcutching Hock fome inches higher than the centre
of the axle ; and by raifing or lowering the flock over
which the flax is held, or fcrewing it nearer to or far¬
ther from the fcutchers, the workman can temper or
humour the ftroke almofl as he pleafes.
A lint mill, with horizontal fcutchers upon a per¬
pendicular axle, requires a houfe of two ftories, the
rollers or break being placed in the ground ftory, and
the fcutchers in the loft above j but a mill with verti¬
cal fcutchers on a horizontal axle, requires but one ground
flory for all the machinery.
Another method of breaking and fcutching flax,
more expeditious than the old hand methods, and
more gentle than water mills, has alfo been invent¬
ed in Scotland. It is much like the break and
fcutcher, giving the Hoping ftroke laft defcribed, moved
by the foot. The treddle is remarkably long, and
the fcutchers are fixed upon the rim of a fly wheel.
The foot-break is alfo aflifted in its motion by a fly0
Thefe foot machines are very ufeful where there are
no water mills, but they are far inferior to the mills in
point of expedition.
The next operation that flax undergoes after fcutch¬
ing is heckling. The heckle (fig. 6.) is firmly fixed
to a bench before the workman, who ftrikes the flax
upon the teeth of the heckle, and draws it through the
teeth. To perfons unacquainted with that kind of
work this may feem a very Ample operation ; but, in
fa61, it requires as much praftice to acquire the flight
of heckling well, and without wafting the flax, as any
other operation in the whole manufacture of linen.
They ufe coarfer and wider teethed heckles, or finer,
according to the quality of the flax $ generally putting
the flax through two heckles, a coarfer one firft, and
next a fine one.
Flax for Cambric and fine Lawn, Thread, and Lace,
is dreffed in a manner fomewhat different. It is not
fcutched fo thoroughly as common flax ; which from
the fcutch proceeds to the heckle, and from that to
the fpinner : whereas, this fine flax, after a rough
fcutching, is fcraped and cleanfed with a blunt knife
upon the workman’s knee covered with his leather
apron ; from the knife it proceeds to the fpinner, who,
with a brufh made for the purpofe, ftraights and dreffes
each parcel juft before (he begins to fpin it.
The following obfervations on this fubjeft, firft pub-
liftied in the Gentleman’s Magazine for June 1787,
feem worthy of particular attention.
Of the watering of Flax by a new method, fo as to
fborten labour, to add probably to the frength of
the fax, and to give it a much fner colour, which
would render the operation of bleaching fafer and lefs
tedious.
“ Though the following reflexions have for their
objeft an improvement in the very elfential article of Fl x
watering of flax, yet I muft advertife the reader, that ^
they are only theory, and muft depend entirely for
their truth and juftification upon future experiments,
fkilfully and judicioufly made. Should repeated trials
prove the advantage of the new method propofed, we
may venture to affirm, that it would be an improve¬
ment that would increafe the national income in the
agricultural branch many thoufand pounds annually,
would add greatly to the perfection of the linen manu¬
facture, and over and above would fupprefs a very dif-
agreeable nuifance, which the prefent method of water¬
ing flax occafions during fome part of the fummer in
every flax-growing country.
“ The intention of watering flax, is, in my opinion,
to make the boon more brittle or friable, and, by foak-
ing, to diflolve that gluey kind of fap that makes
the bark of plants and trees adhere in a fmall degree
to the woody part. The bark of flax is called the
harle; and when feparoted from the ufelefs woody part,
the boon, this harle itfelf is called flax. To effeCt this
feparation eafily, the praCIice has long prevailed, of
foaking the flax in water to a certain degree of fer¬
mentation, and afterwards drying it. For this foak¬
ing fome prefer rivulets that have a fmall current, and
others ftagnant water in ponds and lakes. In both
methods the water aCls as in all other cafes of infufion
and maceration ; after two or three weeks it extraCIs
a great many juices of a very ftrong quality, which in
ponds give the water an inky tinge and offenfive fmellj
and in rivulets mix in the ftream and kill the fifh.
Nay, if this maceration be too long continued, the
extracted and fermented fap will completely kill the
flax itfelf. For if, inftead of two or three weeks, the
new flax were to lie foaking in the water four or five
months, I prefume it would be good for nothing but
to be thrown upon the dunghill ; both harle and boon
would in time be completely rotted $ yet the harle or
flax, when entirely freed from this fap, and manufac¬
tured into linen, or into ropes, might lie many months
under water without being much damaged j as linen,
it may be waflied and fteeped in fcalding water twenty
times without lofing much of its ftrength j and as pa¬
per, it acquires a kind of incorruptibility.
“ It appears then effential to the right management
of new flax, to get rid of this pernicious vegetative
fap, and to macerate the boon ; but from the com¬
plaints made againft both the methods of watering now
in ufe, there is reafon to think that there is ftill great
roam for improvement in that article. In rivulets, the
vegetative fap, as it is diffolved, is carried off by the
current to the deftruftion of the fifli. This prevents
the flax from being ftained 5 but the operation is te¬
dious, and not complete, from the uncertainty of
knowing when it is juft enough, and not too much,
or perhaps from negleCt. In ponds, the inky tinge of
the water often ferves as a kind of dye to the flax,
which imbibes it fo ftrongly, that double the labour
in bleaching will hardly bring the linen made of fuch
flax to an equality in whitenefs with linen made of
flax untinged. This feems to be equally unwife, as
though we were to dye cotton black fir-ft, in order to
whiten it afterwards. Thefe ponds, befides, become
a great nuifance to the neighbourhood ; the impreg¬
nated water is often of fuch a pernicious quality, that
cattlej
FLAGS.
PLATE CCXVIIL.
A\j>ktx Bantam j, Bengal
E LAX .
J/ff /. f'/rt.r A/i/ts/ /SrtYfA'
~KtTvToi>ia Modena |[; Alo^iil
Pifjf. A. Vecfroji of Break
W '
ELOATIXG BODIES .
J.
T.f'ZerJz srr/Tpt
FLA [ 675 ] FLA
j*laXi cattle, however thirfty, will not drink of it; and the
effluvia of it may perhaps be nearly as infedlious as it
is offenfive. If this effluvia is really attended with
any contagious effefts in our cold climate, a thing
worth the inquiring into, how much more pernicious
muft its effects have been in the hot climate of Egypt,
a country early noted for its great cultivation of
flax ?
“ I have often thought that the procefs of watering
might be greatly improved and fhortened by plunging
the new flax, after it is rippled, into fcalding water j
which, in regard to extrafting the vegetative fap, would
do in five minutes more than cold water would do in
a fortnight, or perhaps more than cold water could do
at all, in refpeft to the clearing the plant of fap.
Rough almonds, when thrown into fcalding water, are
blanched in an inflant; but perhaps a fortnight’s ma¬
cerating thofe almonds in cold water would not make
them part fo eafily with their fkins, which are the fame
to them as the harle is to the flax. Were tea leaves
to be infufed in cold water a fortnight, perhaps the tea
produced by that infufion would not be fo good to the
tafte, or fo ftrongly tinged to the eye, as what is ef¬
fected by fcalding water in five minutes. By the fame
analogy, I think, flax or any fmall twig would be made
to part with its bark much eafier and quicker by be¬
ing dipped in boiling water than by being fteeped in
cold water.
“ This reflexion opens a door for a great variety
of new experiments in regard to flax. I would there¬
fore recommend to gentlemen cultivators and farmers,
to make repeated trials upon this new fyftem, which
would foon afcertain whether it ought to be adopted
in praCHce or rejeCted. One thing, I think, we may
be certain of, that if the Egyptians watered their flax
in our common manner, they undoubtedly watered it
in very warm water, from the great heat of their cli¬
mate, which would probably make them negleCt to
think of water heated by any other means than that
of the fun. A good general praftice can only be efta-
blifhed upon repeated trials. Though one experiment
may fail, another with a little, variation may fucceed ;
and the importance of the objeCt defired to be obtain¬
ed will juftify a good degree of perfeverance in the
profecution of the means. In this view, as the Chi-
nefe thread is faid to be very ftrong, it would be worth
while to be acquainted with the praClice of that diflant
nation, in regard to the rearing and manufacturing of
flax, as well as with the methods ufed by the Ilemings
and the Dutch.
“ Boiling water perhaps might at once clear the
new flax from many impurities, which when not re¬
moved till it be fpun into yarn, are then removed with
difficulty, and with lofs of fubftance to the yarn. Why
ihould not the longitudinal fibres of the flax, before
they be fpun into yarn, be made not only ^ fine but
as clean as poflible ? Upon the new fyftem propofed,
the aCI of bleaching would begin immediately after the
rippling of the flax ; and a little done then might per¬
haps fave much of what is generally done after the
fpinning and weaving. To fpin dirty flax with a view
of cleaning it aftervrards, appears to be the fame impro¬
priety as though we were to referve part of thedrefting
given to leather till after it is made into a glove.
“ Should the plunging of the flax into the boiling
water not fuffice to make the boon brittle enough, as I
am inclined to think it would not, then the common
watering might be added; but in that cafe probably
half the time ufually given to this watering would fuf¬
fice, and the flax might then be laid in clear rivulets,
without any apprehenfion of its infeCting the water
and poifoning the fifh, or of being difcoloured itfelfj
for the boiling water into which it had been previoufly
put, would have extracted all the poifonous vegetative
fap, which I prefume is what chiefly difcolours the flax
or kills the filh.
“ On the fuppofition that the ufe of boiling water
in the preparation of flax may be found to be advan¬
tageous and profitable, I can recolleCt at prefent but
one objection againft its being generally adopted.
Every flax-grower, it may be faid, could not be ex-
peCted to have conveniences for boiling water fuffi-
cient for the purpofe *, the confumption of water
would be great •, and fome additional expence would
be incurred. In anfwer to this I (hall obferve, that
I prefume any additional expence would be more than
reimburfed by the better marketable price of the flax ;
for otherwife any new improvement, if it will not quit
coft muft be dropt, were it even the fearching after
gold. In a large caldron a great deal of flax might
be dipt in the fame water, and the confumption per¬
haps would not be more than a quart, to each ftieaf.
Even a large houfehold pot would be capable of con¬
taining one (heaf after another j and I believe the
Avhole objeftion would be obviated, were the praCtice
to prevail with us, as in Flanders and Holland, that
the flax-grower and the flax-drefler ftiould be two di-
ftinCt profeflions.
“ I ftiall conclude with recommending to thofe who
are inclined to make experiments, not to be difcou-
raged by the failure of one or two trials.—Perhaps the
flax, inftead of being juft plunged into the fcalding
water, ought to be kept in it five minutes, perhaps a
quarter of an hour, perhaps a whole hour. Should five
minutes or a quarter of an hour, or an hour, not be
fufficient to make the boon and harle eafily feparate,
it might perhaps be found expedient to boil the flax
for more than an hour; and fuch boiling when in this
ftate might in return fave feveral hours boiling in the
article of bleaching. It is not, I think, at all probable
that the boiling of the flax with the boon in it would
prejudice the harle ; for in the courfe of its future ex-
iftence, it is made to be expofed 20 or 40 times to
this boiling trial; and if not detrimental in the one
cafe, it is to be prefumed it would not be detrimental
in the other. Perhaps after boiling, it would be
proper to pile up the flax in one heap for a whole day,
or for half a day, to occafion fome fermentation ; or
perhaps immediately after the boiling, it might be
proper to waih it with cold water. The great objeCf,
when the flax is pulled, is to get the harle from the
boon with as little lofs and damage as poflible ; and if
this is accompliftred in a .more complete manner than
ufual, confiderable labour and expence will be faved in
the future manufaCluring of the flax. On this ac¬
count I think much more would be gained than loft,
were the two or three laft inches of the roots of the.
ftems to be chopped off, or clipped off previous to the
flax being either watered or boiled. When the flax is
watered, care ftiould be taken not to fpread it out to
4 ^ 2 dry,
FLA [ 676 ] FLA
Flax. dry, when there is a hazard, of its being expofed in its
-"V-11 “f wet date to froft.”
To what we have now faid we (hall add the follow¬
ing Ihort account of the flax hulbandry of Ireland, in a
letter which appeared in the Farmers Magazine, vol.
vii. page 35.
“ Having for feveral years (fays the writer) been enga¬
ged in the culture of flax, I devoted a part of laft fummer
to a tour through the manufacturing diftriCts of Ireland.
Here that branch of hulbandry has long been eftabliflied
over a large extent of the country, and conduced with
very conflderable fuccefs. As fome of the proctfles in
this culture, which are followed with advantage, are
either unknown to the Scots farmers, or are performed
in a very awkward and inefficient manner, it might, I
conceive, prove of no fmall benefit, were fome of your
intelligent correfpondents induced to lay before them a
plain fketch of the peculiar management obferved by
the Irith peafantry in this important article. I am the
more defirous it ffiould appear in your pages, becaufe a
periodical work on hufbandry, conducted by a practical
farmer, appears before the public with manifeft advan¬
tage, and is received with that fort of deference which
is due to experience and authority. The difcuffions of
aCtual cultivators regarding the objeCts of their own
profeffion, however new they may as yet be in the an¬
nals of agriculture, are far more likely to prove ufeful,
than the writings of thofe volunteers in this favourite
faience, who are merely fpeculative and theoretical. I
freely confefs to you, Sir, that I found with pleafure
your work widely circulated in the fitter kingdom ^ and
that the caufe uniformly given for its popularity, was a
degree of confidence placed in the practical Ikill of its
conductor.
“ During my progrefs through Ireland, the feveral
procettes oijieeping, drying, and Jkutching, were in hand,
and I think I found a peculiarity of management in
thefe fufficient to affeCt the fuccefs of the whole bufinefs,
and to confer a decided fuperiority on the produce of
an acre of flax in Ireland over that in Scotland, both
in quantity and value. It is no uncommon thing for a
farmer in this country, who wiffies to make up a fum
for his rent, to fell a part of his lint on the foot, as it is
termed ; and for this he will commonly receive from
30 to 40 guineas per acre.
“ 1. The Method of Steeping.—As foon as the crop has
attained the proper degree of ripenefs, (which is fome-
what below your ftandard of maturity), the flax is pul¬
led, and carried to a ftagnant pool, dug for this pur-
pofe, moderately deep. It is allowed to remain there
only from five to feven days, according to the tempera¬
ture of the weather. After the fermentation in the
fteeping procefs has been carried to a degree fufficient
to produce the requifite laxity of fibre, the flax is taken
out of the pool, and fpread very thinly on the ftubble
of the hay meadow. There, inftead of remaining till
it is merely dried, it is continued for three or four
weeks, till the grower conceives it ready for fkutching.
This blenching procefs, if I am allowed to call it fo,
which, in Scotland, is either unknown, or continued
merely till the crop is dried, has many advantages ; the
moft obvious one is, that it enables the farmer, every
time he examines it, to afcertain exaftly (by rubbing
©n his hand) the precife point at which the fermentation
has arrived, and thus to perceive the tenacity and ftrength
of his flax j while the adhefion of the fibre has been fuf-
ficiently weakened, to admit of the Ikutcher cleanfing it
completely of the woody parts. It is, I am apprehen-
five, only the practical flax farmer who is able to judge
of the importance and delicacy of this part of the huf¬
bandry. It is fo remarkable, that of two acres of flax,
under precifely the fame feed and culture, and of equal
fertility, it frequently happens that the one {hall yield
a produce thrice the value of the other, merely from
fuperior accuracy in afcertaining the proper time of con¬
tinuing the fteeping and blenching proceffes. In Scot¬
land, therefore, I fufpeft the praftice is faulty and de-
feftive j becaufe there the whole procefs of fermentation
is completed by fteeping alone j whereas, in Ireland, it
is begun only in the fteep, and completed by blenching
on the meadow, to that precife point which the fafety
of the produce requires.
“ 2. Smoking and Drying.—The Irifh peafant feems
to poffefs another advantage, almoft equally decifive, in
his mode of drying the flax, before he fubmits it to the
Ikutcher or beater. After the lint has remained a fuf¬
ficient length of time on the blenching green, it is ga¬
thered up a fecond time into (Leafs, (beats, provincial-
ly), and feems tolerably dry. In this ftate it is deemed
by the Scots growers fully prepared for the flax-mill j
but far otherwife by the Irifti farmer, who never fub-
mits it to the hands of the beaters till it has undergone
a thorough fmoking over a peat fire. For this purpofe,
he raifes, at the back of a ditch, a fmall hurdle thinly
wrought with ofiers, and places it on four polls of wood,
at the height of four feet above the level of the ground.
A pretty flrong fire of peats being kindled below,’the
heat and fmoke pervade every part of the flax, which
is placed perpendicularly above the hurdle. This pro¬
cefs is continued, and frefti quantities of flax regularly
added, till the whole crop is brought to a ftate of dry-
nefs, which, in this moift climate, can never be effeft-
ed by the fun and the weather alone : by this operation
a degree of brittlenefs and friability is produced on the
ftraw, which greatly facilitates the enfuing work, and
admits of an ealy feparation of the fibre from the wood.
It is evident, that the lefs friflion required in fkutching,
the lefs w’afte or diminution muft be occafioned in clear¬
ing the flax $ and confequently, the greater muft be
the grower’s produce from the mill. This part of the
procefs is equally delicate with that deferibed above,
and requires, if p< ffible, flill greater attention on the
part of the workmen, fince it is clear that, by a care-
lefs management of the fire, the whole crop may be de»
flroyed.
“ 3. Cleanfing and Drejfing.—The flax hufbandry of
Ireland derives no {mall benefit from the application of
hand-labour in the beating and {kutching of lint, thus
fuperfeding the ufe of the mill. The moft careful and
expert workmen are not always able to temper the ve¬
locity of machinery fo exaflly, as to preferve flax that
has been overfleeped or blenched to excefs : while the
fteady and regulated impetus of the hand Ikutch can
eafily be modified, as the circumftanees of each cafe
may require •, a matter of obvious advantage, btcaufe
the beft flax-mills feldom produce, an equal quantity of
lint, nor equally clean, with that which is obtaimd by
the hand. Befides this, the price of labour in this
part of the united kingdom, ftill continues fo moderate,
as to preclude any confiderable degree of faving in ex-
a
pence
FLA
[ 677 1
F L E
Flax, pence by the ufe of machinery. In proof of this, the
■— v flax millers in Scotland, I find, are charging this fea-
fon from three to four (hillings for drefling a (lone of
flax ; while, at the place I am now writing, the fame
quantity is dreffed by the hand for thirteenpence, or one
Britifh (hilling. In Scotland, where hands are fcarce,
and the price of labour confequently high, I certainly
would not recommend the difufe of the flax-mill; on
the contrary, I am perfuaded that it is chiefly owing to
our fuperior machinery, and excellent implements of
hulbandry, that we are at all enabled to maintain a
competition with our neighbours in the prefent (late of
our (kill in flax hufbandry, and fubje&ed to the dif-
advantage of paying double price for labour.
“ 4. Prefervation of Flax-feed.—The laft peculiarity
of management, which I (hall at prefent notice as advan¬
tageous to the flax hufbandry of Ireland, is the inven¬
tion of a flax barn for the prefervation of feed. Enjoy¬
ing a climate perhaps ftill more moift and unfteady than
that of Great Britain, the farmers here were for a long
feries of years, unable to fupply themfelves with this
article, and were obliged to commiffion feed annually
from America and the Baltic, to fupply the increafed
demands of an extended culture, to the large amount
of 200,000l. fterling. The annual expenditure of ca(h
long continued to operate as a drain on the flock of the
laborious farmer, and prevented the accumulation of
his capital; an evil of the mod ferious magnitude, un¬
der which the Iri(h peafantry ftill labour, and from
which, till very lately, they had not even a profpeft of
relief. By the pra&ice in univerfal ufe, if the farmer
ftored up his lint in the barn-yard with the reft of his
crop in harveft, he might, it is true, preferve his feed $
but in doing fo, he uniformly loft his flax to a far
greater value from overdrynefs, when wrought in the
fpring.
“ If, on the other hand, he attempted to feparate his
feed during the lint harveft by means of the rippling-
comb, he had no means of preventing it from being al-
moft invariably deftroyed by the wetnefsof the climate.
Various methods had been attempted to overcome this
difficulty, but without fuccefs ; till Robert Tennant,
Efq. of Strangmore, linen-infpe&or, near Dungannon,
contrived the plan of a flax-barn, which feems perfeft-
ly competent to the prefervation of feed. It has al¬
ready been eredled, and has proved fuccefiful on a fmall
fcale j the feed cured in it remained during the winter
perfectly fre(h, and nothing feems wanting to complete
this improvement in our flax hulbandry, but a larger
capital in the hands of a few of our farmers. Rhis flax
barn is conftrufled on wooden polls, roofed on the top,
but left perfeflly open at each fide •, it is fupplied with
various ftages of floors of bafket-work, placed regu¬
larly at two feet diftance above each other. R hus,
the air, having free accefs to the feed on all (ides,
preferves it fre'fti and well-coloured for any length of
time.
“ R’his contrivance was fuggefted to Mr Tennant, it is
faid, almoft cafually, by noticing the great effeft pro¬
duced on cloth, by drying-houfes in bleachfields. He
had in fa£l been employed by the Linen Board of Ire¬
land, in teaching the new procefs of bleaching to the
manufacturers, by means of the oxymuriate of lime j
and, in the courfe of feven or eight years, this method
of whitening linen has been eftabliftved over the whole
kingdom, with the exception of hardly a Angle field.
Lord Northland and Mr Fofter, who invited this
gentleman from Scotland, and patronized him in this v"
part of the kingdom, have enjoyed the fatisfa&ion of
beholding a more effential improvement effefled in
the linen manufacture, in the (hort fpace already
mentioned, than had ever taken place ifl a century
before.
“ It was my intention, when I began this letter, to
have prefented you a more minute defcription of a flax
farm, and to have laid before your readers, a more de¬
tailed account of the flax hulbandry of Ireland in gene¬
ral. I find, however, that I have already exceeded
the ordinary bounds prefcribed to the contributors to
your ufeful work ; therefore conclude, with exprefling
a hope, that the few hints already offered, will incline
fome of your correfpondents to treat of a fubje£t certain¬
ly of fufficient importance to merit attention. For a
branch of hulbandry cannot be deemed contemptible,
which affords fuftenance to upwards of two millions of
people ; and which, at the fame time, adds to the ge¬
neral refources of the empire, no lefs a fum than feven
millions fterling annually. Thefe circumftances, too,
I truft, will plead my excufe for holding up a portion
of Irifli hulbandry to the imitation of your numerous
readers among the cultivators of Scotland, who are at
prefent juftly celebrated for their agricultural know¬
ledge in every part of the world.”
Flax made to refemble Cotton. In the Swedifli Tranf-
adlions for the year 1747, a method is given of pre¬
paring flax in fuch a manner as to refemble cotton in
whitenefs and foftnefs, as well as in coherence. For
this purpofe a little fea water is to be put into an
iron pot or an untinned copper kettle, and a mixture
of equal parts of birch alhes and quicklime ftrewed
upon it : A fmall bundle of flax is to be opened and
fpread upon the furface, and covered with more of the
mixture, and the ((ratification continued till the veffel
is fufficiently filled. R^he whole is then to be boiled
with fea water for ten hours, frefti quantities of water
being occafionally fupplied in proportion to the eva¬
poration, that the water may never become dry. The
boiled flax is to be immediately waffied in the fea
by a little at a time, in a balket, with a fmooth (lick
at fir ft while hot $ and when grown cold enough to
be borne by the hands, it muff be well rubbed,
walked with foap, laid to bleach, and turned and
watered every day. Repetitions of the waffling with
foap expedite the bleaching •, after which the flax is
to be beaten, and again well-walked ; when dry it
is to be worked and carded in the fame manner as com¬
mon cotton, and prefled betwixt two boards for 48
hours. It is now fully prepared and fit for ufe. It
lofes in this procefs near one half its weight, which is
abundantly compenfated by the improvement made in
its quality.
R'he filamentous parts of different vegetables have
been employed in different countries for the fame me¬
chanic ufes a^ hemp and flax among us.. See Fila-,
MENT.,
Earth-FLAX. See Amianthus, Botany Index.
NewZealand FLAX Plant. See Phormium, Botany
Index.
Toad-FLAX. See Linaria, Botany Index.
FLEA. See Fulex, Entomology Index.
FLEs-
Flax,
Flea,
F L E
Fleet.
Flea-Bane FLEA-Bane. See Conyza, BOTANY Index.
FleA-Bitten, that colour of a horfe which is white
_ or grayj fpotted all over with dark reddifh fpots.
FLEAM, in Surgery and Farriery, an inftrument
for letting blood of a man or horfe. A cafe of fleams,
as it is called by farriers, comprehends fix forts of in-
llruments j two hooked ones, called drawers, and ufed
for cleanfing wounds ; a pen knife j a ftiarp-pointed
lancet for making incifions j and two fleams, one (harp
and the other broad pointed. Thefe laft are fomewhat
like the point of a lancet, fixed in a flat handle, and no
longer than is juft neceffary to open the vein.
I LECHIER, Esprit, biftiop of Nifmes, one of the
moft celebrated preachers of his age, and the publifher
of many panegyrics and funeral orations, was born at
Perne in Avignon in 1632. He was nominated to the
bilhopric of Lavaur in 1685, and tranflated to Nifmes
in 1687* -A-t this latter place he founded an academy,
and took the prefidentfhip upon himfelf: his own pa¬
lace was indeed a kind of academy, where he applied
himfelf to train up orators and writers, who might ferve
the church, and do honour to the nation. He publiftred,
befides his panegyrics and funeral orations, 1. A Hif-
tory of the Emperor Theodofius, that of Cardinal Xi-
menes, and that of Cardinal Commendon. 2. Several
Sermons. 3. Mifcellaneous Works. 4. Letters, &c.
He died in 1710.
FLECKNOE, Richard, an Englilh poet in the
reign of Charles II. more remarkable for Mr Dryden’s
fatire on him than for any works of his own. He is
faid to have been originally a Jefuit, and to have had
good Englifh connexions in the Catholic intereft.
When Dryden loft the place of poet laureat on the Re¬
volution, its being conferred on Flecknoe, for whom
he had a fettled averfion, gave occafion to his poem
entitled Mac Fiecknoe; one of the beft written fatires in
our language, and from which Pope feems to have ta¬
ken the hint for his Dunciad. Flecknoe wrote fome
plays j but could never get more than one of them a6t-
ed, and that was damned.
FLEECE, the covering of wool (horn off the bodies
of (heep. See Wool.
Golden Fleece. See Argonauts, and Golden
Fleece.
FLEET, commonly implies a company of (hips of
war, belonging to any prince or (late: but fometimes
it denotes any number of trading (hips employed in a
particular branch of commerce.
The admirals of his Britannic majefty’s fleet are di¬
vided into three fquadrons, viz. the red, the white, and
the blue. When any of thefe officers are invefted with
the command of a fquadron or detachment of men of
war, the particular (hips are diftinguiftied by the colours
of their refpedlive fquadron : that is to fay, the (hips
fff the red fquadron wear an enfign whofe union is dif-
played on a red field ; the enfigns of the white fqua¬
dron have a white field ; and thofe of the blue fqua¬
dron a blue field ; the union being common to all three.
The (hips of war, therefore, are occafionally annexed
to any of the three fquadrons, or (hifted from one to
another.
Of whatfoever number a fleet of (hips of war is com-
pofed, it is ufually divided into three fquadrons ; and
thefe, if numerous, are again feparated into divifions.
The admiral, or principal officer, commands the centre)
3
[ 673 ]
F L E
the vice admiral, or fecond in command, fuperintends
the van guard j and the operations of the rear are di-
re&ed by the rear admiral, or the officer next in rank.
See the article Division.
The difpofition of a fleet, while proceeding on a
voyage, will in fome meafure depend on particular cir-
cumftances ; as the difficulty of the navigation, the
neceflity of difpatch, according to the urgency or im¬
portance of the expedition, or the expeflation of an
enemy in the paffage. The moft convenient order is
probably to range it into three lines or columns, each
of which is parallel to a line clofe hauled according to
the tack on which the line of battle is defigned to be
formed. This arrangement is more ufeful than any j
becaufe it contains the advantages of every other form
without their inconveniences. The fleet being thus
more enclofed will more readily obferve the fignals, and
with greater facility form itfelf into the line of battle,
a circumftance which (hould be kept in view in every
order of failing. See Naval TACTICS.
Fleet,, is alfo a noted prifon in London, where
perfons are committed for contempt of the king and his
laws, particularly of his courts of juftice 5 or for debt,
where any perfon will not or is unable to pay his cre¬
ditors.
There are large rules and a warden belonging to
the Fleet prifon ; which had its name from the float
or fleet of the river or ditch, on the fide whereof it
(lands.
FLEETWOOD, William, a very learned Englilh
biftiop in the beginning of the 18th century, of an an¬
cient family in Lancalhire. He diftinguiftied himfelf
during King William’s reign, by V\$ Infcriptionum An-
tiquarum Sylloge, by feveral fermons he preached on
public occafions, and by his Effay on Miracles. He
was defigned by King William to a canonry of Wind-
for. The grant did not pafs the feals before the king’s
death) but the queen gave it him, and he was inftalled
in 1702. In 1703, he took a refolution to retire; and
in 1707, publiftied, without his name, his Chronicon
Pretiofum. In 1708, he was nominated by the queen
to the fee of St Afaph. The change of the queen’s
miniftrygave him much regret. In 1715, he publifti¬
ed a pamphlet entitled, “ The 13th chapter of the Ro¬
mans vindicated from the abufive fenfes put upon it.”
In 1714, he was tranflated to the biftiopric of Ely;
and died in 1723, aged 67. He publiftied feveral other
fermons and tradfs, and was a man of great learning
and exemplary piety.
FLEMINGIANS, or Flandrians, in ecclefiafti-
cal hiftory, a fedl of rigid Anabaptifts, who acquired
this name in the 16th century, becaufe moft of them
were natives of Flanders, by way of diftindfion from
the Wayerlandians. In confequence of fome dif-
fenfions among the Flemingians relating to the treat¬
ment of excommunicated perfons, they were divided
into two fedfs, diftinguiftied by the appellations of
Flandrians and Friejlanders, who differed from each
other in their manners and difcipiine. Many of thefe
in procefs of time came over to the moderate commu¬
nity of the Waterlandians, and thofe who remained le-
parate are ftill known by the name of the old Flernin-
gians or Flandrians ; but they are comparatively few
in number. Thefe maintain the opinion of Menno with
refpedt to the incarnation of Chrift ; alleging, that his
bodv
F L E
Flemlr- body was produced by the creating power of the Holy
gians Ghoft, and not derived from his mother Mary.
& II FLEMISH, or the Flemish tongue, is that which
Fletcher. we 0t,herwife call Low Dutch, to diftinguidi it from the
L" ’ German, whereof it is a corruption and a kind of dia¬
led. See German.
It differs from the Walloon, which is a corruption
of the French language. The Flemilh is ufed through
all the provinces of the Netherlands.
Flemish Bricks, a neat, ftrong, yellow kind of bricks,
brought from Flanders, and commonly ufed in paving
yards, (tables, &c. being preferable for fuch purpofes
to the common bricks. See the article Bricks.
FLESH, in Anatomy, a compound fubltance, con¬
fiding of the various fofter folids of the animal body,
and fo denominated in contradiftin&ion to bones. See
Anatomy, paffim.
Flesh is alfo ufed, in Theology, in fpeaking of the
myfteries of the incarnation and eucharift. “ The word
was madefi-Jh” Verbum carofaElum ejl.
The Romanifts hold, that the bread in the facrament
of the fupper is turned* into the real flefh of Jefus
Chrift. See Transubstantiation.
Flesh is fometimes alfo ufed by botanifts for the
foft pulpy fubltance of any fruit, enclofed between the
outer rind or fkin and the feeds or (tone j or for that
part of a root, fruit, &o. fit to be eaten.
Flesh.Colour. See Carnation.
FLETA, the name given to an unknown writer
who lived about the end of the reign of Edward II.
and beginning of Edward III. and who being a pri-
foner in the Fleet, wrote there an excellent treatife on
the common law of England.
FLETCHER. See Beaumont and Fletcher.
Fletcher, Andrew, of Salton, a celebrated Scots
patriot and political writer, was defcended from an an¬
cient family who trace their origin to one of the fol¬
lowers of William the Conqueror. Fie was the fon of
Sir Robert Fletcher of Salton and Innerpeffer, and
born in the year 1650. The tuition of our author was
committed by his father, on his deathbed, to Mr (af¬
terwards Bilhop) Burnet, then his parilh minifter; by
whofe care he received a pious, learned, and polite
education. Endowed with uncommon genius, and pof-
feffed of virtues and abilities peculiarly fuited to the
times in which he lived, Mr Fletcher quickly (hone
forth the ornament of his country, and the champion
of its freedom. Having in the courfe of his claffical
Rudies and hiftorical reading been impreffed with an
enthufiaftic admiration both of ancient and modern
republics, he had early contrafted an ardent love of
liberty, and an averfion to arbitrary rule. Hence his
fpirit the more readily took alarm at certain meafuresin
the reign of Charles II. Being knight of the (hire for
Lothian to that parliament where the duke of York
was commiffioner, he openly oppofed the defigns of
that prince and the bill of acceffion. He had a fhare
with Lord Vifcount Stair in framing the tell aft, by
which the duke of York complained that he loft Scot¬
land. On thefe accounts he became peculiarly ob¬
noxious to the duke j and was at laft obliged to flee to
Holland, to avoid the fatal confequences of profecutions
which on various pretences were commenced againft
him. Being cited before the privy council and jufticiary
[ 679 1
F L E
courts, and not appearing, he was declared traitor, and Fletcher,
his eftate confifcated. '■ '“’’v 1 11
In Holland, he and Mr Baillie of Jervifwood were
the only perfons whom the earl of Argyle confulted
concerning the defigns which were then in agitation.
In 1681 they came over to England, in order to con¬
cert matters with their party in that country j and
were the only two who were intrufted fo far as to be
admitted to the fecrets of Lord Ruffel’s council of fix.
Mr Fletcher managed his part of the negotiation with
fo much addrefs, that adminiftration could find no
pretext for feizing him ; nor could they fix upon him
thofe articles on account of which Mr Baillie was con¬
demned } to whofe honour let it be remembered, that
although offered a pardon on condition of his accufing
his friend, he perfifted in rejefting the propofal wdth
indignation.
Mr Fletcher having joined the duke of Monmouth
upon his landing , received a principal command under
him ; but the duke was deprived of his fervices on
the following occafion, as related by Sir John Dal- Memoirs oj
rymple. Being fent upon an expedition, and not^Tfl*^*
efteeming “ times of danger to be times of ceremony>/rf/(jn</,
he had feized for his own riding the horfe of a country
gentleman [the mayor of Lynne] which flood ready
equipped for its mafter. The mailer, hearing this, ran in
a paflion to Fletcher, gave him opprobrious language,
fhook his cane, and attempted to ftrike. Fletcher,
though rigid in the duties of morality, having been
accuftomed to foreign fervice both by fea and land, in
which he had acquired high ideas of the honour of a
foldier and a gentleman, and of the affront of a cane,
pulled out his pillol, and {hot him dead on the fpot.
The a£lion was unpopular in countries where fuch re¬
finements were not underflood. A clamour was raifed
againft it among the people of the country : in a body
they waited upon the duke with their complaints; and
he w’as forced to defire the only foldier, and almofl the
only man of parts, in his army, to abandon him. With
Fletcher all Monmouth’s chance of fuccels in war left
him.” But, in a manufcript memoir belonging to the
family, we have the following notice concerning Mr
Fletcher’s connedlion with Monmouth, in which his
feparation from that prince is very differently accounted
for : “ To Lord Marifchal Mr Fletcher explained the
motives which firft induced him to join, and afterwards
abandon, the duke of Monmouth. The former he
afcribed to the duke’s manifefto in Scotland relating to
religion, and in England to liberty. For the latter he
accounted by the difguft produced in his own mind and
that of his affociates, when the duke declared himfelf
king, and broke faith with all who embarked with him
on his principles. He complained heavily of the ac¬
count commonly given of the death of the mayor of
Lynne : and mentioned to Lord Marifchal, in proof of
the contrary, that he did not leave the duke till he came
to Taunton, where he was proclaimed king, feveral
weeks after the death of the mayor of Lynne.”
Seeing all the efforts of himfelf and his friends in
favour of liberty fruflrated at Taunton, he endeavour¬
ed to fecure his own perfonal freedom by taking his
palfage in the firft {hip bound to a foreign country. It
was his misfortune to land in Spain j where he was
immediately arrefled, caft into prifon, and guarded by
three
F L E f 680
Fletcher, three different bands of foldiers, till a veffel (hould be
^ ^7^ prepared to carry him a viftim in chains to the court
of the fa- London. But on the morning before the (hip could
miiyof Sal‘^t ^^ilft he looked penfive through the bars that fe-
ton, IVIS. cured the window of his room, he "was hailed by a ve¬
nerable perfonage who made figns to fpeak with him.
The prifon doors he found open j and whilft his friend¬
ly conductor waved to him to follow him, he paffed
through three different guards of foldiers all faff afleep.
Without being permitted to offer his thanks to his de¬
liverer, he found himfelf obliged to prolecute with all
fpeed the journey, in which he was directed by a per-
fon concerning whom he could never colledl any infor¬
mation $ and in difguife he proceeded in fafety through
Spain. He felt a peculiar pleafure in relating to his
friends inftances of the care of Providence which he had
experienced during his exile j and entertained them
often with narratives of this kind, which he always
mingled with religious reflexions. Of thefe, another
may be here mentioned. Happening in the evening to
pafs the Ikirt of a wood at a few miles diftance from a
city where he intended to lodge, he came to a place
where two roads met. After he had entered upon the
road on the right, he was accofted by a female of a
refpeXable figure, who warned him to turn back, and
take the road on the left $ for that in the other there
was danger which he could not efcape if he continued
■to proceed. His friendly monitor fuddenly retired into
the wood, out of which fhe had iffued no lefs unexpeX-
edly.' Having arrived at the city, the inhabitants were
foon after alarmed by an account of the robbery and
murder of feveral travellers who that evening had fallen
into the hands of a banditti upon the very way in
which he had intended to travel. From thefe and other
inftances of prefervation from dangers, the devotion of
his mind, habituated from his infancy to an intercourfe
with heaven, led him to conclude that he was in a pe¬
culiar manner the care of Providence, and that in cri¬
tical cafes his underftanding received its direXion from
a fupernatural impulfe.
During his exile, he maintained a frequent and ex-
tenfive correfpondence with the friends of liberty at
home ; and he partly employed himfelf in making a
curious colleXion of books, which compofe the beft
private library in Scotland. But his genius alfo
prompted him to engage in more aXive employments.
He repaired to Hungary, and ferved feveral campaigns
as a volunteer under the duke of Lorrain with great
reputation. At length, underftanding that the great
defign then projeXed in Holland, and upon the iffue
of which he confidered the liberties of Britain to be
fufpended, had attained a confiderable degree of ma¬
turity, he haftened thither; where his councils and ad-
drefs were of eminent fervice. He came over with
King William j and in zeal, aXivity, penetration, and
political Ikill, proved inferior to none of the leaders in
the Revolution.
Such, however, was his magnanimity, that from a
furvey of King William’s papers, it appears that while
others laboured to turn this grand event to the emo¬
lument of themfelves and the aggrandifement of their
family, Mr Fletcher afked nothing. His eftate had
been forfeited, and his houfe abandoned to military
difcretion p his fortune was greatly {battered, and his
family reduced to circumftances of diftrefs. Nothing
] F L E
was given him in recompenfe of all his fufferings. On
the contrary, he, together with the duke of Hamilton,'
was diftinguiftied by marks of royal and minifterial
diflike.. Still, whatever private refentraent he miaht
entertain,, it appeared that his ruling principle was the
good of his country j and that to this grand objeX of
his heart he was willing to facrifice all perfonal confi-
derations. For when, in 1692, the abdicated king
meditated an invafion, Mr Fletcher addreffed a letter
(preferved in Sir John Dalrymple’s colleXion) to the
duke of Hamilton, in which every argument is em¬
ployed with {kill and energy to engage his grace to
forget his injuries, and in the prefent crifis to employ
the extenfive influence and authority he then poffeffed
in the caufe of freedom and of his country. This
letter produced its full effeX j and the duke returned
to his duty, from which he had in part begun to de¬
viate.
To follow our author through all the mazes of his
political life fubfequent to the Revolution, is beyond
our purpofe, and would exceed our limits. One or
two circumftances more {hall therefore fuffice. Being
eleXed a member for the parliament 1683, he {bowed
an uniform zeal for the intereft of his country. The
thought of England’s domineering over Scotland was
what his generous foul could not endure. The indig¬
nities and oppreflion which Scotland lay under galled
him to the heart ; fo that in his learned and elaborate
difcourfes, he expofed them with undaunted courage
and pathetical eloquence. In that great event, the
Union, he performed effential fervice. He got the
aX of fecurity paffed, which declared that the two
crowns ftiould not pafs to the fame head till Scotland
was fecured in her liberties civil and religious. There¬
fore Lord Godolphin was forced into the Union, to
avoid a civil war after the queen’s demife. Although
Mr Fletcher difapproved of fomeof the articles, and in¬
deed of the whole frame of the Union j yet, as the aX
of fecurity was his own work, he had all the merit of
that important tranfaXion.
We muft not omit mentioning, that in the ardour of
his political career Mr Fletcher forgot not the interefts
of the place that gave him birth. He efteemed the
education of youth one of the nobleft objeXs of go¬
vernment. On this fubjeX he wrote a treatife, {Till
extant, moft charaXeriftic of himfelf j and he eftablilh-
ed at Salton a foundation for the fame purpofe, of
great utility while it lafted.
This great man died at London 1716, aged 66. His
remains w’ere conveyed to Scotland, and depofited in
the family vault a't Salton.
That Mr Fletcher received neither honours nor emo¬
luments from King William, may perhaps be in part
attributed to himfelf $ a circumftance, however, which
muft add greatly to the luftre of his charaXer. His
uncomplying virtue, and the fternnefs of his principles,
were ill calculated to conciliate courtly favour. He
was fo zealous an affertor of the liberties of the people,
that he was too jealous of the growing power of all
princes j in whom he thought ambition fo natural, that
he was not for trufting the beft of kings with the
power which ill ones might make ufe of againft their
fubjeXs ; he was of opinion that all princes were made
by, and for the benefit of, the people $ and that they
{hould have no power but that of doing good. This,
which
Fletcher.
F L E [6
Fletcher, which made him oppofe King Charles and invade King
—V—' James, led him alfo to oppofe the giving fo much power
to King William, whom he would never ferve after his
eftablifhrnent. So we are told by the author of Short
Political Chara&ers, a MS. in the library of the late
T. Rawlinfon, Efq.—Mr Lockhart, in his Memoirs,
p. 72. expreffes a belief that his averlion to the Eng-
li(h and to the Union was fo great, that, in revenge to
them, he was inclined to fide with the abdicated fa¬
mily : “ But (adds he) as that was a fubjeft not fit to
be entered upon with him, this is only a conjedture
from fome inuendos I have heard him make 5 but fo
far is certain, he liked, commended, and converfed
with high-flying Tories, more than any other fet of
men j acknowledging them to be the belt country¬
men, and of moft honour, integrity, and ingenuity.”
It feems difficult to reconcile this with Mr Fletcher’s
avowed principles and the general tenor of his con-
dudl. May we fuppofe, that chagrin, if not at the
negledt or the ill treatment which he had himfelf re-
«eived from government fince the Revolution, yet at
the public meafures relating to his native country,
might have occafioned him to relent in his fentiments
with regard to the exiled family ?—In the. family me¬
moirs already quoted, we are informed, That, “ Lord
Marifchal held Mr Fletcher’s charadler in high admi¬
ration and that, “ when governor of Neufchatel,
where Rouffeau refided about the year 1766, he pre¬
vailed with this very extraordinary genius to write the
life of a man whofe chara&er and adlions he wiffied to
have tranfmitted to pofterity with advantage. For
this purpofe his lordfhip applied to an honourable re¬
lation of Mr Fletcher’s for materials: which by him
were tranfmitted to Lord Marifchal ; but the defign
failed through Roufieau’s defultory and capricious dif-
pofition.” This anecdote mufl appear incompatible
with the known loyalty and attachments of the Earl
Marifchal, unlefs we fuppofe him to have been privy
to fome fuch fentiments of Mr Fletcher as thofe al¬
luded to by Mr Lockhart j for how could we fuppofe
him anxious to promote a compofition, in which the
talk would be to celebrate principles diametrically op-
pofite to his own, and to applaud a&ions fubverfive of
that royal family in whofe caufe he had ventured his
life, and forfeited his fortune, and foregone h: ' coun¬
try ! But however thefe circumfiances may be recon¬
ciled, as the integrity, difintereftednefs, and public
fpirit of Mr Fletcher, have been univerfally acknow¬
ledged, there is reafon to believe, that all his fentiments
and a (Elions were founded in honour, and that he never
once purfued a meafure further than he judged it to be
for the intereft of his country.
Mr Fletcher was mafter of the Englilh, Latin,
Greek, French, and Italian languages 5 and well verfed
in hiftory, the civil law, and all kinds of learning. In
his travels, he had not only acquired confiderable
knowledge in the art of war, but alfo became verfant
in the refpeiElive interefts of the feveral princes and
ftates of Europe. In private life, he was affable to his
friends, and free from all manner of vice. He had a
penetrating, clear,' and lively apprehenfion } but is faid
to have been too much wedded to opinions, and im¬
patient of con tradition.—He poffeffed an uncommon
elevation of mind, accompanied with a warmth of
temper, which would fuffcr him to brook from no rank
VOL. VIII. Part II.
81] F L I •
among men, nor in any place, an indignity. Of this
he exhibited a Angular proof in the Scots parliament.
The earl of Stair, fecretary of ftate and minifter for
Scotland, having in the heat of debate ufed an im¬
proper expreffion againft Mr Fletcher, he feized him
by his robe, and infifted upon public and immediate
fatisfa£Hon. His lordlhip was obliged inftantly to beg
his pardon in prefence of parliament.
Mr Fletcher was by far the fineft fpeaker in the
parliament of Scotland } the earl of Stair alone rivalled
him. The latter was famed for a fplendid, the former
for a clofe and nervous, eloquence. He formed his
ftyle on the models of antiquity j and the fmall volume
of his works, Sir John Dalrymple obferves, thou gH
imperfeiflly colle&ed, is one of the very few claffical
compofitions in the Engliffi language.
FLEIEWOOD, William, an eminent Englilh
lawyer and recorder of London, in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. He was very zealous in fuppreffing mafs-
houfes, and committing popifti priefts j but once rufli-
ing in upon mafs at the Portuguefe ambaffador’s houfe,
he was committed to the Fleet for breach of privilege,
but foon releafed. Mr Wood fays, “ He was a learned
man, and a good antiquary, but of a marvellous merry
and pleafant conceit.” He was a good popular fpeaker,
and wrote well upon fubje&s of government. His prin¬
cipal works are, 1. Annalium tam regum Edwardi V.
Richardi III. et Henrici VII. quam Henrici VIII. 2. A
Table of the Reports of Edmund Plowden. 3. The
Office of a Juttice of Peace. He died about the year
IS93-
FLEVILLEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dioecia clafs. See Botany Index.
FLEURI, Claude, an able French critic and hiflo-
rian, was born at Paris in 1640. He applied himfelf
to the law, was made advocate for the parliament of
Paris, and attended the bar nine years ; he then entered
into orders, and was made preceptor to the princes of
Conti. In 16S9, the king made him Rib-preceptor to
the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berry ; and in
1706, when the education of thefe young princes was
completed, the king gave him the priory of Argente-
ville belonging to the Benedi&ines in the diocefe of
Paris. In 1716, he was chofen counfellor to Louis
XV. and died in 1723. He was the author of a great
number of efteemed French works j the principal of
which are, 1. An ecclefiaftical hiffory, in 20 volumes,
the lafl of which ends with the year 1414. 2. The
manners of the Ifraelites and Chriflians. 3. Inllitutions
of ecclefiaftical law. 4. An hiftorieal catechifm. j.
On the choice and method of ftudy. 6. The duties of
mafters and fervants, &c.
FLEXIBLE, in Ehyfics, a term applied to bodies
capable of being bent or diverted from their natural
figure or direiElion.
FLEXOR, in Anatomy, a name applied to feveral
mufcles, which are fo called from their office, which is
to bend the parts to which they belong ; in oppofition
to the extenfors, which open or ftretch them. See
Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
FLIGHT, the aft of a bird in flying ; or the man¬
ner, duration, &c. thereof.
Almoft every kind of bird has its particular flight j
the eagle’s flight is the higheft ; the flight of the fpar-
row-hawk and vulture is noble, and fit for high enter-
4 R prfc
Fletcher
II
Flight.
F L {
[
Flight, prife and combat. The flight of fome birds is low,
Flint, weak, and tranfient 5 the flight of the partridge and
"“'Y’”-'' pheafant is but of ftiort continuance ; that of the dove
is laboured ; that of the fparrow undulatory, &c.
The augurs pretend to foretel future events from the
flight of birds. See Augury.
Flight. In melting the lead ore in the works at
Mendip, there is a fubftance which flies away in the
fmoke which is called the flight. The workmen find it
fweetiih upon their lip-', if their faces happen to be in the
way of the fmoke, which they avoid as much as poflible.
This, falling on the grafs, kills cattle that feed thereon;
and,being gathered, and carried home,kills rats and mice
in their houfes j that which falls on the fand, they gather
and melt upon a flag hearth into ftiot and ftieet lead.
FLINT, a fpecies of Ample ftones, chiefly compofed
of filiceous earth. See MINERALOGY Index.
Breaking of FLINTS. The art of cutting, or rather
breaking flint flones into uniform figures, is by fome
fuppofed to be one of the arts now lolt. That it was
known formerly, appears from the ancient Bridewell
at Norwich, from the gate of the Auguftin friars at
Canterbury, that of St John’s Abbey at Colchefter, and
the gate near Whitehall, Wefiminfter. But that the
art is not loft, and that the French know it, appears
from the platform on the top of the royal obfervatory
at Paris 5 which, inftead of being leaded, is paved with
flint cut or broken into regular figures.
Gun Flints. For the method of manufacturing,
fee Mineralogy Index.
Flints, in the glafs trade. The way of preparing
flints for the niceft operations in the glafs trade is this,
Choofe the hardeft flints, fuch as are black and will
refill: the file, and will grow white when calcined in
the fire. Cleanfe thefe of the white cruft that adheres
to them, then calcine them in a ftrong fire, and throw
them while red hot into cold water j wafti off the afties
that may adhere to them, and powder them in an iron
mortar, and lift them through a very fine fieve ; pour
upon this powder fome weak aquafortis, or the phlegm
of aquafortis, to diffolve and take up any particles of
iron it may have got from the mortar ; ftir this mix¬
ture feveral times, then let it reft, and in the morning
pour off the liquor, and walh the powder feveral times
with hot water and afterwards dry it for ufe. You
will thus have a powder for making the pureft glafs as
perfectly fine and faultlefs as if you had ufed rock-
cryftal itfeif.
The wafliing off the ferruginous particles with aqua¬
fortis is not neceffary when the glafs intended to be
made is to be tinged with iron afterwards; but when
meant to be a pure white, this is the method that will
fecure fuccefs.
Flint, the chief town of Flintfhire, in North Wales.
It is commodioufly feated on the river Dee; and is but
a fmall place, though it fends one member to parlia¬
ment. It was formerly noted for its caftle, where
Richard II. took {belter on his arrival from Ireland;
but having quitted it, he was taken prifoner by the duke
of Lancafter. The caftle now is in a ruinous condition.
This caftle ftands clofe to the fea on a rock, which in
various parts forms feveral feet of its foundation. It
covers about three quarters of an acre. The aflizes
are ftill held in the town. It is 195 miles north-weft
ef London.
Floating
-Bodies,
682 ] FLO
FLINTSHIRE, a county of Wales, bounded on Flintfhir
the north-eaft and eaft by an arm of the fea, which is
properly the mouth of the river Dee ; on the north-weft
by the Irifli fea; and on the fouth-fouth-weft and weft
by Denbighfhire. It is the leaft of all the counties in
Wales, being but 33 miles in length and 9 in breadth.
It is divided into five hundreds ; in which are two
market towns and 28 pariflies, with 32,400 inhabi¬
tants. The greateft part of this county lies in the
diocefe of St Afaph, and the reft belongs to that of
Chefter. It fends two members to parliament, one for
the county and one for Flint; and pays one part of the
land tax. The air is cold, but healthful. It is full of
hills, intermixed with a few valleys, which are very
fruitful, producing fome wheat and plenty of rye. The
cows, though fmall, yield a great quantity of milk in
proportion to their fize, and are excellent beef. The
mountains are well ftored with lead, coal, and mill-
ftones. This county alfo produces good butter, cheefe,
and honey ; of which laft the natives make metheglin,
a wholefome liquor much ufed in thefe parts.
FLIP, a fort of failors drink, made of malt liquor,
brandy, and fugar mixed.
FLOAT, a certain quantity of timber bound to¬
gether with rafters athwart, and put into a river to be
conveyed down the ftream ; and even fometimes to car¬
ry burdens down a river with the ftream.
FLOAT Boards, thofe boards fixed to waterwheels
of under-ftiot mills, ferving to receive the impulfe of the
ftream, whereby the wheel is carried round. See the
articles Wheel and Mill.
It is no advantage to have too great a number of
float-boards; becaufe, when they are ftruck by the
water in the beft manner that it can be brought to
come againft them, the fum of all the impulfes will be
but equal to the impulfe made againft one float-board
at right-angles, by all the water coming out of the
penftock through the opening, fo as to take place on
the float-board. The beft rule in this cafe is to have
juft fo many, that each of them may come out of the
water as foon as poflible, after it has received and adted
with its full impulfe. As to the length of the float-
board, it may be regulated according to the breadth of
the mill. See Mill.
Floats for Fifhing. See Fishing Floats.
FLOATAGES, all things floating on the furface
of the fea or any water ; a word much ufed in the com-
miflions of water bailiffs.
FLOATING BODIES are thole which fwim on the
furface of a fluid, the moft interefting of which are
{hips and veffels employed in war and commerce. It is
known to every feaman, of what vaft moment it is to
afeertain the {lability of fuch veffels, and the pofitions
they affume when they float freely on the furface of the
water. To be able to accomplifti this, it is neceffary to
underftand the principles on which that liability and
thefe pofitions depend. This has been done with great
ingenuity by Mr Atwood, of whofe reafoning the fol¬
lowing is a fummary aceount, taken from the Philofo-
phical Tranfadlions for 1796.
A floating body is preffed downwards by its own
weight in a vertical line palling through its centre of
gravity ; and it is fupported by the upward preffure of
a fluid, which adls in a vertical line that paffes through
the centre of gravity of the part which is under the
water ;
FLO
C 683 ]
FLO
porting
Bodies.
water; and without a coincidence between thefe two
lines, in fuch a manner as that both centres of gravity
may be in the fame vertical line, the folid will turn on
an axis, till it gains a pofition in which the equilibrium
of floating will be permanent. From this it is obvi-
oufly neceffary to find what proportion the part immerfed
bears to the whole, to do which the fpecific gravity of
the floating body muft be known, after which it muft
be found by geometrical methods, in which pofitions
the folid can be placed on the furface of the fluid, fo
that both centres of gravity may be in the fame vertical
line, when any given part of the foiid is immerfed under
the furface. Thefe things being determined, fomething
is (till wanting,for pofitions may be aflumed in which the
circumftances now mentioned concur, and yet the folid
will affume fome other pofition wherein it will perma¬
nently float. If the fpecific gravity of a cylinder be to
that of the fluid on which it floats as 3 to 4, and its
axis to the diameter of the bafe as 2 to I : if it be
placed on the fluid with its axis vertical, it will fink to
a depth equal to a diameter and a half of the bafe ; and
while its axis is preferved in a vertical pofition by out¬
ward force, the centres of gravity of the whole folid
and iramerfed part will remain in the fame vertical linej
but when the external force is removed, it w’ill deviate
from its upright pofition, and will permanently float
with its axis horizontal. If we fuppofe the axis to be
half the diameter of the bafe, and placed vertically, the
folid will fink to the depth of three-eighths of its dia¬
meter, and in that pofition it will float permanently.
If the axis be made to incline to the vertical line, the
folid will change its pofition till it permanently fettles
with its axis perpendicular to the horizon.
Whether a folid floats permanently, or overfets when
placed on the furface of a fluid, provided the centre of
gravity of the folid and that of the immerfed part be in
the fame vertical line, it is faid to be in a pofition of
equilibrium, of which there are three kinds ; the equi¬
librium of liability, in which the folid permanently floats
in a given pofition j the equilibrium of inftability, in
which the folid fpontaneoufly overfets, if not fupported
by external force ; and the equilibrium of indifference,
or the imenfible equilibrium, in which the folid refts on
the fluid indifferent to motion, without tendency to right
itfelf when inclined, or to incline farther.
If a folid body floats permanently on the furface of a
fluid, and external force be applied to turn it from its
pofition, the refiftance oppofed to this inclination is
termed the ^ability offooting. Some (hips at fea yieid
to a given impulfe of the wind, and fuffer a greater in¬
clination from the perpendicular than others. As this
refiftance to heeling, duly regulated, has been conficffr-
ed of importance in the conflruftion of veffels, many
eminent mathematicians have laid down rules for afcer-
taining the liability of fbips from their known dimen-
fions and wreight, without recurring toaffual experiment.
Bouguer, Euler, Chapman, and others, have laid down
theorems for this purpofe, founded on the fuppofition
that the inclinations of (hips from their quiefcent pofi¬
tions are evanefcent, or very fmall in a practical point
of view. But (hips at fea have been found to heel 10°,
20°, or 30°, and therefore it may be doubted how far
fuch rules are applicable in pradlice. If ftatics can be
applied to naval architefture, it feems neceffary that the
rules fhould be extended to thofe cafes in which the
angles of inclination are of any magnitude, likely to Floating
occur in the praftice of navigation. A folid body ,
placed on the furface of a lighter fluid, at fuch a dept.i
as correfponds to the relative gravities, cannot alter its
pofition by the joint aftion of its own weight and the
preffure of the fluid, except by turning on fome horizon¬
tal axis paffing through the centre of gravity ; but, as
many axes may be drawn through this point of the float¬
ing body, in a direftion parallel to the horizon, and the
motion of the folid regards only one axis, this mufl be
determined by the figure of the body and the particu¬
lar nature of the cafe. WEen this axis of motion is af-
eertained, and the fpecific gravity of the folid found, the
pofitions of permanent floating will be determined, by
finding the feveral pofitions of equilibrium through
which the folid may be conceived to pafs, while it turns
round the axis of motion 5 and by determining in which
of thefe pofitions the equilibrium is permanent, and m
which of them it is momentary.
The whole of Mr Atwood’s valuable paper relates to
the theory of naval architecture, in fo ffr as it is de¬
pendent on the laws of pure mechanics. If the propor¬
tions and dimenfions adopted in the confiru&ion of
individual veffels are obtained by exa£I geometrical
meafurement, and obfervations are made on the per¬
formance cf thefe veffels at fea j a futficient number of
experiments of this nature judicioufly varied, are the pro- t
per grounds on which theory may be effectually ap¬
plied, in reducing to fyftem thofe hitherto unperceived
caufes, which contribute to give the greateft degree of
excellence to veffels of every defeription. Naval ar¬
chitecture being reckoned among the practical branches
of fcience, every voyage may be viewed in the light of
an experiment, from which ufeful truths are to be de¬
duced. But inferences of this nature cannot well be
obtained, except by acquiring a thorough knowledge of
all the proportions and dimenfions of each part of the
fliip, and by making a fufficient number of obfervations
on tbe qualities of the veffel, in all the varieties of fitu-
ation to which a ftiip is commonly fubjeCt in the prac¬
tice of navigation.
The following is an ingenious inveftigation of the fame
fubjeCt by Mr English, which we give in bis own words.
“ However operofe and difficult (fays he) the calcu¬
lations neceffary to determine the {lability of nautical
veffels may, in fortie cafes, be, yet they all depenc,fays
this author, upon She four following fimple and obvious
theoremc, accompanied with other well known fiereome-
trical and ftaticai principles.
“ Theorem 1. Every floating body difplaces a quan¬
tity of the fluid in which it floats, equal to its own
weight ; and corffcquently the fpecific gravity of the
fluid will be to that of tbe floating body, as the magni¬
tude of the whole is to that of the part immerled.
“ Theorem 2. Every floating body is impelled down¬
ward by its own effential power, afting in the dire&ion
of a vertical line pafling through the centre of gravity
of the whole *, and is impelled upward by the re-aaion
of the fluid which fupports it, aaing in the dire akin
of a vertical line pafling through the centre of gravity
of the part immerfed--, therefore, unlefs thefe two lines
are coincident, the floating body thus impelled muft
revolve round an axis, either in motion or at reft, until
the equilibrium is reftored.
“ Theorem 3. If by any power whatever a veffel be
4 R 2 defleaed
PLO [684] FLO
Si"* diltfc^beiTten'1!?"8^ ’’il*”’’ P£l,f>'ndi'u,Lar ‘"“g1' MXE or MXF, and the diftance nn; through
-v~ e™r„fbe rYvItv'j 7'llrj^Ztt ?• a.?d ang.es to R I'or EF, drat, TS nreel
centres of gravity of the whole, and of the part im-
merfed refpeaively, will be as the (lability of the veffel,
and which will be pofitive, nothing, or negative, ac¬
cording as the metacentre is above, coincident with, or
below, the centre of gravity of the veffel.
Theorem 4. 1 he common centre of gravity of any
fyftem of bodies being given in pofition, if any one of
thefe bodies be moved from one part of the fyftem to
another, the correfponding motion of the common
centre of gravity, eftimated in any given direftion, will
be to that of the aforefaid body, ellimated in the fame
direction, as the weight of the body moved is to that
of the whole fyftem.
“ From whence it is evident, that in order to afeer.
tain the (lability of any veffel, the pofition of the
-centres of gravity of the whole, and of that part im-
merfed, muft be determined; with which, and the di-
menfions of the veffel, the line of floatation, and angle
of deflection, the (lability or power either to right itfelf
or overturn, may be found.
“ In (hips of war and merchandife, the calculations
neceffary for the purpofe become unavoidably very
operofe and troublefome ; but they may be much facili¬
tated by the experimental method pointed out in the
New 1 ranfaClions of the Swedifh Academy of Scien¬
ces, firft quarter of the year 1787, page 48.
< r*vcr and canal boats, the regularity and (im-
plicity of the form of the veffel itfelf, together with the
compaCt difpofition and homogeneal quality of the
burden, render that method for them unneceffary, and
make the requifite calculations become very eafy. Vef-
fels of this kind are generally of the fame tranfverfe
feCtmn throughout their whole length, except a fmall
part in prow and Hern, formed by fegments of circles
or other Ample,curves ; therefore a length may eafily
be afligned fuch, that any of the tranfverfe feaions be¬
ing multiplied thereby, the produCt will be equal to
the whole folidity of the veffel. The form «f the fec-
tion ABCD is for the moft part either reCtangular,
is.in fig. 1. Plate CCXVIII. trapezoidal as in fig. 2. or
mixtilineal as in fig. 3. in all which MM reprefents the
line of floatation when upright, and EF that when in¬
clined at any angle MXE ; alfo G reprefents the centre
of gravity of the whole veffel, and R that of the part
immerfed. r
“ If the yeffel be loaded quite up to the line AB,
and the fpecific gravity .of the boat and burden be the
fame, then the point G is (imply the centre of gravity
of the feCtion ABCD ; but if not, the centres of gra¬
vity ef the boat and burden muft be found (eparately,
and reduced to one by the common method, namely, by
dividing the fum of the momenta by the fum of weights,
or areas, which in this cafe are as the weights. The point
R is always the centre of gravity of the feCtion MMCD,
which,if confiding of different figures, muft alfo be found
by .dividing the fum of the momenta by the fum of the
weights as common. "1 hefe two points being found,
the next thing neceffary is to determine the area of the
two equal triangles MXE, MXF, their centres of gra¬
vity 0, 0, and the perpendicular projected diftance n n
of thefe points on the water Hne EF. This being
done, through R and parallel to EF draw RT=ra
fourth proportional to the whole area MMCD, either
ing the vertical axis of the veffel in S the metacentre ;
aHo through the points G, B, and parallel to ST, draw
NGW and BV ; moreover through S, and parallel to
EF, draw WSV, meeting the two former in V and
W ; then SW is as the (lability of the veffel, which
Will be pofitive, nothing, or negative, according as the
punt S is above, coincident with, or below, the point
Cj. If now we fuppofe W to reprefent the weight of
the whole veffel and burden (which will be equal to
the feCtion MMCD multiplied by the length of the
veffel), and P to reprefent the required weight applied,
at the gunwale B to fuftain the veffel at the given
angle of inclination ; we (hall always have this propor¬
tion : as VS : SW :: W : P ; which proportion is ge¬
neral, whether SW be pofitive or negative ; it mud
only in the latter cafe be fuppofed to aft upward t<*
prevent an overturn.
“ In the reCtangular veffel, of given weight and dimen-
fions, the whole procefs is fo evident, that any farther
explanation would be unneceffary. In the trapezoidal
veffel, after having found the points G and R, let AD,
BC be produced until they meet in K. Then, fince
the two feCtions MMCD, EFDC are equal ; the two
triangles MMK, EFK are alfo equal ; and therefore the
reCtangle EK x KF = KM x KM = KM*; and
fince the angle of inclination is fuppofed to be known,
the angles at E and F are given. Confequently, if a
mean proportional be found between the fines of the
angle at E and F, we (hall have the following propor¬
tions :
“ As the mean proportional thus found : fine ::
KM : KF, and in the faid mean proportional : fine
sL F :: KM : KE ; therefore ME, MF become known ;
from whence the area of either triangle MXE or MXF,
the diftance n n, and all the other requifites, may be
found.
“ In the mixtilineal feCtion, let AB — 9 feet = 108
inches, the whole depth — 6 feet = 72 inches, and
the altitude of MM the line of floatation 4 feet or 48
inches ; alfo let the two curvilinear parts be circular
quadrants of two feet, or 24 inches radius each. Then
the area of the two quadrants — 904,78o8 fquare
inches, and the diftance of their centres of gravity from
the bottom == 13-8177 inches very nearly ; alfo the
area of the included reCtangle a b i e zz 1440 fquare
inches, and the altitude of its centre of gravity 12
inches ; in like manner, the area of the reCtangle AB
c d will be found = 5184 fquare inches, and the alti¬
tude of its centre of gravity 48 inches: therefore we
(hall have
the two quad. } = 9°4-78o7 X >3 8i77 = 12501
Moment of the >
xe&w.abie £ = M4°- X 12 =17280-.
Moment, of the 7   „ „
redtan. c d 3 S,84' X 48 _ 41883a*
7528-7808 66016
“ Now the fum of the momenta, divided by the fum
r mi • 278613-98966016 >
01 the areas, will give —   n n  sr 27*006
& 7528*7808 0/
inches, the altitude of G, the centre of gravity of the
feCtioa
Roaring
Bodies.
FLO [ 68
Floating
Bodies
II
Flooking,
» Phil.
39Z-
feAion A BCD above the bottom. In like manner,
the altitude of R, the centre of gravity of the ftftion
MMCD, will be found to be equal
4936-7808
rr 24*934 inc'l>es » ar,8 confequently their difference,
er the value of G R “ 12*072 inches, will be found.
Suppofe the vefTel to heel 15°, and we (hall have the
following proportion j namely, As radius : tangent of
150 :: MX rr: 54 inches : 14*469 inches rr ME or
MF*, and conftquently the area of either triangle MXE
or MXF rr 390*663 fquare inches. Therefore, by
theorem 4th, as 4936*7808 : 390*663 :: 72 rr « n rr
y AB : 5*6975 inches rr RT j and, again, as radius:
fine of 150 :: 12*072 rr GR : 3*1245 inches rr RN ;
confequently RT—RN rr 5*6975—3*1245 rr 2*5731
inches rr SW, the liability required.
“ Moreover, as the fine of 150 : radius :: 5*6975 rr
RT : 22*013 rr RS, to which if we add 24*934, the
altitude of the point R, we lhall have 46*947 for the
height of the metacentre, which taken from 72, the
whole altitude, there remains 25*0.53 ; from which, and
the half width rr 54 inches, the diftance BS is found
r: 59*529 inches very nearly, and the angle SBV rr
8o°—o6r—42" ; from whence SV rr 58*645 inches.
Again : Let us fuppofe the mean length of the vef-
fel to be 40 feet, or 480 inches, and we (hall have the
weight of the whole veffel equal to the area of the fec-
tion MMCD rr 4936*7808 multiplied by 480 rr
2369654*784 cubic inches of water, which weighs ex-
aftly 85708 pounds avoirdupeife, allowing the cubic
foot to weigh 62.5 pounds.
“ And, finally, as SV : SW (/'. e.) as 58*645 : 2*573
:: 85708 : 3760 -j-, the weight on the gunwale which
will fuflain the veffel at the given inclination. There-
fore a veflel of the above dimenfions, and weighing 38
tons 5 cwts. 28lbs. will require a weight of one ton 13
cwt. 64185. to make her incline 150.
“ In this example the deflefting power has been fup-
pofed to aft perpendicularly on the gunwale at B ; but
if the veflel is navigated by fails, the centre velique
muft be found 5 with which and the angle of defleftion,
the projefted diftance thereof on the line SV may be
obtained ; and then the power calculated as above, ne-
ceflary to be applied at the projefted point, will be
that part of the wind’s force which caufes the vefiel to
heel. And converfely, if the weight and dimenfions
of the veflel, the area and altitude of the fails, the di-
reftion and velocity of the wind be given, the angle of
defleftion may be found
Floating Bridge. See Bridge.
Flock Paper. See Paper.
FLOOD, a deluge or inundation of waters. See
Deluge.
Flood is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the tide. When
the water is at loweft, it is called ebb; when riling,
young flood; when at higheft, high flood; when begin¬
ning to fall, ebb water.
FLOOD mark, the mark which the fea makes on the
Ihore at flowing water and the higheft tide, it is alfo
called high-water mark.
FLOOR of an anchor. See Anchor.
FLOOKING, among miners, a term ufed to ex-
prefs a peculiarity in the load of a mine. 1 he load
or quantity of ore is frequently intercepted in its courfe
5 ] FLO
by the crofting of a vein of earth or ftone, or feme dif¬
ferent metallic fubftance ; in which cafe the lead is
moved to one fide, and this tranfient part of the load
is called a flooking.
FLOOR, in building, the underfide of a room, or
that part we walk on.
Floors are of feveral forts 5 feme of earth, fome of
brick, others of ftone, others of boards, &c.
For brick and ftone Floors, fee PAVEMENT.
For boarded Floors, it is obfervable that the car-*,
penters never floor their rooms with boards till the
carcafs is fet up, and alfo enclofed with Avails, left the
weather ftiould injure the flooring. Yet they general¬
ly rough-plane their boards for the flooring before
they begin any thing elfe about the building, that they
may fet them by to dry and feafon, which is done in
the moft careful manner. The beft Avood for flooring
is the fine yellow deal well feafoned, Avhich Avhen well
laid, will keep its colour for a long Avhile j whereas the
Avhite fort becomes black by often Avalhing, and looks
very bad. The joints of the boards are commonly
made plain, fo as to touch each other only 5 but, whew
the fluff is not quite dry, and the boards {brink, the
water runs through them Avhenever the floor is waftred,
and injures the ceiling underneath. For this reafon
they are made with feather edges, fo as to cov'er each
other about half an inch, and fometimes they are made
Avith grooves and tenons : and fometimes the joints are
made with dove tails ; in which cafe the lower edge
is nailed doAvn, and the next drove into it, fo that the
nails are concealed. The manner of meafuring floors
is by fquares of 10 feet on each fide, fo that taking the
length and breadth, and multiplying them together
and cutting off two decimals, the content of a floor in
fquare Avill be giv*en. Thus 18 by 16 gives 288
or 2 fquares and 88 decimal parts.
F.arthen FLOORS, are commonly made of loam, and
fometimes, efpecially to make malt on, of lime, and
brook fand, and gun dull, or anvil duff from the forge.
Ox blood and fine clay, tempered together, Sir Hugh
Plat fays, make the fineft floor in the world.
The manner of making earthen floors for plain
country habitations is as folloAvs : Take tAvo-thirds of
lime and one of coal afhes well fifted, with a fmall
quantity of loam clay 5 mix the Avhole together, and
temper it well with water, making it up into a heap :
let it lie a Aveek or ten days, and then temper it over
again. After this heap it up for three or four days,
and repeat the tempering very high, till it becomes
fmooth, yielding, tough, and gluey. The ground be¬
ing then levelled, lay the floor therewith about 2t or
3 inches thick, making it fmooth with a trowel : the
hotter the feafon is the better $ and when it is tho¬
roughly dried, it will make the beft floor for houfes,
efpecially malt houfes.
If any one would have their floors look better, let
them take lime made of rag Hones, well tempered Avith
whites of eggs, covering the floor about half an inch
thick Avith it, before the under-flooring is too dry. If
this be well done, and thoroughly dried, it will look
when rubbed with a little oil as tranfparent as metal or
glafs. In elegant houfes, floors of this natuie are made
of ftucco, or of plafter of Paris beaten and fifted, and
mixed with other ingredients,
Floom
Flocking,
Floor.
X
Floor
n
Florales.
F L O [ 686
Floor of a Ship, flridlly taken, is only fo much of
her bottom as (he refts on when aground.
Such fhips as have long, and withal broad floors, lie
on the ground with moft fecurity, and are not apt to
heel, or tilt on one fide j whereas others, which are
narrow in the floor, or in the fea phrafe, cranked by
the ground, cannot be grounded without danger of be¬
ing overturned.
Floor Timbers, in a (hip, are thofe parts of a fhip’s
timbers which are placed immediately acrofs the keel,
and upon which the bottom of the fliip is framed ; to
thefe the upper parts of the timbers are united, being
only a continuation of floor timbers upwards.
FLORA, the reputed goddefs of flowers, was, ac¬
cording to Laflantius, only a lady of pleafure, vvho
having gained large fums of money by proflituting
herfelf, made the Roman people her heir, on condition
that certain games called Floraha might be annually
celebrated on her birth-day. Some time afterwards,
however, fuch a foundation appearing unworthy the
majefty of the Roman people, the fenate to ennoble
]
FLO
the ceremony, converted Flora into a goddefs, whom
they fuppofed to prefide over flowers •, and fo made it
a part of religion to render her propitious, that it
might be well with their gardens, vineyards, &c. But
Voflius {de Idol. lib. i. c. 12.) can by no means al¬
low the goddefs Flora to have been the courtezan
above mentioned : he will rather have her a Sabine
deity, and thinks her worfhip might have commenced
under Romulus. His reafon is, that Varro, in his
fourth book of the Latin tongue, ranks Flora among
the deities to whom Tatius king of the Sabines of¬
fered up vows before he joined battle with the Ro¬
mans. Add, that from another paflage in Varro it
appears, that there were priefts of Flora, with facri-
fices, &c. as early as the times of Romulus and
Numa.
The goddefs Flora rvas, according to the poets, the
wife of Zephyrus. Her image in the temple of Caflor
and Pollux was dreffed in a clofe habit, and (he held
in her hand the flowers of peafe and beans : but the
modern poets and painters have been more lavifli in
fetting off her charms, confidering that no parts of na¬
ture offered fuch innocent and exquifite entertainment
to the fight and fmell, as the beautiful variety which
adorns, and the odour which embalms, the floral crea¬
tion.
FLORALES ludi, or Floral Games, in anti¬
quity, were games held in honour of Flora, the god¬
defs of flowers.—They were celebrated with (hameful
debaucheries. The moft licentious difcourfes were not
enough, but the courtezans were called together by
the found of a trumpet, made their appearance na¬
ked, and entertained the people with indecent (hows
and poftures : the comedians appeared after the fame
manner on the ftage. Val. Maximus relates, that Cato
being once prefent in the theatre on this occsfion,
the people were aftiamed to afk for fuch immodeft re-
prefentations in his prefence ; till Cato, apprifed of
the refervednefs and refpeft with which he infpired
them, withdrew, that the people might not be difap-
pointed of their accuftomed div' rfion. There were fe-
veral other forts of (hows exhibited on this occafion ;
and, if we may believe Suetonius in Galba, c. 6. and
Vopifcus in Carinus, thefe princes prefented elephants r> ,
dancing on ropes on thefe occafions. tl0rj?les
The ludi florales, according to Pliny, lib. xviii. c. 20. Florence,
were inlhtuted by order of an oracle of the Sibyls '’’•"'v-"-—
on the 28th of April j not in the year of Rome
IOXVI. as we commonly read it in the ancient editions
of that author; nor in laxiv. as F. Hardouin has
corrected it, but, as Voffius reads it, in 513 : though
they were not regularly held every year till after 580.
