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Ctupclopartria Brttamitta:
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OR, A
DICTIONARY
i OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
3Illu0trateti tott!) nearly $iv imnDreO <2Bngtat)tngtf*
1 VOL. VII.
INDOCTI DISCANX; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.
EDINBURGH:
Printed at the Encyclopaedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH f
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
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Encyclopaedia Britannica.
GTE
Cryftals
II
Ctefiphon.
CRYSTALS, ia Chemiftry, falts or otlier matters
which aflume a regular form. See Chemistry
Index; and Crystallization.
CTESIAS, a native of Cnidos, who accompanied
Cyrus the fon of Darius in his expedition againft his
brother Artaxerxes ; by whom he was taken prifoner.
But curing Artaxerxes of a wound he received in the
battle, he became a great favourite at the court of
Perfin, where he continued praftiling phyfie for 17
years, and was employed in feveral negociations. He
wrote the Hiftory of Perfia in 23 books, and a Hi-
ftory of the Indies 5 but thefe works are now loft, and
all we have remaining of them is an abridgment com¬
piled by Photinus. 1 he moft judicious among the an¬
cients looked upon Ctefias as a fabulous writer \ yet
feveral of the ancient hiftorians and modern Chriftian
writers have adopted in part his chronology of the
Aflyrian kings.
C FESIBIUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, a-
bout I 20 years before Chrift. He was the firft who
invented the pump. He alfo invented a clepfydra, or
water-clock. This invention of meafuring time by
water was wonderful and ingenious. Water was let
drop upon wheels which it turned : the wheels com¬
municated their regular motion to a fmall wooden
image, which by a gradual rife pointed with a ftick to
the proper hours and minutes, -which were engraven on
a column near the machine. This ingenious invention
gave rife to many improvements ; and the modern
method of meafuring time with an hour-glafs is in
imitation of the clepfydra of Ctefibius.
CTESIPHON, a celebrated Greek arehiteft, who
gave the defigns of the famous temple of Ephefus,
and invented a machine for bringing thither the co¬
lumns to be ufed in that noble ftrubture. He ftourifh-
©d 544 BC.'
Ctesi?hon, in /Indent Geography, a large village,
or rather a fine city, of Chalonitis, the molt fouthern
province of Affyria. It was fituated on the left or
eaft fide of the Tigris, oppoftte to Seleueia on this fide j
and built by the Parthians, to rival Seleucia. Here
the kings of Parthia palled the winter ('Strabo); as
tli^y did the fummer at Ecbatana. .
Ctesiphon was alfo the name of feveral noted per-
fons of antiquity. 1. An Athenian, who adviled his
fellow citizens to crown publicly Demofthenes with a
golden crown for his probity and virtue. This was
op no fed by the orator AEfchlnes, the rival of De-
VOL. VII. Part I.
CUB
mofthenes, who accufed Ctefiphon of feditious views. Ctefipho*
Demofthenes undertook the defence of his friend, in I!
a celebrated oration ftill extant, and AEfchines was ba-, u ya‘ ,
nifiied. 2. A Greek architecl, who made the plan of
DianaL temple at Ephefus. 3. An elegiac poet,
whom King Attains fet over his poffeflions in AEolia.
4. A Greek hiftorian, who wrote a hiftory of Bce-
otia.
CUB, a bear’s whelp. Among hunters, a fox and
marten of the firft year are alfo called cubs. See
Ursus.
CUBA, a large and very important illand in the
Weft Indies, belonging to Spain. On the fouth-eaft
begins at 20. 20. N. Eat. teuches the tropic of Can¬
cer on the north, and extends from 74. to 85. 15. W.
Long. It lies 60 miles to the weft of Hifpaniola, 25
leagues north of Jamaica, 100 miles to the eaft of Ju-
catanj and as many to the fouth of Cape Florida ; and
commands the entrance of the gulfs both of Mexi¬
co and Florida, as alfo the Avindward paffages. By
this fituation it may be called the key of the Weft In¬
dies. It Avas difcovcred by Columbus in T492, who
gave it the name of Ferdinando, in honour of King
Ferdinand of Spain ; but it quickly after recovered its
ancient name of Cuba. The natives did not regard
Columbus with a \rery favourable eye at his landing ;
and the weather proving very tempeftuous, he foon *
left this ifiand, and failed to Hayti, noAv called Hifpa¬
niola, Aihere he Avas better received. The Spaniards,
however, foon became mafters of it. By the year
1511 it was totally conquered ; and in that time they
had deftroyed, according to their own accounts, feve¬
ral millions of people. But the poffeflion of Cuba was
far from anfwering the expectations of the Spanifii
adventurers, whofe avarice could be fatiated Avith
nothing but gold. Thefe monfters, finding that there
Avas gold upon the illand, concluded that it muft come
from mines; and therefore tortured the few inhabi¬
tants they had left, in order to extort from tl a dif-
covery of the places were thefe mines lay. ihe mi-
feries endured by thefe poor creatures were fuch that
they almoft unanimoufly refdlved to put an end to their
own lives ; but were prevented by one of the Spanilh’
tyrants called Vafco Povccllos. This Avretch threaten¬
ed to hang himfelf along Avith them, that he might
have the pleafure, as he faid, of tormenting them in
the next Avorkl worfe than he had done in this; and
fo much were they afraid of the Spaniards, that this
A threat
CUB [2
Cuba, threat diverted thefe poor favages from their defperate
1 _ refolution. In 1511, the town of Havannah was built,
now the principal place on the illand. The houfes
were at firft built only of wood j and the town itfelf
was for a long time fo inconliderable, that in 1536 it
wa# taken by a French pirate, who obliged the inha¬
bitants to pay yco ducats to lave it from being burnt.
The very day after the pirate’s departure, three Spa-
nifh Ihips arrived from Mexico, and having unloaded
their cargoes, failed in purfuit of the pirate Ihip. But
fuch was the cowardice of the officers, that the pirate
took all the three ffiips, and returning to the Havan¬
nah, obliged the inhabitants to pay 700 ducats more.
To prevent misfortunes of this kind, the inhabitants
built their houfes of Hone 5 and the place has fince
been Itrongly fortified. See Havannah.
According to the Abbe Raynal, the Spaniffi fettle-
ment at Cuba is very important, on three accounts j
j. The produce of the country, which is confiderable.
2. As being the ftaple of a great trade 5 and, 3. As
being the key to the Welt Indies. The principal pro¬
duce of this illand is cotton. This commodity, how¬
ever, through negleft, is now become fo fcarce, that
fometimes feveral years pafs without any of it being
brought into Europe. In place of cotton, coffee has
been cultivated ; but, by a limilar negligence, that is
produced in no great quantity •, the whole produce
not exceeding 30 or 35 thoufand weight, one-third of
which is exported to Vera Cruz, and the reft to Spain.
This cultivation of coffee naturally leads to that of
fugar ; and this, which is the moft valuable produc¬
tion of America, would of itfelf be fufficient to give
Cuba that ftate of profperity for which it feems de-
figned by nature. Although the furface of the illand
is in general uneven and mountainous, yet it has plains
fufficiently extenfive, and well enough watered, to fup-
ply the confumption of the greateft part of Europe
with fugar. The incredible fertility of its new lands,
if properly managed, w ould enable it to furpafs every
other nation, however they may have now got the
Hart of it : yet fueh is the indolence of the Spaniards,
that to this day they have but few plantations, where,,
with the fineft canes, they make but a fmall quantity
• of coarfe fugar at a great expence. This ferves partly
for the Mexican market, and partly for the mother-
country j while the indolent inhabitants are content
to import fugar for themfelves at the expence of near
220,cocl. annually. It has been expedted with pro¬
bability, that the tobacco imported from Cuba w ould
compenfate this lofs; for after furnilhing Mexico and
Peru, there was fufficient, with the little brought from
Caracca and Buenos Ayres, to fupply all Spain. But
this trade too has declined through the negligence of
the court of Madrid, in not gratifying the general
tafte for tobacco from the Havannah. The Spaniffi
colonies have an univerfal trade in fkins ; and Cuba
iiipplies ymually about 10 or 12 thoufand. The num¬
ber might eaftly be increafed in a country abounding
with wild cattle, where feme gentlemen poffefs large
trafts of ground, that for want of population can
fcarce be applied to any other purpofe than that of
breeding cattle. The hundredth part of this Bland is
not yet cleared. The true plantations are all confined
to the beautiful plains of the Havannah, and even thofe
are not what they might be. AH thefe plantations
] CUB
together may employ about 25,000 male and female Cuba
flaves. The number of whites, meftees, mulattoes, l!
and free negroes, upon the whole ifland, amounts to ,<"u^c'!(‘cr~j
about 30,000. The food of thefe different fpecies con-
fifts of excellent pork, very bad beef, and caffava
bread. The colony would be more flourilhing, if its
produdlions had not been made the property of a com¬
pany, whofe exclufive privilege operates as a conftant
and invariable principle of difcouragement. If any
thing could lupply the want of an open trade, and a-
tone for the grievances occafioned by this monopoly at
Cuba, it would be the advantage which this illand has
for fuch a long time enjoyed, in being the rendezvous
of almoft all the Spaniih veffels that fail to the new
world. This praftice commenced almoft with the
colony itfelf. Ponce de Leon, having made an at¬
tempt upon Florida in 1512, became acquainted with-
the new canal of Bahama. It was immediately dif-
covered that this was the belt route the fhips bound
from Mexico to Europe could poffibly take $ and to
this the wealth of the ifland is principally, if not alto¬
gether, owing.
CUBE, in Geometry, a folid body conflfting of fix
equal fides. See Geometry.
CURE Root of ami Number or Quantity, is fuch a num¬
ber or quantity, which, if multiplied into itfelf, and
then again the produft thence arifing by that number
or quantity, being the cube-root, this laft product ftiall
be equal to the number or quantity whereof it is the
cube-root 5 as 2 is the cube-root of 8 ; becaufe two
times two is /j, and two times 4 is 8 ; ?.x\& a-\-b is the
cube-root of a* -{-7, a a b fo, a b b See Algebra.
CUBEBS, in the Materia Medico, a fmall dried fruit
j'efembling a grain of pepper, but often fomewhut
longer, brought into Europe from the ifland of Java.
In aromatic warmth and pungency, they are far infe¬
rior to pepper.
CUBIC equation. See Algebra.
CUBIDIA, a genus of fpars. The word is derived
from xi/Sof, “ a die f” and is given them from their be¬
ing of the lhape of a common die, or of a cubic figure.
Thefe bodies owe this thape to an admixture of lead,
and there are only two known fpecies of the genus.
I. A eolourlefs cryftalline one, with, thin flakee, found
in the lead-mines of Yorklhire, and feme other parts-
of the kingdom ; and, 2. A milky white one with
thicker crufts. This is found in the lead-mines of
Derbylhire and Yorklhire, but is ufually fmall, and is
not found plentifully.
CUBIT, in the menfuratien of the ancients, a long
meafure, equal to the length of a man’s arm, from the
elbow to the tip of the fingers..
Dr Arbuthnot makes the Englilh cubit equal to 18
inches •, the Roman cubit equal to 1 foot 5.406 inches ;
and the cubit of the Scripture equal to 1 foot 0.888
inches.
CUBITiEUS muscles, the name of tw^o mufcies
of the hand. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufclcs.
CUBI I US, in Anatomy, a bone of the arm, reach¬
ing from the elbow to the wrift ; otherwife called ulna,
or the greater fojfle. Some ufe the word for all that
part of the arm between the elbow and the w-rift ; in¬
cluding the ulna or cubitus, properly fo called, and the
radius.
CUBQIDES, or Os CUBIFORME, in Anatomy, the
feventh
CuCirt:!3
GUC [
Caboides feventh bone of the foot fo called from its being in
!! . form of a cube or die.
c“rr>iS'. CUCKING-stool, an engine invented for punilb-
ing fcolds and unquiet women, by ducking them in
water j -called in ancient times a tumbrel, and fome-
times a trebuchet. In Domefday, it is called cathedra
Jlercoris; and it was in ufe even in the Saxon times,
by whom it was deferibed to be cathedra in qua rix-
ofee tmiheres fedentes aquis deme^gebantur. It was an¬
ciently alfo a punithment inflifted upon brewers and
bakers tranfgreiling the laws j who were thereupon
in fuch a {tool immetged over head and ears injlercore,
fome {linking water, Some think it a corruption
from ducking-Jlool; others from choaking-Jlool, quia hoc
Tiiodo demerfee aquis fere fujfocantur. See Castiga-
TORY.
CUCKOW. See Cuculus, Ornithology Index.
CUCKOW-Spit, the fame with froth-fpit. See Froth-
Spit, and Cicada.
CUCUBALUS, Berry-bearing Chick-weed,
a genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs \ and
in the natural method ranking under the 22d order,
Caryophyllei. See BoTany Index.
CUCULUS, the CuckoW, a genus of birds belong¬
ing to the order of pie*. See Ornithology Index.
CUCUMBER. See Cucumis, Botany Index,
CUCUMIS, the Cucumber : a genus of plants be¬
longing to the moijcecia clafs j and in the natural
method ranking under the 54th order, Cucurbit ace a.
See Botany Index.
Four varieties of the cucumis fativus are chiefly cul¬
tivated in this country. They are raifed at three dif¬
ferent feafons of the year : 1. on hot-beds, for early
fruit j 2. under bell or hand-glaffes, for the middle
crop j 3. on the common ground, which is for a late
crop, or to pickle. The cucumbers which are ripe
before April are unwholefome j being raifed wholly
by the heat of the dung without the afliftance of the
fun, Thofe raifed in April are good, and are raifed
in the following manner.
Towards the latter end of January, a quantity of
frelh horfe-dung muft be procured with the litter
among it j and a fmall proportion of fea-coal allies
fliould be added to it. In four or five days the dung
will begin to heat; at which time a little of it may
be drawn flat on the outfide, and covered with two
inches thicknefs of good earth : this niuft be covered
with a bell glafs; and after two days, when the earth
is warm, the feeds muft be fown on it, covered with
a quarter of an inch of frefti earth, and the glafs then
fet On again. The glafs muft be covered with a mat
at night, and in four days the young plants will ap¬
pear. When thefe are feen, the reft of the dung muft
be made up into a bed for one or more lights. This
muft be three feet thick, beat clofe together, and co¬
vered three inches deep with fine frefh earth; the
frame muft then be put on, and covered at night, or
in bad weather, with mats. When the earth is hot
enough, the young plants from under the bell muft be
removed into it, and fet twm inches diftant. The
glaifes muft be now and then a little raifed, to give
nir to the plants, and turned often, to prevent the
wet from the fteam of the dung from dropping dowm
upon them. The plants muft be watered at proper
times: and the water ufed for this purpofe muft be
i ] CUC
fet on the dung till it becomes as vrarm as the air in
the frame : and as the young plants increafe in bulk, ^
they muft be earthed up, which wall give them great ^
additional ftrength. If the bed is not hot enough,
fome frefli litter ftiould be laid round its fides : and if
too hot, fome holes (hould be bored into feveral parts
of it with a ftake, which will let out the heat 5 and
when the bed is thus brought to a proper coolnefs, the
holes are to be ftopped up again with frelh dung.
When thefe plants begin to (hoot their third or rough
leaf, another bed muft be prepared for them like the
firit; and when it is properly warm through the earth,
the plants of the other bed muft be taken up, and
planted in this, in which there muft be a hole in the
middle of each light, about a foot deep, and nine
inches over, filled with light and fine frefti earth laid
hollow in form of a baton : in each of thefe holes there
muft be fet four plants: thefe rauft be, for two or
th ree days, {haded from the fun, that they may take
firm root: after which they muft have all the fun
they can, and now and then a little frefli air, as the
■weather will permit. When the plants are four or
five inches high, they muft be gently pegged down
towards the earth, in directions as different from one
another as may be; and the branches afterwards pro¬
duced ftiould be treated in the fame manner. In a
month after this the flowers will appear, and foon af¬
ter the rudiments of the fruit. The glaffes fliould
nowr be carefully covered at night *, and in the day¬
time the whole plants ftiould be gently fprinkled with
water. Thefe will produce fruit till about midfum-
mer; at which time the fecond crop will come in to
fupply their place j thefe are to be raifed in the fame
manner as the early crop, only they do not require fo
much care and trouble. This fecond crop {hould be
fown in the end of March or beginning of Aprils
The feafon for fowing the cucumbers of the laft crop,
and for pickling, is towards the latter end of May,
when the weather is fettled : thefe are fown in holes
dug to a little depth, and filled up with fine earth, fo
as to be left in the form of a bafon 3 eight or nine feeds
being put into one hole. Thefe will code up in five
or fix days; and till they are a week old, are in great
danger from the fparrow's. After this they require
only to be kept clear of weeds, and w atered now and
then. There Humid be only five plants left at firft in
each hole; and when they are grown a little farther
up, the worft of thefe is to be pulled up, that there may
finally remain only four. The plants of this crop w ill
begin to produce fruit in July.
CUCURBIT, the name of a chemical veffel em¬
ployed in diftillatidn, when covered with its head. Its
name comes from its elongated form in ftiape of a
gourd: fome cucurbits, however, are {hallow and
wide-mouthed. They are made of copper, tin, glafs,
and ftone ware, according to the nature of the fub-
ftances to be diftilled. A cucurbit, provided with its
capital, conftitutes the vefibl for diftillation called an
alembic.
CUCURBITA, the Gourd, and Pompion ; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the monoecia clafs j and
in the natural method ranking under the 34th order,
Cucurbitaceae. See Botany Index.
All the fpecies of gourds and pompions, with their
refpeftive varieties, are raifed from feed fown anually
A 2 in
Guar hits.
u
Cuadalore.
C U JD [! 4
in April hr the beginning of M-ay, either vdtli ar with¬
out the help of artificial heats- But the plants forward¬
ed in a hot bed till about n month old, produce fruit
a month or fix weeks earlier on. that account, axd
ripen proportionably focner. The firft fpecies particu¬
larly will fcarce ever produce tolerably fixed fruit in
this country,, without the treatment above mentioned.
In this country thefe plants are cultivated only for
curiofity •, but in the places where they are natives,
they anfwer many important purpofes. In both the
Indies, bottle-gourds are very commonly cultivated
and-fold in the markets. They make the principal
food of the common people, particularly in the warm
months' of June, July, land Auguft. The Arabians
call this kind of gourd charra/i. It grows commonly
on the mountains in their deierts. The natives boil
and feafon it with vinegar ; and fometimes, filling the
thell with rice and meat, make a kind of pudding of
it. The hard fliell is ufe* for holding water, and fome
of them are capacious enough to contain 22 gallons •,
thefe, however, are very uncommon. The fruit of
the pompion likewife conititute? a great part of the
food of the common people during the hot months, in
thofe places where they grow. If gathered when not
much bigger than a hen or goofe egg, and properly
feafoned with butter, vinegar, &c. they make a toler¬
able good fauce for butcher’s meat, and are alfo ufed
in foups. In England they are feldpm ufed till grown
to maturity. A hole is then made in one fide, through
which the pulp is feooped out; after being divefted
of the feeds, it is mixed with diced apples, milk,
fugar, and grated nutmeg, and thus a kind of pud¬
ding is made. The whole is then baked in the oven,
and goes by the name of a pumpkin pije. For this pur-
pofe the plants are cultivated in many places in Eng¬
land by the country people, who raile them upon old
dung-hills. The third fpecies is alfo ufed in North
America for culinary purpofes. The fruit is gathered
when about half grown, boiled and eaten as fauce to
butcher’s meat. The fqualhes are alfo treated in the
fame manner, and by fome people eiteemed delicate
eating.
CUCURBITACEAi, the name of the 34th order
in Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method, confiding
of plants which referable the gourd in external figure,
habit, virtues, and fenfible qualities. This order con¬
tains the following genera, viz. gronovia, melothria,
paffiflora, anguria, bryonia, cucumis, cucurbita, fevil-
lea, momordica, ficyos, trichofanthes.
CUCORUCU, in Zvology7 the name of a ferpent
found in America, growing 10 or 12 feet long. It is
alfo .very thick in proportion to its length, and is of a
yellowiih colour, ftrongly variegated with black fpots,
which are irregularly mixed among the yellow, and
often have fpots of yellow within them. It is a very
poifonous fpecies, and greatly dreaded by the natives ;
but its defh is a very rich food, and much efteemed
among them, when prope^y prepared.
CUD, fometimes means the infide of the throat in
beads •, but generally the food that they keep there,
and chew over again. See Anatomy Index.
CUDDALORE, a town on the coad of Coro¬
mandel in India* belonging to the Englilh, very near
the place where Fort St David once flood, N. Lat, II.
-
c u :>
30. E. Lang. 79" 53* This place was re'dufced by Ctfddalore.
the French in the year 1781 ; and in 1783 underwent —""v
a fevere fi'cge by the Britilh forces commanded by Ge¬
neral Stuart. At tips time it was become the prin¬
cipal place of arms held by the enemy on that coad: <
they had exerted themfelves to the utmod in fortify*
ing it} and it was garrifoned by a numerous body of
the. bed forces of France, well provided with artil¬
lery, and every thing, neceffary for making a vigorous
defence.
Previous to the commencement of the fiege, they
had condrufted drong lines of defence all along the
jort, excepting one place where the town was covered
by a wood, fuppofed to be inacceflible. Through this
wood, however, General Stuart began to cut his way ;
on which the befieged began to draw a line of fortifi¬
cation within that alfo. The Britifo commander then
determined to attack thefe fortifications before they
were quite completed ; and for this purpofe a vigor:.
attack was made by the troops under General Bruce.
The grenadiers aflailed a redoubt which greatly an¬
noyed them, but were obliged to retire *, on which the
whole army advanced to the attack of the lines.. The
French defended themfelves with refolution j and as
both parties charged each other with fixed bayonets,
a dreadful daughter enfued. At laid the Britilh were
obliged to retreat; but the French having imprudent¬
ly come out of their lines to purfue them, were in
their turn defeated, and obliged to give up the linea
they had conftru&ed with fo much pains, and fo gal¬
lantly defended. The lofs on the part of the Britilh
amounted to near 1000 killed and wounded, one halt
of whom were Europeans } and that of the French was
not lels than 600.