They were chiefly held in the night time, in the Pa¬
trician ftreet: fome will have it there was a circus for
the purpofe on the hill called Hortulorum.
FLORALIA, in antiquity, a general name for the
feafls, games, and other ceremonies, held in honour of
the goddefs Flora. See Flora and Florales Ludi.
FLORENCE, the capital of the duchy of Tufcany,
and one of the fineft cities in Italy. It is furrounded
on ail fides but on<a with high hills, which rife infen-
fibly, and at laft join with the lofty mountains called
the Apennines. Towards Pifa, there is a vaft plain of
40 miles in length ; which is fo filled with villages and
pleafure houfes, that they feem to be a continuation of
the fuburbs of the city. Independent of the churches
and palaces of Florence, moft of which are verv
magnificent, the architefture of the houfes in general
is in a good tafte; and the ftreets are remarkably clean,
and paved with large broad (tones chifeled fo as to
prevent the horfes from Aiding. The city is divided
into two unequal parts by the river Arno, over which
there are no lefs than four bridges in fight of each
other. That called \\\e Pcnte della Trinitd, which is un¬
commonly elegant, is built entirely of white marble,
and ornamented with four beautiful ftatues reprefent-
ing the Seafons. The quays, the buildings on each
fide, and the bridges, render that part of Florence
through which the river runs by far the fineft. Every
corner of this beautiful city is full of wonders in the
arts of painting, ftatuary, and architedlure. The ftreets,
(quares, and fronts of the palaces, are adorned with
a great number of ftatues; fome of them by the bed
modern mafters, Michael Angelo, Bandinelli, Dona¬
tello, Giovanni di Bologna, Benvenuto Cellini, and
others. Some of the Florentine merchants formerly
were men of vaft wealth, and lived in a moft magni¬
ficent manner. One of them, about the middle of °the
fifteenth century, built that noble fabric, which, from
the name of its founder, is ftill called the Palazzo Pitti.
The man was ruined by the prodigious expence of this
building, which was immediately purchafed by the
Medici family, and has continued ever finee to be the
refidence of the fovereigns. The gardens belonging
to this palace are on the declivity of an eminence. ^On
the fummit there is a kind of fort, called Belvedere.
From this, and from fome of the higher walks, you '
have a complete view of the city of Florence, and the
beauteous vale of Arno, in the middle of which it
ftands,^ This palace has been enlarged fince it was
purchafed from the ruined family of Pitti. The fur¬
niture is rich and curious, particularly fome tables of
Florentine work, which are much admired. The
moft precious ornaments, however, are the paintings.
The walls of what is called the Imperial Chamber, are
painted in frefco, by various painters ; the fubje&s are
allegorical, and in honour of Lorenzo of Medicis, di-
ftinguiflred
Florence.
v—--v 
F L O [ 687 ] FLO
flinguifhed by the name of the Magnificent. The fa¬
mous gallery attraifls every ftranger. One of the moft
interefting parts of it, in the eyes of many, is the fe-
rtes of Roman emperors, from Julius Caefar to Gal-
lienus, with a confiderable number of their emprefl'es,
arranged oppofite to them. This feries is almolf com¬
plete ; but wherever the bull of an emperor is wanting,
the place is filled up by that of fame other diftinguifh-
ed Roman. The celebrated Venus of Medici, which
has been removed to Paris, is thought to be the ftandard
of tafte in female beauty and proportion, and Rood for¬
merly in a room called the Tribunal. The infcription
on its bale mentions its being made by Cleomenes an
Athenian, the fon of Apollndorus. It is of white marble,
and furrounded by other malterpieces of fculplure, fome
of which are faid to be the works of Praxiteles and
other Gm k mailers. In the fame room are many va¬
luable curiofities, betides a colledlion of admirable pic¬
tures by the bell matters. There are various other
rooms, whofe contents are indicated by the names they
bear ; as, the Cabinet of Arts, of Atlronomy, of Natu¬
ral Hiilory, of M’ dais, of Porcelain, of Antiquities j
the Saloon of the; He rmaphrodite, fe> called from a fla-
tue which divide s the admiration of the amateurs with
that in the Borghefe villa at Rome, though the excel¬
lence of the execution B difgraced by the vilenefs of
the fubjtft and the Gallery of Portraits, which con¬
tains the portraits of the moil-eminent painters (all ex¬
ecuted by themfelves) who have flourilhed in Europe
during the three laft centuries. Our limits will not ad¬
mit of a detail of the hundredth part of the curiofities
and buildings of Florence. We muft not, however,
omit mentioning the chapel of St Lorenzo, as being
perhaps the fineft and mod expenfive habitation that
ever was reared for the dead } it is incrufted with pre¬
cious tlone«, and adorned by the workmanfhip of the
bed modern fculptors. Mr Addifon remarked, that
this chapel advanced fo very dowly, that it is not im-
poffible that the family of Medicis may be extinft be¬
fore. their burial place is finifhed. This has actually ta¬
ken place : the Medici family is extind, and the cha¬
pel remains dill unfinidied.
Florence is a place of fome drength, and contains
an archbithop’s fee and an univerfity. The number of
inhabitants is calculated at 80,000. They boad of the
improvements they have made in the Italian tongue,
by means of their Academia della Crufca} and feve-
ral other academies are now edablifned at Florence.
Though the Florentines affeft great date, yet their nobi¬
lity and gentry drive a retail trade in wine, which they
fell from their cellar windows, and fometimes they even
hang out a broken flalk, as a fign where it may be bought.
They deal, befides wine and fruits, in gold and filver
duffs. The Jews are not held in that degree of odium,
or fubje&ed to the fame humiliating didinftions here,
as in mod other cities of Europe 5 and it is faid that
fome of the riched merchants are of that religion.
As to the manners and amufements of the inhabi¬
tants, Dr Moore informs us, that befides the cun-
verfirzionis, which they have here as in other towns of
Italy, a number of the nobility meet every day at a
houfe called the Cajino. This fociety is pretty much
on the fame footing with the clubs in London. 1 he
members are defied by ballot. They meet at no par¬
ticular hour, but go at any time that is convenient.
They play at billiards, cards, and other gamester con- Florence
tinue converfing the whole evening, as they think pro- |)
per. They are ferved with tea, coffee, lemonade, ices, Floilc*a-
or what other refrefhments they choofe j and each per- ^ 11
fon pays for what he calls for. There is one material
difference between this and the Englifh clubs, that wo¬
men as well as men are members. The company of
both fexes behave with more franknefs and familiarity
to drangers as well as to each other, than is cudomary
in public affemblies in other parts of Italy. The opera
is a place where the people of quality pay and receive
vifits, and converle as freely as at the Cafino above
mentioned. This occafions a continual palling and re-
paffing to and from the boxes, except in thofe where
there is a party of cards formed } it is then looked on
as a piece of ill manners to didurb the players. From
this it may be gueffed, that here, as in fome other
towns in Italy, little attention is paid to the mufic by
the company in the boxes, except at a new opera, or
during fome favourite air. But the dancers command
a general attention : as foon as they begin, converfa-
tion ceafes ; even the card-players lay down their cards,
and fix their eyes on the ballette. Yet the excellence
of Italian dancing feems to confid in feats of drength,
and a kind of jerking agility, more than in graceful
movement. There is a continual conted among the
performers, who diall fpring highed. You fee here
none of the fprightly alluring gaiety of the French
comic dancers, or of the graceful attitudes and fmooth
flowing motions of the performers in the ferious opera
at Paris. It is furprifing that a people of fuch tafie
and fenfibility as the Italians, fhould prefer a parcel of
athletic jumpers to elegant dancers. On the evenings
on which there is no opera, it is ufual for the genteel
company to drive to a public walk immediately without
the city, where they remain till it begins to grow dufk-
ith.” E. Long. 12. 24. N. Lat. 43. 34..
Florence, an ancient piece of Englifh gold coin.
Every pound weight of dandard gold was to be coined
into 50 Florences, to be current at fix {hillings each $
all which made in tail 15 pounds j or into a propor¬
tionate number of half Florences, or quarter pieces, by
indenture of the mint: 18 Edw. III.
FLORENTIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Etruria, on the Arnus ; of great note in Sylla’s wars.
Now called Florenza or Firenza by the Italians 3 Flo¬
rence in Engiilh. E. Long. 11, Lat. 43. 30.
FLORENTINE marble. See Citadinesca.
FLORESCENTIA ( from Jlorefco, “ to flourith or
bloom,,) ; the aft of flowering, which Linnteus and
the fexuatids compare to the aft of generation in ani¬
mals 3 as the ripening of the fruit in their opinion re-
fembles the birth. See FLOWER.
FLORID STYLE, is that too much enriched with
figures and flowers of rhetoric.
FLORIDA, the mod foutherly province of the
Britidi empire in America before the lad war, bounded
on the fouth by the gulf of Mexico, on the north by
the Apalachian mountains, on the ead by the pro¬
vince of Georgia, and on the wed by the river Miffif-
fippi. It was fird difeovered, in 1497, by Sebadian
Cabot, a Venetian, then in the jNnglifn fervice ; whence
a right to the country was claimed by the kings of
England 3 and this province, as well as Georgia, was
included in the charter granted by Charles II. to Ca¬
rolina.
T L O [6
' ‘0Ji^a- rolina. In 1512, however, Florida was more fully
difcovered by Ponce de Leon, an able Spanilh naviga¬
tor, but who undertook his voyage from the molt ab-
lurd motives that can be well imagined.—The Indians
of the Caribbee iflands had among them a tradition,
that fomewhere on the continent there was a fountain
whofe waters had the property of reftoring youth to all
old men who tailed them. The romantic imaginations
of the Spaniards were delighted with this idea. Many
embarked in voyages to find out this imaginary foun¬
tain who were never afterwards heard of. Their fu-
perftitious countrymen never imagined that thefe peo¬
ple had perilhed. They concluded that they did not
return, only becaufe they had drunk of the immorta¬
lizing liquor, and had difcovered a fpot fo delightful,
that they did not choofe to leave it. Ponce de Leon
fet out with this extravagant view as well as others, and
fully perfuaded of the exitlence of a third world, the
conquell of which was to immortalize his name. In
the attempt to difcover this country, he redifcovered
Florida ; but returned to the place from whence he came,
vifibly more advanced in years than when he fet out.
I1 or fome time this country was neglected by the Spa¬
niards, and feme Frenchmen fettled in it : But the new
colony being negle£led by the miniftry, and Philip
II. of Spain having accultomed himfelf to think
that he was the foie proprietor of America, fitted out
a fleet at Cadiz to deliroy them. His orders were exe¬
cuted with barbarity. Th# French intrenchments were
forced, and moll of the people killed. The prifoners
were hanged on trees j with this infcription, “ Not as
Frenchmen, but as Heretics.1’
This cruelty was foon after revenged by Dominic de
Gourgues, a Ikilful and intrepid feaman of Gafcony,
an enemy to the Spaniards, and paflionately fond of
•hazardous expeditions and of glory. He fold his eflatej
built fome fliips ; and with a leledt band of adventurers
like himfelf embarked for Florida. He drove the
Spaniards from all their polls with incredible valour
and adfivity 5 defeated them in every rencounter : and
by way of retaliation, hung the prifoners on trees,
with this infcription, Not as Spaniards, but as
Aflaflins.” I his expedition was attended with no
other conlequences ; Gourgues blew up the forts he
had taken, and returned home, where no notice was
•taken of him. It was conquered in 1539 by the
Spaniards under lerdinand de Sato, not without a
great deal of bloodflied 5 as the natives were very war¬
like and made a vigorous refiflance. The fettlement,
however, was not fully eftablilhed till the year 2565 ;
when the town of St Auguftine, the capital of the
colony while it remained in the hands of the Spaniards,
was founded. In 1 ySb, this place was taken and
pillaged by Sir Francis Drake. It met with the fame
fate in 1665, being taken and plundered by Captain
Davis and a body of bucaniers. In 1702, an at¬
tempt was made upon it by Colonel More, governor
of Carolina. He fet out with 500 Englifh and 700
Indians: and having reached St Augufline, he be-
fieged it for three months j at the expiration of which,
the Spaniards having font fome fliips to the relief of
the place, he was obliged to retire. In 1740 another
attempt was made by General Oglethorpe ; but he be¬
ing outwitted by the Spanifh governor, was forced to
8 ] FLO
raife the fiege with lofs; and Florida continued in the F]oria
hands of the Spaniards till the year 1763, when it °h *
was ceded by treaty to Great Britain.—During the
American war, which terminated in 1783, it was again
reduced by his Catholic majefty, and was guaranteed
to the crown of Spain at the peace.
FLOftlLEGHJM, Florilege, a name the La.
tins have given to w:hat the Greeks call an-
t ho logy; viz. a collection of choice pieces, containing
the finelt and brighted things in their kind.
Feorzlege, is alfo particularly ufed for a kind of
breviary, in the Eadern church, compiled by Arcadius,
for the conveniency of the Greek priefls and monks,
who cannot carry with them, in their travels and pil¬
grimages, all the volumes wherein their office is dif-
perfed. The florilegium contains the general rubrics,
pfalter, canticles, the horologium, and the office of tha
•ferias, &c.
FLORIN, is fometimes ufed for a coin, and fome-
times for a money of account.
Florin, as a coin, is of different values, according
to the different metals and different countries where it
is flruck. The gold florins are mod of them of a very
coarfe alloy, fome of them not exceeding thirteen or
fourteen carats, and none of them feventeen and a
half. See MONET Table.
Florin, as a money of account, is ufed by the Italian,
Dutch, and German merchants and bankers, but admits
of divifions in different places. Ibid.
FLORINIANI, or Floriani, a fe£t of heretics,
of the fecond century, denominated from its author
JFlorinus, or Florianus, a pried of the Roman church,
depofed along with Blaffus for his errors. Florinus
had been a difciple of St Polycarp, along with Irenaeus.
He made God the author of evil ; or rather afferted,
that the things forbidden by God are not evil, but of
his own appointing. In which he followed the errors
of Valentinus, and joined himfelf with the Carpocra-
tians. They had alfo other names givenHhem. Phi-
laflrius fays, they were the fame with the Carpophorians,
•He add* that they were alfo called fo/diers, miletes, quia
de militaribus fuerunt. St Irenaeus calls them Gnojlics ;
St Epiphanius Phibionites ; and Theodoret, Barborites,
on account of the impurities of their lives. Others
call them Zacchcans ; others Coddiatis, &c. though for
what particular reafons, it is not eafy to fay, nor per¬
haps would be worth while to inquire.
FLORIS, Francis, an eminent hifforical painter,
was born at Antwerp in 1520. He followed the pro-
feffion of a ffatuaiy till he was twenty years of age j
when preferring painting, he entered the fchool of
Lambert Lombard, whofe manner he imitated very
perfectly. He aftenvards went to Italy, and completed
bis ftudies from the moft eminent mailers. The great
progrefs he made in hiftorical painting, at his return
procured him much employment.j and his countrymen
complimented him with the flattering appellation of
the Flemi/h Raphael. He got much money, and might
have rendered his acquaintance more worthy of the at¬
tention of the great, had he not debafed himfelf by
frequent drunkennefs. He died in 1 570, aged 50.
FLORIST, a perton curious or fkilled in flowers :
their kinds, names, characters, culture, &c. It is alfo
applied to an author .who writes what is called the
flora
FLO
•Florid fl°ra °f any particular place, that is, a catalogue of the
|j plants and trees which are found fpontaneoufly growinp-
Flotfon. there.
v ’"■J FLORUS, Lucius Annaeus, a Latin hiftorian, of
the fame family with Seneca and Lucan. He flour idl¬
ed in the reigns of Trajan and Adrian 5 and wrote an
abridgement of the Roman hiftory, of which there have
been many editions. It is compofed in a florid and po¬
etical ftyle ; and is rather a panegyric on many of the
great aftions of the Romans, than a faithful and corrett
recital of their hiftory. He alfo wrote poetry, and en¬
tered the lifts againft the emperor Adrian, who fatiri-
cally reproached him with frequenting taverns and
places of diflipation.
FLORY, Flowery, or Fleury, in Heraldry, a
crofs that has flowers at the end circumflex and turn¬
ing down •, different from the potence, in as much as
the latter ftretches out more like that which is called
pa tee.
FLOS, Flower. See Flower, Botany Index.
Fcemineus FLOS, a flower which is furnifhed with the
pointal or female organs of generation, but wants the
ftamina or male organ. Female flowers may be produ¬
ced apart from the male, either on the fame root or on
diftinfl plants. Birch and mulberry are examples of
the firft cafe, willow and poplar of the fecond.
Mafculus FLOS, a male flow’er. By this name Lin¬
naeus and the fexualifts diftinguifti a flower which con¬
tains the ftamen, reckoned by the fexualifts the male
organ of generation ; but not the ftigma or female or¬
gan. All the plants of the clafs dioecia of Linnaeus
have male and female flowers upon different roots 5 thofe
of the clafs monoecia bear flowers of different fexes on
the fame root. The plants, therefore, of the former
are only male and female : thofe of the latter are an¬
drogynous ; that is, contain a mixture of both male
and female flowers.
Flos, in Chemijlry, the moft fubtile part of bodies,
feparated from the more grofs parts by fublimation in a
dry form.
FLO FA, or Flotta, fleet; a name the Spaniards
give particularly to the (hips which they fend annually
from Cadiz to the port of Vera Cruz, to fetch thence
the merchandife« gathered in Mexico for Spain. It
confifts of the captains, admiral, and patach, or pin¬
nace, which go on the king’s account; and about 16
fliips, from 400 to 1000 tons, belonging to particular
perfons. They fet out from Cadiz about the month of
Auguft, and are 18 or 20 months before they return.
Thofe fent to fetch the commodities prepared in Peru
are called gaLeons.
The name flotilla is given to a number of Ihips
which get before the reft in their return, and give in¬
formation of the departure and cargo of the flota and
galleons.
FLOTSON, or Flotsom, goods that by (hip-
wreck are loft, and floating upon the fea; which,
with jetfon and lagan, are generally given to the lord
admiral: but this is the cafe only where the owners
of fuch goods are not known. And here it is to be
obferved that jetfon fignifies any thing that is caft
out of a (hip when in danger, and afterwards is beat
on the (hore by the water, notwithftanding which the
/hip periflies. Lagan is where heavy goods are thrown
Vol. VIII. Part II.
r 689 ]
FLO
overboard, before the wreck of the (hip, and fink to
the bottom of the fea.
FLOUNDER, Fluke, or But. See Pleuronec- (
tes, Ichthyology Index.
Flounders may be fiftied for all day long, either in a
fwift ftream, or in the (till deep water ; but beft in the
ftream, in the months of April, May, June, and July :
the moft proper baits are all forts of worms, wafps, and
gentles.
FLOUR, the meal of wheat-corn, finely ground and
fifted. See Meal.
The grain itfelf is not only fubjefl to be eaten by
infedls in that date ; but, when ground into flour, it
gives birth to another race of deftroyers, who eat it
unmercifully, and increafe fo faft in it, that it is not
long before they wholly deftroy the fubftance. The
fineft flour is moft liable to breed thefe, efpecially when
dale or ill prepared. In this cafe, if it be examined
in a good light, it will be obferved to be in continual
motion, and on a nicer infpeftion there will be found
in it a great number of little animals of the colour of
the flour, and very nimble. If a little of this flour
is laid on the plate of the double microfcope, the in¬
fers are very diftimftly feen in great numbers, very
brifk and lively, continually crawling over one ano¬
ther’s backs, and playing a thoufand antic tricks to¬
gether ; whether in diverfion, or in fearch of food, is
not eafy to be determined. Thefe animals are of an
oblong and (lender form j their heads are furniftied
with a kind of trunk or hollow tube, by means of
which they take in their food, and their body is com¬
pofed of feveral rings. They do vaft mifchief among
magazines of flour laid up for armies and other public
ufes. When they have once taken poffeflion of a par¬
cel of this valuable commodity, it is impoflible to drive
them out 5 and they increafe fo faft, that the only me¬
thod of preventing the total lofs of the parcel is to make
it up into bread as foon as can be done. The way to
prevent their breeding in the flour is to preferve it
from damp: nothing gets more injury by being put up
damp than flour ; and yet nothing is more frequently
put up fo. It (hould be always carefully and thorough¬
ly dried before it is put up, and the barrels alfo dried
into which it is to be put ; then, if they are placed in
a room tolerably warm and dry, they will keep it well.
Too dry a place never does flour any hurt, though one
too moift almoft always fpoils it.
Flour, when carefully analyfed, is found to be com¬
pofed of three very different fubftances. The firfl and
moft abundant is pure flarch, or white fecule, infolu-
ble in cold, but foluble in hot water, and of the nature
ef mucous fubftances; which, when diffolved, form
water glues. The fecond is the gluten, moft of whofe
properties have been defcribed under the article Bread.
The third is of a mild nature, perfeflly foluble in cold
water, of the nature of faccharine extradlive mucous
matters. It is fufceptible of the fpirituous fermenta¬
tion, and is found but in fmall quantity in the flour of
wheat. See Bread, Gluten, Starch, and Sugar,
Chemistry Index.
FLOWER, Flos, among botanifts and gardeners,
the molt beautiful part of trees and plants, containing
the organs or parts of fructification. See Botany
Index.
4S
Fiotfon
II
Flower.
Flowers,
Botany
Index.
FLO [69
Flowers. Flowers, defigned for medical ufe, Ihould be pluck-
ed when they are moderately blown, and on a clear
day before noon : for conferves, rofes mult be taken in
the bud.
Flowers, in antiquity. We find flowers in great
requeft at the entertainments of the ancients, being pro¬
vided by the mailer of the fealt, and brought in before
the fecond courfe ; or, as fome are of opinion, at the
beginning of the entertainment. They not only a-
dorned their heads, necks, and breafts, with flowers,
but often beltrewed the beds whereon they lay, and all
parts of the room with them. But the head was chiefly
regarded. See Garland.
Flowers were likewife ufed in the bedecking of
tombs. See Burial.
Eternal Flower. See Xeranthemum.'
Everlajling FLOWER. See Gnaphalium,
FLOWER-Fence. See PoiNCIANA,
Sun-FLOWER. See Helianthus,
Sultan-FLOWER. See Cyanus,
2rumpet-FLOWER. See BlGNONIA,
Wind-FLOWER. See Anemone,
FLOWER-de-hs, or Flower-de-luce, in Heraldry, a
bearing reprefenting the lily called the queen of flowers,
and the true hieroglyphic of royal majelty ; but of late
it is become more common, being borne in fome coats
one, in others three, in others five, and in fome femee
or fpread all over the efcutcheon in great numbers.
The arms of France are, three flowers-de-lis or, in a
field azure.
FLOWER-de-Luce. See Iris, Botany Index.
Flowers, in Heraldry. They are much ufed in
coats of arms j and in general fignify hope, or denote
human frailty and momentary profperity.
Flowers, in Chemi/lry. By this name are gene¬
rally underftood bodies reduced into very fine parts, ei¬
ther fpontaneoully, or by fome operation of art; but
the term is chiefly applied to volatile folid fubltances,
reduced into very fine parts, or into a kind of meal by
fublimation.—Some flowers are nothing elfe than the
bodies themfelves, which are fublimed entire, without
fuffering any alteration or decompofition ; and other
flowers are fome of the conllituent parts of the body
fubjefted to fublimation.
Colours of Flowers. See the article COLOUR (of
Plants.')
Colours extraBedfrom Flo WERS. See COLOUR-Mak¬
ing.
Preferving of FLOWERS. The method of preferving
flowers in their natural beauty through the whole year
has been much fought after by many people. Some
have attempted it by gathering them when dry and not
too much opened,- and burying them in dry fand ; but
this, though it preferves their figure well, takes off
from the livelinefs of their colour. Muntingius pre¬
fers the following method to all others. Gather ro¬
fes, or other flowers, when they are not yet thorough¬
ly open, in the middle of a dry day; fill the veffel up
to the top with them ; and when full fprinkle them
over with fome good French wine, with a little fait in
It; then fet them by in a cellar, tying down the mouth
of the pot. After this they may be taken out at plea-
fure ; and, on fetting them in the fun, or within
feach of the fire, they will open as if growing natural-
] FLO
\y; and not only the colour, but the fmell alfo will be Fbwen
preferved. . ‘
The flowers of plants are by much the moft difficult
parts of them to preferve in any tolerable degree of per-
feftion ; of which we have inftances in all the collec¬
tions of dried plants, or horti fcci. In thefe the leaves,
flalks, roots, and feeds of the plants, appear very well
prefervtd; the ftrong texture of thefe parts making
them always retain their natural form, and the colours
in many fpecies naturally remaining. But where thefe
fade, the plant is little the worfe for ufe as to the know¬
ing the fpecies by it. But it is very much otherwife in
regard to flowers; thefe are naturally by much the
moft beautiful parts of the plants to which they belong;
but they are fo much injured in the common way of
drying, that they not only lofe, but change their co¬
lours one into another, by which means they give a
handle to many errors ; and they ufually alfo wither up,
fo as to lofe their very form and natural ftiape. The
primrofe and cowflip kinds are very eminent inftances
of the change of colours in the flowers of dried fpeci-
mens ; for thofe of this clafs of plants eafily dry in their
natural ffiape ; but they lofe their yellow, and, inftead
of it, acquire a fine green colour, much fuperior to that
of the leaves in their moft per fed ftate. The flowers
of all the violet kind lofe their beautiful blue, and be¬
come of a dead white : fo that in dried fpecimens there
is no difference between the blue-flowered violet and
the white-flowered kinds.
Sir Robert Southwell has communicated to the world
a method of drying plants, by which this defied is
propofed to be in a great meafure remedied, and all
flowers preferved in their natural ffiape, and many in
their natural colours.—For this purpofe two plates of
iron are to be prepared of the fize of a large half flieet
of paper, or larger, for particular occafions ; thefe
plates muft be made fo thick as not to be apt to bend ;
and there muft be a hole made near every corner
for receiving a fcrew to faften them clofe together.
When thefe plates are prepared, lay in readinefs feve-
ral flieets of paper, and then gather the plants with
their flowers when they are quite perfed. Let this be
always done in the middle of a dry day ; and then lay
the plant and its flower on one of the ffieets of paper
doubled in half, fpreading out all the leaves and petals
as nicely as poffible. If the ftalk is thick, it muft be
pared or cut in half, fo that it may lie flat; and if it
is woody, it may be peeled, and only the bark left.
When the plant is thus expanded, lay round about it
fome loofe leaves and petals of the flower, which may
ferve to complete any part that is deficient. When all
is thus prepared, lay feveral ffieets of paper over the
plant, and as many under it; then put the whole be¬
tween the iron plates, laying the papers fmoothly on
one, and laying the other evenly over them ; fcrew
them clofe, and put them into an oven after the bread
is drawn, and let them lie there two hours. After
that, make a mixture of equal parts of aquafortis and
common brandy ; ftiake thefe well together, and when
the flowers are taken out of the preffure of the plates,
rub them lightly over with a camel’s hair pencil dipped
in this liquor ; then lay them upon freffi brown paper,
and covering them with fome other ffieets, prefs them
between this and other papers with a handkerchief till
the
FLO [ 691 ] FLO
Flowers,! the wet of thefe liquors is dried wholly away. When
Flowering, the plant is thus far prepared, take the bulk of a nut-
raeg 0f gum dragon •, put this into a pint of fair water
cold, and let it Hand 24 hours ; it will in this time
be wholly diffolved : then dip a fine hair pencil in this
liquor, and with it daub over the back fides of the
leaves, and lay them carefully down on half a fheet of
white paper fairly expanded, and prefs them down
with fome more papers over thefe. When the gum-
water is fixed, let the preffer and papers be removed,
and the whole work is finilhed. The leaves retain their
verdure in this cafe, and the flowers ufually keep
their natural colours. Some care, however, muft be
taken, that the heat of the oven be not too great.
When the flowers are thick and bulky, fome art may
be ufed to pare off their backs, and difpofe the pe¬
tals in a due order; and after this, if any of them
are wanting, their places may be fupplied with fome
of the fupernumerary ones dried on purpofe ; and if
any of them are only faded, it will be prudent to take
them away, and lay down others in their ftead : the
leaves may be alfo difpofed and mended in the fame
manner.
Another method of preferving both flowers and fruit
found throughout the whole year is alfo given by the
fame author. Take faltpetre, one pound j Armenian
bole, two pounds; clean common fand, three pounds:
mix all well together. Then gather fruit of any kind
that is not fully ripe, with the ftalk to each j put thefe
in, one by one, into a wide-mouthed glafs, laying
them in good order. Tie over the top with an oil¬
cloth, and carry them into a dry cellar, and fet the
whole upon a bed of the prepared matter of four inches
thick in a box. Fill up the remainder of the box with
the fame preparation ; and let it be four inches thick
all over the top of the glafs, and all round its fides.
Flowers are to be preferved in the fame fort of glaffes,
and in the fame manner : and they may be taken up
after a whole year as plump and fair as when they were
buried.
Artificial FLOWERS of the Chinefe. See Tong-
TSAO.
Flowers, in the animal economy, denote women’s
monthly purgations or menfes.—Nicod derives the
word in this fenfe, from finere, q. d. fiuors. Others
will have the name occafioned hence, that women do
not conceive till they have had their flowers $ fo that
thefe are a fort of forerunners of their fruit.
Flowers, in Rhetoric, are figures or ornaments of
difcourfe, by the Latins called fiofcuh.
FLOWERING of Bulbous PLANTS. Thefe plants
will grow and flower in water alone, without any earth,
and make a very elegant appearance. We daily fee
this pradtifed in Angle roots; but there is a method of
doing it with feveral roots in the fame veffel. Take a
common fmall garden pot j flop the hole at the bottom
with a cork, and lute in the cork with putty that
no water can get through} then fit a board to the top
of the pot, and bore fix or feven holes in it at equal
diftances, to place the bulbs in ; and as many fmaller
ones nearer them to receive flicks, which will ferve to
tie up the flowers. Then fill up the pot with water to
the board ; and place tulips, jonquils, narciffufes, and
the like plants in the root upon the holes, fo that the
bottom of the roots may touch the water: thus will
they all flower early in the feafon, and be much more Flowering,
beautiful than any pot of gathered flowers, and will —v——
laft many weeks in their full perfedlion. After the
feafon of flowering is over, the roots will gradually
{brink through the holes of the board, and get loofe in¬
to the water : but, inftead of being fpoiled there, they
will foon increafe in fize ; fo that they cannot return
through the holes, and will produce feveral offsets. It
is natural to try from this the confequence of keeping
the roots under water during the whole time of their
blowing ; and in this way they have been found to
fucceed very well, and flower even ftronger and more
beautifully than when in the ground. They may thus,
alfo, with proper care in the degree of heat in the
room, be kept flowering from before Chriftmas till
March or April. It is not eafy, in this laft manner,
to manage the keeping the boards under water, for
which reafon, it is better to procure fome fliee.t-lead of
about four pounds to the foot, and cut this to the fize
of the mouth of the pot. In this there ftiould be bored
holes for the bulbs, and other holes for the flicks :
and, in order to keep the flicks quite firm, it is pro¬
per to have another plate of lead fliaped to the bottom
of the pot, with holes in it, anfwering to thofe of the
upper plate made for the flicks. The flicks will by
this means be always kept perfeflly fteady $ and the
roots, being kept under water by the upper plate of
lead, will flower in the moft vigorous and beautiful
manner imaginable. Some have thought of adding
to the virtues of the water by putting in nitre in fmali
quantities, and others have added earth and fand at the
bottom ; but it has always been found to fucceed bet¬
ter without any addition.
It may be more agreeable to fome to ufe glafs jars
in this laft method with the leads, inftead of earthen
pots. The bulbs fucceed full as well in thefe •, and
there is this advantage, that the progrefs of the roots is
feen all the while, and they are managed better as to
the fupply of water.
By repeated experiments in this way on dried bulbs,
and on thofe taken frefti out of the ground, the former
have been found to fucceed the beft. For thofe taken
frefli out of the ground being full of moifture, will not
fo foon, upon changing their element, be nouriftied
fully by a new one ; and the fibres which they had
flruck in the ground, always rot when put into the
water, and new ones muft be formed in their places}
fo that it requires more time for them to come to flower¬
ing. The bulbs themfelves will not rot in this man¬
ner } but they will never be fo ftrong as thofe which
were put into the water dry, which gradually fill
themfelves with moifture from it, and regularly plump
up. The beft method of managing the whole procefs
is this : Place the bulbs at firft only on the furface
of the water} for thus they will ftrike out their
fibres moft ftrongly. When they have flood thus
fix weeks, pour in the water fo high as to cover them
entirely, and keep them thus till they have done
flowering.
Sometimes the roots will become mouldy in feveral
parts while they {land above the water, and the clean¬
ing them of it is to no purpofe } for it will eat and
fpread the farther, and frequently eat through two or
three of their coats. In this cafe they muft be imme¬
diately covered with water} when the mould will be
4 S 2 flopped,
FLO [69
Flowering, flopped, and the roots become found, and flower as
’r—weA as thofe which never had any fuch diftemper. If
the roots are fuffered to remain in water all the year,
they will not decay : but will flower again at their
proper feafon, and that as vigoroufly as thofe which
have been taken out and dried. I he old fibres of
thofe roots never rot till they are ready to pufli forth
new ones. It is found by experience, that the hya¬
cinth, and many other plants, grow to a greater de¬
gree of perfeftion when thus in water than when in
the ground. There is a peculiar fpecies of hyacinth
called Keyfer*s jewel; this never, or very rarely, pro¬
duces feed-veflels in the common way of flowering in
the ground ; but it will often produce fome pods when
blown in water.
Mr Miller has intimated, in the Philofophical Tranf-
aflions, that bulbs fet in glafles grow weaker, and
fhould be renewed every other year : but it is found,
that, when managed in this manner, and kept under
water, at the time of taking them up, they are as large,
anjl fome of them larger, than when planted 5 and if
thefe be dried at a proper feafon, they will flower, year
after year, as well as frefh ones.
Ranunculus and anemone roots have been found to
flioot up their ftalks very well in this way j but the
flowers are ufually blafted, which feems to arife from
want of free air. Pinks will flower very well in this
manner ; auriculas alfo may, with care, be brought to
flower, but not ftrongly. Rofes, jeffamines, and honey-
fuckles, may alfo be made to flower this way, and will
thrive and fend out fuckers ; the beft pieces to plant,
are fuckers cut off about three inches under ground,
without any fibres. The fucculent plants may alfo be
raifed this way j for inftance, the opuntia or Indian
fig. If a fragment of a leaf of this plant be cut, and
laid by to dry for a month till it is an abfolute fldn,
as foon as it is put in this manner into water, it be¬
gins to plump up, and foon fends out fibrous roots,
and produces new leaves as quickly as it would do in
the ground.
This is the more fingular in thefe fort of plants,
becauie in their natural ftate in the ground, they
cannot bear much water. Ihis method of growing
in water is not peculiar to the bulbous-rooted ones,
but others may even be railed from feed by it. A
bean or pea, fet in this manner, will grow up to its
proper ftandard, and will flower and produce pods
which will ripen their feed. The fmaller feeds may be
alfo raifed in this manner, by the help of wool to fup-
port them.
No vegetable tranfplanted out of the earth into wa¬
ter will thrive kindly j but any plant, whether raifed
from the root or feed in water, may be tranfplanted to
the earth, and will fucceed very well. It may be pof-
fible, therefore, from this method of railing plants in
water, to come at a better way than is ufually praflif-
ed of raifing fome roots in the earth which are fub-
jeft to rot there j fuch as anemonies, ranunculules,
and hyacinths. A bulb dropped by chance upon the
, ground, will ftrike out both ftronger and more numer¬
ous fibres than thofe which are planted in the ufual
way in the ground. On this principle, it may be
proper to take out the earth of the bed where the
bulbs are to Hand at the time of planting them, to
fuch a depth as they are to be placed under it when
. 2
2 ] FLO
fet for flowering. The bulbs are then to be fet in their
places, on the furface of this low ground ; and to
Hand there till they have (hot out their fibres and their
head : then the earth is to be added over them by de¬
grees, till they are covered as high above the head as
they are in the ufual manner of planting them ; thus
they would be preferved from the danger of rotting j
and their fibres would be much ftronger, and confe-
quently they would draw more nourilhment, anti
flower better than in the common way. The com¬
mon method of planting thefe roots renders them li¬
able to be deftroyed by either extreme of a wet or a
dry feafon. In the firft cafe, they immediately rot by
the abundance of moifture they receive ; and, in the fe-
cond, they become dry as a flick and mouldy, fo that
they are infallibly rotted by the firft rain that falls af¬
terwards.
The direftions neceffary to the fuccefs of the bulbs
planted in water are thefe. When the leaden falfe
bottoms are fixed down tight within two or three
inches of the bottom of the veffel (which is only de-
figned to hold the flicks fleady which are to fupport
the leaves and ftalks), then lay on the lead upon which
the bulbs are to reft, placing the notched part oppo-
fite to that in the falfe bottom, as near as the flicks,
when placed, will fuffer it; then place the bulbs one
in each hole, and fill up with water to the upper lead.
The bottom of the bulb will then touch the water j
and as the water diminifhes in quantity, keep it fupl
plied with more up to the fame height for a month or
fix weeks j in which time the bulbs will have (hot
ftrong fibres. Then fill up the water about half an
inch above the furface of the lead j and by degrees, as
the fibres ftrengthen, and the plume (hoots from
the head, keep the water higher and higher, till at:
length the whole bulb is covered. The water is to be
kept at this ftandard till the feafon for drying them re¬
turns.—At the time of planting the bulbs, they muft
be carefully cleaned from any foulneffes at the bot¬
tom by fcraping them with the point of a knife till
the found part of the bulb appears; clear them like-
wife from any loofe (kins, and even take off their brown
(kin till they appear white j otherwife this brown (kin
will tinge the water, and the growth will not fucceed
fo well.
Fhe notches in the fide of each lead are intended to
give eafy paffage to the water, that, if there (hould be
any foulnefs or fediment in it, on (baking it a little it
may all run through, and frefh water be put in its
place. But this fhifting the water need not be done
more than once or twice in a winter, as there may be
occafion from the foulnefs ; and when this is done,
the fides of the veffel (hould be cleaned with a paint¬
er’s bru(h, and rinfed out again, and the bulbs them-
felves walked, by pouring water on them at a little di-
ftance.
At any time when the outer (kins of the bulbs dry^
they are to be peeled off, that they may not occafion
foulnefs in the water ; and if any duft or foul matter
be at any time obferved fwimming on the furface, the
method is to fill up the pot or veflel to the rim, and
let it run over: this will carry off that light foulnefs,
and the water may afterwards be poured away to the
proper ftandard.
Bulbs of equal bignefs (hould be planted together in
th«
FLU [ 693 ] FLU
Flowering the ^ame Pot> t*131 they may all have the fame benefit
|| of the water. Narciffufes and hyacinths do well toge-
Fluid. ther j as alfo tulips and jonquils, and crocufes andfnow-
drops.
FLUDD, Robert, a philofopher and phyfician of
fome celebrity in his time, was the fon of Sir Thomas
Fludd, treafurer of war to Queen Elizabeth $ and was
born at Milgate in Kent, in the year 1574. He re¬
ceived his education at St John’s college, Oxford, and
afterwards fpent fix years in travelling through Europe.
He acquired a ftrong attachment to the Rofycrucian
philofophy, which chiefly confitted of myfticifm and
jargon, and fuch as Avere admitted among them had
certain fecrets analogous to thofe of free mafonry. On
his return home, he took the degree of M. D. fettled
in the city of London, and Avas chofen a fellow of the
college of phyficians. His piety Avas of an enthufiaflic
nature, and the feeming depth of his knoAvledge pro¬
cured him much admiration, and gave him a temporary
fame. It is faid that he employed a kind of unintel¬
ligible cant Avhen fpeaking to his patients, which fome-
times contributed to their recovery, as it operated on
their faith. He is chiefly known as a feflary in philo¬
fophy, and not as a phyfician. He blended the incom-
prehenfible reveries of the Cabalifls and Paracelfians,
forming a nerv phyfical fyftem replete Avith myftery and
abfurdity. He believed in Iavo univerfal principles, the
northern or condenfing, and the fouthern or rarefying
power. Innumerable geniufes he conceived to prefide
over thefe, and committed the charge of difeafes to le¬
gions of fpirits colle&ed from the four Avinds of heaven.
In his eftimation, a harmony fubfifted between the ma-
crocofm and the microcofm, or the Avorld of nature
and of man. All his fancies and Avhims it is impoflible
to enumerate, yet they attra61ed the notice of the phi-
lofophers of that age, being fupported by myfierious
gravity and the fhadoAV of erudition. Even Kepler
himfelf thought his extravagant jargon worthy of refu¬
tation, and Gaffendi for this purpofe Avrote his Exatnen
Phi/ofophice Elmldiance. One of Fludd’s performances,
entitled Nexus utriufque Cofttii, is illuftrated by fome
prints of a very fingular and extraordinary nature.
FLUENT, or Flowing Quantity, in the doc¬
trine of fluxions, is the variable quantity which is con-
fidered as increafing and decreafing : or the fluent
of a given fluxion, is that quantity whofe fluxion
being taken, according to the rules of that dodtrine,
fhall be the fame with the given fluxion. See
Fluxions.
FLUID, an appellation given to all bodies Avhofe
particles eafily yield to the leaft partial prelfure, or force
imprelfed. For the
Laws and Properties of FLUIDS, fee Hydrody¬
namics.
There are various kinds of animalcules to be dif-
cerned in different fluids by the microfcope. Of many
remarkable kinds of thefe, a description is given under
the article Animalcule. All of thefe little creatures
are eafily deftroyed by feparating them from their na¬
tural element. Naturalifts have even fallen upon fliorter
methods. A needle point, dipped in fpirit of vitriol,
and then immerfed into a drop of pepper water, rea-
dilv kills all the animalcules : which, though before
frifking about with great livelinefs and aflivity, no
fponer come withia the influence of the acid particles,
than they fpread themfelves, and tumble doivn to all Fluirl.
appearance dead. The like may be done by a folution 1—y—.
of fait ; only with this difference, that, by the latter
application, they feem to grorv vertiginous, turning
round and round till they fall doAvn. Tincture of
fait of tartar, ufed in the fame manner, kills them ftill
more readily ; yet not fo, but there Avill be apparent
marks of their firft being fick and convulfed. Inks de-
ftroy them as fail as fpirit of vitriol, and human blood
produces the fame effeft. Urine, fack, and fugar all
deftroy them, though not fo fait ; befides, that there is
fome diverfity in their figures and appearances, as they
receive their deaths from this poifon or that. The
point of a pin dipped in fpittle, prefently killed all the
kinds of animalcules in puddle Avater, as Mr Harris
fuppofes it Avill other animalcules of this kind.
All who are acquainted with microfcopic obferva-
tions, know very Avell, that in Avater, in which the
belt glaffes can difeover no particle of animated mat¬
ter, after a few grains of pepper, or a fragment of a
plant of almoft any kind, has been fome time in it, ani¬
mals full of life and motion are produced j and thofe
in fuch numbers, as to equal the fluid itfelf in quanti¬
ty.—When Ave fee a numerous brood of young fifhes
in a pond, we make no doubt of their having owed
their origin to the fpaAvn, that is, to the eggs of the
parents of the fame fpecies. What are Ave then to
think of thefe ? If avc will confider the progrefs of na¬
ture in the infedt tribes in general, and efpecially in
fuch of them as are moft analogous to thefe, we fhall
find it lefs difficult to give an account of their origin
than might have been imagined.
A fmall quantity of Avater taken from any ditch in
the fummer months, is found to be full of little worms,
feeming in nothing fo much as in fize to differ from
the microfcopic animalcules. Nay, Avater, Avithout
thefe, expofed in open veflels to the heat of the Avea-
ther, Avill be always found to abound Avith multitudes
of them, vifible to the naked eye, and lull of life and
motion. Thefe Ave know, by their future changes,
are the fly Avorms of the different fpecies of gnats, and
multitudes of other fly fpecies ; and Ave can eafily de¬
termine, that they have owed their origin only to the
eggs of the parent fly there depofited. Nay, a clofer
obfervation Avill at any time give ocular proof of this $
as the flies may be feen laying their eggs there, and
the eggs may be follorved through all their changes to
the fly again. Why then are Ave to doubt but that the
air abounds with other flies and animalcules as minute
as the worms in thofe fluids ; and that thefe lad are on¬
ly the fly worms of the former, which after a proper
time fpent in that date, Avill fuffer changes like thofe
of the larger kinds, and become flies like thofe to
Avhofe eggs they otved their origin ? Vid. Reaumur,
Hi/t. Infe&. vok iv. p. 431. . '
The differently medicated liquors made by infufions
of different plants, afford a proper matter for the
worms of different fpecies of thefe fmall flies : and there
is no reafon to doubt, but that among thefe fome are
viviparous, others oviparous • and to this may be, in a
great meafure, owing the different time taken up for
the produftion of thefe infers in different fluids.
Thofe Avhich are a proper matter for the Avorms of the
viviparous fly, may be fooneft found full of them ; as,
probably the liquor is no fooner in a flate to afford
them
FLU
Fluid. them proper nourithment, than their parents place
‘ v ' ■' them there : whereas thofe produced from the eggs of
the little oviparous flies, muft, after the liquor is in a
proper flate, and they are depofited in it in the form of
eggs> ^avc a proper time to be hatched, before they
can appear alive.
It is eafy to prove, that the animals we find in thefe
vegetable infufions were brought thither from elfe-
where. It is not lefs eafy to prove, that they could
not be in the matter infufed any more than in the
water in which it is infufed.
Notwithftanding the fabulous accounts of falaman-
ders, it is now well known, that no animal, large or
imall, can bear the force of fire for any confiderable
time ; and, by parity of reafon, we are not to believe,
that any infeft, or embryo infeft, in any Hate, can
bear the heat of boiling water for many minutes. To
proceed to inquiries on this foundation : If feveral
tubes be filled with water, with a fmall quantity of vege¬
table matter, fuch as pepper, oak bark, truffles, &c.
in which, after a time, infeffs will be difcovered by
the microfcope ; and other like tubes be filled with
Ample water boiled, with water and pepper boiled to¬
gether, and with water with the two other ingredients
all feparately boiled in it ; when all thefe liquors come
to a proper time for the obfervation of the microfcope,
all, as well thofe which have been boiled as thofe
which have not, will be found equally to abound with
infects, and thofe of the fame kind, in infufions of the
fame kind, whether boiled or not boiled. Thofe in the
infufions which had fuflained a heat capable of deftroy-
ing animal life, muft therefore not have fubfifted either
in the water or in the matters put into it, but mult
have been brought thither after the boiling; and it
feems by no way fo probable, as by means of fome
little winged inhabitants of the air depofiting their eggs
or worms in thefe fluids.
On this it is natural to alk, how it comes to pafs,
that while we fee myriads of the progeny of thefe
winged infers in water, we never fee themfelves ? The
anfwer is equally eafy, viz. becaufe we can always
place a drop of this water immediately before the fo¬
cus of the microfcope, and keep it there while we are
at leifure to examine its contents ; but that is not the
cafe with regard to the air inhabited by the parent
flies of thefe worms, which is an immenfe extent in
proportion to the water proper for nouriffling thefe
worms j and confequently, while the latter are cluf-
tered together in heaps, the former may be difperfed
and fcattered. Nor do we want inflances of this, even
in infefts of a larger kind. In many of our gardens,
we frequently find veffels of water filled with worms
of the gnat kind, as plentiful, in proportion to their
fize, as thofe of other fluids are with animalcules.
Every cubic inch of water in thefe veffels contains
many hundreds of animals: yet we fee many cubic
inches of air in the garden not affording one of the
parent flies.
But neither are we pofitively to declare that the pa¬
rent flies of thefe animalcules are in all ftates wholly
invifible to us ; if not fingly to be feen, there are fome
ftrong reafons to imagine that they may in great cluf-
ters. Every one has feen in a clear day, when look¬
ing ftedfaftly at the Iky, that the air is in many places
difturbed by motions and convolutions in certain fpots.
3
[ 694 ]
FLU
Iheie. cannot be the cffe£ls of imagination, or of
faults in our eyes, becaufe they appear the fame to all 5
and if we confider what would be the cafe to an eye '
formed in fuch a manner as to fee nothing fmaller than
an ox, on viewing the air with a mnrfh fully peopled
with gnats, we muft be fenfible that the clouds of
thefe infedts, though to us diftindtly enough vifible,
would appear to luch an eye merely as the moving
parcels, of air in the former inftance do to us: and
furely it is thence no rafli conclufion to infer, that the
cafe may be the fame, and that myriads of flying in¬
fers, too fmall to be fingly the objedts of our view,
yet are to us what the clouds of gnats would be in the
former cafe.
Nervous Fluid. See Anatomy Index.
Elajlic Fluids. See Chemistry Index.
FLUIDIIY, is by Sir Ifaac Newton defined to
be, that property of bodies by which they yield to any
force impreffed, and which have their parts very eafily
moved among one another.
lo this definition fome have added, that the parts
of a fluid are in a continual motion. This opinion is
fupported by the folution of falls, and the formation of
tindlures. If a fmall bit of faffron is thrown into a
phial full of water, a yellow tindlure will foon be com¬
municated to the water to a confiderable height j
though the phial is allowed to remain at reft ; which
indicates a motion in thofe parts of the fluid which
touch the faffron, by which its colouring matter is car¬
ried up.
With regard to water, this can fcarce be denied j
the conftant exhalations from its furface (how, that
there muft be a perpetual motion in its parts from the
afcent of the fteam through it. In mercury, where in-
fenfible evaporation does not take place, it might be
doubted ; and accordingly the Newtonian philofophers
in general have, been of opinion, that there are fome
fubftances effentially fluid, from the fpherical figure of
their conftituent particles. The congelation of mer¬
cury, however, by an extreme degree of cold, de-
monftrates that fluidity is not effentially inherent in
mercury more than in other bodies.
That fluids have vacuities in their fubflance is evi¬
dent, becaufe they may be made to diffolve certain bo¬
dies without fenfibly increafing their bulk. For ex¬
ample, water will diffolve a certain quantity of fait 5
after which it will receive a little fugar, and after that
a little alum, without increafing its firft dimenfions.
Here we can fcarce fuppofe any thing elfe than that
the faline particles were interpofed between thofe of
the fluid ; and as, by the mixture of fait and water, a
confiderable degree of cold is produced, we may thence
eafily fee why the fluid receives thefe fubftances with¬
out any increafe of bulk. All fubftances are expand¬
ed by heat, and reduced into lefs dimenfions by cold j
therefore, if any fubftance is added to a fluid, which
tends to make it cold, the expanfion by the bulk of
the fubflance added will not be fo much perceived as
if this effeift had not happened ; and if the quantity
added be fmall, the fluid will contraft as much, per¬
haps more, from the cold produced by the mixture, than
it will be expanded from the bulk of the fait. This
alfo may let us know with what thefe interftices be¬
tween the particles of the fluid were filled up; namely,
the element of fire or heat. The faline particles, up¬
on
Fluid,
Fluidity.
\
FLU [ 695 ] FLU
Fluidity,
Fluke.
on tlielr folution in the fluid, have occupied thefe
fpaces *, and now the liquor being deprived of a quan¬
tity of this element equal in bulk to the fait added,
feels fenfibly colder.
As, therefore, there is fcarce any body to be found,
but what may become folid by a fufficient degree of
cold, and none but what a certain degree of heat will
render fluid ; the opinion naturally arifes, that fire is
the caufe of fluidity in all bodies, and that this ele¬
ment is the only eflentially fluid fubftance in nature.
Hence we may conclude, that thofe fubftances which
we call fluids are not effentially fo, but only affume that
appearance in confequence of an intimate union with
the element of fire ; juft as gums affume a fluid appear¬
ance on being diflblved in fpirit of wine, or falls in
water.
Upon thefe principles Dr Black mentions fluidity
as an eflFeft of heat. The different degrees of heat
which are required to bring different bodies into a
ftate of fluidity, he fuppofes to depend on fome parti¬
culars in the mixture and compofition of the bodies
themfelves : which becomes extremely probable, from
confidering that we change the natural ftate of bodies
in this refpeft, by certain mixtures 5 thus, if two
metals are compounded, the mixture is ufually more fu-
lible than either of them feparately. See Chemistry
Index.
It is certain, however, that water becomes warmer
by being converted into ice ; which may feem con-
tradi&ory to this opinion. To this, however, the doc¬
tor replies, that fluidity does not confift in the degree
of fenfible heat contained in bodies, which will affeft
the hand or a thermometer j but in a certain quantity
which remains in a latent ftate. i his opinion he
fupports from the great length of time required to melt
ice ; and to afcertain the degree of heat requifite to
keep water in a fluid ftate, he put five ounces of water
into a Florence flalk, and converted it into ice by
means of a freezing mixture put round the flalk. Into
another flafk of the fame kind he put an equal quantity
of water cooled down nearly to the freezing point, by
mixing it with fnow, and then pouring it off. In this
he placed a very delicate thermometer •, and found that
it acquired heat from the air of the room in which
it was placed : feven degrees of heat were gained
the firft half hour. The ice being expofed to the
fame degree of heat, namely, the air of a large room
without fire, it cannot be doubted that it received heat
from the air as fall as the water which was not frozen j
but, to prevent all poflibility of deception, he put his
hand under the flalk containing the ice, and found a
ft ream of cold air very fenfibly defcending from it,
even at a confiderable diftance from the flalk ; which
undeniably proved, that the ice was all that time ab-
forbing heat from the air. Neverthelefs, it was not
till 11 hours that the ice was half melted, though in
that time it had abforbed fo much heat as ought to
have raifed the thermometer to 14O0 •, and even after
it w'as melted, the temperature of the water was found
fcarce above the freezing point : fo that as the heat
which entered could not be found in the melted ice,
he concluded that it remained concealed in the water,
as an effential ingredient of its compofition.
FLUKE, or Flounder. See Pleuronectes, Ich-
THYOLQGY Index.
Fluke Worm. See Fasciola, Helminthology
Index.
Fluke of an Anchor, that part of it which fallens
in the ground. See Anchor.
FLUMMERY, a wholefome fort of jelly made of
oatmeal.
The manner of preparing it is as follows. Put three
large handfuls of finely ground oatmeal to fteep, for
24 hours, in two quarts of fair water : then pour off
the clear water, and put two quarts of frelh water to
it; ft rain it through a fine hair fieve, putting in two
fpoonfuls of orange flower water, and a fpoonful of fu-
gar : boil it till it is as thick as a hafty pudding, ftir-
ring it continually while it is boiling, that it may be
very fmooth.
FLUOR, in Phyflcs, a fluid ; or, more proper¬
ly, the ftate of a body that was before hard or folid,
but is now reduced by fufion or fire into a ftate of
fluidity.
Fluor Acid. See Fluoric Acid, Chemistry Index.
Fluor Albus, a flux incident to women, commonly
known by the name of whites. See Medicine Index.
Fluor Spar, or Blue John, called alfo fluxing fpars,
vitrefcent or glafs fpars, are minerals compofed of cal¬
careous earth united with fluoric acid. See Mineralo¬
gy Index.
FLUSHING, a handfome, ftrong, and confiderable
town of the United Provinces, in Zealand, and in the
ifland of Walcheren, with a very good harbour, and a
great foreign trade. It was put into the hands of
Queen Elizabeth, for a pledge of their fidelity, and
as a fecurity for the money flie advanced. It is
one of the three places where Charles V. advifed
Philip II. to preferve with care. E. Long. 3. 32.
N. Lat. 51. 26.
FLUTE, an inftrument of mufic, the fimpleft of all
thofe of the wind kind. It is played on by blowing it
with the mouth $ and the tones or notes are changed by
flopping and opening the holes difpofed for that purpole
along its fide.
This is a very ancient inftrument. It was at firft call¬
ed the flute a bee, from bee an old Gaulifti word figni-
fying the beak of a bird or fowl, but more efpecially
of a cock ; the term flute a bee muft therefore fignify
the beaked flute ; which appears very proper, on com¬
paring it with the traverfe or German flute. The word
flute is derived from fluta, the Latin for a lamprey or
fmall eel taken in the Sicilian feas, having feven holes
immediately below the gills on each fide, the precife
number of thofe in the front of the flute.
By Merfennus this inftrument is called thefiflula dul-
cis feu Anglic a; the loweft note, according to him,
for the treble flute, is C fa ut, and the compafs of the
inftrument 15 notes. There is, however, a flute known
by the name of the concert flute, the loweft note of
which is F. Indeed, ever fince the introdu&ion of the
flute into concerts, the loweft note of the inftrument,
of what fize foever it is, has been called F ; when in
truth its pitch is determinable only by its corre-
fpondence in refpett of acutenefs or gravity with one
or other of the chords in the fcalu maxima or great
fyftem.
Befides the true concert flute, others of a lefs fize
were foon introduced into concerts of violins ; in which
cafe the method was to write the flute part in a key
correfpondent
Fluke
worm
Flute,
FLU [
coirefpondent to its pitch. This pra&ice tvas introdu-
ced in 1710 by one Woodcock, a celebrated performer
on this inftrument, and William Babell organift of the
church of All-hallows, Bread Street, London. They
failed, however, in procuring for the flute a reception
into concerts of various inftruments; for which reafon
one 1 homas Stanelby, a very curious maker of flutes
and other inftruments of the like kind, about the year
I732» Averting to the fcale of Merfennus, in which
the lowed note was C, invented what he called the new
fyjlem; in which, by making the flute of fuch a fize
as to be a fifth above concert pitch, the loweft note be¬
came C folfa ut. By this contrivance the neceflity of
tranfpofing the flute part was taken away 5 for a flute
this fize, adjufted tj the fyflem above mentioned,
became an o6tave to the violin. To further this in¬
vention of Stanefby’s, one Lewis Merci, an excellent
performer on the flute, publifhed about the year 1735,
fix folos for this inftrument, three of which are faid" to
be accommodated to Mr Stanefby’s new fyftem j but
the German flute was now become a favourite inftru¬
ment, and Stanefby’s ingenuity failed of its effeiEL 
One great obje&ion indeed lies againft this inftrument,
•which, however, equally affeas all perforated pipes j
namely, that they are never perfectly in tune, or can¬
not be made to play all their notes with equal exaft-
nefs. I he utmoft that the makers of them can do is
to tune them to fome one key j as the hautboy to C,
the German flute to D, and the Englifti flute toF j and
to effea this truly, is a matter of no fmall difficulty.
The Engliffi flutes made by the younger Stanefby came
the neareft of any. to perfedtion ; but thofe of Breffan,
though excellent in their tone, are all too flat in the
upper oftave. For thefe reafons fome are induced to
think, that the utmoft degree of proficiency on any
of thofe inftruments is not worth the labour of attain¬
ing it.
German FLUTE, is an inftrument entirely different
from the common flute. It is not, like that, put into
the mouth to be played ; but the end is flopt with a
tompion or plug, and the lower lip is applied to a
hole about two inches and a half or three inches di-
ftant from the end. This inftrument is ufually about
a foot and a half long; rather bigger at the upper end
than the lower ; and perforated with holes, befides that
for the mouth, the loweft of which is flopped and open¬
ed by the little finger’s preffing on a brafs or fome-
times a filver key, like thofe in hautboys, baffoons, &c.
Its found is exceeding fweet and agreeable ; and ferves
as a treble in a concert.
Flute, or Fluyt, is a kind of long veffel, with
fiat.ribs or floor timbers, round behind, and fwell-
ed in the. middle ; ferving chiefly for the carrying of
provifions in fleets or fquadrons of fhips ; though it is
often ufed in merchandife. The word fule, taken for
a fort of boat or veffel, is derived, according to Borel,
fiom the ancient fotte, a little boat. In the verbal
procefs of the miracles of St Catharine of Sweden, in
the I 2th century, we read Unus equum fuum una cum
mercibus tnagm pondens introduxit fuper inf rumen turn de
lignis fabricatum, vulgariter diBum fluta. Upon which
the Bollan.difts obferve, that in fbme copies it is read
fotta, an inftrument called by the Lattins ratis ; and
that the wox&futtq ovfotta arofe from Rotten or vlotten.
“ to float.”
696 ] FLU
. Flutes, or Flutings, in ArcUteBure, are perpen¬
dicular channels or cavities cut along the ffiaft of a co¬
lumn or pilafter. They are fuppofed to have been firft
introduced in imitation of the plaits of women’s robes •
and are therefore called by the Latins friges and rugee.
The French call them cannelures, as being excavations;
and we, futes or futings, as bearing fome refemblance
to the mufical inftrument fo called. They are chiefly
affefted in the Ionic order in which they had their
firft rife ; though they are alio ufed in all the richer
orders, as the Corinthian and Compofite ; but rarely
in the Doric, and fcarce ever in the Tufcan.
FLUX, in Medicine, an extraordinary iffue or evacu¬
ation of fome humour. Fluxes are various, and vari-
oufly denominated, according to their feats or the hu¬
mours thus voided ; as'a flux of the belly, uterine flux,
hepatic flux, falival flux, &c. The flux of the belly ij
of four kinds, which have each their refpe£tive deno¬
minations, viz. the hentery, or fluxus lientericus ; the cce-
hac, ox fluxus chylofus ; the diarrhoea ; and the dyfeate¬
ry, or bloody flux. See MEDICINE Index.
Flux, in Hydrography, a regular periodical motion
of the fea, happening twice in 24 hours ; wherein the
water is raifed and driven violently againft the ffiores.
Fhe flux or flow is one of the motions of the tide;
the other, whereby the water finks and retires, is called
the reflux or ebb. There is alfo a kind of reft or cef-
fation of about half an hour between the flux and re¬
flux ; during which time the water is at its greateft
height, called high water. The flux is made by the
motion of the water of the fea from the equator to¬
wards the poles; which, in its progrefs, ftriking againft:
the coafts in its way, and meeting with oppofition from
them, fwells, and where it can find paffage, as in flats,
rivers, &c. rifes up and runs into the land. This mo¬
tion follows, in fome meafure, the courfe of the moon ;
as it lofes or comes later every day by about three quar¬
ters of an hour, or more preciftly by 48 minutes ;
and by fo much is the motion of the moon flower than
that of the fun. It is always higheft and greateft in
full moons, particularly thofe of the equinoxes. In
fome parts, as at Mount St Michael, it rifes 80 or 90
feet, though in the open fea it never rifes above a toot
or two ; and in feme places, as about the Morea, there
is no flux at all. It runs up fome rivers above 120
miles. Up the river Thames it only goes 80, viz. near
to Kingfton in Surry. Above London bridge the wa¬
ter flows four hours and ebbs eight ; and below the
bridge, flows five hours and ebbs feven.
Flux, in Metallurgy, is fometimes ufed fyraony-
moufly with fufon. For inftance, an ore, or other
matter, is faid to be a liquid flux, when it is com¬
pletely fufed.
But the word flux is generally ufed to fignify cer¬
tain faline matters, which facilitate the fufion of ores,
and other matters which are difficultly fufible in ef-
fays and reductions of ores ; fuch are alkalies, nitre,
borax, tartar, and common fait. But the word
flux is more particularly applied to mixtures of different
proportions of only nitre and tartar ; and thefe fluxes
are called by particular names, according to the pro¬
portions of thefe ingredients, as in the following ar-
ticl .
White Flux, is made with equal parts of nitre and
of tartar detonated together, by which they are alka¬
lized.
Flutes,
Flux.
FLU [ 697 ] FLU
Flux, lized. The refidtiurn of this detonation is an alkali
- v ..mm compofed of the alkalies of the nitre and of the tartar,
both which are abfolutely of the fame nature. As the
proportion of nitre in this mixture is more than is fuffi-
cient to confume entirely all the inflammable matter
of the tartar, the alkali remaining after the detonation
is perfedlly white, and is therefore called ’white flux;
and as this alkali is made very quickly, it is alfo called
extemporaneous alkali. When a fnsall quantity only of
white flux is made, as a few ounces for inftance, fome
nitre always remains undecompofed, and a little of the
inflammable principle of the tartar, which gives a red
or even a black colour to fome part of the flux ; but
this does not happen when a large quantity of white
flux is made ; becaufe then the heat is much greater.
This fmall quantity of undecompofed nitre and tartar
which remains in white flux is not hurtful in moft of
the metallic fufions in w hich this flux is employed : but
if the flux be required perfectly pure, it might eafily
be difengaged from thofe extraneous matters by a long
and ftrong calcination, without fufion.
Crude FLUX. By crude flux is meant the mixture of
nitre and tartar in any proportions, without detonation.
Thus the mixture of equal parts of the two falls ufed
in the preparation of the white flux, or the mixture of
one part of nitre and two parts of tartar for the pre- Flux,
paratiun of the black flux, are each of them a crude ' v—
flux before detonation. It has alfo been called white
flux, from its colour j but this might occafion it to
be confounded with the white flux above deferibed. The
name, therefore, of crude flux is more convenient.
Crude flux is detonated and alkalized during the
reduftions and fufions in which it is employed •, and is
then changed into white or black flux, according to
the proportions of which it is compofed. This de¬
tonation produces good effe£ts in thefe fufions and re-
duftions, if the fwelling and extravafation of the de¬
tonating matters be guarded againll. Accordingly,
crude flux may be employed fuccefstully in many ope¬
rations j as, for infiance, in the ordinary operation lor
procuring the regulus of antimony.
Black FLUX. Black flux is produced from the mix¬
ture of two parts of tartar and one part of nitre deto¬
nated together. As the quantity of nitre which enters
into the compofition of this flux is not fufficient to con-
fume all the inflammable matters of the tartar, the al¬
kali which remains after the detonation contains much
black matter, of the nature of coal, and is therefore
called black flux.
FLUXIONS.
INTRODUCTION.
tutroduc- r 1 'HE branch of mathematical analvfis which is called
^tion. X jn country the Method of Fluxions, but on the
continent the Dijferential and Integral Calculi, was in¬
vented near the end of the 17th century j and Sir Ifaac
Newton, and Mr Leibnitz, two of the greateft philofo-
phers of that age, have both claimed the difeovery. ■
•It will appear very poffible that two fuch men fliould
both fall upon this method of calculation nearly about
the fame time, if it be confidered, that from the begin¬
ning of the 17th century its principles were gradually
coming into view, in confequence of the united labours
and difeoveries of a number of mathematicians, fuch as
Napier, Caval/erius, Roberval, Fermat, Barrow, Wallis,
and others. And confidering the number of men of
the firft abilities engaged at that time in the ftudy of
mathematics, we may reafonably fuppofe, that the flux-
ional or differential calculus, would very foon have
been found according to the ordinary progrefs of human
knowledge, even although a Newton, or a Leibnitz,, had
not by the force of fuperior genius anticipated perhaps
by a few years that event. The firft intimation that
was given of the difeovery of the calculus was in the
year 1669, when, through the intervention of Dr Bar-
row, a correfpondence was begun between Sir Ifaac
Newton (then Mr Newton'), and Mr Collins, one of the
fecretaries to the Royal Society. Dr Barrow commu¬
nicated to the latter a paper by Neivton, which had for
its title, De analysi per cequationes numero terminorum
inflnitas. In this paper, befides (hewing how torefolve
equations by approximation, Newton teaches how to
fquare curves, not only when the expreflion for the or¬
dinate in terms of the abfeiffa is a rational quantity,
Vo!™ VIII. Part II.
but alfo when it involves radical quantities, by firft re- Introduc-
folving thefe into an infinite feries of rational terms by tltm'
means of the binomial theorem, a thing which had
never before been done. Newton in this paper gives
fome rather obfeure indications of the nature ot his cal¬
culus, which however ferve to (hew, beyond all doubt,
that he was then in poffeflion of it 5 and indeed there
is good reafon to believe that he knew it as early as
the year 1665, or even fooner.
Thefe analytical difeoveries of Newton were immedi¬
ately circulated among mathematicians both in this
country and abroad, by Dr Barrow, and by Collins
and Oldenburg, the two fecretaries to the Royal So¬
ciety.
About the end of the year 1672, Newton communi¬
cated to Collins, by letter, a method of drawing tan¬
gents to curve lines, illuftrated by an example, from
which it again plainly appears, that he now poffeffed his
method of fluxions.
In the eburfe of the following year, Leibnitz came
to London, and communicated to feveral members of the
Royal Society, fome refearches relating to the theory of
differences. It was however (hewn to him, that this
fubje£t had been previoufly treated by Mouton, an aftro-
nomer of Lyons ; upon this Leibnitz directed his atten¬
tion to the dodtrine of feries, which was now confider-
ably advanced, in confequence of the difeoveries of the
Englifli mathematicians.
The firft diredt communication that paffed between
Newton and Leibnitz, was by a letter, which the former
addreffed to Oldenburg, about the middle of the year
1676. In the beginning of this letter, which was in¬
tended to be (hewn to Leibnitz, Newton fpeaks of him
with much refpedt, The letter itfelf chiefly refers to
4 T the
698
FLUXIONS.
Introduc- the theory of infinite feries. In a fecond letter, written
t tlcn‘ a^° w*th a view to its being communicated to Leibnitz,
Newton, after bellowing deferved commendation on him,
proceeds to explain the fteps by which he was led to the
difeovery of the binomial theorem. He afterwards,
among other things, delivers feveral theorems which
have the method of fluxions for their bafis; but he does
not give their demonftrations, and only obferves, that
they depend on the folution of a general problem, the
enunciation of which he conceals under an anagram
of trajifpofed letters, but the meaning of it is this :
An equation being given containing any number of fow-
ing quantities, to find their fluxions $ and the contrary*
1 his letter affords another proof that Newton was now
in full poffeffion of his calculus.
In the end of June 1677* Leibnitz fent to Oldenburg,
for the purpofe of being communicated to Newton, a
letter containing the firft. effays of his Differential
Calculus. 1 he death of Oldenburg, which happened
loon after, put an end to the correfpondence, and in
the year 1684, Leibnitz publithed his method in the
Leipflc ABs for the month of October 1684. The title
of the memoir which contained it was, Nova methodus
pro maximis et minimis, itemque tangentibus, quce nec
fraSlas, nec irrationales quantitates moratur, et Jingulare
pro illis calculi genus. Thus, in whatever way Leibnitz
came by his calculus, whether he difcovered it folely
by the force of his own genius, or founded it on the
method of fluxions, previoufly invented by Newton, both
of which hypothefes are poflible, his method was cer¬
tainly publifhed before Newton's, which, except what
tranfpired in confequence of the circulation of his
letters and manufcripts, became only known to the
world in general for the firft time, by the publication
of the Principta in the end of the year 1686.
It feems at firfl to have been allowed, that Leibnitz
had invented his calculus, without having any previous
knowledge of what had been done by Newton j for in
the firfl; edition of the Principia, Newton fays, “ In the
courfe of a correfpondence which ten years ago I carried
on writh the very learned geometrician Mr Leibnitz,
having intimated to him that I pnffeffed a method of de¬
termining maxima and minima, of drawing tangents,
and refolving fuch problems, not only when the equa¬
tions were rational, but alfo when they were irra¬
tional ; and having concealed this method, by tranfpo-
fing the letters of the following fentence—vftt equation
being given, containing any number of flowing quan¬
tities, to find their fluxions ; and the contrary ; this ce¬
lebrated man anfwered that he had found a fimilar
method, which he communicated to me, and which dif¬
fers from mine, only in the enunciation, and in the no¬
tation.” To this, in the edition of 1714 is added,
ii and in the manner of conceiving the quantities to be
lib. ii. lem. I here is reamn to fuppofe that Leibnitz might have
2. fchol, continued to > enjoy undifturbed the honour of being
confidered as one of the inventors of the fluxional or
differential calculus, if he had not manifefied a dilpofi-
tion to attribute the invention too exclufively to him-
felf. This called forth fome remarks refpeCting the
priority of Newton's claim to the difeovery. In parti¬
cular M. Fac/o afferted, in a treatife on the Line of
fwftefl defeent. publiflied in 1699, “ that he was obli¬
ged to own Newton as the flrfl inventor of the diffe-
3
rential calculus, and the firfl by many years ; and that jntr .
he left the world to judge whether Leibnitz, the fecond 'Von!'
inventor, had taken any thing from him.” ^ ^
On the other hand, when Newton's treatife on the
quadrature ot curves, and on the enumeration of lines
of the third order was publiflied, which was in 1704,
the Leipfic journalifls infinuated, in a very liberal ac¬
count which they gave of the work, that Leibnitz was
the firfl: inventor, and that Newton had taken his method
from Leibnitz's, fubftituting fluxions for differences.
In conlequence oi this attack on Newton, Dr Joint
Neill aflerted, in the Philofophical Iranfaiflions for
1708, that Newton was beyond a doubt the firfl invent¬
or of the arithmetic of fluxions, and that the fame arith¬
metic having its name and notation changed, was
afterwards pubiithed by Mr Leibnitz in the Leipfic
A6L. In anfwer to this, Leibnhz replied, in a letter
to Hans Sloane, fecretary to the Royal Society, that no
one knew better than Newton himfelf, that the charge
againft him implied in Neill's affertion was falfe ; and
he required Neill to retraft what be had faid. To this
requett, however, Neill would by no means accede ; but
on the contrary, be wrote a long letter to the fecretary
of the Royal Society, in which he endeavoured to prove,
not only that Newton had preceded Leibnitz in the in¬
vention, but that he had given to the latter fuch indi¬
cations of the nature of his calculus, as made it ealy for
him to fall upon the fame. This letter was fent to
Leibnitz, who replied, that .Kef//, although learned, was
too young a man to be fit to judge of what had pafftd
between him and Newton, and he requefted the Royal
Society to put a flop to Neill's clamours.
The Royal Society being thus appealed to as a judge,
appointed a committee to examine all the old letters,
papers, and documents, which had paffed among the
feveral mathematicians, relating to the queftion. The
judgment of the committee was to the following ef-
ftft. “ That Mr Leibnitz was in London in 1673,
and went thence to Paris, where he kept a correfpond¬
ence with Mr Collins by means of Mr Oldenburg, till
about September 1676, and then returned by London
and Amfterdam to Hanover ‘, and that Mr Collins was
very free in communicating to able mathematicians-
what he had received from Newton. That it did not
appear, that Mr Leibnitz knew any thing of the differ¬
ential calculus before his letter of the 2irtof June 1677,
which was a year after a copy of Newton's letter of the
loth of December 1672 had been fent to Paris, to be
communicated to him, and above four years after Mr
Collins began to communicate that letter to his corre-
fpnndents} in which letter the method of fluxions was
fufficiently deferibed to any intelligent perfon. That
Newton was in puffeflion of his calculus before the year
1669, and that thofe, who had reputed Leibnitz the firfl:
inventor, knew little or nothing of his correfpondence
with Mr Collins, and Mr Oldenburg, long before, nor of
Newton's having that method above 15 years before
Mr Leibnitz began to publifli it in the Leipfic Afts.
That for thefe reafons, they reckoned Newton the. firfl:
inventor, and were of opinion, that Mr Neill in affert-
ing the fame had been in no ways injurious to Mr
Leibnitz."
It is deferving of remark, that the committee deliver¬
ed no opinion upon the advantage which Leibnitz was
aceufed of having taken of the hints furnilhed to him
in
FLUXIONS. 699
In trod uc- 1,1 ^ie C0Urfe oHiis correfpcndence with Newton; they
tioa, left the decifion of this point to the world in general;
-v—■■ ' and to enable every one to judge for hirafelf, the Royal
Society ordered the opinion of the committee to be
printed, together with all the documents upon which
it was founded. Thefe appeared in 17x2 under the
title of, Comtnercium Epifiolicum de Ana/ysi promota.
This work was carefully circulated over Europe, to vin¬
dicate the title of the Englifh nation to the difeovery.
The Commercinm Epijiolicum having appeared, Leib-
nit% expreiTed great diffatisfa&ion, and threatened to
reply in fuch a manner as to confound his adverfaries.