Though the Britilh proved vidforious/in this con-
teft, yet the viflory colt fo dear that there was not
now a fufficient number to carry on the fiege with
any effe£L The troops alfo became fickly j and their
ftrength diminilhed fo much, that the befieged formed
a defign of not only obliging them to Vaife the fiege,
•but of totally deftroying them. For this purpofe
4000 men were landed from the fquadron command¬
ed by M. Suffrein 5 and the conduct of the enterprife
committed to the Chevalier de Damas, an experienced
and valiant officer. On the 25th of June 1783, he fal-
lied out at the head of the regiment of Aquitaine, fup¬
pofed to be one of the belt In the French fervice, and
of which he was colonel 5 with other troops feledfed
from the bravefl of the garrifon. The attack was
made by day-break -, but though the Britilh were at
firft put into fome diforder, they quickly recovered
themlelves, and not only repulfed the enemy, but pur¬
ified them fo warmly, that the Chevalier de Damas
himfelf was killed with about 200 of his countrymen,
and as many taken prifoners.
, This engagement was attended with one of the
moft remarkable circumftances that happened during
the whole war, viz. a corps of fepoy grenadiers en¬
countering the French troops oppofed to them with
fixed bayonets, and overcoming them. This extraor¬
dinary bravery was not only noticed with due applaufe,
but procured for that corps a provifion for themfelves
and families from the prelidencies to which they be¬
longed, No other operation of any confequence took
place
C U D [
CeJctdore plade daring the fiege, which was how Toon ended by
li , the news of peace having taken place between the bel-
(Aidvvorti). }-gerent p0Wers of Europe.
'r~W ^CUDDY, in a firft rate man of war, is a place lying
between the captain-lieutenant’s cabin and the quarter¬
deck ; and divided into partitions for the mailer and
other officers. It denotes alfo a kind of cabin near the
item of a lighter or barge of burden.
CUDWEED. See Gnaphalium, Botany Lr*
dex.
CUDWORTH, Ralph, a very learned divine of
the church of England in the 17th, century. In Janu¬
ary 1657, he was one of the perfons nominated by a
committee of the parliament to be confulted about the
Engliih tranfiation of the bible. In 1678 he publilhed
his True Intelle<5tual Syftem of the Univerfe 5 a work
.which met with great oppofition. He likewife publilh¬
ed a treatife, entitled, Deus jujlijicatus : or, “ The di¬
vine goodnefs of God vindicated, againft the aEertions
of abfolute and unconditionate reprobation.” He em¬
braced the mechanical or corpufcular philofophy : but
with regard to the Deity, fpirits, genii, and ideas, he
followed the Platonifts. He died at Cambridge in
1688. The editor of the new edition of the Biogra-
phia Britannica obferv.es, that it is not eafy to meet
with a greater ftorehoufe of ancient literature than
the “ Intellectual Syftem and various' writers, we ■
believe, have been indebted to it for an appearance of
learning which they might not otherwife have been
able to maintain. That Dr Cudworth was fanciful in
fome of his opinions, and that he was too devoted a
follower of Plato and the Platonifts, will fcarcely be
denied even by thofe who are moft fenfible of his gene¬
ral merit/ The reflections that have been caft upon fuch
a man as the author, by bigotted writers, are altogether
contemptible. It is the lot of dzftinguilhed merit to
be thus treated. Lord Shaftelbury, fpeaking on this
fubjeCt, has given an honourable teftimony to the me¬
mory of Dr Cudworth. “ You know (fays his lord-
ftiip) the common fate of thofe who dare to appear
fair authors. What was that pious and learned man’s
cafe, who wrote the Intellectual Syftem of the Uni¬
verfe ! I confefs it was pleafant enough to confider,
that though the whole world were no lefs fatisfied with
his capacity and learning, than with his fincerity in
the caufe of Deity ; yet he was accufed of giving
the upper hand to the atheifts, for having only ftated
their reafons, and thofe of their adverfaries, fairly to¬
gether.”
It is ohferved by Dr Birch, that Dr Cudworth,'S
Intellectual Syftem of the Univerfe has railed him a
reputation, to which nothing can add but the publi¬
cation of his other writings ftill extant in manufeript.
That thefe writings are very valuable cannot be doubt¬
ed. We may be affured that they difplay a great
compafs of fentiment and a great extent of learning.
Neverthelefs, from their voluminous quantity, from
the abftrufenefs of the fubjeCts they treat upon, and
from the revolutions of literary tafte and opinion, it
is morally certain that the publication of them would
not be fuccefsful in the prefent age. Mr Cud worth’s
daughter Damaris, who married Sir Francis Malham
of Oates in Effex, was a lady of genius and learning :
fhe had a great friendIhip for Mr Locke, who refided
5 1 C U F
feveral'years at her houfe at Oates, where tie died ui
J7°4.
CUE, an item or inuendo, given to the actors on the
ftage what or when to fpeak. See Prompyek.
CUENZA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, and
in the territory of the Sierra, with a bifhop’s fee. It
was taken by Lord'Peterborough in 1706, but reta¬
ken by the duke of Berwick. It is feated on the river
Xucar, in V/. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat, 40; 10.
CUERENHER1', Theodore Van, a very extra-'
ordinary perfon, was a native of Arfcfterdam, where-
he was born in 1552. It appears, that early in liter
he travelled into Spain and Portugal \ but the motives
of his journey are not afeertained. He was a man of
fcience, and according to report, a good poet. The
filter arts at firft he eonlidered as an amufoment only \
but in the end he was, it feems, obliged to have re- -
courfe to engraving alone for his fupport. And though
the different ftudies in which he employed his time
prevented his attachment to his profeffion being U*
clofe as it ought to have beeir, yet at leaft the marks
of genius are difcoverable in his works. They aro
flight, and haftily executed with the graver alone j but
in an open carelefs ftyle, fo as greatly to refemble de-
figns made with a pen. He was eftablilhed at Haer-
lem) and there purluing his favourite ftudies in litera¬
ture, he learned Latin, and was made fecretary to that
town, from whence he was fent feveral times as am-
baffador to the prince of Orange, to whom he addref-
fed a famous manifefto, which that prince publiihed
in 1566. Had he flopped here, it had been well -,
but directing his thoughts into a different channel, he
undertook an argument as dangerous as it Avas ablurd.
Pie maintained that, all religious communions were
corrupted ; and that, without a fupernatural miflion,
accompanied with miracles, no perfon had a right to
adminifter in any religious ■ office : he therefore pro¬
nounced that man to be unworthy the name ot a
Chriftian who would enter any place of public wor-
Ihip. This he not only advanced in words, but ftrove
to ihow the fincerity of-his belief by praCtice $ and for
that reafon would not communicate with either Pfo-
teftant or Papift. His works were publiftied in three
volumes folio in 1630 ; and though he was feveral
times imprifoned* and at laft fentenced to banilhment,
yet he does not appear to have altered his fentrments.
He died at Dergoude in 1590, aged 68 years. It is
no fmall addition to the honour of this lingular man,
that he was the inftruCtor of that juflly celebrated artift
Henry Goltzius. Cuerenhert worked jointly with the
Galles and other artifts, from the defigns of Martin
Hemlkerck. The fubjeCts are from the Old and New
Teftament, and confift chiefly of middling-fized plates
lengthwife. He alfo engraved feveral lubjeCts from
Franc. Floris.
CUERPO. Tonw/k in cuerpOy is a Spanilh phrafe
for going without a cloak j or without all the formali¬
ties of a full drefs.
CUFF, Henry, the unfortunate fectetary of the
unfortunate earl of Effex, was born at Hinton St
George in Somerfetlhire, about the year 1560, of a
genteel family, who were pofieffed of conliderable e~
Rates in that- county. In 1576, he was entered 01
Trinity college Oxford, where he foon acquired con-
fiderable
Cudwdhh
I!
Cuff,
C U I [
'Guff Merable reputation as a Grecian and difputant. He
Cuirafs. obtaIued a fellott'ihip in the above-mentioned college ;
but was afterwards expelled for fpeaking difrefpedt-
fully of the founder'(a). He was, however, foon
after admitted of Merton college j of which, in 1586,
he was elected probationer, and in 1588 fellow. In
this year he took the degree of matter of arts. Some
time after he was elected Greek profefior, and in I ^4
pro&or of the univerfity. When he left Oxford is
uncertain ; nor are we better informed as to the means
of his introduction to the earl of Etfex. When that
nobleman was made lord lieutenant of Ireland, Mr
Cuff was appointed his fecretary, and continued inti¬
mately connected with his lordlhip until his confine¬
ment in the tower; and he is generally fuppofed to
have advifed thofe violent meafures which ended in
their mutual deitruCtion. The earl indeed confeffed
as much before his execution, and charged him to his
face with being the author of all his misfortunes. Mr
•Cuff was tried for high-treafon, convicted, and execut¬
ed at Tyburn on the 30th of March 1601. Lord Ba¬
con, Sir Henry Wotton, and Camden, fpeak of him in
very harfh terms. He was certainly a man of learning
.and abilities. He wrote two books ; the one entitled.
The Differences of the Ages of Man’s Life ; the other,
Be Rebus Gejlis in SanSio Concilio Nicarw. The -firff
was publilhed after his death 3 the fecond is Hill in ma-
nufeript.
CU.TAS, James, in Latin Cujacius, the bell civi¬
lian of.his time, was born at Touloufe, of obfeure pa¬
rents, in 1520. He learned polite literature and hi-
itory 3 and acquired great knowledge in the ancient
laws, which he taught with extraordinary reputation
at .Touloufe, Gabors, Boufges, and Valence in Dau-
phine. Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, invited
him to Turin, and gave him fingiilar marks of his e-
iteem. Cujas afterwards refufed very advantageous
offers from Pope Gregory XIII. who was defirous of
having him teach at Bologna 3 but he chofe rather to
fix at Bourges, where he had a prodigious number of
fcholars 5 whom he not only took great pleafure in in-
ftrufting, but affifted with his fubilance, which occa-
fioned his being called the Rather of his Scholars. He
-died at Bourges in 1590, aged 70. His works are in
high efteem among civilians.
CUJ AVI A, a territory of Great Poland, having on
the north the duchy of Pruflia, on the weft the palati¬
nate of Kalilk, and on the fouth thofe of Licici and Ra-
va, and on the weft that of Ploczko. It contains two
palatinates, the chief towns of which are Inowloez
and Breft 3 as alfo Uladiftaw, the capital of the dif-
trift.
CUIRASS, a piece of defenfive armour, made of
iron plate, well hammered, ferving to cover the body,
from the neck to the girdle, both before and behind.
Some derive the word, by corruption, from the Italian
6 ] CUE
cuore, u heart 3” bccaufe it covers that part: others CuirtA
from the French cuir, or the Latin coriwn, “ leather 3” II
whence coriaceous ; becaufe defenfive arms were origi- , Cld!’'Ve-
nally made of leather. The cuirafs was not brought 'r*~*
into ufe till about the year 1300, though they were
known both to the ancient Greeks and Romans in dif¬
ferent forms.
CUIRASSIERS, cavalry armed with cuirafles, as
moft of the Germans are : The French have a regiment
of cuirafliers 5 but we have had none in the Britifh ar¬
my fince the revolution.
CULDEE, in church-hiftory, a fort of monkifti
priefts formerly inhabiting Scotland and Ireland. Be¬
ing remarkable for the religious exercifes of preaching
and praying, they were called, by way of eminence,
cultores Dei; from whence is derived the word culdees.
They made choice of one of their own fraternity to be
their fpiritual head, who was afterwards called the SVc./r
bijhof).
CULEMB ACH,a diftridt or marquifateof the circle
of‘Franconia, in‘Germany. It is bounded on the weft
by the biftiopric of Bamberg 3 on the fouth by the ter¬
ritory of Nuremberg 3 on the eaft by the palatinate of
Bavaria and Bohemia 3 and on the north by Voegt-
land and part of the circle of Upper Saxony. It is
about 50 miles in length from north to fouth, and 30
in. breadth from eaft to weft. It is full of forefts and
high mountains *, the moft confiderable of the latter are
thofe of Frichtelberg, all of them covered with pine-
trees. Here are the fources of four large rivers, the
Maine, .the Sala, the Eger, and the Nab. This mar-
quifate is the upper part of the burgraviate of Nurem¬
berg.
Culembach, a town of Germany, in Franconia,
the capital of the marquifate of the fame name. It has
good fortifications, and is feated at the confluence of
two branches of the river Maine. It was pillaged
and burnt by the Huffites in 1430, and by the inhabi¬
tants of Nuremberg in J573. E. Long. 11. 28. N-
Lat. 50. 12.
CULEUS, in Roman antiquity, the largeft mea-
fure of capacity for things liquid, containing 20
amphorae, or 40 urnae. It contained 143 gallons
3 pints, Englifti wine-meafure, and was 11,003 folid
inches.
CULEX, the Gnat 3 a genus of infe&s belonging
to the order of diptera. See Entomology Index. °
CULIACAN, a province of North America, m
the audience of Guadalajara. It is bounded on the
north by New Mexico, on the eaft by New Bifcay and
the Zacatecas, on the fouth by Chiametlan, and on the
weft by the fea. It is a fruitful country, and has rich
mines.
CULLIAGE, a barbarous and immoral pra&ice,
whereby the lords of manors anciently affumed a right
to the firft night of their vaffals brides.
CULLEN,
(a) The founder of Trinity college was Sir Thomas Pope, who, it feems, would often take a piece of plate
from a friend shoufe, and carry it home concealed under his gown, out of fun, no doubt. Cuff, being- merry
with feme of his acquaintance at another college, happened to fay, alluding to Sir Thomas Pope’s ufual ioke above
mentioned, A pox on this beggarly houfe ! why, our founder ftole as much plate as would build fuch another ”
1 his piece of wit was the caufe of his ex pulfion. The heads of colleges in thofe days did not underftand humour.
Anthony Wood was told this ftory by Dr Bathurft, s
7
C U L [7
' Cullen. CULLEN, a borough town in the county of Banff
' in Scotland. It is fituated on the fea-coaft. W. Long.
2. 12. N. Lat. 57. 38. The manufacture of linen
and damalk has been eftablilhed in this town for more
than 50 years.
Cullen, Dr William, an eminent phyfician and
diftinguiihed medical teacher, was born in Lanarklhire,
in the weft of Scotland, llth December, 1712. His
father was for fome time chief magiftrate of the town of
Hamilton ; but though a very refpeCtable man, his
eireumftances were not fuch as to permit him to lay out
much money on the education of his fon. William there¬
fore, after ferving an apprenticeftiip to a furgeon apothe¬
cary in Glafgow, went feveral voyages to the Weft In¬
dies as a furgeon in a trading veffel from London : but
of this employment he tired, and fettled himfelf, at an
early period of life, as a country furgeon in the parilh
of Shotts, where he ftaid a fhort time praftifmg a-
mong the farmers and country people, and then went
to Hamilton with a view to praCtife as a phyiician, hav¬
ing never been fond of operating as a furgeon.
While he refided near ShottSj. it chanced that Archi¬
bald duke of Argyle, who at that time bore the chief
political fway in Scotland, made a viftt to a gentleman
of rank in that neighbourhood. The duke was fond
of literary purfuits, and was then particularly engaged
in fome chemical refearches, which required to be elu¬
cidated by experiment. Eager in thefe purfuits, his
grace, -while on his vifit, found himfelf much at a lofs
for the want of fome fmall chemical apparatus, which
his landlord could not furniib : but happily recollecting
young Cullen in the neighbourhood, he mentioned him
to the duke as a perfon who could probably furnilh it.
*—He was accordingly invited to dine \ was introduced
to his grace,—who was fo much pleafed with his know¬
ledge, his politenefs and addrefs, that he formed an ac¬
quaintance which laid the foundation of all Dr Cul¬
len’s future advancement.
The name of Cullen by this time became familiar at
every table in that neighbourhood j and thus he came
to be known, by character, to the duke of Hamilton,
who then redded, for a ftiort time, in that part of the
country : and that nobleman having been fuddenly ta¬
ken ill, .the afiiftanee of young Cullen was called in j
which proved a fortunate circumftance in ferving to
promote his advancement to a ftation in life more
fuited to his talents than that in which he had hitherto
moved.
The duke was highly delighted with the fpright-
ly eharafter and ingenious eonverfation of his new
acquaintance. Receiving inftruction from him in
a much more pleafing, and an infinitely eafier way
than he had ever before obtained, the converfation
of Cullen proved highly interetting to his grace.
—-No wonder then that he foon found means to get
his favourite doctor, who was already the efteemed
acquaintance of the man through whole hands all pre¬
ferments in Scotland were obliged to pais, appointed
to a place in the univerfity of Glafgow, where his fin-
' gular talents for difeharging the duties of the ftation he
now occupied foon became very confpicuous.
During his refidence in the country, however, feve¬
ral important incidents occurred, that ought not to be
palled over in filence. It was during this time that
was formed a connexion in bufinefs in a very humble
] c u L
line between two men, who became afterwards eminent- Cullen,
ly confpicuous in much more exalted ftations. William,
afterwards Doctor Hunter, the famous letfturer on ana¬
tomy in London,,-was a native of the fame part of the
country ; and not being in affluent circumftances more
than Cullen, thefe two young men, ftimulated by the
impulfe of genius to profecute their medical ftudies
with ardour, but thwarted by the narrownefs of their
fortune, entered into a copartnery bufinefs as furgeons
and apothecaries in the country. The chief end of
their contraft being to furnifh the parties with the
means of prefeeuting their medical ftudies, which they
could not feparately fo well enjoy, it was ftipulated,
that one of them alternately ftiould be allowed to ftudy
in what college he inclined, during the Avinter, while
the other Ihould carry on the bufinefs in the country,
for the common advantage. In confequence of this
agreement, Cullen was firft allowed to ftudy in the uni¬
verfity of Edinburgh for one winter j but when it came
to Hunter’s turn next winter, he, preferring Lon¬
don to Edinburgh, Went thither. There his lingular
neatnefs in differing, and uncommon dexterity in ma¬
king anatomical preparations, his aflkluity in ftudy, his
mildnefs of manner, and pliability of temper, foon re¬
commended him to the notice of Dr Douglas, who
then read lectures upon anatomy and midwifery there ;
who engaged Hunter as an afliftant, and rvhofe chair he
afterwards filled with fo much honour to himfelf and la-
tisfaftion to the public.
Thus Avas diftolved, in a premature manner, a copart¬
nery perhaps of as lingular a kind as is to be found in
the annals of literature : nor Avas Cullen a man of that
difpolition to let any engagement Avith him prove a bar
to his partner’s advancement in life. The articles Avere
freely departed from by him; and Cullen and Hunter
ever after kept up a very cordial and friendly corref-
pondence 5 though, it is believed, they never from that
time had a perfonal intervieAV.
During the time that Cullen pra&ifed as a country
furgeon and apothecary, he formed another connexion
of a more permanent kind, which happily for him, was
not diffolved till a very late period of his life. With
the ardour of difpolition he pofteffed, it cannot be fup-
pofed he beheld the fair fex with indifterence. Very
early in life he took a ftrong attachment to an amiable
Avoman, a Mifs Johnfton, daughter to a clergyman in
that neighbourhood, nearly of his own age, \dio Avas
prevailed on to join Avith him in the facred bonds of
Avedlock, at a time Avhen he had nothing elfe to recom¬
mend him to her except his perfon and difpofitions.
After giving to him a numerous family, and partici¬
pating with him the changes of fortunewhich he ex¬
perienced, Ihe died in fummer 1786.
In tbe year 1746, Cullen, Avho had now taken the
degree of doftor in phylic, was appointed a lecturer in
cheraiftry in the univerfity of Glafgow : and in the
month of October began his lectures in that fcience.
His lingular talents for arrangement, his diftinftnefs of
enunciation, his vivacity of manner, and his knowledge
of the fcience he taught, rendered his le6lures intereft-
ing to the Undents to a degree that had been till then
unknown at that univerfity. Pie became, therefore, in
fome meafure, adored by the ftudents. The former pro-
feffbrs were eclipled by the brilliancy of his reputation 5
and he had to experience all thofe little rubs that envy
t
C U L [
Culleti. and difappbinted ambition naturally threw in bis way.
Regardlelis, however, of thefe fecret chagrins, he pref-
fed forward with ardour in his literary career } and,
fupported by the favour of the public, he confoled him-
felf for the contumely he met with from a few indivi¬
duals. His practice as a phyfician increafed from day
■to day ; and a vacancy having occurred in the year
1751, he was then appointed by the king profeffor of
medicine in that univerfity. This new appointment
ferved only to call forth his powers, and to bring to
light talents that it was not formerly known he poffef-
fed •, fo that his fame continued to increafe.
As, at that period, the patrons of the univerfity of
Edinburgh were conftantly on the watch for the moft
eminent medical men to fupport the riling fame of the
college, their attention was foon direfted towards Cul¬
len } who, on the death of Dr Plummer, profeffor of
chemiftry, was, in 1756, unanimoully invited to accept
the vacant chair.. This invitation he accepted : and
having religned all his employments in Glafgow, he
began his academical career in Edinburgh in the
month of October of that year 3 and there he relided
•till his death.
If the admilTron of Cullen into the univerlity of Glaf-
-gow gave great fpirit to the exertions of the Undents,
this was ftill, if poffible, more ftrongly felt in Edin¬
burgh. Chemiftry, which had been till that time of
fmall account in that univerfity, and was attended to by
very few of the ftudenls, inftantly became a favourite
ftudy *, and the leflures upon that fcience were more
frequented than any others in the univerfity, anatomy
alone excepted. The ftudents, in general, fpoke uf
Cullen with the rapturous ardour that is natural to
youth when they are highly pleafed. Thefe eulogiures
appeared extravagant to moderate men, and could not
fail to prove difgufting to his colleagues. A party was
formed among, the -ftudents for opposing this new fa¬
vourite of the public j and thefe ftudents, by- mifrepre-
fenting the doflrines of Cullen to others who could not
have an opportunity of hearing thefe doiffrines them-
ffelves, made evenfomeof the moft intelligent men in the
nniverfity think it their duty publicly to oppofe thefe
imaginary tenets. The ferment was thus -augmented j
and it was fome time before the profeffors difeovered
the arts by which they had been impofed upon, and
univerfal harmony reftored.
During this time of public ferment, Cullen went
fteadily forward, without taking any part himfelf in
• thefe difputes. He never gave ear to any tales refpecl-
ing his colleagues, nor took any notice of the dodlrines
.they taught : That fome of their unguarded ftriftures
■might at times come to his knowledge, is not impofli-
ble; but if they did, they feeraed to make no impreflion
on his mind.
Thefe attempts of a-party of ftudents to lower the
ehara&er of Cullen on his firft outfet in the univerfity of
Edinburgh having provedfruitlefs, his fame as a profef¬
for, and his reputation as a phyfician, became more
and more refpedted every day. Nor . could it well be
otherwife : Cullen’s profeffionai knowledge was always
great, and his manner of lecturing ilngularly clear and
intelligible, lively and entertaining andtohispatients,
his conduct in general as a.phyfician was fo pleafing,
|bis addrefs fo affable and engaging, and his manner id
open,. 1q kind, and fc little regulated by pecuniary
T3
! 1 C U L
confiderations, that it was impoffible for thofe who had Culler..
occafion to call once for his medical affiftance, ever to
be fatisfied on any future occafion without it. He be¬
came the friend and companion of every family he vi-
fited ; and his future acquaintance could not be dift
penfed with.
But if Dr Cullen in his public capacity deferved to
be admired, in his private capacity by his ftudents he
deferved to be adored. His conduft to them was fo
attentive, and the intereft he took in the private con¬
cerns of all thole ftudents who applied to him for ad¬
vice, was fo cordial and fo warm, that it was impoffi-
ble for any one who had a heart fufceptible of gene¬
rous emotions, not to be enraptured with a condufl fo
uncommon and fo kind. Among ingenuous youth,
gratitude eaftly degenerates into rapture—into refpeit
nearly allied to adoration. Thofe who advert to this
natural conftruclion of the human mind, will be at no
lofs to account for that popularity that Cullen enjoy¬
ed—a popularity, that thofe who attempt to weigh
every occurrence by the cool ftandard of reafon alone,
will be inclined to think exceffive. It is fortunate,
ho wever, that the bulk of mankind will ever be in¬
fluenced in their judgment not lefs by feelings and af-
feftions than by the cold and phlegmatic diftates of
reafon. The adoration which generous conduft ex¬
cites, is the reward which nature hath appropriated
exclufively to difinterefted beneficence. This was the
fecret charm that Cullen ever carried about with him,
which fafeinated fuch numbers of thofe who had in¬
timate accefs to him. This wras the power which his
envious o] ponents never could have an opportunity of
feeling.
The genera] conduct of Cullen to his ftudents was
this. With all fuch as he obfervtd to be attentive and
diligent, he formed an early acquaintance, by inviting
them by twos, by threes, or by fours at a time, to iup
with him, converfing w ith them on thefe occafions with
the moft engaging cafe, and freely entering with them
on the fubjedl of their ftudies, their amufements, their
difficulties, their hopes, and future profpedls. In this
way, he ufually invited the whole of his numerous clafs,
till he made himfelf acquainted with their abilities,
their private eharafler, and their objects bf purfuit.
Thofe among them whom he found nioft affiduous, belt
difpofed, or the moft friendlefs, he invited the moft fre¬
quently, till an intimacy was gradually formed, which
proved highly beneficial to them. Their doubts, with
regard to their objedls of ftudy he liftened to with at¬
tention, and folved with the moft obliging condefcen-
fion. His library, which confifted of an excellent af-
fortment of the beft books, efpeeially on medical fub-
jefls, was at all times open for their accommodation ;
and his advice, in every cafe of difficulty to them, they
always had it in their power moft readily to obtain.
They feemed to be his family ; and few perfons of dif-
tinguifhed merit have left the univerfity of Edinburgh
in his time, with whom he did not keep up a corref-
pondcnce till they were fairly eftabliflied in bufinefs.
By thefe means, he came to have a moft accurate know¬
ledge of the ftate of every country, with refpetl to
practitioners in the medical line ; the only ufe he made
of which knowledge, was to direct ftudents in their
chtfice of places, where they might have an opportuni¬
ty bf engaging in bufinefs w ith a rtafenable profpebt of
Tuccefs.
C U L
Cullen, fuccefs. Many, very many, able men has he thus
■—■V—- put into a good line of bufinefs, where they never
could have thought of it themfelves; and they are
now reaping the fruits of this beneficent forefight on
his part.
Nor was it in this way only that he befriended the
fludents at the univerfity ef Edinburgh. Poffeffing a
benevolence of mind that made him ever think firlt of
the wants of others, and recollefting the difficulties
that he himfelf had to ftruggle with in his younger
days, he was at all times Angularly attentive to their
pecuniary concerns. From his general acquaintance
* among the ftudents, and the friendly habits he was on
with many of them, he found no difficulty in difcover-
ing thofe among them who were rather in embarrafied
circumftances, without being obliged to hurt their de¬
licacy in any degree. To fuch perfons, when their
habits of ftudy admitted of it, he was peculiarly at¬
tentive. They were more frequently invited to his
houfe than others 5 they were treated with more than
ufual kindnefs and familiarity j they were conduced to
his library, and encouraged by the moft delicate addrefs
to borrow from it freely whatever books he thought
they had occafion for : and as perfons in thefe circum¬
ftances were ufually more ffiy in this refpeft than others,
books were fometimes preffed upon them as a fort of
conftraint, by the doctor infifting to have their opinion
of fuch or fuch paflages they had not read, and defiring
them to carry the book home for that purpofe. He,
in fliort, behaved to them rather as if he courted their
company, and flood in need of their acquaintance than
they of his. He thus raifed them in the opinion of
their acquaintance to a much higher degree of eftima-
lion than they could otherwife have obtained ; which,
to people whofe minds were depreffed by penury, and
whofe fenfe of honour was fharpened by the confciouf-
nefs of an inferiority of a certain kind, was Angularly
engaging. Thus they were inlpired with a fecret feni'e
of dignity, which elevated their minds, and excited an
uncommon ardour of purfuit, inftead of that melancho¬
ly inactivity which is fo natural in fuch circumftances,
and which too often leads to defpair. Nor was he lefs
delicate in the manner of fupplying their wants, than
attentive to difcover them. He often found out fome
polite excufe for refufing to take payment for a firfl:
courfe, and never was at a lofs for one to an after courfe.
Before they could have an opportunity of applying for
a ticket, he would fometimes lead the converfation to
fome fubjeft that occurred in the courfe of his leClures j
and as his leClures were never put in writing by him-
felf, he would fometimes beg the favour to fee their
notes, if he knew they had been taken with attention,
under a pretext of affifting his memory. Sometimes he
would exprefs a wilh to have their opinion of a particu¬
lar part of his courfe, and prefented them with a ticket
for that purpofe; and fometimes he refufed to take
payment, under the pretext that they had not received
his full courfe the preceding year, fome part of it ha¬
ving been neceffarily omitted for want of time, which
he meant to include in this courfe. By fuch delicate
addrefs, in which he greatly excelled, he took care to
forerun their w ants. Thus he not only gave them the
benefit of his own le&ures, but by refufing to take
their money, he alfo enabled them to attend thofe of
others that were neceffary to complete their courfe of
Vox. VJtl. Part I.
C U L
fludies. Thefe were particular devices he adopted to Cullen,
individuals to whom economy was neceflary •, but it was 'v™--'
a general rule with him, never to take money from any
ftudent for more than two courfes of the fame fet of
lectures, permitting him to attend thefe ledtures as
many years longer as he pleafed gratis.
He introduced another general rule into the univer¬
fity, that was dictated by the fame principle of difin-
terefted beneficence, that ought not to be here paf-
fed over in filence. Before he came to Edinburgh, it
was the cuftom of medical profeffors to accept of fees
for their medical affiftance, when wanted, even from
medical ftudents themfelves, who were perhaps attend¬
ing the profeffor’s own le&ures at the time. ^But Cul¬
len never would take fees as a phyfician from any ftu¬
dent at the univerfity, though he attended them, when
called in as a phyfician, with the fame affiduity and
care as if they had been perfons of the firft rank, who
paid him moft liberally. This gradually induced ethers
to adopt a fimilar pra&ice : fo that it is now become a
general rule for medical profeffors to decline taking any
fees when their affiftance is neceffary to a ftudent. For
this ufeful reform, with many others, the ftudents of
the univerfity of Edinburgh are folely indebted to the
liberality of Dr Cullen.
The firft ledlures which Cullen delivered in Edin¬
burgh were on chemiftry j and for many years he alfo
gave clinical le&ures on the cafes which occurred in
the royal infirmary. In the month of February 1763,
Dr Alfton died, after having begun his ufual courle of
le&ures on the materia medica j and the magillrates of
Edinburgh, as patrons of that profeffnrffiip in the uni¬
verfity, appointed Dr Cullen to that chair, requeuing
that he w ould finiftuhe courfe of le&ures that had been
begun for that feafon. This he agreed to do •, and
though he was under a neccffity of going on with the
courfe in a few days after he was nominated, he did not
once think of reading the le&ures of his predeceffor,
but refolved to deliver a new courfe entirely his own.
The popularity of Cullen at this time may be guefled
at by the increafe of new ftudents who came to attend
his courfe in addition to the eight or ten who had en¬
tered to Dr Aifton. "Ihe newr ftudents exceeded too.
An imperfed copy of thefe le&ures thus fabricated in
hafte, having been publilhed, the dodor thought it ne¬
ceffary to give a more corred edition of them in the
latter jiart of his life. But his faculties being then
much impaired, his friends looked in vain for thofe
linking beauties that charaderifed his literary exer¬
tions in the prime of life.
Some years afterwards, on the death of Dr White,
the magillrates once more appointed Dr Cullen to give
ledures on the theory of phyfic in his Head. And it
was on that occafion Dr Cullen thought it expedient to
refign the chemical chair in favour of Dr Black, his
former pupil, whofe talents in that department of fcience
were then well known, and who filled the chair till his
death with great fatisfadion to the public. Soon after,
on the death of Dr Rutherford, who for many years
had given ledures wdth applaufe on the pradice of phy¬
fic, Dr John Gregory (whofe name can never be men¬
tioned by any one who had the pleafure of his acquain¬
tance without the warmeft tribute of a grateful refped)
having become a candidate for this place along with Dr
Cullen, a fort of compromife took place between them,
B by
1 9 1
tfuen
C U L [ 1
by vlilcb they agreed each to give lectures alternately
on the theory and on the practice of phyfic dining
their joint lives, the longed furvivor being allowed to
hold either of the claffes he fhould incline. In confe-
quence of this agreement, Dr Cullen delivered the firft
courfe of leftures on the pradlice of phyfic in winter
1766, and Dr Gregory fucceeded him in that branch
the following year. Never perhaps did a literary ar¬
rangement take place that could have proved more be¬
neficial to the ftudents than this. Both thefe men pof-
felTed great talents, though of a kind extremely diffimi-
lar. Both of them had certain failings or defers, which
the other was aware of, and counterafted. Each of
. them knew and refpefted the talents of the other. They
co-operated, therefore, in the happiefl: manner, to en¬
large the underftanding, and to forward the purfuits of
their pupils. Unfortunately this arrangement was foon
deftroyed by the unexpefted death of Dr Gregory, who
was cut off in the flower of life by a fudden and unfore-
feen event. After this time, Cullen continued to give
It flu res on the pracfice of phyfic till a few months be¬
fore his death, which happened on the 5th of February
1790, in the 77th year of his age.
In drawing the character of Dr Cullen, his biogra¬
pher, Dr Anderfon obferves, that in fcientific purfuits
men may be arranged into two grand dalles, which,
though greatly different from each other in their ex¬
tremes, yet approximate at times fo near as to be blend¬
ed indifcriminately together j thofe who poffefs a ta-
1 :nt for detail, and thofe who are endowed with the
faculty of arrangement. The firft may be faid to view
objefls individually as through a microfcope. The
field of vilipn is confined 5 but the obje&s included
within that field, which mull ufually be confidered
fingiy and apart from all others, are feen with a won¬
drous degree of accuracy and diftinflnefs. The other
takes a fweeping view of the univerfe at large, con-
fiders every objeft be perceives, not individually, but
as a part of one harmonious whole : His mind is there¬
fore not fo much employed in examining the feparate
parts of this individual objeft, as in tracing its rela¬
tions, conneflions-, and dependencies on thofe around
it.—Such was the turn of Cullen’s mind. The talent
for arrangement was that which peculiarly diftinguifti-
ed him from the ordinary clafs of mortals $ and this
talent he poffeffed perhaps in a more diftinguiftied de¬
gree than any other perfon of the age in which he liv¬
ed. Many perfons exceeded him in the minute know¬
ledge of particular departments, who, knowing this,
naturally looked upon him as their inferior \ but pof-
feffing not at the fame time that glorious faculty, which,
“ with an eye wide roaming, glances from the earth to
lieaven,” or the charms which this talent can infufe
into congenial minds, felt difguft at the pre-eminence
he obtained, and aftonifhment at the means by which
he obtained it. An Ariftotle and a Bacon have had
their talents in like manner appreciated \ and many are
the perfons who can neither be exalted to fublime ideas
with Homer, nor ravifhed with the natural touches of a
Shakefpeare. Such things are wifely ordered, that every
department in the univerfe may be properly filled by
ihofe who have talents exactly fuited to the talk aflign-
ed them by heaven.
Had Cullen, however, poffeffed the talents for ar¬
rangement alone, fmall would have been his title to
i:t 'J..-- ■ l lis
o ] CU T,
that high degree of applaufe he has attained. With- Cullen,
out a knowledge of fails, a talent for arrangement pro- ‘ "■ v~~~
duces nothing but chimeras ; without materials to work
upon, the ftrudftures which an over-heated imagination
may rear up are merely “ the bafeleff fabric of a vifion.n
No man was more fenfible of the juftnefsof this remark
than Dr Cullen, and few were at greater pains to avoid
it. His whole life, indeed, wTas employed, almoft with¬
out interruption, in collecting fa£ts. Whether he was
reading, or walking, or converting, thefe were continu¬
ally falling into his way. With the keen perception of
an eagle, he marked them at the firft glance 5 and with¬
out Hopping at the time to examine them, they were
ftored up in his memory, to be drawn forth as occafton
required, to be confronted with other fadls that had
been obtained after the fame manner, and to have their
truth afeertained, or their falfity proved by the evidence
which ftiould appear when carefully examined at the
impartial bar of juftice. Without a memory retentive
in a fingular degree, this could not have been done •,
but fo very extraordinary was Dr Cullen’s memory,
that till towards the very decline of life, there was
fcarcely a faft that had ever occurred to him which he
could not readily recollecl, with all its concomitant cir-
cumftances, whenever he had occafion to refer to it. It
was this faculty which fo much abridged his labour in-
ftudy, and enabled him fo happily to avail himfelf of
the labour of others in all his literary fpeculations. life
often reaped more by the converfation of an hour than
another man would have done in whole weeks of labori¬
ous ftudy.
In his prelections, Dr Cullen never attempted to
read. His ledlures were delivered viva voce, without
having been previoufly put into writing, or thrown in¬
to any particular arrangement. The vigour of his mind
was fueh, that nothing more was neceffary than a few
Ihort notes before him, merely to*prevent him from va¬
rying from the general order he had been accuftomed
to obferve. This gave to his difeourfes an eafe, a vi¬
vacity, a variety, and a force, that are rarely to be met
with in academical difeourfes. His leflures, by confe-
quence, upon the fame fubjeft, were never exaftly the
fame. Their general tenor indeed was not much va¬
ried ^ but the particular illuftrations were always new,
well fuited to the circumftances that attracted ihe ge¬
neral attention of the day, and were delivered in the
particular way that accorded with the caft of mind the
prele&or found himfelf in at the time. To thefe cir¬
cumftances muft be aferibed that energetic artlefs elo¬
cution, which rendered his le£tures fo generally capti¬
vating to his hearers. Even thofe who’could not fol¬
low him in thofe extenfive views his penetrating mind
glanced at, or who were not able to underftand thofe apt
allufions to collateral objefls which he could only rapidly
point at as he went along, could not help being warm¬
ed in fome meafure by the vivacity of his manner. But
to thofe who could follow him in his rapid career, the^
ideas he fuggefted were fo numerous, the views he
laid open were fo extenfive, and the objefts to be at¬
tained were fo important—that every aftive faculty of
the mind was roufed ; and fuch an ardour of enthufiafm
was excited in the profecution of ftudy, as appeared to
be perfeflly inexplicable to thofe who were merely un¬
concerned fpeftators. In confequence of this unihack-
led freedom in the compofition and delivery of his lec-
- tures,
G U L [i
Cullen, tares, every circumftance was in lire niceft unifon with
the tone of voice and exprelfion of countenance, which
the particular call of mind he was in at the time infpi-
red. Was he joyous, all the figures introduced for il-
luftration were fitted to excite hilarity, and good hu¬
mour : wras he grave, the objefts brought under view
■were of a nature more folemn and grand : and was he
peevilh, there was a peculiarity of manner in thought,
in word, and in aftion, which produced a molt linking
and interefting effeft. The languor of a nervelefs uni¬
formity was never experienced, nor did an abortive at¬
tempt to excite emotions that the fpeaker himfelf could
not at the time feel, ever produce thofe difcordant ideas
which prove difgufting and unpleafing.
It would feem as if Dr Cullen had conlidered the
proper bufinefs of a preceptor to be that of putting his
pupils into a proper train of ftudy, fo as to enable them
to profecute thofe ftudies at a future period, and to car¬
ry them on much farther than the Ihort time allowed
for academical preleftions would admit. He did not,
therefore, fo much ftrive to make thofe who attended
his le&ures deeply verfed in the particular details of
obje.£t3, as to give them a general view of the whole
fubjeft •, to iliew what had been already attained re-
fpecling it ; to point out what remained yet to be dif-
covered 5 and to put them into a train of ftudy that
fhouid enable them at a future period, to remove thofe
difficulties that had hitherto obftru&ed our progrefs,
and thus to advance themfelves to farther and far¬
ther degrees of perfection. If thefe were his views,
nothing could be more happily adapted to them than
the mode he invariably purfued. He firfl drew, with the
ftriking touches of a mafter, a rapid and general out¬
line of the fubjeft, by which the whole figure was feen
at once to flart boldly from the canvas, diftinCt in all
its parts, and unmixed with any other objeft. He then
began anew to retrace the picture, to touch up the lei-
fer parts, and to finiffi the whole in as perfeCt a manner
as the fate of our knowledge at the time w'ould permit.
Where materials were wanting, the picture there conti¬
nued to remain imperfeCt. The wants -were thus ren¬
dered obvious; and the means of fupplying thefe were
pointed out with the moft careful difcrirnination. The
fludent whenever he looked back to the fubjeCt, per¬
ceived the defeCts ; and his hopes being awrakened, he
felt an irrefiftible impulfe to explore that hitherto un¬
trodden path which had been pointed out to him, and
fill up the chafm which fill remained. Thus were the
active faculties of the mind molt powerfully excited ;
and inftead of labouring himfelf to fupply deficiencies
that far exceeded the power of any one man to accom-
plifh, he fet thoufands at work to fulfil the talk, and
put them into a train of going on with it.
It was to thefe talents, and to this mode of applying
them, that Dr Cullen owed his celebrity as a profef-
for ; and it was in this manner that he has perhaps
done more towards the advancement of fcience than
,any other man of his time, though many individuals
might perhaps be found who were more deeply verfed
in the particular departments he taught than he him¬
felf was.
Dr Cullen’s external appearance, though ftriking
and not unpleafing, was not elegant. He had an ex-
preffive countenance and a lively eye. In his perfon
i ] C U L
he was tall and thin, fcooping much about the {boulders; CuTiett^
and when he walked he had a contemplative look, ^u'
feemingly regarding little the cbjefts around him. Ac¬
cording to the obtervation of one who was well ac¬
quainted with the charaCler of Cullen, he was eminent¬
ly diftinguiihed as a profeffor for three things. I he
energy of his mind, by which he viewed every fubject
with ardour, and combined it immediately with the
whole of his knowledge.
“ The fcientific arrangement which he gave to his
fubjeCt, by which there was a lucidus ordo to the dulleft
fcholar. He w'as the firft perfon in this country who
made chemifiry ceafe to be a chaos.
“ A wonderful art of interefting the ftudents in every
thing w hich he taught', and of railing an emulative en-
thufiafm among them.” Life of Cullen, bij Dr Anderfon,
in the Bee.
CULLODEN, a place in Scotland within two miles
of Invernefs, chiefly remarkable for a complete viClory
gained over the rebels on the i6th of April 1746*
That day the royal army, commanded by the duke
of Cumberland, began their march from Nairn, form¬
ed into five lines of three battalions each ; headed
by Major-general Hulke on the left, Lord Sempill
on the right, and Brigadier Mordaunt in the centre ;
flanked by the horfe under the generals Hawley and
Bland, who at the fame time covered the cannon on
the right and left. In this order they marched about
eight miles, when a detachment of Ivingfton’s horfe,
and of the Highlanders, having advanced before the
reft of the army, difeovered the van of the rebels com¬
manded by the young Pretender. Both armies im¬
mediately formed in the order and numbers ftiown in
the annexed fcheme.