There feems no reafon however to fuppofe, that any
thing he could have faid, wrould have affefted Newton's
claim to the honour of being the firfl inventor; for on this
point there cannot be any doubt. With refpeft, however,
to the other queftion, whether Leibnit% took his calcu¬
lus from Newton, or found it himfelf, it is impoflible
to decide with fuch certainty. Mr Montuc/a, in his
* Vol. ii. p Hiftory of Mathematics *, fays, “ There are only three
3S1. places of the Commercium Epijiolicum, which treat of
the principles of fluxions in fo, clear a way, as to prove
that Newton had found it before Leibnitz, but too ob-
fcurely, it feems, to take from the latter the merit of
the difeovery. One of thefe is in a letter from Newton
to Oldenburg, who had fignified to him, that Slujius and
Gregory had each found a very fimple method of draw¬
ing tangents. Newton replied, that he conje&ured what
the nature of that method was; and he gave an example
of it, which (hews it to be in effeft the fame thing as
thofe geometricians had found. He adds, that it is
only a particular cafe, or rather a corollary to a method
much more general, which, without a laborious calcu¬
lation, applies to the finding of tangents to all forts of
curves, geometrical or mechanical, and that without
being obliged to free the equation from radicals. He
repeats the fame thing without explaining himfelf far¬
ther, in another letter, and he conceals the principle of
the method under tranfpofed letters. The only place
where Newton has allowed any thing of his method to
tranfpire, is in his Analyjis per cequationes numero ter¬
minus injinitas. He here difclofes, in a very concife
and obfeure manner, his principle of fluxions, but there
is no certainty of Leibnitz's having feen this efifay. His
opponents have never afferted that it was communicated
to him by letter, and they have gone no farther than tofuf-
pe£l, that he had obtained a knowledge of it in the inter¬
view which he had with Collins, upon his fecond journey
to London. Indeed, this fufpicion is not entirely deftitute
of probability, for Leibnitz admitted, that in this inter¬
view, he faw a partof the EpiJlolanj Correfpondenceoi Col¬
lins. However I think it would be rafh to pronounce upon
this circumfiance. If Leibnitz had confined himfelf to
a few eflays of his new calculus, there might have been
fome foundation for that fufpicion ; but the numerous
pieces he inferted in the Leipfic A£ts, prove the calcu¬
lus to have received fuch improvements from him, that
probably he owed the invention of it to his genius, and
to the efforts he made to difeover a method, which put
Newton in poffeffxon of fo many beautiful truths. This
is fo much the more likely, as, from the method of tan¬
gents difeovered by Dr Barrow, the tranfition to the
differential calculus was eafy, nor w'as the ftep too great
for fuch a genius as that with which Leibnitz appears
to have been endowed.” Such is the opinion of Mon-
tucla, who being a foreigner, cannot befuppofed to have Introduc-
been too partial towards Mtc/ow, an Englifliman. The tion.
Britifii mathematicians have hitherto, with few excep- ' »
tions, entertained an opinion ftill more decidedly in fa¬
vour of the claims of their celebrated countryman. i
It has been faid that Newton took no (hare in the con-
troverfy ; this however feems not to have been exactly
the cafe, for befides fupprefiing in the third edition of
his Principia (printed in 1726) the paffage we have
already quoted, which feems to admit that L.eibnitz in¬
vented his calculus for himfelf, he is known to have
written the notes which accompany the edition of the
Commercium Epijiolicum, printed in 1722. Leibnitz
had alfo begun to prepare a Commercium Epijiolicum,
but he died before it was completed.
Befides the difputes that have happened refpe&ing
the inventor of the method of fluxions, the accuracy of
the method itfelf has been the fubjeft of controverfy,
both in Britain and on the continent. The differential
calculus was attacked abroad by Nieuwentiit, a writer
of little or no reputation as a mathematician, and by
Rolle, who was an expert algebraift, and an indefatiga¬
ble calculator, but ra(h, and too confident of the juftnefs
of his own opinions, and jealous of the inventions of
others. To the firft of thefe writers Leibnitz himfelf
replied, and afterwards Bei'noulli and Herman ; the at¬
tack from Ro/le was fuccefsfully repelled by Varignon,
who was as zealous and intelligent, as his adverfary
was warm and impetuous.
The very concife mannerin which the great inventorof
the method of fluxions thought proper to explain its prin¬
ciples, gave occafion to the celebrated Dr BVr^/eybiftiop
of Cloyneto call in queftion, not only the logical accuracy
of the reafoning employed to eftablilh the theory of flux¬
ions, but alfo the faith of mathematicians in general, in
regard to the truths of religion. The biftiop commenced
the controverfy firft in a fmall work entitled The Mi¬
nute Philofopher ; but its principal attack made its ap¬
pearance in 1734, under the title of “ The Analyst, or
A Difcourfe addrejfed to an Injidel Mathematician
(underftood to be Dr Halley) “ wherein it is examined
whether the objeEl, principles, and inferences of the mo¬
dern Analyjis are more diflinHly conceived than religious
myferies and points offaith."''' One of the beft anfwers
which was made to this work came from the pen of
Benjamin Robins, and is entitled, “ A difcourfe concern¬
ing the nature and certainty of Sir Ifaac Newton's methods
of fluxions, and of prime and ultimate ratios."'"' Other
mathematicians likewife attempted to defend Newton,
and the method of fluxions, againft the very cogent and
well-diredted arguments of the bifhop; but the moft fa-
tisfa&ory way of removing all objections to the method,
was to abandon thofe obfeure and inaccurate modes of
expreflion, of which Berkley had, not without fome rea¬
fon, complained, and to fubftitute in their place, others
more intelligible, and moreconfonant to the common me¬
thods of mathematical reafoning. This was accordingly
done by the celebrated JWhc/jz/r/w, who,in the year 1742,
publifhed his Treatife of Fluxions, a work which, although
in fome refpeCts rather diffufe, placed the principles of
the method beyond controverfy, by eftablifhing them
on the firm balls of geometrical demonflration.
It wmuld extend this introduction to too great a
length were we to enter into a detailed account of the
various improvements which the calculus has received
4 T 2 from
?oo FLU}!
Direft from its firft invention to the prefent time. We {hall
Method, juft briefly obferve, that among thofe who contributed
~v the firft and the moft effeftually to its improvement, we
may reckon Newton and Leibnitz themfelves, the two
illuftrious rivals for the honour of its difcovery ; thefe
were followed by the two brothers James and John
Bernoulli, by the Marquis de VHopital, and many
.other foreign mathematicians ; and in this country we
may reckon Craig, Cheyne, Cotes, Taylor, and De
Moivre, as among the earlieft of its improvers. It is to
Cotes in particular that we are indebted for the difcovery
of the method of finding the fluents of certain rational
fractions, a difcovery which was extended by De Moivre,
fo as to form one of the moft beautiful and complete
branches of the theory of fluxions.
Befides innumerable memoirs on particular branches
of the fl uxional calculus, which are to be found in aca¬
demical colletftions, many diftindl treatifes have been
written on the fubjeft. Some of the moft valuable of
thefe are as follow. The Method of Fluxions and In¬
finite Series, by Sir Ifaac Newton. This work was
written in Latin, but was not publifhed till the year
T736, when it was tranflated into Englifh, and given to
the world, along with a comment, by Mr Colfon. Har-
tnoma Menfurarum, by Cotes, a moft valuable and ori¬
ginal work, publiftied in 1716. A Treatife on Fluxions,
in two books, by Maclaurin, publilhed in 1742. Many
parts of the writings of the celebrated Euler have a re-
-* ference to the theory of fluxions, or the differential and
integral calculi. He has, however, three works in par¬
ticular that pelate to that fubje£l ; the firft is his Intro-
duBio in Analysin Infinitorum, the fecond his Infiitutiones
Calculi Diff'ercntialis, and the third his Infiitutiones Cal¬
culi Integralis.
There is a work on this fubjefl which deferves to be
particularly mentioned, both on account of its excellence,
and the Angular eircumftance of its being compofed by
a lady. Its title is, Analytical Inflations, in four books,
originally written in Italian, by Donna Maria Gaetana
Agnefi. This lady was Profeffor of Mathematics and
Philofophy in the Univerfity of Bologna j her work was
IONS. parf. p
originally publiftied in 1748, and has been ftyled by D-
her countryman Frifi, Opus mtidijfimum, ingeniofijfmum, Melhfd.
et certe maximum quod ad hue ex fee mince a/icujus cal atm y-w
prodierit. A part of this work has been publiftied in
the French language by Boffut. An Englifti tranfla-
tion was prepared for the prefs many years ago by the
late Profeffor Colfon; it remained, however, unpubliftied,
and might ftill have continued fo, but for the liberality
of Baron Maferes, who, after fatisfying fome pecuniary
claims upon the manufeript, caufed it, in 1801, to be
publiftied (we believe at his own expence), in two vo¬
lumes quarto. The DoBrine and Application of Fluxions,
by Thomas Simpfon, is a work defervedly in high efti-
mation. The DoBrine of Fluxions, by Emerfon, is alfo
very generally read by the Britifh mathematicians.
We are forry, however, to obferve, that there is no work
in the Englifti language that exhibits a complete view
of the theory of. fluxions, with all the improvements
that have been made upon it to the prefent time. ' We
cannot at prefent acquire any tolerable acquaintance
with the fubjeft, without confulting the writings of the
foreign mathematicians. There are feveral excellent
works in- the French language ; we may mention in
particular a Traite de Calcul Dijferentiel et de Calcul
Integral, by Coufin, in 2 vols. qto. ; another by Brfifut,
in 2 vols. 8vo. ; and another by La Croix, in 3 vols.
qto. This laft deferves particular notice, as the author
intended it to comprehend the fubftance of the various
valuable treatifes by Euler, as well as of the moft im¬
portant academical memoirs that relate to this fubjeft.
The author has alfo publilhed an abridgment of his
work, in one volume odlavo. Principiorum Calculi
Differentia Us et Integralis, by DHuilier, publiftied
in 1795, contains a very clear expofition of the prin¬
ciples of the calculus. The writings of our country¬
men Landen and Waring, and of thefe foreign mathe¬
maticians La Grange, Le Gendre, La Place, and many;
others, abound with improvements in the calculus..
Having given this {ketch of the hifiory of this ver/i
important branch of mathematical fcience, we proceed/
to explain, its principles.
PART r. THE DIRECT METHOD OF FLUXIONS.
Sect. I. Principles and Definitions*
1. IN the application of algebra to the theory of
curve lines, we find that fome of the quantities which
are the fubjeft of confideration, may be conceived as
having always the fame magnitude, as the parameter of
a parabola, and the axes of an ellipfe or hyperbola j
while others again are indefinite in refpedl of magni¬
tude, and may have any number of particular values,
iuch are the co-ordinates at any point in a curve line.
This difference in the nature of the quantities which
arc compared together, has equallv place in various
other theories, both in pure and mixed mathematics,
and it naturally fuggefts the divifions of all quantities
whatever into two kinds, namely, fuch as are eonftant,
and fuch as are variable.
2. A confiant quantity is that which retains always
2
the fame magnitude, however other quantities with
which it is conne&ed may be fuppofed to change ; and
a variable quantity is that which is indefinite in refpeft-
of magnitude, or which may be fuppofed to change its
value. Thus, in the arithmetic of fines, the radius is a-
con ft ant quantity, while the cofine, fine, tangent, &c.
of an arch, alfo the arch itfelf, are variable quantities;
and in the conic fciftions the axes and the parameters
of the axes are conftant quantities, and any abfeiffa and
its correfponding ordinate are variable quantities.
Conftant quantities are ufually denoted by the firft;
letters of the alphabet a, b, c, &c. and variable quan¬
tities by the laft letters iz, y, x, &c.
3. Any expreffion of calculation, containing a va¬
riable quantity, along wdth other conftant quantities, is
called a FunBion of that variable quantity. Thus, fup-
pofing x to be variable, and the other quantities conftant,
any
Part I.
Direffc
Methos!.
* „ a-X-bx
any one or theie exnreluons a xn, —   —, a
J 1 c x l -{- d xp
F-L U X
/°g- X,
cof. x,fin. x, &c. is a funftion of x ; and in any fuch
equation zs y~a x-\-b x-\-b x^-\-c x', the quantity y is
called a fun&ion of x. Even although the variable
quantities x and y, fbiould not be feparated as in the laft
example, but flaould be related to each other as in the
following,
a x^y-^-b x ^
as, felting afide the confideration of the condant quan¬
tities, the value of y depends on that of a?, and on the
contrary the value of x depends upon that of y, the
quantity y is faid to be a funftion of #, and on the other
hand x is faid to be a fundtion of y.
4. If a variable quantity be fuppofed to change its
value, then a correfponding change will take place in
the value of any fundlion of that quantity. Let us
examine the nature of this change in the magnitude of
a funftion.
Firft, let us fuppofe that, x denoting any variable
quantity, the fundlion to be confidered is any integer
power of that quantity, as xx, or at1, or #+, &c. 5 then,
x being fuppofed to be increafed by an indefinite quan¬
tity //, and thus to become • ft?the fundtion will
change its value j if it be ft?2 it will become or
xx-\-2 x ;
and if it be a;3 it will become (<*’-{-/i)3 or
„v3 -j- 3 a;2 ^ 3 a: /** -{-/£3 5
and if it be a;4 it will become (a; +//)4, or
ft?4-{-4 A?3 h-\-(>xx h*-\-\x h'
and fo on, for other integer powers.
If we compare the new value of the fundtion in each
of thefe cafes with its former value, it will immediately
appear, that the new value may be refolved into two
parts, one of which is the original value of the fundli"n,
and, therefore, the other is the increment which the
fundlion has received, in confequence of the change in
the value of the variable quantity ft?. Thus, the fundlion
being a?*, we have found its new value to be a:*-}- 2a?
of which exprellion, the firll term xr2 is the original value
of the fundlion 5 therefore the other part of the expreffion
viz. 2ft? ^-j-^* is its increment. In like manner the ex¬
preffion ft? 3_}_3^ + 3 A?/;2-j-/P,wh ich is the new value
of the fundlion a:3, may berefidved info a?3, the original
value of the fundlion, and q a;2 3 a? /z2-J-^3 its incre¬
ment j and a?4-{-4 ft?3 -f 6 a?2 ^ + 4 ft? ^3 the new
value of the fundlion ft?4, mav be refolved into a?4, the
fundlion itfelf, and 4 ft?3 /r-|-6ft?2/62-f-4ft?^3-|-^4 its in¬
crement.
5. Having feen that, by conceiving the variable
quantity x to receive the indefinite increment 7i, the
fundtions a?2, a?3, a?4 receive the increments
2 X b -f-/*,
3 ft?2 h -j_ 3 ft? ^2 ^3,
' 4 ft?3 ^ A?2 ^2-}-4 A? -}-^4,
refpedllvely, we next obferve that each increment is ex-
preifed by a feries, the firft term of which is the firft
IONS. . * 701
power of the indefinite quantity h multiplied by feme Diredl
fundlion of the variable quantity a? as a co-efficient. Mf,thod. ^
The fecond term of the feries conlifls of the fecond
power of multiplied alfo by a fundlion of a? as a co¬
efficient j and, in like manner, the third and following
terms are compofed of the third and higher powers of h
(the exponents forming the arithmetical feries 1, 2, 3,
4, &c.) each multiplied by a fundlion of a? as a coeffi¬
cient ; and it appears, that the particular form of the
function which conftitutes the coefficient of any affigned
term of the feries depends entirely upon the particular
form of the original fundtion. Thus, when the original
fundlion is A?2, the fundlion which is the coefficient of
the firlt term is 2X ; when the original fundfion is A?3,
the co-efficient of the firft term is 3 a?2 ; when the ori¬
ginal fundlion is a?4, the coefficient of the firft term is
4ft?3, and fo on. It alfo appears that the fundlions of.a?,
which are the coefficients of the powers of h, are com¬
pofed only of the variable quantity ft? and given quan¬
tities, fo that they are entirely independent of the inde¬
finite increment h.
6. Thefe obfervations may be extended to a fundlion
that is any power whatever of a variable quantity, by
the application of the binomial theorem. Let A? be
fuppofed to become x-\-h, then a?” will become (ft?-|-^)”j
but by the binomial theorem, (fee Algebra, Sedli
xvii.) (ft?-j-/^)" when expanded into a feries, is
n
A? -j A?"
* I
, n[n—1) „
h 4. _i i a?”
5,_0
I • 2 • 3
where it appears, that the firft term of the feries is the
original value of the fundlion, arfd the following terms
are the firft, fecond, and following powers of the incre¬
ment h, each multiplied by a new fundlion of a?, that is
independent of the increment. Let us denote the
fusions a*-, and
I • 2 I • 2 • 3
ft?n_}, &c. by/>, r, &c. refpeefively ; and it is to be
obferved that, in the prefent cafe, as well as in the cafe
of any other fundlion of x we may hereafter confider,
by the letters />, y, r, &c. or the fame letters with ac¬
cents over them, or lallly the capital letters P, Q, R,
&c. we do not mean to denote fundlions of a? of any
particular form, but fundlions of a? in general, that con-
fift only of a? and given quantities. This being kept in
view, it appears that the variable quantity A? being fup-
pofed to change its value, and to become a?-}-/?, the
fundtion xn changes its value, fo as to become
xn -{-ph-^qh* -\-rhl s h4 &c.
a feries, the terms of which have the properties already
explained in the two preceding fedtions.
7. Every rational and integer fundlion of a variable
quantity a? is neceffarily' of this form,
Aa?“ + B ft^-f C ft^-J- &c.
where A, B, C, &c. and «, /3, y, are fuppofed to denote
conftant quantities.
Let us examine what is the form which the fundlion
affumes when the variable quantity x changes its value
ts>
FLUX
to and to avoid complicated expreflions, let us
fuppofe the fundlion to confift of thefe two terms Aa* -}-
We have already found in laft fe&ion that x being
fuppofed to become xa will become
x* -\-ph-\-q7i*&c.
where p, q, r, &c. denote funftions of x independent
of hf as explained in the laft feftion, and confequently
A xa will become
IONS.
&c.
therefore v" will become
or, putting/7/5+y^-f+&C. =M,
v11 will become
and this expreflion when expanded into a feries by the
binomial theorem is
Part I.
Direft
Method.
AxK -{■ApJi^.Aqht-\-A.rh'{-\- &c.
In like manner Bar^ will become
B^-f-B/yS-fBy'^-l-BrV^-f-&c.
p\ q'l r1, &c. denoting alfo fun&ions of x independent
of h ; therefore taking the fum of the two feries, it ap¬
pears that, fuppofing x to change its value, and to be¬
come x-\-h, the funftion A#a -|-B x& becomes
Axa Ba;^ -j-(A/>-j-B^,)/z-f-(Ay-|-By')^*
4-(Ar-j-Br/)63 -f-&cc.
now p and />' being functions of x, Ap-f-Bp' will alfo
be a function of x, and may be denoted more Amply by
P, and for the fame reafon Aq-{-Bq', Ar-f-Br', &c.
which are functions of x, may be denoted by £), R, &c.
thus the expreflion for the new value of Axa -f-Bx^ is
Ax* + BxP +P// + ^* + R/55 + &c.
a feries, the form and properties of which are in all
refpedls analogous to thofe of the feries that expreffes
the new value of the fundlion xn; and although we have
fuppofed the funftion to confift of but two terms, yet it
is obvious, that whatever be the number of terms, ftill
the form of the feries and its properties will be the fame ;
that is, it will confift of two parts, one of which is in¬
dependent of /i, and is the original value of the fundftion,
and the other is a feries, the terms of which are the fuc-
ceflive powers of the increment A, each multiplied by a
fun&ion of the variable quantity # as a coefficient.
This conclufion may be exprefled in fymbols concifely
thus. Let « denote any rational and integer fun61ion
of a variable quantity x, let x be conceived to change
its magnitude, and to become x-j-/j, and let u! denote
the new value which the function acquires in confe-
quence of the change in the value of x, then
u,=.u-\-ph-^-qh*^-rh‘8 * i &c.
where p, q, r, &c. denote functions of x as already
ftated.
8. Suppofe next the fun&ion of a: to be of this
form
(A*a -f B ^ -f C &c.)%
that is, fuppofe it to be the nth power of a polynomial,
confifting of any number of terms whatever. Let the
expreflion between the parenthefis be denoted by vt
then we are to confider the function vn. Now when x
becomes x-\-h, we have already found that v becomes
xn+av*-' M3+ &c.
where a, b, c, &c. exprefs numbers.
Now from the form of the feries denoted by M, it is
manifeft that its Iquare, cube, or any power of it what¬
ever, will be a feries proceeding by the powers of h, and
having for the coefficients of its terms certain combina¬
tions of the quantities p, q, r, &c. which being func¬
tions of at, any combinations of them will alfo be func¬
tions of a\ Therefore, each of the terms of the above
feries, expreffing the developement of ex¬
cepting the firft term t>", will itfelf be a feries proceed¬
ing by the powers of //, and having its terms multiplied
by fundions of a?, and confequently their fum will be a
feries. of the fame nature. Let us as before denote the
fundlions of x, which are the coefficients of the fuccel-
five powers of h by P, £, R, &c. and we ffiall have
upon the whole
(v-\-ph-\-qh1 ^-rh* Stc.)”
exprefled by a feries of this form
-f PQ/z*J .j.'&c.
therefore, putting the Angle letter u for the fun&ion
a”, or for
(Aa;* -f- Ba:^-j- C A;y-{- &c.)*
and u’ for the new value which u acquires by x chang¬
ing its value to x
a'=«+P/$-f-Q^-fRy53+ &c.
a feries of the fame nature as before.
9. Let us now confider a fradlional fun&ion of x,
and let us fuppofe it to be
A' x* -f- B7 x^ -f- Ox1*' -f- &c.
AA;a+BA;0-fCA^-f-&c.
Where A', A, B#, B, &c. alfo *, /S', /3, &c. de¬
note conftant quantities. Let v denote the numerator
of the fraflion, and w its denominator, then the func¬
tion is
v
—, or ’vw~t.
w 1
now when x becomes x v becomes
'u-\-ph-\-qhx^-rh'i &c.
and w~l becomes
W~T -\-p'h-\-q'h*-\-r'h3 -f- &C.
and confequently vw~x becomes
and
Part I.
Diredt
Method.
FLUXIONS.
and the prodinEl of thefe two fa£lors^ hy a£lual multi¬
plication is
Now, here as before, it appears that the coefficients of
the powers of h are fun&ions of at, therefore, denoting
thefe fun&ions by P, £), R, &c. and obferving that
V'uT'- is —, we have the new value of — expreffed
w w
by the feries
change that takes place in the magnitude of the vari¬
able quantity from which the fun£tion is formed, we
may conclude the truth of the following general pro-
pofition to be fufficiently eftablilhed.
Let x denote a variable quantity, and u any funBion
whatever of that quantity, let x be fupyojed to receive
any increment h, and thus to become x-j-b, and let v! be
the new value which the funBion acquires by the change
in the value of x ; then, the new value of u may in every
cafe be expreffed thus :
ur=zu-{-p h-^-q Id-^-rh* -{- &c.
where p, q, r, &c. denote quantities that are quite inde¬
pendent ofh, and confequently can only involve the vari¬
able quantity x, and given quantities.
7°3
Diredl
Method.
or, fubftituting the Angle letter u for —, that is, for
A' .r*' -f 4-Sec.
A ** -f-B -J-C*’'+&c.
and putting a' for the value that u acquires when x be¬
comes x-lf-h,
i/rrw-j-P
a feries in all refpe&s analogous to thofe already found
for the other fun&ions of x.
10. In the functions which we have hitherto conA-
dered, the exponents of the. powers of x were conftant
quantities. Let us now conAder a fun£Hon in which
the exponent is the variable quantity at itfelf.
Suppofe then the fun&ion to be ax, where a de¬
notes a given number ; then, by fuppoAng x to become
N-\-h, the function will become
ax+b = a* ah.
Now it has been ffiown in the article Algebra, J
295, that if A be put to denote the quotient ariAng
from the divffion of a logarithm of a by the logarithm
of 2*718zSiS”* the exponential quantity is expref¬
fed by the feries
A A* A 3
l+- h+  h*+ ———h * -i- &c.
I 1*2 I23 1
therefore, , the new value of the fun&ion, is
ax (1 - /;+ — h*+ — hi -j-&c.),
this feries, by multiplying all its terms by ax, and put-
ting p, q, r, &c. for that part of each term which is
independent of h becomes
a*-If p hq h*-\-r hl -{-&c.
fo that denoting the function ax by u, and its new
value by 1/,
u'xzuJcp h-\-q -j- &c.
a feries of the fame form as the others.
11. From a due conAderation of what has been
iliew'n relating to the change that takes place in the
magnitude of a variable function, ccrrefponding to the
12. Having examined what is the general form that
any function of a variable quantity acquires by a change
in the value of that quantity, and found it to be a feries,
the Arft term of which is always the function itfelf, it is
evident that the remaining terms will exprefs the incre¬
ment that the fundion receives, in confequence of the
change in the magnitude of the variable quantity from
which the fundlion is formed. Let us now compare
the Amultaneous increments of a variable quantity and
its function with each othe^ and that we may at Arft
avoid general reafoning, and fix the mind more com¬
pletely, let us fuppole the functions to have a determi¬
nate form, as #*, xl, x*, &c.
Putting u and u' as before to denote the twofucceed-
ing values of the funftion, Arft let it be fuppofed that
uzzx*, then x being fuppofed to receive the indefinite
increment h, and thus to become ar-f-Z/, and u to chang®
its value to u'—^x-^-h)2, we have
u'=x2-\-2X h-j-h2,
or, u’=:u-±-2x h-\-h2t
and confequently
u'—u~2x h-±-h2.
Thus it appears, that the fimultaneous increments of
x and x* (or a) are ^ and 2xh-{.h2, refpectively. Let
us now compare thefe increments, not in refpe&of their
abfolute magnitudes, but in refpeft of their ratio to each
other, thus we ffiall have the increment of u to the in¬
crement of x, as 2x h-\-h2 to h, that is, (dividing the
two laft terms of the proportion by h) as 2x-\-h to I.
Or, inftead of employing any analogy, let us, for the
fake of brevity, and in conformity to the algebraic no¬
tation, rather exprefs each of thefe ratios by the quo¬
tient arifing from the divifion of the antecedents of the
ratio by its confequents, and put the refults equal to
each other. Then, obferving that the fymbol d—u,
which exprefles the difference between the fucceeding
values of the function, may be employed to denote its
increment, we have
d—u 2xhJt-h2
——=2*+;'-
Hence it appears that the expreffion for the ratio of
the increment of the funfliou u to the increment of the
variable quantity x is made up of two parts, one of
thefe, viz. 2 ax, is quite independent of h, the incre¬
ment of x, and the other is in the prefent cafe that incre¬
ment itfelf. In confequence of this peculiarity in the
form
7°4- FLUXIONS.
Du-edl form of tire expreffion for tlie ratio, it is evident that
Method, if tfjg increment h be conceived to be continually dimi-
^ * nifhed, the part of the expreflion which confifts of h
w’ill continually diminifh, fo that the whole expreflron,
viz. may become more nearly equal to its firft
term 2 x than by any affignable difference j therefore
lx may be confidered as the limit of the ratio
that is, a quantity to which the ratio may approach
nearer than by any aflignable difference, but to which
it cannot be confidered as becoming abfolutely equal.
Let us next fuppofe that z/—#3, then x being fuppo-
fed to become x-\-h, we have =.^-{-3 a* h
+ 3 « or
u'=u-{- 3 x* /z-f-3 x ft-j-h3,
and confequently
u'—z.'=3 x* /z-f~3 x +
1 u'—«
and —=3#,.f3A;/i-{-/z*.
Here it is evident, as in the former cafe, that the ex¬
preflion for the ratio —~— is compofed of two parts,
one of thefe, viz. the firft term 3 x*, is a function of x
that is independent of the increment //, but the other,
viz. 3 or (3 is the product of two
faffors, one of which is the increment itfelf. From the
particular form of this latter part of the expreflion for
the ratio, it is plain, that h being fuppofed to be con-
tinua ly diminifhed, that part will alfo diminifh, and
may become lefs than any aflignable quantity. There¬
fore, in this cafe, as well as in the former, the ratio
—« ...
has a limit, and that limit is the firft term of the
general expreflion for the ratio, namely the quantity
3 **•
Suppofe, next, that u~xA, and confequently
denote any funflion of a variable quantity x, as for ex¬
ample, axn, or axm-\-b x"^. &c. or
a x™ -f- ^ a” -f- &c.
a'xml -±-b'x'“ -{. ike.
and u' being put for the new value which the fun&ion
acquires when x becomes x-\-i,
ilzzu-j-jj h + q h'+if-rh 3 -j- &c.
wherej), y, r, &c. denote fundlions oi x that are inde¬
pendent of h, therefore,
»'—u=p h+q hi-\-r h’l &c.
and
u'—u ,
—/——P-^rq -f- &c,
or,
-—£-—P+}i ($ + t‘h+ &c.)
Thus it appears, that whatever be the form of the
funftion, ihe ratio —~ is always exprefled by a quan¬
tity which may be refolved into two parts 5 one of thefe,
viz. p, is independent of the increment and the other,
viz. h(q-\.r h-^&Lci), is the produtt of h by a feries,
the firft term of which is a funftion of x, and the re¬
maining terms alfo functions of x multiplied by the firfl*
fecond, third, and higher powers of h. Now from the
particular form of this laft part of the general expreflion
for the ratio, it is manifeft, that h being conceived to
be continually diminiftied, the quantity h (y-}-r/z-{-
&c.) will alfo be continually diminifhed, and may be¬
come lefs than any aflignable quantity 5 therefore, the
«• • pi • " '• a ,
limit of the ratio—— is Amply p, that is, the fundlion
of x, which is the coefficient of the firft or Ample power
of h in the general expreflion for the increment.
Part I.
Dire#:
Method.
u'—(a;-{~/$)4—.v3 //-f 6** x h"1 -^-IP,
er,
4 a?3 h-1-6 x* ll+qx h* -}-h*,
and—^—=4 »3 +/z (6 ^4-4 a:/?
Here, as in the two former cafes, we have only to in-
fpeS the general expreflion for the ratio —to difeo-
h
ver, that by fuppofing h to be continually diminiflied,
the latter part of the exprefli m, viz. h (<6xt-\-^x //-f-Zz1),
and which comprifes all th^ terms except the firft, will
become fmaller than any aflignable quantity; and con¬
fequently, that the firfl term 4 At3 is the limit of the
ratio.
13. It is eafy to fee that the property which we have
found to belong to the ratio of (he firrultaneous incre¬
ments of a variable quantity, and its fun&ion in thefe
th ree particular cafes, is an immediate confequence
of the form of the expreflion for the increment of the
fun&inn, fo that it is not peculiar to the fun&ions A?*,
, and x*, but belongs equally to all fun&ions what¬
ever.
For we have found, § 11, that u being fjppofed to
14. From what has been juft fliewn, we may infer
the truth of the following general propofition relative
to the fimultaneous changes that take place in a varia¬
ble quantity and its fumftion.
Let x denote a variable quantity and u any fundiion of
that quantity, let x be conceived to change its value and
become x-j-h, where h denotes an arbitrary increment,
and let u' denote the new value that the junBion acquires,
in confequence of the change m the magnitude of x. Then,
obfervmg that h and if—u are the fmultuneous increments
of the variable quantity and its fundiion, if h be con¬
ceived to be continually diminifbed, the ratio ~—- will
continually approach to u certain Limit, which will be
different for different funci ions, but always the fame for
the fame function, and in every cafe quite independent of
the magnitude of the increments.
1 he ratio which is the limit of the ratio of the in¬
crements, when thele increments are conceived to be
continually diminiftied, may be called the limiting ratio
of the increments./
15. The analytical fafl contained in the preceding
propofition, affords the foundation for a mathemati¬
cal theory of great extent, and which may be divided
into
Part I.
Diredl
Method.
into two diftinft branches ; one having for its obje£t the
refolution of the following problem. Having given the
' relation of any number of variable quantities to each
other, to determine the limiting ratios of their increments;
and the other the converfe of that problem, namely,
Having given the limiting ratios, to determine the rela¬
tions of the quantities themfelves.
The theory to which we have alluded conflitutes the
Method of Fluxions, and in explaining the founda*
tion of the method, we have endeavoured to fhow, that
it refts upon a principle purely analytical, namely the
theory of limiting ratios j and this being the cafe, the
fubjeil may be treated as a branch of pure mathematics,
without having occafion to introduce any ideas foreign
to geometry. ,
16. Sir Ifaac Newton, however, in firft delivering the
principles of the method, thought proper to employ con-
fiderations drawn from the theory of motion. But he
appears to have done this chiefly for the purpofe of il-
lullration, for he immediately has recourfe to the theory
of limiting ratios j and it has been the opinion of feveral
mathematicians of great eminence (a) that the con-
fideration of motion was introduced into the method of
fluxions at firft without neceflity, and that fucceeding
writers on the fubjedt ought to have eftablifhed the
theoryupon principles purely mathematical, independent
of the ideas of time and velocity, both of which feem
foreign to inveftigalions relating to abftradf quantity.
17. That we may conform to the ufual method of
treating this fubjeft, we proceed to fhow how the
theory of motion is commonly applied to the illuftration
of the nature of variable quantities, and of the relations
that refult from their being conceived to change their ‘
value.
As quantities of every kind, if we abftraft from their
pofition, figure, and fuch affeftions, and confider their
magnitude only, may be reprefented by lines, we may
confider a variable quantity x, and «any funfHon of that
quantity, to be reprefented by two lines AP, BQ^, which
have A, B, one extremity of each given, and which
vary by the points P, £), their other extremities, moving
in the direflions AC, BD, while the equation exprefling
the relation between x and u, or their reprefentative
lines AP, B£) , remains always the fame.
FLUXIONS.
meafures of the velocities with which the variable quan¬
tities increafe have been called their fluxions.
A.
B-
-D
&
18. The lines AP, B£) being thus conceived to vary,
the relation that is fuppofed always to fubfift between
them, in refpeft of their magnitudes, will neceflarily
give rife to another relation, namely, that which will
conftantly fubfift between the velocities of the moving
points P and £), by which the lines are generated.
With a reference to this particular mode of conceiving
variable quantities to exift, the quantities themfelves
have been called flowing quantities or fluents, and the
VOL. VIII. Part II.
19. To fimplify the hypothefis, we may fuppofe that
the point which generates the line AP, or x, moves uni¬
formly •, thus the meafure of its velocity, or the fluxion
of x, will be a given quantity, with which the meafure
of the velocity of the point Q^, or the fluxion of u, may
be continually compared. To determine then the flux¬
ions, or rather the ratio of the fluxions of x a variable
quantity, and u, any funftion of that quantity, is in
effect to refolve the following problem.
Having given an equation exprefling the relation at
every inflant between the fpaces pajfed over by two points,
one of which moves with an uniform velocity : It is re¬
quired to find an expreflion for the ratio that the mea¬
fures of the velocities have at every inflant to each
other.
20. Now it is a fundamental principle in the theory
of motion, refulting indeed from the very nature of a
variable velocity, that when two velocities are compar¬
ed together, whether they be both variable, or one of
them uniform, and the other variable, the meafures of
their velocities are any quantities' having to each other the
ratio that is the limit of the ratio of the fpaces defenbed
in the fame time, when thofe fpaces are conceived to be
continually diminifhed. And hence it follows that the
ratio of the fluxions of two variable quantities is no other
than the limiting ratio of their fimultaneous incre¬
ments.
That the theory of motion may be applied to the
generation of variable algebraic quantities, we have fup¬
pofed them to be reprefented by lines j this, however, is
not neceflary, if the variable quantities are themfelves
geometrical magnitudes j for like as a line is conceived
to be generated by the motion of a point, fo a furface
may be confidered as generated by the motion of a
line, a folid by the motion of a furface, and an angle
by the rotation of one of the lines which contain it }
and the fluxions of thofe quantities at any inftant, or
pofition, will be the meafures of the velocities, or de¬
grees of fwiftnefs, according to which they increafe at
that inftant or pofition.
But in every cafe the ratio of the rates of increafe, or
fluxions of two homogeneous magnitudes, will be the
limiting ratio of their fimultaneous increments.
2r. Having thus found that by conceiving variable
quantities as generated by motion, and taking their ve¬
locities, or rates of increafe, as an object for the mind
to contemplate and reafon on, we are in the end led' to
the confideration of the limiting ratios of their incre¬
ments, a fubjedft which is purely mathematical, and in¬
dependent of the ideas of time or velocity, we (hall ex¬
change the definition of a fluxion given in § 18, which
involves thofe ideas, for another that refts entirely upon
the exiftence of limiting ratios.
By the fluxions then of two variable quantities hav¬
ing any afligned relation to each other, we are in the
following treatife always to be underftood to mean any
4 U indefinite
(a) Such as Lagrange, Coufln, La Croix, &c. abroad, and Landen in this country.
7°6 FLUX
indefinite quantities vjhich have to each other the limiting
. Me^(xi- , ratio of their fimultaneous increments (b).
r In conformity to this definition of fluxions, it is evi¬
dent that we are to confider them, not as absolute, but
as relative quantities, which derive their origin from the
eotnparifon of variable quantities with each other in re-
fpe£l of their fimultaneous variations of magnitude.
22. Sir Ifaac Newton employed different fymbols at
different times to denote the fluxions of variable quanti¬
ties. It is now however common in Britain to denote
them by the fame letters eipployed to exprefs the quan¬
tities themfelves, and each having a dot over it. Thus
x denotes the fluxion of the variable quantity expref-
fed by at, and in the like manner u, v, k, denote
the fluxions of the variable quantities », v, z, refpec-
tively.
23. Suppofe now that u is any fun&ion of a variable
quantity x, and that the limiting ratio of the fimultane¬
ous increments of « and x is the ratio of p to I, where
p denotes fome other fundlion of *r; then, from the de¬
finition juft given of fluxions, we have
u
— “/>, and u'zzpx.
x
IONS. part 1
h denotes an indefinite increment, and in confequence Direft
of this change in the magnitude of *, u alfo changes its Method,
value, and becomes u\ then, obferving that u’—u and
h are the fimultaneous increments of u and *, the Ihnit-
ing ratio of—-—-xszx. Let this expreflion for the
limiting ratio be put equal to the ratio of the fluxions of u
and a:, that is to thus we have v = 2at, and »= 2a:.v.
A? X
Hence it appears, that whatever be the magnitude of
the quantity that expreffes the fluxion of x, the fluxion
of u or x% will be expreffed by the fluxion of x multi¬
plied by 2 a;.
Again, when u—x^, and u\ u'—u and h denote the
fame as before, it has been fhown, § 12, that the limiting
ratio of - ■ ■ U- is 3 #*, therefore, § 21, U-r ~ 3 a:*, and
h x
u =3 x* x ; that is, the fluxion of xl is exprefled by the
fluxion of x multiplied by 3#*.
And when u=zxA, it has been ftiown, § 12, that the
limiting ratio of “ is 4 a;5. Therefore, § 21,
—r-:=4x;* and 4 x* x.
x
Hence it follows as a confequence of the preceding
definition, that the fluxion of u, any funflion of a vari¬
able quantity x, is the produB arifing from the multipli¬
cation of that funBion of x which is the expreffion for
the limiting ratio of the increments by the fluxion of the
variable quantity x itfelf.
SECT. II. Invejligation of the Rules of the Direct
Method of Fluxions,
24* The method of fluxions naturally refolves itfelf
into two parts, as we have already obferved, § 15.
We proceed to explain the firft of thefe, which is called
the DireB Method, and which treats of finding the ratio
of the fluxions of variable quantities, having given the
relations of thofe quantities to each other.
25. We ftiall begin with inveftigating the ratio of the
fluxions of two variable quantities in that particular
cafe, when one of them is in the power of the other.
Let us fuppofe then, that u is fuch a fun&ion of a
variable quantity x, that uz=.xn, where n denotes any
number whatever, it is required to determine the ratio
of the fluxions of « and x.
If we recur to the definition which has been given of
the fluxions of variable quantities in § 21, it will appear
that we have in efFeft refolved the problem juft propofed
in three particular cafes, when treating of the limiting
ratios of the increments of variable quantities. For it
has been ftunvn in § 12. that when wzzx1, and x is fup-
pofed to change its value, fo as to become x-\-h, where
To refolve the problem generally, or when u—x~,
let us fuppofe x to become a;-J-^, and u to become
then u'—(x-\-hy. But this laft quantity, when ex¬
panded into a feries by the binomial theorem (Alge*
bra, Sect. XVII.) is
xn-\-p h-\-q M-^r D &c.
ot u-tf-p h-^-hx (q-\-r hJf &c.)
where p, q, r, &c. denote fundlions of x, independent
of h. Therefore,
u'—wzzph-^h* &c.),
^ H
and —j— (? + r h-\- &c.).
Therefore, fuppofing h to be continually diminiftied,
is p; but, whatever be the nature of
the limit of
-u.
the exponent n, p is always nxn_I, ( Algebra, § 267.),
. . r id—u .
therefore, the limit of —7— is n xn~I, and confequent-
u * • •
ly — —« a;”-1, and u~nxn~1x,,
x
26. As we (hall have frequently occafion to employ
the refult of this inveftigation, it will be proper to ex¬
prefs it in the form of a praftical rule, thus.
To find the fluxion of any power of a variable quanti¬
ty. Multiply the fluxion of the variable quantity iifelf
by the exponent of the power, and by a power of the
quantity whofe exponent is lefs by unity than the given
exponent, and the produB will be the fluxion required.
27.
(b) We are here to be underftood to mean the ratio of the numerical values of the increments, which may al¬
ways be compared with each other, whether the variable quantities be of the fame kind, as both lines, or both
furfaces, &c. or of different kinds, as the one a line, and the other a furface.
3
N
Part I.
Diredl
Method.
27. In delermining the limit of the ratio of the fimul-
taneous increments of x and xn, we have referred to the
binomial theorem ; but the only application we have
had occafion to make of that theorem was to determine
the numeral coefficient of the fecond term of the deve*
lopement of when n is fuppofed to be any
number whatever, which is an inquiry of a more Ample
nature than the general inveftigation of the theorem.
We (hall now (how how that coefficient may be deduced
from the firft principles of algebra. Thus the inveftiga¬
tion of the fluxion of xn will be rendered independent of
the general demnnftration of the binomial theorem j and
we (hall hereafter (how that the theorem itfelf is eafily
inveftigated by the diredl method of fluxions.
28. Since x-{-h is equal to x it follows that
(14--)”, thus the developement of (*-{-//)"
. h
is reduced to that of (i-{—r, or putting- =-y, to
X J x
FLUXIONS.,
Let both fides of this equation be raifed to the power
«, having firft fubftituted M for A &c.
then
(i+*Om=(i + M®)\
Now as we have juft found that m and n being integers,
(1 -f-y)"1— 1 -\-m v -f- &c.
and (i-j-My)n= i-j-ziMv -f- &c.
Here we ftop at the fecond term, that being the only
one whofe coefficient is required. Subftitute now for
its value A &c. then, flopping again at the
fecond term, we get
(1 -f.« A^-J- &c.
therefore,
1 -\-mvi-\-n Av
and making the coefficients of v in each feries equal to
each other,
nA — m, and A=r—.
(I Now if we give particular values to «, and
fuppofe it to be I, 2, 3, &c. or—1, —2, See. or laft-
ly t» ^Cc* we can the feries that exprefs the
powers of whofe exponents are thofe numbers, by
the operations of multiplication, divifion, and evolution,
and in every particular cafe we (ball find, that the
powers of are expreffed by a feries of this form,
1-J-Afl-j-B^l*-{-C^<,&c.
Where A, B, C, D, &c. denote numeral coefficients
which depend for their value only on n the exponent
of the power, and not on the quantity v ; and as the
form of the feries will be found to be the fame what¬
ever particular values we may give to the exponent, we
may conclude that it is the fame, whether the exponent
be pofitive or negative, whole or fraftional.
29. Firft let us fuppofe that the exponent is a whole
pofitive number, then, becaufe
(1-}-At>4-B^*-|- &c.
if we multiply both fides of this equation by 1 -\-v, and
colleft together the like powers of v, it will appear
that
(l+«)—=r + A| „ +» &o.
Hence it appears that the coefficient of the fecond term
of any power of I -f-X' exceeds that of the next lefs
power by unity. Now in the cafe of the firft power of
i-K, the coefficient of the fecond term is obvioufly 1,
therefore, in the fecond power it is 2, in the third power
3, and univerfally, in the nth power it is n ; fo that n
being a whole pofitive number,
&c.
30. Let us next fuppofe the exponent to be a frac¬
tion denoted by fo that
n
= Af-j-B^-J- &c.
31. In the laft place, let us fuppofe that the expo¬
nent is a negative quantity either whole or fraftional,
fo that
(i-j-y) ~=z 1 -f-AV-J-BV-j-&c.
er  —— =i-j-A,^-J-BV-{- &c.
vn
then, multiplying both fides by we get
i=:(i+'y) “ (14-A'^-f-B'^* 4. &c.)
m
or, fubftituting 14-A‘y4-Biy*4_ f°r CI4-t')~ and
aftually multiplying the two feries,
i=i4-A 7 4-B *)
+ A' $ v 4-A A' > ,u* 4~ &c.
4-B' >
Now that this equation may fubfift, whatever be the
value of v} it is neceffary that
A4-A'=o,
B4-AA'4-B'=o,
&c.
and by thefe equations we may determine A', B', C, &c.
It is, however, only required at prefent to find the firfl;
of thefe, viz. A', now we have A'——A; but A being
the coefficient of the fecond term of the feries expreffing
(14"^)”* the exponent of which is pofitive, we have al¬
ready found it to be —, therefore, A'n — —.
« n
32. As we have found that the coefficients of the fe-
eond term of the developements of (14.^)'^
and aref»,—, and—refpeflively, it up¬
pers that whatever be the number denoted by «, the two
firft terms of the feries expreffing (i-J-d)" are, 1
and therefore, fubftituting for v its value and multi-
X
plying by x”y the two firft terms of. the feries expreffing
(*4-/0" are xTl-]-nxn~thi agreeing with what we
4 U 2 hav#
70S
FLUXIONS.
Diredt have aflumed in § 25. as given by the binomial theo-
tMethod. rein
33. The mode of reafoning employed to determine
the ratio of the fluxions of u and x, when the former is
a function of the latter of the form xn, will apply equal¬
ly when the function has any other affigned form. But
iiiftead of inveftigating in this manner the fluxion of
every particular function, it is better to confider a com¬
plex fun&ion as the fum, or difference, or product or
quotient, &c. of other Ample funflions, and to invef-
tigate rules for each of thefe cafes, fuppofing that the
fluxions of the Ample functions are previoufly known.
34. Let us firfl; fuppofe that u, a function of a varia¬
ble quantity at, is equal to the fum of v and to, two
other functions of x. It is required to find the fluxion
of //, having given the fluxions of v and iv.
Let x be conceived to change its value, and to be¬
come x-\-h, then, as v and w will alfo change their va¬
lues, § II, the one to
’v'-zzv-^p h-\-q h*^-r h* &c.
and the other to
-f- &c.
if u' as ufual denote the correfponding new value of u,
we have
,  ( A-j-q &C.C.
u &c.
—»=r (/>+//)/$+ (7+/)/^+ &c.
u~Y-=p+p'+{qJi-q,')hJt s^-
if we now conceive h, to be continually diminifhed, we
Part I.
Ihall have the limit of
expreffed by ^But
p is the limit of —j—, § 14, and in like manner p’ is
the limit of
limit of
h
-, therefore,
. r “z/—v .... . w'.
limit or —j p limit of —
Subftitute now the ratio of the fluxions inftead of the
limited ratios, and we have
• • • >
u   v j^w .
XXX
therefore, u — v-\-w.
35. If we fuppofe j to be a funftion of x, and a, v,
w, &c. other funflions of x, fuch that
s=a u-\-b v-\-c w-\- Sec.
where a, b, c, denote any given numbers, pofitive or D}re<ft
negative, then, by reafoning as above, it is evident that Method.
s=:a u-\-bv-±-cw-\- &c.
Therefore, to find the fluxion of the fum of any number of
fund ions, each multiplied by a confiant quantity. Mul¬
tiply the fluxion of each funElion by its conflant coefficient,
and the fum of the produBs is the fluxion required.
36. If c denote a conftant quantity, and «, v, be
functions of x, fuch, that u~c-^-v ; then x being fup-
pofed to become x-\-h, and confequently v to become
i)', or v-\-p h-^-q hlfe.c. and c-^-v to become c-J-U
-\-p h-\-q h* &c. we have
u~c-\-v,
and u'—c-\-v+ph-\-qh2-\- &c.
and hence 2/—ia=zp h-\-q h*^ &c.
or u'—u—v!—v,
therefore,
and thefe ratios being always equal, their limits muft al-
fo be equal j therefore, fubftituting for the limiting ra¬
tios thofe of the fluxions, we have t~ and u=v; that
x x
is to fay, the fluxion of c-\-v is v, from which it appears,
lhat the fluxion of any variable funBion is the very
fame as the fluxion of the fame funBion, increafed or di-
minifhed by any conftant quantity. This is a remark of
great importance in the theory of fluxions, as will ap¬
pear hereafter.
37. Let us now fuppofe that u, v, w, are funftions of
x, fuch, that u—v w, it is required to find the fluxion
of u, fuppofing the fluxions of v and w to be given.
By fuppofing that x, u, v, and w, change their va¬
lues as ufual, we have
ti-=zv w
u'— {v-{-/> h -\-q -j- &c.) (to-f-y /z -f A*-f &c.)
and this lafi: expreflion by multiplication becomes
u'=v w-l- v h4-v q'h1''] , 0
+ wPZ + ^?'i,i+&0‘
therefore
- u'—u— {vp'-\-wp)h-\.(yq' ftp ft -{- zu y ) 7/1 -j- &c.
dividing now by h, and taking the limit of - we
h
have that limit exprelfed by vp'-\-wp; but p' is the li-
w'—w
mitof —-— § 14, and in like manner ji is the limit of
v'—v
therefore
the
(c) In this inveftigation we have fuppofed « to be a rational number. If, however, it were irrational, ftill the
refult would be the fame ; for, correfponding to every fuch number, two rational numbers, one greater, and the
other lefs than it, may be found, which (hall differ from each other by lefs than any aflignable quantity. There¬
fore, the general properties of thefe numbers muft belong alfo to the irrational number which is their limit.
2
Parti.
Direft
Method.
f . W'—W
u> px limit of —-—
the limit of —t~- j A,
h I , ... r’D'—1)
L + io X limit of —-— $
FLUXIONS. 709
that it is required to find the fluxion of a, having given Diredt
the fluxions of v and w. Method.
From the given equation vve have v—Vi «, and there- —"“v '
Hence, by fubftituting for the limiting ratios the ratios
of the fluxions, we have
u v w w v • •
-7 = —- -j . and u~v w -\-ivv.
XXX
Therefore, to find the fluxion of the produEl of any
two fun&ions, multiply the fluxion of each funElion by
the other funBion, and the fum of thefe produBs is the
fluxion required.
38. We have juft now feen that when
u—v w
then u~w v-\-vvj.
Let each fide of the latter equation be divided by the
correfponding fide of the former, thus we get
u  v v w
u v‘ w ’
fuppofe now that the function w is the produ<51 of two
other functions s, t, fo that
u—v s t,
then, becaufe w=s t, from what has been ftrewn it fol-
lows that — therefore, fubftituting this va-
t r'm • . . u v w , ,
lue or — in the equation ■— = 1 , it becomes
w u v w
= — + - +
V s
In general, if we fuppofe that
u—vs tr &c.
by reafoning as above it will be found that
u v , s . t r n
— — — -f- —• -}- — -f" — -j- &c.
u v's't'r
whatever be the number of factors.
Suppofe the number of faftors to be three, fo that
mrzv s t
j “ v . s , 1
u v s ' t
then fubftituting v s t [ox u in this laft equation, and ta¬
king away the denominators, we find
u-=zstv -\-vts-\-vst.
And as a fimilar refult will be found, whatever be
the number of factors, we may conclude that The
fluxion of the produB of any number of funBions is equal
to the fum of the produBs of the fluxion of each funBion
by all the other funBions.
39. Let us in the laft place fuppofe that n— —, and
fore(§ 37.) let — be fubftituted for u
m this equation, and it becomes u from
which we eafily obtain
• wv—vw.
Hence we have the following rule for finding the
fluxion of a fradtion.
Multiply the fluxion of the numerator by the denomi¬
nator, and from the produB fubtraB the fluxion of the
denominator multiplied by the numerator, and divide the
remainder by the fquare of the denominator ; the refult
is the fluxion required.
40. It will now be proper to fhew the application of
thefe general rules for determining the fluxions of va¬
riable fundlions to fome particular examples.
Example 1. . Suppofe .v—Required
the fluxion of u.
Here a being a conftant quantity, the fluxion of
a-\-b >fx is the fame as the fluxion of bJx— —,
x x
I
§ 36, or bx'2-—cx 1. Now, by § 26, the fluxion of
X X
x, which expreflion is equivalent to
^ * v2—1
X IS "g- A?
I
* ^ 2"
X
x, or to ——, and in like manner the fluxion
2\/x
o( x 1 is—x 1 1 at or —x 2 x, or ——, therefore,
AT
X
multiplying the fluxion of a;^ by b, and the fluxion of
« 1 by c, and taking the fum of the produ&s, agree¬
ably to the rule in § 35. we have
• b x c x
+ "3~
2\/x
or « — ^
Ex. 2. Suppofe u-=za-\- 3^ z
By writing the fun&ion thus
^ , c\ •
 — J I A\
2\/x ^ X*!
b l
X* \/x
d_
X*'
u=za-{-bx 3—c x r-[-dx~*
the application of the fame rules employed in the laft
example give us
•  s . 7 „
—yb x 7x^_aCx t a;—2dx ^ x
or, exchanging the fra&ional indices for the radical
fign, and otherwife reducing,
— 2 bx . a c x 2dx
4 c A?
2Xiy,X* 1 3X*3<fx
J +
X3
Ex.
719
Diredl
Method.
FLUXIONS. Part I.
Ex. Suppofe uzz(a+b xn)n. and this equation, by reducing all the terms on the lat- xw*.
In order to find the fluxion of this funftion by the ter fide of it to a common denominator, is more Amply Method,
rules already laid down, it will be neceflary to confider exprefled thus, r J 1 j
it firft as a fun&ion of a variable quantity that is itfelf
" ----- - —4*4)a;
•v/ (a*—a;*)
a funftion of «. Let us then put a-{.bxm equal to v,
and thus the propofed equation becomes j then, «
being confidered as a funftion of v, we have by j 26.
u=MVn~xv. Again, “I/being confidered as a fun^ion
of x, from the equation v=a-f-bxm, we find by § 36.
and § 26. v — mbxm~xx. Let this value of v be fubfti-
tuted in the expreflion for w, and it becomes
u—m n b vn~* xm~tx,
which, by fubftituting for z; its value is alfo
uzztnnbxm~'t *■.
Ex. 4, Suppofe «= —A’*)*
Here we are to proceed as in the laft example, ancj
firft put o*—a?*=u, then u ~ ~ v~* j and therefore
(§ i6) uzr^v'1 1 v~—~—7~‘ Again, fince
2vi 2\/v
vz=a*—a;*, by § 26. we find z>=:—2A? x. Subftitute
this value of v in the expreflion for «, and we have
2 xx
Ex. 7. Suppofe
Here we employ the rule given in § 39. for finding the
fluxion of a fradional function j thus we find
• (a* + A;*)A;—2x(a-^.x) x
U-~ 111»
which when reduced, is
• (a*—2 ax—a?*} x
Ex. 8. Suppofe
(a— ■~+3x/(<ri—a;*)1)3 |
lis expreflion, we put
= 3'» W
2x/v’
To Amplify this expreflion, we put
b
x
Thus we have
U—sJ ( «—y+ ss)J=:(tf—
which, by reftoring (a*—at*) for v, and leaving out Now as the fluxion of a—'y-f-JS, is —(§: 35),
the number common to the numerator and denominator, we from § 26, that by confidering a—y-\-,z as a
becomes Angle variable quantity,
-A? X
Ex. 5. Suppofe uzz *,/ (a-\-b X+c x*).
By proceeding in the fame manner as in laft ex¬
ample, we find
•  b-\-2cx')x
\/(a-\-b x-\*c xx}'
Ex. 6. Suppofe a=rA? ^ (o*—a;*).
«=!(«—I(—y+z)
=4:(«—C—y+»)
=1 s[a^-y+* (—y+i)
but, fince y=-~=^ a? we have, § 26,
y=r—\b x ^ 1 xzz
b x
2a; x ’
Z" Zu 1 X TV' r .1. r and fince ff*—*»)T, by confider-
Here the propofed funftion is the product of thefe • , , r 1 • ui ^ J / ur
three funaiora, viz. x, *■+*■, and v/ (i w). There. ,n« C “ 3 ,fragle Var‘abIe VanUt^ and °bfer™g
fore, its fluxion will be found by proceeding according
to the rule in § 38.
Now the fluxion of a,* is x, and the fluxion of a*4-A?*
is 2a;a;, and the fluxion of y/ (a*—x1) has been found
XX
in laft example to be —- ■ , —. Therefore, multi-
V(a —x1)
plying the fluxion of each fun&ion by the produft of
the other two fumftions, and taking the fum of all thefe
produ&s, we find
(a*.y/a*—x* x
2 a;* t^/a*~xxx
~~ x* (<3*-|-a;*) a;
“ V («’—»*) '
that its fluxion is —2 a; a;, we find by § 26, that
(c*—x*)r lX—2a;.v:
—-4a;a;
33V(cW)
Inftead of y, 2;, y, ss, fubftitute now their values in the
expreflion for the fluxion of », thus it becomes
u=^v («— ^+’x/fcwry*)
(bx 4a;a; \
2X x 3 3y/ (c*—a;1)/
Ex. 9. Suppofe u—a vm y”, where z> and y denote
any functions of a variable quantity.
Then, § 37,
X fluxion of v^<
X fluxion ofy1
}
But
Fart 1.
Direct But fluxion of v>nz=Lmv*,~Jv, § 26,
FLUXIONS.
7lr
Method.
and fluxion of y1'zznyn’~'1 y ;
therefore,
u— a rmjnvm~Tv-\-a n vmyn~T y,
—avm~Iyn~'t(myv-\-n v y).
Ex. 10. Suppofe »=—where % and y denote
any function of a variable quantity. Then, becaufe
fluxion § 34, and fluxion y^zz^y* y,
§ 26, we have, § 39,
• -_y3fo+*)—sfo-t-gQy’y*
y6
SO+aQy
y*
41. As when u denotes that particular function of k
which is x", we have (§ 25.)
u
T=n xn
fo, in general, whatever be the form of the fun&ion de¬
noted by we have always
where q denotes a new fumSlion of derived from py
the former function, by the fame kind of operation as
that by which p was deduced from «.
Suppofe now q to denote the particular fun&ion
n{n—then,
%—n{n—1) in—2) xn~ *,
x
q
or -—r, r.
where r denotes a fun&ion of x derived from y, as q
was derived from /?, or p from the original function u.
And it is evident that we may proceed in this manner
as far as we pleafe, unlefs it happen that in finding the
feries of funftions />, y, r, &c. we at laft arrive at a re-
fult that is a conftant quantity, and then the feries of
operations will terminate. Thus if the funftion was
oa:4, we ftiould have
u—ax*
u ,
—zz/^ax^-p.
P_
x
^=4.3/1 A?»=y,
x
Dire<a
Method.
4.3.2«*=rr,
u
-=A
X
-r=4.3.2.I.«=r2.4fl.
x
where p denotes a new function of x, refulting from the
analytical procefs employed to find the fluxion of the
fundlion u, and depending for its form upon the par¬
ticular form of that function : juft as in involution, or
any of the other operations of algebra, a refult is ob¬
tained depending upon the particular nature of the ope¬
ration, and the quantities operated upon.
Let us put p to denote the particular function nxn~r,
or the expreflion forthe ratio of the fluxion of u to
x
the fluxion of x when uzzx’1, then, fuppofing that n—1
is not equal to o, (for in that cafe »#n—1 would be lim¬
ply «, a given number,) we may reafon concerning the
ratio of the fluxions of the variable quantities p and x,
in all refpefts as concerning the ratio of the fluxions of
u and x; and accordingly, from the equation
p — nxn~ti
we get, by taking the fluxions,
-.—n(n—1 )#’""■*,
.v
or, confidering p as denoting generally the fundlion of
* that r^fults from the operation of finding the fluxion
of the original function z/, wdiatever be the form of
that fun&ion, we have
Here the expreflion for — is a conftant quantity, which
x
has no fluxion.
Hence it appears, that relatively to any funftion of a
variable quantity, there exifts a feries of limiting ratios,
deducible from that fundtion, and from each other, by a
repetition of the operation of finding the fluxion of a
variable fundtion.
42. In treating of the fluxion of a fundtion, we have
hitherto regarded the fluxion of the variable quantity *•,
from which the fundtion is formed, merely as one of
the terms of a ratio, without confidering whether it was
a conftant or a variable quantity.
Now as we may affume any hypothefis refpedting the
nature of the fluxion of a?, that is not inconfiftent with
what has been already delivered, we flrall fuppofe it to
be conftant. This affumption, if we confider the fluxions
of variable quantities as the meafures of their refpedtive
velocities, or rates of increafe, is in effedt the fame thing
as to fuppofe that the variable quantity x increafes uni¬
formly. Then, as in the expreflions
u P o
~-p,~—q, ^-=r, &c.
XXX
or thefe others, which follow from them,
u~px, p—qx, qzzrx, &c.
the fymbol x is to be underftood as denoting a conftant
quantity, it follows that if p be variable, then px, or
v will be variable 5 and if q be variable, then qx, or
12
Dire<5t
Methcd.
FLUXIONS.
jy, will be variable $ and if r be variable, then r x, or
' q will be variable, and fo on.
43* J',et us n»w recur to the relation in which the
fucceeding fun&ions y, r, &c. fland to the original
fun&ion u.
By performing that particular analytical opera¬
tion upon the fundion u, which confifts in finding its
fluxion, we obtain px as the expreflion for its fluxion,
that is, we get u~p x ; and by repeating the operation
on the funflion p, wegetpzzqx; and therefore jo a; ~
jyv but, x being regarded as a conftant quantity,
p x is deduced from p x, confidered as a fun&ion of X,
juft in the fame manner aspx is derived from the ori¬
ginal function u ; therefore the expreflion q x% is dedu¬
ced^ from the fundlion u by performing the operation of
taking the fluxion twice j that is, firfi: upon the function
u itfelf, and then upon «, or px, the expreflion for its
fluxion; and in this fecond operation x (or the fluxion of
the quantity from which the fundlion is formed) is con¬
sidered as a conftant quantity.
T- he expreflion q x1, obtained in this manner from
the function u, is called the fecond fluxion of the func¬
tion 5 and to exprefs its relation to the funflion u, it is
denoted by u, that is, by the letter denoting the func¬
tion itfelf with two dots over it. Thus, like as wzzpx,
we have
u—qx1, and -=zq.
x1
Again, nnce^zrr*, it follows that qx'—rx*', but,
as # is conftant, q x* is derived from q x*i by the ope¬
ration of finding its fluxion, confidering it as a func¬
tion of x, juft in the fame manner as q x1, or u is de¬
rived from p x, or «, and in the fame manner as u is de¬
rived from the original funftion « ; therefore, like as
px or u is the firft fluxion of the fun&ion, and q x*
or u is its fecond fluxion, fo r x^ is called its t/iird
fluxion, and is denoted by u, that is, by the letter ex¬
prefling the funfiion ilfelf, having three dots placed
over it, fo that
u—rx* and u —r
x1
The fourth fluxion of a variable funftion u is denot¬
ed by u, that is, by the letter u with four dots over it,
and is derived from the third fluxion, in the fame man¬
ner as the third is derived from the fecond, or the fe¬
cond from the firft, or the firft fluxion from the variable
function itfelf j ©bferving, that in repeating the opera¬
tion of taking the fluxions, the fymbol x (or the fluxion
of the variable quantity from which the fundlion is
formed) is confidered as a conftant quantity. And the
fame mode of notation and deduction is to be under-
flood as applying to a fluxion of any order whatever of
a variable fundlion.
44. To illuftrale what has been faid refpefling the
fecond and higher orders of fluxions of a fundlion, let
us fuppofe u to denote the particular fundlion ax11 j
then, proceeding agreeably to what has been laid down
in laft fedlion, we obtain, by the rule for finding the
fluxion of any power of a variable quantity (§ 26?)
u—naxn~1x
u—nfi—1) ax”~2x*,
u=z «(«— 1) («— 2)0 V‘-3 iJ,
&=«(«—1)(«_2)(«—3) axn-*x*, &c.
Here we have exhibited the firft, fecond, third, ant!
fourth fluxions of the fundtion a x^the law of con¬
tinuation is obvious, and it appears that when n is any
pofitive integer, the fundlion a x» will have as many
orders of fluxions, as there are units in «, and no morej
for if n were fuppofed =3, then, as the fourth fluxion,
and all the fubfequent ones, are multiplied by n 3, or
in that, cafe by 3—3—0, they confequently would va-
nifti, and a fimilar obfervation may be made when n is
any other whole pofitive number.
45* That we might be able to apply the rules of
§ 2fb § 34> &c- to the determination of the fluxion of
a complex fundlion of a variable quantity, we have
found it convenient in fome cafes to confider fuch a
fundlion as compofed of other more fimple fundlions of
the fame quantity, and we have expreffed its fluxion by
means of the fluxions of thofe other fundlions. In find¬
ing the fluxion of any higher order than the firft of fuch
a complex fundlion by thofe rules, we mull keep in
mind, that it is only the fluxion of x, the variable quan¬
tity from which the fundlions are all formed, that is to
be confidered as conftant, and that the fluxions of the
fundlions themfelves are in general variable quantities ;
fo that each of them may have a fecond, third, &c.
fluxion, as well as the fundlion which is compofed of
them.
Let us fuppofe, for example, that
u~ ;
then, confidering a’-J-A?* as a fundlion of x, and putting
V to denote it, we have u=z fv—v1*, and u— ^ v
— V
— ’■> but fince v=a*-]-x%, it follows that v=: 2xx j
therefore, fubftituting for v and v their refpedlive va¬
lues, we have
xx
Part I
Diredfc
Method.
-y/(«Z-j-A;*)
Now, to find the fecond fluxion of u, we may either
take the fluxion of this laft expreflion, viz.'
Via'+t?) *
and confider the fymbol x, which is found in it, as de¬
noting a conftant quantity $ or we may recur to the
• * ■J'y
equation u= ——, and take the fluxion of this other ex-
preflion for u ; and in this cafe, we muft confider that
both v and v denote variable fundlions of x, and there-
for
fore that the fluxion of may be found by the rule
Part I.
FLUX
Direct for finding the fluxion of a fra&ion j obferving that v is
■ 7 . to be fubftituted as the fluxion of v. Accordingly, pro¬
ceeding by this laft method, and confidering that the
fluxion of \Jv, the denominator of the fraftion is —7- , we
\/v
find
i\/vv y-v
 ,
*1)
2 V v-—I)7'
l 4 .t) \/v
Now from the equation we have v ■= 2 x x,
and (obferving that x is conflant) vzz2X%. Let thefe
values of v, v, and, be now fubftituted in the ex-
preffion for //, and it becomes
f 4  4V1 AT*
“ J 4(^+^)v/(«2+^)
I _«*+«*
L
The very fame expreflion for « would have been found
if we had employed the other method.
By proceeding as in this laft example, the rules al¬
ready delivered for finding the firft fluxion of any func¬
tion of a variable quantity will apply to the finding of
the fluxion of any higher order.
Thus if we had u—vt, where v and t denote each a
fun£lion of another variable quantity x, and it were re¬
quired to find the different orders of fluxions of u, con-
fidered alfo as a fundlion of x ; then, by the rule of
§ 37, we have
tiz=:tv-\-v t,
and r/rr fluxion of /‘y-j-^ux*on °f 'ot i
but v and t being variable funftion’s of x, we may con-
fider v and t as denoting alfo variable fumftions of x, the
fluxions of which are to be denoted by v and t re-
fpedlively ; now by the rule in § 37, we have
fluxion of tv—vt -\-t v,
and fluxion at v tz=: t v-\-v t,
therefore, u~2vt-\-vt.
By confidering v, v, v, alfo /, t, as denoting each a
diftindl function of v, we may find the third fluxion of
u from the fecond, in the fame manner as the fecond has
been found from the firft, and fo on for the other orders
of fluxions of u. If it be now required to exprefs the
fucceflive orders of fluxions of u in terms of x and its
fluxion, we muft find the values of v, v, &c. alfo of t,
t &c. in terms of x and its fluxion, and thefe values,
alfo the particular funftions of x denoted by v and /,
being fubftituted in the expreflions found for w, y, &c.
will give to thefe expreflions the form required.
If for example we fuppofe that
VOL. VIII. Part II.
IONS.
xm,
then v—m b.xm~1x
t~c-\-dx",
t—nd xn~*X)
and confidering x as conftant,
v~m {jn—1) bxm~1xt,
&c.
u~axn,
a -U bx™
'c+dxn
t—n{n— 1) dxn~*x*
thefe values of u, t, v, t, &c. being fubftiluted in the
expreflions of z/, w, &c. will give the fucceflive fluxions
of u in terms of x and x only.
46. If the fluxion of a variable quantity be confider-
ed as the meafure of its rate of increafe, if that rate be
uniform, then its meafure will be a conftant quantity j
but if it be variable, then its meafure will be a variable
quantity, which will alfo have a certain rate of increafe
or decreafe ; and the meafure of this rate will be its
fluxion, or will be the fluxion of the fluxion of the ori¬
ginal variable quantity ; that is, it will be the fecond
fluxion of the original variable quantity. And if this
fecond fluxion is not a conftant quantity, then the mea-
lure of its rate of variation will be its fluxion, or will
be the third fluxion of the original variable quantity,
and fo on. Thus a quantity will have a fucceflive order
of fluxions till fome one fluxion become conflant, and
then it will have no more.
47. We have hitherto fuppofed the equation expref-
fing the relation between a variable quantity, and a
funftion of that quantity, to be of fuch a form, that
the function was found alone, and of the firft degree on
one fide of the equation, and fome power, or combina¬
tion of powers, of the variable quantity on the other j
as in thefe examples,
In fuch cafes as thefe, u is faid to be an explicit fun&ioti
of X. We are now to confider how the ratio of the
fluxions is to be found when the relation between the
variable quantity and its funftion is expreffed by an
equation, the terms of which involve different powers,
both of the function, and the variable quantity j as iu
the following example,
—axy-^bx*—c~o,
where we are to confider y as a function of x ; but from
the particular manner in which its relation to x is ex-
preffed, it is faid to be an implicit fun£lionof that quan¬
tity.
Now in this example, by the refolution of a quadra¬
tic equation, we find
rt.y/(a1—4^) .vl-f-4<:'l-
y- 2 >
and as y is here an explicit funftion of x, its fluxion or
the ratio of its fluxion to that of v, might be determi¬
ned by the rules already laid down. But it is to be
obferved that it is only in the particular cafe of the
propofed equation being of the fecond degree that we
can effe£t the folution generally in this manner. If it
4 X were
7H
Direft
Method.
FLUXIONS.
were of a higher orders this particular mode of folution ?* ^ '
would be often impradicable, for want of a general putting ^ equal to the limit of we have V
method of refolving equations. r x L x
fore
Part I.
. Dire*
-py there- Method,
48. We may however in all cafes refolve the prob¬
lem, without a previous refolution of the equation, by
reafoning as follows.
Whatever be the degree of the equation, by giving
particular values to x, we can, by the theory of equa¬
tions, obtain correfponding particular values of y; there¬
fore, we may be allured that in every cafe y is expref-
fible by me^ns of x in fome way or other, if not in
finite terms, at leall in the form of a feries, the terms
of which (hall involve powers of x. Hence we may
infer, as in the cafe of explicit funftions, that when x
changes its value, and becomes x-\-hy y will alfo change
its value, and become
y  ay—-'ibx
x 2y—ax ’
thus we have obtained an expreflion for the ratio of the
fluxions of y and .v, from which we find
2 y y—a (xy-\- yx} -\-ib xx =0,
and this is precifely the expreffion we fliould have ob¬
tained, had we taken the fluxion of each term of
y1—a x y-^-b x*—c— o,
the propofed equation, and put the refult equal to o.
y+ph + qh*+ &c.
where /?, q, &c. denote funftions of x, that are indepen¬
dent of the arbitrary quantity^. Let us denote ph
&c. the increment of y, by the Angle letter
h; then y-\-k is the new value of y, correfponding to
x-\-h, the new value of a?. Let thele new values be fub-
ftituted inftead of x and y in the propofed equation
y1—a xy-\-b xl—c—Q,
and as the refult mull ftill be =0, we have
—a{x-\-li) (y + ^) + ^ —c=,0 ;
49. But to fee that this will always be the cafe,
whatever be the degree of the equation, we have only
to obferve, that, by the very fame procefs employed to
deduce from the original equation
y7,—a xy-\-b x2—c—o,
thefe two others
2yp—a (xp‘\-y)-\-lb xrzOy
2yy—a {xy-\-y x)-\-2b x x—o
if wfe fuppofe the equation to be generally expreffed
thus,
which equation, by actually involving its terms, fubfti-
tuting for k its value p kq h1 &c. and arranging the
refult in the form of a feries proceeding by the powers
of //, becomes
y*—a xy-\-b x*—c
2yjy—a (px-{-y) -{• 2 b x^h
R h} -j- &c.
Here Q^, R, &c. denote quantities independent of A,
and involving x, y, p, y, &c. that is to fay, x, and func¬
tions of x, and therefore Q^, R, &c. are alfo fun£tions
of x. Now as this equation rnuft fubfift whatever h
maybe, which is a quantity quite arbitrary and inde¬
pendent of the coefficients by which its powers are mul¬
tiplied, it follows (as has been obferved when treating
of the method of indeterminate coefficients, Algebra.,
§ 261.) that the coefficients of the different powers of
h muft be each equal to o.
Therefore,
y*—a x y-\-b x*—cz=o
zpy—a (^^+y)+2^*'::=0>
&c.
From the firft of thefe equations we can infer nothing,
as it is no other.than the propofed equation itfelf j but
from the fecond we find
a v—2bx
 .
2y-r~a x
Now hy and £=r/>/;4-y &c. being the fimulta-
k
neous increments of x and y, we have ■jZzpA^qh-\-^Lc.
therefore, fuppofing h to be continually diminilhed, and
/ , m n , r ,
y +ay x •• • + * +c=0,
where the exponents /, m, «, and r denote conftant
quantities, we ffiall obtain
fa n—*,
, l—* , , m—1 .
ly p + a {my xnp +
a;r—,
m n—i
ny x ) I
r0’
and hence, by fubftituting for p its value , and bring¬
ing x from tjie denominator,
7 l—* ’ . r m—, n ' , ™ n—1 • N
ly y+a{my x y+ny x «)
• • ‘-j-r xr 1 x
From which it appears that, when the relation be¬
tween Xy a variable quantity, and y, a fun&ion of that
quantity, is expreffed by an equation, the terms of which
are brought all to one fide, fo as to produce an expref¬
fion ~o the relation of the fluxions will be found, by
taking the fluxion of each term of the equation {conflder-
ing y as a funSiion of x), and putting the fum of thefe
fluxions equal to o.
50. Having from the equation
found that
y1—a x y-\-b x2—c—o,
y=-
(o y—2 b x) x
2y—ax
if it be required to find the fecond fluxion of y, vtt
have only to take the fluxion of the latter fide of this
equation j
Part I.
FLUX
Dire ft
Method.
equation, confidering x as conftant, and y as a function
of x ; thus we have
(2y—ax') {ay—ibx) x 1
—{ay—2b x) {2y—ax)x j
{2y—a x)*
IONS. 715
n{i V—A.V+3CW+4D^+&c.
or leaving out the quantity d, common to each term, '"~v
A4-2Bw4-3C‘y* + 4D‘yJ 4- &c.
Let both fides of this equation be multiplied by I -j-©,
and divided by », thus we ftiall have
an equation which abbreviates to
.. _ (4£—{xy—yx)x
{ly—a x)7,
and from which we may exterminate y by means of the
equation.
• {ay—2bx) x
^ 2y—a x
By the fame mode of proceeding we may determine
the third or any higher fluxion of the fundtion y.
51. As far as we have yet gone in explaining the
principles of fluxions, we have had continually occafion
to employ the rule for finding the fluxion of the parti¬
cular fundlion xn, where x denotes a variable quantity,
and « any conftant number ; and we may therefore, in
refpedt of other fundtions, confider .vn as a Ample func¬
tion. Befides the fundtion xn, writers on Analyfis have
confidered each of the following as alfo conftituting a
Ample analytic fundlion of a variable quantity j viz.
av, where a is conftant, and x is variable.