About twa) in the afternoon the rebels began to
cannonade the king’s army ; but their artillery being
ill ferved, did little execution ; while the fire from
their enemies was feverely felt, and occafioned great
diforder. The rebels then made a puftr at the right
of the royal army, in order to draw the troops for¬
ward ; but finding themfelves difappomted, they turn-
ed their whole force on the left; falling chiefly on
Barrel’s and Munro’s regiments, where they attempt¬
ed to flank the king’s front line. But this defign
alfo was defeated by the advancing of Wolfe’s regi¬
ment, while.in the mean time the cannon kept play¬
ing upon them with cartridge-fhot. General Hawley,
with fome‘Highlanders, had opened a pafiage through
fome ftone walls to the right for the horfe which ad¬
vanced on that fide ; while the horfe on the king’s
right wheeled off upon their left, difperfeci their bo¬
dy of referve, and met in the centre of their front line
in their rear; when being repulfed in the front, and
great numbers of them cut oft, the rebels fell in¬
to very great confufion. A dreadful carnage was
made by the cavalry on their backs; however, fome
part of the foot ftill preferved their order ; but King-
fton’s horfe, from the referve, gallopped up brilkly,
and falling upon the fugitives, did terrible execution.
A total defeat inftantly took .place, with the lofs of
2 $00 killed, wounded, and prrfoners, on the part of
the rebels, while the royalifts loft not above 200. The
young Pretender had his horfe {hot under him during
the engagement: and after the battle retired to the
B 2 heufe
C U L [ I
C CuTm"’ ^0u^e 3 f"a^or °f Lord Lovat, about ten miles from
i.. . u>m‘ . Invernefs. where he ftaid that night. Next day he
let out for Fort-Auguifus, from w’hence he purfued his
journey through wild deferts with great difficulty and
didrefs, till at lafl he fafely reached France, as related
under the article Britain, N° 423. (a).
CULM, or Culmus, among botanids, a draw or
haulm j defined by Linnaeus to be the proper trunk
of the grades, which elevates the leaves, flower, and
fruit.
I his fort of trunk is tubular or hollow, and has
frequently knots or joints didributed at proper diflan-
ees through its whole length. The leaves are long,
fleek, and placed either near the roots in great num¬
bers, or proceed fingly from the different joints of
the dalk, which they embrace at the bafe, like a
ffieath or glove.
2 ] c U L
The haulm is commonly garniffied with leaves: Culm,
fometimes, however, it is naked j that is, devoid ofl——v—
leaves, as in a few fpecies of cyprefs-grafs. Mod
grades have a round cylindrical dalk j in fome fpecies
of fchcenus, fcirpus, cyprefs-grafs, and others, it is tri¬
angular.
The dalk is fometimes entire, that is, has no bran¬
ches y fometimes branching, as in fchoenus aculeatur
et capenfis; and not feldom conflds of a number of
fcales which lie over each other like tiles.
Laflly, in a few grades the dalk is not interrupted
with joints, as in the greater part. The fpace contain¬
ed betwixt every two knots or joints, is termed by bo»
tanids internodium and articulus culmi.
This fpecies of trunk often affords certain marks of
didimdion in difcriminating the fpecies. Thus, in the
genus eriocaulon, the fpecies are fcarce to be didxn-
guiffied
( A) Plan of the Battle of Culloden.
sJ,88 11® S4U011^U!3 P-tBMOjj Xauaijn^ neajajieg; ajioq &tuop§un! .
*j.Nnvcnjoj\[ ‘Sug;
Siiimsu ?, ° 2 igdutag jaiuoSrj (j P, P.
•axsnpj 'U3£) AofBp\r
■Ifep pnCmg jj | xUqotQ « ° aoug • ° qrjnj -oS ° ® oiuo^j5, ® puz# -suoo2*ia stx»X
cativig; ’uaQ 'fej^
•aTavwaaiy jo [ang; maQ "inatT;
‘AIM'aV StONIX 3HX
•KftWNy pjo'j puo^
N.
Duke of Perth.
The REBEL ARMY.
Lord John Drummond.
Lord Geo. Murray.
Left flank 400.
Ld. John Drummond.
Guards, huffars,
and Perthffiire
fquadron.
Fird column 800.
Thofe of the above, who
have only guns, and
Kilmarnock’s guards.
The young Pretender.
Second column 800.
Fitzjames’s
horfe.
Right flank 400
Piquets, by Stapleton.
Ld. Lewis Gordon’s and Glenbucket’s,
to be ready to fuccour when needful.
The D. of Perth’s reg. and Ld. Ogilvie’s,
not to fire without pofitive order j and to
keepclole as afrethcorpsde referve. 8co,-
Third column 800.
Colonel Roy Stuart’s, and
thofe of the above who
have only guns.
-In all 8350.
S.
?r
o
*-
CU
o
3
p
cr
*-
of Clyde in Scotland. At prefent it is a county of w—v—«L»
England, which gives the title of duke to one of the
royal family, and fends two members to parliament.
It is bounded on the north and north-weft by Scot¬
land j on the fouth and fouth-eaft by part of Lanea-
flrire and Weftmoreland: it borders on the eatt with
Northumberland and Durham j and on the weft is
walhed by the Irifli fea. The length from north to
fouth may amount to 55 miles, but the breadth does
not exceed 40. It is well watered with rivers, lakes,
and fountains ; but none of its ftreams are navigable.
In fome places there are very high mountains. The
air is keen and piercing on thefe mountains, towards
the north j and the climate is moift, as in all hilly
countries. The foil varies with the face of the coun¬
try j being barren on the moors and mountains, but
fertile in the valleys and level ground bordering on
the fea. In general, the eaftern parts of the ftiire are
barren and defolate : yet even the leaft fertile parts
are rich in metals and minerals. The mountains of
Copland abound with copper : veins of the fame metal,
with a mixture of gold and lilver, were found in the ,
reign of Queen Elizabeth among the fells of Derwent 5
and royal mines were formerly wrought at Kef-
wick. The county produces great quantities of coal:
it abounds with lead mines, has a mine of black lead,
and feveral mines of lapis calaminaris j and it is faitl
there was formerly an inconfiderable pearl-filhery on
the coaft near Ravenglafs.
Cumberland, Richard, a learned Englilh divine
in the end of the 17th century, was fon of a citizen of
London, and educated at Cambridge. In 1672 he
publiihed a Treatife of the Laws of Nature j and in
1686, An EfTay toward the Jewifli Weights and Mea-
fures. After the Revolution he was nominated by
King William to the bilhopric of Peterborough. He
wrote on hiftory, chronology, and philofophy ; and^was
as remarkable for humility of mind, benevolence of
temper, and innocence of life, as for his extenfive
learning. He died in 1718.
CUMBRAY, Great and Little, two iflands in
the frith of Clyde, in Scotland. The firft is about fix
miles in circumference, and lies between the ifle of
Bute and the coaft of Ayrlhire. The other is of fmaller '
extent, and has a light-houfe.
CUMINUM, Cumin j a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 45th. order, umbellatcc. See Bo--
TANY Index.
CUN^US, PETER, born in Zealand in 1586, was
diftinguilhed by his knowledge in the learned langua¬
ges, and his Ikill in the Jewilh antiquities. He alfo
ftudied law, which he taught at Leyden in 16155,
and read politics there till his death in 1638. His
principal work is a treatife, in Latin, on the republic
of the Hebrews.
CUNEIFORM, in general, an appellation given to
any body having the lhape of a wedge.
CUNEIFORM Bone, in Anatomy, the feventh bone of
the cranium, called alfo os bajimre, and os fphenoides.
See Anatomy Index.
CUNEUS, in antiquity, a company of infantry
drawn :
C U N [ 14 ] CUN
the better to break
r-i ». **4. ii L,»JV^ o xaiixvo*
ham.45 CUNICULUS. See Lefus, MAMMALIA Index.
> Cuniculus, in mining, a term ufed by authors in
diftinftion from puteus, to exprefs the feveral forts of
pafiages and cuts in thefe fubterranean works. The
'cunicuh are thofe direft paffages in mines where they
walk on horizontally j but the putei are the perpen¬
dicular cuts or defeents. The miners in Germany call
thefe by the name Jlollen, and fchachts ; the firft word
exprefling the horizontal, and the fecond the perpen¬
dicular cuts.
C UNI L A, a genus of plants belonging to the mo-
Handria clafs •, and in the natural method ranking
under the 42a order, Verticillatce. See Botany Index.
CUNINA, in Mythology, a goddefs who had the
care, of little children.
CUNITZ, or Cunitia, Maria, aftronomer, wts
the eldeft daughter of Hendric Cunitz, doctor of
medicine in Silelia, and was born about the beginning
of the 17th century. She learned languages with
amazing facility; and underftood Polifli, German,
French, Italian, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. She at¬
tained a knowledge of the fciences with equal eafe :
fne was {killed in hiftory, phyfic, poetry, painting,
mufic, and playing upon inllruments j and yet thefe
were only an amufement. She more particularly ap¬
plied herfelf to the mathematics, and efpecially to
adronomy, which {he made her principal lludy, and
xras ranked in the number of the mod able afl.ro-
nomers of her time. Her Ailronomical Tables ac¬
quired her a prodigious reputation : the printed them
in Latin and German, and dedicated them to the em¬
peror Ferdinand III. She married Elias de Lewin,
M. D. and died at Piflehen in 1664.
CUNNINGHAM, one of the four bailiwicks in
Scotland ; and one of the three into which the {hire
of Ayr is fubdivided. It lies north eafl: of Kyle. It
contains the fea port towns of Irvine and Saltcoats.
Cunningham, Alexander, author of a Hiftory
of Great Britain from the Revolution to the accef-
flon of George I. was born in the fouth of Scotland
{ibout the year 1654, in the regency of Oliver Crom¬
well. His father vras minifter at Ettrick, in the
prefbytery and {hire of Selkirk. He was educated,
as was the cuflom among the Scottilh prelbyterian
gentlemen of thofe times, in Holland ; where he
imbibed his principles of government, and lived
much with the Englifli and Scots refugees at the
Hague before the revolution, particularly with
the earls of Argyle and Sunderland. He came over
to England with the prince of Orange, and enjoy¬
ed the confidence and intimacy of many leading men
among the whig party, that is, the friends and abet¬
tors of King William and the revolution. He -was
employed, at different times, in the charadter of a
travelling companion or tutor \ firft, to the earl of
Hyndford, and his brother Mr William Carmichael,
folicitor-general, in the reign of Queen Anne, for
Scotland j fecondly, with the lord Lome, afterwards
fo well known under the name of John duke of Ar¬
gyle ; and thirdly, with the lord vifeount Lonfdale. In
his travels, we find him, at the German courts, in
company with the celebrated Mr Jofeph Addifon,
y/hoie virtues he celebrates,
f 4
Cuneus
drawn up in form of a wedge,
tnrmifrl-1 fho *-o *-1 Ir
Lord Lome, at the time he was under the tuition CunniW-
of Mr C unningham, though not feventeen years of age, Lun.
‘was colonel of a regiment, which his father, the earl
of Argyle, had railed for his majefty’s fervice in Flan¬
ders. Mr Cunningham’s connedtion with the duke
of Argyle, with whom he had the honour of main¬
taining an intimacy as long as he lived, together4
with the opportunities he enjoyed of learning, in
his travels, what may be called military geography,
naturally tended to qualify him for writing on military
•affairs.
Mr Cunningham, both when he travelled with the
nobleman above mentioned, and on other oecafions,
was employed by the Englifli miniftry in tranfmitting
fecret intelligence to them on the moff important fub-
jedls. He was alfo, on fundry occafions, employed
by the generals of the confederate armies, to carry in¬
telligence, and to make reprefentations to the court of
Britain. In Carftaires’s State Papers, publithed by Dr
Macormick, principal of the United College of St An¬
drew’s, in 1774, there are two letters from our author,
dated Paris the 22d and 26th of Auguft 1701, giving
an account of his conferences with 5 the marquis de
Torcy, the French minifter, relative to the Scots
trade with France. This commercial negociation,
from the tenor of Cunningham’s letters compared
with his hiftory, appears to have been only the often-
fible objedl of his attention : for he fent an exadf ac¬
count to King William, with whom he was perfonally
acquainted, of the military preparations throughout all
France.
Mr Cunningham’s political friends, Argyle, Sun¬
derland, Sir Robert Walpole, &c. on the acceffion of
George I. fent him as Britilh envoy to the republic of
Venice. He arrived in that city in 1715*, and con¬
tinued there, in the character of refident, till the year
1720, when he returned again to London. He lived
many years after, which he feems chiefly to have paf-
fed in a ftudious retirement. In 1735, he was vilited
in London by Lord Hyndford, by the dir eft ion of his
lordfhip’s father, to whom he had been tutor, when
he appeared to be very old. He feems to have lived
about two years after : for the body of an Alexander
Cunningham lies interred in the vicar chancel of St
Martin’s church, who died in the 83d year of his age,
on the 15th day of May 173 7; and who was pro¬
bably the fame perfon.
His “ Hiftory of Great Britain, from the revolu¬
tion in 1688 to the acceffion of George I.” was pub-
liftied in two volumes 4to, in 1787. It was written
by Mr Cunningham in Latin, but was tranflated into
Englifli by the reverend William Thomfon, L.L.D.
The original manufeript came into the poffeffion of the
reverend Dr Hollingberry, archdeacon of Chichefter,
fome of whofe relations had been connefted with the
author. He communicated it to the earl of Hardwicke,
and to the reverend Dr Douglas, now biffiop of Car-
lifle, both of whom recommended the publication.
In a Ihort preface to the work, the archdeacon fays,
/$-e/they form¬
ed x.vvtKYi
' Cupel,
Cujjella-
tion.
CUP [
ufe of vegetable afhes,' freed by boiling in water from
their faline matter, which would caufe them melt in
, the fire.
The bones, burnt to perfefl whitenefs, fo that no
particle of coaly or inflammable matter may remain
in them, and well wafhed from filth, are ground into
moderately fine powder j which in order to its being
formed into cupels, is moiilened with juft as much
V'ater as is fufficient to make it hold together when
ftrongly preifed between the fingers j fome direft glu¬
tinous liquids, as whites of eggs or gum-water, in or¬
der to give the powder a greater tenacity : but the
inflammable matter, however fmall in quantity, which
accompanies thefe fluids, and cannot be eafily burnt
out from the internal part of the mafs, is apt to revive
a part of the metallic fcoria that has been abforbed,
and to occafion the veifel to burft or crack. The cu¬
pel is formed in a brafs ring, from three quarters of
an inch to two inches diameter, and not quite fo deep,
placed upon fome fmooth fupport: the ring being fill¬
ed with moillened powder, which is preffed clofe with
the fingers; a round-faced peftle, called a monk, is
flruck down into it with a few blows of a mallet, by
which the mafs is made to cohere, and rendered fuf-
ficiently compaft, and a fhallow cavity formed in the
middle : the figure of the cavity is nearly that of a
fphere, that a fmall quantity of metal melted in it
may run together into one bead. To make the ca¬
vity the fmoother, a little of the fame kind of afhes
levigated into an impalpable powder, and not moift-
ened, is commonly fprinkled on the furface, through a
fmall fine fieve made for this purpofe, and the monk
again ftruck down upon it. The ring or mould is a
little narrower at bottom than at top j fo that by pref-
fing it down on fome of the dry powder fpread upon
a table, the cupel is loofened, and forced upwards
a little; after which it is eafily pulhed out with the
finger, and is then fet to dry in a warm place free
from dull.
CUPELLA1 ION, the aft of refining gold or fil-
ver by means of a cupel. For this purpofe another
veifel, called a mi/jfle, is made ufe of, within which one
or more cupels are placed. The muffle is placed upon
a grate in a proper furnace, with its mouth facing the
door, and as clofe to it as may be. The furnace be¬
ing filled up with fuel, fome lighted charcoal is thrown
on the top, and what fuel is afterwards neceffary is
fupplied through a door above. The cupels are fet in
the muffle; and being gradually heated by the fuccef-
five kindling of the fuel, they are kept red hot for
fome time, that the moifture which they ftrongly re¬
tain may be completely diffipated : for if any vapours
fhould iffue from them after the metal is put in, they
would occafion it to fputter, and a part of it to be
thrown off in little drops. In the fides of the mufflle
are fome perpendicular flits, with a knob over the top
of each, to prevent any fmall pieces of coals or affles
from falling in. The door, or fome apertures made in
it, being kept open, for the infpeftion of the cupels,
frelh air enters into the muffle, and paffes off through
thefe flits : by laying fome burning charcoal on an iron
plate before the door, the air is heated before its
admiffion ; and by removing the charcoal or fupply-
ing more, the heat in the cavity of the muffle may be
fomewhat diminifhed or increafed more fpeedily than
16 ]
CUP
can be effected by fuppreffipg or exciting the fire in
the furnace on the outiide of the muffle. 'The renew¬
al of the air is alfo neceffary for promoting the fcorifi-
cation of the lead.
The cupel being of a full red heat, the lead caft in~
to a fmooth bullet, ihat it may not fcratch or injure
the surface, is laid lightly in the cavity j it immedi¬
ately melts 5 and then the gold or filver to be cupelled
js cautioufly introduced either by means of a Imall
iron ladle, or by wrapping them in paper, and drop¬
ping them on the lead with a pair of tongs. The
quantity of lead fhould be at leaf! three or four times
that of the fine metal j but when gold is very impure
it requires jo or i 2 times its quantity of lead for cu-
pellatiom It is reckoned that copper requires for its
feorification about 10 times its weight of lead: that
when copper and gold are mixed in equal quantities,
the copper is fo much defended by the gold, as not to
be feparable with lefs than 20 times its weight of
lead 5 and that when copper is in very fmall proportion,
as a 2Cth or 30th part of the gold or filver, upwards of
60 parts of lead are necefiary for one of the copper.
The cupel muft always weigh at leaft half as much as
the lead and copper 5 for otherwife it would not be fuf¬
ficient for receiving half the fcoria j there is little dan¬
ger, however, of cupels being made too fmall for the
quantity of a gold alfay.
The mixture being brought into thin fufion, the
heat is to be regulated according to the appearances 5
and in this confifis the principal nicety in the ope¬
ration. If a various coloured fldn rifes to the top,
which liquefying, runs off to the fides, and is there
abforbed by the cupel, vifibly ftaining the parts it en¬
ters j if a frefti fcoria continually fucceeds, and is ab-
forbed neaily as faft as it is formed, only a fine circle
of it remaining round the edge of the metal; if the
lead appears in gentle motion, and throws up a fume
a little way from the furface ; the fire is of the pro¬
per degree, and the procefs goes on fuccefsfully.
Such a fiery brightnefs of the cupel as prevents its
colour from being diftinguilhed, and the fumes of the
lead rifing up almoft to the arch of the muffle, are
marks of too ftrong a.heat; though it muft be obfer-
' ed, that the elevation of the fumes is not always in
proportion to the degree of heat; for if the heat
greatly exceeds the due limits, both the fumes and
ebullition will entirely ceafe. In thefe circumftances
the fire muft neceffarily be diminiftied : for while the
lead boils and fmokes vehemently, its fumes are apt to
carry off fome part of the gold; the cupel is liable t»
crack from the hafty abforption of the fcoria, and part
of the gold and filver is divided into globules, which
lying difeontinued on the cupel after the procefs is fi-
niffled, cannot eafily be collefted j if there is no ebul¬
lition or fumes, the fcorification does not appear to go
on. Too weak a heat is known by the dull rednefs
of the cupel; by the fume not rifing from the furface
of the lead ; and the fcoria like bright drops in languid
motion, or accumulated, or growing confiltent all over
the metal. Ihe form of the furface affords alfo an
ufeful mark of the degree of heat j the ftronger the
fire, the more convex is the furface ; and the weaker,
the more flat : in this point, however, regard muft be
had to the quantity of metal; a large quantity being
always flatter than a fmall one in an equal fire.
1 Towards
7
CUP [ I? ] G U Ft
Curellation Towards the end of the procefs, the fire mud be
[j increafed j for the greateft part of the fufible metal lead.
Cupreffus. being now worked off, the gold and filver will not
Vi — continue melted in the heat that was fufficient before.
As the laft remains of the lead are feparating, the rain¬
bow colours on the furface become more vivid, and
varioufly interfeft one another with quick motions.
Soon after, difappearing -all at once, a fudden lumi¬
nous brightnefs of the button of gold and filver
(hows the procefs to be finifhed. The cupel is then
drawn forwards towards the mouth of the muffle ;
and the button, as foon as grown fully folid, taken
out.
CUPELLING FURNACE. See Cupelling FUR¬
NACE.
CUPID, in Pagan mythology, the god of love.
Th ere feems to have been two Cupids j one the fon of
Jupiter and Venus, whofe delight it was to raile fenti-
ments of love and virtue j and the other the fon of
Mars and the fame goddefs, who infpired bafe and im¬
pure defires. The firft of thefe, called Eros, or true
love, bore golden arrows, which caufed real joy, and
a virtuous affe&ion 5 the other, called Anteros, had
leaden arrows, that raiftd a paffion founded only on
defire, which ended in fatiety and difguft. Cupid was
always drawn with wings, to reprefent his inconllancy \
and naked, to (hew that he has nothing of his own.
He was painted blind, to denote that love fees no fault
in the objeft beloved ; and with a bow and quiver of
arrows, to ihow his power over the mind. Sometimes
he is placed between Hercules and Mercury, to (how
the prevalence of eloquence and valour in love ; and
at others is placed near Fortune, to fignify that the
fuccefs of lovers depends on that incontlant goddefs.
Sometimes he is reprefented with a helmet on his head
and a fpear on his flroulder, to fignify that love difarms
the fierceft men j he rides upon the backs of panthers
and lions, and ufes their manes for a bridle, to denote
that love tames the mofl favage beafts. He is likewife
pidlured riding upon a dolphin, to fignify that his em¬
pire extends over the fea no lefs than the land.
CUPOLA, in Architecture, a fpherical vault, or the
round top of the dome of a church, in the form of a cup
inverted.
CUPPING, in Surgery, the operation of applying
cupping-glaffes for the difcharge of blood and other
humours by the {kin. See Surgery.
CUPRESSUS, the Cypress Tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the moncecia clafs j and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 51ft order, Conferee.
See Botany Index.
The Wood of the fempervirens, or evergreen cyprefs,
is faid to refift worms, moths, and putrefa&ion, and
to laft many centuries. The coffins in which the A-
thenians were wont to bury their heroes, were made,
fays Thucydides, of this wood j as were likewife the
chefts containing the Egyptian mummies. The doors
of St Peter’s church at Rome were originally of the
fame materials. Thefe, after lafting upwards of 600
years, at the end of which they did not difeover the
imalleft tendency to corruption, were removed by or¬
der of Pope F.ugenius IV. and gates of brafs fubftituted
in their place. The fame tree is by many eminent au¬
thors recommended as improving and meliorating the
-air bv its balfamic and aromatic exhalations ; upon
VOL. VII. Part I.
which account many ancient phyficians of the eaftern Cuprefftis
countries ufed to fend their patients who were troubled |j
with weak lungs to the ifland of Candia, where thefe ^ut'at-c'
trees grow in great abundance ; and where, from the v'""”
falubrious air alone, very few failed of a perfedt cure.
In the fame illand, fays Miller, the cyprefs-trees were
fo lucrative a commodity, that the plantations were
called dosfilice; the felling of them being reckoned a
daughter’s portion. Cyprefs, fays Mr Pococke, is the
only tree that grows towards the top of Mount Leba¬
non, and being nipped by the cold, grows like a fmall
oak. Noah’s ark is commonly fuppofed to have been
made of this kind of wood.
CUPRUM ammoniac ALE. See Chemistry In¬
dex. This preparation is recommended in fome kinds
of fpafmodic difeafes, given in the dofe of one or two
grains.
Cuprum, or Copper. See Copper, Chemistry
Index.
CURACOA, or CuRASSOW, one of the larger An¬
tilles iflands, formerly iubjedl to the Dutch j fituated
in W. Long. 68i 30* N. Lat. 1 2. 30. This ifland is
little elfe than a bare rock, about ten leagues long and
five broad •, lying three leagues off the coaft of Vene¬
zuela. It has an excellent harbour, but the entrance
is difficult. The bafon is extremely large, and conve¬
nient in every refpedl ; and is defended by a fort fkil-
fully conftrudled, and always kept in repair. The rea-
fon of forming a fettlement upon this barren fpot, was
to carry on a contraband trade with the Spanilh colonies
on the continent j but after fome time the method of
managing this trade was changed. Curaffow itfelf
became an immenfe magazine, to which the Spaniards
reforted in their boats to exchange gold, filver, va¬
nilla, cocoa, cochineal, bark, {kins, and mules, for ne¬
groes, linen, filks, India fluffs, fpices, laces, ribbands,
quickfilver, fteel, and iron-ware. Thefe voyages,
though continual, did not prevent a number of Dutch
{loops from paffing from Curaffow to the continent.
But the modern fubftitution of regifter-lhips, inftead
of galleons, has made this communication lefs frequent j
but it will be revived whenever, by the intervention
of war, the communication with the Spanifli main {hall
be cut off. The difputes between the courts of Lon¬
don and Verfailles alfo prove favourable to the trade
of Curaffow. At thefe times it furnifties provifions
to the fouthern parts of St Domingo, and takes off all
its produce. Even the French privateers from the
windward iflands, repair in great numbers to Curaf¬
fow, notwithftanding the diftance. The reafon * is,
that they find there all kinds of neceffary ftores for
their veffels ; and frequently Spanifti, but always Eu¬
ropean goods, which are univerfally ufed. Every com¬
modity without exception, that is landed at Curaffoiv,
pays one per cent, port-duty. Dutch goods are never
taxed higher ; but thofe that are {hipped from other
European ports pay nine per cent. more. Foreign
coffee is fubjeft to the fame tax, in order to promote
the fale of that of Surinam. Every other produ&ion
of America is fubjefl only to a payment of three per
cent, but with an exprefs ftipulation, that they are to
be conveyed diredlly to fome port belonging to the re¬
public. This ifland is now in poffeflkm of Great
Britain.
CURATE, theloweft degree in the church of Eng-
C land j
CUR [ i
Curate land 5 ke who reprefents the incumbents of a church,
|| parfon, or vicar, and performs divince fervice in his
ftead : and in cafe of pluralities of livings, or where a
clergyman is old and infirm, it is requifite there fhould
be a curate to perform the cure of the church. He is
to be licenfed, and admitted by the bilhop of the dio-
cele, or by an ordinary having epifcopal jurifdiftion 5
and when a curate hath the approbation of the bifliop,
he ufually appoints the falary too ; and in fuch cafe, if
he be not paid, the curate hath a proper remedy in the
ecclefiaftical court, by a fequeftration of the profits of
the benefice $ but if the curate is not licenfed by the
biftiop, he is put to his remedy at common law, where
he mull: prove the agreement, &c. A curate having
no fixed eftate in his curacy, not being inftituted and
indu&ed, may be removed at pleafure by the bilhop or
incumbent. But there are perpetual curates as well
as temporary, who are appointed where the tithes are
impropriate, and no vicarage endowed : thefe are not
removeable, and the improprietors are obliged to find
them ; fome whereof have certain portions of the tithes
fettled on them. Every clergyman that officiates in a
church (whether incumbent or fubftitute) in the litur¬
gy is called a curate. Curates muft fufcribe the de¬
claration according to the a£l of uniformity, or are lia¬
ble to imprifonment, &c.
CURATELLA, a genus of plants belonging to
the polyandria clafs; and in the natural method rank¬
ing with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CURATOR, among the Romans, an officer under
the emperors, who regulated the price of all kinds of
merchandife and vendible commodities in the cities of
the empire. They had likewifethe fuperintendence of
the cuftoms and tributes j whence alfo they were called
logijlce.
Curator, among civilians, a truftee or perfon no¬
minated to take care of the affairs and interefts of a
perfon emancipated or interdidled. In countries where
the Roman law prevails, between the age of 14 and
.24 years, minors have curators affigned them ; till 14,
they have tutors.
CURATOB of an Univerfty, in the United Provinces,
is an eleflive office, to which belongs the direction of
the affairs of the univerfity $ as, the adminiftration of
the revenues, the infpedlion of the profeffors, &c.
The curators are chofen by the ftates of each province :
The univerfity of Leyden has three j the burgher-
mafters of the city have a fourth.
CURB, in the manege, a chain of iron made faff to
the upper part of the branches of the bridle in a hole
called the eye, and running over the horfe’s beard. It
confifts of thefe three parts j the hook fixed to the eye
of the branch ; the chain of SS’s or links; and the
two rings or mailes. Large curbs, provided they be
round, are always moft gentle $ but care is to be taken
that it reft in its proper place, a little above the beard,
otherwife the bit-mouth will not have the effe£t that
may be expe&ed from it.
Englilh watering bits have no curbs ; the Turkifti
bits, called genettes, have a ring that ferves inftead of
a curb. See Genettes.
Curb, in Farriery, is a hard and callous fwelling on
the hind part of the hock, attended with ftifihefs, and
fometimes with pain and lamenefs. See Spavin.
' ■ ■. : ■ t
8 ] CUR
CURCAS, a name given in Egypt to an efculent Curcas
root, approaching to the tafte and virtues of the colo- |]
cafia. It is alfo a name ufed in Malabar for a fmall Curetes.
fruit of the thape and fize of a hazel nut. Both thefe v ~
things have the credit of being ftrong provocatives :
and it is very probable that the curcas of the Eaft In¬
dies may be the fruit called bell by Avicenna, and faid
to poffefs the fame virtues. Gracias has been led into
a very great error by this fimilarity of names and vir¬
tues j and fuppofes the curcas of Egypt the fame with
that of the Eaft Indies.
CURCULIO, a genus of infers belonging to the
»rder of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
CURCUMA, Turmeric, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the monandria clafs ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 8th order, Scitaminece. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CURDISTAN, a country of Afia, fituated between
the Turkifti empire and Perfia, lying along the eaftern
coaft of the river Tigris, and comprehending great part
of the ancient Affyria. Some of the inhabitants live
in towns and villages, and others rove from place to
place, having tents like the wild Arabs, and are alfo
robbers like them. Their religion is partly Chriftian,
and partly Mahometanifm.
CURDLING, the coagulating or fixing of any fluid
body; particularly milk. See Cheese, Agriculture
Index.
Paufanias fays, that Ariftaeus fon of Apollo, and
Cyrene, daughter of the river Peneus, were the firft
who found out the fecret of curdling milk.
At Florence they curdle their milk for the making
of cheefe with artichoke flowers, in lieu of the rennet
ufed for the fame purpofe among us.
The Bifaltae, a people of Macedonia, Rochfort ob-
ferves, live wholly upon curdled milk, i. e. on curds.
He adds, that curds are the whole food of the people
of Upper Auvergne in France, and whey their only
drink.
CURETES, in antiquity, a fort of priefts or people
of the ifle of Crete, called alfo Corybantes. See Co-
rybantes and Crete. The Curetes are faid to have
been originally of Mount Ida in Phrygia ; for which
reafon they were alfo called Idcei DaByli. See Dac-
TYLI.
Lucian and Diodorus Siculus reprefent them as
very expert in calling of darts; though other authors
give them no weapons but bucklers and pikes : but all
agree in furniftiing them with tabors and caftanettas :
and relate, that they ufed to dance much to the noife
and clalhing thereof. By this noife, it is faid, they
prevented Saturn from hearing the cries of young
Jupiter, whereby he was faved from being deftroy-
ed.
Some authors, however, give a different account of
the Curetes. According to Pezron and others, the
Curetes were, in the times of Saturn, &c. and in the
countries of Crete and Phrygia, what the druids were
afterwards among the Gauls, &c. i. e. they were priefts
who had the care of what related to religion and the
worfhip of the gods. Hence, as in thofe days it was
fuppofed there was no communication with the gods
but by divinations, auguries, and the operations of
magic, the Curetes paffed for magicians and enchan¬
ters ; to thefe they added the ftudy of the liars, of na-
ture?
CUR [i
ture, and poefy j and fo were pliilofopliers, aftrono-
mers, &c.
Voflius de Ido la t. diftinguifliea three kinds of Cu-
retes, thofe of y^tolia, thofe of Phrygia, and thofe of
Crete, who were originally derived from the Phry¬
gians. The fir ft, he fays, took their name from xaga,
tonfure ; in regard, from the time of a combat wherein
the enemy feized their long hair, they always kept it
cut. Thofe of Phrygia and Crete, he fuppofes, were
fo called from young tnan, in regard they were
young, or becaufe they nurfed Jupiter when he was
young.
CURFEU, CuarEW, or Courfew, a fignal given
in cities taken in war, &c. to the inhabitants to go to
bed. Pafquin fays, it was fo called, as being intended
to advertife the people to fecure themfelves from the
robberies and debaucheries of the night.
CURFE W-Bell, in French couvrefeu, and in law La¬
tin of the middle ages, ignitegium, or pyritegium, was a
fignal for all perfons to extinguilh their fires. The
moft eminent curfew in England was that eftablifhed by
William the Conqueror, who appointed, under fevere
penalties, that, at the ringing of a bell at 8 o’clock in
the evening, every one ftiould put out their lights and
fires and go to bed ; whence to this day a bell rung about
this time is called a curfew-bell. This law was abo-
lifhed by Henry I. in noo.
This pra&ice was highly neceflary to prevent acci¬
dents in thofe ages when the fires were placed in a
hole in the middle of the floor, under an opening in
the roof to allow the efcape of the fmoke. This hole
was covered up when the family went to bed. The
fame praftice ftill exifts in fome countries, and particu¬
larly in fome parts of Scotland. But befides fecuring
houfes againft accidents by fire, the law which was
very generally eftablifhed in Europe for extinguilhing
or covering fires, was probably meant alfo to check the
turbulence which frequently prevailed in the middle
ages, by forcing the people to retire to reft, or to keep
within doors. From this ancient practice, in the opi¬
nion of Beckmann, has arifen a cuftom in Lower Saxo¬
ny of faying, when people wilh to go home fooner than
the company choofe, that they hear the burgerglocket the
burgher’s bell.
The ringing of the prayer bell, as it is called, which
is ftill pradlifed in fome Proteftant countries, according
to Beckmann, originated in that of the curfeu-bell.
Pope John XXIII. dreading that fome misfortunes
were to befal him, ordered every perfon on hearing the
ignitegium to repeat the ave Maria three times, with a
view to avert them. When the appearance of a co¬
met, and a dread of the Turks, alarmed all Chriften-
dom, Pope Calixtus VIII. increafed thefe periodical
times of prayer, by ordering the prayer-bell to be rung
alio at noon. Hijl. of Invent, ii. 101.
CURIA, in Roman antiquity, was ufed for the fe-
nate-houfe. There were feveral curiae in Rome j as
the curia calabra, faid to be built by Romulus j the
curia hofilia, by Tullus Hoftilus 5 and the curia pom-
peia, by Pompey the Great.
Curia alfo denoted the places where the curia
ufed to aflemble. Each of the 30 curiae of old Rome
had a temple or chapel afligned to them for the com¬
mon performance of their facrifices, and other offices of
their religion j fo that they were not unlike our pa-
9 ] CUR
rilhes. Some remains of thefe little temples feem to Curia
have fubfifted many ages after on the Palatine hill, II
where Romulus firft built the city, and afterwards re- , ''u'10,
fided.
Curia, among the Romans, alfo denoted a portion
or divifion of a tribe. In the time of Romulus, a tribe
confided of ten curiae, or a thoufand men ; each curia
being one hundred. That legiflator made the firft di¬
vifion of his people into thirty curiae. Afterwards
curia, or domus curialis, became ufed for the place
where each curia held its affemblies. Hence alfo
curia pafled to the fenate-houfe ; and it is from hence
the moderns came to ufe the word curia, “ court,” for
a place of juftice, and for the judges, &c. there af-
fembled.
Varro derives the word from cura, “ care,” q. d. an
afiembly of people charged with the care of public af¬
fairs. Others deduce it from the Greeks ; maintaining,
that at Athens they called x-vyct the place where the
magiftrate held his affizes, and the people ufed to af-
femble : kv^icc, again, may come from authority,
power ; becaufe it was here the laws were made.
Curia, in our ancient cuftoms.—It was ufual for
the kings of England to fummon the biffiops, peers,
and great men of the kingdom to fome particular
place, at the chief feftivals in the year 5 and this affem-
bly is called by our hiftorians curia ; becaufe there they
confulted about the weighty affairs of the nation *, whence
it was fometimes alfo called folemnis curia, generalis cu¬
ria, augufalis curia, and curia public a, &c. See Wl-
TEKK-Mot.
CURIA Baronum. See COURT Baron.
Curia Claudenda, is a writ that lies againft him who
ffiould fence and inclofe the ground, but refufes or de¬
fers to do it.
CURIATII, three brothers of Alba, maintained
the intereft of their country againft the Romans, who
had declared war againft thofe of Alba. The two ar¬
mies being equal, three brothers on each fide were
chofen to decide the conteft •, the Curiatii by thofe of
Alba, and the Horatii by the Romans. The three firft
were wounded, and two of the latter killed ; but the
third joining policy to valour, ran away; and having
thus tired the Curiatii, he took them one after another,
and killed them all three.
CURING, a term ufed for the preferving fifli, flefti,
and other animal fubftances, by means of certain ad¬
ditions of things, to prevent putrefaction. One great
method of doing this is by expofing the bodies to
the fmoke of wood, or rubbing them with fait, nitre,
&c.
CURIO, the chief and prieft of a curia.—Romulus,
upon dividing the people into curise, gave each divi¬
fion a chief, who was to be priett of that curia, under
the title of curio and flamen curialis. His bufinefs was
to provide and officiate at the facrifices of the curia,
which were called curionia ; the curia furnifliing him
with a fum of money on that confideration, which pen-
fion or appointment was called curionium. Each divi¬
fion had the ele&ion of its curia •, but all thefe particu¬
lar curios were under the direction of a fuperior or ge¬
neral, called curio tnaximus, who was the head of the
body, and elefted by all the curios affembled in the co-
mitia curialis.
All thefe inftitutions were introduced by Romu-
C 2 lus,
Gurio
II
Current.
CUR [ 20
lus, and confirmed by Numa, as Halicarnafleus re¬
lates it.
j CURIOSUS, an officer of the Roman empire du¬
ring the middle age, appointed to take care that no
frauds and irregularities were committed ; particularly
no abufes in what related to the polls, the roads, &c.
and to give intelligence to the court of what palfied in
the provinces. This made the curiofi people of impor¬
tance, and put them in a condition of doing more harm
than they prevented 5 on which account, Honorius ca-
fhiered them, at leaf! in fome parts of the empire, anno
4I5:
The curiofi came pretty near to what w'e call control¬
lers. They had their name from cura, “ care j” quod
cuns agendis ct eveBionibus curfus publici infpiciendis
operam darent.
CURLEW. See Scolopax. Ornithology Index.
CURMI, a name given by the ancients to a fort of
malt liquor or ale. It was made of barley, and w’as
drunk by the people of many nations inltead of wine,
according to Diofcorides’s account. He accufes it of
caufing pains in the head, generating bad juices, and
difordering the nervous fyftem. He alfo fays, that in
the weftern part of Iberia, and in Britain, fuch a fort
of liquor was in his time prepared from wheat inltead
of barley. See Ale.
CURNOCK, a meafure of corn containing four bu-
fhels, or half a quarter.
CURRANS, or Currants, the fruit of a fpecies of
groffularia. See Grossularia, Botany Index.
1 he white and red fort are moltly ufed } for the
black, and chiefly the leaves, upon firfl: coming out,
are in ufe to flavour Englilh fpirits, and counterfeit
French brandy. Currants greatly affuage drought,
cool and fortify the llomach, and help digeftion j and
the jelly of black currants is faid to be very efficacious
in curing inflammations of the throat.
Currants alfo fignify a fmaller kind of grapes,
brought principally from Zante and Cephalonia. They
are gathered off the bullies, and laid to dry in the fun,
and fo put up in large butts. They are opening and
pedoral; but are more ufed in the kitchen than in me¬
dicine.
CURRENT, or Currant, a term ufed to exprels
the prefent time. Thus the year 1804 *s t^ie current
year, the 20th current is the 20th day of the month
now running.—With regard to commerce, the price
current of any merchandife is the known and ordi¬
nary price accuftomed to be given for it. The term
is alfo ufed for any thing that has courfe or is re¬
in which fenfe we fay,, current
eeived in commerce j
coin, &c.
Current, in Navigation, a certain progreffive move¬
ment of the water of the fea, by which all bodies
floating therein are compelled to alter their courfe or
velocity, or both, and fubmit to the laws impofed on
them by the current.
In the fea, currents are either natural and general,
as arifing from the diurnal rotation of the earth about
its axis 3 or accidental and particular, caufed by the
waters being driven againft promontories, or into
gulfs and ftraits, where, wanting room to fpread,
they are driven back, and thus difturb the ordinary
flux of the fea. Currents are various, and directed
towards different parts of the ocean, of which fowe
Z l
7
] CUR
are conflant, others periodical. The moft extraordi¬
nary current of the fea is that by which part of the
Atlantic or African ocean moves about Guinea from
Cape Verd towards the curvature or bay of Africa
which they call Fernando Poo ; viz. from weft to eaft*
contrary to the general motion : and fuch is the force
of the current, that when Ihips approach too near the
Ihore, it carries them violently towards that bay, and
deceives the mariners in their reckoning. There’ is a
great variety of ftiifting currents, which do not laft,
but return at certain periods : and thefe do, moft of
them, depend upon and follow the anniverfary winds
or monfoons, which by blowing in one place may caufe
a current in another. Varenius informs us, that at
Java, in the ftraits of Sunda, when the monfoons
blow from the weft, viz. in the month of May, the
currents fet to the call ward, contrary to the general
motion. Between the ifland of Celebes and Madura,
when the weftern monfoons fet in, viz. in December^
January, and February, or when the winds blow from
the north-weft, or between the north and weft, the
currents fet to the fouth-eaft, or between the foutli
and eafl. At Ceylon, from the middle of March to
Odfober, the currents let to the fouthward, and in
the other parts of the year to the northward : becaufe
at this time the fouthern monfoons blow, and' at the
other the northern. Between Cochin-China and Ma¬
lacca, when the weftern msnfoons blow, viz. from
April to Auguft, the currents fet eaftward againft
the general motion 3 but the reft of the year they
fet weft ward, the monfoon confpiring with the general
motion. They run fo ftrongly in thefe feas, that un¬
experienced failors miftake them for waves that beat
upon the rocks, known uiually by the name of break¬
ers. So for fome months after the 15th of February,
the currents fet from the Maldives towards India cm
the eaft, againft the general motion of the fea. On the
ffiore of China and Cambodia, in the months of Odto-
ber, November, and December, the currents fet to the
north-weft, and from January to the fouth-weft,. whsn
they run with fuch rapidity about the ftioals of Parcel,
that they feem fwifter than an arrow.. A t Pulo Ccn-
dore, upon the coaft of Cambodia, though the mon¬
foons are fhiftmg, yet the currents fet ftrongly to¬
wards the eaft, even when they blow to a contrary
point. Along the coafts of the bay of Bengal, as
far as the Cape Romania, at the extreme point of
Malacca* the current runs fouthward in November and
December. When the monfoons blow from China
to Malacca, the fea runs fwiftly from Pulo Cambi to
Pulo Condore on the coaft of Cambodia. In the bay
of Sans Bras, not far from the Cape of Good Hope,
there is a current particularly remarkable, where the
ffa runs from eaft to weft to the landward j and this
more vehemently, as it is oppofed by winds from a
contrary dire&ion. The caufe is undoubtedly owing
to fome adjacent ftiore which is higher than this. In
the ftraits of Gibraltar the currents almoft conftantly
drive to the eaftward, and carry ftiips into the Medi¬
terranean 3 they are alfo found to drive the fame way
into St George’s channel.
The fetting or progreffive motion of the current
may be either quite down to the bottom, or to a cer¬
tain determinate depth. As the knowledge of the di¬
rection and velocity of currents is a very material ar¬
ticle
Current.