Log. x, that is the logarithm of x, a variable number.
Sin. x, that is the fine of x, a variable arch of a circle,
radius being unity.
Cef. x, that is the cofine of x, a variable arch of a
circle, radius being as before unity.
52. We have already found the fluxion of x”, and we
proceed to find the fluxions of the other Ample fundlions
of a? ; and, as in the inveftigation of thefe we fnall have
occafion to employ the binomial theorem, it will be
proper to ftiow how that theorem may be deduced from
the principles already explained. We are then to find
the feries that expreffes (a-f *)", when n is any number
whatever. Or, fince (*-}-#)” is equal to «" (1-f-t))”,
where v denotes the fradtion we may leave the quan-
a
tity an out of confideration, as has been formerly ob-
ferved, \ 28, and feek the feries that expreffes (l-j-®)”-
As wre have already pointed out 28) the procefs of
indudtion by which we may find the general form of the
feries, we ftiall not here repeat it, but affume
(1+*>)"=: 1-f A + B *>*+C + D t;4-f-&o.
where A, B, C, D, &c. denote numbers that are inde¬
pendent of v.
Now, as the fluxion of a variable fundlion muft be
the fame, whether that funtfion be expreffed by one
term, or developed into a feries of terms j by performing
the operation of taking the fluxion on each fide of the
above equation, the refults muft be equal, that is, § 26.
rr 1 v-lTA4-2B*4-3C**4-4D*’4-&c.l
4-A ^4-26-0*4-3C?;34-&c.J
Thus, by performing on the quantities the analytical
procefs of taking their fluxions, we have obtained a
new expreffion for I*6* the quantities that are
independent of v in each expreflion be put equal to
each other, and alfo the coefficients of like powers eft
v ; thus we obtain
1 —- —, and hence A—n
n
B_ 2B + 3C c=
» 3
C= 3C+4.D D= 1=1C
n 4
&c. &c.
Or, fubftituting fucceffively the expreffion for each
coefficient in that which follows it,
A—n,
„(*_o
B-
c— —2)
2-3
n(n—1) (n—2) («—3)
2 ‘ 3'4
D =
&c.
Hence it appears that
, . . n(n—i) , , n{n—1) {n—2) .
(i4-t;)’’=i4-«z>4--^—^ 4-    
n(n -3) ^ &c_
2'3 * 4
and therefore, fubftituting = j for v, and multiplying
by 0”,
(0 4-x)”:= 0" 4*” 0,1-11 *+■   ^ a”~1x*
n{n—1) («—2) „ , . , 0
-L  --a 'an-3x34- See.
2 • 3
where the law of continuation is evident.
53. We now proceed to inveftigate the fluxion of
the fundlion u—a*, a being fuppoied conftant, and x
the variable quantity, to which the fundlion is referred.
4X2 Let
7i6 FLUX
Diredt Let x be fuppofed, as formerly, to change its, value,
, Method, and to become and put u' for the new value that
> T" fundlion acquires by this change in the magnitude
of x, then we have
» x4-h x h
u'z=. a r a x a ,
and, taking the difference between the two fucceeding
values,
z/—ij—u' X ah—ax —a*{d
-I).
h
We muft now develope the expreffion a —i into a
feries, the terms of which are arranged according to the
fucceflive powers of the increment h. To effect this,
let us put b—a—i, fo that «z=i and a \ Jrb')h j
but by the binomial theorem, thislaft expreffion maybe
expanded into the following feries :
I hi _p V +&c.
2 2*3 ‘
Therefore,
hSt=£l b> + + &c,
2 23
As the terms of this feries are not arranged accord¬
ing to the powers ot h, but according to the powers of
b, it is neceffary that we transform it into another having
the required form; now this may be effedted by a<ff ually
multiplying together all the fadlors that conftitute each
term, and arranging the feries anew in fuch a manner,
that each of its terms may be a power of multiplied
by a coefficient compofed only of the powers of b, and
given numbers j
Accordingly we have
Jib .. . -bh,
b' 7 /*
h  b ,
2*2
1) (/;—2) „ _ P h'
&C.
2 • 3
2 6
Therefore, by taking the fum of all the quantities on
each fide of thefe equations, we get the feries,
z +«+ 4.+ M—LfcA +&c.
2 2*3
otherwife expreffed thus,
1-|-A/z-{-B^*-{-C^J-f- &c*
l?7,
where A is equal to the infinite feries b 4 
2 3
b* o
* b &c.
4
that is, to
a—1 (o—1)* ( (a (^7 x)4
+
&c.
2 3 4
and B, C, &c. are alfo quantities compofed of the
powers of and confequently are independent of h;
but as thefe are all to difappear in the courfe of the in-
veftigation, it is not neceffary to exprefs them otherwife,
IONS.
than by a general fymbol. Therefore, we have now
got
ci ~ 1 -f-A/z-f B/^-f-C^3^- &c.
and confequently,
u'— u~aX (a*—1) rro*(A/7-f-B/z2-j-C//3-j-&c.)
and
= A ax Bax Ji + Ca* Ji1 + &c.
Hence, when Ji is conceived to be continually di-
minifiied, we have the limit of expreffed by Aa\
and therefore, § 21,
u . • .
— = Aaxy and ir=iKaxx.
x
54. In the preceding inveftigation, we have had oc-
cafion to develope the exponential expreffion a into a
feries of this form,
1-f A/z + B/z* + C/z5-f &c.
that is, a feries the terms of which are the fucceffive
powers of the exponent, each multiplied by a coefficient,
which is independent of the exponent.
We have however only determined the coefficients of
the firft two terms of the feries, thefe being the only
ones we had occafion to employ.
The refult of the inveftigation however may be ap¬
plied to determine all the coefficients by the very fame
kind of procefs as that which we have employed in
§ 53, to determine the coefficients of the terms of the
feries which conftitutes the other expanfion of o'.
Inftead of denoting the exponent by /z, let us con-
fider it as a variable quantity, and exprefs it by «, then,
from what has been ffiewn it appears that
+A^-[-B.r,-f-Czv3 -|-D.v4-j- &c.
where A, B, C, &c. exprefs conftant quantities. Let
the operation of taking the fluxions be now performed
on both fides of this equation, (obferving that the flux¬
ion of o1 is A zz^zr) and let all the terms be divided
by zv, which is common to each, thus Wpobtain
A a* A-j-2 B zv-t-3 C zv*-j-4 D zv3-}- &c.
and, dividing by A,
=1+2 -|*+a^*+ &c-
Let the coefficients of the fame powers of x in each of
the two feries expreffing a* be put equal to each other,
then,
2B a 1 rs A*
—— ~ A, hence, E~ —,
A ’ 2 ’
^=B, ... C=i-\
A ’ 2.3’
A > * * • • D— 2.3 4>
&c. &C.
Part I,
Direft
Method,
Therefore.
Part I. FLUXIONS.
D;re(a Therefore, fubftituting thefe values of B, C, D, &c. in
Method, the original feries, we have
A2#* A3 tv3 A4#4
a* =1 -|-A a:-}
71?
and therefore, u~
l x
^ " 2 3 ' 2 3 4 ‘
the fame refult as has been found in the article Al¬
gebra, § 293. by proceeding in a different manner.
55. If we fuppofe x—\, then the preceding equation
becomes
A4
A . A2 A3
a—:i -J- A-j f- 1 
2 2" 3 2'3 * 4
and if we fuppofe Am -r-, it becomes
XX
-f- &c.
A A A
:A=I-f I+- + ■
' 4 2 2* 3
2- 3 -4
-f- &c.
thus the quantity a A is equal to a conflant number,
which is the value of a when Ami, and which, by
taking the fum of the firlt ten terms of the feries, is
found to be 2-7i828i8, or, by taking the fum of a
greater number of terms, more accurately
2,7i828i828459045 • • • •
We (hall, in the remainder of this treatife, denote this
1
number always by e, then aA~e, and amd1 and tak¬
ing the logarithms, log. «mA xlog* e, hence
log. a
Am-
log.e ‘
A x
cal number of the fyflem, log. a
x
u miog. e —
log. ex. . , .. Diredl
 , but as a is the radi- Method.
log. ax ^—
therefore
The number which we have denoted by e occurs very
often in analytical invefligations 5 it is the radical number
of the fyftem of logarithms firft invented by Baron Na¬
pier, and called by forae writers Hyperbolic logarithms,
but by others, with more propriety, AtfyndTVdw logarithms.
]opr. £ m
The expreffion ——is called the modulus of the fyftem
log. a
of logarithms whofe radical number is a. In the Na-
pierean fyftem
log. e log. e
m 1, that is, the modulus
log. a log. e
is unity j but in the common fyftem, or that in which
the modulus —:-^rro,434294482. The rule for
a— 10,
log.tf
finding the fluxion of the logarithm of a variable quan¬
tity may now be exprefled thus :
Multiply the fluxion of the variable quantiti/ by the
modulus of the f/fern, and divide the produB by the va¬
riable quantity ifelf the refult is the fuxion required.
58. By the application of the rule for finding the
fluxion of the logarithm of a variable quantity, we may
readily find the fluxions of exponential fundtions in
general. Thus, for example, if u—Kf % and y being
both fnndtions of any variable quantity x, then log.
u—y X l°g* 2;; and taking the fluxions (confidering
y X log. $5 as the produdt of two fundtions y and log. 24
and proceeding by the rules of § 37 and laft),
56. If we now fubftitute this value of A in the ex-
preflion for the fluxion of u—a*, found in § 53, it be¬
comes
• log. a •
u m—J a x.
log. e
Hence it appears, that the fluxion of the funcUon
a* is equal to the fluxion of x multiplied by the funElion
itfelf and by the quotient ariflng from the diviflon of the
logarithm of a by the logarithm of e, where e denotes
11 1 . 1 ,0 r ■
I 4 1 L  f- Stc. a eries
i i •2 1 i*2*3 I*2#3*4 u
whofe fum is 2-7182818 nearly.
57. Let us now tonfider the third Ample fundtion of
a, namely wmlog. a. Let a be the radical number of
the particular fyftem, in which u is a logarithm, and A
the correfponding number-, then from the nature of lo¬
garithms (fee Algebra, § 277.) \ve have au—x. Now',
whether we contider w as a fundtion of a, or a as a
fundtion of «, the limiting ratio of their fimultaneous
increments, and confequently the ratio of their fluxions
will be the very fame. But by confidering x as a
fundtion of u, we have immediately, from what has been
ihewn in \ 53, and § 55,
A «l'=r A a,
u
and hence
» • 1 . 55
—-y los- 5S+i/—
u—u (y log. z
=zy (y los-
59. We are next to confider the fundtions u—i\n.xt
and a—cof. x.
Suppofe a to change its value, and to become a-}-//,
and u to become u'7 then, fince
r/rrfin. a, and fin.
u'—.v=:fin. (a-J-//)—fin. a;
but by the arithmetic of fines (fee Algebra, J 353),
fin. (A-j-/i)~fin. A cof. h-J-cof. a fin. h, therefore,
u'—fin. a cof. /zfl-cof. a fin. h—fin. a
=rcof. a fin. h—fin. a (l—cof. h).
In this cafe, as when treating formerly of other
fundtions, we might confider the above expreffion for
u'—11, as refolvable into a feries ph-\-qh* -}- &c. pro¬
ceeding by the powers of the increment, and thence we
might
/
7i§
Method. might find tLe limit of —
as before. But we may
difcover the limit otherwife, by proceeding as follows:
Becaufe
Sin.* Jrzzi —cof.*//=(i-j-cof. Ji) (i—cof. h)
therefore, i—cof. ‘ ^ ■ :
’ I +cof. h ?
Let this value, of I—cof. h be fubftituted in the ex-
preffion for u'—«, and it becomes
, r n j fin* x fin** ^
u—a~col. a; fin. h ^—-— :
I + cof. h 7
And hence, dividing by and arranging the terms
fo as to exhibit the ratio - , we get
u’—u fin. he r fin. h fin. x~\
Conceive now h to be continually diminilhed, and we
.a1
FLUXIONS.
Now', it has been juft (hewn that
flux, of fin. O—#)=cof. O—*) Xflux. of (c—x)
but cof. (e—a;)—fin. a:, and the fluxion of c—x is "v
therefore
Part I.
Dirp<ft
Method.
fhall have the limit of -
h * h
multiplied by the limit of the following expreflion
fin. h fin. x
cof. x-
l-j-cof. h
Now, the fine of an arch being lefs than the arch
(in h
itfelf, we have —Again, the arch being lefs
, . fin. h fin. h fin. h
than its tangent, ——7^ rj but tan. n — —
° n tan. a cof. h
and therefore ■in* -T=cof. h ; confequently —-n' ^
tan. n n
cof. h. Hence it appears, that the expreflion for the
ratio —^— is lefs than I, or radius, but greater than
cof. h. But h being conceived to be continually dimi-
niftied, cof. h continually approaches to I, and may
come nearer to it than by any aflignable difference j
therefore, the limit of —— is I. As to the other ex-
preffion, cof. x-
fin. h fin. x
l -J-cof. h
} when h is fuppofed to be
continually diminifhed, its fecond term, to wit,
fin. h fin. at
l +cof. h
may become lefs than any aflignable quantity j there¬
fore the limit of the expreflion is limply cof. x: thus,
ij n
upon the whole we have found that the limit of —^—
is cof. and therefore
-4-—cof. Xj and u~x cof. x.
x
The fluxion of the other function, a=cof. x, is ea-
fily deduced from that which w’e have juft found, by
proceeding thus:
Put c to denote a quadrant, then cof. Arrrfin. (c—a),
and therefore
arrfin. (c—a?).
3
u~ —x fin. x.
Thus it appears, that the fluxion of the fine of a vari¬
able arch is equal to the fluxion of the arch multiplied by
its cofine ; and that the fluxion of the coflne is equal to the
fluxion of the arch (taken with a negative flgn) multiplied
by the fine.
6o. We can now very readily find the fluxion of any
other fundtion of an arch of a circle. Thus, fuppofe
» = tan. x ; then, becaufe tan. xz=. -~nj X we havew=:
cof. x
fin. x.
u , .... . fin. h
- equal to the limit of
co|- ^* This expreflion being confidered as a fradlional
fundlion of x, we have, by § 39, and what has been juft
now (hewn,
• x cof.* a?-t-a? fin.* x
11— 1  
cof.* A? ’
 x (cof * a-}-fin.1 a:)
cof.* x 7
or, fince cof.* A’ + fin.* A:=r, and -4— = fecant x,
cof. x
* oc *
«= —7T-— =: x fee.* x.
cof.2 x
Hence alfo we have x~ -—U-— — —^—.
fee.* x 1 -j-a*
In like manner, if we fuppofe wrrfec. x, then, be¬
caufe fee. x~ —?—, we have u— —^—, and
cof. x
cof. x
• u fin. x
U cof.* x ’
or, fince = tan. a:, and —^— rrfec. x.
cof. x cof. x ’
U—x tan. x fee. x.
Proceeding in this manner, we find that when uz
cotan. xt then
tan.* a? cof.* x fin.* x ’
And when u~ cofec. x, then
—x cof. x
fin.* x
—x cotan. x cofec. x.
61. Let us now confider the fluxions of geometrical Plate
magnitudes : And firft let it be required to find the CCXIX.
expreflion for the fluxion of BDPC the area bounded 1‘
by CP, a curve line, and by CB, PD, the ordinates at
its extremities, and BD, the portion of AE, the line of
the abfeiffas, which lies between thofe ordinates. Let
the numerical meafures of AD and PD, the co-ordi¬
nates at the point P, be denoted by x and y, and
the numerical meafure of the area BDPC by s;
then
Part I.
Direct
Method.
FLUXIONS.
then y and j' may both be confidered as fun£Hons of
the abfciffa x.
Let xy or AD, be fuppofed to change its value, and
to become AD', and let D'P', and BD'P'C be the cor-
refponding new values of ^ and j- ; then DD', and
DD'P'P will be the geometrical expreflions for the
limultaneous increments of the abfcifla and area. But,
as one of thefe quantities is a line, and the other a
fpace, they cannot be compared in refpedl of their ratio.
Therefore, let us confider a as denoting a line whofe
numerical value is unity, and then the numerical values
of the increments of the abfcifla and area may be
confidered as analogous to the geometrical quantities
DD' x and the area DD'P'P refpefb’vely, which
quantities being homogeneous may now be compared
with each other. We are now to inveftigate the limit
. area DD'P'P .
°r ——’ *16 general expreflion tor the ratio of
the increments of s and x. Draw PM and P'N pa¬
rallel to AE, meeting the ordinates in M and N. The
curvilineal area DD'P'P is greater than the re£tangle
DD'MP, that is, greater than PD X DD'; but lefi than
the rectangle DD'P'N, that is, lefs than P'D' x DD',
therefore
area DD'P'P PD xDD'
and
«xDD'
area DD'P'P
a x DD'
«XDD'
P'D x DD'
' aXDD7-
PD
a ’
P'D'
7J9
63. We proceed now to find the fluxion of an arch Diredt
of a curve. Let APP' be a curve line of any kind, Method,
and AB, BP any two co-ordinates at a point P in the^
curve. Put x for AB, the abfcifla, y for BP, the ordi-
nate, and 2s for the curve line AP, then % and y may
be confidered as each a fundion of x. Draw P'B' ano¬
ther ordinate, and draw PM parallel to AB, meeting
P'P' in M, and draw the chord PP'; then PM, MP',
and the arch PP' are the fimultaneous increments of y,
and 53 refpe&ively. Now we have
arch PP' arch PP' chord PP'
PM
’chord PP'
X
PM
MP'J\
But chord PP'zz v/(PM*+MP'»)=PM v'C 1 + J;
therefore,
+
PM “ chord PP '' v ^ 1 PM2
Suppofe now the increments to be continually diminifti-
*y orCL 7/*
ed, then, as limit of——, and = limit of
PM
A?*
MP'* . . arch PP' .
21.),and izrl^mitof-—^(laft §) we have
^=rV(i + 4-), and 2;= +^)*
X .v* /
Fig. 2.
But the increments being fuppofed to be continually-.
. . . PD . . . P'D' PD
diminithed,  is the limit of , therefore  is
a a a
alfo the limit of Lf —v-—, and hence 21.)
aXDD' J
s _ PD_y _ and J—? #
x a x an s—yx‘
That is, the fluxion of a curvilineal area is equal to
the produEi yf the ordinate, and the fluxion of the ab-
fci/fa-
62. Before we proceed to invefligate the expreflion
for the fluxion of an arch of a curve, it is neceflary that
we fhou'd inquire what is the limited ratio of an arch
of a curve to its chord.
Let APB be any curve line, all the parts of which
are concave towards its chord AP. Let AQ, OP be
tangents at the extremities of the arch, and let apq be
a triangle fimilar to APQ, but having its bafe ap of a
given magnitude, then
AQ/fQP : AP :: aq+qp : ap.
Suppofe now the point P to approach to A, then the
angles at A and P, and confequently the angles at a
and p, which are equal to them, will decreafe, and
may become lefs than any aflignable angles; therefore,
the limit of the ratio of aq-\-qp to a/> is evidently a
ratio of equality ; hence alfo the limit of the ratio of
AQ-fQP to AP is the ratio of equality; and fince
the arch AP is lefs than AQ-f-QP, but greater than
its chord AP, the limit of the arch AP to its chord
AP mull alfo be the ratio of equality. .
Hence it appears that the fquare of the fluxion of a curve'
line of am/ hind is equal to the fum of the fquares of the
fluxions of the co-ordinates.
64. The expreflion for the fluxion of a folid may be
found by the fame mode of reafoning as that which we
have employed, § 61, to find the fluxion of a curvili¬
neal area. Let APQp be a portion of a folid general- p;g,
ed by the revolution of APB, a curve line, about AC, a
line taken in the plane of the curve, as an axis. Let
PD/?, P'D'76' be the lines in which BA b, a plane paf-
fing along the axis AC, meets PQ/>, P'O' p\ the planes
of two circles formed by fedlions of the folid perpendi¬
cular to its axis. Draw PM and P'N parallel to AD,
Put AD^tat, DPrry, let j-denote the folid APO/?,
having y for the radius of its circular bafe, and x for
its altitude ; put n for the number viz. the
circumference of a circle having its diameter m, and
let a denote an area, having its numerical meafure ex-
prefled by unity ; then DD', or «xDD' being con¬
fidered as the increment of x, the portion of the folid
comprehended between the parallel planes PQ/q P,Q'/>'
will be the correfponding increment of s, which we are
j*
to confider as a funftion of a?; hence (§ 21.) — is
x
equal to the limiting ratio of the portion of the folid,
comprehended between the planes PQ/>, and P'Q'/>'
to the folid axDD'. But the former of thefe folids
being evidently greater than a cylinder P m, having'
the circle PA p for its bafe, and DD' for its altitude,
that is greater than n PDaxDD', and lefs than a cy¬
linder N/>', having the circle P'Q'p' for its bafe, and-
DD' for its altitude, that is lefs than ir P'D'*X^^ ?
it
720
Direct it follows, that as long as DD' hrfs an aflignable rnag-
Method. nilude,
FLUXIONS. ^ par|- ^
limit of PD-j-P'D', will manifeftly be 2 PD=r2v ; and Direft
^irPD1 X DD'X
n-PD’*
and
.ttP'D'* x DD'x
ttP'D'*
aXDD' ’
oXDD'
but the increment DD' being continually diminiflied,
^p/D/J .i • , s
 , the greater limit of—, approaches continual-
a x
Jy to its lefler limit
wPD*
vy
— (becaufe a=r I) 5rya,
fo as to come nearer to it than by any aflignable differ¬
ence, therefore ~~7rif, and s—mfx. Now, if we ob-
fince
PP'
(VDD'*-f P'M*)
■ ' — V ( 1 +
P'M* \
DD7*/
the li-
Method.
DD' — DD' __
mit of this expreflion (if we confider that P'M and
DD' are the fimultaneous increments of y and x') is evi¬
dently equal to (i therefore
s yt\
—= 2*^ ^(1+4-),
x x‘
and confequently
s—'iny \/ (a:* -f- ?/*).
If we now obferve that 2 Try is the circumference of
the circle PQ^, and (^*-f ?/1) is the fluxion of the
curve line AP, § 63, it will appear, that the fluxion of
the furface of a folid generated by the revolution of a
curve about its axis is equal to the fluxion of the curve
line multiplied by the general exprefflon for the circumfe¬
rence of a circle formed by fuppofng the curve to be cut
by a plane perpendicular to its axis.
Fig- 5-
ferve that •iry7‘ is the area of the circle PQj», it will
appear, that the fluxion of a folid generated by the revo¬
lution of a curve about its axis is equal to the fluxion of
the axis multiplied by the general expreflion for the area
of a circle formed by fuppoflng the folid to be cut by a
plane perpendicular to its axis.
65. To find the fluxion of the furface of the folid,
let us denote that furface by s, and let x and y denote
as before j then the furface contained between the cir¬
cles PQ^ and P'(^'^' will be the increment of s, cor-
refponding to DD' the increment of x. Draw the
chord PP' } then the curve line PP; being fuppoled to
revolve about the axis AC, and thus to generate the
increment of the furface of the folid, the chord PP'
will generate at the fame time the convex furface-of a
fruflum of a cone ; now the limiting ratio of the curve
line PP' to its chord PP' being the ratio of equality,
the limiting ratio ot the furfaces generated by the re¬
volution ol thofe lines will alfo be the ratio of equality;
therefore—, which is equal to the limit of
x
furf. gencr. by arch PP'
1 XDD'
will alfo be equal to the limit of
furf. goner, by chord PP'
DD'
but the convex furface of a finjflum of a cone is equal
to the produtl of its ilant fide into half the fum of the
circumferences of its two bafes (fee Geometry), and in
the prefent cafe thefe circumftances are equal to 2 PD
X<*-, and 2P'D'X7t, therefore — is equal to the limit
x
of
^(PD-fP'D') PP' ^ pp'
—TTdD—=<PD+F'DOgg,;
but the point D' being fuppofed to approach to D, the
Sect. III. ’The Application of the Direct Method of
Fluxions.
Having explained the principles of the diretft me¬
thod of fluxions at as great a length as we think fuita-
ble to the work of which this treatife forms a part, wre
proceed to fhew how the calculus may be applied to
the refolution of fome general problems in Analyfis and
Geometry.
Invefligation of a general formula for expanding a Func¬
tion into a Series.
66. In treating of the principles of the method of
fluxions, we hare, from an examination of particular
fun&ions, inferred by induftion, that u being any func¬
tion of a variable quantity .r, which was either actually
expreffed, or capable of being expreffed by a combina¬
tion of the powers of x, then, X being fuppofed to change
its value, and to become x-\-h, the new value which
the function u will acquire when xfl-h is fubflituted in
it inftead of x will always be capable of being expanded
into a feries of this form,
ufl-p h-\- q h* -\-r Id &LC.
where ^6, y, &c. denote funflions of .v that are quite in¬
dependent of /?.
We have (hewn that, from the particular form of
this developement, it happens that the ratio of p h-\-
q id -\-r id -f-&c. the increment of the funflion, to h the
increment of the variable quantity ,v itfelf, admits of a
limit, which is always expreffed by/?, the coefficient of
its fecond term ; and as we have defined this limit to
be the expreflion for the ratio of the fluxions of u and „r,
u
fo that p——, the new value of the function may alfo
x
be expreffed thus
u -}—fl1 -\-r IF -f-&c.
x
And
Part I. FLUX
Direft And tills expreflion may be confidered as indicating not
Method, only the general form of the feries, but alfo the particu-
1 lar relation fubfifling between the original funftion,
and />, the coefficient of the fecend term of the feries,
the latter being in every cafe that function of .v which
refults from the operation of taking the fluxion of the
former, and dividing by x.
We are now to invefligate the relation that fubfifls
between each of the remaining coefficients and the ori¬
ginal futf£tion»
67. Firft let us fuppofe the funftion u to have the
particular form xn, n being a conftant number. Then
x changing its value to u changes to u'—{x-\-x')n^
therefore, by the binomial theorem (§ 52.)
IONS.
721
u'^x' + nx”-' /z-f
2 • 3
But flnce uz=xn, by taking the fucceffive fluxions of u,
and confidering x as conftant, we have
— —nx
«*
“ —n{ii—1) {n—2)
x3
t =«(«—i) («-“2) («—a)*"-4*
X*
&.C.
Let w JL. il_ See. be now fubftituted for xn, n xn~xt
X x1
n («—1) &c, refpedlively, in the feries for u\
and we have
ti ! . u h* , u h* u h4, n
+ +   + &C.
a: x* 2 ' x* 2.3 a;4 2.3.4
68. This manner of expreffing the developement of
u1, or (a; + /0"» indicates direttly the relation that each
of the coefficients of the fucceflive powers of /i has to
the original function.
The nrft term of the feries is the original funflion
u, or xn, itfelf, or it is what the fun&ion (x+hy be¬
comes upon the fuppofition that hz=.0. The fecond
h • u .
term is or —, multiplied by the coefficient -7-, which
1 at
coefficient is a funflion of x derived from the original
fun&ion by the operation of taking its fluxion, and di-
•
viding the refult by #. The third term is — mul¬
tiplied by the coefficient -L, that is, by a fun£lion of x
operation as that coefficient was derived from the Diretfl
' Method.
H
original funftion, namely by taking the fluxion of -r-’ v——
x
confidering a; as conftant, and dividing by x. The
. • u •
fourth term is  multiplied by -r—, that is, by a
1.2.3 x3
function of .v deduced from the third coefficient by the
very fame operation as that by which the third was de¬
rived from the fecond, or the fecond from the firft.
And fo on with refpeft to all the other terms of the
If-'
feries, the «th term being the product of - ^ ^
and the {n—i)th fluxion of the funflion u divided
by xn~'. v
69. Let us now fuppofe that u denotes any other
function of a?, then, whatever be its nature, it may al¬
ways be conceived as capable of being exprefled by a
feries, the terms of which are powers of #, in this
manner j
A*a+B xh ~\-Cxc-\-T>xd-\- See.
where A, B, C, &c. a, b, c, &c. denote conftaht num¬
bers. Thus we have
»rrA Jc^-f-B a/7-f-C &c.
Then, x being fuppofed to become x-^-h, and (in con-
fequence of the change in the value of a:) u to become
we have
a'=A (*-J-^+B (x+h)b+C(x+h')c+ See.
Let us now denote A a/* by P, Ba?^ ’ by Q., C xr by
R, &c. then by laft ^
derived from the preceding coefficient -7— by the fame
x
Vol. VIII. Part II.
P P P
a (x+by = p+£1 /?-f — — + L — + &c.
B (a:-}-//) V; + ^c*
X X* 2 X» 2-3
R R /ii* R ^J
C (*+/;)'= R+ /5-{- 4; - + ^ + &c.
&c.
Therefore, fubftituting thefe developements in the
feries exprefling
B + Q,-{-B-f-&c.
-f- (-j f- ^ + &c.) h
XXX
+ (?- + k + ^ + &c.)il
X* X* Xz 2
+ (^- + ^ + ^.+ &C.-) ~
X3 X3 X3 2,3
. &c.
4^
But
*]22
Direft Blit
Method.
«=P-fQ^+R+ &c.
i=t+i-+i+&c.
X X X X
i=^+a+5. + &c.
x* x* x* x*
&c.
Therefore, fubftituting u, —, &c. for the feries to
x
which they are refpe&ively equal,
u k u h' u hi .
u'—u + — {-   4- ^ f- occ.
x * x% 1,2 x* 1,2*3
Hence it appears that u being any funftion of x
whatever, if x-\-h be fubftituted in that function in-
ftead of x, the feries expreffing the developement of
this new value of the funftion will have the general
properties which have been (hewn, in laft to belong
to it in the cafe of the funftion having the particular
value xn.
The very general theorem which we have juft now
inveftigated is one of the moft elegant and important in
analyfis. It was firft publiftied by Dr Brooke Taylor in a
work entitled Methodus Incrementorum, which made its
appearance about the year 1716. The theorem itfelf
is generally known by the name of Tay/or's theorem.
It is more general than the celebrated Binomial theorem,
inafmuch as this laft, and innumerable others, are com¬
prehended in it as particular cafes.
70. We (hall now give fome examples to fhew the
manner of applying Taylor’s theorem, as well as its great
utility as an inftrument of analyfis.
Example 1. Suppofe u~ax, a being conftant and x
variable. Then x becoming x-\-h, u becomes
Now from the equation u—ax we derive (§ 56.)
4—=Ao*, (here A denotes Again, confider-
ing» as conftant, and repeating the operation of taking
the fluxion on ^r- rr Aa*, we get = A* a*, and hence
x x%
again -4-=AJ a®, &c. Therefore, fubftituting for
x
u\ u, , 4-, &c. their values in the general theorem
x x*
u'zz w-f- 4- h-\- 4- ^ becomes
FLUXIONS.
or, exchanging h for x.
a —l -j- A -j Id A hz 4- &c.
2 2*3 '
Part T.
Direft
Method,
X
X‘
=** (I + A £ + —> + £ 3 + &c.)
2 2-3
Suppofe now, that X—O, then, as in this cafe rt'zri,
we have
A A*xx A5 a; 5
a — 1 -{- A a? -j- 1 4- See,
2 2-3
the fame refult as we formerly obtained in § 54.
Ex. 2. Suppofe «=log. x. Then, x becoming
a becomes abzrlog. Now from the
equation arrlog. x, we find (by § 57.) 4 = —.
x x
Here M denotes the modulus of the fyftem. Again, fup-
M
pofing x conftant, we find by § 26, -4- —  ,-4-
. x* x x*
— k— ^— &c. Therefore, fubftituting as
before the values of a', a, —, &c. in the general for-
a 7 a h* 0 . .
mula a'= a-f- — n-\-~——(- &c. it becomes
x x 2
M M M
log. (A?+^)=l0g. X+ &C-
If we fuppofe Af=l, and change h intoy, we have,,
becaufe log. Ar=log. 1—0,
i°g- (1+3O =M (y— v+^— &c#)
z 3
For the particular method of applying thefe two
f ries to the calculation of logarithms, fee Algebra,
§ 285 to § ?9«. See alfo Logarithms.
Ex. 3. Snppofe now a=rfin. x. Then a'rrfin.
(^-J./^). From a=fin. x, by the application of the
rule in § 59, we deduce -7-~cof.A?,-j- ——fin. x, -7—
X X* X*
— — cof. xf ~ =fin. xf &c. Therefore, fubftituting
for a', a, 7—, &c. their values in the general formula
x
as before, we have
h h%
fin. (Ar-{-/z)=:fin. A;-j-cof. x —- — fin. x
• cof. x
P
1.2.3
or fin. is equal to
fin.x (i-
-j- fin. x
1.2.3.4
+ &c.
-|-cof, x (h-
2 I.2.3.4
P h*
■&C.
• &c.)
1.2.3 ''2‘M'S
If we fuppofe x—o, then, as in that cafe fin, X—09
the preceding formula becomes
fin»
Part I.
Direift
Method.
fin. h—li¬
lt
1.2.3 1•2.3.4-5
or, fubftituting x inftead of
x* . Xs
FLUX
■ Sec.
fin. x~x-
■Stc.
1.2.3 1.2.3.4.5
Ex. 4. Suppofe arreof. x, then a'=cof.
and fince a=rcof. x, by § 59, — := — fin. x, *! = —
cof. x, -^-=fin. x, Sec. Therefore, fubftituting as be-
x*
u 7
fore thefe values in the general formula u'—u -f-— « +
x
Sec. it becomes
h r h*
cof. (^-b//)=:cof. a;—-fin. x cof. x——~
It
-|-fin.A?—-—- 4■Sec•
IONS. 723
Now, a' being the value that a affumes when x+h TJiredl;
is fubftituted in it inftead of x, if we fuppofe *=0, then Method^
a! becomes the very fame fundlion of h, that a is ot x.
Let us denote the values which each of the functions
u,~, ii-, Sec. acquire, when a?=:0, by U, U', U", Sec.
x x*
refpectively. r <*•’ c 1
Then (f) uf (confidered as the fame function or h
that a is of x) is equal to
u+u' t+u"r-i+ v"'r^r3+ &c>
Let x be now fuppofed to be fubftituted both in a',
and the feries which is its developement inftead of A,
then a' becomes a, and we have
arrU+U'i+UY-
. U'"-
.v3
-f Sec.
or cof. + is equal to
t*
cof. « (-
1.2.3
It
fin. A? (A-
1 .2 1 . 2.3.4
It It
Sec.)
— Sec.)
1.2.3 1•2.3 -4‘S
which expreflion, when xzzo, and therefore cof. x~lt
fin. X— Of becomes fimply
1.2.3
and in this formula it is to be confidered, as already
ftated, that U, U', U", Sec. denote the particular values
which the funftions a, &c. acquire refpec-
X X1 xi
lively, by fuppofing that in each of them x is taken
—o.
72. As an example of the application of this feries
let us refume the equation a=o*, then %- — A.a*
(§ 56.),a*, -^-=A} a\ Sec.
.V *
cof. h— I
h*
I . 2 1 I.2.3.4
or fubftituting x for /*,
x* x4
• Sec.
cof. x^zi-
1.2 ‘ 1 . 2.3.4
Sec.
x
U . , »
=r A a*,
x* x:
Suppofe now that A?=0, then a, or «* becomes a°s= I,
~—Aax becomes A, ~~ A* ax becomes A*, Sec.
x x*
fo that Ucni, U'==A, U"=:Aa, Sec. fubftituting there¬
fore thefe values in the general formula, it becomes
Sec.
71. It may be remarked that in each of thefe ex¬
amples, from the developement of a' the new value of
the fun&ion of a, we have been able to deduce a deve¬
lopement of a the function itfelf. But it is eafy to fee,
that by proceeding in the fame manner with the gene¬
ral formula as we have done in thefe particular exam¬
ples, we (hall obtain a general expreflion for the deve¬
lopement of any function whatever.
The general formula is
, u h , u h
U “4" T" — —j—
It
.21.2
*3 1 • 2 • 3
See.
A--|-A1—^—l-A3
Let us next fuppofe that a is an arch of a circle of
which the fine is x (radius being unity), then *=fin. a.
Now the ratio of the fluxion of a to the fluxion of x
will be the very fame whether we confider a as a
fundlion of a?, or a? as a fun&ion of a ; therefore (§ 59.)
x=u cof. a, and but fince fin. a=r, cof.
’ x col. a
a=^/ (1—a?4), therefore,
a I
.v \/(i—
4 Y 2
Taking
u
(f) For the fake of illuftration let us take a particular example. Suppofe a=(a +*)”, then = « (« +
“-=«(«—1) (a+tf)"-1, &c. Suppofe now that *==o, then a becomes «n, y becomes a a""1, y becomes
n (a—1) dn~i, See. fo that in this particular cafe we have \J=an, U'zra n”-1, U"=n(fl iV , &c.
724
Direcfl
Method.
Fig. 6.
Taking now the fluxion of
ion of the refult, &c. we have
V C1—**)
FLUX
, and the flux-
X3 C1 ‘V>)T,
u
X3
3**
(i—Ol (i—
“ — 3-3 x
3-5
&c.
Suppofe now that #~o, then u becomes o, becomes
I, becomes o, -r~ becomes I, -r- becomes o, &c. fo
X3 X3 X*
that U=o, U'=i, U"=o, Uv'=r, Uw,~o, &c.
Therefore, fubftituting in the general formula,, we find
u—x-\- —+ &c.
1.2.3
By profecuting the computations farther, we may find
5 31#'3' 31?**"
u~x 4
2-3 2-3*4*5 2-3-4-J'6.7
-f- &c.
73.^ The theory of tangents to curve lines furnifhes a
good illuftration of the truth of the principle which we
have eonfidered as the foundation of the method of
fluxions, namely, that whatever be the form of a func¬
tion, the ratio of its increment to the increment of the
variable quantity from which the funftion is formed, is
in every cafe fufceptible of a limit.
Let AB, the abfcifia of a curve, be the geometrical
expreflion of a variable quantity x, and let BP the cor-
refponding ordingte, be the expreflion for y, any func¬
tion of x ; then the curve line itfelf is the locus of the
equation exprefling the relation between x and y. Let
PT, a tangent to the curve at P, meet AB the abfcil-
fa in T ; through P draw any ftraight line meeting the
abfciffa in D, and the curve in p; draw the ordinate
p b, and from P draw P n parallel to the abfciffa, meet¬
ing the ordinate bp\u n.
The triangles DBP, V np are fimilar $ therefore
pn : n? PB : BD.
Now pn, and « P, or B £, are the increments of PB
and BA, or of y and x refpedlively, therefore the ratio
of the fimultaneous increments of PB and BA, or y
and .v, whatever be their magnitudes, is equal to the
ratio of PB to BD. Conceive now the point p to ap¬
proach continually to P, then the angle contained by
the ftraight line p PD, and the tangent PT, will de-
creafe, and the point D will approach to T ; at the
fame time «/>, and » P, the increments of y and will
be continually diminilhed 5 ftill, however, they will have
2
IONS. part j
to each other the ratio ef PB to BD, but this ratio ap- j)ireft
proaches continually to the ratio of PB to BT, and be- Method.
comes at laft more nearly equal to it than any aflign- 
able ratio j therefore the ratio of PB to BT is the limit
of the ratio of PB to BD, and confequently is alfo the
limit of the ratio of f> n, the increment of y, to n P, the
increment of x. And as this conclufion does not de¬
pend upon the particular nature of the curve, or upon
any particular relation fuppofed to fubfift between «
and y, we may conclude, that whatever be the form of
the tunftion, the ratio of the fimultaneous increments of
the funftion, and the variable quantity from which it is
formed, has a limit to which it approaches when the in¬
crements are conceived to be continually diminilhed.
It is now eafy to fee how the method of fluxions may
be applied to the determination of tangents to curves^
for fince the ratio of the ordinate PB to the fubtangent
BT is always the limiting ratio of the increments of the
ordinate and abfciffa, it is equal to the ratio of their,
fluxions, that is
fubtan. BT.
y :x::y
Hence in any curve whatever, referred to an axis, the
fubtangent, (that is, the fegment of the abfciffa between
the ordinate and tangent) is equal to ~ y where x
Application of the Method of Fluxions to the Drawing of
Tangents.
denotes the abfciffa, and y the ordinate at the point of
contaft ; and the fubtangent being found, the pofition
of the tangent is thereby determined.
Let us apply the above general formula to fome ex¬
amples.
Example I. Let the propofed curve be a circle. It^g.
is required to determine the pofition of PT, a tangent
at any point P in its circumference.
Put la for AE the diameter, alfo x for AB the ab¬
fciffa, and y for BP the ordinate at the point of con-
tacft.
From the nature of the curve, we have
ABxBErrBP1, that is
#(2ff—x^-zzy3.
Hence taking the relations of the fluxions of x and y,
we have
2ax—2xx—2yyt
therefore —
and BT = ^—y——
from which it appears that BT the fubtangent is a
third proportional to a—x and y, that is, to CB the
diftance of the ordinate from the centre, and BP the
ordinate, agreeing with what is known from the ele¬
ments of geometry.
Ex. 2. Let the curve be a parabola, required the ^2 ^
fame as before.
Put x for AB, the abfciffa, and y for BP the ordi¬
nate at P the point of contact 5 alfo a for the parame¬
ter 3 then, from the nature of the curve
PB1—«xAB, that is
axzzy3,
therefore^
*
Part I.
FLUXIONS.
7*$
Direct therefore, taking the fluxions, vre get (>xzz2yyt and
Method.
^ ‘ and
y «
* 27/* 2ax
BT=--v=—= = 2*;
y a a
from which it appears that the fub-tangent BT is double
the abfciffa BA.
fjg, p. 'Ex. Let the curve be an ellipfe.
Put AB = #, BP=7/, AC the femi-tranfverfe axis =ra,
CH the femi-conjugate axis ~b.
The nature of the curve isfuch, that
AC* : CH* :: AB x BE : BP*
or «* : b* (2/7—x : y%
Hence a'y'—b1 (2a—Xjx,
and taking the relation of the fluxions,
a*y y—b%(a—x ~)x ;
, and
2ax-\~x<1
CT=//4-.v—   —
' a-\-x
therefore CB : CA :: CA : CT.
a
a-\-x *
Diredt
Method.
Therefore 4=^,
bt= i,/=
y b (a—
But from the preceding equation exprefling the nature
Ex. 5. Suppofe the curve APD to be a cycloid, of Tig. 11.
which AE is the axis, and AQE a femicircle defcribed
on the axis as a diameter. Suppofe AC, the radius, to
be unity j put ABrrA?, BP~y, and the arch AQ^tt/ }
then, AB=i—cof. v. and BQ^rrfin. v, Now, from
the nature of the curve, PBzrarch AQ^-f-^Q.? hence
we have
X— 1—cof. ^/,
and taking the fluxions, by § 59.
x —V fin. v, y=zv-\-v cof. v i
therefore,
, x vy fin. v   y fin. v
BT=-r =
y
■y+^cof.'y.
PBxBQ_
EB ’
l+cof.l)
but from the nature of the circle —
BQ _ AB
EB ~ BQ ’
there-
PB v AB
fore, BT 2= ——, and confequently BQ^: BA ::
BP : BT, from which it appears that if the chord AQ
be drawn, the tangent PT is parallel to the chord
&A.
Fig. 10.
of the curve,
(2/7—#)#,• therefore
BT— —/ — ^2a~~x^x
~ yy~ •—*
To this expreflion for BT, let BC=/7—a? be added,
and we have
(2/7 A?) A? O*
CT—a—x-\-
U—M U—’i*
from which it appears that CB : CA :: CA : CT.
Ex. 4. Suppofe the curve to be a hyperbola, and let
it be required to find, as in the preceding examples.
Put a and b, as in the cafe of the ellipfe, to exprefs the
femitranfverfe and femiconjugate axes, then the equa¬
tion of the curve is
/7*y* =r £* ( 2 a-j-A?) A?,
and taking the relation of the fluxions,
o*y^—&*(«-f-A?)#,
from which we find
/71//*
b1‘(a-\-xs)
or, fubftituting (2/7-{-;v)a? for
a if
x (2ff+ArV
BT=--y= : 
y «+*
Let this expreflion for BT be fubtradled from the ex¬
preflion for CB, that is from u-\~x1 and we hare
74. If PT (fig. 6.) be a tangent to the curve AP at Fig. 6.
the point P, and PC be drawn perpendicular to the
tangent, meeting AC the axis of the curve in C, then
the line PC is called a normal to the curve at the point
P ; and BC, the diftance between the ordinate and the
extremity of the normal, is called the ftib-normal.
The triangles TBP, BPC being fimilar, we have
TB : BP :: BP : BC j or, fince TB : BP :: x : y, (§ 73)
x : y :: y : BC, hence in any curve, BC the fub-normal
is equal to-^ 5 and from this expreflion, we may find
x
the fub-normal in the fame way as we have found the
fub-tangent in the examples of laft §.
75, As by plane trigonometry
TB : BP :: rad. : tangent of T,
and from § 73, TB : BP :: x: y,
therefore x : y :: 1 : tan. T,
V
hence it appears that -4- exprelles the numeral tangent
x
of the angle T, that is, the angle contained by a tangent
to the curve, and the axis of the curve. In like man¬
ner we have
y \ x BP : BD :: CB : BP :: 1 : tan. C,
therefore—.- expreffes the tangent of the angle C, that is,
y
the angle contained by a normal to the curve and its
axis.
Application
726
Direft
Method.
Application of 'Fluxions to Problems relating to Maxi¬
ma and Minima.
76. If a variable quantity be fuppofed to change its
■magnitude, then any fun&ion of that quantity will alfo
change its magnitude. When the variable quantity is
fuppofed to increafe continually fo as to acquire fuceef-
fively all degreees of magnitude, there are fome fundlions
of fuch a form, that they either increafe continually, or
decreafe continually ; but there are others again which
either increafe to a certain limit, after which they de¬
creafe ; or elfe they decreafe to a certain limit, after
which they increafe.
. If’ in confequence of the continual increafe of a va¬
riable quantity, a function of that quantity firft increafes
to a certain limit, and afterwards decreafes, when it ar¬
rives at that limit it is then faid to be a maximum. Or
if it decreafe to a certain limit, and afterwards increafe,
when it arrives at that limit, it is then faid to be a mi¬
nimum.
FLUXIONS. Part L
is the locus of the equation exprefling the relation be- Direft
tween x and y. Let us fuppofe this curve to be DPE, Method
and that AB is the value of x, correfponding to BP the v-^-
maximum or minimum value of the ordinate y; it is evi-FiSs*
dent, that in the cafe of a maximum, the curve muft beand I3‘
concave towards AC, at leaft to a certain extent, on
each fide of the point P, as in fig. 12. but that in the
cafe of a minimum it mull be convex towards AC, as in
fig. 13.; and alfo, that in either cafe, if a ftraight line
be drawn through P parallel to AC, the curve muft be
wholly on one fide of that line, to a certain extent on
each fide of the point P, and therefore, that the line
P£) muft be a tangent to the curve at the point P.
Now when P^) a tangent to a curve at P (fig. 8.)
meets the axis inT, it has been fnewn, § 75, thatis
x
the expreffion for the tangent of the angle T, radius be¬
ing unity j but this angle vanilhes, when PQ>, inftead of
meeting AC, is parallel to it, as in fig. 12. and fig. 13. j
therefore, as in this cafe the tangent of the angle is =0,
77. Let us confider the fun&iony —£—(a—a)*.
If we fuppofe x~o, then y=b—a*. Suppofe now x to
be at firft very final!, and to increafe ; then as (x—a)*
will decreafe, ?/ will alfo increafe, till x become rra, and
then y will become ~b, when it is a maximum ; for x
being fuppofed to become greater than a, y will be lefs
than b. By fuppofing x to increafe till (a:—«)* become
equal to b, then y will decreafe to o j and x being ftill
fuppofed to increafe, y will become negative.
Let us next fuppofe y—b-\-{x—af. In this cafe
when .¥=0, y—b^a*', as x increafes, (x—d)1 decreafes,
and confequently y decreafes, till x=a, and then y=zb, a
minimum ; for x becoming greater than a, y becomes
greater than b.
78. Every funflion that either increafes or decreafes
continually has neither maximum nor minimum ; for
whatever value fuch a funftion may acquire, in the
one cafe it may always have a greater, and in the other
a lefs value.
The chara&eriftic property of a maximum value of a
fun&ion, by which it is made the objeft of analytical
inquiry, confifts in its being greater than the values im¬
mediately preceding, and alfo greater than the values im¬
mediately following it j and that of a minimum con¬
fifts in its being lefs than the values immediately prece¬
ding, and alfo lefs than the values immediately follow-
ing it.
In fome cafes a fun&ion may increafe to a certain li¬
mit and then decreafe, and afterwards increafe again
indefinitely j or the contrary. Hence it may happen
that fuch a funflion may have values greater than its
maximum or lefs than its minimum as they have been
here defined. And indeed it is eafy to conceive that
a funftion may increafe and decreafe alternately feve-
ral times ; in fuch a cafe it muft be confidered as hav¬
ing feveral maxima and minima.
79. Since y any fun&ion of a variable quantity x
may be confidered as the ordinate of a curve, of which
x is the abfcifla, it is evident that to determine the
greateft or leaft value of fuch a funflion, we have only
to feek the greateft or leaft ordinate of the curve which
we have L =0.
x
Hence it appears, that to determine the maximum or
minimum of y, a funBion of x, we muf fnd the fluxion
of the funBion, and divide it by x, and put the refill
equal to o.
80. We proceed to illuftrate this rule by fome ex¬
amples.
Ex. 1. To ^divide a given number a into two fuch
parts, that their produ&s may be the greateft poflible.
Let x denote the one part, then a—x will be the
other part, and x{a—x~) the produdt of the two parts.
Therefore, by the queftion
y—x(a—x^—ax—a?1, a maximum,
hence, taking the fluxion of the fun&ion,
y—ax—ixx, and y_=a 2x,
x
therefore, a—2 a?=o, and x~\ a.
Thus it appears that the product of the parts will be
the greateft poflible, when each is half the given num¬
ber.
Ex. 2. To find the fraction which fliall exceed its
cube by the greateft quantity poflible.
Let x denote the fraftion, then its cube is;*5, fo that
we have
y~x—A5, a maximum ;
therefore, taking the fluxion of the funflion,
y—x—3 at* x, and -L =1—3 x1~o,
x
hence 3a?1 = i, and x— \/ T> the fraction required.
Ex. 3. To determine the greateft re&angle that cart
be infcribed in a given triangle.
Put the bafe AC of the triangle ~b, and its alti¬
tude BD=tf, and let Bn, the altitude of the reftangle pjg. j^,
p'qrs, confidered as variable, be denoted by at, then,
becaufe
Part I. FLUX
piredl becaufe of the parallel lines A.C, p q, it will be, as
Method. BD: AC::D«:^y> that is « : b : : a—x : p q,
 X) J 1 Cl Cl
hence pq= — , and the area ot the rectangle, or
t> -n u Ka—x)x c —a?)*
pqX& n> will be ~ , therefore y = 
Fig/15.
mull be a maximum, and hence y~
we have
y ba—lb x
b ax—ibxx
thus
% 16.
=0,
and b a—2bxzzo, and x=:^a; hence it appears that
the. greateft infcribed rectangle is that whofe altitude is
- half the altitude of the triangle.
81. It is proper to obferve that the value of a quan¬
tity, when a maximum or minimum, may often be deter¬
mined more readily by confidering that any given mul¬
tiple, or part of the fun&ion, likewife any power or
root of it, muft then be alfo a maximum or minimum.
Thus in the preceding example, in which the fun£tion
, . . b(a—x^x . _ ,
to be a maximum is —, we may reject the con-
a
£
ftant multiplier—, and then the function to be a maxi¬
mum is y~{a—a?) x—ax—x*, the fluxion of which be¬
ing taken, we have y~a x—2 a; x and ~ —a—2a;=o,
x
hence x a, the fame value as before.
82. Ex. 4. Of all the right-angled plane triangles
having the fame given hypothenufe, to find that whofe
area is greateft.
Let A BC be the triangle ; put A B—a?, and A C,
the given hypothenufe, ~a, then BC^zt/ (a*—#*), and
confequently the area of the triangle is— \/ (a*—x2\
«')
2
** («*-
which being a maximum, its fquare , alfo
4
four times that fquare, or x1(at—at1'), will likewife be
a maximum, therefore, y—x'^a1—x^)—a1'xx—a;4, a max.
henceyxz'l a*xx—4 a;*a?, and
^-zz2a*x—4A;3=o,
x
hence 2A;lrzo*, and x—x t/ 4.
Ex. 5. To determine the greateft cylinder that can
be infcribed ia a given cone.
Put AC the bafe of the cone =zb, BH its altitude
=«, and DF, the diameter of the end of the cylinder
DIGF infcribed in the cone, =at. From the fimilar
triangles BAG, BDF, we have AC : BH : : DF : BE,
that is b: a : : x : BE, hence BE=-^,and EH=BH
__ ax a b—a x
— BE — a -r-—  j .
b b
Put c for the number
.78539, then the area of the bafe of the cylinder
is (by the Elements of Geometry) and
IONS. 727
its folid content cxDF’xEH=C-^fc2l, hence
C Q> CC2 ^
 ^   is to be a maximum, therefore, leaving out
the conftant multiplier C~, we have y—x'ijb—x^—b x*
—a;3, a maximum ; taking now the fluxions, we get
* • * XJ
y~2bxx—3 x*x, and —■ —2bx—3 a?*zzo,
hence 3 x*—2bx, and x— -b, and confequently HF
= y BH. 3
Ex. 6. To find the fun’s place in the ecliptic, when
that part of the equation of time which arifes from the
obliquity of the ecliptic is a maximum.
Let EQ^ be the equator, EC the ecliptic, S the fun’s I7*
place, and SA his declination, then this part of the
equation of time is the difference of the fun’s longitude
ES, and right afcention EA, turned into time. Put
the arch ESzza:, the arch EA—1/, which is to be con-
fidered as a fun&ion of x, and put a for the cofine of
the angle £=23° 28'. Then, by Spherical Trigono¬
metry, in the right-angled fpberical triangle EAS, we
have tan. E Azrcof. E X tan. ES j therefore, to deter¬
mine x we have tan. ’vzza tan. x, and y~x—v, a maxi¬
mum.
From the fecond of thefe equations we get
• • • y v
y—x—v, and ~~ — 1 — —O,
x x
and from the firft, by § 60,
' r 1 ’ r * i v a fcc.2a?
v iec. v=a x iec. x, and zz -= .
’ x fee.1?/ ’
ci fee 2 oc
therefore, 1—• -—^— rr o, and fee.* v~a fee.* ,
lee.* v ’
or 1-f-tan.* “uirrrt-f-rt tan.1 a?, but from the firft: equation
tan/uzza* tan.* a?, therefore,
I +«* tan.* A?zza-}-rt tan.* x,
or a{a—1) tan.* x~a—I,
hence tan. A?zr—^=-zz 1.04416, ^ tangent of 46° 14',
V a
the fun’s longitude when this part of the equation is a
maximum.
83. We have deduced the rule of J 79. for deter¬
mining when a function is a maximum, or minimum,
from the confideration of curve lines. The whole the¬
ory of maxima and minima may however be explained
in a manner purely analytical, as follows:
Let us fuppofe that y is any fundlion whatever of .v,
and that x has acquired the value that produces the
maximum or minimum of the fun ft ion j then, if we fup¬
pofe x—h and x-\-h to be fubftituted fucceflively in the
funftiou inftead of x, the two refulting values ought to
be both lefs than the maximum or both greater than
the mininum value.
Let
728 FLUX
Direft Let us denote the value of the fun&ion that refults
Method, from the fubftitution of x—h by ty and that which re-
■- .r — ^ujts from t]ie fubftitution of x-\-h by y\ then by the
theorem given in § 69,
'y—y—v^h+%-r 4- — + &c.
x‘ 2
y_ ^
xi 2.3
iZ—y+^-^+^i—f-?r— + &c.
X Xz 2 X3 2.3
In each of thefe values, the coefficient of mufl
x
either be equal to fome quantity, pofitive or negative,
ur elfe it muft =0. Let us fuppofe, if poflible, that it
is equal to fome quantity, pofitive or negative j now as
^ may be conceived to be fo fmall that the term-!^,
x
or any other term, fhall exceed the fum of all the terms
that follow it in each feries, (d) if we fuppofe h to have
fuch a value, then, becaufe of the term ~-h having the
x
fign — in the one feries, and + in the other, it follows
that the one value of the funftion is greater, and the
other lefs than y, the maximum or minimum value : But
this conclufion is inconfiflent with the nature of a maxi-
tnum or minimum, therefore ~ cannot in the cafe of a
x
maximum or minimum be equal to any pofitive or ne¬
gative quantity whatever.
If however we affume -L =ro, fo that the two values
yh* y h*
y h*
&-y+—
Xz 2
-i-- {- &c.
x* 2.3
IONS. part p
it, we fhall have both values greater than y when Djre(ft
V
~ is pofitive, and both lefs when it is negative, the firfl
Method,
cafe correfponding to a maximum, and the fecond to a
minimum.
Hence, to determine the maximum or minimum of
the function y, it appears that we mud take the riuxion
of y, and divide it by x, and put the refult equal to o*
which agrees with what was fhewn in § 79.
84. Although in the cafe of a fun&ion admitting of
a maximum or minimum we have always -^- =0, yet we
x
mufl not conclude that converfely the one or the other
of thefe has place every time that rro. For if it
x
fo happens that the value of x that renders-L=0, caufes
x
alfo Jl— to vanifh, without at the fame time making
x*
to difappear, then we have
h'
&-y— *7 — +
2.3
/z<
x* 2.3.4
y
&c.
y’=y+^~ + 4— + &c.
XT 2 Xs 2.3
y h*
then as the fecond term has the fame fign in both,
x1 2
when that term is greater than all the terms that follow
y'—y+JL — + 1L— f- &c.
x* 2.3 2*3-4
and as by giving a proper value to 7i, may be
2.3
rendered greater than the fum of all the following terms
in each feries, it follows, that L being fuppofed to be
xl
any quantity either pofitive or negative, becaufe of its
fign being different in the two values, the one of them
will be greater, and the other lefs than y, the maximum
or minimum value, which refult is inconfiflent with the
•**
nature of a maximum or minimum. If however -L be
#3
affumed =0, then
iy-
(d) If this fhould not appear fufficiently obvious, let
A/i-f B /i*+C /^+D/54+ &c.
be fuch a feries, where A, B, C, D, &c. denote quantities either pofitive or negative, but which are independ¬
ent of h. Then, writing the feries thus,
//(A+B/S + C/z’ + D/^-f &c.)
%
it is obvious that if h be conceived to be continually diminifhed, and at lafl to become =0, the part
B/z+C^-f D/z3-j- &c.
will alfo become =0, therefore before it vanifhes it will be lefs than A, or any other affignable quantity, there-
fore B^*-f-C/z!-{-D-£4-f- &c. may become lefs than Ah.
Fart I.
Direft
lytethod.
FLUXIONS.
&C.
y h*
y Ji* -
y-y+7> ^+&c-
here again, the coefficient of the fecond term having in
both values the fame fign, the conditions of the maxi-
V
mum or minimum are fulfilled, and the fign of -r- ffiews
x*
when the one or the other is to have place.
It muft now be fufficiently evident, without proceed¬
ing any further, that a funBion can only admit of a
maximum or a minimum when the firjl of its fluxions
that does not vanifh, is of an even order (or is its fecond
or fourth fluxion, isfc.), and that the fign of that fluxion
is negative in the cafe of a maximum, but pofltive in the
cafe of a minimum.
85. We {hall conclude this theory by applying it to
an example. Let y be fuch a fun&ion of x that
y*——a*=ro,
then by § 49,
(y—mx)y—(my—fx—Q,
, , y my—*
and hence — rr—1 =Or
* y—mx
therefore my—*?=0, and yr=
m
To find the value of x, let this value of y be fubflituted
in the original equation, it thus becomes
x * *
——x—a~o,
mr
hence we find
ma a
^/(i—mz) J v^C1—m)
We muft now examine what is the nature of the ex-
preffion for Taking the fluxion of the equation
**
JL— ’d.—and confidering that x is conftant, we have
x y~mx
y (j—m*) (xy—y x')
T ” Ti—mxy
therefore, dividing by x,
.1- ix—vl
X* (y—mx)1! x J ’
which equation, by putting inftead of x its value
becomes
(1 —/«*)
i.__ 1 
and as this refult is negative, we conclude that the va¬
lue which we have found for y is a maximum.
Of the values of fraBions, the numerators and deno¬
minators of which vanifh at the fame time.
86. There are fome fra&ional functions of fuch a
nature, that by giving a particular value to the variable
quantity, both the numerator and denominator of the
fra&ion vanifti, and thus the fraftion is reduced to this
form an expreffion from which nothing can be oon-
o
eluded. We have an example of this in the fraction
x —™(i a—ci o
 , which, by fuppofing x—a becomes — - =
x* a1 ri 0 a—a* o
we muft not however conclude that the fraftion has no
determinate value in this particular cafe, for if we con-
fxder that its numerator and denominator have a com¬
mon divifor, viz. x—a, it is evident that by taking this
divifor out of both, the fraction — --zz- T> 1 “T*
X •‘"'•••Cl J [X “1 ^ J
becomes —^—, an expreffion, winch in the cafe of x—a
x-\-a
. 1 1
is equal to —.
^ 2a
87. In general, if we make xzta in an expreffion of
this form   4—, it becomes -; however its true va«
—a)«’ O
lue is either nothing, or finite, or infinite, according as
m-p^n, or m^n, or m^Ln; for by taking out the fac¬
tors common to the numerator and denominator, the
 a')m~n P
fraction becomes —— in the firft cafe, — in the
V)
fecond, and
7/ %
but as in the prefent cafe -j—~0, and y— —, this ex¬
preffion becomes Amply
Vol. VIII. Part II.
^ie J here we fup-
pofe that P and £) are fuch funftions as neither become
nothing, nor infinite, by the fuppofition of x=a.
88. Therefore, when by giving a particular value to
x a fundtion of that quantity afiumes the form to dif-
cover the true value of the fundlion in this particular
cafe, we muft difengage the fattors which are common
to the numerator and denominator. 1 his may be done
in moft cafes by finding their common meafure (Alge¬
bra, J 49.) but the diredt method of fluxions furniffies
us with another method.
In the expreffion P (a—a), where P denotes any
fundlion of x that is independent of a—«, if we fuppofe
x=a, then the expreffion vanifties j the fluxion however
of the expreffion, viz. (x—a), P -j- P tf, is a quantity
which does not vanifh when xz=a, but is then reduced
to its laft term, that is to P x.
4 Z Again,
729
Direift
Method.
73°
Diredl
Method.
FLUX
Again, the fun&ion P ( v—a)4 vaniihes by fuppofing
x—ay but if we take its fluxion, viz. (tf—a)4 P-{-2 (a?
—«) P at, and again the fluxion of this quantity, we
get
(a—a)' P -4*4 P« +1 . 2 Pa4,
an expreflion which does notvanifli upon the hypothefis
of x—a, but is reduced to its laft term, viz. 1.2 Pa4.
By proceeding in this manner, it is eafy to fee that by
taking the fluxion of a function of the form P (a—a)m
m times fucctflively (m being a whole number) we (hall
finally obtain an expreflion, all the terms of which, ex¬
cept the laft, vanilh by fuppofing that xzza; and that
the laft term will be I . 2.3 ... /» P xm, an expreffion
free from the faftor (a—a)m, and involving only the
function P.
89. It is not neceflary that we ftiould know the num¬
ber «, nor that we (hould exhibit the faftor (a—a)",
in order to determine Avlien the expreflion P(a—«)", is
freed from that faflor. We have only toafcertain after
each operation of taking the fluxion, whether the refult
vanifhes or not, when we fubftitute a inftead of x ; for
in the. laft cafe the operation is finiftied, and the refult
is the quantity I . 2.3 .. P aw. Suppofe for example
the funftion to be a5—ax*—a* x-\-aii which vanithes
whenxtrra, its firft fluxion alfp vanilhes when x=:a, but
notitsfecond fluxion, which is (6 a—2a)x*, hence we
may conclude that the fun&ion has the form P (a—a)%
which is befides obvious, becaufe
A3—ax*—o* A+oJrr(A-|-fl) (a—o')*.
90. In applying thefe obfervations to the fra&ion
JP fee* Ct'Y1* rn •
 it appears, that by repeating the operation
of taking the fluxions of its numerator and denominator,
they will be freed at once from the fa&or a—a, if m~n.
If a refult, which does not vanifli, be obtained firft from
the numerator, then we may be affured, that the fa&or,
(a—«) is found in the numerator raifed to a lefs power
than in the denominator, and. in this cafe the fradfion is
infinite when x—a. If on the contrary the firft refult
that does not vanilh is found from the denominator,
then the numerator contains a higher power of (a—o')
than the denominator, and in this cafe, when a—a, the
firaflion vanilhes.
The rule for finding the value of a fundtion which
o
becomes — by giving a particular value to a, may there¬
fore be expreffed thus. Taie the fuccejjive fluxions of
both the numerator and denominator until a refult which
does not vani/h be obtained from either the one or the
other) or from both at the fame time ; in the firfl cafe
the fun&ion is infinite, in the fecond it is equal to O, and
in the lafl cafe its value is finite.
91,. We proceed to illuftrate this rule by a few ex¬
amples.
A? ^-I'
£a. i. The value of the fundlion -r  is required
a2—1
when K=ri.
The fluxion of the numerator is 3 a4 a, and that of the
IONS. part i#
denominator is 2A a, neither of which quantities vanilh Direft
when A—1, therefore, in this particular cafe, the value Melhod;
of the fradtion is =—
2 A 2*
Ex. 2. Suppofe the fradtion to be ^ 2 a c.x.^rac
rr b x*—2b c x+bc*
which vanilhes when x—c.
By taking the fluxions of the numerator and denomi-
2a xx—2acx ax—ac r
—  7—, a Iradtion,
. b x—b c
nator we obtain
2 b x a—2 b c x
the numerator and denominator of which ftill vanilh
upon the hypothefis of x—c, we therefore take the flux.,
ions a fecond time, and get 2a x —for the value of
* 2bx* b
the propofed fradlion in the particular cafe of x—q.
Ex. 3. Suppofe the fradlion to be
A3—a x*—a* A-f-a3
A*1—a* *
which vanilhes when x—a. In this example, by taking
the fluxions of the numerator and denominator once,,
we get
3a4x—2 a a a—a*x 3 a*—2 a x—a*
2 A A
2 A
an expreflion, of which only the numerator vanilhe*
upon the fuppofition of x—a ; hence we may conclude
the true value of the fradlion in this cafe to be 0,
The contrary happens in the fradlion
a4—2 o3A-j-2 a x3—a4 4
we may therefore conclude that when x—a, this laft
fradlion becomes infinite.
92. The rule § 90 can only be applied when the
fadlors common to the numerator and denominator are
integer powers of x—a, for as by taking the fluxions,,
the index of (a—«)m is diminilhed by an unit at each
operation ; when w is a fradlion we lhall at lalt arrive
at a refult containing negative powers of x—a, which
therefore, when xz=:a, will become infinite. The fol¬
lowing mode of proceeding will however apply to all
cafes whatever.
Let ^7 be a fradlion of. which the numerator and de-
nominator both vanilh when x—a ; by fubftituting in it
a-\-h inftead of a, the fundlions X and X' may be ex¬
panded into a feries of this form,
A r+B /Af &c. A' / +B / + &c.
which are afcending, that is, having the exponents of
the powers pofitive and increaling 5, becaufe the feriea
mull become o, upon the hypothefis that hzxzo. We
have therefore
A^-fB //-f&c.
A7/ + BV/4-&C.
inftead of the propofed fradlion.
Now
Part I.
Dire<£fc
Method.
FLUX
Now if by dividing the numerator and de¬
nominator of this expreflion by the fa£tor /j*, which is
common to all the terms of each, it becomes
A +B
A' -j- B IP * 4- &c. ’
IONS.
Let a thread be fattened to it at H, and made to pafs
along the curve, fo as to coincide with it in its whole
extent from H to F. Let the thread be now unlapped
or evolved from the curve, then its extremity F will de-
fcribe another curve line FAPP'. The curve HCF is
called the Evolute of the curve FAP *, and the curve
FAP is called the Involute of the curve HCF.
73*
DireA
Method.
a quantity which, by fuppofing o, is reduced to
that is to o. If again *=*', the expreflion for the
fraction, after dividing the numerator and denominator
by A*, is
A + B/^-^+kc. )
a'+b^'—sccr* a
which, by fuppofing h to be —o, becomes Amply a
finite quantity. If, however, « then the expref-
fion for the fraction is
A + B/^—*+8tc.
A +BA3'—&c.
A
which, when 7z = o, becomesan expreflion which
may be confidered as infinite. Thus it appears that in
each cafe the true value of the fra&ion depends only on
A and A', the firft terms of the feries.
The following rule is applicable to every fun£tion
that can appear under the indeterminate form —
Find the firjl term of each of the afcendittg feries
which exprefs the developetnents of the numerator and
denominator when a-fh is fuhjlituted in them inftead of
x. Reduce the new funBion formed of thefe firf terms
to its mqflfimpleform, and make h=:o *, the refills Jhall
he the different values of the propofed funBion when x is
made equal to a.
Example. Suppofe the fun£lion to be
v' v— \/ a-\-\l (x—a)
which, when x—a, becomes —. By fubftituting a-\-h
inftead of x, and developing the refults into feries, the
* fa
numerator becomes /i2 4-——p &c. and the deno-
2v°
fafr
minatorx/^ + —t=- +&c. Taking now the firft
IsJ 2a
hF i
term of each feries, we have ~ . — . j an
Vi-
expreflion in which h is not found j therefore the value
of the fun&ion is —L-, when x=za.
•J la
Of the Radii of Curvature.
Fl'&- 18. 93- Let HC'CF reprefent a material curve, or mould.
94. From this mode of conceiving the curve to be
generated, we may draw the following conclufions.
I ft. Suppofe PC to be a portion of the thread de¬
tached from the evolute, then PC will be a tangent to
the evolute at C.
2dly. The line PC will be perpendicular to a tan¬
gent to the curve FAP at the point P, or will be a
normal to the curve at that point. For the point P
may be confidered as defcribing at the fame time an
element of the curve FAP, and an element of a circle
q P q\ whofe momentary centre is C, and which has PC
for its radius.
3dly. That part of the curve between F and P,
which is defcribed with radii all of which are ftiorter
than CP, is more incurvated than a circle defcribed on
C as a centre, with a radius equal to CP. And in like
manner PP', the part of the curve on the other fide of
P, which is defcribed with radii greater than PC, is
lefs incurvated than that circle.
4thly. The circle 7 P 7' has the fame curvature as
the curve APP' itfelf has at P: hence it is called an
Equicurve circle, and its radius PC is called the
Radius of Curvature at the point C.
95. We are now to inveftigate how the radius of
curvature at any point in FAP any propofed curve may
be found.
Let AB and BP be the co-ordinates at P any point
in the curve, and PC its radius of curvature j and let
PC meet AB in E. Put the abfcifla AB=v, the or¬
dinate BP=y, the arch AP=!8, the angle AEP (that
is, the arch which meafures that angle, radius being
unity) =v, the radius of curvature PCzrr. Take F
another point in the curve, and let P'C' be the radius
of curvature at that point. Let P'C' meet A B in E',
and PC in D, and on D as a centre, with a radiusiri,
defcribe. an arch of a circle, meeting the radii PC, P'C'
in m and n. Then the arch PP' will be the increment
of 2s; and fince the angle PDF' is the difference of the
angles PEA, P'E'A, the arch mn will be the corre-
fponding increment of v.
Suppofe now the point P' to approach continually to
P, then the points C' and D will approach to C, and
the ratio of the arch PP', the increment of a, to the
arch tn n the increment of v, will approach to the ratio
of CP to C m, that is to the ratio of r to 1 •, therefore
the ratio of r to 1 is the limit of the ratio of PP' iom n,
PP' .
or r~ limit of , and pafling to the ratio of the
m n
fluxions, rzz~, thus we have obtained a formula ex-
v
prefling the radius of curvature, by means of the fluxion
of the arch of the curve, and the fluxion of the angle
which a normal to the curve makes with the line of the
abfciffas. We proceed to deduce from this formula
4 Z 2 other
732 FLUXIONS.
Direa other eipreffions which tm» involve the fluxions of *
Method, and rj only.
Part I.
96. Becaufe PE is a normal to the curve at E, the
tangent of the angle PEA or v is equal to 4- (§ 75.),
V
X
put — =zt, then becaufe tan. v=t, we have by taking
the fluxions (§ 60.), v fee.* -ter/, but fee.* ^=1 -f-tan.* v
A?* 4- _ at tyl #
—1 + ^7 ——“— —'•7 ,63.), therefore —— — t
y\. y y v
fore v—  O 1 X , Diretfl
’ J ^ and, making x conflant, Method.
y=—xa x x
2x
I t *a ——a?X*
4A?3
, therefore, _f_y)
a? ,
— “J’V \^and> putting r for the radius of
curvature,
  _ («+4^)i
and
v — 1 ^
Subftituting now this value of v in the formula r=z %■
—x y l\/a
If in this general expreflion, we put arzro, we find
rri a for the radius of curvature at the vertex of
it becomes r~
t y'
If we now recolleft that t— and that **=:Ar*4-L2
y ’
it will appear that this other expreflion which we have
found for r involves in effeft the fluxions of x and y
only.
97. In computing the values of / rz 4-, and-4 - we
y i y%
may confider any two of the three quantities x, y, z,
as a funftion of the remaining quantity j and upon that
bypothefis compute their fluxions.
Thus if we fuppofe that y and 2; are fun&ions of x
then, as in taking the fluxions of y, /, and z, we muft
«onfider a? as a given or conftant quantity, from the
equation /= 4^ we have /= 4^- (§ 39.), and fub-
y . y*
. . g; I
flituting this value of t in , the value laft found for
ty'
ri it becomes
r=r \
— X y —x y
If again, inftead of confidering y and ^ as funftions of
At, we confider x and z as funftions of y, then from the
X *
equation /= — (as y mull now be reckoned conflant),
y
we get t — thus the formula r=r ~ - becomes
y t y*
x y X y
We fhall now apply thefe formulae to fome examples.
98. Example 1.—It is required to find the general
expreflion for the radius of curvature of a parabola.
f I
The equation of the parabola is y—az tf2, there-
■2\/ a
the curve.
Ex. 2. Suppofe the curve to be an ellipfe, required
as in the laft example.
Putting a and c to denote the two axes, the equation
of the ellipfe is fl*y,=r£J(o a;—a;2). Hence taking the
firft and fecond fluxions, we have 2dlijy=.cxx{a—2at),
and 2 a* y1 2 a* y y — — 2 c* ac* $ whence y zr
cl x(a—2 at) «■ aiy1-\-cxxt‘ ... „
 —7 , and —?/— ---7 , which expreflions.
2 ay ^ ay r *
by fubftituting the values of y and y, become
• cx(a—2x')
7/ ~ 
2a \/(ax—a;*)
f a*c*x*(a'—2 a?)*
^^ 4a3c(<?A?—x2)yl(ax—a;*)
|_ ~^~a*J(<ax~—at*)
_ CXX {a 2A?)*-J-4(<2A? A?*)
~~ 4(ax—a?*)-/ (aa?—a?*)
cax*
therefore,
4(flA-wA?2) *
,/WV—3*)‘ . )
\ 4fl1(c.r—x1) + /
a? I (c'a1 —c*)(4«a?—4ac*)
~ 2 a** \
a x—AT
and
—a? y
J >
( a%c* -f- 4 (o*—-c* ) (« x—a?*)^.
2a* c
which expreflion, when a?=o, becomes Amply the
radius of curvature at the vertices of the tranfverfe
j but when =zx^a, it becomes ■— , the radius of
axis
curvature at the vertices of the conjugate axis.
PART
FLUXIONS.
Part II.
Inverfe
"Method.
PART II. THE INVERSE METHOD OF FLUXIONS.
733
Inverfe
Method.
99. AS the Dirfxt Method of fluxions treats of
finding the relation between the fluxions of variable
quantities, having given the relation fubfifting between
the quantities themfelves; fo the Inverse Method
treats of finding the relation fubfifting between the vari¬
able quantities, having given the relation of their
fluxions.