CUR [2
tide in navigation, it is highly neceffary to difcover
both, in order to afcertain the (hip’s fituation and
courfe with as much accuracy as poffible. The moft
fuccefsful method which has been hitherto pradifed
by mariners for this purpofe, is as follows : A com¬
mon iron-pot, which may contain four or five gallons,
is fufpended by a fmall rope, fattened to its ear or
handles, fo as to hang diredly upright, as when pla¬
ced upon the fire. This rope, which may be from 70
to 100 fathoms in length, being prepared for the
experiment, is coiled in the boat, which is hoifted out
of the (hip at a proper opportunity, when there is
little or no wind to ruffle the furface of the fea. The
pot being then thrown overboard into the water, and
immediately finking, the line is flackened till about
70 or 80 fathoms of the line are run out j after which
the line is fattened to the boat’s ftern, by which (he^ is
accordingly reftrained and rides at an anchor. I he
velocity of the current is then eafily tried by the log
and half-minute glafs, the ufual method of difcovering
the rate of a (hip’s failing at fea. The courfe of the
ftream is next obtained by the compafs provided for
this operation. Having thus found the fetting and
drift of the current, it next remains to apply this ex¬
periment to the purpofes of Navigation ; for which
fee that article.
Under- CUR BENTS, are dittintfl from the upper or ap¬
parent, and in different places fet or drive a contrary
way. Dr Smith makes it highly probable, that in
the Downs, in the (traits of Gibraltar, there, is
an under current, whereby as much water is carried
cut as is brought in by the upper currents. This he
argues from the offing between the North and South
Foreland, where it runs tide and half-tide, i. e. it is
ebb or flood in that part of the Downs three hours
before it is fo off at fea : a certain fign, that though
the tide of flood runs aloft, yet the tide of ebb runs
under-foot, i. e. clofe by the ground ; and (o at the
tide of ebb it will flow under foot. This he confirms
by an experiment in the Baltic found, communicated
to him by an able feaman prefent at the making of it.
Being there then with one of the king’s frigates, they
went with their pinnace into the mid-itream, and
were carried violently by the current. Soon after
that, they funk a balket with a Large cannon bullet to
a certain depth of water, which gave a check to the
boat’s motion; and finking it ftill lower and lower,
the boat was driven a-head to the windward againft
the upper current, the current aloft not being above four
or five fathom deep. He added, that the lower the
baflcet was let down, the flronger the under-current was
found.
From this principle, it is eafy to account for that
continual indraught of water out of the Atlantic into
the Mediterranean through the (traits of Gibraltar, a
paffage about 20 miles broad ; yet without any fen-
fible rifing of the water along the coafts of Barbary,
&c. or any overflowing of the land, which there lies
very low.—Dr Halley, however, folves the currents
fetting in at the (traits without.overflowing the banks,
by the great evaporation, without fuppofing any under
current.
CURRICULUS, in our ancient writers, denotes
the year or courfe of a year. ASium efl hoc annorum
Dominicce incarnationis quater quinquagenis et quinqmes
1 ] CUR
quinis lujlris, et tribus curriculis, i. e. In the year Curricuius
1028 ; for four times fifty make two hundred, and five 11
times two hundred make one thoufand ; five luflres areCg^najj^
twenty-five years, and three curriculi are three years.
CURRIERS, thofe who drefs and colour leather
after it comes from the tan-yard. See Ianning.
CURRODREPANUS, (formed of currus, “cha¬
riot,” and dgeTrxyoii, “ fcythe” or “ fickle”), in anti¬
quity, a kind of chariot armed with fcythes. The
driver of thefe chariots was obliged to ride on one of
the horfes, as there was no other feat for him ; the
ufual place for him being all armed with knives, as
was likewife the hinder part of the chariot. There
were no fcythes pointing down to the earth, either
from the beam or axle-tree ; but thefe were fixed at
the head of the axle-tree in fuch a manner as to be
moveable by means of a rope, and thereby could be
raifed or let down, and drawn forward or let fall back¬
ward, by relaxing the rope.
CURRYING, the method of preparing leather with
oil, tallow, &c.
The chief bufinefs is to foften and fupple cow and
calve-lkins, which make the upper leather and quar¬
ters of (hoes, covering of faddles, coaches, and other
things which mutt keep out water. 1. i hefe (kins,
after coming from the tanner’s yard, having many
flefhy fibres on them, the currier foaks them fome
time in common water. 2. He takes them out, and
ftretches them on a very even wooden horfe ; then
with a paring knife he fcrapes off all the fuperfluous
fleffi, and puts them in to foak again. 3. He puts
them wet on a hurdle, and tramples them with his
heels till they begin to grow foft and pliant. 4. Hs
foaks thereon train-oil, which by its un£luous quality
is the beft liquor for this purpofe. 5. He fpreads them
on large tables, and fattens them at the ends. I here,
with the help of an inftrument called a pummel, which
is a thick piece of wood, the under fide of which is
full of furrows eroding each other, he folds, fquares,
and moves them forwards and backwards feveral times-,
under the teeth of this inftrument, which breaks their
too great ftiffnefs. This is what is properly called
currying. The order and number of thefe operations
is varied by different curriers, but the material part is
always the fame. 6. After the (kins are curried, there
may be occafion to colour them. Ihe colours are
black, white, red, yellow, green, &c.: the other co¬
lours are given by the (kinners, who differ from cur¬
riers in this, that they apply their colours on the flefti
fide ; the curriers on the hair fide. In order to whiten
(kins, they are rubbed with lumps of chalk or white
lead, and afterwards with pumice-ftone. 7. When a
(kin is to be made black, after having oiled and dried
it, lie paffes over it a puff dipt in water impregnated
with iron ; and after his firft wetting, he gives it ano¬
ther in water prepared with foot, vinegar, and gum-
arabic. Thefe different dyes gradually turn the (kin
black, and the operations are repeated till it be of a
fhining black. The grain and wrinkles, which contri¬
bute to the fupplenefs of calves and cows leather, are
made by the reiterated folds given to the (kin in every
direflion, and by the care taken to ferape off all hard
parts on the colour fide.
CURSING and Swearing, an offence againft:
God and religion, and a fin of all others the moft cx~
travagaat:
G U R [2
Cm fin0f and travagant and unaccountable, as having no benefit or
Swearing advantage attending it. By the laft ftatute againtt this
Curlius cr’me> I9 George II. which repeals all former ones,
l- ^_ every labourer, Tailor, or foldier, profanely curfing or
fwearing, (hall forfeit is.; every other perfon under
the rank of a gentleman, 2s. j and every gentleman or
perfon of fuperior rank, 5s. to the poor of the pariih ;
and, on a fecond conviction, double : and, for every
fubfequent offence, treble the fum firft forfeited, with
all charges of convidtion : and, in default of payment,
fhall be fent to the houfe of correction for ten days.
Any juitice of the peace may convidt upon his own
hearing, or the teftimony of one witnefs ; and any
conftable or peace officer, upon his own hearing, may
fecure any offender, and carry him before a juflice, and
there convidt him. If the juftice omits his duty, he for¬
feits 5I. and the conftable 40s. And the adt is to be
read in all parifli churches, and public chapels, the
Sunday after every quarter day, on pain of 5I. to be
levied by warrant from any juflice. Befides this pu-
nifhment for taking God’s name in vain in common
difeourfe, it is enadted, by Hat. 3 Jac. I. c. 21. that if
in any ftage-play, interlude, or fhow, the name of the
Holy Trinity, or any of the perfons therein, be jeft-
ingly or profanely ufed, the offender fhall forfeit 10I.
one moiety to the king, and the other to the informer.
CURSITOR, a clerk belonging to the court of
chancery, whofe bufinefs it is to make out original
writs. In the ftatute 18 Edw. III. they are called
clerks of courfe, and are 24 in number, making a cor¬
poration of themfelves. To each of them is allowed a
divifion of certain counties, into which they iffue out
the original writs required by the fubjedl.
CURTATE distance, in Ajlronomy, the diftance
of a planet from the fun to that point where a perpen¬
dicular let fall from the planet meets with the e-
cliptic.
CURTATION, in Afronomy, is the interval be¬
tween a planet’s diftance from the fun and the curtate
diftance.
CQRTEYN, (Curtanaf was the name of Edward
the Confeffor’s fword, which is the firft fword carried
before the kings of England at their coronation ;
and it is faid the point of it is broken as an emblem of
mercy.
CURTIN, Curtain, or Court in, in Fortification,
is that part of the rampart of a place which is betwixt
the flanks of two baftions, bordered with a parapet five
feet high, behind which the foldiers ftand to fire upon
the covered way and into the moat.
CURTIUS, Marcus, a Roman youth, who de¬
voted himfelf to the gods manes for the fafety of his
country, about 360 years before the Auguftan age. A
wide gap had fuddenly opened in the forum, and the
oracle had faid that it never would clofe before Rome
threw into it whatever it had moft precious. Curtius
immediately perceived that no lefs than a human fa-
crifice was required. He armed himfelf, mounted his
horfe, and folemnly threw himfelf into the gulf, which
inftantly clofed over his head.
Curtius, Quintus, a Latin hiftorian, who wrote
the life of Alexander the Great in 10 books, of which
the two firft are not indeed extant, but were fo well
fupplied by Freinfhemius, that the lofs is fcarcely re¬
gretted. Where this writer was born, or even when
;
2 ] CUR
he lived, are points no one pretends to know. By his
ftyle he is fuppofed to have lived in or near the Au¬
guftan age j while fome are not wanting, who ima¬
gine the work to have been compofed in Italy about
300 years ago, and the name of Quintus Curtins to be
fidlitioully added to it. Cardinal du Perron was fo
great an admirer of this work, as to declare one page
of it to be worth 30 of Tacitus j yet, M. le Clerc, at
the end of his Art of Critieifm, has charged the writer
with great ignorance and many contradidtions. Pie has
neverthelefs many qualities as a writer, which will al¬
ways make him admired and applauded.
CURVA1 URE of A Line, is the peculiar man¬
ner of its bending or flexure, by which it becomes a
curve of any form and properties. Thus the nature of
the curvature of a circle is fucb, as that every point in
the periphery is equally diftant from a point within,
called the centre ; and fo the curvature of the fame
circle is everywhere the fame. But the curvature in
all other curves is continually varying.
CURVE, in Geometry, a line which running on
continually in all diredtions, may be cut by one right
line in more points than one. See Conic Sections
and Fluxions.
Curve of Equable Approach. Leibnitz firft propo-
fed to find a curve, down which a body dei'cending by
the force of gravity, fhall make equal approaches to
the honzon in equal portions of time. This curve,
as it has been found by Bernoulli and others, is the
fecond cubical parabola placed with its vertex upper-
moft, and which the defeending body muft enter with a
certain determinate velocity. The queftion was ren¬
dered general by Varignon for any law of gravity, by
which a body may approach towards a given point by
equal fpaces in equal times. Maupertuis alfo refolved
the problem in the cafe of a body defeending in a me¬
dium whofe refiftance is as the fquare of the velocity.
Curves, Algebraical or Geometrical, are thofe in
which the relation of the abfeiffes to the ordinates can
be expreffed by a common algebraic equation.
Curves, Tranfcendental, or Mechanical, are thofe
which cannot be defined or expreffed by an algebraic
equation.
CURVE F, or Cor vet, in the manege, an air in
which the horfe’s legs are raifed higher than in the
demi-volt; being a kind of leap up, and a little for¬
wards, wherein the horfe raifes both his fore-legs at
once, equally advanced, (when he is going ftraight
forward, and not in a circle) 5 and as his fore-legs are
falling, he immediately raifes his hind legs, equally ad¬
vanced, and not one before the other: fo that all his
four legs are in the air at once j and as he fets them
down, he marks but twice with them.
CURVILINEAR, or Curvilineal, is faid of fi¬
gures bounded by curves or crooked lines.
CURVIROSl RA. See Loxia, Ornithology
Index.
CURULE chair, in Roman antiquity, a chair
adorned with ivory, wherein the great magiftrates of
Rome had a right to fit and be carried.
The curule magiftrates were the aediles, the pra¬
ters, cenfors, and confuls. The chair was fitted in a
kind of chariot, whence it had its name. The fena-
tors who had borne the offices of adiles, praters, &c.
were carried to the fenate-houfe in this chair, as were
alfo
C U S [2
alio tliofe who triumphed, and fuch as went to admini-
fter juftice, &c. See /H.DILE, &c.
CURZOLA, an ifland in the gulf of Venice, lying
on the coaft of Dalmatia. It is about 20 miles, long,
and has a fmall town of the fame name, with a bifliop’s
fee. It belongs to the Venetians. E. Long. 17. 15*
N. Lat. 43. 6.
CUSA, Nicholas de, a learned cardinal, born of
mean parentage, and named from Cufa, the place of
bis birth. He was made a cardinal in 1448 $ and be-
ing appointed governor of Rome by Pope Pius II. du¬
ring his abfence at. Mantua, he was the chief concerter
and manager of the war againft the Turks. Pie found¬
ed a church, and a noble library of Greek and Latin
authors, at Cufa $ and left many excellent works be¬
hind him, which were colle&ed and publiihed in three
volumes at Bafil in 1565. In there he has made no
fcruple to deleft the lying traditions and fophiftries of
the Roman church.
CUSCO, a large and bandfome town of South A-
merica in Peru, formerly the refidence of the Incas.
It is feated at the foot of a mountain, and is built in a
fquare form, in the middle of which there is the beft
market in all America. Four large ftreets terminate in
this fquare, which are all as ftraight as a line, and re¬
gard the four quarters of the world. I he Spaniards
tell us wonderful things of the richnefs of the Inca’s
palace, and of the temple of the fun 5 but more fober
travellers, judging from what remains, think moft of
them to be fabulous. At prefent it contains eight large
parilhes, and five religious houfes, the beft of which
belongs to the Jefuits j and the number of the inhabi¬
tants may be about 50,000, of which three-fourths are
the original natives, Americans. From this town there
is a very long road, which runs along the Cordilleras j
and, at certain diftances, there , are fmall houfes for
retting places, fome parts of which are fo artificially
wrought, that it is furprifing how a people who had
no iron tools could perform fuch workmanftiip.. There
are ftreams of water run through the town, which are a
great convenience in fo hot a country where it never
rains. It is 375 miles eaft of Lima. W. Long. 71. 47.
S. Lat. 13. o.
CUSCUTA, Dodder ; a genus of plants belonging
to the tetrandria clafs 5 and in the natural method
ranking under thofe of which the order is doubtful.
See Botany Index.
CUSH, the eldeft fon of Ham, and father of Nim¬
rod j the other Tons of Cufti were Seba, Havilah, Sab-
tah,’ Raamah, and Sabtecha, Gen. x. 6—8. Though
we know of no other perfon in Scripture that is called -
by this name, yet there are feveral countries that are
called by it •, whether the fame man may have dwelt
in them all at different times, or that there were fome
other men of this name, we are ignorant.
The Vulgate, Septuagint, and other interpreters,
both ancient and modern, generally tranflate Cufh,
Ethiopia : but there are many paffages wherein this
tranflation cannot take place.
Cush is the name of the country watered by the
Araxes. They who, in tranfiating the fituation of
Eden, have made Cup Ethiopia, gave rife to that
unwarrantable opinion which Jofephus and leveral
fflthers have entertained of the river Gihon’s being the
3
3 ] c u s
Nile. In this place (Gen. ii. 13.) the LXX tranfla-
tion renders the word Cup by the name of Ethiopia ; CufJn!an
and, in this miftake, is not only here followed by our v--,^
Englifh verfion, but in the fame particular in feveral
other places.
Cuth is the fame as Culh. The Chaldees generally
put the tau where the Hebrews ufe the fchin : they fay
cuth, inftead of cup. See Cuth.
But Ethiopia is frequently in the Hebrew called
Cup; and Jofephus fays, that they called themfelves
by this name, and that the fame name was given them
by all Afia. St Jerome tells us that the Hebrews call
the Ethiopians by the fame name, and the Septuagint
give them no other. Jeremiah (xiii. 23.) fays, “ Can
the Curtisean, or Ethiopian, change his colour ?” In
Ezekiel (xxix. 10.) the Lord threatens to reduce
“ Egypt to a defert, from the tower of Syene even
unto the borders of Cufti, or Ethiopia and in Ifaiah,
(xi. xr.) he fays, “ he will recover the remnant of his
people, which (hall be left, from Affyria, and from
Egypt, and Pathros, and from Cufti.” All thefe marks
agree with Ethiopia properly fo called, which lies to
the fouth of Egypt.
Bochart has ftiown very clearly that there was a
country called the “ land of Cup’1'1 in Arabia Petrsea,
bordering upon Egypt; that this country extended
itfelf principally upon the eaftern ftiore of the Red fea,
and at its extremity to the point of the fea, inclining
towards Egypt and Paleftine.
Thus there are three countries of the name of Cufh,
deferibed in Scripture, and all confounded by interpre¬
ters under the general name of Ethiopia.
CUSHION, in engraving, is a bag of leather filled
with fand, commonly about nine inches fquare, and
three or four thick, ufed for fupporting the plate to be
engraved.
Cushion, in gilding, is made of leather, fattened to
a fquare board, from 14 inches fquare to 10, with a
handle. The vacuity between the leather and board
is fluffed with fine tow or wool, fo that the outer fur-
face may be flat and even. It is ufed for receiving the
leaves of gold from the paper, in order to its being cut
into proper fizes and figures.
CUSI, in Natural Hijiory, a name given by the
people of the Philippine iflands to a very fmall and
very beautiful fpecies of parrot.
CXJSV (cufpis), properly, denotes the point of a fpear
or fword : but is ufed in aftronomy to exprefs the points
or horns of the moon, or any other luminary.
Cusp, in AJlrology, is ufed for the firft point of each
of the 12 houfes, in a figure or fcheme of the heavens.
See House.
CUSPIDATED, in Botany, are fuch plants whofe
leaves are pointed like a fpear.
CUSPINIAN, John, a German, was born at Swein-
furt in 1473, and died at Vienna in 1529. He was
firft phyfician to the emperor Maximilian I. and em¬
ployed by that prince in feveral delicate negotiations.
We have of his in Latin, I. A hiftory of the Roman
emperors from Julius Caefar to the death of Maximi¬
lian I. Degory Wheare, in his Methodus Legendce
Hiftorice, calls this “ luculentum fane opus, et omnium lee-
tione dignijjimum.” 2. A hiftory of Auftria ; being a
kind of continuation of the preceding. 3. A hiftory
c u s
fJufpinian of the origin of the Turks, and of their cruelties to-
r ^ , wards Chriftians. Gerard Voflius calls Cufpinian map-
Hablt?" ,Wm fUQ a’V° h^0ria: lumen'
^CUSSO, the name given by the natives to a tree
which is indigenous to the high country of Abyflinia.
It is particularly defcribed by Mr Bruce $ but as this
celebrated traveller was totally unacquainted with the
language of botany, it is impoflible to difcover to what
clals, order, or genus, it belongs. It grows nearly to
the height of 2o feet, and the feed is employed by
the Abyffmians as a vermifuge. From the figure which
Mr Bruce has given of this plant, it would appear to
be moft nearly allied to the palms.
CUSTOM, a very comprehenfive term, denoting
the manners, ceremonies, and falhions of a people,
which having turned into a habit, and paffed into ufe,
obtain the force of laws; in which fenfe it implies
liich ufages, as, though voluntary at firft, are yet by
pra&ice become necelfary.
Cuftom is hence, both by lawyers and civilians, de¬
fined lex non fcripta, “ a law or right not written,”
eftablifhed by long ufage, and the confent of our an-
ceftors : in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to the lex
fcripta, or “ the written law.” See Law Index.
Custom and Habit, in the human economy. The
former is often confounded with the latter. By cu-
fom we mean a frequent reiteration of the fame aft ;
and by habit, the effeft that cuftom has on the mind
or body. This curious fubjeft falls to be confidered firft
in a moral, and fecondly in a phyfical, light.
I. Influence of Cuflom and Habit on the Mind, &c.
Cuftom hath fuch influence upon many of our feel-
ings, by warping and varying them, that its operations
demand the attention of all thofe who would be ac¬
quainted with human nature. The fubjeft, however,
is intricate. Some pleafures are fortified by cuftom :
Rcrnes's and yet cuftom begets familiarity, and confequently in-
Elements o/difference:
Criticifm.
If all the year were playing holidays,
To fport would be as tedious as to work :
But when they feldom come, they wifh’d-for come,
And nothing pleafeth but rare accidents. Shahefpeare.
In many inftances, fatiety and difguft are the confe-
quences of reiteration : again, though cuftom blunts
the edge of diftrefs and of pain ; yet the want of any
thing to which we have been long accuftomed is a fort
of torture. A clue to guide us through all the intrica¬
cies of this labyrinth, would be an acceptable prefent.
Whatever be the caufe, it is certain that we are
rUuch influenced by cuftom : it hath an effeft upon
our pleafures, upon our aftions, and even upon our
thoughts and fentiments. Habit makes no figure du¬
ring the vivacity of youth : in middle age it gains
ground; and in old age it governs without controul. In
that period of life, generally fpeaking, we eat at a
certain hour, take exercife at a ^certain hour, go to
reft at a certain hour, all by the direftion of Habit;
nay, a particular feat, table, bed, comes to be efien-
tial ; and a habit in any of thefe cannot be controuled
without uneafinefs.
Any flight or moderate pleafure, frequently reite¬
rated for a long time, forms a peculiar connexion be¬
tween us and the thing that caufes the pleafure. This
connexion, termed habit, has the effeft to awaken our
.7'
E 24 1
c u s
defire or appetite for that thing when it returns not Cuftom and
as ufual. . During the courfe of enjoyment, the plea- Habit,
fure rifes infenfibly higher and higher till a habit be i-«—
eftablilhed; at which time the pleafure is at its height*
It continues not, however, ftationary: the fame cu-
ftomary reiteration which carried it to its height,
brings it down again by infenfible degrees, even lower
than it was at firft; but of that*circumftance after¬
wards. What at prefent we have in view, is to prove
by experiments, that thofe things which at firft are
but^ moderately agreeable, are the apteft to become
habitual. Spirituous liquors, at firft.fcarce agreeable,
readily produce a habitual appetite ; and cuftom pre¬
vails fo far, as even to make us fond of things origi¬
nally difagreeable, fuch as coffee, affafoetida, *and to¬
bacco.
A walk upon the quarter-deck, though intolerably
confined, becomes however fo agreeable by cuftom,
that a failor in his walk on ftiore confines himfelf com¬
monly within the fame bounds. The author knew a
man who had relinquiftied the fea for a country life ;
in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial
mount with a level fummit, refembling moft accurately
a quarter-deck, not only in Ihape, but in fize ; and
here he generally walked. In Minorca, Governor
Kane made an excellent road the whole length of the
ifland : and yet the inhabitants adhere to the old road,
though not only longer, but extremely bad. Play or
gaming, at firft barely amufing, by the occupation it
affords, becomes in time extremely agreeable ; and is
frequently profecuted with avidity, as if it were the
chief bufinefs of life. The fame obfervation is appli¬
cable to the pleafures of the internal fenfes, thofe of
knowledge and virtue in particular : children have
fcarce any fenfe of thefe pleafures ; and men very little
who are in the ftate of nature without culture : our
tafte for virtue and knowledge improves flowly : but is
capable of growing ftronger than any other appetite in
human nature.
lo introduce an aftive habit, frequency of afts is
not fufficient without length of time : the quickeft fuc-
ceffion of afts in a fhort time is not fufficient; nor a
flow fucceffion in the longeft time, The effeft muft
be produced by a moderate foft aftion, and a long fe-
ries of eafy touches, removed from each other by ffiort
intervals. Nor are thefe fuflicient without regularity
in the time, place, and other circumftances of the ac¬
tion ; the more uniform any operation is, the fooner
it becomes habitual. And this holds equally in a paf-
five habit; variety, in any remarkable degree, prevents
the effeft ; thus any particular food will fcarce ever
become habitual where the manner of dreffing is va¬
ried. The circumftances then requifite to augment a
moderate pleafure, and at the long-run to form a ha¬
bit, are weak uniform afts, reiterated during a long
courfe of time, without any confiderable interruption:
every agreeable caufe that operates in this manner will
grow habitual.
fljfeBion and averfion, as diftinguiffied from paflion
on the one hand, and on the other from original difpo-
fition, are in reality habits refpefting particular ob-
jefts, acquired in the manner above fet forth. The
pleafure of focial intercourfe with any perfon muft:
originally be faint, and frequently reiterated, in order
to eftablifh the habit of affeftion. Affeftion thus ge¬
nerated.
C U S r 25 ] c u s
r.erated, whether it be friendfhip or love, feldom fwell
aTid Habit, into any tumultuous or vigorous paffion 5 but it is how-
ever the flrongeft cement that can bind together two
individuals of the human fpecies. In like manner, a
flight degree of difguft often reiterated with regularity,
grows into the habit of averfion, which commonly fub-
fifts for life.
Objects of tafte that are delicious, far from tending
to become habitual, are apt by indulgence to produce
fatiety and difgufl : no man contrafts a habit of ufing
fugar, honey, or fweetmeats, as he does tobacco.
Thefe violent delights have violent ends,
And in their triumphs die. The fweetefl: honey
Is loathfome in its own delicioufnefs,
And in the tafte confounds the appetite j
Therefore love mod’rately, long love doth foj
Too fvvift arrives as tardy as too flow.
Romeo and Juliet, A£i ii. fc. 6.
The fame obfefvation holds with refpedt to all objedfs
which being extremely agreeable raife violent paflions :
fuch paffions are incompatible with a habit of any kind :
and in particular they never produce affeftion or aver-
flon : a man who at firft fight falls violently in love,
has a ftrong defire of enjoyment, but no affedlion for
the woman (a) : a man who is furprifed with an un-
expefled favour, burns for an opportunity to exert his
gratitude, without having any affe&ion for his bene¬
factor : neither does defire of vengeance for an atroci¬
ous injury involve averfion.
It is perhaps not eafy to fay why moderate plea-
fures gather ftrength by cuftom : but two caufes con¬
cur to prevent that effeCt in the more intenfe plea*
fares. Thefe, by an original law in our nature, in-
creafe quickly to their full growth, and decay with no
lefs precipitation : and cuftom is too flow in its ope¬
ration to overcome that law. The other caufe is not
lefs powerful: exquifite pleafure is extremely fatiguing j
occafioning, as a naturalift would fay, great expence of
animal fpirits ; and of fuch the mind cannot bear fo
frequent gratification, as to fuperinduce a habit: if the
thing that raifes the pleafure return before the mind
Vol. VII. Part I.
have recovered its tone and relifli, difguft enfues inftead Ccftom
of pleafure. and
A habit never fails to admonilh us of the wonted 'v—•“*
time of gratification, by raifing a pain for want of the
objeCl, and a defire to have it. The pain of want is
always firft felt ; the defire naturally follows ; and
upon prefenting the object, both vanifti inftantaneoufly.
Thus a man accuftomed to tobacco, feels, at the end
of the utual interval, a confufed pain of want j which
at firft points at nothing in particular, though it foon
fettles upon its accuftomed objeft : and the fame may
be obferved in perfons addi£ted to drinking, who are
often in an uneafy reftlefs ftate before they think of
the bottle. In pleafures indulged regularly, and at
equal intervals, the appetite, remarkably obfequious to
cuftom, returns regularly with the ufual time of gra¬
tification •, not fooner, even though the objeCl be pre-
fented. This pain of want artfing from habit, feems
direClly oppofite to that of fatiety ; and it muft appear
fingular, that frequency of gratification fhould pro¬
duce effeCls fo oppofite, as are the pains of txcefs and
of want.
The appetites that refpeft the prefervation and pro¬
pagation of our fpecies, are attended with a pain of
want fimilar to that occafioned by habit ; hunger and
thirft are uneafy fenfations of want, which always pre¬
cede the defire of eating or drinking; and a pain for
want of carnal enjoyment precedes the defire of an ob¬
ject. The pain being thus felt independent of an ob¬
ject, cannot be cured but by gratification. Very dif¬
ferent is an ordinary paffion, in which defire precedes
the pain of want : fuch a paffion cannot exift but while
the objedft is in view : and therefore, by removing the
objedt out of thought, it vaniffieth with its dtfire and
pain of want.
The natural appetites above-mentioned, differ from
habit in the following particular : they have an unde¬
termined diredlion toward all objedls of gratification
in general ; whereas an habitual appetite is diredled
to a particular objedt : the attachment we have by ha¬
bit to a particular woman, differs widely from the na¬
tural paffion which comprehends the whole fex j and
D the
(a) Violent love, without affedlion, is finely exemplified in the following ftory. When Conftantinople was
taken by the Turks, Irene, a young Greek of an illuftrious family, fell into the hands of Mahomet II. who
was at that time in the prime of youth and glory. His favage heart being fubdued by her charms, he fhut him-
felf up with her, denying accefs even to his minifters. Love obtained fuch afcendant as to make him frequent¬
ly abandon the army, and fly to his Irene. War relaxed, for vidlory was no longer the monarch’s favourite
paffion. The foldiers, accuftomed to booty, began to murmur, and the infedlion fpread even among the com¬
manders. The Baffia Muftapha, confulting the fidelity he owed his mafter, was the firft who durft acquaint
him of the difcourfes held publicly to the prejudice of his glory. The fultan, after a gloomy filence, formed
his refolution. He ordered Muftapha to affemble the troops next morning j and then with precipitation retired
to Irene’s apartment. Never before did that princefs appear fo charming j never before did the prince beftow
fo many warm careffes. To give a new luftre to her beauty, he exhorted her women next morning to beftow
their utmoft art and care on her drefs. He took her by the hand, led her into the middle of the army, and
pulling off her veil demanded of the baflias with a fierce look, whether they had ever beheld fuch a beauty ?
After an awful paufe, Mahomet with one hand laying hold of the young Greek by her beautiful locks, and
with the other pulling out his fcimitar, fevered the head from the body at one ftrnke. Then turning to his
grandees, with eyes wild and furious, “ This fword (fays he), when it is my will, knows to cut the bands of
love.” However ftrange it may appear, we leatn from experience, that defire of enjoyment may confift with
the moft brutal averfion, directed both to the fame woman. Of this tve have a noted example in the firft book
*jf Sully’s Memoirs } to which we refer the reader.
c u s
Cuftom the habitual relilh for a particular dilh, is far from be-
and Hab't^ jng fame wJth a vague appetite for food. That
W~vr"",; difference notwithftanding, it is ftill remarkable, that
nature hath enforced the gratification of certain natu¬
ral appetites eflential to the fpecies, by a pain of the
fame fort with that which habit produceth.
i. he pain of habit is lefs under our power than any
other pain that arifes from want of gratification: hunger
and third: are more eafiiy endured, efpecially at firif,
than an unufual intermiflion of any habitual pleafure :
perfons are often heard declaring, they would forego
deep or food, rather than tobacco. We muft not,
however, conclude, that the gratification of an habi¬
tual appetite affords the fame delight with the gratifi¬
cation of one that is natural : far from it j the pain of
want only is greater.
The flow and reiterated a&s that produce a habit,
ftrengthen the mind to enjoy the habitual pleafure in
greater quantity and more frequency than originally j
and by that means a habit of intemperate gratification
is often formed : after unbounded afts of intemperance,
the habitual relifli is foon reftored, and the pain for
want of enjoyment returns with freffi vigour.
The caufes of the prefent emotions hitherto in view,
are either an individual, fiich as a companion, a cer¬
tain dwelling place, a certain amufement j. or a par¬
ticular fpecies, fueb as coffee, mutton, or any other
food. But habit is not confined to fuch. A conftant
train of trifling diverfions may form fuch a habit in
the mind, that it cannot be eafy a moment without
amufement : a variety in the objects prevents a habit
as to any one in particular : but as the train is uniform
with refpeft to araufement, the habit is formed aecord-
ingly y and that fort of habit may be denominated
a generic habit, in oppofition to the former, which is a
fpecific habit. A habit of a town life, of country-fports,
of folitude, of reading, or of bufinefs, where fufficient-
ly varied, are inftances of generic habits. Every fpe-
cific habit hath a mixture of the generic; for the ha¬
bit of any one fort of food makes the tafte agreeable,
and we are fond of that tafle wherever found. Thus
a man deprived of an habitual objedl, takes up with
what moft refembles it; deprived of tobacco, any bit¬
ter herb will do rather than want; a habit of punch
makes wine a good refource : accuftomed to the fweet
fociety and comforts of matrimony, the man unhap¬
pily deprived of his beloved objeft, inclines the foon-
er to a fecond. In general, when we are deprived of a
habitual objeft, we are fond of its qualities in any other
objedl.
The reafons are affigned above, why the caufes of
intenfe pleafure become not readily habitual : but now
we difcover, that tbefe reafons conclude only againft
fpecifie habits. In the cafe of a weak pleafure, a ha¬
bit is formed by frequency and uniformity of reitera¬
tion, which, in the cafe of an intenfe pleafure, pro¬
duceth fatiety and difguff. But it is remarkable, that
fatiety and difguft have no effedt, except as to that
thing fingly which occafions them ; a forfeit of honey
produceth not a loathing of fugar ; and intemperance
with one woman produceth no difrelilh of the fame
pleafure with others. Hence it is eafy to account for
a generic habit in any intenfe pleafure; the delight
we had in the gratification of the appetite, .inflames
the imagination, and makes us fearch, with aviditv,
s
whatever other objedl it Cuftom
And thus uniform frequency in grati- and Habit,
fying the fame paflion upon different objedts, produ-
ceth at length a generic habit. In this manner one
acquires an habitual delight in high and poignant fau¬
ces, rich drefs, fine equipages, crowds of company, and
in whatever is commonly termed pleafure. There con¬
curs, at the fame time, to introduce this habit, a pe¬
culiarity obferved above, that reiteration of adls en¬
larges the capacity of the mind to admit a more plen¬
tiful gratification than originally, with regard to fre¬
quency, as well as quantity.
Hence it appears, that though a fpecific habit can¬
not be formed but upon a moderate pleafure, a gene¬
ric habit may be formed upon any fort of pleafure,
moderate or immoderate, that hath variety of obje'dls.
The only difference is, that a weak pleafure runs na¬
turally into a fpecific habit ; whereas an intenfe plea¬
fure is altogether averfe to fuch a habit. In a word,
it is only in Angular cafes that a moderate pleafure
produces a generic habit : but an intenfe pleafure can¬
not produce any other habit.
The appetites that refpedt the prefervation and pro¬
pagation of the fpecies, are formed into habit in a pe¬
culiar manner ; the time as well as meafure of their
gratification is much under the power of cuflom;
which, introducing a change upon the body, occafions
a proportional change in the appetites. Thus, if the
body be gradually formed to a certain quantity of food
at ftated times, the appetite is regulated accordingly ;
and the appetite is again changed, when a different
habit of body is introduced by a different practice.
Here it would feem, that the change is not made upon
the mind, which is commonly the cafe in paflive ha¬
bits, but upon the body.
When rich food is brought down by ingredients of
a plainer tafte, the compofition is fufceptible of a fpe¬
cific habit. I hus the fweet tafte of iugar, rendered
lefs poignant in a mixture, may, in courfe of time,
produce a fpecific habit for fuch mixture. As mode¬
rate pleafures, by becoming more intenfe, tend to ge¬
neric habits ; fo intenfe pleafures, by becoming more
moderate, tend to fpecifie habits.
The beauty of the human figure, by a fpecial re¬
commendation of nature, appears to us fupreme, amid
the great variety of beauteous forms beflowed upon
animals. The various degrees in vrhich individuals
enjoy that property, render it an objed fometimes
of a moderate, fumetimes of an intenfe, paflion. The
moderate paflion, admitting frequent reiteration with¬
out diminution, and occupying the mind without ex-
haufting it, turns gradually ftronger till it become a
habit. Nay, inftances are not wanting, of a face at
firft difagrtcable, afterwards rendered indifferent by
familiarity, and at length agreeable by cuftom. On
the other hand, confummate beauty, at the very firft
glance, fills the mind fo as to admit no increafe. En¬
joyment leffens the pleafure; and if often repeated,
ends commonly in fatiety and difguff. The impref-
fions made by confummate beauty, in a gradual fuc-
ceffnm from lively to faint, conilitute a feries oppofite
to that of faint impreflions waxing gradually more
lively, till they produce a fpecific habit. But the mind
when aecuflomed to beauty contrafls a relifli tor it in
general, though often repelled from particular objeds
by
26 ] c u
for the fame gratification in
can be found.
C U S [
4Jiiftom by tbe pain of fatiety ; and thus a generic habit is
Sind Habit formed, of which inconilancy in love is the neceffary
« confequence ; for a generic habit, comprehending every
beautiful objeft, is an invincible obftrudtion to a fpeci-
fic habit, which is confined to one.
But a matter which is of great importance to the
youth of both fexe.s, deferves more than a curfory
view. Though the pleafant emotion of beauty differs
widely from the corporeal appetite, yet when both
are dire£ted to the fame objefi, they produce a very
flrong complex paffion ; enjoyment in that cafe tnuft
be exquifite ; and therefore more apt to produce fa¬
tiety than in any other cafe whatever. This is a ne¬
ver-failing effi £!, where confummate beauty in the
one party, meets with a warm imagination and great
fenfibility in the other. What we are here explaining,
is true without exaggeration j and they muff be infen-
iible upon whom it makes no impreffion : il deferves
well to be pondered by the young and the amorous,
who, in forming the matrimonial fociety, are too often
blindly impelled by the animal pleafure merely, in¬
flamed by beauty. It may indeed happen, after the
pleafure is gone, and go it muff with a fwift pace,
that a new connexion is formed upon more dignified
and more lading principles : but this is a dangerous
experiment j for even fuppofing good fenfe, good tem¬
per, and internal merit of every fort, yet a new con¬
nexion upon fuch qualifications is rarely formed : it
commonly, or rather always happens, that fuch qualifi¬
cations, the only folid foundation of an indiffoluble con¬
nexion, are rendered altogether invifible by fatiety of
enjoyment creating difguft.
One effeff of cuftom, different from any that have
been explained, muff not be omitted, becaufe it makes
a great figure in human nature : though cuftom aug¬
ments moderate pleafures, and leffens thofe that are
intenfe, it has a different effed with refpeft to pain j
for it blunts the edge of every fort of pain and diftrefs,
faint or acute. Uninterrupted mifery, therefore, is at¬
tended with one good effedl: if its torments be incef-
fant, cuftom hardens us to bear them.
The changes made in forming habits are curious.
Moderate pleafures are augmented gradually by reite¬
ration, till they become habitual ; and then are at
their height : but they are not long ftationary : for
from that point they gradually decay, till they vanifh
altogether. The pain occafioned by want of gratifica¬
tion runs a different courfe : it increafes uniformly j
and at laft becomes extreme, when the pleafure of gra¬
tification is reduced to nothing.
It fo falls out,
That what we have we prize not to the worth,
While we enjoy it ; but being lack’d and loft,
Why then we rack the value $ then we find
The virtue that poffeffion would not {how us
Whilft it was ours.
Much ado about Nothing, A61 iv. fc. 2.
The effect of cuftom with relation to a fpecific habit
is difplayed through all its varieties in the ufe of to¬
bacco. The tafte of that plant is at firft extremely
unpleafant : our difguft lelfens gradually till it vanifh
altogether ; at which period the tafte is neither agree¬
able nor difagreeable : continuing the ufe of the plant,
we begin to relifh it j and our relifh improves by ufe,
27 ] c u s
till it arrive at perfection : from that period it gtadu- Cuftom
ally decays, while the habit is in a ftate of increment, and Habit,
and confequently the pain of want. The refult is, that 'v l"‘‘_
when the habit has acquired its greateft vigour, the
relifh is gone ; and accordingly we often fmoke and
take fnuff habitually, without fo much as being con-
fcious of the operation. We muff expeCl gratification
after the pain of want ; the pleafure of which gratifi¬
cation is the greateft when the habit is the moft: vi¬
gorous : it is of the fame kind with the pleafure one
feels upon being delivered from the rack. This plea¬
fure, however, is but occafionally the efftCl of habit j
and. however exquifite, is avoided as much as poffible
becaufe of the pain that precedes it.
With regard to the pain of want, we can difcover
no difterence between a generic and fpecific habit;
but thefe habits differ widely with refpeft to the pofi-
tive pleafure. We have had occafion to obferve, that
the pleafure of a fpecific habit decay- gradually till it
turn imperceptible : the pleafure of a generic habit,
on the contrary, being fupported by variety of gratifi¬
cation, fuffers little or no decay after it comes to its
height. However it may be with other generic ha¬
bits, the obfervation certainly holds with refpedf to the
p’eafures of virtue and knowledge : the pleafure of
doing good has an unbounded fcope, and may be fo
varioufly gratified that it can never decay : fcience is
equally unbounded •, our appetite for knowledge ha¬
ving an ample range of gratification, where difcoveries
are recommended by novelty, by variety, by utility, or
by all of them.
In this intricate inquiry, we have endeavoured, but
without fuccefs, to difcover by what particular means
it is that cuftom hath an influence upon us : and now
nothing feems left, but to hold our nature to be fo fra¬
med as to be fufeeptible of fuch influence. And fup¬
pofing it purpofely fo framed, it will not be difficult to
find out feveral important final caufes. That the power
of cuftom is a happy contrivance for our good, cannot
have efcaped any one who rtflefts, that bufinefs is our
province, and pleafure our relaxation only. Now fa¬
tiety is neceflary to check exquifite pleafures, which
otherwife would engrofs the mind, and unqualify us
for bufinefs. On the other hand, as bufinefs is fome-
times painful, and is never pleafant beyond modera¬
tion, the habitual increafe of moderate pleafure, and
the converfion of pain into pleafure, are admirably
contrived for difappointing the malice of fortune, and
for reconciling us to whatever courfe of life may be
our lot :
How ufe doth breed a habit in a man !
This fhadowy defert, unfrequented woods,
I better brook than flourilhing peopled towns.
Here I can fit alone, unfeen of any,
And to the nightingale’s complaining notes
Tune my diftrefles, and record my woes.
Two Gentlemen of Verona, Atl v. fc. 4.
As the foregoing diftinflions between intenfe and
moderate, hold in pleafure only, every degree of pain
being foftened by time, cuftom is a catholicon for pain
and diftrefs of every fort •, and of that regulation the
final caufe requires no illuftration.
Another final caufe of cuftom will be highly reliflied
by every perfon of humanity, and yet has in a great
D 2 jneafure
C U S [28
uliom meafure been overlooked j which is, that cuflotn hath
Habit, a greater influence than any other known caufe, to
“v put the rich and the poor upon a level ; weak plea-
fure-, the ihare of the latter, become fortunately
fllonger by cultom ; while voluptuous pleafures, the
fhare of the former, are continually L.fing ground
by fatiety. Men of fortune, who poffefs palaces, fump-
tuous gardens, rich lields, enjoy them lefs than paflen-
gers do. '1 he goods of Fortune are not unequally
diftnbuted •, the opulent poffefs what others enjoy.
And indeed, if it be the effect of habit, to produce
the pain of want in a high degree while there is little
pleaiure in enjoyment, a voluptuous life is of all the
lead: to be envied. Thole who are habituated to high
feeding, eafy vehicles, rich furniture, a crowd of va-
let^, much deference and flattery, enjoy but a fmall
fhare of happinefs, while they are expofed to mani¬
fold diltreffes. i o fuch a man, enflaved by eafe and
luxury, even the petty inconveniences in travelling, of
a rough road, bad weather, or homely fare, are feri-
ous t vils : he lofes his tone of mind, turns peevifli, and
would wreak his refentment even upon the common
accidents of life. Better far to ufe the goods of For¬
tune with moderation : a man who by temperance
and activity hath acquired a hardy coniiitution, is, on
the one hand, guarded againft external accidents ; and,
on the other, is provided with great variety of enjoy¬
ment ever at command.
We (hall clofe this branch of the fubjedf with an
article more delicate than abftrufe, viz. what authority
cuftom ought to have over our tafte in. the fine arts.