Whatever be the relation between variable quantities,
we can in every cafe aflign the relation of their fluxions j
therefore the direct method of fluxions may in this re-
fpeft ba confidered as perfeft. But it is not the fame
with the inverfe method, for there are no direft and
general rules, by which we can in every cafe determine
from the relation of the fluxions, that of their flowing
quantities or fluents. All we can do is to compare any
propofed fluxion with fuch fluxions as are derived from
known fluents by the rules of the direft method, and if
we find it to have the fame form as one of thefe, we
may conclude that the fluents of both, or at leaft the
variable parts of thefe fluents, are identical.
100. In the direft method we have (hewn, that by
proper transformations, the finding of the fluxion of any
propofed funftion is reducible to the finding of the
fluxions of a few Ample fun£tions, and of the fums, or
produ&s, or quotients of fuch functions. In like man¬
ner, in the inverfe method we muft endeavour to trans¬
form complex fluxionary expreflions into others more
Ample, fo as to reduce them, if poflible, to fome fluxion,
the fluent of which we already know.
Sect. I. Of the Fluents of Fluxions involving one
variable quantity.
101. As when y is fuch a fun£lion of a variable
quantity .v, that ^=A where A, m and C de¬
note conftant quantities, we find by the direft method
(§ 36. and § 26.) that y—m A x™-' x, or (putting a
inftead of m A, and « inttead of m—1), y—a x" x ; fo,
on the contrary, as often as we have the fluxional equa¬
tion
y—a xn x,
we may conclude that the relation of the fluents is ex-
preffed by the equation.
a a:w+I
+C;
for by fubftituting tn A inftead of o, and tn—I inftead
of n in this equation, it becomes A xm -}-C, the fame
equation as that from which the fluxional equation was
derived. .
102. The value of the conftant quantity C, which is
generally called by writers on fluxions, the corre&ton
of the fluent, is to be determined from the particular;
3.
inquiry in which the fluxional equation y oc¬
curs. If it be known tbatymo, when x acquires fome
known magnitude, which may be denoted by b, then
abn^z . ,
the general equation y= — t C, becomes in that
particular cafe
»-|-l
a h**1
1
Hence, by fubtra&ing each fide of this laft equation
from the correfponding fide of the former, we get
a (Xn+1
y- 
«-j-I
an equation that is independent of the conftant and ar¬
bitrary quantity C.
103. By giving particular values to n in the fluxion¬
al equation y—axnx, and in that of the fluents y—
a (xn^x—bn+x>)
—— -yve may obtain particular fluxional
« -j-1
equations, and correfponding equations of the fluents.
There is however one cafe which requires to be no¬
ticed } it is when n is =—I; then the equation of the
• • (IX
fluxions \syzzax~1 x— —, and that of the fluents, ac-
.C*-1-*-' -4—+‘)
• i + i
cording to the general formula y:
— ff.(,Y — ‘iSl—l) but from this expreflion
000
it is manifeft, that nothing can be concluded. The value
a(xn^x bn+t)
of the fundtion A  , in the particular cafe
of n-f 1^=0 may be found by the rule given in § 90
for determining the value of a fundlion when it affumes
the form but it maybe otherwife found by pro-
„ , , log. x
ceeding thus. Put n-\-i=m, and let
: then, by the formula of § 54,
3 log.e
and
/>* m*
2
&C.
bm=zi-\~9 m-b
and therefore
xrn—bmz= (P—-9) w-f- (p*—<7*&c.
^ TTZ
and —-—=(?—?) + (A—&c*
tn
Thus
734
FLUXIONS.
Inverfe
Method.
Thus we have
xm *"+* b”+t
or •
expreffed ge-
, m ' «-j-i
nerally by a ferl,es, all the terms of which, except the
firft, being multiplied by wz or «+ i, will vanilh when
1=o» or when —i ; hence it appears that the
. a (»"+I—b"*1) ,
general equation y=     1 becomes in the
«-f- i
particular cafe of n =—I, y=a (p—q), which, fubfti-
tuting for p and q their values, and obferving that
log. x log. b i . x .
 ,  X log- 7-, becomes
log. e log. e log. e b
a x
=?i^7XIos-i-
A?
where log. e and log. ^ are to be taken according to the
fame fyftem, which may be any fyftem of logarithms
whatever. So that if we take the Napierean fyftem, ih
which log. e—ly then
Part a
So, on the contrary, <if we have any fluxioaal equation
of this laft form, we may conclude that Method.
y^a t+b v-\-c u -j-C.
And fince that when u—v /+C, where », v and t de¬
note any fun&ion of a variable quantity, and C a con-
ftant quantity, wejhave, § 37, &==?//-f/v, fo, on the
contrary, if
u—v t + tv,
we may conclude that
u—v /+C,
and in like manner if we have
u—
t V V t
V t
■ ,7"“ TsT'}
we may infer from § 39. that
y=a 1. r=a 1. x—a 1. 1. x-f-C,
«=7+c.
where C denotes a conftant quantity, and where the let-
ler 1, in this formula, and in others in which it may oc¬
cur, is put as an abbreviation of the words 'Napierean lo¬
garithm, fo that by a\. x is meant a multiplied by the
Napierean logarithm of x, &c.
This expreflion which we have found for the value
of y in the particular cafe of y—a x—*#, or —, co-
X
incides with what we might have found by confidering
that when y—\. x, it has been ftiewn (§ 57.), that
3'=-. fo that converfely, when y= ~, we may con¬
clude that y~a 1.at-J-C, where C denotes a conftant
quantity, to be determined from the particular queftion
in which the fluxional equation may occur.
JQ4. It muft now be evident that if
y— a xm x -\-bxn x -J- c xpx -f- &c.
■where m, n, p, &c. are conftant numbers, then
a xm*' bxn+x cxf+*
m-f-i 1 «-J-i />-J-i
-J- &c. +C j
here C denotes a conftant arbitrary quantity that may
be confidered as the fum of the conftant quantities which
a xm+t b xn+x
ought to be added to the terms —  —■, &c.
ffi —j. ^ n -J-1
each being regarded as a diftinft fluent.
I°J. In general, lince that when'
y=a t-\-b v-\-c »-J- &c. -J-C,
where /, v, u, &c. denote any functions of a variable
quantity, and C a conftant quantity, we have (§ 35.
and § 36.)
y—at-{-bv-\-c
106. It is often convenient to denote the fluent of a
fluxional expreflion without a&ually exhibiting that
fluent. For this purpofe we fhall employ the Agn^j
putting it before the fluxion whofe fluent we mean to
denote. Thus, by the expreflionfa xn x, is to be un-
derftood the fluent of axn x ; and as this fluent has been
oxn *
found to be ^ we may exprefs this conclufion
in fymbols fhortly thus,
J'a xn x —
a
«4-i
+-C.
107. Suppofe we have y—(ax-\-b)m x, we may ex¬
pand (a into a feries, and multiply the feries by
x, and find the fluent of each term of the refult. But
ave may alfo find the fluent of this expreflion without
employing the developement of (ax-J-£)m, by proceed-
g, £
ing thus. Put ax+b—z, then xrr , and x—~.
a a
Subftitute now thefe values of ax-^b, and x, in the ex-
* • *
preflion for y, and it becomes y— j hence we have
a
(§ IOI.) -J-C, and confequently, by fub«
ftituting {a x-\-b') for
y-
<jax+by*'
108. Suppofe that y=(«xw-J-£)wx’,-1x. By putting as
before axn-{-b—z, we have n o js, and xn~J 'x
Z • 55mJS s’”*1 ^
= — ; hence y—-—, and y— —[ 4. C, and
* na ’ ~
fubftituting for z its value axn^-b,
y-
Part II.
Inver fe
Method.
" no(ra-{-i)
109. Let us now confider fraftional funflions, and
to begin with a fimple cafe, let us fuppofe that
• A.xm x
FLUXIONS. 735
place, we remark that the greateft exponent of the inverfe
powers of x in the numerator may be fuppofed to be Method.
lefs than that of its powers in the denominator. For if '» 1 f
it were not fo, by dividing U by V, and calling
the quotient, and R the remainder, we ftiould have
y=
  7-—. Put then x~^-—x~—
(ax + by a a
and confequently,
Ua: • Ra?
•?r=Q.a?+-v'»and
'Ra?
V
We have now only to find the developement of («—b)m,
to multiply each of its terms by 2 and divide it by zn,
and take the fluent of the refult.
Let us take for example the cafe of m—3, and
n=2, then
• Afs;—b)lx
Now, Q^being a rational and integer fun&ion/'Qa? may
be found, as in § 104, and it only remains to find
an expreflion in which the higheft exponent ef
the powers of a? in R is lefs by unity than in Vj fo that
the fraction
Ra;
may be generally exprefied thus,
A r . • •
Hence, taking the fluents of the feveral terms, as in
§ 105, we have
“3 4 2:+3 iM-2!+4’,!!" }+C-
Let us now rettore the value of js, and then it appears,
that when
* Aat’a:
1J—(ax+by'
 A Y£(«A?-{-£)*.—3b(ax4-b) 1
2-7*' l +3^* 1- (<*x+b)+P(ax+b)-' 5 +C*
no. If we fuppofe that
• AA?«Ar-}-BA?pA;-f-CA;7A;&c.
y (a+~bx)m ,
then, we may write the equation thus,
•  Axnx Ba?pa;
^ (a-\-bx)m ' (_a-\-bx)m
Cx^x „
+ (a + ^.v)«+
and take the fluent of each term, in the fame manner
Ax'x
as we have found the fluent of
{ax-\-b)% ’
Of the Fluents of rational FraSlionsi
III. Every fluxion that is a rationalfra£lion is com¬
prehended under this general formula,
(A.vm-f-BArn-fCA;p-f. &c.)a:
AV”'+B'A;n/-f-C'A?p'-{- &c. ’
which, by putting U to denote the expreflion between
the parenthefes in the numerator, and V the denomina-
Ua;
tor, may be reprefented by Now in the firft
(Aa;"-1-f-BAj"-*1-^-CA?"—, .... -j-T)AT
Arn-|-A'a?"-1-J-B'a?"-* . . . -j- T' *
The general method of finding the fluent of a frac¬
tional expreflion of this form confifts in decompofing it
into a feries of other fra&ions, the denominators of
which are more fimple. Thefe fraftions may be found
by proceeding as follows : By putting the denominator
of the propofed fra&ion equal to o, we get this equa¬
tion,,
A^+AV'-f BV-1 . . . +T'—o.
Suppofe now that the roots of this equation are found,
and that they are denoted by
—a, —a', —a"t —a'", &c.
which quantities we {hall fuppofe, in the firft place, are
all unequal. Then the expreflion which has been af-
fumed as equal to o, may (Algebra, Se£i. X.) be con-
fidered as the product of n faftors
x-\-a, xfa', Ar-f-fl", A:-j-aw, &c.
R
Let the propofed fraftion -y-be now affumed as equaj
to the fum of the fimple fra6lions
N N' N"
x-\-a x -j- x-^-a"' C*
having for their denominators the fimple faftors of the
denominator of the propofed fradlton, and for their
numerators quantities which are conftant, but as yet are
indetermined.
That we may avoid complicated calculations, and
prefent a determinate objedt to the mind, let us fuppofe
that the fluxion of which we are to find the fluent is.
(A at*-f-Bat 4- C>
ArS-f-AV-f-B'AT+C' ’
and that we have by the refolution of the cubic equa¬
tion a;3 -j-AV-f-B'^-J-C/rro found
.v3 4- A'a;*4-B'.v4- C,= (a'4-«)(a4-o')(a-4-o").
Xhc
736
Inverie The fractions
Method. . ,
V V   N_X_ _N^_
x a * x-\-at,y
when reduced to a common denominator are
N(«-[-«') (a;N,(Ar-f-^)('!e-f-o,0"v
(.r-j-rt) (.r-j-a')
(Ar-j-fl) C^+a') (jc + a")*
Part II.
=1. X (A? + a)N(»4-tf,)N (A?+fl,01S \ -\-COn[l, Inverfo
L ' J Method,
where by conjl. is meant a conftant quantity.
It is eafy to extend this mode of proceeding to the
general formula given at the beginning of this § j and
it is obvious, that as often as the denominator of a ra¬
tional fraction can be decompofed into real and unequal
factors, the determination of the fluent of that fraction
is attended with no other difficulty than this decompo-
fition, which requires the numerical refolution of equa¬
tions.
FLUXIONS.
The common denominator of thefe fraflions is the fame
as that of the propofed fradlion, and each of the nume¬
rators, as well as their fum, is a function of x of a de¬
gree lower than the denominator, that is, in the prefent
cafe, it is a function of the fecond degree. By taking
the actual produfts of the fa&ors in the numerators,
and adding the refults, we find the fum of the fra&ions
equal to
x
T
-(N+N'+N">* 1
+ ^N(fl'-fa,')+N'(a+«")+N',(a+o')]- * f
a'a"+N'aa"+N"aa' J
112. We have fuppofed that the fa&ors of the deno¬
minator of the propofed fra&ion are unequal among
themfelves, ancf it is only when this is the cafe that the
fraction can be decompofed into others, having all this
N
form  . If we fuppofe that the denominator
x-\-a 11
Afn-J- A'a;”-1 B'a:"-*.. . + T; has a factor of the
form (a?-J-o)^, then the propofed fraction
( A*'*-1 _f-B«-f-Cxn-i. .T>
a;« -f- A'xn~l-f- -{-C'x»-3... + T
where V denotes the common denominator (#4°)
(A;4a')(A?4aW)=::*3-■^*A-/A?l4-B,+ Setting afide
the fadtor of the above expreflion, we are now to
compare that part of it which involves the three inde¬
terminate quantities N, N', N"', with A a:*4Ba;4C,
the numerator of the propofed fraction, thus we obtain
thefe three equations
N4N'4N"=A,
NO'4«") 4 N'O 4 «'0 4N"(o4o')=B,
N a' o"4N' a a" 4N" a a'=C.
By thefe equations, which are all of the firft degree,
we may determine the values of N, N' and N", and thus
1 1 r j r ^"TB A?-1- C) A?
have the propofed fraa.on equal
we
to
N a; N'a;
N" x
x + a — x + a' x-\-a"'
where N, N', N", and «, a\ a”, are conftant and known
quantities.
Put a?40==z» t^en and the fraftion
Nk
N x .
x-\-a
transformed to , of which the fluent is Nl.isrzNl.
%
OC
(a;4o) (§ i03)« 1° like manner we find / y —
-N"a;
N'l. (a;40,)> an^ —7.—N^^l* (a;4o,,)> an(l confe-
x-\-a'
quently
a?*4B a?4C)a?
J xi-\-A'x%-{-Wx-^-C1
=N1. (x+a) 4N'l. («4«,)4N"1. (a:4«")4c^.
muft be aflumed equal to
p-i p—t *-3
(Pa; 40.^ 4 .. -4 Y)a;
(a; 4
N'x _ N"i
x + a' A;4«/, * * * *
where P, Q, R.. .Y, N', N", &c. denote indetermi¬
nate but conftant quantities, and x-\-a', x-\-a", &c. are
the remaining fadlors of the denominator of the propo¬
fed fradlion. To determine the quantities P, £) , R ...
Y, N', N", &c. we muft now proceed in all refpedts as
in laft §, that is, we muft; reduce the fradlions involving
thefe quantities to a common denominator, which will
be the fame as the denominator of the propofed frac¬
tion j then we muft add the numerators, and put the co¬
efficient of each power of x in the fum equal to the co¬
efficient of the fame power in the numerator of the pro¬
pofed fraflion. Thus we (hall have as many equations
as indeterminate quantities, and by refolving thefe equa¬
tions, the value of thefe quantities will be found.
Having thus determined all the quantities P, £), R,
... Y, which enter into the fra&ion
p—i p—i
(P/ 4Q/ ...4Y>
(a; 4
its fluent may be found as ffiewn in § 109. But we
may alfo aflume it equal to
M a; ( M' a: t M"a;
_j 3^1
(*4*) (*4fl)
T x-\-a , .
and, it is eafy to fee, that by reducing thefe fra&ions to
Part II.
Inverfe a common denominator and adding them, the numerator
Method, of their fum will have the fame form as that of the frac¬
tion whofe fluent we are feeking; fo that the values of the
indeterminate quantities M, M', &c. will be found by-
putting the coefficients of the fame power of x in both
numerators equal to each other. To find the fluent of
M ft # #
We may a^ume x+a:=x, ^en w=2s, and
FLUXIONS.
alfo thofe of the other indeterminate coefficients are to
be found as before.
If the denominator of the propofed fraffion have fe-
veral equal faftors of the fecond degree refill ting from
its imaginary fimple‘fa6lors, fo that the product of thofe
equal fa&ors is
S' M x _r
M 55 M Z~P+z
M
i—/'
X1—/») (x + ay
In like manner
/
M' x
M'
(x+ay-* (2—/>)(x+a)r-*
and fo on, all the fluents being algebraic, except the
/IV^y • • A7
—— which is (■X’ + n), a logarithmic
fundlion.
113. In refolving the equation
+ A'*”-1 -f B'xn-\.. -f T=0,
it may happen that fome of its roots a, a\ a", &c. are
imaginary quantities, and then fome of the fimple fac¬
tors x-\-a, a?x-\-a", &c. will be imaginary. Thefe
faftors always occur in pairs (Algebra, § 179O and
have this form
X 1,
fo that their product
«+*—I,
is a real fadfor of the fecond degree. As every corre-
fponding pair of imaginary fimple faffors may be united
in this manner into a real faftor of the fecond degree,
if thefe faffors are all unequal, we may avoid introdu¬
cing imaginary quantities into the fluent of the propo¬
fed fraftion by proceeding thus. Let —1
and #-f-«—/3^/—1, denote two correfponding imagi¬
nary fimple factors of the denominator. Inftead of the
two fimple fractions
N *
N7 x -
* + "+£%/—1 ' x-\-a—(6^/—1’
which would have been aflumed if the factors had been
real, afiume a Angle fradlion
(K Ar-f- L)a?
-J- 2 * .r-j-S*
the denominator of which is a real fundfion of x of the
fecond degree, viz. that which is the produdl of the two
imaginary faftors. Here K and L denote two conllant
bnt indeterminate coefficients, the values of which, as
Vol. VIII. Part II.
(A?®+2«tf-}-«*-f/3*) J
then, correfponding to this produdf, we muft, among
the fradfions having indeterminate coefficients, affume
one of this form
( .. + Y')x
(.V*-f-2«a;-f-a1-J-yS*)2
where Q, R'... Y' denote conftant and indeterminate
coefficients, the values of which will be found in all re-
fpedts as thofe of the others.
We are now to find the fluents of thefe two fluxional
expreffions, beginning with the firft, viz.
(Kv-j-L)*;
(Ktf-j-L)#
+2<«v’ («-paJz_{-/3s'
Put = then it becomes
(Kss + L—.Ka'la;
and this again, by putting L—KasrzM, is refolved in¬
to thefe two fluxions
K isz Ms;
We can immediately find the fluent of the firfl: of thefe,
by putting -j-/3,z='y, for then zz=z—, and
2
y’ K rv
~ ~2j~V ~K ^1, V> (§ 103‘)}
=K W (ss'+i31)*
\^ith refpedt to the other fluxion, if wreput 25—y3w, we
have
Mz _ M y
~ 1 -\-y1 ’
but we have feen ($ 60.) that —is the fluxion of
an arch of which the tangent is y, therefore
7i+y*
/’M y
J T74^' = Varc (tan.=y)+conft.
M
7
= — arc (tan. =r -) -J-conft.
arch, then the fine of that arch is
It is proper to remark that if ^ be the tangent of an
/ /- TT > and its
V (* )
cofine is thus we may exprefs the fluent
5 under
738
FLUXIONS.
Inverfe Under difFerenfrform?, by introducing the fine or cofine
Method, of the arch inftead of its tangent.
v If inftead of % we fubftitute in thefe two fluents
we find that the fluent of — is
X2 2 ocX -j- fi2
K 1. .\/0v*+2«#+**+£*)
• ^—K*4 ✓ x4-x. ,
arc (tan. =—^—j -j- conft.
fi v ' £
114. To find the fluent of the expreflien
M'e firft transform it to
(KAr-i-L")^
(«* 4*2etx+‘*1 +/31)
r (X1 -f. 2ctX 4- ct2
(Kw...^4-lw...>\
'r »,4-2«.v4-«i4-)3*
(Ka: 4- L^.v
(K.r4-L).v
(A;*4-2a*4-**4-/31)7 ((•v4-‘»)^4-/5,)5 ’
where q denotes fome integer number. To Amplify this
expreflion put a?4-«=:5s, and L—Ktf=M, then it be-
(K2; X M)2
which we lhall now ftiew may be
comes
{%2+py
Part IT.
Gr 25
and another fun£fion, which Is the flu- MelhS.
ent of
(^4-/3*)
, that is, let us aflame
Gz . r H;
/’IViSS   ' p LlS
t—x t
where G and H ate conftant but indeterminate coeffi¬
cients. To determine thefe, let the fluxion of each fide
of this equation be taken (obferving that the fluxion os’
a quantity having the fignJ'prefixed to it is the fame
quantity only without that fign) j thus we have
Ms
Gs
2(9 1) G25125
{K'+a'y
(z14-/3*)<-1
H*
(25'4-/3j)
z \i—x >
and from this equation, by rejecting what is common to
each term, we find
M=G(2514-/3t)-2(?-T)G2524-H(2;14-£l).
where K, L, K7, I/, &c. denote indeterminate but and hence
conftant coefficients, which may be determined by re¬
ducing thefe fractions to a common denominator, and
proceeding as in the two preceding j J. Then the whole
difficulty is reduced to the finding of the fluxion of the
expreflion
M^G/^H^CG—2(7—i)G4.H)25* j
Therefore by comparing together like terms, we find
M=G/3*4-H/3*, G—2(q—l)G4-H=Oi
and from thefe equations we get
(27—3)M
G=
M
(2y—2)£!
H:
'(2?—2)/32’
Hz
Let thefe values of G and H be now fubftituted in ous*-
reduced to —
^ (25*4-^*)^1
we decompofe its fluent into two parts
. To effect this reduaion affumed e(luation’ and k becomes
Mz M
/K25Z f p i\
_(2»4-y3*)3 h/"(»*+py ‘
The fluent of the firft part may be immediately found
by putting 2;* 4-/2 2:=:i;; for then zzzz— and
M2;
/' Kzz __ s*Kv _ Ksi-4^*
^Tz2Tsry~J 2v* -2(1—vY
f~
y (252 4-/3 2 )’ (2?—2)/32 («*4-^ *)^2
. M (2q—3) p Z  
(2?—2)/32y (252 4-/S*)?-x‘
Thus we have reduced the determination of the fluent o£
—^i2 — to that of -—;—  and by proceeding
(2;* 4-/3*)* (2;2 4-/32 T"1’ ] * 6
in the fame manner with this laft fluxion, its fluent may
be made to depend on that of
but this
(5514- /3 2 )?_* ’
Let us now mppofe that the fluent of the fecond part will be more readily effeaed by limply fubftituting y—I
Ms . 1 . .1 r c xL 1 l • r £1* inftead of q, and fuppofing M=i in the preceding equa-
■ -rr- is equal to the lum of the algebraic funaion .. 1 r o r. & ^
(52* 4-/3*)* ' 8 tion.
Thus
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
Thus we fliall obtain
fiv'+py-'
(27—4)0* (»*+/3i)'-
(2y~5)
w—5) r 
(2y—4)/3V («*
Subftitutingnow this value
FLUXIONS,
be affigned either algebraically, or by means of arches
of a circle or logarithms; and that to prepare it for a
• folution, we muft decompofe the fraction into others,
whofe denominators may be either binomial or trinomial
quantities. This decompofition may always be effedled
by the method of indeterminate coefficients. There are,
however, feveral analytical artifices by which the labour
of calculation may be greatly ffiortened. Thefe we now
proceed to explain.
+/**)
in the
former equation, we have ^ -— equal to
(e*+/3*)*
M
(2y—1
C2^—3)M «
(2y—2) (2y—4)(34 *
■ C2?—3) C2?—5)m  * 
(2?—2) C2?—4)/s4y **
It is eafy to fee, that like as we obtained an expref-
lion for the fluent of t by fubfiituting q—1
for y, and fuppofing Mzr: 1, in the equation preceding
the laft but one $ fo by fubftituting q—2 for y, we ftiall
obtain an expreffion for the fluent of
Os’+^r-1
which expreffion will confifl: of two terms, one an alge-
. multi-
braic funftion of and the other C- 
7(2!l + /3l) 3
plied by a conftant and given coefficient. This value of
when fubftituted in the laft equation
O’+z^-
will
M:
produce an expreffion for f—- confiftinw of
algebraic quantities andJ^~T
. .  7-. By continu-
ing this procefs it is evident that we {hall at laft have
expreffed by a feries of algebraic quan-
• » Si
titles, andy^j-j--,, and here we muft flop, for if we
repeat the procefs with a view to make the fluent de-
2i f* •
pend on f— r.that is on / 2, or we (hall find
J {%*+(?) u ’
that the coefficient of this quantity becomes infinite. As
to the fluent of ——^—- we have exhibited the expref-
fion for it in laft
In comparing together the refults which have been
obtained in the preceding articles, it muft appear that
when a fluxion is exprefled by a rational fraction, if we
^rant the refolution of equations, the fluent may always
115. Let us recur to the fra&ion ~ and fuppofe
that x-\-a is one of the unequal fa&ors of the denomi¬
nator V, fo that we have V=: (x-j-o) Q. Let us now
put  Htt* A being fuppofed a conftant
V x-\-a
quantity, and P an indeterminate fun&ion of .v, but
fuch as not to be divifible by x-^-a. Then we have
U= A£)-f P (ar-j-fl), and hence P= ^As P
is an integer function with refpefl to x, it follows from
this equation that U—A£), which is alfo a rational and
integer function of x, is divifible by x-\-a, and confe-
quently has x-f-a for a fadtor j therefore, the function
U—AQ^ will vaniffi when we fubftitute —a in it inftead
of jc, feeing that —a is the value of x that makes the
fadtor tt-J-rtiro. Let us denote by u and y, what U
and Q become by this fubftitution, which however will
not aflfeft the indeterminate quantity A, becaufe it is
independent of x. We have therefore u—Ayrzro, and
confequently A — -.
7
This value of A requires that wre ffiould know the
fundlion Q given by the equation V— (x-{-a) Q, and
we may always find it by dividing V by o-j-A;. The
diredl method of fluxions affords alfo a very fimpie
method of determining it. For by taking the fluxion
of the above equation we have
V o
~ — Q.+(A;4‘fl) “ ?
X X
if in this refult we make x,-j-« = o, or xz= —a, and de-
V
note by v what — becomes by that fubftitution, we
x
{hall have v = q, and confequently A —
V
The expreffion A=r - has always a finite value, for
the numerator and denominator can never become =6,
becaufe we fuppofe the fradlion — reduced to its loweft
terms, and confequently, that themumerator U has not
for a fadtor tf-f-a, which is a fadtor of the denominator,
but which being contained in it only once does not enter
into Q_.
116. Let us now confider how the numerators of the
fradlions, into which the propofed fradtion yr is to be
decompofed, are to be found in the cafe of the denomi-
5 A 2 nator
74° FLUXIONS.
Inverfe nator V having equal fa£lors of the firft degree. In this
, Method. cafe We have VrrQ (.v-f-fl)”, and we afl'ume
£
T
A
» +
B
(*+«)”'
N
x-\-a
JP
{jx ciy1
By reducing to a common denominator, we find U
equal to
A+B (*+:^ +pc*+-)-
and P equal to
U—Q(A-f Bf^-fnl-f-C (a;-4-n)s .. .-f-N
(x+aT
and as P ought to be an integer fundlion of at, the nume¬
rator of itsvalue is neceffarily divifible n times fuccefiive-
ly by.r-j-fl,- therefore, that numerator ought to be
equal to o, when —a is fubftituted in it inftead of x.
Now this fubftilution being made, each of the terms of
the numerator which is multiplied by x-\-a vanilhes,
fo that there remains only U—A£), but that this quan¬
tity may be divifible by x-\-ay it is neceffary that
w—y A=o, where u and q denote the fame as in laft f,
hence Ar=
<1
This value of A changes U—£XA into U — - QP
which muft be divifible by x+a. I ^et us, with a view
to abridge, put U— — Q^rU' («-}-«), then fubftitut-
ing this quantity in the value of P, and dividing both
numerator and denominator by x-\-a, we have P
equal to
IP—&(B+C Q+a) ... +N Qv-Hy-*)
(tf + a)"-1
Now to obtain B we make w-j-arro, then, putting
2/ to denote what IP becomes by fubftituting —a in it
u'
in place of x, we have u'—q B—o, and B~ —.
Inftead of B let its value be fubftituted in IP—QB,
• • uf
and this quantity becomes IP £), which vaniftiing
when A:-}-fl=:o, will have x-\-a for a diviforj therefore,
u'
we may put IP — U" (a;-j-a), then, fubftituting
this laft quantity inftead of the former in the value of
P, and dividing the numerator and denominator by
we have P equal to
IP'—Q (C+D (.v+a) bN (x+ay-t)
(x —f- ct^ *
By continuing the fame mode of reafoning, and the
u"
fame notation, we find u"—q C=z:o, and Cr= —. And
. . $
fo on with the remaining quantities.
3
Part II.
The direct method of fluxions facilitates greatly the inverfe
preceding operations. For the numerator of P being Method,
divifible by (Ar-j-e/)’1 is neceflarily of this form X(tf-{-A;)re, ''“■““v—
X being an integer function of a;, but which does not
contain the fadlor A;-f-rt. Now agreeably to what has
been (hewn in § 88, the fucceflive fluxions of this nume¬
rator, as far as the ;;—1 order inclufive, vanifh when
x—a is fuppofed =0. By giving to the numerator the
following form
Q (!j" “A—B 0+fl) —C (* + «)* • • •)
and obferving that the fun$ion Q does not contain the
faftor x-\-a, it is manifeft that it is only the part of this
expreffion between the parenthefes which ought to be
divifible by (Ar-J-fl)". Let us put^= Z,then the fuccef-
five fluxions of that part are
Z—Ba?—2C (a?-|-o)a?—3 D (.v-j-fl)*# ...
Z—2 CaP—2 . 3D (a’ + a;) a?*'. ..
Z—2.3 Djc3 . . .
&q.
and thefe refults ought all to vanifh when we put,
A? 4-fl = 0. Thus we have
Z—A—o, and A— - f
<1
Z—Ba?=q, Br= •—
Z—2 Ca;*—0, C= —A,
2 A?2
Z—2.3 D *3:zro, D=
&c.
&c.
2.3a;3
z z
obferving that in each of thefe fun£iions —, , ws
x 2 x*
muft fubftitute —a inftead of x.
The moft fimple way to find the value of £) in this
cafe is to divide V by (A -f- /)", but we may alfo find
it by the direft method of fluxions, as in the preceding
§ ; for, fince V =r(A’-f-tf)”, if we take the fluxion
of each fide of this equation n times, and then make
A;-j-«=:o, we fhall find, § 88, the «th fluxion of V
equal to I . 2.3 .. . /z Q A1*, and confequently
nth flux, of V
  •
I . 2 ... n xn
ny. Let us now confider how we are to find the
numerator of the fra&ion which forms a part of
when it has this form
A a'+B
Af14" 2 ^ ^ 4'4"
Affume
FLUXIONS.
Fait II.
Inverfe
Method.
A flu me
U_ A.v + B
v"
+ ;
then, reducing the latter part of this equation to a
common denominator, we find
U=£) (A ‘V + B)+P (tf*-f 2 «#-{-(**-f#’).
Hence we deduce
p U—Q(A;y-f-B)
x*2 « a;-j-«z+/3l
As P is fuppofed to be an integer function with
refpeft to x, it follows that U—(A .r-f-B) is divili-
ble by a;*-{-2 «#-{-<**-J-/3* j therefore, the former of
thefe two quantities muft contain among its faftorsthofe
of the latter, and the quantities, which, being fubftitu-
ted for x, caufe the latter to vanilh, muft alfo make the
former vanifh. But the faftors of A?l-j-2«x-J-«I-|-/3r
arex-f-cs-j-/3 x/—I, anci *’ + <*—Z3 x/—1> anci thefe,
being put each ~0, gives us x~ — («-{-/3x/ —0> and
x—— (a—x/—1)> therefore, each of thefe values of
x being fubftituted in U—Q^(A.r-J-B) ought to make
that quantity vanifh. Let us denote by udtzu' —I,
and by yr±zy'>y/—i what U and Q refpe£tively be¬
come when —(«=±=/3 /^/—i) is fubftituted in each in-
ftead of x, then, after this transformation, we have
<r-
uz*z:u' —11
A («=±=/3 x/—O + B ^ =:0'
This equation is twofold, becaufe of the fign r±rwith
which feveral of its terms are affe6ted, and it is equiva¬
lent to thofe which would be formed by putting the
real part equal to o, and the imaginary part =0 j from
this confideration we have
«4-y«A—i/'A—y B=ro,
«'-(-y/3 A-J-y'ec A—y'BzrO,
two equations which give us the values of A and B.
The fun&ion may be found as in §115. For,.if
we take the fluxions of each fide of the equation
Q (x1+2*A.’-f*,+/3,)=.V,
and afterwards make
X* “L Q ct X —-f- /3*—_0,
we find (2 xx-f-2 « a;)=:V and hence
CL X X CL o& X
Let the two values of x, to wit —v/-> ), be
fubftituted inftead of it in this equation, then, putting
/— v
vziz.v' x/—1 to denote what the expreflion — becomes
x
by that fubflitution, and waiting qr±zq' —1 inftead
of Q, we have
=+=2/3 x/—1
which, by multiplying the terms of the fradlion on the
latter fide of the equation by x/—becomes
741
Hence by putting the real parts of each fide of this
equation equal to each other, and alfo the imaginary
parts equal to each other, we find
v' t  v
2/3'’ ^ — 2/3 ’
118. If the fa&or »*+2«eA?-f is found feveral
times in the denominator of V, fo that
V=Q^(x2-f 26tA?-j-<e*-}-/31)", then, § 113, we aflume
in this cafe — equal to
Ax-fB A'x+B'
(x*-f2«X+«1+/3*)n + (x2-j-2«X + «i + /S-)n"X
A"x-f-B" P
reducing this expreflion to a common denominator, and
fo ordering the equation as to bring P to ftand alone on
one fide, we find P equal to
Try A.X —B —^ —j—B') —j—2flC.V +**+/3l) 7
j 4- (A^ + B") (xa-f-2«x-fx,+/3i)L y
(xz-+-2 ee X -\-
By reafoning in this as in the preceding cafe, it may
be concluded that the numerator of this expreflion
ought to vanifti when —(« I is fubftituted in
it inftead of x; therefore putting w^tzu'^J—1, and
yrhry'x/—1 to denote the fame things as before, we
deduce from that fubftitution
  I 1_o
(-A +B) J
the very fame equation for the determination of A and
B, as we have already found in laft
Having found the valuesof thefe quantities, they may
be fubftituted in the numerator of P, and, the terms
U—.£) (Ax-f-B) becoming divifible by x2-}-2i*x-f-«3
-j-/§2, the whole expreflion becomes divifible by the
fame quantity. Calling therefore U' the quotient
arifing from the divifion of U—£) (A x -j- B) by
#2-f-2 we have P equal to
U'—Q[ A'x-f-B'-f (A"v-f B")(xz-|-2xx-f-xt-f/3z)...]
If in this numerator we fubftitute inftead of x its va¬
lues deduced from the equation x*-\-2ct>x + «*+/3* = o,
and;put the refult=:0, we may determine A' and B' in
the very fame way that we have already determined
A and B, and by proceeding in this manner we lhall
find the remaining coefficients A", B'/, &c.
This cafe is quite analogous to that which has been
already treated in § 116, and the direfl method of
fluxions applies to it in the fame manner as to the other.
For fince does not contain the fa61orxz-|-2atv-f-«2-p./3*0
if the numerator of P be divided by the fun&ion £1, the
refult, which may be denoted by r, ought to be of this
^ form
%
742 FLUX
InveiTe form X (ft;12« A?and confequently
,Method- ought to vanifti, as well as all its fluxions, from
' v firfl order to the n—I order, inclusively, when
A?a-j-2«.v-j-o*-j-^l=o j this being the cafe, we have
theie equations,
o, rrro, r—o,...
and io on to the r?—i fluxion of r, which ought alfo to
be =o ; each of thefe equations becomes twofold when
we lubflitute, inftead of x, the values of which it is fuf-
ceptible in coniequence of the equation x* -)-2 eix-[~ctr
By putting the real and the imaginary parts
leparately rro, we (hall obtain as many equations as
are fufficient to determine A, B, A', B', &c.
It may alio be remarked, that from the equation
we find £) equal to the quotient arifing from the divi-
fion of the »th fluxion of V by the »th fluxion of
obferving to aflume
x* -\-2 a, uc-J-«2 -j-/31=:o.
1x9. We ftiall now give fome applications of what
has been faid relative to the fluents of rational fra&ions.
Suppofe the fra&ion to be
x
.v8-f-x"1—x*—a;5 ?
The faflors of its denominator are eafily found, for it
may be put under this form
*5(a'S+a:4—x—C*+i) (a?4—1),
the fa&or a:4—-1 may be decompofed into x'1—1 and
or ^and a?2-f-1, thus we have the
denominator equal to
ac3 (at—1) (a?+i)* (A;2-f-i)
therefore (§ in, § 112, and § 113.) the propofed
fraftion is to be decompofed as follows
D#
x
Ax ( Ba: t Cx
X 1 (AT-f-l)2 «-f-I
, Eac i Fa: t (GAr-j-H)*
+ “ + ~ + —i+—
By reducing thefe fraftions to a common denominator,
and comparing the numerator of their fum with that of
the propofed fradlion, we might determine the unknown
quantities A, B, C, &c. we (hall, however, rather em¬
ploy the methods that have juft been explained.
Bycomparing this particular example ^ 
a:8-|-a?7—a?4—A?3
with the general expreflion it appears that U;_I}
and YzrA^-f-A'’5—a?4—xK Firft let us inveftigate the
A
•■siumeratcr of the fraftion   , and for this purpofe
we employ the formula A=r^-(§ 115.). As we have
it is evident that j and fiace V=r.v»-f-x7
t 0 N s.
Part IT,
—a;4—a;3, therefore-? =8^+7^—4.v3_3«2. If in Method.
this expreflion we fubftitute +1 inftead of a? (viz. the v
value of x deduced from the equation a;—1=0) we find
the refult to be 8, therefore ^=8. So that
A= « _ £ and A _ 1 i_
“ 8’ x—1 8 x—1*
Let us next inveftigate the values of B and C in the
B C
fractions an^ by means of the rule of
§ 116, and that we may make the fymbols exprefling
the quantity under confideration agree with thole em¬
ployed in that formula, let us exchange the letters B
and C for A and B, fo that we are to confider ——
(AT+I)2
+ —;—• 1° the firft place we have
«-j-1 r
  a;8-{-a;7—a;4—a;5
ft-  =*■>-*!+*♦_*■ ;
Put a;-|-is:o, then x—i j fubftituting now this value
of a? in the value of <£, the refult is 4=7, therefore
. z/ x
-A-— - = —. Let this value of A be fubftituted for A
9 4
in the expreflion for U7 in the § above cited, and we have
jj,  U—AQ 4—a:6-J-a;5—A;4-j-A'3
az+i 4(^ + 0
_ —a:5-}-2x4—3a?3 -f 4X2—4A?-f-4
4
Hence putting —1 inftead of x in the expreflion for IP,
we have u'=: - and B=r-= 2. Thus the two frac-
2 q q
tions under confideration are found to be 2. ^— anci
4
9 1
tt* ——. We might have deduced the value of B from
o A?-)-1
the formula B=-? , § 116, where Z is put for ii,
x (£
for we have
(£ {x6-—Xs 4- X^—X3'
2  6x*—5 a;4 d-qA?3—3 x:
and —— “
v (x6—xs -}- at4—x3 )*
If in this expreflion we fubftitute—1 inftead of at, it
18
becomes the fame value for B as before.
10 o
. D E F
Let us now confider the fra&ions — -j { > or
x} 1 x2 x
exchanging the fymbols D, E, F for A, B, C,
*3+Af2+ir
The numerators A, B, C may all be found from thefe
formulas of § 116.
A~
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
A U 7 T) Z _
H ' b-T’
FLUX
z
1.2X*
obferving that in this cafe Q==;es-{-A?4—x—I; and that
we mult fubftitute o inftead of x in each formula, after
taking the fluxions. Now we have
z=u=
—x——!*
Z _ 5 *4-!-4 x*—i
x ~ Xxt+x'—x—iy*
Z_ zoxi-lf-iix*
•xt~ (x!+x*—x—iy
+ 2 (5a:4 + 4^3—i)*.
(«s-|_;v4—x—I)3 ?
Hence putting x=ot we find
A=—i, B=-fi, C=—r,
fo that
a;3 ' a;* "4" » w3 x* x
. , . r,. Gx+K Aw+B
T here yet remains the fraction —— , or —— to
J X'+I Af*+I
be confidered. It may be found by fubtra&ing the fum
of all the others from the propofed fraftion •, we proceed,
however, to find it direftly by the formulas of § 117.
In the firft place we have —*4—x* j next,
the faftor being put =0 gives xzzzz^z-yj—1
«=0, /8r=o. Hence we find
qz±zq' tj—1 =r—2i±=2 sf—1) and u'—o.
The equations which determine A and B thus become
I-j-2 A+2 Bno, 2 A—2B—Q,
therefore A~Bz= , and
4
Aff-f-B  1 x -}-1
a;2-}- 1 ~ 4 * a;2^-! ’
Thus, upon the whole, the propofed fraction
IONS; , 743
The union of alt the algebraic terms produces the inverfe
,•> 2 C • • Method,
fraftion r-, and that of the logarithmic u—
4A;1—(i+a;)
quantities gives
Il.C*—1)+| 1.<A?+I)+1. C* + l)
— |i- C^+i)—i*x
■ ■4'-6S)+''(:i4'
We have therefore upon the whole J^~T~r~q~~lr V
DC9 —f- X' ,mmm,X '
equal to
2-—2
4;
— 2 X 5 X* 1 /A’1 IV
.a;* (i+at) "^*8 ’
(X -J- I \ I
xj- - arc (tan. =zx) -f- conft.
120. When a fluxion is a rational fraflion having:
either of thefe forms
xHc+za"* x%nz±z2panxn+an'
we can always, by the application of a particular theo¬
rem in analyfis, refolve its denominator into real fa&ors
of the firft and fecond degrees. The theorem to which
we allude is this. Let n be any pofitive integer, and
let 2; denote any arch of a circle, of which the radius is
unity, then
(cof. 2s=±=\/—1 fin. »)”=cof. n •zz±z*J —1 fin. n ss.
We proceed to prove this theorem. Becaufe
'—x fin. ss) (cof. ‘z,——x fin.
cof.* 2;-{-fin.* 2;=zi.
If we put cof. %-z^ZsJ—I fin.
Then cof. zz+z s/ —1 fin. z~- ;
(cof. %•
*8-{-a:7—.r4-
is decompofed into the following Therefore taking the fum of thefe two equations,
I A? I
8 * x—1"^4
A? A?
“ ^T+^* ~
(AT+I)* 8 A?-f-I
X I (A-j-l'lA:
X 4 A;* -{-1
The manner of finding the fluent of each of thefe has
been already explained, and the refult of taking all the
fluents is
li. (*—1)—I
AJ-f- I
+ !'• (*+»)+[
— I (a;* -{- 1) — ^ arc (tan. =a:)+ conft. J
2 cof. 2;—‘0-4--. *
v
Now by the arithmetic of fines, (Algebra, § 358.)
2 cof. 2 Z— 2 (2 cof. 53 X cof. x—1),
2 cof. 3 is==2 (2 cof. z X cof. 2 z—cof. z),
2 cof. 4 z=2 (2 cof. Z X cof. 3 z—cof. 2 z),
2 cof. 5 s;=:2 (2 cof. z X cof. 4 2;—cof. 3 z),
&c.
Therefore, fubftituting in the firft of thefe equations
inftead of 2 cof. z, we have-
1 v
2 cof,
744
Inverfe
Method.
cof. 22;=:0+-^0+-i-)—2
=^ + -r-
FLUXIONS. PartIr
from that in which it is odd, we (hall write for the firft inverfe
Swz, and for the fecond 2 j we therefore make Method.
n%=z2m7r, and nz—(2m-{-i) t.
By the firft hypothefis, we find
yn=: + i,y=cof.
In like manner, fubftituting in the fecond equation,
^4 inftead of 2 cof. and i»24--L inftead of 2 and by the fecond
v v*
cof. 2z, we have
2mv /  2nvx
I l~ V fin.-——,
of- 3^(--+v)^ + ^)-(-+v) y=cof.<^±i2l + vC^
Proceeding in the fame way with the third and follow¬
ing equations, we find
2 Cof. 4 25=^44-—»
2 cof. C iZ=Z»s 4- -4- :
lo that we may conclude in general that
2 cof. nz~vn 4- — ;
‘ vn ’
122. By means of the indeterminate number m, each
of thefe expreffions for y furnifhes all the values of
which this quantity is fufceptible, for we may take fuc-
eeflively
tfzno, /n—1, to=2, to=3, &c»
The firft formula gives
y=cof. ^ ^ —1 fin.
&c.
Hence we have this quadratic equation
v1"—2 cof. ns X S'" -f i—0,
from which, by completing the fquare, we find
tt"—cof. (cof.1 nz—1) j
therefore, by fubftituting for v the quantity it was put
to reprefent, and obferving that -y/ (cof.1 nz 1)
= \/ (—fin.1 nz)=AK/—i fin. nz, we have
(cof. z=+=*J—i fin. z)n=cof. nz=±=y/mj fin. nz,
as was to be proved.
121. The funaion .v" =iro« is transformed to
a7t (yn —I—i) by putting x~ay, and to difcover its
fadors, we mult refolve the equation
yndtz \ —o.
The expreflion y~ cofi fin. ^ fat;sfies this
equation, by a very fimple determination of the arch 2;
for we have yn — (cof. 2; fin. z')n as Cof. n z
-Y-J—1 fin. «ss, and as by putting ir to denote half
the circumference, and to any whole number, we have
(Algebra, § 352)
fin. tow—o, cof. tow—=tri,
where the fign + is to be taken, if to be an even num¬
ber, but if it be odd, we have only to fuppofe n z
—tow, in order to obtain ?/«.— —i.
That we may diftinguiih the cafe in which to is even,
It is evident that we fhall always have different refults
as far as m—n—1. If, however, we fuppofe m—n j
then we have y—co{. 2 w=i, which is the fame as the
firft of the values already obtained, and if we fuppofe
to—then (Algebra, § 25,)
Cof. cof. (2*-+ -)= C0f.iT
« K ^ n ) n'
o" (2«4“2)w r _ . 2w\ _ 2w
Sm. —fin. (2^4 ) — fin.—,
n K n ) n’
which is the fame as the fecond value, and fo on with
refped to the others.
By this mode of proceeding we (hall not only obtain
the /z roots of the equation yn~if or yn i = o, but,
with a little attention, we fhall difcover that thefe roots
may be arranged in pairs, by bringing together thofe
that only differ in the fign of the radical ^—1 j for
fince
Cof. (2w—■p') — cof. />, and fin. (2w—-/>)=—fin./>,
it follows that
y= cof.iiT=^T+
n ji
r 2to w /  2 TO w
_ cof. —x fin,   .
n n
Hence it appears that we may comprehend all the roots
of the equation yn—izzo in the fingle expreflions
v~
Part IT
Inverfe
Method.
y-cot
1 m x
n
:,s/—i fin.
inix
by giving to m only thefe values
n
O, I, 2, .... -
if n is even, and thefe values
O, I, 2, . . . -
FLUXIONS. 745
The firft and the lad of the faftors of the fecond de- Inverfe
gree are the fquares of y—I, and faiftors of the Method,
firft degree, each of which only enters onee into the '"1" v " J
propofed funflion j it will therefore be neceffary, wdien
we employ the factors of the fecond degree, to reje£l
the firfl: and lafl, and take inftead of them
O—r) (3'+1)=/—i*
if n is odd ; and it may be obferved that in the form¬
er cafe the laft value of y is
yizzcot. x——i,
becaiife that then the equation yv—1=0 has two real
roots.
The two values comprehended in the formula,
1m x
-■Mmx , t  „
yrrcol. {- V —l un.-
give for favors of the firft degree of the quantity if—I,
the two imaginary expreflions
The factors of the firft degree of the function y* I
j,—(cof.ipirV—i
Thofe of the fecond degree are
y*—2y+I,
* r lx
y—2 y cof. -j- +1,
y—Cc°fi
y—(cof.
imx
n
irnx
f V71
-I fin.
V —i fin
%
n /
)•
y'—iy
cof. 4
+ i
imx
and the product of thefe is the expreffion
- .imx
y—2y col. {-I,
which comprehends all the real faffors of the fecond
degree.
As an example of the formula
but it is to be obferved that the firft fa£tor of the fe¬
cond degree is the fquare of y—i, which enters only
once into the propofed function.
123. When the function to be decompofed into fac¬
tors is y’-f-i, the formula
3,=cof.(-^+A
+ v/—xfin.
^ircof.
imx
V—1 fin.
2 m x
the fimple factors, or thofe of the firfl; degree, contain¬
ed in the function y6—1 will be
y—1
y_(cof.^V=Ifin.^)>
yd-1-
The formula
* r 2W7r
^ —2yC0f. —-f I
gives as fa&ors of the fecond degree
S'*—23' + I»
r 2,r 1
y 1 y coh -g b 1 >
3,*_2yc°f. —b T»
/ + 2y+I*
Vol. VIII. Part II.
which correfponds to that cafe (§ 121.) is alfo fofcep-
tible of the double fign ^±r, provided we flop at the
value of m which gives
2 7/z-j-1=77, or 2 m-\-\—n—1,
according as n is odd or even 5 hence it follows that
n—2
:
the faflors of the firft degree are
y—(cof.
(im-{-i)x_
z+y —1 fin.
(27«+i);r
)•
and thofe of the fecond
_ . . Clm-i-fx ,
2y COL-   [-1.
When among thefe lafl; there is found fome which are
fquares, we muft take only one of their fimple fadlors,
in the fame way as in the two preceding examples.
When the function is
the fa&ors of the firft degree are
'-I fin. A
y—(cof.^:
y—(cof. —1 fin
■H-)
sB
and
746
Inverfe and thofe of the fecond,
Method.
tf—^y cof- -+1*
if—2y cof. “-f I,
FLUXIONS.
and tve immediately find
y"——cof. fin. 5 j
we now affume, as in § 121,
y=rcof. as^t: — 1 fin.
Part II.
Inverfe
M ethod.
3'*+2y+I-
The function y6-}-1 ^ias f°r favors of the firft de¬
gree
y—(cof.
then we find (§ 120),
y”=:cof. n zz±z V—1 fin. n z,
which expreflion for y”, being compared with its other
value, gives
cof. n 3—cof. S, fin. «iz—fin.
y—(cof. ^=±=x/—I fin.
y—(cof. fin.
and thofe of the fecond,
y*—2y cof. 1,
y* 2 y cof. or y*-|-i,
y’~2y cof. ^-f1*
124. Such funftions as are of this form x*n-f-2jpxn
-}-y may be treated in the fame manner as thofe which
confift of only two terms. By putting the function rro,
and refolving the equation which is thus produced, in
the fame manner as if it were of the fecond degree, we
find the fadfors to be
*” + (/>—\/ (/’*—?)) i
if p* exceed y, the fecond term of thefe fadtors is real,
and by making
O1—7),
rve have the fundtions of the form
x=t=an
to decompofe into fadlors.
When then we put p—an, q—b1*, x^b yy
and the fundtion becomes
pin y*» _j_ 2 o” bn yn + bln
=^'I(y*"-f^-yM-fI) ;
but the condition pi^Lq, or a%n^Lbln, makes nn ^ hn}
an an
and -pe^Lr, therefore may be reprefented by the
cofine of a given arch £, and the propofed fundtion will
be reduced to
c„r. s+i),
we have then only to refolve the equation
y^-f-Sy" cof. o,
Thefe relations will be fatisfied if we fuppofe nz
=2»z-j-S, fn being any whole number whatever, for
cof. (2 w ir-|-5)=:cof. 5, fin. (2/n 7r-f-^)=rfin. £ ;
we have therefore
2 m 7r-j-5
n *
r 2m7r4-} . /  2/ww4-5
y=col.   —ztZ/^y —1 fin. „
n n
The fadtors of the firft degree of the fundtion
y* —|— 2 y cof. ^ 1
will confequently be comprehended in this formula,
fin. 2?L’+*
J n n
If p the coefficient of the fecond term of the pro¬
pofed fundtion be negative, the only change necefiary
is to make p-=z—a!‘, and to take the arch 3 greater thau
a quadrant.
Of the Fluents of Irrational FunBions.
125. When a fluxionary expreflion involves irrational
fundtions, we muft endeavour either to transform it into
another that is rational, or to reduce it to a feries of
m #
irrational terms of this form Aa?*#, and then, in either
cafe its fluent may be found by the rules already deli¬
vered.
Let us take for example the fluxion 
1 3 V#
It is evident that by putting x—z6, all the extradlions
indicated by the radical figns may be effedled, and the
fluxion may be transformed to  -..)z which,
I -}-25l 7
by dividing the numerator by i-f-a;1, may beotherwife
exprefled thus,
-~6Cz,z—z6z—z5z4- z4z—z'z 4-^  —).
T T i + W
The fluent of which is
. rz* z7
t —arc
^ z7 256 1 z
^ 5 3
-j-z—arc (tan. =z)
}
+ conjl.
126.
Part II. FLUX
Inverfe 126. We {hall firft confider fuch fluxions as contain
Method, the irrational fun&ion + and which
' have neceffarily one or other of thefe forms.
XaV(A4-B* + C*’),
X being put for any rational function of x ; and it may
be remarked, that the latter form comprehends the for¬
mer, which may be written thus :
Xtty'CA + Bx-fCV)* v/(A+B*-l-Ctt»)
_ X(A + B^-f-C**)A? _
~ r7(A+Ex-}-C^) ’
and here the numerator of the fluxion is a rational func¬
tion of#.
Before we transform the expreflion \/(A-J-Ba;-}- C#2)
into another that is rational with refpeft to the va¬
riable quantity it contains, we fliall put the quantity
A+B.r-f-Car* under this form,
C (+ 7T X+x'^J J
IONS.
Let us now affiime
\/(x—*) («'—x) ~(x—ci)%,
then fquaring both fides of the equation it becomes
divifible by x—», and we have «1—x~{x—tt) a*, from
which we find
. s (u!—os’) a
*= i^+r>
7+7
tnverfe
Method.
x —
2(«—ct'^ZZ
(s^ + O*
values which render the propofed fluxion
X^ . ,
— >■ . =r pr-rr rational.
^(A -j- Ba; -I-Cjc )
127. Let us now take for example the fluxion
A*
; by applying to it the firft of the
—2*
v/(A+B*-f C*2)'
preceding transformations it becomes
c(2Z—Z')
, the
'( C “T C
and, in order to abridge, we fliall put
A B
 C t "o'   "> ~Q  
then we have
V'C A-f-B a;-f C a;* )VC5^4-«*•)
Let us now aflume \/ {^a-\-bx-\-x1') =rAr-4-^, then,
fquaring both fides of the equation, we find a^-bx±:
2 A? 25-}-25% hence we get X— an(1 confequent-
(a Z>25-}-2*\
v/CA-f-BAJ + CA:1)^ (x+zj = c ^ - J
• 2 (a—bz-{-z1')z
x~ (~2^b~y '
Xx
By means of thefe values the fluxion
is transformed into another fluxion Ziz, where Z de¬
notes a rational funftion of i8, which is real when C or
c* is pofitive •, but as when C is negative c becomes
imaginary, the fluxion Z2; which involves c becomes
alfo imaginary.
In this cafe we have to confider ^(A-|-Ba;—Ca?2),
and making
A B ,
C—c , —£ —z»,
it becomes c ^/(a+bx—x1). The quantity x*—bx—a
mav always be decompofed into real fadlors of the firft
degree 5 let us reprefent thefe fadtors by at—<*, and
x—«!, then it is evident that
n^bx—x1— — (x'—bx—a)
— (a? x) (x1 a?).
fluent of which is —- 1. (22;—b)-\-con/l. Subftitut-
ing now for 2; its value —a;-(-\/ + and for
a, by and c, the quantities they feverally reprefent, the
fluent becomes
-J W-fc-^c )]
VC I s/C \+2^/(A-{-BA;4-CA:e) / r
a refult to which we may alfo give this form,
=bir^-A;'/c |
v*- L-f^A-fBAr-fCA?2) J
+ 1.
VC
conjl.
By uniting the conftant quantities into one, and ob-
ferving that the radical quantity y'C may have the fign
z±z prefixed to it, we have at laft
f-,
v'(A+B*-+C?)eqUaU0
VC ^ 2VC (A-f-Bx-l-CV) ^
-}- conjl.
128. Let us take for the fecond example
By employing the latter trans-
V^A-I-Ba?—Ca;*)
formation of § 126, we have
-2SS
fluent is
<«* + !)
, of Avhich the
 arc (tan. rrjz) -f- conjl.
Subftituting now inftead of % its value
 at)
—A / deduced from the equation —x~{x—«)2;*,
V (a?—«)
5 B 2 and
748
Inverfe _ /•»
Method, and putting y'C fur f, we J-
FLUXIONS.
equal to
-v/( A -}-14 x— C x%)
2 / —%')\
cc and m! being the roots of the equation
B
A
x CX ~C~0'
Let us fuppofe that A=C—i and B=o, then the pro-
pofed fluxion becomes in this particular cafe —~X-—-t
and the preceding formula gives for its fluent —2 arc.
/ \/ (i—a;)\
^tan—_j_rj J "1" conjt. for et and ct' being the
roots of the equation x*—i = o, we muft take x~ j,
and i.
We may, however, give this fluent another form
by proceeding thus : Let v be the arch whofe tan.
>v/(i—x) . , i
= —— then tan/^rr-
i+x
2 2
l ~
Part 1J,
without aflFedling the generality of the expreflion. Inverfe
s ^ Method.
For if we had x^ x^a-^-bx12)^, we may aflume
then x~6z5%t and the fluxion becomes 6 "z1 •%
P
(tf-f-fe3) q. We may alfo fuppofe « to be pofitive, for
if it were negative, fo that the fluxion were x™—1 x
P
(a + bx~-n>> q we have only to affume ivrr—, and the
fluxion is transformed to —<z m—lz(<a-\-,zn)q,
Let us inquire in what cafe the fluxion xm 1 x
P
{a + bxn) q may become rational. Affume a-\-bxn~%i
t ? m ’
then (a-f — ssF, xn— —Z~a , xm:=^Zf'jn
■x i — tan.1 v
, and x  
i -f- tan.2 v
1 — 2 cof.2 v — i, but
q q—i / q \ - —j .
and xm 'x——^ ^ % a J n z . bence the pro-
I -j- tan.2 v * lec.2 v
2 cof.2 v—i — cof. 2 v (Algebra,'§ 358.), therefore,
.-v=cof. 2 v. Put s for the arch whofe fine is x, and tt
for half the circumference, then ivncof. (4 *■—0,
therefore 2v=^7c-—s, and fince it has been fhewn. that
f—y.—“—rr ——2 V4- confl. therefore f- — 
^ \/(1—x ) _ ^ x/(i—x*)
—S—~7tr-\-cori//. or, by including the arch 4^ in the
conftant quantity= Tlljs con_
clufion agrees with what has been fhewn in § 59.
Inftead of finding the fluent of
pofed fluxion is transformed to
X^+2-1* (*q~a f‘_I
nb ~ \ b J 5
this expreflion is evidently rational as often as — is a
n
whole number.
There are yet other cafes in which the fluxion may
become rational, and which may be determined by af~
fuming a-^bx'l~xnu‘l) thus we have
* =X-A> *”=
-^-b]~4 
\t (A-J-Biv—C.v2) c^ia+bx—xz)
by firfl; transforming it to a rational expreflion, we may
reduce it dire&ly to an arch of a circle by proceeding
as follows. Put x — -=!2> then x=z, and the fluxion
is transformed to again, put a-f^2
=£■*, and z=gu, then z=gu, and this laft fluxion is
” q 3 •
i—i • —q axu u
X—     
n[u 1—b') « "h1
, and becaufe that (a—bx‘")q
P
oq up
2
{uq-y
formed to
the fluxion x’1 1 x (a-f is trarX
transformed to
c*y —a2)’
the fluent of which is
21A P
n ' 9 P-TQ—I *
—qa * ul 1 u
-arc {hvL. — u)-\-conJl.
Of the Fluents of Binomial Fluxions.
129. Let us now confider fuch fluxions as have this
form
t
x^-'xta+bxfV,
and which are fometimes called binomial faxions. We
may here fuppofe m and n to be whole numbers,
VI i)
-+H-i
n {uq—b) n q
an expreflion which is rational if — + ~ *s a whole
number. 1
130. As it is not poflible, in every cafe, to exprefs
P
in finite terms the {osra\x\zJ'x1'1^1 x{-a-\-bxn')q, we
may try to reduce it to its moft Ample cafe, as we have
done
Part II.
Inverfe
Inverie # /■•
Method, done with refpe^t to y .
FLUXIONS.
. r , f , m—n \ f x,n xx ~
in § 114, which we { i-f-7 — ) /
V ^ (p + l)riJJ
tn—ia
M *
O+O'
i 1 C xm~n(a+bxny^ 1
have fucceeded in reducing to/- To effedt this    4 „ . , .
6 Jz'+/S' + «(/«_») f xm-n-xx (a-t-bxn)r f
'-(-/S1 (P+
redu£Hon, we remark, that, fince when u and v denote
any fundtions of a variable quantity, the fluxion of u v hence at laft we get
is«-z»4-^«, (§ 37.) therefore/'uv—uv Now (A)
p J'xm~1x {a-\-bxn')rz=:
if we can decompofe the expreflion .vm_I x ((i-\-bxn') ^ f n
into two faftors, fuch that we can find the fluent of one 1 ^ xn ?\a-]rbxn')^
of them, then denoting that faftor by and the other
by w, the fluent of the propofed fluxion will be made to
depend on that of vu, which in fome cafes will be
more Ample than the propofed fluxion. That we may
P
abridge a little the refults, we (hall write /> inftead of—,
fo that p will reprefent any fraction ) the propofed
fluxion thus Amplified in its form is
j f x,n-n{a+bxn)P+x y
b{pn+m)\—a(m—n) C xm 71 lx {a-\-bxn'f f
xm 1 x c«+^-y.
It is eafy to fee that, as we have, by this formula,
reduced the determination of the fluent of xm 1 x
(a-\-bxny to that of xm n 1 x {a-\-bxn')p, we may re¬
duce this laft to that of xm 272 1 x(<a-\-bxn)p by writ¬
ing 77i—n in place of m in equation (A), then by
changing m into m—In we may reduce the fluent of
In general, if r denote the number of redudiions, we
ftiall at laft come to
A n j*/r r ri • .v o • ^ 1 ^(« + ^'»")'1’to that of .1 a; f>.
Among the ditxerent ways or reiolving this nuxion fo on
into two fadtors, we (hall choofe that which diminifhes
the exponent of .v without the parenthefes, we therefore
write the fluxion thus
xm-n ^ r»7-i x
now the fluent of the fadlor k"-1 x (a-\-bxny may
always be determined, whatever be the value of jo, by
§ 108 ; let us denote this fadtor by v, then
/
(a+lxny+1-
v=z\  —r, and uzzxm ,
{p + i)nb'
thus the formula J' uv—uv—J' vu give us ^xm~1 x
(a-\-bxny equal to
xm~*' (a + bxny+r
(p+i)nb
— T~—r~r fxm~n-T x (a-\-bxny+'.
{p+i^nbj
But: 1 x {a-\-bxny+t~
f x (^a-\~b xny {a -\-b xn') —
a v”'-”-1 x (n + ^ •v")p
bj'xm~x x {a-\-b xny j
Subftituting now this laft value in the preceding
equation, and colledling into one the terms involving
the fluentyV*-T x {a-\-bxny, we And
2
xm rn xx(a-\'bxn')p, and the laft formula will be
yv^-o-1)*-1 x {a-\.bxny-
x”i—rn(ajrbxny+t
b{pn~\-m—{r—1)«)
a (m—i'n)j' xT‘
i(<a+bxn)p
b (/>« m—(r— l)n)
It appears by the laft formula, that if is a multiple
cf n, thenJ" xm will bean algebraicquan-
tity, for in that cafe the coefficient tn—rn will be rzo,
and therefore the term containing J'xm ,n 1 x
(a-f-^^n)p will vanilh. This refult coincides with what
we have already found, § 129.
131. We may alfo obtain a redudlion, by which the
exponent p will be diminilhed by unity. For this pur-
pofe it is fufficient to obferve that J' xm 1 x (^a-\-bxny
is equal to
J' xm X x(a-\-bxn)l> 1 {a-\-bxn') —
a j'x"1 1 x (a Jfbxn)/ x
-f bf x^-'x (a+bxn)t-1,
and that the formula (A) by changing rn into tn-f-n,
and p into p—1 gives
f x
749
Inverfe
Method,
FLUXIONS.
75°
Tnverfe
Method.
x (a+bxn) *-'=
xm(a+bxny=:a mpc’"-'xta+bx")*-'
b{pn-\-m)
Subftitute now this value in the preceding equation,
we have
(B)
f xm~l x{aJt-bxny=.
xm(a-{-bx «)p-\-p n aj'xm~'1 x{a i«n)^—I
pn-\-m
By means of this general formula we may take away
fucceflively from p as many units as it contains, and by
the application of this formula, and formula (A), we
may caufe the fluent to clePencl on
pxm rn 1 x(a-\-bxn')l> xj rn being the greatefl: mul¬
tiple of r contained in m—I, and s the greateft whole
number contained in p.
. x
The fluentyVx(a+ £a:s) 2, for example, may, by
the application of formula (A), be reduced fucceflively
to
• £ „ • s
/*** an^/'xx(^a-\-bx'i'):,'1
. s
and by formula (B)/a?a? is reduced fuc¬
ceflively to
. J . -r-*
Px x^a-^-bx'ytyan&pxx(a-\-bx'i')'L.
132. It is evident, that if m and n were negative,
the formulas (A) and (B) would not anfwer the pur-
pofe for which they have been inveftigated, becaufe, in
that cafe, they would increafe the exponents inftead of
diminifliing them. If, however, we reverfe them, we
lhall find that they then apply to the cafe under confi-
deration.
From formula (A) we get
J'xm-n-lx{aJrbxny-
xm-n(a+bxn)t,+l
a(m—71)
b(m-\-np')J'xvl 1 x{a-\-bxny
x”Xa-\-bxn)P+t
Part IT,
Inverre
Method.
b{m-\-n-\.np)Jxm~Srn 1
am
This formula diminifties the exponents without tlie
parenthefes, becaufe —1 becomes —tn-\.n i,
when —m is fubftituted inftead of tn.
To reverfe formula (B) we firft take
JXm-'x{a+bx«)P-' =
—xm {a -\-b xn')v
pna
p^J"V"*"1 x{a -\-b x* )p
pna *
Then, writing />+i inftead of/», we find
(D)
^x m 1 x (a-\-b xny—
xm(a+bxn)P+l
(P+*)na
(m-\.n-\-np) Cxm~*x(a-\-bx,,')P'Jrl
+
(/>+!>*
This formula anfwers the purpofe we have in view^
becaufe p-\>i becomes —•p-J-i when p is negative.
Thefe formulas (A), (B), (C), (D), are inapplica¬
ble when their denominators vanifti. This is the cafe
with formula (A) j for example, when m-5z~np; but,
in every fuch cafe, the propofed fluxion may have its
fluent determined either algebraically or by logarithms.
133. Let the fluent be/—; —, m being a whole
^ vC1—
pofitive number. Formula (A) immediately applies to
this cafe, fo that by putting a—i,b——1, n~2,p=z—
we have
r
xm 2\/ (1—x1)
fxm-'x _ ! m—i
<y/(l X%) I m 2 rxm 3 X
L m—\J ^/(i—x1)
a{m—n)
Subftitute now ;«+« in place of w, and it becomes
(C)
or, fubftituting m in place of m—1,
Km~lV (1—#*)
f-
J" xm 1
m—ij* x
m
,m—2
Let
3
Method.
Part II. FLUX
Inverfe us fuppofe, for example, that nr=zl, then
v/(.—**) -w.
Let us now fuppofe that /w=r3, then
. f—**)
r x' x 1 . ■
1 +t/'./-(II,.)
or, fubftitutine for /—■——its value,
V (i—x*)
/v^rHT'+d v'l1-**) w-
If we fuppofe in—%, then
p X* X   J ’x
J ^/(T-*i7~ (. +1/7^711^3
But we have already found, J 128, that
/—77~-—jt— arc (fin.=»),
therefore, putting A for arc (fin.rrar),
J
In the very fame way we find that
P -- X is equal to
—a;*)
—(^f3 +|a?) >v/(i—»*) 1A +conJ{.
134. In the cafe of m, a negative number, we muft
have recourfe to formula (C), from which we find
T ar’V (t—*»)
^ x~m~' x m
J\/^r I , m—1 r x~m^x
L't* mJ^(j—x*)
which formula, by writing —m inftead of —rn—r, be¬
comes
/r J (1 -—A?*)
r x j
J Xm ( X%) m 2 /' X 
L+ m—xj **-» ^(1—x%) *
We cannot here fuppofe m—\, for that value would
render the denominator =ro*, therefore, before we can
apply this formula, it is neceffary to inveftigate the
fluent of —7—-—We may eafily find it from § 126,
IONS.
or otherwife thus, put I—**:=»*, then
Therefore
x —k  —4*5
Ary'C1 X*)~ l K*—l-f2 I 55*
The fluent of the right hand fide of this equation
is evidently (§ 103.)
—4h CI+*)+4h (1—sO——4i« i
1+2 (1+*)*
751
Inverfe
Metliod.
or, fince
I 25
prefled thus,
—, the fame fluent may be ex*
*1 (i+*y - 1 *+* .
T * I 25a ‘ VX1 251) 7
therefore, by fubftituting v^C1—;tt*) f°r 2:^ and ^ for
(1—2*), we have
/v<bi*-l(I±!¥=a)+"*'-
If we fuppofe »r=:2, the formula becomes
i^=£l+
»/ ;v*) x 1 J
If we fuppofe then
r V(l—x*)
f' X \ 2A?*
J*v(i—<)= / i t r x
Xx/(x^y
which expreffion, by fubflituting for
A
its value, becomes
A? y^(l .V*)
X\/ (\ X1)
f VC1—**)
_ f 2X*
(i±^C—■))
l -f- con/7‘
Of Finding Fluents by Series.
135. We can always eafily find an expreflion for the
fluent K x, rvhere X denotes any function of x; when
that function is expanded into a feries, each term of
which is fome power of x multiplied by a conftant quan¬
tity j thus fuppofe
X=A*m+B*m+n+C*m+,',.f &c.
then X a? is equal to
A*"1
FLUXIONS.
752
Inverfe
Method.
AxHx+'B,xm+,lx+Cxm+inx+ &c.
and taking the fluent of each term by § ioi,
/x*=
Ax
m-\~x
B.r
m-\-i m + 72 + i
C.v
m-\-2 n-\-1
-j- &c. -J- conjf.
Hence we find
x x
a-\-x a
and taking the fluents
x x
XX XX
~ar^~~ar
x'x
- —- + &c.
f—
-j-«
a
- + —T 7 4- &c.
2 a4 ' 3 °3 4 ^
conjl.
Now we know that^/—= 1. (a-j*'*) (§ 57*) therefbre
AT OC^ DC ^ DC^
1. (a-\-x)=   — -f- —r   + &c.
^ 1 a 2 A* 3 o3 4 «4
-f conj.
To find the value of the conftant quantity v?e have only
to make x—q, for then the equation becomes 1. a~
conjl, therefore
1. (a-j-A’) rrl. a-\-
&c.
2 a1 3 fl3
hence, if we fubtraft 1. a from each fide, and obferve
that 1. (.v-j-fl)—*1. a — \, ^ - ^~ 1. (i -f ^ we get
, , x \ x x* x3 x4 „
l. (i_i = -4-—    + &c.
K ~ a) a 2 a* '3 a3 4 a4
From this conclufion we may deduce rules for comput¬
ing the logarithms of numbers.
137. Let the fluxion be
«* + **
which may be put un¬
der this form -- ——> and which confequently belongs
to the arch of which the tangent =- — (§ 60.). By re-
ducing 3nt0 a ^er3esj we
Part IL
«2-j-V4
X
a*
+
— -|- &c.
7/ 1
Inverfe
Method.
Hence, multiply both fides by .v, and taking the fluent
of each term, we get
s* ® % x\
/^•=rarc(,a"'=J+^-=
If in the developement of x there be any term of this
A
form —, the fluent correfponding to that term will be
A 1. a (§ 103).
136. The moft Ample fun&ion of x that can be ex¬
panded into a feries is , which becomes
a-\-x
I X X1 X1 q
+ ^+&c'
A3
3«
•Xs *7 O
_ _j    4- &c. 4- con/1.
3 50* 7<j7 1 1 J
If we wifli to deduce from this equation, the value of
theleaft arch wliofe tangent is it is neceflary to fup-
prefs the arbitrary conftant quantity, for when that arch
=0, then x=o ; thus we have the arch whofe tangent
• X
is — exprefied by the infinite feries
X A3 AS
a 3 «3 5 «s
DC'
—“ -f- &c.
7 a7 1
Let ?r denote the circumference of a circle whofe dia¬
meter is unity, or half the circumference of a circle
whofe radius is unity, then, as the fine of 30 degrees,
or ^ is 4s an<I its cofine \/ (1—-)—4\/ 3, we have
Ttr
tan. —
6
fin. i
AA —
f , — a/t* ^et V 4 b6 fubftituted inftead
C01. ^7T
of a in the above feries, and a be fuppofed — 1, thus
we get
* nr , 1 I
Z — Si T X (1  {- ,
o ^ j v 3*3 5.3
and therefore
7-3
1 + &c.)
.= yn x c— ^^ + &c.),
by taking the fum of about fifteen terms of this feries,
we (hall find ^=3.1415927. The determination of
this number is of great importance in every branch of
mathematics.
xm x
138. By proceeding with the fluxion —
«*~f-A"
in the
fame manner as we have done with
Hi+I
ax
- m
/XX
^o"+A
«4-|-a
/«+«+1
-, we get
&c.
2«4-l)o3"
This feries proceeds by the pofitive powers of A, or
is an afcending feries, but we may alfo expand —^—
an+xn
into a feries proceeding by the negative powers of A,
and which will therefore be called a defcending feries.
Thus becaufe
xn-\-a'
I
Part II.
Isiverfe
Method.
FLUXIONS. 753
We may eafily find an expreflion for the fluent of inverfe
U ^ Method,
the rational fraftion —(§ ill.) by expanding the'—nr—J
we have, after multiplying both fides by xmx and tak¬
ing the fluents
fxmx __ i
{n—rn—I)
+
(2/2— 1) X*
(3«—tn—i
-}-&c. -|- conjl.
This laft feries will be convergent when x is greater
than and at the fame time m^_n^ and rr^'\. But
befides, that it may contain algebraic terms only, it is
neceflary that none of the divifors n—m—i, 2/2—m—1,
3 n—m—1, &.c. become ~o ; this circumftance will
take place as often as w+i is a multiple of », and in
which cafe
&e. which is the develope-
™ OX
tne leries 
X71—*1 #ZM“"
ment of the fluxion, will contain a term of this form,
the fluent of which is arn 1. a?.
If in this refult we put ran2, «—0, and a—x, we
5*s
x
1
-f &c. con/l.
is the fluxion of
get
r~—= _ l+i_
%/ 1 -f-a;* x 3 a?3
But although the expreffion
the arch having x for its tangent, we muft not conclude
that this feries is the developement of that arch, for x
being fuppofed no, each of the terms of the feries be¬
comes infinite.
The confideration of the conftant quantity added to
the fluent will remove this apparent difficulty, if we re¬
mark, that to know the true value of a feries, it is al¬
ways neceffary to begin with the cafe in which it is con¬
vergent. Now the feries
— — + ~ -f &c.
x 3a?3 5a;s
converges fo much the fafler as x is greater, and it va-
nifhes when x is infinite $ but in this extreme cafe the
equation
arc (tan. n a?) n — — 4-   —„ 4. &c.
y a: 3a-3 5** 1
-j- conjl.
becomes fimply arc ^ where ^denotes half the
circumference of the circle ; therefore, fubflituting this
Value of the conftant quantity, we have
arc (tan. = ar)n U
2 a? 3a:
Vol. VIII. Part II.
quantity into a feries, but the refult thus obtained
is in general very complicated, and feldom convergent;
befides, this manner of finding the fluent is hardly of
any ufe, fince it may be exprefled by means of arches
of a circle and logarithms, both of which are readily ob¬
tained from the common trigonometrical tables.
139. The fluent of xm~x x (a + b xv )q is eafily ob-
\t.
tained by firft expanding the quantity {a-\-bxn into
a feries by the binomial theorem, then multiplying each
term of that feries by xm~x' a?, and taking the fluents
of the refults by § 101. Thus we have j*xm~x x
Y-
(ja-\-bxn)q rr
P
q jx"‘ pbxm+n p(p—y)Z>* xm+ln
m c/ a ra-j-22
1.2 y* a* ra-J-2«
p( />—y)( p—2y)Z»J ■vm+3,'
1.2.3 a%
ra-f-3 n
—j- &c. V -J- conjl.
This is an afcending feries, but to get a defcending
)p n p
q by x^ and multiply
xm~x x, the remaining part of the fluxional expreflion,
by the fame quantity, thus the fluxion is transformed
to
.np . \t.
xm' q lx(b-\-ax—n)q
the fluent of which^ by proceeding as in the former'
cafe, is
*1
qxm^ q
mAtziT
pa qx ~r' q
p{ p—y) a% q x”1^
mq-\-np qbmq-\-(p—y)«
(/>—25,)B
-p conjl.
— 7
—=&c. f
)« J
I.2y*bx mq-\-{p—2y)/
either of thefe feries may be employed if a and b are
both pofitive, or q an odd number, but if q be an even
number, the firft formula becomes imaginary on ac-
P_
count of the faftor aq if be negative, and the fame
thing happens to the fecond formula if a? be nega¬
tive.
140. Let it be required to exprefs by a feries the
X
fluent of —77— 7:* That we may develope the ra-
■v (1—x )
dical quantity -yjj—— we put it under this form
5 C (i^*)
754
Method. — **) an expreflion which when expanded by
——y—the binomial theorem, is
1 1.3 i. 3.r
I _j x1 -1 -.it4 -f ——fx6 4- &c.
2 2.4 2.4.6 '
therefore, multiplying each term of this feries by x,
and taking the fluent, we get
FLUXIONS. Part II,
fary that the terms of the feries fhould be each Amply inverfe
a power of x multiplied by x and conftant quantities. Method.
If for example we have this fluxion
/-
X
I. X*
1 • 3 • 5 • *7
3.^
2.3 2.4.5
• con/7.
x\/( I—e*x%)
VU—x*) ’
in which e is fuppofed to denote a fmall conftant quan¬
tity, we may expand v/(i—e'x*) or (1—e*x*y into a
feries, which will thus become
2.4.6.7
If we fuppofe x to denote the fine of an arch, then
(1—x*) is its cofine, and -77-^—— is the fluxion of
\/ ^ I m< X J
the arch itfelf (§ 59.) $ therefore the feries which we
have juft found, exprefles the length of the arch of
a circle, radius being unity, and the fine of the arch x.
If we fuppofe the feries to exprefs the fmalleft arch
that correfponds to the fine x, then, as when the fine
of that arch r=o, the arch itfelf rro, the feries ex-
preffing the arch muft vanifh when a; r= o, therefore
we muft fupprefs the conftant quantity added to com¬
plete the fluent j or fuppofe it ~0. The fame feries
has already been found by the direct method of fluxions
in § 72.
Let »■ denote the fame as in § 137, then, as the fine
of 30 degrees, or of ^ tt, is we have, by fubftituting
I- inftead of x in the preceding feries, and multiplying
both fides by 6,
1 . » I-1 a ^ i.i«3 , *
I rx* e*x* 7 e^x6-
2 2.4 2.4.6
&c.
X (I-—
and the fluxion  7- —^-will be transformed to
-v/(i—x*)
x r 1 * 1 i-1 4 4
^(1—a*)!1 '2X 2.4 6 X
t6x6— &c. 1
2.4.6 5
the feries will converge very faft when e is fmall, for
that ^/(i—x*) may be a real quantity, x* muft be lefs
than I. We muft now multiply each term of the feries
by the common faflor
— and take the fluents.
7r=3 (! +
i-3
i-3-S
i+ &c.)
2.3.2* 2.4-5.24 ‘ 2-4.6.7.26
by means of this feries, which involves only rational
numbers, we may compute (but with more labour), the
value of yr as before.
Suppofe the fluxion to be x \/(ax—xi'), which maybe
ether wife exprefled thus, xa7 x* (1 Xs. By the bi¬
nomial theorem (1—,
x
2a
1.1 x*
2.4 a1'
I.I.3**
&c.
2.4.6 a3
Let each term of this feries be multiplied by a*#T#, and
the fluent taken by J 101, thus we get J’x x-—xx')zz
y(i—-*»),
which being all contained in the general expreflion
/» X
/" 1" "]r*^oun^ ^ Thus, putting
A to denote an arch of which x is the fine, we have
f*x»J{\—e'x'')  
J */(!—**) _
A
+ 2-4'6<a I 1.3-J ^ |
r^6A j
-J- &c. conjl.
1 s
\f 2X~* I 2X7 I. I 2
' \ 3 — 2 2-4 *7
K
a*
I.3 7X
2.4.6 9 a
— &c.) 4. con/}.
141. By refelving a fluxion into an infinite feries,
the objeft in view is to transform it into a feries of
other fluxions, each of which may have its fluent deter¬
mined by known methods j but it is not always necef-
3
Of the Fluents of fuch Fluxions as involve Logarithmic
and Exponential funBions.
142. Let it be required to find the fluent of xm #(!.#),
where 1. Af denotes the. Napierean logarithm of x,. In
this cafe, as well as in fome following examples,, we
(hall have rocourfe to the principle aheady employed in
§ 130, namely, that if v and * denote any functions of
a variable quantity at, then
J~%VZZV% j*V
Let us therefore aflume xn!x-=x v, and \. xzz%, then,
(§IOI0>^j=v» and (§ 57), | = therefore,
fubftituting
Part IT.
Inverfe fubftituting thefe values of v, b in the formula
Method, becomes
FLUXIONS. 755
a* Inverfe
r m ^ n xm^\.x fx" x
J Xm X (1. x)~  ; J   ,
^ K ' Tti -j-1 J m-\-\
_ rxm x xm^' „
. or'BncV^jT=-^+737+
/*- i (i. *)=*"*' - —J.} + «¥•
Let us next fuppofe that the propofed fluxion is
xm x (I.#)". Put xmx~v, and (1. then (Jioi.)
.. Inverie
If we fuppofe //zri, then, obfervtng that Ja xzz—^ Method.
(§
p x • ox x «* , »
If n~ 2, then
a x'x—-  — / (f x x.
1. a !.«>/
In this expreflion we fubftitute the value of j*ax x x
juft found, thus it becomes
-=v, and (§ 57.)  LiLfl) = 2;> therefore, faxx* xz=ax$ ?—
x J l_\.a
m-\-1 _ ’ x
fubftituting as before thefe values in the formula
J' v%y we get
f m'n \n ^m+t (1- rnxmx(\'X')n-'
j xmx(\.x)n=   1 / > 1 .
v m-j-i J w-f 1
It is evident, that by this formula the determination
of the fluent of xm x (1. #)* is reduced to that of
xm x (1. x') which we have already found, and in
like manner that the determination of the fluent of
xmx (l.*)s is reduced to that of xm x (1. #)*, and fo on,
from which it appears that the fluent of xm x (1. #)n
is expreflible in finite terms when n is a whole politive
number. The formula, however, will not apply when
tnz=—1, becaufe of the denominator —1 -f-1—O.
But in this cafe we have
0- (1* *)"+*+ con/?.
If « be negative or fra&ional, the fluent of xmx (l.^)"
can only be exprefled by an infinite feries.
143. As an example of an exponential fun&ion, let
it be required to find the fluent of a* xn x. Here we
may put v for xnx, and » for a*, then we have
A?,*+l
t> = —, § toi, and fzzr (1. <7)0*#, (§ 56.) therefore,
fubftituting thefe values of v, %, v, 2; in the formula
V—V z -fv «, we get
fcX- _ Al- -) **!-*'*.
J ^ W-J-I ,
therefore, fubftituting n—1 everywhere inftead of »,
fu’x'-'x-—
n J n ’
hence, bringing J'axxnx to ftand alone one fide of the
equation
/* _ • ax xn n f .•
J a X'x—— —. -—J ax xn~' x.
La 1. a
(l.ay
2x
J -I- con/?.
Proceeding in this way we may find the fluent when
or when wnrq, or in general, when « is any in¬
teger number whatever, the number of terms in the
fluent being in this cafe always finite ; it is not fo how¬
ever when « is either negative or fra&ional.
Of the Fluents of fuch Fluxions as contain funBions re¬
lated to a circle.
144. Let us fuppofe that ss is an arch whofe fine is
and that it is required to find the fluent of 2; xnx. Put
x" x=zv, then
J'zxn X—f* % V=Z V—J' V
*”+I
but fince v=zxnx. we have vzz , 5 101, and fince
«-}-i J
A?=fin. z, we have #=2; cof. 2sr=!Z (1—#*) (§ 59.),
and therefore »=r-
. , —; thus we have
V (I—**)
P n' » a;b+i I P «n+x x
X~ „ + i ^+1*^ f (i—*1) ’
hence the determination of the propofed fluent is re-
F xn+tx
duced toJ——-—which we have already confider-
ed in § 133. By the fame mode of reafoning we may
determine the fluent when x denotes the cofine of the
arch 2;.
145. It appears from $ 59. that n « being put to
denote any arch of a circle to radius unity, the fluxion
of the fine of that arch is « 2 cof. n% ; therefore, on
the contrary,
J*2 cof. n fin. »2 -J- conjl.
In like manner, from the formulas of § 59. and $ 60.
we find
5 C 2
y"2 fin.
75*5
Inverfe
Method.
FLUXIONS.
• — i
f* fin. n « rr — cof. n «-\-conft,
A'
% 1
— -tan. n%-\-conJl.
Part II,
therefore, multiplying by and taking the fluents, Inverfe
. -- Method.
f * cof.3 !z=: ^ (j- fin. 3 2S+3 fin. %)-\-conft. v r*—*
cof.* n% n
fA -1
fin.* «‘Z
cot. n z conjt.
/z fin. » k i
— = ~ lee. n z -f- con ft,
cof.* nz n ' J
/% cof. n z —i r . „
——  =r colec. nz 4- conjt.
lin.* nz n
146. By the fecond of thefe expreflions we find the
fluent of
z (A-f-B fin. »-fC fin. 2»-f-&c.)
to be
A«—iB cof. »■—4 C co^ 255—&c. -f-conji.
and from the firft expreflion we find the fluent of
Z (A-J-B Cof. iS-J-C Cof. 2 25-j- &c.)
to be
A 2-{-B fin. C fin. 2 a-|- &c. ^conji.
147. It has been {hewn in the Arithmetic of fines,
(fee Algebra, § 356.) that
fin.* a=r§ (—cof. 2a:-|-i),
therefore, by what has been (hewn in § 145.
jz fin.*-2—^y* (—» cof. 2 a + a)
= t (— •§• fin. 2 a-fa) + conji.
It has alfo been {hewn that
fin.3 zz=% (—fin. 3a-{-3 fin. a),
therefore, multiplying each term of this exprefiton by
a, and taking the fluents,
J'a fin3 z — \ (y cof. 3 z—3 cof. a) -{-conji.
In the fame manner may the fluent of a fin."a be
found, « being any pofitive integer number whatever.
Again, it has been {hewn (Algebra, § 356.)>
that
and proceeding in this way we may find the fluents of
z cof.” a, n being any pofitive integer number.
148. The fluents of a fin." a, and a cof.” a may be ex-
prefled under another form, by proceeding as in § 142.
Thus, beginning with a fin.” a, and refolving it into a
fin. ax fin.” 1 a, if we put a fin. air:^, and fin.” 1
%—t, we have by § 145, —cof. a, and (by § 26
and § 59) f—(«—1) a cof. a fin.” 2 a, therefore, fub»
ftituting in the iexmxAa.J'tv—vt—J'vi, we have
fin." a=—cof. a fin.” 1 a
-f-(«—z cof.* z fin.”~2 a ;
but cof.* a=l—fin.2 a, therefore J" z fin.” a is equal to.
—cof. a fin. 1 a -f- («—1) J*a fin.”““2 a
—(«—\) j' a fin." a;
which expreflion, by bringing together the terms con¬
tainingj"a fin." a becomes
z fin." a =—- cof. a fin.” 1 a
+ —/a fin.”-2 a.
/I ^
1 »
By giving particular values to n we have
v/>afin.* =—cof. a fin. a
— - cof. a fin. a -f- ~ ^ -\-conJL,.
• I 2
% fin.325=:—^ fin* 2;+- fin, %
s
I 2
= — - cof. afin.*a cof. a 4- conft'.
3 3
cof.* a = 4 (cof. 2 a+1) 5
therefore
Pz cbf.* a=4^{z cof. 2a-j-a)
= »■ (t An* 2a-|-2s) + conji.
and becaufe
cof.3 a=£ (cof. 3»+3 cof. a)
We may proceed in this way as far as we pleafe, dedu¬
cing the fluent of z fin.4 a from that of a fin.* a, and
the fluent of a fin.3 a from that of a fin.3a, and fo on..
If in the general formula we fubftitute every whers
2—« inftead of », it becomes
f a fin.2 ” » = —-— cof. a fin.1'
^ n—2
n—1 r • -
‘a
an
Part II.
Inverfe
FLUX
Method. an expreffion which, by bringing J'% fin. ”2; or
^to fiand on one fide of the equation, becomes
I cof. %
fin." as
f-k
' J fin."
{n—1) fin. “-I25
n—2 r z
' n—\J fin.”-125*
This formula is not applicable to the cafe of «r=I, be-
caufe then each of the terms of the fluent is divided by
n—1=0, and therefore becomes infinite. In order to
obtain the expreflion for the fluent in this particular
cafe, we proceed thus. It is evident that ^ j~"' :::::
I I _ I x 
I Cof.*25’ UtI Cof.*25 _ 2(1 cofia) 2( I -j-Cof.25)
as will be found by reducing the fraftions ta a com¬
mon denominator, therefore   ——   —j—7 +
fin. % 2(1—col. 2;)
ir‘ ^ and confequently,
2(1 -}-cof. 52)
r %  1 /^!2lin. 25 1
j fin. 25 iJ I coi.25 2 ,y X
2; fin. i2 . I /-52 fin. 25
coi.
but if it be confidered that the fluxion of cof. % is —2;
’2; fin. %
1—col. 25
y’25
rrl. (1—cof. z), and that f— 7—=—1
v J x -J-cof.25 v
therefore
Skk 2S~2^‘ ^—C0^!S^—(x+cof. z) -\-conJ!.
conjl.
,  C’jf. 25) . „
= 1. -yr—     + conjh
^(1 -}-cof. 25)
If in the general formula for— xvefuppofe /7=r2
fin."z
we have
%
IONS. 757
* Inverfe
 we fubftitute i tt—-ss inftead of z, (where 4 t Method.
fin.” 2;   y 1
denotes a quadrant), and obferve that
fin. (4jr—25)=cof. 2;, cof. (4^—2;)=:fin. z,
and that the fluxion of is—ss, we (hall imme¬
diately obtain
/ z cof.Kia=:— fin. 25 cof."-^
^ «
Z cof,"-1 25
/* 25   I fin. 25
Cof.72 25 «—-I cof."-1
25
«—2
/——=r——cotan. z 4- con/l. which agrees
fin.* 25 fin.25
with what has been already obferved (§ I45*)> an^ ^
we fuppofe «=3, then
y’ 2.   cof. z I r* 25
fin.5*?; 2fin.2 25 2%/i\n.Z
fin.J 25
cof. 2;
col. 25 I /I col. 55\
5=— —; — 1. ( ) + conjt.
2fin. z 4 \i-j-col.z/ J
In this way we proceed as far as we pleafe, deducing
fAr- from - , and fo on.
v/fin.4z yfin.*z
149. If in the general formulas for J*2>fin."2;and
~^~n—i fcot." *251
and in like manner from the formula exprefling the flu¬
ent of — we deduce
J fin. 2;
v'(x+fin.z) , _n
—1. —7- 7 * -4- conlt.
-y/fi—fin. z) 1
150. It has been Ihewn in Algebra, § 357, that
16 coi. * 25 fin.3 =— fin. 52s -j- fin. 3Z -J- 2 fin. z, there¬
fore ‘ ’ .
/z cof.*zfin.3z=-L( — cof. cz——cof. 2z
16V5 3
—2 cof. z)4- conjt.
The fame mode of finding the fluent will apply to any
fluxion of this form z fin.wz cof.« z ; or by refolving
the fluxion into two parrs, the determination of its
fluent, may be reduced to ihat of a fluxion in which the
exponents m and n are lefs than in thepropofed fluxion,
by 5 he method of proceeding already employed in
§ 14&
131. Let us now denote fin. z by x, then cof. zrr
i—#*) and fince z col. z=a? (§ 39.) therefore z
—  — — -■ thefe values being fubftituted in any
function involving z, fin. z and cof. z will immediately
reduce it to an algebraic form. Thus for example, we
lhall have z fin. m z cof.« z transformed to
• n—I
xxm{\—«*) 1
an expreflion which may have its fluent determ-ned by
the formulas of § 133 and § 134.
Sect. II. application of the Inverfe Method of Flux^r
ions to the Refolution of Problems.
To find the Areas of Curves.
132. It has been Ihewn in § 61, that if the abfciflai
of a curve be denoted by a?, the ordinate by y> and the
^ area
758
Method ar6a S' ^ien s~~yx' Therefore the general for
i/„r  ' . mula expreffing the area of any curve will be
FLUXIONS. partij.
on^each fide of the axis, correfponding the one to the invprfe
p'=f yx-
Fijf. 19.
M0 1.
Then we have yr: ”, and
1 m
s-f'yxz=anf xnx
1
— m-\-n
w-f. n
+ C,
where C denotes the conftant quantity that may be re¬
quired to complete the fluent. As in the prefent cafe,
it is required to find the area of the portion of the curve
next its vertex, fo that when j=:o, then a?=o, there-
1
— m-\-n
n n   
fore, alfo C=o, and the area is limply x n
m^n
If it be required to find the area comprehended be¬
tween two ordinates PB, pb, put AB=</, then when
t—0, we have therefore the general expreflion
— m-\-n
na‘
— m-f-n
m-\-n
4-C,
-f- C becomes in this cafe orr ^— d
m-\-n
~n m+”
hence C= ——d n
and confequently the area BPph, or j, is equal to
— C m-f-n —
nan j a? «
m-j-n J
When n is an even number, the expreflion for the
i
— m+w
area, viz. —x 11 may be confidered as negative
as well as politive, on account of the radical quantity
tn-\-n
af ” , or sj which has then a twofold value, it
may therefore have the fign z±z prefixed to it; but in
this cafe the fame abfciffa AB belongs to two branches
of the curve APp and AP'//, as in fig. 19. N° 1, there¬
fore the two values of the expreflion :
— »n+«
nan
m-\-n
may
Method.
Hence to find the area of any curve, we muft either
find from the equation of the curve the value of y in
terms of x, or elfe the value of a? in terms of y, and y,
and either the one or the other of thefe being fubftituted,
in the above formula, and the fluent found by the methods
already explained, we Ihall have a general expreflion
for the curvilineal area as required.
Ex. I. Let it be required to find the area of any
curve of the parabolic kind, of which, putting the ab-
Tciffa AB—*, and the ordinate BPrry, the equation is
yn—axm.
Plate
ccxx.
fig-19.
]N°2.
pofitive, and the other to the negative ordinates.
When the exponents m and « are both odd numbers,
m-\~n
the quantity x has only one fign, and remains always
pofitive whatever be the fign of x, but in this cafe one
of the two branches of the curve has its abfciffas and its
ordinates negative at the fame time (as in fig. 19. N° 2.):
it follows therefore that the areas correfponding to the
negative ablciffas and ordinates ought to be regarded as
pofitive.
m-\-n
If n alone is odd, then the quantity x 71 becomes
negative at the fame time as x, but in this cafe the two
branches of the curve are on the fame fide of the line
in which the abfciffas are taken (as in fig. 19. N° 3.) fig- 19.
and the ordinates remain always pofilive. N° 3.
Upon the whole it may be concluded, that the area
of a curve is pojitive when the abfcijfas and the ordinates
have the fame Jign, and negative when they have contrary
Jigns.
If we fuppofe m—i, and n—2, then the curve is the
common parabola, the area of which from the general
formula is found to be -w2#'" rr — xy; hence it
3 3 ^
appears that the parabola is - of its circumfcribing
parallelogram.
Ex. 2. Suppofe the curve to be a circle. Put Fig. sa,
AB=a;, BP=y, the diameter ADrra, the area ABPnrr.
From the nature of the circle y*=a x—»*, therefore
y—tj^ax—#*), and
J'y % =r J'x\/ (ax-—xi).
In this cafe the fluxion is not of fuch a form as to
admit of an algebraic fluent in finite terms, we muff
therefore have recourfe to the method of feries, but we
have already found the fluent in this way in § 140,
therefore, from the feries there brought out we have
s 2x 1 2x* 1,1 2X*
V 3 2 ya 2.4 7 a*
i±3
2.4.6
—“y ““ &C.
90*
this expreflion does not require a conftant quantity to
be added to it, becaufe when x—0 we muft alfo have
<r:=o.
If we fuppofe the arch AP to be $ of the quadrant
AE, then it is known that PB=4 the rad. ACzr^ a,
therefore, if we fuppofe the radius =ri, we have in this
cafe BCsr^Vd* and AB=:i—4 = o*1339746
nearly. If this number be fubftituted inftead of x, and
a few terms of the feries computed, we (hall find the
area ABP =•0452931 j to this add the triangle
CBP=JX\/t:=:0*21 65063, and we have the fe&or
ACP=*26i7994, which number when multiplied by
3 gives *7853982 for the area of the quadrant. This
number alfo expreffes the area of a circle of which the
diameter is 1.
be confidered as indicating the two areas APB, AP'B, Ex. 3. Suppofe the curve to be an ellipfe.
Put F;g, 2i.
the
Part IT.
FLUX
Inverfe
Method.
the tranfverfe axis AD ~ o, the conjugate axis
2CE=Z>, alfo AB=iic, BPrry; then by the nature of
the curve y~ — {ax—«*), and s — y x—^~
{a x—x"1) ; but if a circle be defcribed on AD as a
diameter, and BP the ordinate of the ellipfe be produced
to meet the circle, it appears from laft example that
x {a x—#*) is the fluxion of AQB the fegment of
the circle correfponding to the elliptic area APB or s ;
therefore, putting v for the fegment AQB, we have
b
here the conftant quantity c mufl:
be fupprefled, becaufe s and v mufl: vanifti together.
Hence it appears that the area of any fegment of an
ellipfe is to the area of the correfponding fegment of its
circumfcribing circle as the lefler axis of the ellipfe is
to the greater ; therefore the whole ellipfe mull be to
the whole circle in the fame ratio.
• b v ,
s~ — and s ~
a
Fig. 12. Ex. 5. Letihe curve be a hyperbola, of which C is
the centre. Put the femi-tranfverfe axis CArro, the
femiconjugate axis —b, CBrr#, BPrry, the area
APBrrr. From the nature of the curve —
J a
»J (a?*—o*)} therefore
But it appears from formula B (§ 131.) that
f 'x J (*•*—0*)-\x^ (a:*—a*) ~—j--
and again by § 127,
therefore
~x sf (**—— ~~ ^ ^ —a*) ^
To difcover the value of the conflant quantity c, we
mull confider that when x=a, then o, and in
this extreme cafe the general equation juft found be¬
comes
ab
0 = ~La+c,
ab,
hence err —1. «, and confequently, obferving that
2
— Y1* + ~
_____ J r (x'—a*) 7
2 ' t a $
we get
b
rr ~ (xt-—ai') — — 1. T
2a 2 1
“Af-f- a/
l
It immediately follows ifom this formula that
IONS.
759
h
— xJix*—a*')—j-=r
2a K J
{
x -{- »y (**—a1)
a
}
bat if a ftraight line be drawn from C to P fo as to form
the triangle CBP, it is manifeft that —x (,v*—o*)
is equal to-'-CBxBP, that is, to the triangle CBP,
therefore the excefs of the triangle CBP above the
area j, that is the hyperbolic fe£tor CAP, is equal to
the logarithmic fundtion
Inverfe
Method.
ab ^ rAT-f-v" C**-"0*) l
T 1 a j
Ex. 5. Suppofe the curve to be an equilateral hy- Fig. 23*
perbola, that is a hyperbola whofe axes are equal, and
that it is required to find the curvilineal area DCBP
comprehended between DC, a perpendicular from D
(a given point in the curve) to one of the afymptotes,
and PB, a perpendicular from any other point in the
curve to the fame afymptote.
Let A be the centre, put ACrrcr, CD=:^, ABr:#,
BPzry, the area DCBPzrj'. From the property of
the afymptotes we have xy—a b, and therefore yzz —,
hence (J 103.)
x~Jy A?r=J'-.lf. b\. x-\-c.
To find the value of c, let us fuppofe x—a, then .irrc,
and the general formula becomes in this cafe
o=a b 1. a-^-c, and hence c~ —a b 1. n,
therefore
s~a b 1. x—a b 1. a—ab 1. —.
a
If we fuppofe a—bz=l, then jnl. a;, from which it
appears that in this cafe the hyperbolic area DCBP
reprefents the Napierean logarithm of the number x ;
it was from the confideration of this property that the
logarithms originally invented by Napier were called
hyperbolical logarithms.
But the logarithms of any other fyftem may alfo be
reprefented by areas of the fame hyperbola ; for this
purpofe it is only neceflary to determine the magni¬
tudes of a, and b, fo that — =M, where M denotes
a
the modulus of the fyftem, thus we fliall have ab^za* M,
and jrr/i* M/. —, or, putting c=ri, j — M 1. at, an
expreflion for the logarithm of a; according to any fyf¬
tem whatever of which the modulus is M (Algebra,
§ 287.)
Ex. Let the curve be the cycloid of which AE Fig. 84.
is the axb and A the vertex, let a femicircle be de¬
fcribed jon AE as a diameter, draw AG perpendicular
to the axis, and from any point in the curve draw PB
perpendicular to AG and PD perpendicular to AE,
meeting the circle in Q, and draw OC to C the centre
of the circle. Pat AC=«, AB=rx BP=y, the area
ABP=t, and put v Tor the angle acq, that is for
the arch of a circle, which meafures ACQ, the radius
of
760
FLUXIONS.
Inverfe of that circle being unity, then ADrro (1—cof. tO,
Rlethod. rt fin. v, and arch AQ—v, and fince from the
v nature of the curve, PDrr arch BQ^-{-DQ, therefore
PDrra w-}*" fin* vzza (■y-f-fin. y) ; hence
x=a (y-f-fi*1- ‘u)j x=zav (i-f-cof. y), (§ 59.)
y—a {i—cof. y)
Jrr J'xyzz J'u% v (x—cof.* y)
-a'-J'v fin.* y=fa* y—fa* fin. y cof. y (§ 148.)
=f AC x arch A£)—f CD x DQ^ ^
and here no conftant quantity is wanted to complete
the fluent ; becaufe upon the fuppofition that AQrro
both fides of the equation vanifli as they ought to do j
now it is obvious that f ACxAQ^rarea of fe<3or
ACQ^, and f CD X DQ,— area of triangle DC£), there¬
fore
sr=. area of circ. feg. ADQ^.
Let AG be the greateft value of x; complete the
parallelogram AGFE, then from the general expreflion
for the cycloidal area, it follows that the whole cycloi¬
dal fpace APFG is equal to the femicircle A£) E ; but
from the nature of the curve, EF is equal to AQE,
half the circumference, therefore the redtangle EG is
equal to four times the femicircle AQE j from thefe
equals take away the external cycloidal fpace AGF,
and the femicircle AQE, which have been {hewn to be
equal, and the remainders, viz. the internal cycloidal
fpace APFE, and three times the femicircle AQE,
are equal to each other.
*53' ^ fome cafes it is more convenient to refer a
curve line to a fixed point than to an axis. Thus in-
ftead of exprefling the nature of the circle by the equa¬
tion y1~a x-—x*, where y denotes a perpendicular from
any point of the curve upon a the diameter, and x the
diftance of that perpendicular from one end of the
diameter, we may otherwife exnrefs it by the equa¬
tion •z—rvy where z denotes a variable arch of the
circle reckoned from one end of its diameter, r its
radius, and y the angle contained by a line drawn from
the centre of the circle through the extremity of 2;, which
angle is meafured by an arch of a circle having its radius
unity.
pig> The nature of the different conic fe&ions may be de¬
fined in the fame manner. Let P be any point in a
conic fe&ion, of which F is one focus, and FA a part
of the axis ; let DC the direftrix of the feflion meet
FA in C, join PF, and draw PB perpendicular to the
axis, and PD to the direflrix ; then from the nature of
the curve (Conic Sections) PF has a given ratio to
PD, that istoFC—FB; put FCr^o, FPrrr, the angle
PFC—y, and fuppofe PF : PD :: n : t, then PFrr:
».PD=r«.FC—tf.FB, hence obferving that FBrrFP
Xcof. y, we get rzz.a n—nr cof. y, and r— —
1 -j-» cof. y
which equation expreffes generally the nature of a conic
feftion.
154. The formula which we have found for the flux-
Part II.
ion of a curvilinear area, in § 61, is not immediately inverfe
applicable when the nature of a curve is expreffed in Method.
this way, we (hall therefore inveftigate another formula  v ^
fuited to this particular manner of confidering curves.
Let us fuppofe that APR is a curve the pofition of
any point P of which is determined by PF, its diftance Fig.
from a given point F, and the angle which PF makes
with AF a line given by pofition. Let a circle be de-
fcribed on F as a centre with a rad. =1, then FP, as
alfo the area FAP, may be confidered as fun&ions of
BD the arch of that circle which meafures the angle
PFA. From F draw FP; to any other point P' of
the curve meeting the circle BD in D'. Put FP=:r,
the area FAP=j-, the angle AFP, or the arch BD=yf
then the area PFP', and the arch DD', will be the cor-
refponding increments of s and y, therefore, § 21, .
~ limit of
area FPP'
DD'xFD'
Here DD'the increment of y is multiplied by FDm,
to render the terms of the ratio homogeneous. On F
as a centre, with FP as a radius, defcribe an arch of a
circle meeting FP' in Q, then, as the fe&ors FDD',
FPQ are fimilar, we have
FE* : FP
FD x DD': FP X PQ= 2 fea. FPQ,
2FD*
FP*"
2 r IJ 2
hence DD' X FD = - fea. FPQ = ~ fed. FPQ
, J r* . area FP'P
and -v-= — X hm.    •
7, 2 * fed. FPQ’
but the point P' being fuppofed to approach continually
to P, it is manifeft that the limit of 7-^ is unity,
or 1, therefore
fed. FP£
s r* • I .*
— — —, and s — — r y.
7, 2 -2
I54* By means of this formula we may find the
areas of that clafs of curves called fpirals. Let us take
for example the fpiral of Archimedes, which may be
defined thus. Conceive a ftraight line FR to revolve Fig. 27.
about F the centre of a given circle, departing from
a given pofition FB ; conceive alfo a point P to move
in the revolving line, fo that PF its diftance from the
centre may be to BD the arch of the circle paffed over
by the revolving line, as m to «, then the point P will
generate the fpiral.
Put BFrra, the angle BFR=y, the line FPr=r,
and the area generated by the line FP=j, then the
arch BD=:oy, and fince from the nature of the curve
r \ av w m \ Uy therefore yrr-^-, andy=-^L, hence
am am
the general formula sziz —r^v becomes s— —LJL ,
2 2 am
therefore,
/«r*r
-
2am
6am
this fluent does not require a conftant quantity to be
added,
Part II. ' FLUXION S.
Inverfe added, as both s and r evidently vanifti at the fame
761
Method, time.
f
X x taken between the limits of «=: AD and As?,
Inverfr
Method.
Fig. 28.
2p.
156. As the general expreflion for a curviiineal area
BCPD isJ"y x, where a;~AB the abfciffa reckoned
from a given point A in the axis, and y—BC the ordi¬
nate, it follows that X being put to denote any function
of a variable quantity x, the fluent of X a? may always
be exhibited by means of a curviiineal area. Thus let
CP /> be a curve of fuel) a nature that AD and DP the
co-ordinates being denoted by x and y, the equation of
the curve is 7/=X, then, affuming any ordinate BC as
given by pofition, we have evidently
and the inferibed figure mufl: be lefs, it follows that if'
we compute the areas of the circumfcribed and inferibed
figures we thall obtain two limits, the one greater, and
the other lefs than J'X.x. And as by increafing the
number of equal parts into which D*/is divided we may
bring the circumfcribed and inferibed redtilineal figures
as near to a ratio of equality as we pleafe, it is always
poflible to find two limits which (hall differ from each
other, and confequently fromJ'X x (which lies be¬
tween them) by lefs than any affignable quantity.
/
"Kxzz area CBDP.
As the ordinate BC (which is affumed as given by po-
fition) may be taken any where, the fluxion of the area
being the fame wherever it is taken, it appears, as has
been already obferved (§ 101) that the function
may be confidered as indeterminate, for it admits of in¬
numerable values correfponding to any particular value of
w, and in this refpe£t it differs from an algebraic func¬
tion, which for a given value of x has always a determi¬
nate number of values. If however x be fuppofed to
increafe from any determinate magnitude «, to any other
determinate magnitude a', then, taking the abfciffa AD
= and Ad—a', and drawing the ordinates DP, dpy
we have
when X area CBDP,
and when xzza!.J' ^ x —area C¥>dpy
therefore, while x increafes from a to a', or receives the
increment a'—«, the funflion x increafes from area
CBDP to area CQdpy and thus receives the increment
area PD<//;, which is of a determinate magnitude as
the ordinates PD,have both a determinate pofition.
Hence it appears that in afligning the fluent of X #, we
only determine the change that takes place in the va¬
lue of the funflion J^Xx while x paffes from one par¬
ticular value to another particular value.
157. As there are general and known methods by
which an approximate value of any curvilineal area may
be found, when a fluent is exprefft d by fuch an area,
thofe methods may be applied to find an approximate
value of the fluent. Let PD dp he a curviiineal area,
fuppofed to reprefent the fluent ^Xx between the li¬
mits of AD and X—A d. Conceive T) d to he di¬
vided into a number of equal parts DD', D'D", I) d, and
the ordinates P'D', P^D^d'^wn, and the two frts of
parallelograms DE, D'E', D^E" and DV, D'V, de" to
be completed, the former conflituting a reflilinea] figure
circumfcribed about the curvilineal fpace IjVY'Y*" p d,
and the latter a reftilineal figure inferibed in that fpace ;
then as the circumfcribed figure mufl neceffarily be
greater than the curvilineal fpace, that is, greater than
Vol. VIII. Part II.
158. If we join F, P', P^,/>, the tops of the ordinates,
the redtilineal fpace formed by the trapeziums DPP'D',
D'P'P"D", D"P"/> d will be more nearly equal to the
curvilineal area, than the circumfcribed redlilineal figure
formed by the parallelograms DE, D E', D'^'} there¬
fore the fum of thofe trapeziums being found, it will
be equal to the fluent x nearly.
Suppofe, for example, that it is required to find the
value of
’ P   between the limits of tfno, and x—t,
J i4-*z
. -\-x
In this cafe Xrz
1 4-A?
1
:, fo that the equation of the
curve P jo is y— -- — ; let us fuppofe D d the diftance
between the extreme ordinates to be divided into ten
equal parts, then putting o, *l, *2, &c. to 1 infteadof x
in the formula y—   we obtain eleven fucceffive
3 1 -J-*1
values of y, or eleven equidiftant ordinates, the numeral
values of which will be as follows,
The firfl =r i-oooco the 7th — *73529
the 2d =r *99010 the 8th = *67114
the 3d — *96154 the pfli rr *60975
the 4th = *91743 the loth = *55249
the 5th rr *86207 the nthzr *50000
the 6th r~ *80000
By the elements of geometry the area of the redii-
lineal figure formed by the trapeziums is found by
adding together all the ordinates except the firft:
and laft, and half the fum of the firft and lart, and
multiplying that fum by the breadth of one of the tra¬
peziums j now the fum of the ordinates, with the ex¬
ception of the firft and laft, together with half the fum
of the firfl; and laft, is 7*84981, and the common breadth
of the trapeziums is *i, therefore — 7.84981 X
•irr,785 nearly, as required. It is evident from § 137,
X
that f— taken between the limits of tfrzro, and x—j.
J 1 -f-sft *
is accurately equal to an arch of 450, radius being uni¬
ty, which arch being will be found nearly.
If we recur to the feries which has been found to ex-
prefs the above fl ient in § 137, and put a—iy and
we fliall have J taken between the preferi-
bed limits equal to
5l>
762 - F L U X I
Si , x-f + f-^ + &c.
«—Y—It is impofiible, however, to compute the fluent limply
by the addition of the terms of this feries, on account
oi the flownefs of its convergency.
O N S.
* •
*=/*v (a;1~yv(^f-+/)
= Ifi/V C«*+4^)-
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
159. As the curvilineal area DP/i</ is the limit of
the fum of the parallelograms DP', D'?", &c. which
conftitute the rectilineal figure infcribed in that area ;
as alfo the limit of the fum of the parallelograms DE,
lEE, &c. which conftitute the circumfcribed figure,
tlie number of parts into which D</ is divided being in
either cafe conceived to be increafed indefinitely, fo
that each may be continually diminilhed (and this being
the cafe it is of no confequence whether thofe parts be
conceived as all equal or as unequal) fo from analogy
(«)
we may conclude that if xf, x", x"r,... x be put to
denote fucceffive values of a variable quantity xt and X',
r 00
X", X'", ... X the correfponding values of X any
iundion of x, the limit of the fum of the produfls X
(*'—X), X>(x"—x'), X" (x"'—x"), &c. when the num¬
ber of fucceflive values of x and X is continually in¬
creafed, fo that the difference between any two of them
immediately following each other may be continually
diminifhed, is equal toJ'X x, the fluent to be taken
between the two extreme values of n.
160. It was in this manner that the firft writers on
the differential calculus conceived a fluent; as the dif¬
ference between any two of its fucceeding values is the
produCf of the funftion X by x'—x the increment of x,
they called that product (when x'—x was conceived to
be infinitely diminifhed) the Differential of the fluent j
and as the fluent is the fum of all the products, or dif¬
ferentials, inftead of calling it a fluent they called it
an Integral $ the procefs by which an integral is found
from its differential or fluxion they called Integration.
The terms Integral and Integration are fometimes em¬
ployed by writers in applying the method of fluxions to
mathematical enquiries.
To find the Lengths of Curves.
16 r. It has been fhewn in § 63, that if the abfciffa
of a curve be denoted by A?, the ordinate by y, and the
curve line by ts, then (**-}-y*), hence the gene¬
ral formula for finding the length of a curve is
3==/V(**+y*)-
Therefore, if from the equation exprefling the nature
of a curve we find the value of y in terms of x and x,
or elfe the value of x in terms of y and y, and fubftitute
the one or the other in the above general formula, we
fhall obtain a fluxion the fluent of which will be the
length of the curve. .
fig. ip. Ex. 1. Suppofe the curve to be a parabola, and that
AB—v, BP=y, the arch AP = 25, the parameter ~a,
then the equation of the curve being axzzy1, we have
By comparing this expreflion with formula (B) in §
131, we find
J'd V v (a’-H/)
+iff
y
again by § 127,
\/0*+4y1)
=> { 23'+^/ 0!+4y‘)}
therefore
3=: y>/(^ + 4,y*)
2a
+ "-l. {2y + ,/0-+4y’)!+C.
To determine the value of C, we muft confider that
when y=o, then <3=0, fo that then the general formula
will become fimply
(t 0
o = — 1. 0-j-C, and hence C— 1. a
4 4
therefore, fubftituting the value of C, and bringing to¬
gether the logarithmic quantities,
^ _ yV^+vfi)
2a
, “ j y 2y+v/'(a*4~4ff1)
^"4*1. a
Ex. 2. Suppofe the curve to be a circle, and that C Fig. 20.
is its centre, and AE a quadrant of the circle. Put
CB=rv, BPrry, the arch EPrrz, the radius of the
circle =za, then jc,-f-y*=fl*, and y=y/ (a*—.tf1), and
• —xx
y — ^{a'—x1) ’
hence
» =(*2+y,)=r/>VC*2 +
n ax
-J
x3 x* \ .
a1—x* J
This fluent can only be expreffed by an infinite fe¬
ries, under which form it has been already exhibited in
§ 140, the radius being there fuppofed unity.
Ex. 3. Let the curve be an ellipfe, and let it be re-F'S’ 2t‘
quired to find the length of the curve between E the
vertex of the leffer axis, and P any point in the curve.
To Amplify the calculation, let us fuppofe that the fe-
mi-tranfverfe axis ACrzi j put the femi-c<;njugate axis
CEzr^, the excentricity (that is ff(i—bi)~ei the ab¬
fciffa CB=x, the ordinate PB=y, the arch EP=»;
then, the equation of the curve oeing y,=Z>,(i—x1), we
hate
a
part II.
Inverfe
FLUXIONS.
763
Inverle • r -
Method, have y—bj (l—*l), and y= and there-
—v—' V t1—x )
fore
& +?-)=/ v'C**+ ~^r)
v' (1—eV)
~J v'Ci-^) */
This fluent can only be expreffed by means of an infi¬
nite feries, and it has been already given in this form
in § 141.
If we take #=ri, then all the quantities in that feries
■which are multiplied by y'C1—x1) will vanilh, but in
this particular cafe 2; is the elliptic quadrant EA, and A
is a quadrant of the circumfcribing circle, or f x, there¬
fore the elliptic quadrant is equal to
but it is evident from § 62, that the limiting ratio of Inverfe
thofe arches mull be the fame as that of their chords, | Method.
therefore, * "'
s; ... - 'chord PP'
y — limit of chord DD'5
now the limit of the angle PQD being evidently a
right angle, we have
1; EIL-ytm VCP^+Q.^)
1 DD,— DD'
~ ^ IdD'* +DD'M
P'Q* r*
but and lim.^~ rr —therefore
PQ* _ FP* _
DD'* “ FD*^
DD'*
r(i—  e*—
v 2.2
2.2.4.4
^ gg—s^c.) ~= V and ^ =\/fri ^+r*V
2.2.4.4.O.O -y V <yV \ /
Fig. II.
Fig. 30.
This feries converges very fall if ^ be a fmall fraflion.
jEa;. 4. Suppofe the curve to be a cycloid. Let a
circle be defcribed on its axis meeting the ordinate PB
in £), and draw CQ^ to the centre of the circle. Put
AB=:a:, BP=ry, the cycloidal arch AP=k, the radius
AC=a, the angle ACQ^ry, then AB=fl (1—cof. y),
BQ==:a fin. v, the circ. arch AQrro v, fo that xzza
(1—cof.®), and from the nature of the curve a
(®-f- fin. ®), therefore (§ 59.)
x~a v fin. ®, y—a ® (14- cof. ®),
x% ^fin.a®-|- (1-J-cof. ®) * ^
— a* ri* (2-{-2cof. ®) j
but 2+2cof.®=4cof.*i® (Algebra, § 356.) there¬
fore
y' J (x* -f.^*)=2o /®cof. i v
= 4 a fin. -J ®-f-C, (§ 145.)
but as when ®=o, then z=o, therefore C=o, and 2;
=4rtfin. f®; but if the chord A£) be drawn, 2 « fin. | ®
— chord AQ, therefore 2; =2 chord AQ.
162. The formula vs—J' +y^ not beIng ap¬
plicable in its prefent form to curves of the fpiral kind,
we {hall here inveftigate another fuited to that particu¬
lar clafs of curves.
Let APR be a curve of fuch a nature that the pofi-
tion of any point P in the curve is determined by PF,
its diftance from a given point F, and by the angle
•which PF makes with AF a line given in pofitipn.
We (hall employ the fame conftruftion and notation
here as in § 154, with the addition of drawing the
chords DD', PQ, PP', and putting the arch AP=2;;
then it is manifeft that the fimultaneous increments of
®, 2;, and r will be the arches DD' PP', and the
flraight line P'Q refpe&ively. Hence
v
limit of
arch PF
arch DD'
Let us apply this formula to the fpiral of Archimedes, Fig.~27»
the equation of which (§ 155.) is amv—nr, and
therefore
nr , • «*r* ,
v=z , and ® _ ——- ; hence
a m a' nf
X- fV (r*+r* ^)= 7/r
This fluent may be found by formula B, § 131, and it
is worthy of remark that the fluxion has the fame form
as that which we have found in § 161 for an arch of a
parabola j thus the length of any portion of the fpiral
of Archimedes may be exhibited by means of an arch
of a parabola.
To Jind the Contents of Solids.
163. If AD the abfcifla of a curve be denoted by a?, Fig. 4^
and PD the ordinate by y, and the folid generated by
the revolution of the curve APD about AD as an axis
by r, it has been {hewn, in § 64, that szzny'1 x, there¬
fore the general formula for finding the content of a fo¬
lid is
Ex. I. Suppofe the folid to be a paraboloid, or that
which is generated by the revolution of a parabola about
its axis j in this cafe y'xz=a x, and taking the fluent fo
that when A?=0, then mo,
• _ •
szztt fy* xzztf a ix tfzrfw a x*
)r w Ary* 3 but w Ary* is the content of a cylinder
laving y for the radius of its bafe and x for its altitude,
herefore the content of a paraboloid is half that of a
cylinder having the fame bafe and altitude.
Ex. 2. Suppofe the folid to be a parabolic fpindle,
which is generated by the revolution of APB an arcli ■*"
if a parabola about AC an ordinate to its axis. In this
safe let ADzoat, DP=ry, AB=£, the parameter of the
< D 2 axis
7f’4-
Inverfe axis =«, then from the nature of the parabola AD y DB
Method. (U v,w
X PD, that is x(b—x)—ay, hence  ,and
taking the fluent, fo that s and x may vanifli together j
s—'tJ'ij* x rr —if*x*(jb—x^x
— — J"{iSx^x—ibx* x-\-x‘xx')
_ ‘X (b*X* bx* t x^ ^
<7 ^ V 3 ~2~' J-/
FLUXIONS. PartII
perpendicular to that axis, meeting it in D, and put- inVfrfe
Fig- 32.
and 33.
or, fince a1 —
—x^, a;c1
y
vy* bx* x3l
b—*)* t~3 2
(b-
■which expreffion (by fuppofing x=zAC—~b, and put¬
ting d for CE, the greatefi: value of if) gives ^ for
15
the content of half the folid generated by the curve
AEB, therefore the entire fpindle is ——or (by ob-
ferving that vd^b is the content of a cylinder having d
for the radius of its bafe and b for its length) it is T8r
of the circumfcribing cylinder.
Ex. 3. Suppofe the folid to be a fpheroid produced
by the revolution of an ellipfe about either of its axes ;
put a for 4-AB the axis round which the curve revolves,
b for ^EF the other axis, a; for AD the height of any
legment made by a plane perpendicular to the axis of
the folid, y for PD the radius of its bafe, and s for its
bz
content. Then from the nature of the curve v1 — 
nz
(2tf»—.¥*), therefore taking the fluent upon the fup-
pofition that x and x vanifh together,
S—7T J'y*X ~ ~ J'(2flA?A?—x*x)
ting AL>=a;, and the variable folid APt^^ (eonfidered Method,
as a fundion of x) zzs, by proceeding as in § 64, we
would have found the limit of Jncrement anj CQn_
inclement of x
fequently equal to the area of the fedion of the folid
x
made by the plane P£)/>,* therefore putting V for that
fundion of x which expreffes the area of the fedion, we
have s—Vx, and s=r J'Vx.
Let us fuppofe for example that AEEG is a folid Fig. 34.
bounded by any plane figure EFG as a bafe, and by
the furface which tvill be generated if we fuppofe a
flraight line drawn from A any given point above that
plane to revolve in the circumference of the bafe.
Let AC be a perpendicular drawn from the vertex
of the figure to its bafe, and let P^/> be a fedion of
the folid by a plane parallel to the bafe, meeting the
perpendicular in D. Put az= the area of the bafe o£
the folid, V= the area of the fedion P£)/>, b—AQ the
altitude of the whole folid, w=AD the altitude of the
part cut oft by the plane PQ^/?, and the content of
that part; then, as from the nature of the folid it is
pretty evident that the part of it cut off by the plane
P£)/> is fimilar to the whole, and as the bafes of firrilar
folids are as the fquares of their altitudes, we have
d : V :: b*
a?*, hence Vss and
b*
r=/vi= T?f*'x ~
ax*
this expreffion for j does not require the addition of any
conftant quantity, for by putting tfrro, we have j'rro as
a
it ought to be. Suppofe now x—b, then ~^ab,
from which it appears that the content of the whole
folid is f of the produd of the bafe by the perpendi¬
cular. It is evident that pyramids and cones are folids
of the kind we have been contidering.
F»g- 4-
To find the content of the whole fpheroid, we have
only to take x — i a, thus the formula becomes
Airh* a
, and as 2 vb* a expreffes the content of a cy¬
linder having 2b for the diameter of its bafe, and 2a
for its height, it follows that the contents of a fpheroid
is y that of its circumfcribing cylinder.
It is obvious that what has been found for the
fpheroid will apply alfo to the fphere, by fuppofing
the axes equal, or a~b.
164. If inftead of fuppofing the folid AP£>/» to be
formed by the revolution of a curve round its axis (in
which cafe it is called a folid of revolution) we had fup-
pofed it to have any figure whatever, then by referring
the folid to fome ftraight line AC, given by pofition,
as an axis, and in which A is a given point, and fup¬
pofing P£) p to be a fe&ion of the folid made by a plane
To find the Surfaces of Solids.
165. The altitude AD of a fulid, generated by re-p-
volution of a curve about AD as an axis, being as be- S>
fore denoted by x, and PD the radium of its bafe by y,
let us now put s to denote the curved furface of the
folid, then, as it has been (hewn, § 65, that s~ ivy
l/ (.V* -f y*), we have
s—l7FfyVC" + ya)
as a general formula for the furface of a folid.
Ex. I. Suppofe the folid to be a fphere, generated by Fig. 35.
the revolution of a circle about its diameter AB, put
the radius of the fphere ~a, then AD being denoted
by x, and PD by y, we have from the nature of the
curve yJ=2a.v—a?*, therefore
y=^/(2«A’—»2), and y— and
Part II.
FLUXIONS.
Inverfe
Method.
1 y v 2ax—xlJ
or x
2 a x—x3
therefore, y^{x1 Jcy^izzax, and taking the fluent,
fo that when *rro, then j=o,
s~27tj%y^{x11 ■\-y'l')~2irax i
now if it be confidered that 2-xa is the circumference
of a great circle of the fphere, it will immediately ap¬
pear that the furface of a fegment of a fphere is equal
to the circumference of a great circle of the fphere
multiplied into the height of the fegment. Hence it
follows that the whole furface of the fphere is equal to
four times the area of one of its great circles.
Ex. 2. Suppofe the curve to be a parabola, then put¬
ting AD —x, DP = y, the parameter of the axis
we have (§ 161. example I.)
(having weight), of which the centre of gravity is re¬
quired, and that PB, PD are co-ordinates drawn from
any point in the curve perpendicular to AB, AD two
axes at right angles to each other •, let the arch AP re¬
ceive any increment P/t, let C be the centre of gravity
of AP, G the centre of gravity of P/>, and C' the centre
of gravity of AP/?. From C and G draw CE, CF,
GH, GK perpendicular to the axes AB, AD. Put
PDrr.r, PB—//, CF—X, CE—Y, APrrs?, aifo let the
arch APprris', and let the diflances of C' its centre of
gravity from the axes AD, AB be denoted by X',
and Y' refpeflively j then, obferving that the arch
¥p—*'—z, by the ptopofition in laft
» X-p(2s'—«) xGKzik' X' $
hence
g'X'—gX
z'—z
If we now fuppofe the arch P/? to be continually di-
minilhed, and obierve that g'X'—gX, and z'—z, are
the fimultaneous increments of gXand g, it will ap¬
pear (§ 23.) that
VO1+ 3'*)= ll/VCa'+ty1)) therefore
flux, of (gX)
— limit of GK.
g
s—27rf
-~f 3'3'V(«i+43's)
= ^ («t + 4^) 5+C, by § 108.
To difcover the value of the conftant quantity C, we
mull obferve that when .r—o, then y~o, and J’rro,
therefore putting o inftead of s and y, the above equa¬
tion becomes 0= ^hence C =r — and
__ S («*+43's)7—«3
1 6a
To find the Centre of Gravity of any Line, Surface, or
Solid.
166. It belongs to the theory of MECHANICS to ex¬
plain what is meant by the centre of gravity, and to de-
monftrate itK general properties, and here it is only ne-
ceflary to fliew how the method of fluxions may be ap¬
plied to deduce from fume one of thofe properties rules
for finding that centre in any propofed cafe.
The properties of centre- of gravity which we {hall
employ as the foundation of the application of the
method of fluxions to its determination may be enun¬
ciated fliortly thus.
Fig. 35. Let C be the centre of gravity of a mafs of matter
denoted by M, and c the centre of gravitv of another
mafs m, and D the centre of gravity of the two mafles
M and wz, from thefe points let pernendiculars CA, ca,
DE be drawn to any ftraight line P£), then
M xCA-j-OTxX DE.
Fig. 37. 165. Let us now fuppofe that AP is any curve line
2
By the very fame way of reafoning we find
flux, of (g Y)
g
= limit of GH,
but the point p approaching to P, it is manifeft that
the point G will alfo approach to P, fo that the limit
of GK is PD or x, and the limit of GH is PB or y,
hence
flux, (g X) flux, (g Y)
 \   =*, . =y,
z z
flux. (gX)=TA?g, flux. (zY)=yz.
Taking now the fluents of each fide of thefe equations^
and dividing by g,
f xz r
X=J , Y=—i
it is evident that by thefe two equations the pofition of
C the centre of gravity is determined.
168. Let us next fuppofe that it is required to find C
tbt centre of gravity of the plane area APB. As the
arch AP was in lafl § fuppofed to receive the incre¬
ment P/i, fo let the area APB now receive the incre¬
ment hPpb, and let C, C/ and G (which in the former
cafe were fuppofed to be the centres of gravity of the
arches AP, AP/?, and P/> refpectively) now be fup-
pofed to be the centres of gravity of the areas APB,
Apb, and BP/?3; put the area APB~the area
Apb — s\ and let X, Y, X', Y' denote as before.
Then, reafoning exactly as in laft cafe, we have
(by § 116.),
s X 4-< P—-j ) x G K—F X'
jY-Kj'—OxCHr^'Y'
henes
7°5
Inverfe
Me. hod.
   '
Fig. 37,
FLUXIONS
766
Inverfe hence
Method.
Fig
37*
^=GK,^=G„;
and the point p being fuppofed to approach to P, fo
that j'X'—sX, j,'Y'—sY'f and j'—j-, the fimulta-
neous increments of X, Y and s, may be continually
diminifhed,
gu^X)=i;m, GK, gh ;
•f s
but as the ordinate p b approaches to PB, it is manifeft
that the ultimate pofition of G, the centre of gravity of
the area BP will be the middle of PB, therefore
the limit of GK is w, and the limit of GH is -|y, thus
we have
flux. (jX) flux. (/Y)
  ——t, ;—
s s
and confequently,
/xs fys
X=^ , Y=J *
2s
or flnce szny x, and J'y a; (§ 61.),
fi/xx fy'x
Y=
Jyx ij'yx
169. Let it next be required to find the centre of
gravity of the furface of a folid generated by the revolu¬
tion of the curve AP about AB as an axis. Let the
furface of the folid be conceived to receive an incre¬
ment generated by P^ an arch of the curve. In this
cafe it is evident that the centres of gravity of the fur¬
face generated by the curve AP, the furface generated
by the curve AP/>, and the furface generated by the
arch P/», will each be in AB, the axis of the folid j
fuppofe them to be at E, E' and H refpe&ively. Put
AE=:X, AE'rzX', alfo put s for the furface generated
by AP, and / for the furface generated by AP/?, then
as before (from \ 166.) we have
j- X+ (j-'—j) AH=/X',
hence ——~AH,
and
flux. (rX)
= lim. AH j
but the point p approaching to P, the limit of AH is
manifeftly AB or x, therefore
cr fince JurZiryz (§ 65.),
27rJxyz Jxyz
X=
2*fy% fyi
170. If inftead of the centre of gravity of the fur¬
face generated by AP, the centre of gravity of the
folid generated by the revolution of the plane figure
APB about AB as an axis be required, the reafoning
will be the very fame as in laft §, fubftituting the
folid generated by the plane figure inftead of the fur¬
face generated by the curve line $ fo that putting j
for the content of the folid, and X for AE the di-
ftance of its centre of gravity from the vertex, we have
alfo
Part IT,
Inverfe
Method.
X
_yv;
but in this cafe s—-xy* x (§ 64.), therefore
w Py^xx fy2, xx
X=r—— ^ =- 
^ fi' X fi* X
171. We fliall now apply thefe formulas to fome ex¬
amples.
Example 1. Let it be required to find the centre ofp-? ^
gravity of AP an arch of a circle. Suppofe AB to b
be a part of the diameter, and in addition to the nota¬
tion of § 167. put a for the radius of the circle, then
from the nature of the curve, y*zz2ax—hence
(proceeding as in § 165. Ex. 1.) we have as= — and
y
therefore ‘zyzzax, and but from the equa¬
tion yi—2ax—#*, by taking the fluxions we get
• • • OCX Cl X • • •
yy—ax—xx, and hence  =  —y — z — yt
y y
therefore —y) \ fubftituting now the values
of 2; a; and £ y in the formula of § 167, we have
X='
/
x «
=^/c
y)
= — O—y+<0
Y=:'
fy
=—/*
= — C^+O*
To difcover the values of the conftant quantities
c, c\ we have from the equations in which they occur,
a c—X%—flsa-j-fly> —ax;
but when ^r=o, then A’, y, X and Y are each =ro,
therefore and d—o, thus we have Amply
X— Y = —
Ex. 2.
Part II. FLUXIONS.
767
Inverfe Ex. 2. Let it be required to find tfip centre of
Method, gravity of APB an area bounded by AP an arch of a
' circle and PB, BA its fine and verfed fine. Let a de-
note the radius, and let the remaining notation be as
in § 168. Then, becaufe jrzy at, we have Arjrry A?ar,
hut from the equation if—I a x—x* (which exprelfes
the nature of the curve), we find
x x^a x—-y y, therefore
x s—a y x—if y~a s—f y.
We have alfo y s—y1 x— (2 a x—x1) x, therefore,
x=l
fxs f(as—fy)
=-• (« J—t3'5+c)
Y=
f y t ffa X—x1) x
2 s
2 s
—— (a x*—y .v3
2S
By proceeding as in the laft example we find c and
each =0, thus we have
X:
■ -kt 3 a x1—»3
~.a— —, x _
3J
6 s
Fig. 37. Ex. 3. Suppofe now the figure to be the furface
generated by the revolution of AP an arch of a circle
about the diameter AB, and that the centre of gravity
of the generated furface is required. Then becaufe
from the nature of the circle
we have y % —ax.
and x y % — a x x, therefore, fubftituting thefe values in
the formula of § 169. it becomes
x_/l y* j X X
f y% afx
 X*-\-C
— X-\-c' * /
To find the values of the conftant quantities c, <?, we
have
crrX (v+O—a#Y
X
but as when x—o, then X=:0, it is manifefl; that c and
c' are each =0, thus we have
X=|- a.v
Fig. 37. Ex. 4. Let us now fuppofe that it is required to
find the centre of gravity of the folid generated by the
revolution of AP an arch of a circle about the diame¬
ter. In this cafe, becaufe 3!*= 2 a —x%, we have
> from § 170,
ff X X J'x (2 a X1 X 3 )
ffx J'x (2 a x — x')
 -y« A?3 ^ X4~{-C
a x*—^ x3 4- c'7
Inverfe
Method.
and reafoning as in the lait example, we find czzo, and
c'zro, and therefore
8 a x—3 x%
12 a—4 x *
If the fegment be a hemifphere, in which cafe xz=a,
then Xzr-g^*
Sect. III. Of Fluxional Equations.
172. It has been (hewn (§ 49.)) how, from an equa*
tion being given, exprefiing the relation between x a
variable quantity, and y afuu&ion of that quantity, we
may deduce the equation that expreffes the relation of
their fluxions. We are now to ftiovv how from the lat¬
ter, or Jluxional equation, we may return to the equa¬
tion of the fluents, which, relatively to the other, may
be called its primitive equation.
173. As any primitive equation and the fluxional
equation derived from it both hold true at the fame
time, and as the conftant quantities which enter into
the former retain the fame values in the latter, it fol¬
lows that by means of the two equations we may exter¬
minate any one of the conftant quantities, and thus from
any propofed primitive equation deduce a fluxional equa¬
tion, in which one of the conftant quantities contained
in that primitive ftiall not at all be found.
For example, let the primitive equation be y-\-a x
-}-£=o, by taking the fluxions we have 31+a A?=ro,
a fluxional equation in which b is not found ; if, how¬
ever, it be required to find an equation in which a {hall
be wanting, we have only to eliminate a by applying
the common rules of Algebra (Algebra, Sedt. vii.)
to the two equations
y —J— a x —J— b o, y^-ax^—0 y
and hence we have y#—xy-\-bx=o, thus it appears
that from the primitive equation y-{-ax-\-b=:0 we may
deduce a fluxional equation which may be exprefled
under either of thefe forms,
z/-{-«a=:o, yx—xy-{-bx=o •,
thefe hold true at the fame time as the primitive equa¬
tion, they are alike related to, and any two of the
three being given the other neceflarily follows from
them.
As a fecond example, fuppofe the primitive equation
to be xz—2 ay—a2—b—o, by pafling to the fluxions
we immediately find xx—ay=io, an equation in which
b is not found. If, however, it be required that the
fluxional equation (hall want a, we have only to apply
the common rules of elimination to the two equations $
X X
thus from the fecond we get a———, and this being
y
fubftituted in the firft it becomes -
a3 -
3
763
F L
Invcrfe
Method.
1 xy x x%x% ,
 1 e>—o
y
yx
from which we have
(»*—■b') if—%2xyy x—x*
UXIONS. Part IT,
contrary any fluxional equation being given, its primi- inVerfe
live equation may contain one eonftant quantity more Method,
than the tiuxional equation, but it can contain only l—
one, for no more than one conftant quantity can be
made to difappear by returning from the primitive to
its fluxional equation.
and taking the fquare root, having previoufly reduced
the equation to a proper form,
. yv O* -{-y'—b—yy—xx—o.
174. It is evident that by proceeding in this manner
We fhall, in fome cafes, arrive at a fluxional equation in¬
volving the fecund and higher powers of and when
x
this happens we can only find the value of^ by the re-
x
folution of an equation ; but this may be avoided by
preparing the primitive equation in fuch a manner, that
the conftant quantity to be eliminated may be entirely
feparated from the variable quantities, fo as to form one
of the terms of the equation, then, upon taking the
fluxions, this term being conftant will vanifti, and thus
we fhall obtain an equation entirely free from the con-*
ftant quantity contained in that term. Thus the primi¬
tive equation y-\~ax-\-b—o has already fuch a form that
by taking the fluxions we get y-^-ax—o an equation in
which b is not found. If it be required, that upon ta¬
king the fluxions, a fhall vanifh j we muft put the equa¬
tion under this form —^+fl=o, and then taking the
fluxion, we find immediately
x v—(yA-b^ x
— — =0,
an expreffion in which a is not found, and which by
reje&ing the divifor x* becomes yx—x y-\-b x — o, and
thefe two forms of the fluxional equation are the very
fame as have been found in the laft In the fecond
example, viz. x1—'lay——b—O, the equation has
already the form fuited to the elimination of b, for the
fluxional equation is##—uy=o, but in order that a
may vanifh, we muft refolve the equation with refpeft
to 0, fo as to give it this form
V— *v/0*4y—£) + fl=0 5
pafting now to the fluxional equation, a difappears, and
ave have
V x( (#*4-y*—£)—?/ v—x x
v'01+/—
It is evident that we have only to rejedl the denomina¬
tor to give the equation this form
y v/f#1 +if—b)—y y—x #=o
the fame as was found in the conciufion of laft §.
176. The fluxional equation exprefling the value of
which is derived from any primitive equation in-
X
volving x, and y a function of #, may be called a flux¬
ional equation of the Jiry? order ; and as from this equa¬
tion contidered as a primitive, we may in like manner
derive an equation that fhall involve -¥- (§ 50.), thislaft
#*
may be called a fluxional equation of the fecond order,
and the fluxional equation from which it is derived may
be called its primitive equation of the frji order, to
diftinguifh it from the abfolute primitive equation, from
which all the others are conceived to be derived. A
fi.niiar mode of derinition is to be applied to the higher
orders.
177. As any primitive equation and the fluxional
equations of the firft and fecund orders derived from it
muft all hold true at the fame time, it is evident, that
by means of the three equations, we may exterminate
any two of the conftant quantities contained in them
that we pleafe, and thus produce a fluxional equation of
the fecond order that contains two conftant quantities
lefs than the primitive equation. There are however
two other ways by which we may arrive at the very
fame fluxional equation of the fecond order. For as
from the given primitive equation we may deduce two
different fluxional equations of the firft order, one
of which fhall contain one only of the two quantities to
be eliminated, and the other fhall contain the other
quantity only, we may confider each of thefe equations
in its turn as a primitive, and, by proceeding in the
manner explained in § 173 and § 174, derive from it a
fluxional equation, in which that particular conftant
quantity which remained in its primitive, but which was
to be finally eliminated, fhall not be found ; thus, from
each of thefe primitives we (hall deduce the very fame
fluxional equation of the fecond order, that fhall be
freed fmm two of the conftant quantities contained in
the abfolute primitive equation.
Let us take for example the equation
«*—2 ayA-b'—O j
by proceeding as explained in § 173, or 5 174, we find
thefe two fluxional equations of the firft order,
##—ay—o, (#I-f-^*)y—ixy x~o,
in the one of thefe the conftant quantity a is wanting,
and in the other b is wanting. Taking the firft equa¬
tion xx—ayzzo, and proceeding as in § 50 (ubferving
that # is conftant) we find #*—ay—o, iffrom this equa¬
175. From what has been now (hewn we may infer
that as from any propofed primitive equation we can
deduce a fluxional equation that fhall contain one con¬
ftant quantity lefs than the primitive contains, fo on the
tion we now eliminate a by putting inftead of it —
y
(deduced from the equation ##—ayzzo) we find after
proper reduction
v ^
FLUXIONS.
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
yx—xy^zo,
a fluxlonal equation of the fecond order, in which both
a and b are wanting, and having w1—2ay-\-bz for its
abfolute primitive equation.
Let us now take the other fluxional equation of the
firft order which involves viz. (*2-f-£*)y—2xyx
—o j by proceeding with this as with the former we
find —lyx'zzO’, from the firft of thefe
2 x v x
equations we find -^b*—   —, and from the fe-
y
. 7-, ‘tyx' 2xyx 2yx*
cond x'-^b1— —— j therefore,—~— rr -, and
y yy
hence we have
y x—x y~o
the fame equation as before; and as we have arrived at
the very fame concluhon by confidering each of thefe
equations
xx—ay—§, —2xyxzzo
as a primitive, it follows that both thefe are to be con-
fidered as primitive equations of the firft order of the
fluxional equation—x y=o.
178. In general, every fluxional equation of the fe¬
cond order has two primitive equations of the firft or¬
der, and all three may be confidered as originating
from one and the fame abfolute primitive equation ; and
as a fluxional equation of the fecond order may contain
two conftant quantities lefs than its abfolute primitive
equation, and one lefs than either of its primitive equa¬
tions of the firft order; fo, on the contrary, a primitive
equation of the firft order may contain one conftant
quantity more than the fiuxional equation of the fecond
order derived from it, and the abfolute primitive may
contain two conftant quantities which are not found in
the fluxional equation of the fecond order derived from
it; and fimilar conclufions may be drawn relating to
fluxional equations of the third or any higher order.
Of Fluxional Equations of the firjl order.
179. When it is required to find the primitive equa¬
tion correfponding to a propofed fluxional equation of
the firft order, we may endeavour to feparate the va¬
riable quantities, that is, to bring the equation to fuch
a form, that it may be compofed of two parts, one of
which confifts of x multiplied or divided by a fun&ion
of x only, and the other of y multiplied or divided by a
function of y only. When this feparation of the varia¬
ble quantities can be effefted, we have only to take the
fluents according to the methods explained in SECT. I.
and put their fum =0, and we immediately have the
primitive equation required.
Ex. Suppofe the fluxional equation to be
myx-\-nxy~Q ;
divide the terms of the equation by A?y, and it becomes
mx . ny
"f- ——0*
VOL. VIII. Part II. y
769
Now the fluent of
mx .
 is
X
Inverfe
ml. x -J-c' (§ 103.), and in Method.
like manner the fluent of —is n 1. y-i-d'. therefore
y
»2 1. A?-f-«1. y-{-£•'-f-O ,
or, tranfpofing c-J-c'", and putting a Angle conftant
quantity for their fum, which, to be homogeneous with
the logarithmic quantities, may be — log. c, or — 1. c,
ml. x-\-n l.yrrl. c, or 1. (V”) -f-1. (y”)—1. r,
or 1. (xmyn') =1. c, and hence xmyn=zc,
which laft is the primitive equation required.
180. When a primitive equation is homogeneous%
that is, when the fum of the exponents of the variable
quantities x and y is the fame in each term, as in this
example,
a x x-\-by x-lpdx y-\-e y y~0,
or (a x-\-b if x(dx J(-e if y—o,
in which the variable part of each term is of the firft:
degree, as alfo in this equation
{a x1-\-b x y-\-dy*') x ")
+ iex*+fxy+gyt) y }
in which the variable part of each term is of the fecond
degree, fuch an equation may be always transformed
into another which will admit of the variable quantities
being feparated. To take a particular example, let us
fuppofe the equation to be x x-\-yy^zn y x, or (a?—«y)
x-\-y y—o. We aflume yr=A; z (and the fame affump-
tion is to be made for any other homogeneous equation),
then yrr^Ar-j-A? 2!, thus the equation becomes transform¬
ed to
(a?—« x f x-\-x Z (2A?-f-»«)=0,
but as the terms of this equation have a common fa£lor
x, by leaving out that fa£tor, it becomes
(1—n z) x-f-z (z x -f-x z)=:of
which alfo admits of being exprefled thus
(i«—« » + 25*) x-j-xzz =0,
and, by divifion,
x z z
-— ~j-  —;—: — O,
a; 1—nz-j-z*
and taking the fluents
f— + f—— =C,
f x Ji—nz-J-z*
where C denotes a conftant quantity, or,
=1. xt
% z
F—— = C,
,/i—nzA-z*
z+z%
5E
now
7?o FLUX
Method, now the particular form of --depends upon
the value of the number n ; for if it will be a
logarithmic fundlion, and if—it will be expref-
fible by means of a circle, but if - = l, then it is an al-
2
gebraic fun&ion, and in each cafe it may be found by
the methods delivered in Sect. I. for finding the fluent
of a rational fradlion. It may however be Amplified in
its form, by obferving, that lince
1.
I «2S-f-SS* 21 1 I WZ-j-iS* ’
therefore ($ 103.) /-—
il. (I—«2!+Z») + |/—^
'S 1—nz
1. ^+1.(1—z)+-
and, fubflituting - inflead of z,
:C;
L*+l.fe:) +-JL.=C,
\ * / X—w
IONS.
from which we get
Fart II,
Inverfe
Method.
■=o.
and taking the fluents of the terms, obferving that each
being a logarithm fundtion, their lum may be put equal
to a conftant logarithm,
1. x—1. j^z-f v/(r+52*) ^
which expreflion, by fubftituting for z its value —,
becomes
i.«-i.c+i.
If we now confider that
If we limit our enquiry to the cafe of «-|-2, we have
y-»  /»2z   2
1—//z -j-z* ^1 —z/ 1—z’
let the terms be now colledled into one expreflion, then
obferving that | 1. (1—2z + z*I =£1. (1—z)* =
1. (l—z), we have
or, fubftituting 1. c inftead of C, and colledling the lo¬
garithmic functions into one,
1 x—y_ —^
c x—y*
therefore, palling from logarithms to numbers, by ob¬
ferving that, as when «=zl./>, we have by the nature of
logarithms ea—p, where e denotes the number of which
the Napierean logarithm is 1, fo in the prefent cafe we
M
X~lJ x y
have —— =e , and hence the primitive equation
is found to be
X
x—y—c e x~yzzO,.
As a fecond example let the fluxional equation be
x y—yx-=zx— x +y*)
which is alfo homogeneous. Affume as before y=xz,
theny=A?z-fz.v, and fubftituting thefe values of y
and y in the propofed equation, it becomes
* (1 +»*)—K%ZZOt
( y+s/^ Jry') ( y—\A* Li'2)——
and therefore that
y+v/Q2-hy2) _ —^
« y—
it will appear, that the above equation may be other-
wife expreffed thus :
1. tfrd.c-fl.-f —^—— 1,
i y—v'l^ +y ) i
from which, by palling from logarithms to their num¬
bers, we find y—\/{xx-\-yz)z=.—c, and hence, by fo
ordering the equation that the radical may difappear,
we get a:1—2 cy, which is the primitive equation
required.
181. An equation which is not homogeneous, may in
fome cafes, by proper transformations, be rendered ho¬
mogeneous j this is the cafe in particular with the equa¬
tion
(a+Tnx-\-ny)x-{- {b ±px—qy)y—o,
which is general of its kind} for this purpofe we aflume
x—t-\-u,, and y=ra-|-/3, then X—t, and y—u ; by fubfti¬
tuting thefe values of »,y, w, y, in the propofed equa¬
tion it becomes
(a —[-Wdt-}-W^-j—^
+ (^+y«e+^+/’/+5'“)" j"
Let us now fuppofe a, and /3 fuch that
a-\-fnx-\-n^—o7
b+pci+qfr—O,
by thefe two equations the values of and $ are deter¬
mined, and'the transformed equation is reduced to
{tnt-\-nu)t-\-^pt-\-qu)u~oy
an equation which is homogeneous, and therefore may
be treated in the manner explained in laft §.
Tb!s transformation will not apply, however, when mq
—npzzo, becaufe then the values of « and /3 would be
2 infinite*
Part II, FLUXIONS.
Tnvprfe . ,,.r , np y , r Let us take a particular cafe, and fuppofe the equa-
infinite. In this cafe we have  , and therefore . x , • , • „ • , , „ T n_ -
Methoa. 7 m tion to be y-\-ijx—x x, then we have rrrl, ^ , v.
px+qy— — {rnxlrnij), hence the original equation andJP x—x, hence in this cafe the general formula
may be expreffed thus, becomes
ax-\-b y
-f {tnx+ny) (jc+^-y)
Affume now tnx-\-ny, then y + — — ~ x > *-*ie va"
lues of mx-^-ny and y being now fubftituted in the
equation, and the whole reduced to a proper form, it
becomes
• (b m-\-p,z),z
X 4 > „   r— =0.
1 a m n—b m -j- ijn n—P m) 25
The fluent of the fecond term of this expreflion will in¬
volve logarithms, except that mn—p m—O, in which
cafe the primitive equation is
lbm%-)-p
ft JL. - ,    — Ly•
~ 2{a m n-—b n?)
182. When a fluxional equation has this form
yt=:c ^ Jex a,’" a: -}-r ^.
The fluent J*e* x" x may be found by § 143 ; let
us fuppofe for example that n~2f then we have
yV x* x~e~ (sc1—2 X—2),
fo that the fluxional equation being
y+yx=x* x,
the primitive equation is
y=zx*—2 x-\-2-\-c e~a.
The general equation y-f-P y a::=:Q x, which involves
the Ample power only of the variable quantity y, and its
fluxion, has been called a linear equation of the firfl:
order ; it has alfo, with more propriety, been called a
fluxional equation of the JirJl degree^ and of the firft
order.
y+Py*=Q*>
where P and Q denote any funftions of x, the variable
quantities may be feparated in the following manner.
Aflume y=X », then, taking the fluxions, we have
!3sX-f-XsS, and by fubftitution, the propofed equa¬
tion becomes
2; X-f-X 2>-{-PX:2 x=.Ox;
now as in this equation X and 5s may be fuppofed to
denote indeterminate functions of at, we may divide it
into two others, fuch, that the variable quantities in
each may be feparable \ to effect this we aflume
X 2S + PX 55 x~o, z'X. = Qx ;
hence, dividing the firft; equation by X, we have
js-{-P zx~o, and— -f Pa;—O, and taking the fluents,
%
1. * +/Pi=o, and hence, by pafling from logarithms
£s their numbers,
here no conftant quantity is introduced, it being fuffi-
cient to add it at the end of the operation •, let this
value of z be fubftituted in the fecond equation, then
by deducing from it the value of X, we have
X—eJ Q x
and X=: J'x Qx ■^■c;
and fince y=X z, therefore
y=r^
183. The equation
y+P y x=Q?/' x,
where P and as before denote any funflions of x, is
eafily reduced to the form we have been confidering $
for aflume yI—(1—n) z, then y~ay—z, and 7/—zynt
and y= (1—«) ssy”; if we now fubftitute the values
of y and y in the equation, it becomes
f i3+(i—«) P2 / x=Qyn x;
let the terms of this equation be divided by yn, then,
including the faflor (1—«) in the indeterminate func¬
tion P, the reful t is
2!-f-P» X—Qx
an equation of the very fame form as that which has been
confidered in laft §.
184. The moft general form that can be given to a
fluxional equation of the firft order, and confiding of
three terms only, is
yd zk is-}-/3z^ u—xue zf u
to give this equation a more Ample form, let all its
terms be divided by yul z^, it then becomes
zk~f z 4- - z h~f u— - u.
y y
Suppofe now
5^ f z
z —
t-f+t’uS ’u-g-i+e
then ^"'zry, ^
5 E 2
and
771
Inverfe
Method.
I
?72
Inverfe
Method.
F L
and ——~F.F,‘3 y k «;
U-^+Oy7
^—;?
— v ^r—i+i ’.
—2+ I)y
Let us in order to abridge put
(L-/+i)/3 (/■—/+
(f—1 )v ’ <;'+1)y ~r/’
/?—:/ _ e—-g
then the equation becomes
U X I O N S. Part Ht
vifor, which was common to them all, having difap- inVerfe
peared. In fuch cafes, however, if we can by any Method.
means difcover that factor, by reftoring it we (hall im-   *
mediately have a complete fluxion, the fluent of which,
with the addition of a conftant quantity, when put—o,
will be the primitive equation.
For example, if the equation be —yxzz.0, here
xy—y x cannot be immediately produced by taking the
fluxion of a funttion of x and y; but, if we divide the
equation by x* fo as to give it this form —  — — o,
' . . x
we obtain the expreflion ■ which is a complete
y -\-b yn x—a xm x.
If we fuppofe n—l, the refulting equation y+byx
~axm x may have its variable quantities'feparated by
the method explained in § 183 ; but if we go only
one ftep farther, and fuppofe n—2, fo that the equa¬
tion is
fluxion, viz. that of the fra&ion —, therefore — -l-c—o,
x x ’
ory-fc X'zzo, is the primitive equation.
In like manner, the equation w.v^-j-nyArzro, which
does not in its prefent form exprefs a complete fluxion,
yet becomes fo when multiplied by xn~l ^Tn~I, for
then it is
y+by* x—a xm x,
the difficulty of feparating the variable quantities gene-
ral/y is fo great as to have hitherto baffled the utmoll
efforts of the mod expert analyfts. This equation is
commonly called Riccati’s equation, on account of its
having been firfl: treated of by an Italian mathematician
ef that name, who fucceeded in feparating the variable
quantities in fome particular cafes, namely, when m is
equal to
number.
185. If the feparating of the variable quantities
generally be a problem of infurmountable difficulty when
the equation confifts of only three terms, its folution
can much lefs be expe&ed, when the equation confifts
of four, or any greater number. There are, however,
particular cafes in which fome of the moft Ikilful
analyfts have, by employing happy and peculiar artifices,
fucceeded in refolving the problem, but the methods of
proceeding are, generally fpeaking, not reducible to
any determinate rules.
186. When the expreffion which conftitutes a fluxional
equation is fuch as would be produced by taking the
fluxion of fome function of x and y, in which cafe it
may be faid to be a complete fluxion, then, without
attempting to feparate the variable quantities, we have
only to add a conftant quantity to that funftion, and
the refult put =0, will -evidently be the primitive
equation required.
If, for example, the equation be xy-^y x~o, it is
obvious that the expreffion xy-\-yx is immediately pro¬
duced by taking the fluxion of the function xy {y being
alfo confidered as a ‘uoftion of #), therefore the primi¬
tive equation is xy-\-c—0.
From the view which has been given in § 174. of the
origin of fluxional equations it appears, that in paffing
from a primitive equation to it« fluxional equation, the
terms of the latter in many cafes will not conftitute a
complete fluxion, by reafon of fome multiplier, or di-
3
—4/>
2/>=!=]
where p denotes any whole pofitive
mxn ym~x yJrnxn~'1 ym x—o,
from which it appears that the primitive equation its
this cafe muft be xn ym-\-c—o.
187. That we may be able to difcover whether1 the
terms of any propofed fluxional equation conftitute a
complete fluxion, and alfo from what expreffion fuch a
fluxion has been derived, we muft attend to the procefs,
by which we find the fluxion of an expreffion compofed
of turn variable quantities, one of which is a fun&ion of
the other.
To avoid very general reafoning, we {hall take for
granted what is evidently poffible, that any fun£tion,of
x and y may be generally exprefied by a formula of this
nature,
A xn yn—]&x$ yq-[■ Cxr y + &c.
where A, B, C, &c. denote conftant quantities, and
the exponents m, n, &c. given numbers, the number of
terms being fuppofed either finite or infinite. Now
the fluxion of the whole expreflion is the fum of the
fluxion of its terms, but in taking the fluxion of each
term, beginning with the firft Axm yn, the fluxion of
which is
m Aa”1-1 yn x-\-n A xm y,
it is evident that the refult is compofed of two parts,
one of which is the expreflion we would find for its
fluxion, if x only were confidered as variable, and y as
conftant, and the other is the expreflion for its fluxion,
if y only were confidered as variable and x as conftant. j
hence it follows, that the fum of the fluxions of all the
terms will have the very fame property ; fo that, if u
be put for the whole expreflion, we (hall in every cafe
have
where M x denotes the refult that will be found if the
fluxion of u be taken upon the hypothecs that x alone
is
Fart II.
Invevfe ;s variable, and Ny is the fluxion of a, fuppofing y alone
Method. variable.
188. Refuvning the confideration of the general ex-
preflion
Kxm y11 y'1 +C
let the fluxion of any one of its terms, for example,
A*”1 jf", be taken, fuppofing x alone variable, and the
refult is mKxm~xynx. Again, let the fluxion of this
refult be taken, iuppofing y alone variable, and we find
it to be « A Af"-1 yn~Txy. Now, if we firft take
the fluxion of A xm yx\ fuppofing y variable, we get
n Kx"1 yn~xy, and then, the fluxion of this refult, con-
fidering * alone as variable, we get mnAxm-xy’'-xxy,
■which is the very fame expreflion as was found by pro¬
ceeding in a contrary order $ and as the fame mutt hold
true of all the terms, we may conclude,that if the fluxion
of u any fun£lion of x and y be taken, confidering x only
as variable, and then the fluxion of that refult, confider¬
ing y only as variable, the very fame final refult will be
obtained as if we were firft to take the fluxion of u fup¬
pofing y variable, and then the fluxion of that refult,
iuppoling x variable j but the fluxion of u being ex-
preffed thus Mar-f-Ny, it has been (hewn that Ma? is
the fluxion of u, if x only be fuppofed variable and Ny
is its fluxion, if y only be variable, therefore, if we take
the fluxion of Ma; upon the fuppofition that y only is
variable, alfo the fluxion of Ny upon the. luppofition
that x only is variable, the relults mutt be identical.
Thi'> property affords the following rule, by which we
may always determine whether any propofed expreflion
conftitutes an exa£t fluxion or not. Let the exprejfion
be put under this form, M x-j-Ny; let IVFy be the fluxion
of M, fuppofng y alone ’variable, and N'x the fuxion
of fuppofing x alone variable, then, if M' and N' are
identical, M x-f-Ny is a complete fuxion ; and if they
are n$t, M x -j- N y is not a complete fluxion*
189. It is eafy to fee, how, from a complete fluxion
«/=:MA?-f-Ny we may determine u its fluent ; for as
Mat has been deduced from u by confidering x as va¬
riable, and y as conttant, on which account all the terms
of u that involved y only mutt have vanifhed, it follows
on the contrary, that if we put Y to denote thofe terms,
we fhall have
FLUXIONS.
773
ry’M.v + Y,
the fluent of M.v being taken, regarding x only as va¬
riable. The funftion Y may be determined, by com¬
paring the fluxion of the expreflion thus obtained with
the given fluxion Ma’-f-Ny.
Ex. I. Let the fluxion be —— —f— this
expreflion when reduced to the form u= M ^-j-N^y is
j= (2*+y)* _  (g+*\?/
^(ay+x'+xy) 2f (ay-\-x1-\rxy)
hence M zr
2x+y
K 0-j-A?
2f(ay-\-xi + xyy " Is/^ay+x'+xy)
the fluxion of M, fuppofing y only variable, gives us
J A{ay ^-x1 ^.xy)V
and in like manner the fluxion of N, fuppofing x only
variable, gives
n=n'*=
t\{^ciy-\-x -^xy)^
hence it appears that M^rTN', and therefore that the
propofed expreflion is an exaft fluxion. To determine
its fluent, the formula «zr^IVlA;-|-Y gives us
Oy+*l+*y)+Y >
the fluxion of this expreflion taken, upon the fuppofition
that both x and y are variable, is
• ay-\-2xx-\-yx-\-xy , -cV
this refult, compared with the original fluxion, (hews
that Y=o, and Yzrc, a conflant quantity.
Ex. 2. Suppofe the fluxion to be
• , . • +.vy-f-2y1)
*VO'-H-yl)+y "
HereM—\/ («*+ya), N=-~~^y-5 and by
proceeding as in laft example, we fhall find M'zrN'zz
—-—— , hence it follows that the expreflion is a
complete fluxion, and the formula u=fNLx+Y fhews
that u=zJ'x V Cfll+y5)+Y
—x >f (o^y^+Y.
To determine Y, we take the fluxion of, this ex¬
preflion, fuppofing x and y both variable, and find it
to be
Inverfe
> Method.
«=aV O^+y2) +
<yy
VC^^y1)
and this compared with the original fluxion
n-x^a +y)+
fhews that Yzz hence
v'K+y1)
Y=rSpi2y'\y ^v^^+y*)
\/(« +y ) J x
therefore the fluent required is
u~
774
F L
Inverfe
Method.
»=* v/ («*+/) \/(«* +5'*)+C
=(*+50 v/C«2+5,*) + c»
where C denotes a conftant quantity.
U X I O N S,
y
—zrp, we find
x
*=^ v'(I+/) — c i3=P,
Part II.
Inverfe
Method.
190. It may be demonftrated, that as often as a
fluxional equation does not conftitute a complete fluxion,
there is always an infinite number of fa&ors, fuch, that
if the equation were multiplied by any one of them,
the refult would be a complete fluxion. A general
method of determining fome one of thefe fa&ors, how¬
ever, feems to be a problem of fuch difficulty, that its
folution, except in fome particular cafes, is not to be
expefled.
191. When a fluxional equation involves the fecond
or higher powers of x and y, as in this example,
1/—xt~of
which may be put under this form,
y—bp*/( 1 +/)—ia p *—bfp^ (i+p*)
the fluent of^y'(i +/)*) may be found by the formulas
given in § 130, and §131.
193. When we cannot by atiy means find an ex-
prefiion for the relation between x and y in finite terms,
then we muft, as a laft refource, have recourfe to ap¬
proximation, that is, we muft exprefs the value y in
terms of x by means of a feries.
When the form of the feries is known, we may de¬
termine the coefficients of its terms, by fubftituting the
feries and its fluxion inftead of y and y in the propofed
equation.
Suppofe, for example, that the equation is
y-\-yx—m xn x — o,
"we may, by the theory of algebraic equations, deduce
V
from it the values of -., confidering this quantity as a
x
root of the equation ; thus, in the prefent example, by
refolving the quadratic equation ~ —-a*zro, we have
x*
“==±:fl, fo that y—a x—o, and ^-f-flarrro, hence
we may aflume
A ** -}-B f-x + C -f&c.
then y~AA?a—
-f-(at + 2) C 'l'1 &C.
Subftituting now the values of y and y in the equai
tion, and dividing the whole by at, it becomes
y—aar-f-crro, y-\-a x-^-Jz^o,
are two primitive equations, from either of which the
fluxional equation y1—efx' — o may be derived, and
it may alfo be deduced from their produft
(y—ax+c) (y+ax + c')=:o.
192. As often as the equation contains only one of
the two variable quantities, for example x, by the refo-
lution of the equation we may obtain -~=X (where X
x
denotes fome fun&ion of a?), and hence y~ J'X x, but
if it be more eafy to refolve the equation with refpeft to
y
x than to -v, which we ffiall denote by p, then, inftead
x
of feeking the values of p from the equation, we may
find that of at, thus we ffiall have x—P, fome fumStion
of and hence a? =r P, and fince y—px, therefore,
y=p P, and y= fp P—Vp—J'P p. The relation
Between x and y is now to be found by eliminating p
by means of the two equations
a:=P, y—Pp—JP p.
As a particular example, let us fuppofe the equation
to be x ayzzb v/(*a+3/*)> fr0® 'which, by putting
asAa;* 1-}-B 1 + (« + 2) C
—m xn 4- A 5 +
+ (« + 3)D7 «4.3+&c_o.
This equation becomes identical, if we aflume
a—i—n, or«—and
A_"\ E_ —m C_ m
Ct' % (*+2)*
D_ —  &c.
e,(i56+I) (a + 2) C<*+3)’
Hence we have
xn+x xn+1
”+ 1 (” + I) (w + 2)
A;n+3
"( + 1) (w + 2) C”+3)
In order that a primitive equation may be general, ifc
ought to contain an indeterminate conftant quantity
more than is found in the fluxional equation, therefore,
this feries which contains no fuch quantity, muft be
confidered as incomplete, or as exhibiting the value of
y, upon the fuppofition, that, when xzzo, then yz=0«
However, we may obtain a value of y that fliall be ge¬
neral,
Part II- FLUXIONS.
Inverfe neral, by proceeding as follows. Let us fuppofe we
Method, know that when x=a, then 7j~b ; affume and
y=zb-\-u, then it is manifeft, that if the value of u be
found by a feries involving all the terms of the feries
ought to vamih when t~o. From the affumed values
of x and y the equation
yzz J'H x-\-cx-\-
775
Inverfe
Method.
where c' denotes a fecond indeterminate conftant quan¬
tity.
y Jr y x—mxn x — q
becomes
Affume now
r/= A/a-f &c.
then, proceeding as before, we find
A^*~I + («-}-i)Bfa+(« + 2)C/“'^T -f- &c. t
-f Ai“+ B/afl+&c. !
+b [■
n n «_x «(«—l) «—2 . !
— ma —m-a t—m~ a t%-
1 . 2
■&c. j
It is necefiary, in this equation, to affume «—*1—o>
or <ez=i, and hence we find
A=man—b, B= —
mn( n— 1 ) a71 2 -
■man -\-b
C =
&c.
-mnav ' ■\-mnin—b
2 • 3
If we now fubflitute a;—a, and y—b for t and u
refpedlively, the refult will have all the generality that
belongs to a primitive equation, exprefiing the relation
between x and y.
Of Fluxional Equations of the fecond or higher orders.
As J'v XZzV X—J'idXZZixJ'X.X J'XxXf
we have alfo
y—xj'Xx—J'YLxxJrcX'\‘c'-
Suppofe, forexample, that the equation is y-—axx*—Gt.
fo that ~ —ax} here X—ax. and therefore .
xa
yrz.xj'axx—-J' ax* x^-cx-h-cd
—^ax*—\a xi -\-c x -^(d
—\ax*+cx-\*c'.
In the very fame manner we may deduce from the
equation of the third order
y — X x3=:0, or, ~ =X
x3
its primitive equation; thus we have
£- = Xx, K-= fX^P+c,
xz X* J
where P denotes fuch a function of x, that its fluxion is
X x, and c reprefents a conflant quantity. Again
-v- ~ Px-\-CXy
X
~ — f'Px-pcx-\-c'—Q-\-cX-{mC>S
x J
194. Whatever difficulti s occur in finding the pri¬
mitive equation of a fluxional equation of the firft order,
it will eaiily be conceived, that thefe difficulties muff
be greater and more numerous when we have to con-
fider fluxional equations of the fecond and higher
orders.
One of the moft Ample cafes of an equation of the
fecond order is this,
y—X**—0, or “X,
x*
where X denotes a fumffion of x, the variable quantity
whofe fluxion is fuppofed to be conftant j in this cafe,
becaufe ~—Xx, we have ■—-—J'Xx. Let P denote
x x
that fun&ion of which X a? is the fluxion, and c, as
ufual, an indeterminate conftant quantity, then -|-=P+f,
x
and y—Px-^cx, and taking the fluents a fecond time
here f) is put for^/~Pa?, and d for a fecond conftant
quantity. In like manner we have
y— Qx -\-c xxc'x,
andyzz J'Qx-phcx* -h-dx-\-c";
and as P and are fundions of x, the fluents of Pat
and £) a; may be found by the methods formerly ex¬
plained.
195. Let us next confider fuch equations as involve
only K- and conftant quantities. In order to abridge
x x
let us put K- =p, then fuch an equation may be gene-
x
V
rally expreffed thus 4- =: P, where P denotes fome
' xx
known
FLUXIONS.
776
Inverfe 7/ •
Method, known furi£Uon of p; now as-4-=^, by taking the
fluxions, and obferving that x is conflant, we have
yL—JL.) hence — P, and x—JL, and x—CjL let
"XX x P ^ P
the value of x be fubftituted inftead of it in the equa¬
tion y=px, and it becomes y = and hence
y--JEJL^ thus it appears that if we can find the
fluentsJ*-— andwe fhall have the primitive e-
quation when we eliminate p by means of thefe two
equations
*=c-kf^' y-c'+f
where c and c' denote the two indeterminate conftant
quantities that ought to enter into the primitive equa-
tion.
Suppofe for example that the equation is
— xy
• • • •
which, by putting p for 4-, and — for JL becomes
• x x xz
transformed to
x _
Part II.
Inverfe
2yV ’J+c, lence /)=4- = v' (c+ ij'xif) and Method.
X=f-
V(.c+2fY'y)
+‘’,
hence we have
• —a p
ap
• • —a p p
X—C-—
v/ CI+i,a)
yzzc'J^
when-by means of thefe equations we eliminate we
obtain (tV—£,)I + (y—c/)azra1.
The fluxional equation is evidently formed by put¬
ting the general expreflion for the radius of curvature
(given in § 97.) equal to a conftant quantity, and the
primitive equation is accordingly an equation to a circle
having that conftant quantity for its radius, as it ought
to be.
196. Suppofe now that the equation has this form
where c and c' denote two conftant quantities.
To take a particular example, let us fuppofe the equa-*
tion to bey—yx'zz.ax1, oxIL—a-^y^ here Yna-J-y,
x*
and 2 Jy y=2 ay-\-yx, hence (and by § 127.),
r v_ , c,
J -v/(c+2 y+3/*)
= !• '[fl!+y+\/(<I+2«y+y*)|-f-e/.
197. When the equation contains and x, it
x x*
may be transformed to a fluxional equation of the firft
order, by fubftituting in li p x and p x, inftead of y
and y; if we can find the primitive of that fluxional
equation, and thence the value ofp in terms of x, we
fhall have the value of y from the formula rjTzfpx
> or
if we have the value of x in terms of 7?, then, becaule
fp x—p x--f xp, we (hall have
y—px—J'xp.
Suppofe the equation to be
<£±jc? 4=X, or _ li±?iZi=x,
—xy p
where X denotes any funflion of x, then,
—?> , f'X — —p
X~(i+/H’ an
Let us reprefent^/^ by V, then P~m ^ ^ V*) y
'r=fp'x~f~7T^n'
y _
=Y,
where Y denotes a fun£lion of y, then putting as before
= p, we have
K»
V —- tito Lottp y—JL — hence the equation
Y becomes ~ Y, and pp —Y y, and p1 —
x% y
This equation evidently exprefles the nature of a
curve fuch, that ——v-rr-, its radius of curvature
— xy
(§ 97*)» *s eclual to X a function of x one of its co-or¬
dinates.
198. If the propofed fluxional equation of the fecond
order contains and y, to transform it we muft ex-
x x*
terminate x by means of its value — deduced from the
P
equation y—p x, thus we fhall have
£
Part IT.
Inverfe
Method.
»• 4 •
y_ — P^^-PP
x* x y
F L
U X I O N S.
and the other
oAxn^  a* A**’1** 
AA;_"C« + 2)C«+3) + («+2)C«+3)C2»+4)(2«+5)
777
Itiverfe
Method.
and the refult will be an equation of the firft order con¬
taining only p, p and y ; when its primitive equation
can be found, and thence the value of p in terms of y,
we may find x by the formula x , and by the
formula x~ when y is expreffed by means
of p.
199. As an example of the manner in which fluxion-
ad equations of the lecond order are to be refolved by
Approximation, we {hall take the particular equation
y-\-a xny x*—o.
a* A*3”+7  ,£Tr.
~“(n+2)(«-l-3)C2«+4)(2«+5X3«+6)(3n+7) +
As a primitive equation in its general form ought to
contain two conftant quantities which do not appear in
the fluxional equation of the fecond order derived from
it (§ I77.)> the value of y to be complete ought to con¬
tain two arbitrary conftant quantities, but as each of
thefe feries contains only one fuch quantity, namely A,
it muft be confidered as expreffing only a particular
value of y. The fluxional equation y+ a xnyx*=zois
however of fuch a nature that from two particular va¬
lues of y we may deduce its general value j for let us
denote thefe values by a and Z, then, as each of them
muft fatisfy the fluxional equation, we have
If the value ofy which fatisfies the equation be fup-
pofed to have this form
A xa+Bxa+*+Cxa+2*-{- &c.
and that the feries of exponents goes on increafing, or
that 5 is pofitive, we may, by fuppofing « to be a very
fmall quantity, conceive that the expreflion for y is re¬
duced to its firft term, becaufe in that cafe each of the
following terms will be inconfiderable in refpedl of that
term. According to this hypothefis we fhall have
y~A x*, y —u, (cc—1} A xa -x*
and thus the propofed equation becomes
—1) Axa 1-\-a Axa'Jtr,—o.
It will not be poffible to give to a fuch a value that
the two exponents ec—2 and a.-\-n fhall become equal,
except in the particular cafe of c~ -—2; but if we fup-
pofe <r very fmall, the equation may be fatisfied in two
ways, namely, by taking «—o, and r, becaufe upon
either fuppofition the term « («—1) A .ra! *, which is
the greateft, vanifhes, and therefore A is left indeter¬
minate ; thus we have two feries, one beginning with
A, and the other with Ax.
Afluming therefore fucceflively
&c.
y= A*-fB*I+S-far1+2S+ &c.
and fubftituting thefe values as well as their correfpond-
ing values of y in the propofed equation, we fhall find
by arranging the terms, that £ ought to be —2 •, after-
Xvards by determining the coefficients A, B, C, &c. in
the ufual manner (Algebra, § 261.) we obtain two
feries, one of thefe is
^ a A#B+2 a* A A?i,!+4
(« + 1) («-f-2) («+I)(«+2)(2«-f 3)(2«4-4)
aJ A tf3”46 „
(n+i)(»+2)(2«+3)(2B+4) (3"+5)(3«+6)+ ^
Vol. VIII. Part H.
z-^-axnzx*—o1 Z-\- ax^Zx^^zo
let c and C denote two arbitrary conftant quantities,
then we have alfo
cz-)-caxnzxt=zo, CZ-\~Caxn Zx1=zo,
and as each of thefe equations is identical, their lura
muft alfo be identical, that is
c%-\-CZ-\-axn(c%-\-CZ')xi—0 ;
but the very fame refult will be obtained if we fubfti-
tu'te cs-j-CZ inftead of y in the propofed fluxional
equation, therefore cz-l-CZ is alfo a value of y, and as
it involves two arbitrary conftant quantities, c and C, it
poffeifes all the generality of which the value of y is
fufceptible. Hence it follows that if c be put in¬
ftead of A in one of the two feries which we have found
for the value of y, and C inftead of A in the other fe¬
ries, the fum of the two refults will be a general expref-
fion for the value of y.
200. Having now explained the theory of fluxional
equations at as great length as we conceive to be com¬
patible with the nature of this work, we fhall conclude
this treatife by refolving a few problems which produce
fluxional equations.
Brob. I. Having given any hyperbolicy or, as it may
more properly be called, Napierean logarithm, it is re¬
quired to find a general expreflion for its correfponding
natural number.
Let the number be denoted by 1-}-#, and its lo«
• X
garithm by y, theny= 57-)» or
y+xy—x^zo,
and the problem requires that from this equation vrt
deduce an expreflion for x.
As when y=o, then x=zo, we may affume
xzzz Ay -}- By2 Cy3 -J- &c.
then A:=Ay=:2Byy-P3Cy*y-f-&c.
and our equation becomes
5F
y+Ayif
FLUXIONS.
, H
y++9 ^ ^+s:c*
— Ay—2Byy—3 Cy^y—4Dyiy—&c.
Hence, by comparing the coefficients of the like terms,
it appears that Am, 2B = A, 3C=B, 4D=C, &c. fo
that A = i, B= -, C= D— —-—, &c.
2 2.3’ 2.3.4
7/^
therefore x~?/-4- -f. ^— J—  1_ &c. and
^ 1 2 2.3 1 2.3,4 '
i-farm+y-f- — + — + —— + &c.
^ 2 ' 2.3 ' 2.3.4 ^
equation pxm=y», where x denotes the abfcilTa AB,
and y the ordinate PB, and p an indeterminate quanti¬
ty which is the fame for the whole of any one of the
parabolas, but different for different parabolas ; it is re¬
quired to find the nature of a curve that (hall interfedt
them all in a given angle.
Let the curve whofe nature is required meet any one
of the parabolas in P, let PT, P/ tangents to tlm two
curves meet the axis in T and t; then, from the nature
of the problem, the lines PT, P/ muft contain a given
angle, let a denote its numerical tangent.
Becaufe PT touches the parabola, the tangent of the
Part II.
Inver re
Direft
Fig. 38. Prob. 2. Let AB, AC, be two ftraight lines given
by pofition meeting each other at right angles in A,
let C be a given point in AC one of the lines, and let
a ftraight line P£) meet them in P and Q^, and cut off
from them equal fegments AP, CQ^ adjacent to the
given points A, C, it is required to find the nature of
the curve to which PQ^ is a tangent.
Let D be the point in which the tangent PQ^ meets
the curve, draw DE perpendicular to AC, and DF to
AP, put CA=:«, CErrv, ED=y, then AE or DF
=<7—x, and fince EQ^ir A- (§ 73*) and E£) : ED ::
y
DF : FP, therefore FP= {a~x^; hence PA =
x
angle PTE will be equal to (§ 75.) the value of
x
this expreffion being fuppofed deduced from the equa¬
tion pxmz=yn; but taking the fluxion of this equation,
and eliminating the indeterminate quantity^ by means
of the two equations, we find z= —, therefore tan,
x n x
T_ ™y
nx ’
Again, by confidering x and y ns the abfciffa and
ordinate of the curve whofe equation is fought, and to
which PMs a tangent, we have the tangent of ths
difference of two angles, (Algebra, § 368.) that
(PF+FA=) —+y, and Ca=(CE-Ea=)
X
x—-4^, and as by hypothefis APrrCQ^, therefore
y
yx
y
This expreffion belongs to a clafs of fluxional equations
which have the Angular property of being more eafily
refolved by firft taking their fluxion, confidering the
fluxion of one of the variable quantities as conftant j
thus, in the prefent cafe, making x conftant, we find
y *y—O*—^)y _ ^ _ xy'—yxy
X if
6r __ yx y .
X y*
hence dividing by y, the equation is eafily reduced to
• *
y   x
sfy ~ V {a—xf
and taking the fluents
\/y—e—s/(a—x)
but when x~o, then y=o, therefore and
v'y= \/a—Via—*), oxx~2tJay—y,
which equation belongs to the common parabola.
Fig* 3p. Prob. 3. Let AP£) be one of any number of curves
of the parabolic kind, having the, fame vertex A, and
axis AE, and the nature of which is defined by the
(a—x)y
y+ —•—-=*■
y ^y
‘x n x
nxx
hence we have
a{nxx-\-myy)-\-my x—nx ij—O,
a fluxional equation expreffing the nature of the curve,
which being homogeneous may be treated according to
the method explained in § 180.
If the curves be fuppofed to cut each other at right
angles, then, a being infinite, the part of the equation
which is not multiplied by a vanifhes in refpe£t of the
other, which is multiplied by it j hence we have
nxx+tnyy—o,
and taking the fluents
n x1 -\-m y* —c
where c is put for a conftant quantity. This equation
fhews that the curve is an ellipfe, the centre of which is
at A the common vertex of all the parabolas.
The problem which we have here refolved is only a
particular cafe of one more general, and which has for
its objeft To determine the nature of the curve which
interfeBs all other curves of a given kind in a given
angle. The problem thus generalifed is known by tho
name of the Problem of TrajeBories ; it was originally
propofed by Leibnitz as a challenge to the Englifti
mathematicians, and refolved by Newton, on the day he
received it.
FLY,
FLUXIONS.
PLA TE CCXX .
FLY t 779 ] FLY
Plv FLY, In Zoo/cgg, a large order of infedls, the di¬
ll ftinguifhing chara&eriftic of which is, that their wings
Fly-tree. are tranfparent. By this they are diftinguilhed from
v beetles, butterflies, grafhoppers, &c. Flies are fubdi-
vided into thofe which have four, and thofe which have
two wings. Of thofe with four wings there are feveral
genera or kinds 5 as the ant, the bee, the ichneumon,
&c. Of thofe with two wings, there are likewife fe¬
veral kinds, as the gad-fly, gnat, houfe-fly, &e. For
their claflification and natural hiftory, lee Entomo¬
logy.
Houfe FLT. See Musca.
PeJHlential Flt. See Abyssinia.
Fly, in mechanics, a crofs with leaden weights at
its ends; or rather, a heavy wheel at right angles to
the axis of a windlafs, jack, or the like •, by means of
which, the force of the power, whatever it is, is not
only preferved, but equally diflributed in all parts of
the revolution of the machine. See MECHANICS.
Flies for FJhing. See Fishing Fly.
Vegetable FlI', a curious natural produ&ion chiefly
found in the Weft Indies. “ Excepting that it has no
wings, it refembles the drone both in fize and colour
more than any other Britifh infeft. In the month of
May it buries itfelf in the earth, and begins to vegetate.
By the latter end of July, the tree is arrived at its full
growth, and refembles a coral branch •, and is about
three inches high, and bears feveral little pods, which
dropping off become worms, and from thence flies, like
the Britifh caterpillar.”
Phil. Tran/. Such was the account originally given of this extra-
for ordinary produ£tion. But feveral boxes of thefe flies
having been fent to Dr Hill for examination, his re¬
port was this : “ There is in Martinique a fungus of
the clavaria kind, different in fpecies from thofe hitherto
known. It produces foboles from its fides 5 I call it
therefore clavaria fobolifera. It grows on putrid ani¬
mal bodies, as oxxx fungus ex pede equino from the dead
horfe’s hoof. The cicada is common in Martinique ;
and in its nympha ftate, in which the old authors call
it tettigometra, it buries itfelf under dead leaves to wait
its change ; and when the feafon is unfavourable, many
perifh. The feeds of the clavaria find a proper bed on
this dead infedt, and grow. The tettigometra is among
the cicadas in the Britifrt mufeum ; the clavaria is juft
now known. This is the fadl, and all the faft ; though
the untaught inhabitants fuppofe a fly to vegetate, and
though there is a Spanifh drawing of the plant’s growing
into a trifoliate tree, and it has been figured with the
creature flying with this tree upon its back.” See
Edward’s Gleanings of Natural Hiftory.
FLT-Boat, or Flight, a large flat-bottomed Dutch
veffel, whofe burden is generally from 690 to 1200
tons. It is diftinguifhed by a very high ftern, re-
fembling a Gothic turret, and by very broad buttocks
below,
FLT-Catcher, in Zoology. See Muscicapa.
Venus'sFLI'-Trap, a kind of fenfitive plant. See DlO-
NJEA Mufcipula, Botany Index.
FLY-Tree, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by the
common people of America to a tree, whofe leaves,
they fay, at a certain time of the year produce fies.
On examining thefe leaves about the middle of fum-
mer, the time at which the flies ufe to be produced,
there are found on them a fort of bags of a tough
matter, of about the fize of a filbert, and of a dulky F!y.tree.
greenifh colour. On opening one of thefe bags with Flyers.
a knife, there is ufually found a fingle full-grown fly,  v—--
of the gnat kind, and a number of fmall worms, which
in a day or two more have wings, and fly away in the
form of their parent. The tree is of the mulberry
kind, and its leaves are ufually very largely flocked
with thefe infeft bags ; and the generality of them are
found to contain the infefls in their worm ftate 5 when
they become winged, they foon make their way out.
The bags begin to appear when the leaves are young,
and afterwards grow with them *, but they never rumple
the leaf or injure its fhape. They are of the kind of
leaf-galls, and partake in all refpefts, except fize, of a
fpecies we have frequent on the large maple, or, as it
is called, the fycamore.
FLYERS, in architedlure, fuch flairs as go ftraight,
and do not wind round, or have the fleps made tapering;
but the fore and back part of each flair and the ends
refpeftively parallel to one another : So that if one
flight do not carry you to your defigned height, there
is a broad half fpace ; and then you fly again, with
Heps everywhere of the fame breadth and length as
before.
Flyers, the performers in a celebrated exhibition
among the Mexicans, which was made on certain great
feftivals, and is thus defcribedby Clavigero in hisHiftory
of that people. “ They fought in the woods for an
extremely lofty tree, which, after dripping it of its
branches and bark, they brought to the city, and fixed
in the centre of fome large fquare. They cafed the
point of the tree in a wooden cylinder, which, on ac¬
count of fome refemblance in its fliape, the Spaniards
called a mortar. From .this cylinder hung four ftrong
ropes, which ferved to fupport a fquare frame. In the
fpace between the cylinder and the frame, they fixed
four other thick ropes, which they twilled as many
times round the tree as there were revolutions to be
made by the flyers. Thefe ropes were drawn through
four holes, made in the middle of the four planks of
which the frame confided. The four principal flyers,
difguifed like eagles, herons, and other birds, mounted
the tree with great agility, by means of a rope which
was laced about it from the ground up to the frame ;
from the frame they mounted one at a time fucceffively
upon the cylinder, and after having danced there a
little, they tied themfelves round with the ends of the
ropes, which were drawn through the holes of the
frame, and launching with a fpringfrom it, began their
flight with their wings expanded. The adlion of their
bodies put the frame and the cylinder in motion ; the
frame by its revolutions gradually untwifted the cords
by which the flyers fwung ; fo that as the ropes length¬
ened, they made fo much the greater circles in their
flight. Whilft thefe four were flying, a fifth danced
upon the cylinder, beating a little drum, or waving a
flag, without the fmalleft apprehenfion of the danger
he was in of being precipitated from fuch a height.
The others who were upon the frame (10 or 12 perfons
generally mounted), as foon as they faw the flyers in
their laft revolution,* precipitated themfelves by the
fame ropes, in order to reach the ground at the fame
time amidft the acclamations of the populace. Thofe
who precipitated themfelves in this manner by the ropes,
that they might make a fliil greater difplay of their
5 F 2 agility,
F L Y [ 7B0 ] FLY
Flyers, agility, frequently paffed from one rope to another, at
Flying, that part where, on account of the little diltance be-
““■'V'" tween them, it was poffible for them to do fo. The molt
effential point of this performance confided in propor¬
tioning fo judly the height of the tree with the length
of the ropes, that the flyers ftiould reach the ground
with 13 revolutions, to reprefent by fuch number their
century of 52 years, compofed in the manner we have
already mentioned. This celebrated diverfion is dill
in ufe in that kingdom buf no particular attention is
paid to the number of the revolutions of the dyers ; as
the frame is commonly hexagonal or octagonal, and the
flyers f» or eight in number. In fome places they put
a rail »ind the frame, to prevent accidents, which
were frequent after the conquelt ; as the Indians be¬
came much given to drinking, and ufed to mount the
tree when intoxicated with wine or brandy, and were
unable to keep their ftation on fo great a height, which
was ufually 60 feet.
FLYING, the progreflive motion of a bird, or other
winged animal, in the air.
The parts of birds chiefly concerned in flying are the
wings and tail; by the firft, the bird fudains and wafts
himfelf along 5 and by the fecond, he is aflided, in
afcending and defcending, to keep his body poifed and
upright, and to obviate the vacillations thereof.
It is by the fize and drength of the ptftoral
mufcles, that birds are fo well difpofed for quick,
ftrong, and continued flying. Thefe mufcles, which
in men are fcarcely a ^cth part of the mufcles of the
body, in birds exceed and outweigh all the other
mufcles taken together ; upon which Mr Willoughby
makes this reflection, that if it be podible for a man to
fly, his wings mud be fo contrived and adapted, that he
may make ufe of his legs, and not his arms, in mana¬
ging them.
The tail, Meflrs Willoughby, Ray, and many others,
imagine to be principally employed in deering and
turning the body in the air, as a rudder j but Borelli
has put it beyond all doubt, that this is the lead ufe of
it, which is chiedy to affift the bird in its afcent and
defcent in the air, and to obviate the vacillations of the
body and wings; for as to turning to this or that fide,
it is performed by the wings and inclination of the
body, and but very little by the help of the tail. The
flying of a bird, in effedl, is quite a different thing from
the rowing of a veffel. Birds do not vibrate their
wings towards the tail, as oars are flruck towards the
item, but waft them downwards; nor does the tail of
the bird cut the air at right angles as the rudder does
the water ; but is difpofed horizontally, and preferves
the fame fituation what way foever the bird turns. In
effeft, as a veffel is turned about on its centre of gravity
to the right, by a brilk application of the oars to the
left; fo a bird, in beating the air with its right wing
alone towards the tail, will turn its fore part to the
left. Thus pigeons changing their courfe to the left,
would labour it with their right wing, keeping the
other almoft at reft. Birds of a long neck alter their
courfe by the inclination of their head and neck; which
altering the courfe of gravity, the bird will proceed in
a new diredion.
T/ie manner of FLYING is thus. The bird firft: bends
his legs, and fprings with a violent leap from the
ground ; then opens and expands the joints of his
2
wings, fo as to make a right line perpendicular to the FlyiV.
tides of his body : thus the wings, with all the feathers
therein, conflitute one continued lamina. Being now
raifed a little above the horizon, and vibrating the
wings with great force and velocity perpendicularly
againft the fubjeCt air, that fluid refifts thofe fuccuf-
fions, both, from its natural inactivity and elafticity, by
means of which the whole body of the bird is protrud¬
ed. The refiftance the air makes to the withdrawing
of the wings, and conftquently the progrefs of the bird,,
will be fo much the greater, as the waft or ftroke of
the fan of the wing is longer: but as the force of the
wing is continually diminifhed by this refiftance, when
the two forces continue to be in equilibria, the bird will
remain fufpended in the fame place ; for the bird only
afcends fo long as the arch of air the wing defcribes
makes a refiftance equal to the excefs of the fpecific gra¬
vity of the bird above the air. If the air, therefore,
be fo rare as to give way with the fame velocity as it
is ftruck withal, there will be no refiftance, and con-
fequently the bird can never mount. Birds never fly
upwards in a perpendicular line, but always in a para-^
bola. In a direCt afcent, the natural and artificial ten¬
dency would oppofe and deftroy each other, fo that the
progrefs would be very flow. In a direft afcent they
would aid one another, fo that the fall would be too
precipitate.
Artificial FLYING, that attempted by men, by the
afliftance of mechanics.
The art of flying has been attempted by feveral per-
fons in all ages. The Leucadians, out of fuperftition,
are reported to have had a cuftom of precipitating a
man from a high cliff into the fea, firft fixing feathers,
varioufly expanded, round his body, in order to break,
the fall.
Friar Bacon, who lived near 500 years ago, not only,
affirms the art of flying poffible, but affures us, that
he himfelf knew how to make an engine wherein a man
fitting might be able to convey himfelf through the
air like a bird ; and further adds, that there was then
one who had tried it with fuccefs. The fecret con-,
fifted in a couple of large thin hollow copper globes,
exhaufted of air ; which being much lighter than air,
would fuftain a chair whereon a perfon might fit. Fa¬
ther Francifco Lana, in his Prodromo, propofes the
fame thing as his own thoughts. He computes, that a
round veffel of plate brafs, 14 feet in diameter, weigh¬
ing three ounces the fquare foot, will only weigh 184SI
ounces; whereas a quantity of air of the fame bulk will
weigh 2155yd ounces ; fo that the globe will not only
be fuftained in the air,, but will carry with it a weight
of 373|d ounces ; and by increafing the bulk of the
globe, without increafing the thicknefs of the metal,
he adds, a veffel might be made to carry a much great¬
er weight.—But the fallacy is obvious : a globe of the
dimenfions he defcribes, Dr Hook (hows, would not
fuftain the preffure of the air, but be cruftied inwards.
Befides, in whatever ratio the bulk of the globe were
increafed, in the fame muft the thicknefs of the metal,
and confequently the weight be increafed: fo that there
would be no advantage in fuch augmentation. See
Aerostation.
The fame author defcribes an engine for flying, in¬
vented by the Sieur Befnier, a fmith of Sable, in the
county of Maine. Vid, Philofoph, Called}. N° 1.
The
FOE [ 78
The philofophers of King Charles the fecond’s reign
were mightily bufied about this art. The famous
Bilhop Wilkins was fo confident of fuccefs in it, that
he fays, he does not queftion but in future ages it will
be as ufual to hear a man call for his wings, when he is
going a journey, as it is now to call for his boots.
Flung Bridge. See Bridge.
FLUNG Fifh, a name given to feveral fpecies of filh,
which, by means of long fins, can keep themfelves out
of the water for fome time. See Exocoetus, Ichthy¬
ology Index.
Flung Pinion, is part of a clock, having a fly or fan
-whereby to gather air, and fo bridle the rapidity of the
clock’s motion, when the weight defcends in the
ftriking part.
FO, or Foe 5 an idol of the Chinefe. He was ori¬
ginally worfhipped in the Indies, and tranfported from
thence into China, together with the fables with which
the Indian books were filled. He is faid to have per¬
formed moll wonderful things, which the Chinefe have
defcribed in feveral volumes, and reprefented by cuts.
Sefl ofFo. See China, N° 104.
Fo-Kien. See Fokien.
FOAL, or Colt and FiLLT; the young of the horfe
kind. The word coh, among dealers, is underftood of
the male, as Jilly is of the female. See Colt.
FOCUS, in Geometry and Conic Sections, is applied
to certain points in the parabola, ellipfis, and hyperbo¬
la, where the rays refle&ed from all parts of thefe curves
concur and meet. See CONIC Sedions.
Focus, in Optics, a point in which any number of
rays, after being refle&ed or refra&ed, meet.
FODDER, any kind of meat for horfes or other cattle.
In fome places, hay and ftraw, mingled together, is pe¬
culiarly denominated
Fodder, in the civil law, is ufed for a prerogative
that the prince has, to be provided with corn and other,
meats for his horfes, by the fubjefts, in his warlike ex¬
peditions.
Fodder, among miners, a meafure containing 22
hundred and a half weight \ in London the fodder is
only 20 hundred weight.
FODDERING a {hip. See Fotherinc.
FOENUGREEK. See Trigonella, Botany
Index.
FOENUS NAUTICUM. Where money was lent to
a merchant to be employed in a beneficial trade, with
condition to be repaid with extraordinary intereft,
in cafe fuch voyage was fafely performed, the agree¬
ment was fometimes called feenus nauticum, fometimes
ufura maritima. But as this gave an opening for ufuri-
ous and gaming contradfls, 19 Geo. II. c. 37. enadts,
that all money lent on bottomry, or at refpondentia, on
vefiels bound to or from the Eaft Indies, {hallbeexprefsly
lent only upon the (hip or merchandife ; the lender to
have the benefit of falvage, &c. Blachji. Com. ii. 459.
Mol. de Jur. Mar. 361.
FOETOR, in Medicine, fetid effluvia arifing from
the body or any part thereof.
FOETUS, the young of all viviparous animals
whilft in the womb, and of oviparous animals before
being hatched : the name is transferred by botanifts to
the embryos of vegetables.
Striaiy, the name is applied to the young after it
i ] FOG
is perfedlly formed ; previous to which it is ufually Foe'uis,
called Embryo. See Anatomy Index. Fog.
In the human foetus are feveral peculiarities not to ——V"’
be found in the adult j fome of them are as follow.
1. The arteries of the navel firing, which are continu¬
ations of the hypogaftrics, are, after the birth, ihri-
velled up, and form the ligamenta umbilic. infer.
2. The veins of the navel firing are formed by the
union of all the venous branches in the placenta, and
paffing into the abdomen become the falciform ligament
of the liver. 3. The lungs, before being inflated with
air, are compadt and heavy, but after one infpiration
they become light, and as it were fpongy j and it may
be noted here, that the notion of the lungs finking in
water before the child breathes, and of their fwimming
after the reception of air, are no certain proofs that the
child had or had not breathed, much lefs that it was
murdered : for the uninflated lungs become fpecifically
lighter than water as foon as any degree of putrefadlion
takes place in them ; and this foon happens after the
death of the child j belides, where the utmoft care hath
been taken to preferve the child, it hath breathed once
or twice and then died. 4. The thymus gland is very
large in the foetus, but dwindles away in proportion as
years advance. 5. The foramen ovale in the heart of
a foetus, is generally clofed in an adult.
FOG, or Mist, a meteor, confilfing of grofs vapours,
floating near the furface of the earth.
Mills, according to Lord Bacon, are imperfedl con-
denfations of the air, confifting of a large proportion
of the air, and a fmall one of the aqueous vapour j and.
thefe happen in the winter, about the change of the
weather from froft to thaw, or from thaw to froft j but
in the fummer, and in the fpring, from the expanfion
of the dewr.
If the vapours which are raifed plentifully from the
earth and waters, either by the folar or fubterraneous
heat, do at their firft entrance into the atmofphere
meet with cold enough to condenfe them to a conlider-
able degree, their fpecific gravity is by that means
increafed, and fo they will be flopped from afeending $
and either return back in form of dew or of drizzling
rain, or remain fufpended fome time in the form of a
fog. Vapours may be feen on the high grounds as
well as the low, but more efpecially about marlhy
places. They are eafily diflipated by the wind, as
alfo by the heat of the fun. They continue longeft
in the loweft grounds, becaufe thefe places contain
moft moifture, and are leaf! expofed to the adlion of
the wind.
Hence we may eafily conceive, that fogs are only
low clouds, or clouds in the loweft region of the air j
as clouds are no other than fogs raifed on high. See
Cloud.
When fogs ftink, then the vapours are mixed with
fulphureous exhalations, which fmell fo. Objects view¬
ed through fogs appear larger and more remote than
through the common air. Mr Boyle obferves, that
upon the coaft of Coromandel, and moft maritime parts
of the Eaft Indies, there are, notwithilanding the heat
of the climate, annual fogs fo thick, as to occafion peo¬
ple of other nations who refide there, and even the more
tender fort of the natives, to keep their houfesclofe ftnit up.
Fogs are commonly ftrongly eledtrified, as appears
from-
Tog
^ !l
Fokien
r 78
See Elec-
F O K
from Mr Cavallo’s obfervations upon them
TRICITY.
J FOG AGE, in the foreft law, is rank grafs not eaten
up in fummer.
FOGO, or Fuego. See Fuego.
FOHL See Fe ; and China, N° 7.
FOIBLE, a French term, frequently ufed alfo in
our language. It literally fignifies weak; and in that
fenfe is applied to the body of animals and the parts
thereof, m foible reins,/o/M? fight, &c. being derived
from the Italian/ew/*, of the Latin f.ebilis, to be “la¬
mented, pitied.”
Bul it is chiefly ufed with us fubftantively, to denote
a defedl or flaw in a perfon or thing. Thus we fay,
Every perion has his foible j and the great fecret con-
lifls in hiding it artfully: Princes are gained by flatte-
y, that is their foible. The foible of young people is
pleafure 5 the foible of old men is avarice •, the foible of
the great and learned is vanity ; the foible of women
and girls, coquetry, or an affbaation of having gallants :
You fhould know the forte and the foible of a man be¬
fore you employ him: We thould not let people per¬
ceive that we know their foible.
FOIL, in fencing, denotes a blunt fword, or one that
has a button at the end covered with leather, ufed in
learning the art of fencing.
Foil, among glafs-grinders, a fheet of tin, with
quickfilver, or the like, laid on the backfide of a look-
ing glafs, to make it reflect. See Foliating.
Foil, among jewellers, a thin leaf of metal placed
under a precious tione, in order to make it look tranf-
parent, and give it an agreeable different colour, either
deep or pale : thus, if you want a flone to be of a pale
colour, put a foil of that colour under it ; or if you
would have it deep, lay a dark one under it.
Thefe foils are made either of copper, gold, or gold
and filver together. The copper foils are commonly
known by the name of Nuremberg or German foils ;
and are prepared as follows : Procure the thinneft cop¬
per plates you can get : beat thefe plates gently upon
a well-polithed anvil, with a polifhed hammer, as thin
as poffible ; and placing them between two iron plates
as thin as writing paper, heat them in the fire ; then
boil the foil in a pipkin, with equal quantities of tartar
and fait, conffantly flirting them till by boiling they
become white ; after which, taking them out and dry¬
ing them, give them another hammering, till they are
made fit for your purpofe : however, care muft be taken
not to give the foils too much heat, for fear of melting}
nor mufl they be too long boiled, for fear of attradling
too much fait.
The manner of polifliing thefe foils is as follows:
Take a plate of the beft copper, one foot long and about
five or fix inches wide, polifhed to the greateft perfe&ion }
bend this to a long convex, faften it upon a half roll,
and fix it to a bench or table } then take fome chalk
wafhed as clean as poffible, and filtered through a fine
linen cloth, till it be as fine as you can make it; and
having laid fome thereof on the roll, and wetted the
copper all over, lay your foils on it, and with a polifh-
ing ftone and the chalk poliffi your foils till they are as
bright as a looking-glafs ; after which they muft be
dried, and laid up fecure from duft.
FOKIEN, a province of China in Afia, commodi-
©ufly fituated for navigation and commerce, part of it
2 ] F O L
bo 1 dering on the fea, in which they catch large quan-
titles ot nfli, which they fend failed to other parts of
the empire. Its fhores are very uneven, by reafon of
the number and variety of its bays} and there are many
forts built thereon to guard the coaft. The air is hot,
but pure and wholefome.
I he mountains are almoft everywhere difpofed into
a kind of amphitheatres, by the labour of the inhabi¬
tants, with terraces placed one above another. The
fields are watered with rivers and fprings, which iflue
out of the mountains, and which the hufbandmen
con duft in fuch a manner as to overflow the fields of
rice when they pleafe, becaufe it thrives beft in watery
ground. T hey make ufe of pipes of bamboo for this
purpofe.
Ihey have all commodities in common with the reft
of China ; but more particularly mufk, precious (tones,
quickfilver, filk, hempen cloth, callico, iron, and all
forts of utenfils wrought to the greateft perfection.
From other countries they have cloves, cinnamon, pep¬
per, fandal wood, amber, coral, and many other things.
1 he capital city is Fou-tcheou Fou } or, as others would
have it written, Fucherofu. But as for Fokien, which
moft geographers make the capital, Grofier informs us
there is no fuch place.
IOLAKD, Charles, an eminent Frenchman, fa¬
mous for his (kill and knowledge in the military art,
was born at Avignon in 1669, of a noble family, but
not a rich one. He difcovered an early turn for the
fciences, and a ftrong paffion for arms } which laft was
fo inflamed by reading Caefar’s Commentaries, that he
enlifted at 16 years of age. His father got him off,
and (hut him in a monaftery : but he made his efcape
in about two years after, and entered himfelf a fecond
time in quality of cadet. His inclination for military
affairs, and the great pains he took to accompliffi him¬
felf in that way, recommended him to notice; and he
was admitted into the friendffiip of the firft-rate offi¬
cers. M. de Vendome, who commanded in Italy in
1702, made him his aid-de-camp, having conceived the
higheft regard for him : and foon after fent him with
part of his forces into Lombardy. He was entirely
trufted by the commander of that army } and no mea¬
sures were concerted, or fteps taken, without confult-
ing him. By purfuing his plans, many places were
taken, and advantages gained } and fuch, in (hort, were
his fervices, that he had a penfion of 400 livres fettled
upon him, and was honoured with the crofs of St
Louis. He diftinguiffied himfelf greatly, Auguft ij,
at the battle of Caffano} where he received a
wound upon his left hand, which deprived him of the
ufe of it ever after. It was at this battle that he con¬
ceived the firft idea of the fyftem of columns, which
he afterwards prefixed to his Commentaries upon Poly¬
bius. The duke of Orleans fending De Vendome again
into Italy in 1706, Folard had orders to throw himfelf
into Modena to defend it againft Eugene : where,
though he acquitted himfelf with his ufual (kill, he was
very near being affaffinated. The defcription which
he has given of the conduct and chara&er of the go¬
vernor of this town, may be found in his Treatife of
the Defence of Places, and deferves to be read. He
received a dangerous wound on the thigh at the battle
of Malplaquet, and was fome time after made prifoner
by Prince Eugene. Being exchanged in 1711,. he was
made
Pokier,
Folard.
F O L [ 783 ] F O L
Foi«rd made governor of Bourbourg. In I7T4? he went to
|| Malta, to afiifl in defending that ifland againft the
Folcmote. Xurks. Upon his return to France, he embarked for
' Sweden, having a paflionate defire to fee Charles XII.
He acquired the efteem and confidence of that famous
general, who fent him to France to negotiate the re-
eftablilhment of James II. upon the throne of Eng¬
land ; but that project being dropped, he returned to
Sweden, followed Charles XII. in his expedition to
Norway, and ferved under him at the fiege of Frede-
rickfhall, where that prince was killed, Dec. 11. 1718.
Folard then returned to France ; and made his laft
campaign in 1719, under the duke of Berwick, in qua¬
lity of colonel. From that time he applied himfelf in-
tenfely to the fludy of the military art as far as it
could be lludied at home ; and built his theories upon
the foundation of his experience and obfervations on
fads. He contradled an intimacy with Count Saxe,
who, as he then declared, would one day prove a very
great general. He was chofen a fellow of the Royal
Society of London in 1749 » and, in 175L made a
journey to Avignon, where he died in I752> a£ed 83
years. He was the author of feveral works, the princi¬
pal of which are j 1. Commentaries upon Polybius, in
fix volumes, 4(0. 2., A Book of New Difcoveries in
War. 3. A Treatife concerning the Defence of Places,
&c. in French. Thofe who would know more of this
eminent foldier, may confult a French piece, entitled,
Memoires pour fervir a VHJloire de M. le Chevalier de
Folard. Ratijbone, 1753, l2mo.
FOLC-LANDS, (Sax,) copyhold lands fo called in
the time of the Saxons, as charter-lands were called
hoc-lands, Kitch. 174. Falkland was terra vulgi or
popularis ; the land of the vulgar people, who had no
certain eftate therein, but held the fame, under the
rents and fervices accuflomed or agreed, at the will
only of their lord the thane ; and it was therefore not
put in writing, but accounted prcedium ruflicum et igno-
bile. Spelm. of Feuds, c. 5.
FOLCMOTE, or Folkmote, (Sax. Folcgemote,
i. e. conventus populi), is compounded of folk, populus,
and mote, or gemote, convenire ; and fignified originally,
as Somner in his Saxon Di&ionary informs us, a gene¬
ral affembly of the people, to confider of and order
matters of the commonwealth. And Sir Henry Spel-
man fays, the folcmote was a fort of annual parliament
or convention of the bifhops, thanes, aldermen, and
freemen, upon every May day yearly ; where the lay¬
men were fworn to defend one another and the king,
and to preferve the laws olthe kingdom \ and then con-
fulted of the common fafety. But Dr Brady infers
from the laws of the Saxon kings of England, that it
was an inferior court, held before the king’s reeve or
fleward, every month, to do folk right, or compofe
fmaller differences, from whence there lay appeal to the
fuperior courts ; Glofs. p. 48. Squire feems to think
the folcmote not diftindl from tha Jhiremote, or common
general meeting of the county. See his Angl. Sax. Gov.
155. n.
Manwood mentions folcmote as a court holden in
London, wherein all the folk and people of the city did
complain of the mayor and aldermen, for miigoveiD-
inent within the faid city j and this word is {fill in ufe
among the Londoners, and denotes celebrem ex tota ci~
vitaie convenium. Stoves Survey. According to Ken-
3
nee, the folcmote was a common council cf all the in ha- Foicmote
bitants of a city, town, or borough, convened often 11
by found of bell, to the Mote Hall or Houfe; or it was F°liating»
applied to a larger congrefs of all the freemen within a
county, called the fhiremote, where formerly all knights
and military tenant^ did fealty to the king, and defied
the annual (heriff on the xft of Oflober j till this popu¬
lar eleflion, to avoid tumults and riots, devolved to the
king’s nomination, anno 1315, 3 Edw. I. After which
the city folkmote was fwallowed up in a feleft commit¬
tee or common council, and the county folkmote in the
ftieriff’s tourn and aflizes.
The word folkmote was alfo ufed for any kind of po¬
pular or public meetings j as of all the tenants at the
court leet, or court baron, in w'hich fignification it was
of a lefs extent. Paroch. Antiq. 120.
FOLENGIO, Theophilus, an Italian poet, was a
native of Mantua. He was known alfo by the title of
Merlin Coccaye, a name which he gave to a poem, and
which has been adopted ever fince for all trifling per¬
formances of the fame fpecies, confifling of buffoonery,
puns, anagrams, wit without wifdoro, and humour w ithout
good fenfe. His poem was called The Macaroni, from an
Italian cake of the fame name, which isfweet to the tafte,
but has not the leaft alimentary virtue, on the contrary
palls the appetite and cloys the flomach. Thefe idle
poems, however, became the reigning taile in Italy and
in France ; they gave birth to macaroni academies, and
reaching England, to macaroni clubs •, till, in the end,
every thing infipid, contemptible, and ridiculous, in the
charafler, drefs, or behaviour, of both men and wo¬
men, is now fummed up in the defpicable appellation
of a macaroni. Folengio died in 1544.
FOLIA, among botanifls, particularly fignify the
leaves of plants ; thofe of flowers being exprefled by the
wTord petals. See Botany.
FOLI AGE, a clufler oraffemblage of flowers, leaves,
branches, &c.
Foliage, is particularly ufed for the reprefentations
of fuch flowers, leaves, branches, rinds, &te. whether
natural or artificial, as are ufed for enrichments on ca¬
pitals, friezes, pediments, &c.
FOLIATING o/'Looking-glasses, the fpreading
the plates over, after they are polifhed, with quickfil-
ver, &c. in order to reflect the image. It is performed ‘
thus : A thin blotting paper is fpread on the table and
fprinkled with fine chalk ; and then a fine lamina or
leaf of tin, called foil, is laid over the paper ; upon,
this is poured mercury, which is to be diflributed equal¬
ly over the leaf with a hares foot or cotton 4 over this
is laid a clean paper, and over that the glafi; plate,,
which is preffed down with the right hand, and the pa¬
per gently drawn out with the left : this being done,
the plate is covered with a thicker paper, and loaded
with a greater weight, that the fuperfluous mercury
may be driven out and the tin adhere more clofely to
the glafs. When it is dried, the weight is removed,..
and the looking-glafs is complete.
Some add an ounce of marcafite, melted by the fire ,
and, left the mercury fliould evaporate in fmoke, they
pour it into cold water ; and when cooled, fqueeze
through a cloth, or through leather.
Some add a quarter of an ounce of tin and lead to
the marcafite, that the glafs may dry the fooner.
Foliating of Globe looking-glajfes, is done as fol¬
lows ;
P O L
' Folkes.
Foliating lows; Take five ounces of quickfilver, and one ounce of
bifmuth 5 of lead and tin, half an ounce each : firft put
^ the lead and tin into fufion, then put in the bifmuth ;
and when you perceive that in fufion too, let it ftand
till it is almoft cold, and pour the quickfilver into it:
after this, take the glafs globe, which muft be very
clean, and the infide free from dull: make a paper fun¬
nel, which put into the hole of the globe, as near the
glafs as you can, fo that the amalgam, when you pour
it in, may not fplafh and caufe the glafs to be full of
ipots; pour it in gently, and mdve it about, fo that the
amalgam may touch everywhere : if you find the amal¬
gam begin to be curdly and fixed, then hold it over a
gentle fire, and it will eafily flow again 3 and if you find
the amalgam too thin, add a little more lead, tin, and
bifmuth to it. I he finer and clearer your globe is, the
better will the looking-glafs be.
Dr Shaw obferves, that this operation has coofider-
able advantages, as being performed in the cold ; and
that it is not attended with the danger of poifonous
fumes from arfenic, or other unwholefome matters ufu-
ally employed for this purpofe : befides, how far it is
applicable to the more commodious foliating of the com¬
mon looking-glafles and other fpeculums, he thinks,
may deferve to be confidered.
FOLIO, in merchants books, denotes a page, or ra¬
ther both the right and left hand pages, thefe being ex-
prefled by the fame figure, and correfponding to each
•other. See BooK-KEEPiNG.
Folio, among printers and bookfellers, the largefl
form of books, when each ftieet is fo printed that it may
t>e bound up in two leaves only.
FOLIS. See Follis.
FOLIUM, or Leaf, in Botany. See Leaf.
POLICES, Martin, a philofopher and antiquariati
of confiderable eminence, was born in Weflminfter
in the year 1690. A Mr Cappel, once profeffor of
Hebrew at Saumur, was his private tutor. When 17
years of age, he was fent to Clare-hall, Cambridge,
where he fuccefsfully applied himfelf to the ftudy of
philofophy and the mathematics; and when only twen¬
ty-three years of age he was chofen a fellow of the
Koyal Society. His ingenious communications acquired
him fo much applaufe, that he was frequently chofen
into its council. He was in habits of friendfliip with the
illuflrious Newton, at that time prefident, and by his
influence was elefted one of the vice-prefidents in the
year 1723. Mr Folkes became a candidate for the
chair on the death of Sir Ifaac Newton ; but the fupe-
rior intereft of Sir HansSloane rendered his application
ineffectual. In 1733 an^ ^wo fubfequent years,
his refidence was for the moft part in Italy, with the
view of improving himfelf in the knowledge of claflical
antiquities. To afcertain the weight and value of an¬
cient coins, he carefully confulted the cabinets of the cu¬
rious^ and on his return home he prefented to the Anti¬
quarian Society, of which he was a member, a differtation
on this fubject. He read before the fame learned body,
a differtation on the meafurement of Trajan’s and Anto-
r.ine’s pillar, together with other remains of antiquity.
I he fruits of his obfervations he prefented to the Royal
Society ; and, in particular, “ Remarks on the ftand-
ard meafure preferved in the Capitol of Rome,” and
the model of an ancient globe in the Farhefian palace.
He vifited Paris in 1739, where he was received with
[ 7«4 1
F O L
great refpeft, and honoured with the company of the
molt eminent literary charatters in that metropolis. This
refpedt indeed he was entitled to by his unwearied appli¬
cation to many branches of knowledge which were both
curious and ufeful. His valuable work, entitled “ A
table of Englifli filver coins, from the Norman Conqueft
to the prefent time, with their weights, intrinfic values,
and fome remarks upon the feveral pieces,” was printed
in the year 1745. Among the many honours conferred
upon Mr Folkes, he was created doftorof laws by both
univerfities, and chofen prefident of the Antiquarian
Society. He continued to furnifli the Philofophical
Tranfactions with many learned papers, till his career
was flopped by a paralytic ftroke, which terminated his
ufeful life in the year 1754. He was a man of very
extenfive knowledge and great accuracy 3 but the'chief
benefit to fcience which refulted from his labours, was
his treatife on the intricate fubjedt of coins, weights,
and meafures. His cabinet and library were large1 and
valuable, and expofed to public fale after his death.
His private charadler was diftinguiflied for politenefs,
generofity, and friendfnip.
FOLKESTONE, a town of Kent, between Dover
and Hvthe, 72 miles from London, appears to have
been a very ancient place, from the Roman coins and
Britifh bricks often found in it. Stillingfleet and Tan¬
ner take it for the Lapis Tituli of Nennius. It wax
burnt by Earl Godwin, and by the French in the reign
of Edward III. It had five churches now reduced to
one. It is a member of the town and port of Dover 3
and has a weekly market and an annual fair. It is
chiefly noted for the multitude of fifhing boats that be¬
long to its harbour, which are employed in the feafon
in catching mackerel for London ; to which they are
carried by the mackerel boats of London and Barking.
About Michaelmas, the Folkeftonebarks, with others fot
'Suffex, go away to the Suffolk and Norfolk coafts to
catch herrings for the merchants of Yarmouth and
Leofloff.—Folkeftone gives the title of Vifconnt to WiL
Ham Henry Bouverie, whofe grandfather, Jacob, was fo
created in 1747. It has been obferved of fome hills
in this neighbourhood, that they have vifibly funk and
grown lower within memory.
FOLKLAND, and Folkmote. See Folclanb.
FOLLICULUS, (from follis, “ a bag,”) a fpecies
of feed-veffel firft mentioned by Linnaeus in his Deli-
iieatio P/antce, generally confifting of one valve, which
opens from bottom to top on one fide, and has no future
for faftening or attaching the feeds within it.
FOLLICULI are likewife defined by the fame au¬
thor to be fmall glandular Veffels diftended with air,
which appear on the furface of fome plants ; as at the
foot of water-milfoil, and on the leaves of aldrovanda.
In the former the leaves in queftion are roundifli, and
furniflied with an appearance like two horns 3 in the
latter, pot-ftiaped, and femicircular.
FOLLIS, or Folis, anciently fignified a little bag
or purfe 3 whence it came to be ufed for a fum of mo¬
ney, and very different fums were called by that name':
thus the fcholiaft on the Bafilics mentions a follis of
copper which was worth but the 24th part of the mi-
liarenfis ; the gloffse nomicas, quoted by Gronovius and
others, one of 125 miliarenfes, and another of 2<;o de¬
narii, wkich was the ancient feftertium 3 and three dif¬
ferent futas of eight, four, and two pounds of gold, were
« each
Fo!ke$
H
Follis.
F O N [ 785 ] F O N
FoUls e&cli called fo/lis. According to the account of the
|| fcholiaft, the ounce of filver, which contained five mi-
F°ng" liarenfes of 60 in the pound, was worth 120 folks of
Yan£‘ . copper. The gloffographer, defcribing a follis of 250
denarii, fays it was equal to 312 pounds 6 ounces of
copper j and as the denarius of that age was the 8th
part of an ounce, an ounce of filver muft have been
worth 120 ounces of copper ; and therefore the fcho-
liaft’s follis was an ounce of copper, and equal to the
gloffographer’s nummus. But as Conftantine’s copper
money weighed a quarter of a Roman ounce, the fcho-
liaft’s follis and the gloffographer’s nummus contained
four of them, as the ancient nummus contained four
affes.
FOLLY, according to Mr Locke, confifts in the
drawing of falfe conclufions from juft principles ; by
which it is diftinguiftied from madnefs, which draws
juft conclufions from falfe principles.
But this feems too confined a definition ; folly-, in its
fcnoft general acceptation, denoting a weaknefs of intel¬
lect or apprehenfion, or fome partial abfurdity in lenti-
ment or conduCL
FOMAHAUT, in Ajlronomy, a ftar of the firft:
magnitude in the conftellation Aquarius.
FOMENTATION, in Medicine, is a fluid exter¬
nally applied, ufually as warm as the patient can bear
it, and in the following manner. Two flannel cloths
are dipped into the heated liquor, one of which is
wrung as dry as the neceffary fpeed wiil admit, then
immediately applied to the part affedled : it lies on un¬
til the heat begins to go oft', and the other is in readi-
nefs to apply at the inftant in which the firft is remov¬
ed : thus thefe flannels are alternately applied, fo as to
keep the affefted part conftantly fupplied with them
warm. This is continued 15 minutes or half an hour,
and repeated as occafion may require.
Every intention of relaxing and foothing by fomen¬
tations may be anfwered as well by warm water alone
as when the whole tribe of emollients are boiled in it j
but when difeutients or antifeptics are required, fuch
ingredients muft be called in as are adapted to that
end.
The degree of heat ftiould never exceed that of pro¬
ducing a pleafant fenfation great heat produces effeCls
very oppofite to that intended by the ufe of fomenta-
tation.
FONG-yang, a city of China, in the province of
KlANG-Nan. It is fituated on a mountain, which hangs
■over the Yellow river, and enclofes with its walls feve-
ral fertile little hills. Its jurifdi&ion is very extenfive :
for it comprehends 18 cities \ five of which are of the
lecond, and 13 the third clafs. As this was the
birth-place of the emperor Hong-vou, chief of the pre¬
ceding dynafty, this prince formed a defign of rendering
it a famous and magnificent city, in order to make it
the feat of empire. After having expe lled the Weftern
Tartars, who had taken poffeflion of China, he transfer¬
red his court hither, and named the city Fong yang;
that is to fay, “ The Place of the Eagle’s Splendour.”
His intention, as we have faid, was to beautify and en¬
large it j but the inequality of the ground, the learcity
of frefti water, and above all the vicinity of his father’s
tomb, made him change hisdefign. By the unaninious
advice of his principal officers, this prince eftablilhed
his court at Nan-king, a more beautiful and commo-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
dious place. When he had formed this refolution, aFosg-Yatig
flop was put to the intended works: the imperial pa- jj
lace which was to have been enclofed by a triple wall, t-entame ^
the walls of the city to which a circumference of nine
leagues were affigned, and the canals that ivere begun,
all were abandoned ; and nothing was finiftied, but three
monuments that ftill remain. The extent and magnifi¬
cence of thefe fufficiently {how what the beauty of this
city would have been, had the emperor purfued his ori¬
ginal defign. The firft is the tomb of the father of
Hong-vou, to decorate which no expence was fpared y
it is called Hoan-lin, or the Royal Tomb. The fecond
is a tower built in the middle ot the city, which is of
an oblong form, and 100 feet high. 1 he third is a
magnificent temple erefted to the god lo. At firft it
was only a pagod, to which Hong-vou retired after ha¬
ving loft his parents, and where he was admitted as an
inferior domeftic ; but having foon become weary oi
this kind of life, he enlifted with the chief of a band of
banditti, who had revolted from the Tartars. As he^
was bold and enterprifing the general made choice of
him for his fon-in-law : foon after he was declared his
fucceffor by the unanimous voice of the troops, 'ihe
new chief feeing himfelf at the head of a large party,
had the prefumption to carry his views to the throne.
The Tartars, informed of the progrefs of his arms, fenfc
a numerous army into the field •, but he furprifed and
attacked them with fo much impetuofity, that they were
obliged to fly ; and, though they feveral times returned
to the charge, they were ftill defeated, and at length
driven entirely out of China. As foon as he mounted
the throne, he caufed the fuperb temple which w'e have
mentioned to be raifed out of gratitude to the Bonzes,
who had received him in his diftrefs, and affigned them
a revenue fufficient for the maintenance of 300 perfons,
under a chief of their own left, whom he conftituted a
mandarin, with power of governing them, independent
of the officers of the city. This pagod was fupported
as long as the preceding dynafty lafted ; but that of
the Eaftern Tartars, which fucceeded, fuffered it to fall
to ruin.
FONG-Choui, the name of a ridiculous fuperftition
among the Chinefe. See China, N° 105.
FONT, among ecclefiaftical writers, a large bafon
in which water is kept for the baptizing of infants or
other perfons.
Font, in the art of printing, denotes a complete af-
fortment of letters, accents, &c. ufed in printing. See
Fount.
FONTAINE, John, a celebrated French poet,
and one of the firft-rate geniufes of his age, was born
at Chateau-Thierri in Champagne, the 8th of July
1621, of a good family. At the age of 19 he en¬
tered among ft the Oratorians, but quitted that order
18 months after. He was 22 years of age before he
knew his own talents for poetry ; but hearing an ode
of Malherbe read, upon the affaffination of Henry IV.
he was fo taken with admiration of it, that the poeti¬
cal fire, which had before lain dormant within him,
feemed to be enkindled from that of the other great
poet. He applied himfelf to read, to meditate, to re¬
peat, in fine to imitate, the works of Malherbe. The
firft effays of his pen he confined to one of his rela¬
tions who made him read the beft Latin authors, Ho¬
race, Virgil, Terence, .Quintilian, &.c, and then the
5 G beft
F O N
ie. bell compofitions in French and Italian. He applied
himielf likewife to the ftudy of the Greek authors, par-
ticuiaily Plato and Plutarch. Some time afterwards
Ins parents made him marry a daughter of a lieutenant-
general, a relation of the great Racine. This young
lady, befides her very great beauty, was remarkable
for the delicacy of her wit, and Fontaine never com-
pofed any work without confulting her. But as her
temper was none of the befl, to avoid diffenfion, he fe-
parated himfelf from her company as often as he well
could. I he famous duchefs of Bouillon, niece to Car¬
dinal Mazarine, being exiled to Chateau-Thierri, took
paiticular notice of Fontaine. Upon her recal, he fol¬
lowed her to Paris j where by the intereft of one of
his relations, he got a penfion fettled upon him. He
met with great friends and protedfors amongft the moft
diftinguilhed perfons of the court, but Madame dela Sa-
nliere w’as the moft particular. She took him to live
.’.t her houfe, and it was then that Fontaine, divefted
of domeftic concerns, led a life conformable to his
difpofition, and cultivated an acquaintance with all the
great men of the age. It wras his cuftom, after he was
fixed at Paris, to go every year, during the month of
September, to h:s native place ol Chateau-Thierri, and
pay a vifit to his wife, carrying with him Racine, Def-
preaux, Chapelle, or fume other celebrated writers.
When he has fometimes gone thither alone by himfelf,
he has come away without remembering even to call
upon her ; but feldom omitted felling fome part of his
lands, by which means he fquandered away a confider-
able fortune. After the death of Madame de la Sa-
oiiere, he was invited into England, particularly by
Madame Mazarine, and by St Evremond, who promi-
fed him all the fweets and comforts of life j but the
difficulty of learning the Engliffi language, and the
liberality of the duke of Burgundy, prevented his
voyage.
About the end of the year 1692 he fell dangeroufly
ill : and, as is cuftomary upon thefe oecafions in the
Romiffi church, he made a general confeffion of his
whole life to P. Poguet, an Oratorian j and, before he
received the facrament, he fent for the gentlemen of
the French Academy, and in their prelence declared
his fincere compunftion for having compofed his Tales j
a work he could not reflefl; upon without the greateft
repentance and deteflation ; promifing that if it ffiould
pleafe God to reftore his health, he would employ his
talents only in writing upon matters of morality or
piety. He furvived this illnefs two years, living in
the moft exemplary and edifying manner, and died the
13th of March 1695, being 74 years of age. When
they ftripped his body, they found next his Ikin a hair
ffiirt j which gave room for the following expreffion
of the younger Racine:
Et EAuteur de Jacande eft orne d^un Cilice.
Fontaine’s charadler is remarkable for a fimplicity, can¬
dour, and probity, feldom to be met with. He was of
an obliging difpofition ; cultivating a real friendlhip
with his brother poets and authors \ and what is very
rare, beloved and efteemed by them all. His converfa-
tion was neither gay nor brilliant, efpecially when he
was not amongft his intimate friends. One day being
invited to a dinner at a farmer general’s, he ate a great
deal, but did not fpeak. Rifing up from table very
[ 786 ]
F O N
early, under pretext of going to the academy, one of py1Ua-
the company reprefented to him that it was not yet a ||
proper time : “ Well (lays he), if it is not, I will ftay Fontaines.
a little longer.” He had one fon by his wife in the ' 
year 1660. At the age of 14, he put him into the
hands of M. de Harley, the firft prefident, recommend¬
ing to him his education and fortune. It is faid, that
having been a long time without feeing him, he hap-
pened to meet him one day vifiting, without recolleft-
ing him again, and mentioned to the company that he
thought that young man had a good deal of wit and
underftanding. When they told him it was his own fon,
he anfwered in the moft tranquil manner, *‘ Ha ! truly
I am glad on’t.” An indifference, or rather an ab-
fence of mind, influenced his whole condudf, and ren¬
dered him often infenfible to the inclemency of the wea¬
ther. Madame de Bouillon going one morning to Ver-
failles, faw him, abftrafted in thought, fitting in an ar¬
bour 5 returning at night, ffie found him in the fame
place, and in the fame attitude, although it was very
cold, and had rained almoft the whole day. He car¬
ried this fimplicity fo far, that he was fcarcely fenfible of
the bad effe&s fome of his writings might occafion,
particularly his Tales. In a great ficknefs, his confef-
for exhorting him to prayer and alms deeds : “ As for
alms deeds (replied Fontaine), I am not able, having
nothing to give j but they are about publifhing a new
edition of my Tales, and the bookfeller owes me a hun¬
dred copies 5 you ffiall have them to fell, and diftribute
their amount amongft the poor.” Another time P. Po¬
guet exhorting him to repent of his faults, “ If he has
committed any (cried the nurfe), I am fure it is more
from ignorance than malice, for he has as much fimpli¬
city as an infant.” One time having compofed a tale,
wherein he made a profane application of thofe words
of the Gofpel, “ Lord, five talents thou didft deliver to
me,” he dedicated it, by a moft ingenious prologue, to
the celebrated Arnauld, telling him, it was to fliow to
pofterity the great efteem he had for the learned dodor.
He was not fenfible of the indecency of the dedication,
and the profane application of the text, till Boileau and
Racine reprefented it to him. He addreffed another,
by a dedication in the fame manner, to the archbifhop
of Paris. His Fables are an immortal work, exceeding
every thing in that kind, both ancient and modern, in
the opinion of the learned. People of tafte, the often-
er they read them, will find continually new beauties
and charms, not to be met with elfewhere. The def-
cendants of this great poet are exempted in France from
all taxes and impofitions ; a privilege which the inten-
dants of Soiffon to this day think it an honour to con¬
firm to them.
FON 1 AINBLEAU, a town in the Ifie of France,
and in the Gatinois, remarkable for its fine palace,
which has been the place where the kings of France
ufed to lodge when they went a hunting. It was firft
embelliffied by Francis I. and every fucceffive king has
added fomething to it ; fo that it may now be called the
fineft pleafure houfe in the world. It ftands in the
midft of a fore ft, confifting of 26,424 arpents of land,
each containing too fquare perches, and each perch l-S
feet. E. Long 2. 33. N. Lat. 40. 22.
FON IAINES, Peter Francis, a French critic,
was born of a good family at Rouen in 1685. At 15,
he entered into the fociety of the Jefuits $ and at 30,
quitted
F O N [ 787 ] F O N
Fontaines quitted it, for the fake of returning to the world. He
(| was a pried, and had a cure in Normandy : but left it,
Fontarabia. an^ wa?^ as a raan 0f %vjt ancj letters, feme time with
tjie car(iinai d’Auvergne. Having excited fome at¬
tention at Paris by certain critical produidions, the
Abbe Bignon in 1724 committed to him ihe Journal
des Spavans. He acquitted himfelf well in this depart¬
ment, and was peaceably enjoying the applaufes of the
public, when his enemies, whom by critical ftriflures
in his Journal he had made fuch, formed an accufation
againft him of a mod abominable crime, and procured
him to be imprifoned. By the credit of powerful
friends, he was fet at liberty in 15 days j the magidrate
of the police took upon himfelf the trouble of judifying
him in a letter to the Abbe Bignon ; and this letter hav-
' ing been read amidd his fellow labourers in the Journal,
he was unanimoufly re-edablilhed in his former credit.
This happened in 1725. But with whatever repute
he might acquit himfelf in this Journal, frequent dif-
gufts made him frequently abandon it. He laboured
meanwhile in fome new periodical works, from which
he derived his greated fame. In I73ri ^ie began one
under the title of Nouvellijle du Parnajfe, ou RejleEhons
fur les Ouvrages nouveaux : but only proceeded to two
volumes j the work having been fuppreded by autho¬
rity, from the inceffant complaints of authors ridiculed
therein. About three years after, in 1735, he ob¬
tained a new privilege for a periodical produdlion, en¬
titled, Obfervations fur les Ecrits Modernes ; which, af¬
ter continuing to 33 volumes, was fuppreffed again
in 1743. Yet the year following, 1744, he publilhed
another weekly paper, called, Jugentens fur les Ouvrages
nouveaux, and proceeded to 11 volumes : the two lad
being done by other hands. In 1745, he w'as attacked
with a diforder in the bread, which ended in a drop-
fy that proved fatal in five weeks. “ He was (fays
M. Freron) born a fentimental perfon ; a philofopher
in conduct as well as in principle ; exempt from ambi¬
tion $ and of a noble firm fpirit, which would not fub-
mit to fue for preferments or titles. In common con-
verfation he appeared only a common man : but when
fubjefts of literature, or any thing out of the ordinary
way, were agitated, he difcovered great force of ima¬
gination and wit.” Befides the periodical works men¬
tioned above, he was the author of many others : his
biographer gives us no lefs than 17 articles 5 many of
them critical, fome hidorical, and fome tranflations
from Englidi writers, chiefly from Pope, Swift, Field¬
ing, &c. The Abbe de la Porte, publiflied, in I757>
IjEfprit de P Abbd des Fontaines, in 4 vols. 12tno ; pre¬
fixed to which is the Life of Fontaines, a catalogue^ of
his works, and another catalogue of writings againd
him.
FONTANELLA, in Anatotmj, imports the qua¬
drangular aperture found betwixt the os frontis and
offa fincipitis, in children jud born , which is alfo call¬
ed fans pulfatilis.
FONTARABIA, a fea port town of Spain, in Bif-
cay, and in the territory of Guipufcoa, feated on a
peninfula on the fea fliore, and on the river Bidafloa.
It is final!, but well fortified both by nature and art ;
and has a good harbour, though dry at low water. It
is built in the form of an amphitheatre, on the decli¬
vity of a hill, and furrounded cn the land fide by the
lofty Pyrenean mountains. It is a very important Fontarabia,
place, being accounted the key of Spain on that fide. Fontenelle.
W. Long. x. 43. N. Lat. 43. 23. w—y—^
FONTENELLE, Bernard le Bovier de, was a
man of letters, born at Rouen in 1657, the mod uni-
verfal genius of the age of Louis XIV. in the edima-
tion of Voltaire. He received his education in the
college of Jefuits at Rouen, where the quicknefs of bis
parts became confpicuous at a very early period. He
was capable of writing Latin verfes when only 13,
which were deemed worthy of being publilhed. He
dudied the law at the defire of his father $ but as he
lod the very fird caufe in which he was employed as
an advocate, he became difgufled with his profeffion, and
devoted himfelf entirely to literature and philofophy.
He compofed a confiderable part of the operas of Pfyche
and Bellerophon, which were printed under the name
of his uncle Thomas Corneille. He wrote a tragedy
called Afpar; but as it did not fucceed, he configned
the manufcript to the flames, and never afterwards at¬
tempted that fpecies of compofition. His Dialogues of
the dead were publifhed in the year 1683, which were
well received, as a fpecimen of elegant compofition,
combining morality with the charms of literature. His
“ Lettres du Chevalier d’Her,” publilhed in 1685
without his name, difcovered much wit and ingenuity,
but at the fame time no fmall lhare of affedlation. His
“ Entretiens fur la Pluralite des Mondes,” has been
regarded as one of his ablelt performances, com¬
bining fcience and philofophy with vivacity and hu¬
mour, a talent which may be faid to belong almoft ex-
clufively to the French. It was perufed by all, and
tranflated into feveral foreign languages.
In his “ Hifiory of Oracles,” he fupported the opi¬
nion that oracles were forgeries, in oppofition to thofe
who contended that they were fupernatural iterations of
evil fpirits, put to filence by the appearing of Chrilt,
and of confequence he expofed himielf to clerical ani-
madverfion. His “ Paltoral Poems” appeared in the
year ifiSS, with a difcourfe on the nature of the eclogue,
which were very much admired for their delicacy
of fentiment, as was alfo his opera of “ Thetis and
Peleus j” but his “ ^Eneas and Lavinia” was not fo fuc-
cefsful. In the year 1699, Fontenelle was chofen
fecretary of the Academy of Sciences, which office he
held during the long period of 42 years. He publilli-
ed a volume annually of the hiftory of that learned
body, filled with analyfes of memoirs, and eulogiums on
deceafed members.
As a poet, he did not rife above elegance and in¬
genuity ; as a man of fcience, he rather excelled in
throwing light on the inventions of others, than in dif-
covering any new truth himfelf, and as a general writer,
he united folid fenfe with the delicacy and refinement
of a man of wit. He ftudied his own happinefs as much
as moft men, but he never facrificed to the promotion
of it, the duties of a man of honour and virtue. PL-
had many friends, and towards the clofe of life, fcarce-
ly a Angle enemy. He was never married, and for
a man of letters he acquired confiderable affluence.
Although of a delicate conflitution, he reached the
great age of 90 without any complaint but dulnefs of
hearing. He died on the 9th of January 1757, being
jflmoft a hundred years of age. When alked by a certain
5 G 2 per fon
F O O [ 788 ] F O O
Fontenelle perfon how he could pafs fo eafily through the world, he
() replied, “ by virtue of thefe two axioms ; All is pofli-
, F°0(1‘ ble, and every one is in the right.”
FONTENOY, a town or village of the Auftrian
Netherlands, in the province of Hainault, and on the
borders of Flanders j remarkable for a battle fought
between the allies and the French on the firft of May
1745. The French were commanded by Marefchal
Saxe, and the allies by the Duke of Cumberland. On
account of the fuperior numbers of the French army,
and the fuperior generalfhip of their commander, the
allies were defeated with great daughter. The Britilh
troops behaved with great intrepidity, as their enemies
themfelves acknowledged. It has been faid, that the
battle was loft through the cowardice of the Dutch,
who failed in their attack on the village of Fontenoy,
on which the event of the day depended. E. Long. 2.20.
N. Lat. 50. 35.
Fontenoy, a village of France, in the duchy of
Burgundy, remarkable for a bloody battle fought
there in 841, between the Germans and the French,
in which were killed above 100,000 men j and the
Germans were defeated. E. Long. 3. 48. N. Lat.
47. 28.
FONTEVRAUD, or Frontevaux, Order of, in
ecclefiaftical hiftory, a religious order inftituted about
the latter end of the 1 ith century, and taken under
the prote&ion of the holy fee by Pope Pafcal II. in
1106, confirmed by a bull in II13, and invefted by his
fucceflors with very extraordinary privileges. The chief
of this order is a female, who is appointed to infpeft
both the monks and nuns. The order was divided into
four provinces, which were thofe of France, Aquitaine,
Auvergne, and Bretagne, in eacli of which they had
formerly feveral priories.
1 ON IICUL US, or Fontanell.a,, in Surgery, an
iflue, feton, or fmall ulcer, made in various parts of the
body, in order to excite irritation, or to produce the
difcharge of matter.
FONTINALIA, or Fontanalia, in antiquity, a
religious feaft held among the Romans in honour of the
deities who prefided over fountains or fprings. Varro
obferves, that it was the cuftom to vifit the wells on
thofe days, and to call crowns into fountains. Scali-
ger, in his conjectures on Varro, takes this not to be
a feaft of fountains in general, as Feftus infinuates,
but of the fountain which had a temple at Rome, near
the Porta Capena, called alfo Porta Fontina/is: he adds,
that it is of this fountain Cicero fpeaks in his fecond
book De Legtbus. The Fontinalia were held on the
J3th of October.
FONTINALIS, Water-moss, a genus of plants
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs, and to the order of
mufci. See Botany Index.
FOOD, in the moft extenfive fignification of the
word implies whatever aliments are taken into the
body, whether folid or fluid y but in common language,
it is generally ufed to fignify only the folid part of our
aliment.
We are told, that in the firft ages men lived upon
acorns, berries, and fuch fruits as the earth fpontane-
oufly produces j then they proceeded to eat the flefti
of wild animals taken in hunting : But their numbers
decreafing and mankind multiplying, neceffity taught
them the art of cultivating the ground, to fow corn,
&c. By and by they began to aflign to each other, by Food
general confent, portions of land to produce them their —~v—
fupply of vegetables; after this, reafon fuggefted the
expedient of domefticating certain animals,'both to af-
fift them in their labours and fupply them with food.
Hogs were the firft animals of the domeftic kind that
appeared upon their tables; they hdd it to be ungrate¬
ful to devour the beatts that aflifted them in their la*
bours.—When they began to make a free ufe of do¬
meftic animals, they roafted them only : boiling was a
refinement in cookery which for ages they were ftran-
gers to ; and fifh living in an element men were unufed
to, were not eaten, till they grew fomewhat civilized.
Menelaus complains, in the Odyffey, that they had
been conftrained to feed upon them.
The moft remarkable diftin&ion of foods, in a me¬
dical view, is into thofe which are already aflimilated
into the animal nature, and fuch as are not. Of the
firft kind are animal fubftances in general; which if
not entirely fimilar, are nearly fo, to our nature. The
fecond comprehends vegetables, which are much more
difficultly affimilated. But as the nouriffiment of all
animals, even thofe which live on other animals, can
be traced originally to the vegetable kingdom, it is
plain, that the principle of all nourifhment is in vege¬
tables.
Though there is perhaps no vegetable which does Cvlitn cn
not afford nouriffiment to fome fpecies of animals or the Mat.
other; yet, with regard to mankind, a very confider-lfi;
able diftin&ion is to be made. Thofe vegetables whichedit*
are of a mild, bland, agreeable tafte, are proper nou¬
riffiment ; while thofe of an acrid, bitter, and naufeous
nature, are improper. We ufe, indeed, feveral acrid
fubftances as food ; but the mild, the bland, and agree¬
able, are in the largeft proportion in almoft every ve¬
getable. Such as are very acrid, and at the fame time
of an aromatic nature, are not ufed as food,, but as
fpices or condiments, which anfwer the purpofes of
medicines rather than any thing elfe. Sometimes, in¬
deed, acrid and bitter vegetables feem to be admitted
as food. Thus celeri and endive are ufed in common
food, though both are fubftances of confiderable acri¬
mony ; but it muft be obferved, that when we ufe
them, they are previoufly blanched, which almoft to¬
tally deftroys their acrimony. Or it we employ other
acrid fubftances, we generally, in a great mealure, der
prive them of their acrimony by boiling. In different
countries, the fame plants grow with different degrees
of acrimony. Thus garlic here feldom enters our
food ; but in the fouthern countries, where the plants
grow more mild, they are fiequently ufed for that pur-
pofe. The plant which furnilhes caffada, being very
acrimonious, and even poifonous, in its recent ftats,
affords an inftance of the neceffity of preparing acrid
fubftances even in the hot countries: and there are
other plants, fuch as arum root, which are lo exceed¬
ingly acrimonious in their natural ftate, that they can¬
not be fwallowed with fafety ; yet, when deprived of
that acrimony, will afford good nouriffiment.
The moft remarkable properties of different vegeta¬
ble fubftances as food, are taken notice of under their
different names : here we ffiall only compare vegetable
foods in general with thofe of the animal kind.
I. In the Stomach, they differ remarkably, in that
the vegetables always have a tendency to acidity, while
animal
F O O [
animal food of all kinds rather tends to alkalefcency
and putrefaflion. Some animal foods, indeed, turn ma-
nifeftly acid before they putrify j and it has been aflert-
ed, that fome degree of acefcency takes place in every
kind of animal food before digeftion. This acefcency
of animal food, however, never comes to any morbid
degree, but the difeafe is always on the fide of putref-
cency. The acefcency of vegetables is more frequent,
and ought to be more attended to, than the alkalefcen¬
cy of animal food *, which laft, even in weak ftomachs,
is feldom felt ; while acefcency greatly affe£ts both the
ftomach and fyftem.
With regard to their difference offolution :—Heavi-
nefs, as it is called, is feldom felt from vegetables, ex¬
cept from tough farinaceous pafte, or the moft vifcid
fubftances *, while the heavinefs of animal food is more
frequently noticed, efpecially when in any great quan¬
tity. Difficulty of folution does not depend fo much
on firmnefs of texture (as a man, from fiffi of all kinds,
is more oppreffed than from firmer fubftances), as on
vifcidity} and hence it is more frequent in animal food,
efpecially in the younger animals.
With regard to mixture:—There is no inftance of
difficult mixture in vegetables, except in vegetable oils j
while animal foods, from both vifcidity and oilinefs,
efpecially the fatter meats, are refra&ory in this re-
fpeft. Perhaps the difference of animal and vegetable
foods might be referred to this head of mixture. . For
vegetable food continues long in the ftomach, giving
little ftimulus : Now the fyftem is affe&ed in propor¬
tion to the extent of ^his ftimulus, which is incompa¬
rably greater from the animal vifcid oily food, than
from the vegetable, firmer, and more aqueous. How¬
ever, there are certain applications to the ftomach,
which have a tendency to bring on the cold fit of fe¬
ver, independent of ftimulus, merely by their refrige¬
ration : and this oftener arifes from vegetables ; as we
fee, in thofe hot countries where intermittents prevail,
they are oftener induced from a furfeit of vegetable
than of animal food. A proof of this is, that when
one is recovering of an intermittent, there is nothing
more apt to caufe a relapfe than cold food, efpecially
if taken on thofe days when the fit ffiould return, and
particularly acefcent, fermentable vegetables, as falads,
melons, cucumbers, &c. acido-dulces, &c. which, ac¬
cording to Dr Cullen, are the moft frequent caufes of
epidemics*, therefore, when an intermittent is to be
avoided, we (hun vegetable diet, and give animal foods,
although their ftimulus be greater. .
II In the Inteflines. When the putrefcency of animal
food has gone too far, it produces an aftive ftimulus,
caufing diarrhoea, dyfentery, &c. But theie effedls are
but rare *, whereas from vegetable food and its acid,
which, united with the bile, proves a pretty ftrong fti¬
mulus, they more frequently occur ; but luckily are ot
Jefs confequence, if the refrigeration is not very great.
In the autumnal feafon, when there is a tendency to
dyfenterv, if it is obferved that eating of fruits brings
it on, it is rather to be afcribed to their cooling than
ftimulating the inteftines.
As to/W:—Wherever neither putrefaction nor a-
ciditv has gone a great length, animal food keeps the
belly more regular. Vegetable food gives a greater
proportion of fucculent matter; and, when exficcated by
the ftomach and inteftines, is more apt to itagnate, and
789 ] F O O
produce flow belly and coftivenefs, than animal ftimu¬
lating food ; which, before it comes to the great guts,
where ftoppage is made, has obtained a putrefaCtive
tendency, and gives a proper ftimulus: and thus
thofe who are coftive frem the ufe of vegetables; when
they have recourfe to animal food are in this refpe£l
better.
III. In the blood-vejfels. They both give a blood of
the fame kind, but ot different quality. Animal food
gives it in greater quantity, being in great part, as the
expreffion is, convertible in fuccutn et fanguinem, ano
of eafy digeftion ; whereas vegetable is more watery,
and contains a portion of unconquerable faline matter,
which caufes it to be thrown out of the body by fome
excretion. Animal food affords a more denfe ftimula¬
ting elaftic blood than vegetable; ftretching and caufing
a great refiftance in the folids, and again exciting thei.
ftronger aftion. It has been fuppofed that acefcency of
vegetable food is carried into the blood-veffels, and
there exerts its effefts ; but the tendency of animal
fluids is fo ftrong to alkalefcency, that the exiftence of
an acid acrimony in the blood feems very improbable.
Animal food alone will foon produce an alkalefcent a-
crimony ; and if a perfon who lives entirely on vege¬
tables were to take no food for a few days, his acrimo¬
ny would be alkalefcent.
IV. We are next to take notice of the quantity of
nutriment thefe different foods afford. Nutriment is of
two kinds: the firft repairs the wafte of the folid fibres;
the other fupplies certain fluids, the chief of which is
oil. Now, as animal food is eafier converted, and alfo
retained longer in the fyftem, and as it contains a
greater proportion of oil, it will afford both kinds of
nutriment more copioufly than vegetables.
V. Laftly, As to the different degrees of perfpirability
of thefe foods. This is not yet properly determined.
Santforius conftantly fpeaks of mutton as the moft
perfpirable of all food, and of vegetables as checking
perfpiration. f his is a confequence of the different
ftimulus thofe foods give to the ftomach, fo that per-
fons who live on vegetables have not their perfpiration
fo fuddenly excited. In time of digeftion, perfpira¬
tion is flopped from whatever food, much more fo from
cooling vegetables. Another reafon why vegetables
are lefs perfpirable is, becaufe their aqueo-faline juices
determine them to go off by urine, while the more per-
feaiy mixed animal food is more equally diffufed over
the fyftem, and fo goes off by perfpiration. Hence
Sandforius’s accounts may be underftood ; for vegetable
aliment is not longer retained in the body, but moftly
takes the courfe of the kidneys. Both are equally per-
fpirable in this refpeft, viz._ that a perfon living on ei¬
ther returns once a day to his ufual weight; and if we
confider the little nouriflnnent of vegetables, and the
great tendency of animal food to corpulency, we muit
allow that vegetable is more quickly perfpired than a-,
nimal food.
As to the queftion, Whether man was originally de-
figned for animal or vegetable food, fee the article
Carnivorous.
With regard to the effedts of thefe foods on men,, it
muft be obferved, that there are no perfons who live
entirely on vegetables. The Pythagoreans themfelves
ate milk ; and thofe who do fo moftly, as thefe Py¬
thagoreans, are weakly, fickly, and meagre, labour¬
ing
Food.
V O O
Food, ing under a eonftant diarrhoea and feveral other dif"
' eafe?. None of the hardy, robuft, live on thefe $ but
Ciiictly Rich as gain a livelihood by the exertion of their
mental faculties, as (in the Eaft Indies) factors and
brokers 5 and this method of life is now confined to
the hot climates, where vegetable diet, without incon-
venience, may be carried to great excefs. Though it
be granted, therefore, that man is intended to live on
thefe different foods prornifcuoufly, yet the vegetable
ftiould be in very great proportion. Thus the Lap¬
landers are faid to live entirely on animal food : but
this is contradidled by the beR accounts ; for Linnaeus
fays, that befides milk, which they take four, to ob¬
viate the bad effedls of animal food, they ufe alfo cala-
menyanthes, and many other plants, copionfly. So
tnere is no inftance of any nation living entirely either
on vegetable or animal food, though there are indeed
fome who live particularly on one or other in the great-
eft proportion. In the cold countries, i?. g. the inha¬
bitants live chiefly on animal food, on account of the
rigour of the feafon, their fmaller perfpiration, and little
tendency to putrefadlion.
Of more importance, however, is the following than
the former queftion, viz. In vjhat proportion animal and
Vegetable food ought to be mixed ?
1. Animal food certainly gives moft ftrength to the
fyftem. It is a known aphorifm of Sanftorius, that
pondus addit robur ; which may be explained from the
impletion of the blood-veffels, and giving a proper de¬
gree of tenfion for the performance of ftrong ofcilla-
tions. Now animal food not only goes a greater way
in fupplying fluid, but alfo gives the fluid more
denfe and elaftic. The art of giving the tit mo ft
ftrength to the fyftem is beft underftood by thofe who
breed fighting cocks. Thefe people raife the cocks to
a certain weight, which muft bear a certain proportion
to the other parts of the fyftem, and which at the fame
time is fo nicely proportioned, as that, on lofing a few
ounces of it, their ftrength is very confiderably im¬
paired. Dr Robinfon of Dublin has obferved, that
the force and weight of the fyftem ought to be deter¬
mined by the largenefs of the heart, and its proportion
to the fyftem : for a large heart will give large blood-
veffels, while at the fame time the vifeera are lefs, par¬
ticularly the liver j which laft being increafed in fize,
a greater quantity of fluid is determined into the cel¬
lular texture, and lefs into the fanguineous fyftem.
Hence we fee how animal food gives ftrengtb, by fill¬
ing the fanguiferous veffels. What pains we now be¬
llow on cocks, the ancients did on the athlet£e, by
proper nourifhment bringing them to a great degree of
ftrength and agility. It is faid that men were at firft
fed on figs, a proof of which we have from their nutri¬
tious quality : how'ever, in this refpe£t they were foon
found to fall fhort of animal food ; and thus we fee,
that men, in fome meafure, will work in proportion to
the quality of their food. The Englifh labour more
than the Scots ; and wherever men are expofed to hard
labour, their food fnould be animal.—Animal food,
although it gives ftrength, yet loads the body ; and Hip¬
pocrates long ago obferved, that the athletic habit,
by a fmall increafe, was expofed to the greateft ha¬
zards. Hence it is only proper for bodily labours,
and entirely improper for mental exercifes; for who¬
ever would keep his mind acute and penetrating,
3
C 79° I
FOG
will exceed rather on the fide of vegetable food. Even
the body is oppreffed with animal food ; a full meal al¬
ways produces dullnefs, lazinefs, and yawning ; and
hence the feeding of gamefters, wbofe mind muft be
ready to take advantage, is always performed by
avoiding a large quantity of animal food. Farther,
With regard to the ftrength of the body, animal food]
in the firft ftage of life, is hardly neceffary to give
ftrength : in manhood, when U'e are expofed to active
feenes, it is more allowable; and even in the decline
of life, fome proportion of it is neceffary to keep the
body in vigour. There are fome difeafes which come
on in the decay of life, at leaft are aggravated by it •
among thefe the moft remarkable is the gout. This?
when it is in the fyftem, and does not appear with in¬
flammation in the extremities, has pernicious effedts
there, attacking the lungs, ftomach, head, &c. Now,
to determine this to the extremities, a large proportion
of animal food is neceffary, especially as the perfon is
commonly incapable of much exercife.
Animal food, although it gives flrergth, is yet of
many hazards to the fyftem, as it produces plethora and
all its confequences. As a flimulus to the ftomach and
to the whole fyftem, it excites fever, urges the circula¬
tion, and promotes the perfpiration. The fyftem.
however, by the repetition of thefe ftimuli, is foon worn
out 5 and a man who has early ufed the athletic diet, is
either early carried off by inflammatory difeafes, or, if
he takes exercife fufficient to render that diet falutary,
luch an accumulation is made of putrefeent fluids, as
in his after life lays a foundation for the moft inve¬
terate chronic diftempers. Therefore it is to be quef-
tioned, whether we fliould delire this high degree of bo¬
dily ftrength, with all the inconveniences and dangers
attending it. T hofe w ho are chiefly employed in mental
refearches, and not expofed to too much bodily labour,
Ihould always avoid an excefs of animal food. There
is a difeafe which feems to require animal food, viz.
the hyfteric or hypochondriac 5 and which appears to be
very much a-kin to the gout, affeffing the alimentary
canal. All people affedled with this difeafe are much
difpofed to acefcency : which fometimes goes fo far,
that no other vegetable but bread can be taken in,
without occafioning the worft confequences. Here then
we are obliged topreferibe an animal diet, even to thofe
of very weak organs ; for it generally obviates the
fymptoms. However, feveral inflances of feurvy in ex¬
cefs have been produced by a long-continued ufe of this
diet, which it is always unlucky to be obliged to pre-
feribe ; and when it is abfolutely neceffary to preferibe,
it fhould be joined with as much of the vegetable as
poflible, and when a cure is performed we fliould gra¬
dually recur to that again.
2. Next, let us conlider the vegetable diet. The chief
inconveniency of this is difficulty of aflimilation; which,
however, in the vigorous and exercifed, will not be li¬
able to occur. In warm climates, the affimilation of ve¬
getable aliment is more eafy, fo that there it may be
more ufed, and when joined to exercife gives a pretty
tolerable degree of ftrength and vigour ; and though
the general rule be in favour of animal diet, for giving
ftrength, yet there are many inftances of its being re¬
markably produced from vegetable. Vegetable diet
has this advantage, that it whets the appetite, and
that we can hardly fuffer from a full meal of it. Befides
the
Foot],
F O O [ 791 ] F O O
Food, the diforders it is liable to produce in the primes vice,
—v—'—and its falling (hart to give itr-ength, there feem to be
no bad confequences it can produce in the blood vef-
fels ; for there is no inftance where its peculiar acri¬
mony was ever carried there, and it is certainly lefs
putrefiable than animal food ; nor, without the utmoft
indolence, and a fharp appetite, does it give plethora,
or any of its confequenees : fo that we cannot here but
conclude, that a large proportion of vegetable food is
ufeful for the generality of mankind.
There is no error in this country more dangerous,
or more common, than the neglect of bread: for it is
the fafelt of vegetable aliments, and the belt corredlor
of animal food \ and, by a large proportion of this
alone, its bad confequences, when ufed in a hypochon¬
driac ftate, have been obviated. The French appar¬
ently have as much animal food on their tables as the
Britith ; and yet, by a greater ufe of bread and the
dried acid fruits, its bad effedts are prevented ; and
therefore bread (hould be particularly ufed by the
Fnglilh, as they are fo voracious of animal food. Ve¬
getable food is not only neceffary to feeure health, but
long life : and, as we have faid, in infancy and youth
we Ihould be confined to it moftly : in manhood, and
decay of life, ufe animal food 5 and, near the end, ve¬
getable again.
There is another queftion much agitated, viz. What
are the ejfeBs of variety in food ? Is it neceflary and al¬
lowable, or univerfally hurtful ? Variety of a certain
kind feems necelfary ;• as vegetable and animal foods
have their mutual advantages, tending to corredl each
other. Another variety, which is very proper, is that
of liquid and folid food, which lhould be fo managed
as to temper each other j and liquid food, efpecially of
the vegetable kind, is too ready to pafs off before it is
properly aflimilated, while folid food makes a long flay.
But this does not properly belong to the queftion,
whether variety of the fame kind is neceffary or pro¬
per, as in animal foods, beef, fifh, fowl, &c. It doth
not appear that there is any inconvenience arifing from
this mixture, or difficulty of affimilation, provided a
moderate quantity be taken. When any inconvenience
does arife, it probably proceeds from this, that one of
the particular fubftances in the mixture, when taken by
itfelf would produce the fame effects ; and indeed it
would appear that this eftedl: is not heightened by the
mixture, but properly obviated by it. There are few
exceptions to this, if any, e. g. taking a large propor¬
tion of acefcent fubftances with milk. The coldnefs
&c. acidity, flatulency, &c. may appear; and it is pof-
iible that the coagulum, from the acefcency of the
vegetables, being fomewhat ftronger induced, may give
occafion to too long retention in the flomach, and to
acidity in too great degree. Again, the mixture of fifti
and milk often occafions inconveniences. The theory
of this is difficult, though, from univerfal confent, it
muft certainly be juft. Can we fuppofe that fifti gives
occafion to fuch a coagulum as runnet ? If it does fo,
it may produce bad effedls. Befides, fifties approach
fomewhat to vegetables, in giving little Itimulus ; and
are accufed of the fame bad effedls as thefe, viz. bring¬
ing on the cold fit of fever.
Thus much may be faid for variety. But it alfo
has its difadvantages, provoking to gluttony ; this,
and the art of cookery, majJng men take in more than
they properly can digeft : and hence, perhaps very Food,
juffly, phyficians have univerfally almoft preferred fim- —y—
plicity of diet ; for, in fpite of rules, man’s eating will
only be meafured by bis appetite, and fatiety is fooner
produced by one than by many fubftances. But this
is fo far from being an argument againft variety, that
it is one for it, as the only way of avoiding a full meal
of animal food, and its bad effedls, is by prefenting a
quantity of vegetables. Another mean of preventing
the bad effedls of animal food, is to take a large pro¬
portion of liquid *, and hence the bad effedls of animal
food are lefs felt in Scotland, on account of their drink¬
ing much with it, and ufing broths, which are at once
excellent corredlors of animal food and preventives of
gluttony.
With regard to the difference between ANIMAL
FOODS, properly fo called, the firft regards their folubi-
lity, depending on a lax or firm texture of their different
kinds.
I. Solubility of animal food feems to deferve lefs
attention than is commonly imagined ; for there are
many inftances of perfons of a weak ftomach, incapable
of breaking down the texture of vegetables, or even of
diffolving a light pudding, to whom hung beef, or a
piece of ham, was very grateful and ealily digefted.
None of the theories given for the folution of animal
food in the human ftomach feem to have explained
the procefs fufficiently. Long ago has been difearded
the fuppofition of an aftive corrofive menftruum there;
and alfo the dodlrine of trituration, for which, indeed
there feems no mechanifm in the human body ; and,
till lately, phyficians commonly agreed with Boerhaave
in fuppofing nothing more to be neceflary than a wa¬
tery menftruum, moderate heat, and frequent agita¬
tion. This will account for folution in fome cafes, but
not entirely. Let us try to imitate it out of the body
with the fame circumftances, and in ten times the time
in which the food is diffolved in the ftomach we ftiall
not be able to bring about the fame changes. Take
the coagulated white of an egg, which almoft every
body can eafily digeft, and yet no artifice fhall be able
to diffolve it. Hence, then, we are led to feek another
caufe for folution, viz. fermentation ; a notion, indeed,
formerly embraced, but on the introduction of me¬
chanical philofophy, induftrioufly baniftied, with every
other fuppofition of that procefs taking place at all in
the animal economy. •
Many of the ancients imagined this fermentation to
be putrefactive. But this we deny, as an acid is pro¬
duced ; though hence the fermentation might be rec¬
koned the vinous, which, however, feems always to be
morbid. Neither, indeed, is the fermentation purely
acetous, but modified by putrefeence ; for Pringle has
obferved, that animal matters raife and even expede the
acetous procefs. The fermentation, then, in the fto¬
mach is of a mixed nature, between the acetous and pu¬
trefactive, mutually modifying each other ; though,
indeed, in the inteilines, fomewhat of the putrefactive
feems to take place, as may be obferved from the ftate
of the feces broke down, and from the little difpofition
of fuch fubftances to be fo, which are not liable to the
putrefactive procefs, as the firmer parts of vegetables.,
&c. Upon this view folution feems to be extremely
eafy, and thofe fubftances to be moll eafily broke down
which
F O O
-tood. \vhich are moft fubje£l to putrefa£liofi,
■—  ' MY, and Gastric Juice.
But folution alfo depends on other circumftances, and
hence requires a more particular regard.
1. There is a difference of folubility with refpeft to
the manducation of animal food, for which bread is ex¬
tremely neceffary, in order to keep the more ilippery
parts in the mouth till they be properly comminuted.
From want of proper manducation perfons are fubjeft
to eruflations; and this more frequently from the
firm vegetable foods, as apples, almonds, &c. than from
the animal, though, indeed, even from animal food,
very tendinous, or fvvallowed in unbroken maffes, fuch
fometimes occur. Manducation is fo much connefted
with folution, that fome, from imperfedlly performing
that, are obliged to belch up their food, remanducate
it, and fwallow it again before the ftomach can dif-
folve it, or proper nourifhment be extracted. Another
'proof of our regard to folubility, is our reje&ing the
firmer parts of animal food, as bull beef, and generally
carnivorous animals.
2. Its effects with regard to folubility feem alfo to
be the foundation of our choice between fat and lean,
young and old meats. In the lean although perhaps
a fingle fibre might be fufficiently tender, yet thefe,
when collefted in fafciculi, are very firm and compaft,
and of difficult folution j whereas in the fat there is a
greater number of veffels, a greater quantity of juice,
more interpofition of cellular fubftance, and confe-
quently more folubility. Again, in young animals,
there is probably the fame number of fibres as in the
older, but thefe more connefled : whereas, in the old¬
er, the growth depending on the feparation of thefe,
and the increafe of veffels and cellular fubftance, the
texture is lefs firm and more foluble ; which qualities,
' with regard to the ftomach, are at that time too increaf-
ed, by the inereafed alkalefcency of the animal. To
this alfo may be referred our choice of caftrated ani¬
mals, viz. on account of their difpofition to fatten af¬
ter the operation.
3. It is with a view to the folubility, that we make
a choice between meats recently killed, and thofe
which have been kept for fome time. As foon as
meat is killed, the putrefaflive procefs begins 5 which
commonly we allow to proceed for a little, as that
procefs is the moft effeflual breaker down of animal
matters, and a great affiftance to folution. The length
of time during which meat ought to be kept, is pro¬
portioned to the, meat’s tendency to undergo the pu¬
trid fermentation, and the degree of thofe circum¬
ftances which favour it : Thus, in the torrid zone,
where meat cannot be kept above four or five hours,
it is ufed much more recent than in thefe northern cli¬
mates.
4. Boiled or roafled meats create a difference of fo¬
lution. By boiling w^e extract the juices interpofed
between the fibres, approximate them more to each
other, and render them of more difficult folubility $
which is increafed too by the extraflion of the juices,
which are much more alkalefcent than the fibres : but
when we want to avoid the ftimulus of alkalefcent
food, and the quick folution, as in fome cafes of dif-
eafe, the roafted is not to be chofen. Of roafted meats
it may be alked, which are more proper, thofe which
are moft or leaft roafted i1 That which is leaft done is
t 792 ] F O O
bee AnaTo- certainly the moft foluble : even raw meats are more
foluble than dreffed, as Dr Cullen was informed by a
perfon who from neceffity was obliged, for fome time,
to eat fuch. But at the fame time that meats little
done are very foluble, they are very alkalefcent j fo
that, wherever we want to avoid alkalefcency in the
primee vice, the moft roafted meats ftrould be chofen.
Thofe who throw away the broths of boiled meat do
Very improperly ; for, befides their fupplying a fluid,
from their greater alkalefcency they increafe the folu¬
bility of the meat. Here we (hall obferve, that pure
blood has been thought infoluble. Undoubtedly it is
very nutritious j and though out of the body, like the
White of eggs, it feems very infoluble, yet, like that
too, in the body it is commonly ealily digefted. Mo-
fes very properly forbade it the Ifraelites, as in warm
countries it is highly alkalefcent; and even here,
when it was ufed in great quantity, the fcurvy was
more frequent: but to a moderate ufe of it, in thefe
climates, no fuch obje&ion takes place.
_ 5- Solubility is varied from another fource, viz. vif-
cidity of the juice of aliment. Young animals, then,
appear more foluble than old, not only on account of
the companion and firmnefs of texture in the latter,
but alfo their greater vifcidity of juice. And nothing
is more common, than to be longer oppreffed from a
full meal of veal, than from the fame quantity of beef,
&c. Upon account, too, of their greater vifcidity of
juice, are the tendinous and ligamentous parts of ani¬
mals longer retained than the purely mufcular, as well
as on account of their firmnefs of ttixture. Even fifties,
whofe mufcular parts are exceedingly tender, are, on
account of their gluey vifcofity, longer of folution in
the ftomach. And eggs, tooj which are exceedingly
nourilhing, have the fame eftedt, and cannot be taken
in great quantity : For the ftomach is peculiarly fen-
fible to gelatinous fubftances 5 and by this means has
nature perhaps taught us, as it were by a fort of in-
ftindt, to limit ourfelves in the quantity of fuch nutri¬
tive fubftances.
6. With regard to folution, we muft take in the oils
of animal food ; which, when tolerably pure, are the
leaft putrefcent part of it, and, by diminiftiing the co-
hefion of the fibres, render them more foluble. On
this laft account is the lean of fat meat more eafily dif-
folved than other lean. But ivhen the meat is expo-
fed to much heat, this oil is feparated, leaving the fo-
lid parts lefs eafily foluble, and becoming itfelf empy-
reumatic, rancefcent, and of difficult mixture in the fto¬
mach. Fried meats, from the reafons now given, and
baked meats, for the fame, as well as for the tenacity
of the pafte, are preparations which diminifh the folu¬
bility of the food. From what has been laid, the pre¬
paration of food by fattening it, and keeping it for
fome tirhe after being killed, although it may adminifter
to gluttohy, will yet, it muft be confeffcd, increafe the
folution of the food. *
II. The fecond difference of animal food is with re¬
gard to Aiacalescency.
Of this we have taken a little notice already under
the head of Solubility.
1. From their too great alkalefcency we commonly
avoid the carnivorous animals, and the ferce ; and
choofe rather the granivorous. Some birds, indeed,
which live on infers, are admitted into our food 5 but
on
Food;
FOO [ 793 ] FOO
Food. no man, without naufea, can live upon thefe alone for
■1 v-"..any length of time. Fi(hes, too, are an exception to
this rule, living almoft univerfally on each other. But
in thefe the alkalefcency does not proceed fo far j whe¬
ther from the vifcidity of their juice, their want of heat,
or fome peculiarity in their economy, is not eafy to
determine.
2. Alkalefcency is determined by difference of age.
The older animals are always more alkalefcent than the
young, from their continual progrefs to putrefaftion.
Homberg always found in his endeavours to extradl an
acid from human blood, that more was obtained from
the young than from the old animals.
3. A third circumftance which varies the alkalefcen¬
cy of the food, is the wildnefs or tamenefs of the ani¬
mal $ and this again feems to depend on its exereife.
Dr Cullen knew a gentleman who was fond of cats for
food } but he always ufed to feed them on vegetable
food, and kept them from exercife •, and in the fame
manner did the Romans rear up their rats, when in¬
tended for food. In the fame way the flefh of the
partridge and the hen feems to be much the fame 5
only, from its being more on the wing, the one is more
alkalefcent than the other. Again, tame animals are
commonly ufed without their blood $ whereas the wild
are commonly killed in their blood, and upon that ac¬
count, as well as their greater exercife, are more alka¬
lefcent.
4. The alkalefcency of food may be determined from
the quantity of volatile fait it affords. The older the
meat is, it is found to give the greater proportion of
volatile fait.
5. The alkalefcency of aliment may alfo, in fome
meafure, be determined from its colour, the younger
animals being whiter and lefs alkalefcent. We alfo
take a mark from the colour of the gravy poured out,
according to the rednefs of the juices judging of the
animal’s alkalefcency.
6. The relilh of food is found to depend much on its
alkalefcency, as does alfo the ftimulus it gives and the
fever it produces in the fyftem. Thefe effedls are alfo
complicated with the vifcidity of the food, by which
means it is longer detained in the ftomach, and the want
of alkalefcency fupplied.
Having mentioned animal food as differing in folu-
bility and alkalefcency, which often go together in the
fame fubjeft, we come to the third difference, viz.
III. Quantity of Nutriment. Which is either ab-
folute or relative: abfolute with refpcft to the quanti¬
ty it really contains, fufficient powers being given to
extra# it •, relative, with refpe# to the aflimilatory
powers of thofe who ufe it. The abfolute nutriment
is of fome confequence : but the relative, in the robuft
and healthy, and except in cafes of extraordinary
weaknefs, may, without much inconvenience, be dif-
regarded. In another cafe is the quantity of nourifh-
ment relative, viz. with regard to its perfpirobi/ity;
for if the food is foon carried off by the excretions, it
is the fame thing as if it contained a lefs proportion of
nourilhment. For, giving more fluid, that which is
longer retained affords moft ; and, for the repair of the
folids, that retention alfo is of advantage. Now, gela¬
tinous fubftances are long retained ; and befides, are
themfelves animal fubftances diffolved ; fo that, both
abfolutely and relatively, fuch fubftances are nutri-
Vox,. VIII. Part II,
tious. Of this kind are eggs, thell fifh, &c. In f00<i,
adults, though it is difputed whether their folids need ——v—
any repair, yet at any rate, at this period, fluid is
more required 5 for this purpofe the alkalelcem mods
are moft proper, being moft eaflly diffolved. They are,
at the fame time, the moft perfpirabie ; on one hand
that alkalefcency leading to dileafe, while on the other
their perfpirability obviates it. Adults, therefore, as
write-rs juftly obferve, are better nourilbed on the al¬
kalefcent ; the young and growing, on gelatinous
foods. All this leads to a comparifon of young and
old meats j the firft being more gelatinous, and the laft
more alkalefcent. This however, by experience, is
not yet properly afcertained. Mr Geoffroy is the only
perfon who has been taken up with the analyfis of
foods. See Memoires de l',dcademie,Van. 1731 &. I732,
His attempt was certainly laudable, and in fome re-
fpefts ufefully performed j but, in general, his experi¬
ments were not fufficiently repeated, nor are indeed
fufficiently accurate. He has not been on his guard
againft the various circumftances which affe# meats;
the cow-kind liking a moift: fucculent herbage, which
is not to be got in warm climates; while the flieep are
fond of dry food, and thrive beft there. Again, fome
of his experiments feem contradictory. He fays, that
veal gives more folution than beef, while lamb gives lefs
than mutton, which is much to be doubted. If both
he and Sandtorius had examined Englifti beef, ,the re-
fult probably would have been very different as to its
perfpirability, &c. Befides, Mr Geoffroy has only ana¬
lyzed beef and veal when raw ; has made no proper
circumftantial comparifons between quadrupeds and
birds; and has examined thefe laft along with their
bones, and not their mufcles, &c. by themfelves, as
he ought to have done, &c. If a fet of experiments
of this kind were properly and accurately performed,
they might be of great ufe ; , but at prefent, for the
purpofe of determining our prefent obje#, we muff
have recourfe to our alkalelcency, folubility, &c.
IV. The fourth difference of animal food is, The
Nature of the Fluids they afford. The whole of this
will be undtrftood from what has been faid on alkalef.
cency; the fluid produced being more or lefs denfe
and ftimulating, in proportion as that prevails.
V. The fifth difference of animal foods is with re-
fpe# to their
PerspiraBILITY. The fum of what can be faid on
this matter is this, that fuch foods a*, promote an ac¬
cumulation of fluid in our veffels and difpofe to ple¬
thora, are the leaft perfpirabie, and commonly give
moft ftrength ; that the more alkalefcent foods are the
moft perfpirabie, though the vifeid and lefs alkale&ent
may attain the fame property by long retention in the
fyftem. The authors on perfpirability have determin¬
ed the perfpiration of foods as imperfeCUy as Mr Geof- 1
froy has done the folubility, and in a few cafes only.
We muft not lay hold on what SanCIorius has faid on
the perfpirability of mutton, becaufe he has not exa¬
mined in the fame, way other meats in their perfe#
ftate ; far lefs on what Keil fays of oyfters, as he him-
felf was a valetudinarian, and confequently an unfit
fubje# for fuch experiments, and probably of a pecu¬
liar temperament.
As to the effe#s of FOOD on the MlND, we have
already hinted at them above. It i* plain, that deli-
5 H cac?.
Food
u
looftit.
F O O [ 7
cacy of feeling, livelinefs of imagination, quicknefs of
apprehenfion, and acutenefs of judgment, more fre-
quently accompany a weak Hate of the body. True it
is, indeed, that the fame ftate is liable to timidity,
flu&uation and doubt ; while the ftrong have that
fteadinefs of judgment, and firmnefs of purpofe, which
are proper for the higher and more adlive fcenes of
life. The moft valuable ftate of the mind, however,
appears to refide in fomewhat lefs firmnefs and vigour
of body. Vegetable aliment, as never over-diftending
the vefiels or loading the fyftem, never interrupts the
ftronger motions of the mind ; while the heat, fulnefs,
and weight, of animal food, are an enemy to its vigo¬
rous efforts. Temperance, then, does notfo much con-
fift in the quantity, for that always will be regulated
by our appetite, as in the quality, viz. a large propor¬
tion of vegetable aliment.
A confiderable change has now taken place in the
articles made ufe of as food by the ancients, by fubfti-
tuting, inftead of what were then ufed, particularly of
the vegetable kind, a number of more bland, agreeable,
and nutritive juices. The acorns and nuts of the pri¬
mitive times have given way to a variety of fweeter fa¬
rinaceous feeds and roots. To the malvaceous tribe of
plants, fo much ufed by the Greeks and Romans, hath
fucceeded the more grateful fpinach, and to the blite,
the garden orach. The rough borage is fupplanted by
the acefcent forrel j and afparagus has baniftied a num¬
ber of roots recorded by the Roman writers under the
name of bulbs; but Linnaeus is of opinion, that the
parfnip has undefervedly ufurped the place of the fiur-
ret. The bean of the ancients, improperly fo called, be¬
ing the roots as well as other parts of the nymphceu ne-
lumboy or Indian water-lily, is fuperfeded by the kidney
bean. The garden rocket, eaten with and as an antidote
againft the chilling qualities of the lettuce, is banilhed
by the more agreeable crefs and tarragon j the opium
by the meliorated celery j the pompion, and others of
the cucurbitaceous tribe, by the melon; and the fu-
raach berries, by the fragrant nutmeg. The filphium,
or fuccus Cyrenaicus, which the Romans purchafed
from Perfia and India at a great price, and is thought
by fome to have been the afafoetida of the prefent
time, is no longer ufed in preference to the alliaceous
tribe.
To turn from the vegetable to fome of the animal
fubftitutes, we may mention the carp among fifties as
having excluded a great number held in high eftima-
tion among the Romans j the change of oil for but¬
ter ; of honey for fugar; of mulfa, or liquors made of
wine, water, and honey, for the wines of modern times j
and that of the ancient zythus for the prefent improv¬
ed malt liquors ; not to mention alfo the Callida of the
Roman taverns, analogous to our tea and coflee.
Food of Plants. See Agriculture Index.
FOOL, according to Mr Locke, is a perfon who
makes falfe conclufions from right principles $ whereas
a madman, on the contrary, draws right conclufions
from wrong principles. See Folly.
FOOL-Stones. See Orchis, Botany Index*
FOOSHT, an ifland in the Red fea j fituated, ac¬
cording to the obfervations of Mr Bruce, in N. Lat.
3-30 S9' 43"- R is defcribed by him as about five miles
in length from north to fouth, though only nine in
3
94 ] F O O
circumference. It is low and fandy in the fouthern
part, but the north rifes in a black hill of inconlider-
able height. It is covered with a kind of bent grafs,
'which never arifes at any great length by reafon of
want of rain and the conftant browzing of the goats.
There are great appearances of the black hill having
once been a volcano ; and near the north cape the
ground founds hollow like the Solfaterra in Italy,
i here are a vaft number of beautiful filh met with up¬
on the coafts, but few fit for eating j and our traveller
obferved, that the moft oeautiful were the moft noxious
when eaten ; none indeed being falutary food except¬
ing thofe which refembled the fifti of the northern feas.
There are many beautiful fhell-fifh, as the concha ve¬
neris, of feveral colours and fizes; fea urchins, &c.
Sponges are likewife found all along the coaft. There
are alfo pearls, but neither large nor of a good water j
in confequence of which they fell at no great price.
They are produced by a fpecies of bivalve (hells. Se¬
veral large (hells, from the fi(h named bifler, are met
with upon ftones of ten or twelve tons weight along
the coaft. They are turned upon their faces and funk
into the ftones, as into a pafte, the (tone being raifed
all about them in fuch a manner as to cover the edge
of the (hell ; “ a proof (fays Mr Bruce) that this (tone
muft fome time lately have been foft or liquefied : for
had it been long ago, the fun and air would have worn
the furface of the (bell 5 but it feems perfedlly entire,
and is fet in that hard brown rock as the done of a
ring is in a golden chafing.”—The water in this ifland
is very good.
I he inhabitants of Fooftit are poor fifhermen of a
fwarthy colour ; g0*ng naked, excepting only a racr
about their waift. They have no bread but what they
procure in exchange for the fifli they catch. What
they barter in this manner is called feajan. But befides
this they catch another fpecies, which is flat, with a
long tail, and the (kin made ufe of for (bagretn, of
which the handles of knives and fwords are made.
1 here is a fmall town on the ifland, confiding of about
30 huts, built with faggots of bent grafs or fpartum,
fupported by a few (licks, and thatched with grafs of
the fame kind of which they are built.
FOOT, a part of the body of moft animals whereon
they (land, walk, &c. See Anatomy.
Foot, in the Latin and Greek poetry, a metre or
meafure, compofed of a certain number of-long and
ftiort fyllables.
Thefe feet are commonly reckoned 28 : of which
fome are Ample, as confiding of two or three fyllables,
and therefore called disyllabic or trify liable feet; others
are compound, confiding of four (yllables, and are
therefore called tetrafyliabic feet.
The diilyilabic feet are four in number, viz. the
pyrrichius, fpondeus, iambus, and trocheus. See
Pyrrhichius, &c.
The trifyllabic feet are eight in number, viz. the -
dadlylus, anapadlus, tribrachys, moloflus, amphibra¬
chys, amphimacer, bacchius, and antibacchius. See
Dactyl, &x.
The tetralyllabic are in number 16, viz. the pro-
celeufmatieus, difpondeus, choriambus, antifpallus, di¬
iambus, dichoreus, ionicus a majore, ionicus a minore,
epitritus primus, epitritus fecundus, epitritus tertius,
epitritus
Foo/Iit,
Foot.
F O O [ 795 ] F O O
Foot, epltrltus qimtus, paeon primus, paeon fecundus, paeon
Foote. tert_ius> and paeon quartus. See Proceleusmaticus,
&c.
Foot is alfo a long meafure confiding of 12 inches.
Geometricians divide thti foot into 10 digits, and the
digit into 10 lines.
FOQT-Ha/i, the name of a diforder peculiar to (heep.
It is occafioned by an infeft, which, when it comes to a
certain maturity, refembles a worm of two, three, or
four inches in length. See Farriery Index.
FOOT Square, is the fame meafure both in breadth
and length, containing 144 fquare or fuperficial
inches.
Cubic or Solid FOOT, is the fame meafure in all the
three dimenfions, length, breadth, and depth or thick-
nefs, containing 1728 cubic inches.
FOOT of a Horfe, in the manege, the extremity of
the leg, from the coronet to the lower part of the
hoof.
FOOT Level, among artificers, an inftrument that
ferves as a foot rule, a fquare, and a level. See Level,
Kule, and Square.
FOOTE, Samuel, Efq. the modern Ariftopha-
nes, was born at Truro, in Cornwall; and was defend¬
ed from a very ancient family. His father was member
of parliament for Tiverton, in Devonfhire, and enjoyed
the poft of commiffioner of the prize office and fine-
contraft. His mother was heirefs of the Dinely and
Goodere families. In confequence of a fatal mifunder-
ftanding between her two brothers, Sir John Dinely
Goodere, Eart. and Samuel Goodere, Efq. captain of
his majefty’s {hip the Ruby, which ended in the death
of both, a confiderable part of the Goodere eftate,
which was better than 5000I. per annum, defended to
Mr Foote.
He was educated at Worcefter college, Oxford,
which owed its foundation to Sir Thomas Cookes
Winford, Bart, a f cond coufin of our author’s. On
leaving the univerfity, he commenced ftudent of law in
the Temple ; but as the drynefs of this ftudy did not
fit the livelinefs of his genius, he foon relinquiflied it.
He married a young lady of a good family and f me
fortune ; but their tempers not agreeing, a perfeft
harmony did not long fubfifi: between them. He now
launched into all the faf ionable foibles of the age, gam¬
ing not excepted, and in a few years fpent his whole
fortune. His neceffities led him to the ftage, and he
made his firft appearance in the chara&er of Othello.
He next performed Fondlewife with much more ap-
plaufe ; and this, indeed, was ever after one of his ca¬
pital parts. He attempted Lord Foppington likevvife,
but prudently gave it up. But as Mr Foote was never
a capital acRor in the plays of others, his falary was
very unequal to his gay and extravagant turn j and he
contracted debts which forced him to take refuge with¬
in the verge of the court. On this occafion, he reliev¬
ed his neceffities by the following ftratagem. Sir
Fr s D 1—1 had long been his intimate friend, and
had diffipated his fortune by fimilar extravagance.
Lady N-ff-u P—let, who was likewife an intimate ac¬
quaintance of Foote’s, and who was exceedingly rich,
was fortunately at that time bent upon a matrimonial
fcheme. Foote ftrongly recemmended to her to con-
fit upon this momentous affair the conjurer in the Old
.Bailey, whom he reprefented as a man of f rprifing
{kill and penetration. He employed an acquaintance Foote,
of his own to perfonate the conjurer *, who depifted \—■
Sir Fr—s D—1—1 at full length $ defcribed the time
when, the place where, and the drefs in which {he
would fee him. The lady was fo {truck with the coin¬
cidence of every circumftance, that the married D—1—1
in a few days. For this fervice Sir Francis fettled an
annuity upon Foote j and this enabled him once more
to emerge from obfcurity. j
In 1747 he opened the little theatre in the Hay-
market, taking upon himfelf the double charafler of
author and performer 5 and appeared in a dramatic piece,
of his own compofing, called the Diverjions of the
Morning. This piece confided of nothing more than
the exhibition of feveral charafters well known in real
life j whofe manner of converfation and expreffion this
author very happily hit off in the diftion ot his drama,
and dill more happily reprefented on the ftage, by an
exadt and moft amazing imitation, not only of the man¬
ner and tone of voice, but even of the very perfons, of
thofe whom he intended to take off. In this perform¬
ance, a certain phyfician, Dr L—n, well known for
the oddity and Angularity of his appearance and con¬
verfation, and the celebrated Chevalier Taylor, who
was at that time in the height of his popularity, were
made objedls of Foote’s ridicule j the latter, indeed
very defervedly : and, in the concluding part of his
fpeech, under the charadler of a theatrical diredlor,
Mr Foote took off, with great humour and accuracy,
the feveral ftyles of adting of every principal performer
on the Englifti ftage. The performance at firft met
with fome oppofition from the civil magiftrates of
Weftminfter, under the fandtion of the adf of parlia¬
ment for limiting the number of playhoufes, as well
as from the jealoufy of one of the managers of Drury-
lane playhoufe : but the author being patronized by
many of the principal nobility, and other perfons of
diftindlion, this oppofition was overruled : and having
altered the title of his performance, Mr Foote proceed¬
ed, without further moleftation, to give Tea in a Morn¬
ing to his friends, and reprefented it through a run of
40 mornings to crowded and fplendid audiences.-—
The enfuing feafon he produced another piece of the
fame kind, which he called An JluBion ofPittures. In
this performance he introduced feveral new and popu¬
lar charadters; particularly Sir Thomas de Veil, then
the adting juftice of peace for Weftminfter, Mr Cock
the celebrated audlioneer, and the equally famous Ora¬
tor Henley. This piece alfo had a very great run.—.
His Knights, which was the produdtion of the enfuing
feafon, was a performance of fomewhat more dramatic
regularity : but ftill, although his plot and charadters
feemed lefs immediately perfonal, it was apparent that
he kept fome particular real perfons ftrongly in his eye
in the performance ; and the town took upon them-
felves to fix them where the refemblance appeared to
be the moft ftriking. Thus Mr Foote continued from
time to time to feledl, for the entertainment of the
public, fuch charadters, as well general as indivi¬
dual, as feemed moft likely to engage their attention.
His dramatic pieces, exclufive of the interlude called
Piety in Pattens, are as follows : Tafte, the Knights,
The Author, The Engliftiman in Paris, The Englilh-
man returned irom Paris, 1 he Mayor of Garrat, I he
Liar, The Patron, The Minor, The Orators, The
5 H 2 Commiffary,
/
4
FOG [ 796 ] FOR
Fuote. ‘Coftimiffary, The Devil upon Two Sticks, Tin Lame
Lover, The Maid of Bath, The Nabob, The Cozeners,
The Capuchin, The Bankrupt, and an unfinifhed co¬
medy called The Slanderer. All thefe works are only
to be ranked among the petites pieces of the theatre.
In the execution they are fomewhat loofe, negligent,
and unfinifhed •, the plots are often irregular, and the
cataftrophes not always conclufive : but, with all thefe
deficiencies, they contain more ftrength of chara&er,
more ftrokes of keen fatire, and more touches of tem¬
porary humour, than are to be found in the writings of
any other modern dramatift. Even the language fpo-
Len by his charafters, incorredl as it may fometimes
feem, will on a clofer examination be found entirely
dramatical 5 as it abounds with thofe natural minutiae
of expreflion which frequently form the very balls of
charatder, and which render it the truefi: mirror of the
converfation of the times in which he wrote.
In the year 1766, being on a party of pleafure with
the late duke of York, Lord Mexborough, and Sir
Francis Delaval, Mr Foote had the misfortune to
break his leg, by a fall from his horfe ; in conffquence
of which he was compelled to undergo an amputation.
This accident fo fenfibly affedted the duke, that he
made a point of obtaining for Mr Foote a patent for
life ; whereby he was allowed to perform, at the little
theatre in the Haymarket, from the ijlh of May to
the’ 15th of September every year.
He now became a greater favourite of the town
than ever : his very laughable pieces, with his more
laughable performance, conftantly filled his boufe ; and
his receipts were fome feafons almoft incredible. Par-
fimony was never a vice to be afcribed to Mr Foote •,
his hofpitality and generofity were ever confpicuous ; he
was vifited by the firft nobility, and he was fometimes
honoured even by royal guefts.
The attack made upon his charadfer by one of his
domeflics, whom he had difmiffed for mifbehaviour, is
too well known to be particularized here. Suffice it
to fay, he was honourably acquitted of that charge:
but it is believed by fome, that the fhock which he re¬
ceived from it accelerated his death j others pretend,
that his literary altercation with a certain then duchefs,
or rather her agents, much affedfed him, and that from
that time his health declined. It is probable, however,
that his natural volatility of fpirits could fcarcely fail
to fupport him againft all impreffions from either of
thefe quarters.
Mr Foote, finding his health decline, entered into
an agreement with Mr Colman, for his patent of the
theatre ; according to which, he was to receive from
Mr Colman, l6col. per annum, beftdes a ftipulated fum
■whenever he chofe to perform. Mr Foote made his
appearance two or three times in fome of the tnoft ad¬
mired charadlers; but being fuddenly affedled with a
paralytic firoke one night whilft upon the ftage, he
was compelled to retire. He was advifrd to bathe ;
and accordingly retired to Brighthelmftone, where he.
apparently recovered his former health and fpirits, and
■was what is called the fiddle of the company who refort-
ed to that agreeable place of amufement. A few weeks
before his death, he returned to London ; but, by the
advice of his phyficians, fet out with an intention to
fpeird the winter at Paris and in the fouth of France.
He had gdt no farther than Dover, when he was fud-
2
denly attacked by another ftroke of the palfy, which Foot*
in a few hours terminated his exiltence. He died on |! *
the 21 ft of OiRobef 1777, in the 56th year of his age, Force,
and was privately interred in the cloifters of Weftmin-
fter abbey.
„FOP, probably derived from the vappa of Horace,
applied in the firft fatire of his firft book to the wild
and extravagant Naevius, is ufed among us to denote %
perfon who cultivates a regard to adventitious ornament
and beauty to excefs.
FORAMEN, \n Anatomy, a name given to feveral
apertures or perforations in divers parts of the body ;
as, 1. J he external and internal foramina of the cra¬
nium or fkull. 2. The foramina in the upper and lower
jaw. 3. Foramen lachrymale. 4. Foramen membranse
tympani.
FOR AMEN Ovale, an oval aperture or paffage through
the heart of a foetus, which clofes up after birth. It
arifes from the coronal vein, near the right auricle, and
paffes dire&ly into the left auricle of the heart, ferving
lor the circulation of the blood in the foetus, till fuch
time as the infant breathes, and the lungs are open :
in this the foetus differs from the adult 5 although
almoft all anatomifts, Mr Chefelden excepted, affure
us, that the foramen ovale has fometimes been found in
adults. See Foetus.
FORBES, Duncan, Efq. of Culloden, lord prefi-
dent of the court ot feffion in Scotland, was born in
the year 1685. In his early life, he was brought up
in a family remarkable for hofpitality j which, perhaps,
led h im afterwards to a freer indulgence in focial plea-
fures. His natural difpofition incl.ned him to the ar¬
my : but, as he foon ciifcovered a fuperior genius, by
the advice of his friends he applied himfelf to letters.
He direffed his fludies particularly to the civil law ; in
which he made a quick progrefs, and in 1709 was ad¬
mitted an advocate. From 1722 to 1737, he rtpre-
fented in parliament the boroughs of Invernefs, Fortrofe,
Nairn, and Forres. In 1725, he was made king’s ad¬
vocate; and in 1737 lord prefidtnt of the court of feflion.
In the rebellions which broke out in Scotland in 1715
and 1745 beefpoufed the royal caufe ; but with fo much
prudence and moderation did he conduct himfilf at this
delicate conjundlure, that not a uhifper was at any time
heard to his prejudice. The glory he acquired in ad¬
vancing the profperity of his country, and in contribu¬
ting to re eftablifh peace and order, was the 01 ly reward
of his fervices. He had even impaired, and airroft ruin¬
ed, his private fortune in the caufe of the public : but
government did not make him the fmalleft recompenfe.
The minifter, with a meannefs for which it is difficult
to account, defired to have a ftate of his difburfements.
Shocked at the incivility and rudenefs of this treatment,
he left the minifter without making any reply. Through¬
out the whole courfe of his life he had a lively ftnfe of
religion, without the loaft taint of fuperftition ; and his
charity was extended to every fe£t and denomination of
religionifts indifcriminately. He was well verfed in the
Hebrew language ; and wrote in a flowing and orato-
rial ftyle, concerning religion natural and revealed,
fome important diicoveries in theology and philofophy,
and concerning the fources of incredulity. He died in
1747, in the 62d year of his age ; and his works have
fince been publilhed in two volumes odfavo.
FORCE, in Philojophy, denotes the caufe of the
change
FOR
[ 797 3
FOR
'Force, change in the ftate of a body, when, being at reft, it
——y——- begins to move, or has a motion which is either not
uniform or not direct. While a body remains in the
fame ftale, either of reft or of uniform and rectilinear
motion, the caufe of its remaining in fuch a ftate is in
the nature of the body, and it cannot be faid that any
extrinfic force has aCted on it. This internal caufe or
principle is called inertia.
Mechanical forces may be reduced to two forts : one
of a body at reft, the other of a body in motion.
The force of a body at reft, is that which we con¬
ceive to be in a body lying ftill on a table, or hanging
by a rope, or fupported by a fpring, &c. and this is
called by the names of prejfure, tenjion, force,, or vis
mortua, folicitatio, conatus movendi, conamen, &c. To
this clafs alfo of forces we muft refer centripetal and
centrifugal forces, though they refide in a body in mo¬
tion ; becaufe thefe forces are homogeneous to weights,
preffures, or tenfions of any kind.
The force of a body in motion is a power refiding
in that body fo long as it continues its motion $ by
means of which it is able to remove obftacles lying
in its way ; to leffen, deftroy, or overcome the force
of any other moving body which meets it in an oppo-
ftte direflion ; or to furmount any dead prelfure or re¬
finance, as tenfity, gravity, friCVion, &c. for fome timej
but which will be leffened or deftroyed by fuch re¬
finance as leffens or deftroys the motion of the bo¬
dy. This is called moving force, vis motrix, and by
fome late writers vis viva, to diftinguifh it from the
vis mortua fpoken of before ; and by thefe appellations,
however different, the fame thing is underftood by all
mathematicians; namely, that power of difplacing,
of withftanding oppofite moving forces, or of overcom¬
ing any dead refiftance, which refides in a moving
body, and which, in whole or in part, continues to
accompany it, fo long as the body moves. See Me¬
chanics.
We have feveral curious as well as ufeful obferva-
tions in Defaguliers’s Experimental Philolophy, con¬
cerning the comparative forces of men and horfes, and
the belt way of applying them. A horfe draws with
the greateft advantage when the line of direction is le¬
vel with his breaft j in fuch a fituation, he is able to
draw loolb. eight hours a-day, walking about two
miles and a half an hour. And if the fame horfe is
made to draw 2401b. he can work but fix hours a day,
and cannot go quite fo faft. On a carriage, indeed,
where fri&ion alone is to be overcome, a middling
horfe will draw looolb. But the beft way to try a
horfe’s force, is by making him draw up out of a well,
•over a fingle pulley or roller ; and, in fuel) a cafe, one
horfe with another will draw 200lb. as already ob¬
served.
Five men are found to be equal in ftrength to one
horfe, and can, with as much eafe, pufh round the ho-
fizontal beam of a mill, in a walk 40 feet wide j
whereas three men will do it in a walk only 19 feet
wide.
The worft way of applying the force cf a horfe, is
to make him carry or draw up bill ; for if the hill be
fieep, three men will do more than a horfe, each man
climbing up fatler with a burden of icolb. weight,
than a horfe that is loaded with 3001b.; a difference
which is owing to the pofition of the parts of the hu¬
man body being better adapted to climb than thofe of Force
a horfe. j]
On the other hand, the beft way of applying the Fjrcible‘
force of a horfe, is in a horizontal direction, wherein a ' J~l
man can exert leaft force j thus a man weighing 1401b.
and drawing « boat along by means of a rope coming
over his (boulders, cannot draw above 271b. or exert
above one-feventh part of the force of a horle employed
to the fame purpofe.
The very belt and moft effeflual pofture in a man,
is that of rowing, in which he not only ads with more
mufcles at once for overcoming the refiftance, than in
any other pofition; but as he pulls backward, the
weight of his body aflifts by tvay of lever. See Defa-
guliers, Exp. Phil. vol. i. p. 241. where we have feve¬
ral other obi'ervations relative to force acquired by cer¬
tain pofitions of the body, from which that author ac¬
counts for moft feats of ftrength and adivity. See alfo
a Memoire on this fubjed by M. de la Hire, in Mem.
Roy. Acad. Sc. 16295 or in Defaguliers, Exp. &c,
267, &c. w ho has publithed a tranflation of part of it,
with remarks.
Citizen Regnier has invented an inftrument for afeer-
taining the relative ftrength of men and animals, for an
account of which, fee Dynamometer 5 and for a fuller
defeription of the apparatus, the reader may confult the
original paper on the fubjed in Jour, de PEcole Foltj-
tech. vol. ii. or the tranflation in Phil. Mag. vol. i.
Force, in Law, fignifies any unlawful violence of¬
fered to things or perfons, and is divided into Ample
and compound. Simple force is what is fo committed,
that it has no other crime attending it ; as where a
perfon by force enters on another’s poffeflion, without
committing any other unlawful ad. Compound force,
is where fume other violence is committed, with fuch
an ad which of ilfelf alone is criminal 5 as if one en¬
ters by force into another’s houfe, and there kills a per¬
fon, or raviihes a woman. There is likewife a force
implied in law, as in every trefpafs, refeue, or diffei-
fin, and an adual force w ith weapons, number of per¬
fons, &c.—Any perfon may lawfully enter a tavern,
inn, or vidualling-houfe 5 fo may a landlord his te-.
nant’s houfe to view repairs, &c. But if, in thefe
cafes, the perfon that enters commits any violence or
force, the law will intend that he entered for that
purpofe.
FORCEPS, in Surgery, &c. a pair of feiffars for
cutting off, or dividing, the fielhy membranous parts of
the body, a* occafion requires. See Surgery.
1'ORCER, in Mechanics, is properly a pifton, with¬
out a valve. For by drawing up fuch a pifton, the air
is drawn up, and the water follows j then pufning the
pifton down again, the water, being prevented from de-
feending by the lower valve, is forced up to any height
above, by means of a fide branch between the two.
FORCIBLE ENTRY, is a violent and adual entry
into houfts or lands 5 and a forcible detainer, is where
one by violence withholds the poffeflion of lands, &<s.
fo that the perfon who has a right of entry is barred,
or hindered, thereform.
At common law, any perfon that had a right to en¬
ter into lands, &c. might retain poffflion of it by
force. But this liberty being abufed, to the breach
of the peace, it was therefore found neceffary that the
fame fhould be reftrained : Though, at this day, he
who
FOR [ 7,
Forcible, who is wrongfully difpoflefled of goods way by force
retake them. By ftatute no perfon {hall make an en¬
try on any lands or tenements, except where it is given
by law, and in a peaceable manner, even though they
have title of entry, on pain of iraprifonment; and where
a forcible entry is committed, juftices of the peace are
authorized to view the place, and inquire of the force
by a jury, fummoned by the fheriff of the county ; and
they may caufe the tenements, &c: to be reftored, and
imprifon the offenders till they pay a fine. Likewife a
writ of forcible entry lies, where a perfon feized of
freehold, is by force put out thereof.
FORCIBLE Marriage, of a woman of eftate, is felony.
For by the ftatute 3 H. VII. c. 2. it is enafted, “ That
if any perfons fhall take away any woman having lands
or goods, or that is heir-apparent to her anceftor, by
force and againft her will, and marry or dejile her; the
takers, procurers, abettors, and receivers, of the woman
taken away againft her will, and knowing the fame,
fhall be deemed principal felons; but as to procurers
and acceffories before the fad!, they are to be excluded
the benefit of clergy, by 39 Elizabeth, c. 9. The in¬
dictment on the ftatute Hen. VII. is exprefsly to fet
forth, that the woman taken away had lands or goods,
or was heir apparent; and alfo that fhe was married or
defiled, becaufe no other cafe is within the ftatute; and
it ought to allege that the taking was for lucre. It is
no excufe that the woman at firft was taken away with
her confent; for if fhe afterwards refufe to continue
with the offender, and be forced againft her will, {he
may from that time properly be faid to be taken againft
her will ; and it is not material whether a woman fo
taken away be at laft married or defiled with her own
confent or not, if {he was under force at the time ; the
offenders being in both cafes equally within the words
of the aft.
Thofe perfons who, after the faft, receive the of¬
fender, are but acceifories after the offence, according
to the rules of common law ; and thofe that are only
privy to the damage, but not parties to the forcible
taking away, are not within the aft H. P. C. 119.
A man may be indifted for taking away a woman by
force in another country ; for the continuing of the
force in any country, amounts to a forcible taking
there. Ibid. Taking away any woman child under
the age of 16 years and unmarried, out of the cuftedy
and without the confent of the father or guardian, &c.
the offender fhall fuffer fine and imprifonment ; and if
the woman agrees to any contraft of matrimony with
38 ] FOR
fucn perfon, flie foil 1 forfeit her cftate during life, to
the next of kin, to whom the inheritance (hould'de-
fcend, &c. flat. 4 & 5 P. & M. c. 8. This is a force
againft the parents ; and an information will lie for fe-
ducing a young man or woman from their parents, a-
gainft their confents, in order to marry them, &c. See
Marriage.
. FORCING, in Gardening, a method of producing
ripe fruits from trees before their natural feafon. See.
Gardening Index.
Forcing, in the wine trade, a term ufed by the wine
coopers, for the fining down w:ines, and rendering them
lit for immediate draught. I he principal inconvenience
of the common way of fining down the white wines
with ifinglafs, and the red with whites of eggs, is the
flownefs of the operation; thefe ingredients not per¬
forming their office in lefs than a week, or fometimes a
fortnight, according as the weather proves favourable,
cloudy or clear, windy or calm : this appears to be
matter of conftant obfervation. But the wine mer¬
chant frequently requires a method that fhall, with
certainty, make the wines fit for tafting in a few hours.
A method of this kind there is, but it is kept in a few
hands a valuable fecret. Perhaps it depends upon a
prudent ufe of a tart&rifed fpirit of wine, and the
common forcing, as occafion is, along with gypfum,
as the principal ; all which are to be well "ftirred
about in the wine, for half an hour before it is fuf-
fered to reft.
FORDOUN, John of, the father of Scottifti hif-
tory, flouriftied in the reign of Alexander III. to¬
wards the end of the 13th century. But of his life
there is nothing known with certainty, though there
was not a monaftery that pofleffed not copies of his
work. The firft five books of the hiftory which bears
his name were written by him: the reft were fabrica¬
ted from materials left by him, and from new collec¬
tions by different perfons. There is a manufcript in
vellum of Fordoun’s Hiftory, in the library of the uni-
verfity of Edinburgh.
FORDWICH, a town of Kent, called in Doomf-
day Book “the little borough of Fordwich,” is a mem¬
ber of the port of Sandwich, and was anciently incor¬
porated by the ftyle of the barons of the town of Ford¬
wich, but more lately by the name of the mayor,
jurats, and commonalty, who enjoy the fame privileges
as the cinque ports. This place is famous for excellent
trouts in its river Stour,
Forcible
If
F ordwich.
END OF THE EIGHTH VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vgl. VIIL
Part I.
Plate CjC. CCI. to face - - -• P^ge 10
CCII. - - - -122
CCIII.—CCVI. - 238
ccvn.—ccix. - - - 322
CCX. - - > “ 352
Part II.
CCXL—CCXVI. - - - 568
CCXVII. . . - - 628
ccxviir. . - - .674
ccxix. ccxx. - - 778
>