One particular is certain, that we cheerfully abandon
to the authority of cuitom things that nature hath left
indifferent. It is cuftom, not nature, that hath efta-
blillied a difference between the right hand and the
left, fo as to make it awkward and difagreeable to ufe
the left where the right is commonly ufed. The va¬
rious colours, though they affefl us differently, are all
of them agreeable in their purity : but cullom has
regulated that matter in another manner ; a black fkin
upon a human being, is to us difagreeable j and a
white fkin probably not lefs fo to a negro. Thus
things, originally indifferent, become agreeable or dif¬
agreeable by the force of cuftom. Nor will this be
furprifing after the difcovery made above, that the
original agreeablenefs or difagreeablenefs of an objeft
is, by the influence of cullom, often converted into
the oppofite quality.
Proceeding to matters of tafte, where there is natu¬
rally a preference of one thing before another ; it is
certain, in the firft place, that our faint and more de¬
licate feelings are readily fufceptible of a bias from
cuftom ; and therefore that it is no proof of a defec¬
tive tafte, to find thefe in fome meafure influenced
by cuftom j drefs and the modes of external behavi¬
our are regulated by cuftom in every country ; the
deep red or vermilion with which the ladies in France
cover their cheeks, app*ars to them beautiful in fpite
of nature*, and ftrangers cannot altogether be jufii-
fied in condemning that practice, confidering the law¬
ful authority of cuftom, or of the fafhion, as it is call¬
ed : it is told of the people who inhabit the fkirts of
the Alps facing the north, that the fuelling they uni-
verlallv have in the neck is to them agreeable. So
fer has tuftoxn power to change the nature of things,
? ■
] CVS
and to make an object originally difagreeable take on Cuftom
an oppofite appearance. and Habit.
But as to every particular that can be denominated v 1
proper or improper, right or wrong, cuftom has little
authority, and ought to have none. I he principle of
duty takes naturally place of every other ; and it ar¬
gues a fliameful weaknefs or degeneracy of mind, to
find it in any cafe fo far fubdued as to fubmit to cuf¬
tom.
II. KffcBs of Cuftom and Habit in the Animal Econo*
my. Thefe may be reduced to five heads : i. On the
Ample folids. 2. On the organs of fenfe. 3. On the
moving power. 4. On the whole nervous power.
5. On the fyftem of blood veffels.
1. Ejfeffs on the Simple Solids. Cuftom determines-
the degree of flexibility of which they are capable.
By frequently repeated flexion, the feveral particles of
which thefe folids confift are rendered more fupple
and moveable on each other. A piece of catgut, e. g.
when on the ftretch, and having a weight appended
to its middle^ will be bended thereby perhaps half an
inch ; afterwards, by frequent repetitions of the fame
weight, or by increafing the weight, the flexibility
will be rendered double. The degree of flexibility has
a great effedt in determining the degree of ofcillation,
provided that elafticity is not affefted 5 if it go beyond
this, it produces flaccidity. Again, cuftom determines
the degree of tenfion j for the fame elaftic chord that
now ofcillates in a certain degree of tenfion, will, by
frequent repetition of thefe ofcillations, be fo far re¬
laxed, that the extenfion muft be renewed in order to-
produce the fame tenfion, and conlequently the fame
vibrations, as at firft. This appears in many inftances
in the animal economy, as when different mufcles con¬
cur to give a fixed point or tenfion to each other $
and thus a weakly child totters as it walks j but by
giving it a weight to carry, and by thus increafing the
tenfion of the fyftem, it walks more fteadily. In like
manner, the fullnefs of the fyftem gives ftrength, by
diftending the veffels every where, and fo giving ten¬
fion : hence a man, by good nourilhment, from being
weak, acquires a great increafe of ftrenglh in a few
days : and, on the other hand, evacuations weaken by
taking off the tenfion.
2. EjfeRs on the Organs of Senfe. Repetition gives
a greater degree of fenfibility, in fo far only as it ren¬
ders perception more accurate. Repetition alone gives
lafting impreflion, and thus lays the foundation of me¬
mory ; for fingle impreflions are but retained for a
ftiort time, and are foon forgot. Thus a perfon, who
at prefent has little knowledge of cloths, will by fre¬
quently handling them, acquire a fkill of difeerning
them, which to others feems almoft impoflible. Many
are apt to miftake this for a nicer fenfibility, but they
are much miftaken ; for it is an univerfal law, that the
repetition of impreflion renders us lefs acute. This is
well illuflrated by the operation of medicines *, for all
medicines which a6I on the organs of fenfe mull, after
fome time, be increafed in their dofe to produce the
fame effefts as at firft. T his affords a rule in pratlice
with regard to thefe medicines j. it becoming neceflary,
after a certain time, to change one medicine even
for a weaker of the fame nature. T hus medicines
which even have no. great apparent force, are found,
by long ufe, to dellroy the.fenfibility of the fyftem to
otkes-
C U S [
Cuftom other impreflions. But to this general rule, that, by
and Habit, repetition, the force of impreflions is more and more
» diminifhed, there are fome exceptions. I hus perfons,
by a ftrong emetic, have had their ftomacbs rendered
fo irritable, that one-twentieth of the firft dofe was fuf-
ficient to produce the fame effe.61. This, however, oft-
ener takes place when the vomit is repeated every day ;
for if the fame vomit be given at pretty confidcrable
intervals, the general rule is obferved to hold good.
Thus two contrary effe£ls of habit are to be noted ;
and it is proper to obferve, that the greater irritability
is more readily produced when the firfl impreflion is
great, as in the cafe firlt given of the ftrong emetic.
This may be further illuftrated by the effeft of fear,
which is commonly obferved to be diminiftied on repe¬
tition *, which can only be attributed to cuftom ; while,
on the other hand, there are inftances of perfons, who,
having once got a great fright, have for ever after
continued {laves to fears excited by impreflions of the
like kind, however flight •, which muft be imputed en¬
tirely to excels of the firft impreflion, as has been al¬
ready obferved. To this head alfo belongs the aflb-
ciation of ideas, which is the foundation of memory
and all our intelleftual faculties, and is entirely the
effect of cuftom : with regard to the body alfo, thefe
affociations often take place. And fometimes, in pro¬
ducing effe&s on the body, affociations feemingly op-
pofite are formed, which, through cuftom, become ab-
folutely neceffary; e. g. a perfon long accuftomed to
fleep in the neighbourhood of a great noife, is fo far
from being incommoded on that account, that after¬
wards fuch noife becomes neceffary to produce fleep.
It will be of ufe to attend to this in medical pradlice ;
for we ought to allow for, however oppofite it may
feem at the time, whatever ufually attended the pur-
pofe we defign to effeft. Thus, in the inftance of
fleep, we muft not exclude noife when we want to pro¬
cure reft, or any caufe which may feem oppofite to
fuch an effeft, provided cuftom has rendered them ne¬
ceffary.
3. KffeEis on the Moving Fibres. A certain degree
of tenfion is neceffary to motion, which is to be deter¬
mined by cuftom ; e. g. a fencer, accuftomed to one
foil, cannot have the fame fteadinefs or a&ivity with
one heavier or lighter. It is neceflary alfo that every
motion {hould be performed in the fame fituation, or
pofture of the body, as the perfon has been accuftomed
to employ in that motion. Thus, in any chirurgical
operation, a certain pofture is recommended ; but if the
operator has been accuftomed to another, fuch a one,
however awkward, becomes neceffary afterwards to his
right performance of that operation.
Cuftom alfo determines the degree of ofcillation of
which the moving fibres are capable. A perfon accuf¬
tomed to ftrong mufcular exertions is quite incapable of
the more delicate. Thus writing is performed by fmall
mufcular contraflions ; but if a perfon has been accuf¬
tomed to ftronger motions with thefe mufcles, he will
write with much lefs fteadinefs.
This fubjeft of tenfion, formerly attributed to the
fimplefibres, is probably more ftri&ly applicable to the
moving : for befides a tenfion from flexion, there is
alfo a tenfion from irritation and fympathy *, e. g. the
tenfion of the ftomach from food, gives tenfion to the
whole body. Wioe and fpivituous liquors give tenfion;
I
29
] c. u s
e. g. a perfon that is fo affe&ed with tremor as fcarcely
— - r - Cuftom
to hold a glafs of any of thefe liquors to his head, has and Habit;
no fooner fwallowed it, than his whole body becomes ‘ v
fteady •, and after the fyftem has been accuftomed to
fuch ftimuli, if they are not applied at the ufual time,
the whole body becomes flaccid, and of confequence un-
fteady in its motions.
Again, cuftom gives facility of motion. This feems
to proceed from the diftenfion which the nervous
power gives to the moving fibres themfelves. But in
whatever manner it is occafioned, the effect is obvious j
for any new or unufual motion is performed with great'
difficulty.
It is fuppofed that fenfation depends on a communi¬
cation with the fenforium commune, by means of or¬
gans fufficiently diftended with nervous influence. We
have found, that fenfibility is diminiftied by repetition.
And we have now to obferve, that in lome cafes it may
be increafed by repetition, owing to the nervous power
itfelf flowing more eafily into the part on account of
cuftom. Attention to a particular objeft may alfo de¬
termine a greater influx into any particular part, and
thus the fenfibility and irritability of that particular
part may be increafed.
But with regard to facility of motion, the nervous
power, no doubt, flows moft eafily into thofe parts to
which it has been accuftomed: yet facility of motion
does not entirely depend on this, but in part alfo on
the concurrence of the aftion of a great many mufcles j
e. g. Winflow has obferved, that in performing any
motion, a number of mufcles concur to give a fixed
point to thofe intended chiefly to a6f, as well as to
others that are to vary and modify their a£tion. This,
however, is aflifted by repetition and the freer influx j
as by experience we know the proper attitude for giv¬
ing a fixed point in order to perform any adion with
facility and fleadinefs.
Cuftom gives a fpontaneous motion alfo, which feems
to recur at ftated periods, even when the exciting caufes
are removed. Thus, if the ftomach has been accuf¬
tomed to vomit from a particular medicine, it will re¬
quire a much fmaller dofe than at firft, nay, even the
very fight or remembrance of it will be fufficient to
produce the effed : and there are not wanting inftances
of habitual vomiting, from the injudicious adminiftra-
tion of emetics. It is on this account that all fpafmodic
affedions fo eafily become habitual, and are fo difficult
of cure ; as we muft not only avoid all the exciting
caufes, even in the fmalleft degree, but alfo their affo¬
ciations.
Cuftom alfo gives ftrength of motion $ ftrength de¬
pends on ftrong ofcillations, a free and copious influx
of the nervous power, and on denfe folids. But in what
manner all thefe circumftances have been brought about
by repetition, has been already explained. I he effed
of cuftom in producing ftrength, may be thus illuftra¬
ted : a man that begins with lifting a calf, by continu¬
ing the fame pradice every day, will be able to lift it
• when grown to the. full fize of a bull.
All this is of confiderable importance in the pradice
of phyfic, though but too little regarded ; for the re¬
covery of weak people, in a great meafure, depends
on the ufe of exercife fuited to their ftrength, or rather
within it, frequently repeated and gradually increafed.
Farther, it is neceffary to obferve, that cuftom re.gu-
latfig 3
c u s
Cuftom lates tlie particular celerity with which each motion is
?mi Habit t() be performed : for a perfon accullomed, for a con-
^ fiderable time to one degree of celerity, becomes inca¬
pable^ of a greater j e. g. a man accuftomed to flow
walking will be out of breath before he can run 20
paces. Phe train or order in which our motions are
to be performed is alfo eftabliflred by cuftom ; for if
a man hath repeated motions, for a certain time, in any
particular order, he cannot afterwards perform them
in any other. Cuftom alfo very frequently aflociates
motions and fenfations j thus, if a perfon has been in
ufe of aflbeiating certain ideas with the ordinary fti-
mulus which in health excites urine, without thefe
ideas the ufual inclination will fcarce excite that ex¬
cretion ; and, when thefe occur, will require it even
in the abfence of the primary exciting caufe: e. g. it
is very ordinary for a perfon to make urine when go¬
ing to bed; and if he has been for any length of time
accuftomed to do fo, he will ever afterwards make
urine at that time, though otherwife he would often
have no fuch inclination : by this means fome fecre-
tions become in a manner fubjed to the will. The
fame may be faid of going to ftool j and this affords
us a good rule in the cafe of coftivenefs j for by en¬
deavouring to fix a ftated time for this evacuation, it
will afterwards, at fuch a time, more readily return. It
is farther remarkable, that motions are infeparably af-
fociated with other motions ; this, perhaps, very often
proceeds from the neceflary degree of tenfion 5 but it
alfo often depends merely on cuftom, an inftance of
■which we have in the uniform motions of our eyes.
4. EJfeSis on the whole Nervous Power. We have
found, that, by cuftom, the nervous influence may be
determined more eafily into one part than another 5
and therefore, as all the parts of the fyftem are ftrong-
ly conneded, the fenfibility, irritability, and ftrength
of any particular part may be thus increafed. Cu¬
ftom alio has the power of altering the natural tem¬
perament, and of inducing a new one. It is alfo in
the power of cuftom to render motions periodical, and
periodically fpontaneous. An inftance of this we have
in fleep, which is commonly faid to be owing to the
nervous power being exhaufted, the neceflary confe-
quence of which is fleep, e. g. a reft of the voluntary
motions to favour the recruit of that power ; but if
this were the cafe, the return of fleep fliould be at dif¬
ferent times, according as the caufes which diminifh
the nervous influence operate more or lefs powerfully ;
whereas the cafe is quite otherwife, thefe returns of
fleep being quite regular. This is no lefs remarkable
in the appetites, that return at particular periods, in¬
dependent of every caufe but cuftom. Hunger, e. g.
is an extremely uneafy fenfation j but goes off of it-
felf, if the perfon did not take food at the ufual time.
.I he excretions are farther proofs of this, e. g. going
to ftool, which, if it depended on any particular irri¬
tation, fliould be at longer or ftiorter intervals, accord¬
ing to the nature of the aliment. There are many
other inftances of this difpofition of the nervous influ¬
ence to periodical motions, as the ftory of the idiot of
Stafford, recorded by Dr Plot (Spectator, N° 447.),
who, being accuftomed to tell the hours of the church
clock as it ftruck, told them as exa&ly when it did not
ftrike by its being out of order. Montaigne tells us
of fome oxen that were employed in a machine for
4/
/
f 3° ]
c u s
drawing water, who, after making 300 turns, which Cuftom
was the ufual number, could be ftimulated by no whip and Habit,
or goad to proceed farther. Infants alfo cry for and *—v~->-
exped the breaft at thofe times in which the nurfe has
been accuftomed to give it.
Hence it would appear, that the human economy
is fubjed to periodical revolutions, and that thefe hap¬
pen not oftener may be imputed to variety j and this
feems to be the reafon why they happen oftener in the
body than mind, becaufe that is fubjed to greater va¬
riety. We fee frequent inftances of this in diitales,
and in their crifes ; intermitting fevers, epilepfies, afth-
mas, &c. are examples of periodical affedions $ and
that critical days are not fo ftrongly marked in this
country as in Greece, and fome others, may be im¬
puted to the variety and inftability of our climate ; but
perhaps ftill more to the lefs fenfibility and irritability
of our fyftem j for the exhibition of medicine has little
effed in difturbing the crifes, though it be commonly
afligned as a caufe.
We are likewife fubjed to many habits independent
of ourfelves, as from the revolutions of the celeftial
bodies, particularly the fun, which determines the bo¬
dy, perhaps, to other daily revolutions befides fleeping
and waking. There are alfo certain habits depeading
on the feafons. Our connedions, likewife, with re-
fped to mankind, are means of inducing habits. Thus
regularity from affociating in bufinefs induces regular
habits both of mind and body.
There are many difeafes which, though they arofe
at firft from particular caufes, at laft continue merely
through cuftom or habit. Thefe are chiefly of the
nervous fyftem. We ftrould therefore ftudy to coun-
terad fuch habits •, and accordingly Hippocrates,
among other things for the cure of epilepfy, orders an
entire change of the manner of life. We likewife
imitate this in the chincough ; which often refifts all
remedies, till the air, diet, and ordinary train of life,
are changed.
5. EffeBs on the B/ood-ve/Jels. From what has been
faid on the nervous power, the diftribution of the fluids
muft neceffarily be varioufly affeded by cuftom, and
with that the diftribution of the different excretions 5
for though we make an eftimate of the proportion of
the excretions to one another, according to the climate
and feafons, they muft certainly be very much varied by
cuftom.
On this head we may obferve, that blood letting
has a manifeft tendency to increafe the quantity of the
blood ; and if this evacuation be repeated at ftated
times, fuch fymptoms of repletion, and fuch motions,
are excited at the returning periods, as render the ope¬
ration neceflary. I he fame has been obferved in fome
fpontaneous hemorrhagies. Thefe, indeed, at firft,
may have fome exciting caufes, but afterwards they
feem to depend chiefly on cuftom. The beft proof of
this is with regard to the menftrual evacuation. There
is certainly fomething originally in females, that deter¬
mines that evacuation to the monthly periods. Con-
ftant repetition of this comes to fix it, independent of
ftrong caufes, either favouring or preventing repletion ;
e. g. blood-letting will not impede it, nor filling the
body induce it : and, indeed, fo much is this evacua¬
tion connefted with periodical motions, that it is little
in our power to produce any effeft by medicines but
. at
G U S
Cuftom thofe particular times. Thus if we would relax the
and Habit, uterine fyftem, and bring back this evacuation when
Cuftoms. fuppreflfed, our attempts would be vain and fruitlefs,
v unlefs given at that time when the menfes (hould have
naturally returned.
CUSTOMS, in political economy, or the duties, toll,
tribute, or tariff, payable to the king upon merchandife
exported and imported, form a branch of the perpetual
taxes. See Tax.
The confiderations upon which this revenue (or the
more ancient part of it, which arofe only from exports)
was inverted in the king, were faid to be two: I. Be-
caufe he gave the fubjedt leave to depart the kingdom,
and to carry his goods along with him. 2. Becaufe the
king was bound of common right to maintain and keep
up the port and havens, and to protedl the merchant
from nirates. Some have imagined they are called with
us cujioms, becaufe they were the inheritance of the
king by immemorial ufage and the common law, and
not granted him by any ftatute : but Sir Edward Coke
hath clearly fhown, that the king’s firft claim to them
was by grant of parliament 3 Edw. I. though the re¬
cord thereof is not now extant. And indeed this is
in exprefs words conffffed by ftatute 25 Edw. I. c. 7.
wherein the king promifes to take no cuftoms from
merchants, without the common affent of the realm,
“ faving to us and our heirs the cuftoms on wool,
fkins, and leather, formerly granted to us by the
commonalty aforefaid.” Thefe were formerly called
hereditary cuftoms of the crown $ and were due on the
exportation only of the faid three commodities, and
of none other : which were ftyled the Jlaple commodi¬
ties of the kingdom, becaufe they were obliged to be
brought to thofe ports where the king’s ftaple was
eftablilhed, in order to be there firft rated, and then
exported. They were denominated in the barbarous
Latin of our ancient records, cuftuma (an appellation
which feems to be derived from the French word cou-
Jlum or coutum, which fignifies toll or tribute, and
owes its own etymology to the word couji, which fig¬
nifies price, charge, or, as we have adopted it in Eng-
lifti, cofl) ; not confuetudines, which is the language of
our law whenever it means merely ufages. The du¬
ties on wool, theep-lkins or woolfells, and leather ex¬
ported, were called cujluma antiqua Jive magna, and
were payable by every merchant, as well native as.
ftranger : with this difference, that merchant-ftran-
gers paid an additional toll, viz. half as much again as
was paid by natives. The cuftuma parva et nova were
an impoft of 3d. in the pound, due from merchant-
ftrangers only, for all commodities as well imported as
exported ; which was ufually called the aliens duty,
and was firft granted in 31 Edw. I. But thefe ancient
hereditary cuftoms, efpecially thofe on wool and wool-
fells, came to be of little account, when the nation be¬
came fenfible of the advantages of a home manufacture,
and prohibited the exportation of wool by ftatute 11
Edw. III. c. I.
Other cuftoms payable upon exports and imports
were diftinguilhed into fubfidies, tonnage, poundage,
and other imports. Subfidies were fuch as were im-
pofed bv parliament upon any of the ftaple commodi¬
ties before mentioned, over and above the cujluma
antiqua et magna: tonnage was a duty upon all wines
imported, over and above the prifage and butlerage
c u s
aforefaid : poundage was a duty impofed ad valorem, Cuftotns.
at the rate of I2d. in the pound, on all other merchan-
dife whatfoever : and the other imports were fuch as
were occafionally laid on by parliament, as circum-
ftances and times required. Thefe diftinClions are now
in a manner forgotten, except by the officers immediate¬
ly concerned in this department j their produce being
in effeCl all blended together, under the one denomina¬
tion of the cujioms.
By thefe we underftand, at prefent, a duty or fub-
fidy paid by the merchants at the quay upon all
ported as well as exported commodities, by authority
of parliament; unlefs where, for particular national
reafons, certain rewards, bounties or drawbacks, are
allowed for particular exports or imports. The cuf¬
toms thus impofed by parliament are chiefly contain¬
ed in two books of rates, fet forth by parliamentary
authority ; one figned by Sir Harbottle Grimefton,
fpeaker of the houfe of commons in Charles ll.’s
time ; and the other an additional one, figned by Sir
Spencer Compton, fpeaker in the reign of George I.
to which alfo fubfequent additions have been made.
Aliens pay a larger proportion than natural fubjeCts,
which is what is now generally underftood by the aliens
duty; to be exempted from which is one principal
caufe of the frequent applications to parliament for afts
of naturalization.
Thefe cuftoms are then, we fee, a tax immediate¬
ly paid by the merchant, although ultimately by the
confumer. And yet thefe are the duties felt leaft by
the people: and if prudently managed, the people
hardly confider that they pay them at all. For the
merchant is eafy, being fenfible he does not pay them
for himfelf; and the confumer, who really pays them,
confounds them with the price of the commodity ;
in the fame manner as Tacitus obferves, that the em¬
peror Nero gained the reputation of abolifhing the
tax of the fale of flaves, though he only transferred it
from the buyer to the feller : fo that it was, as he ex-
preffes it, remijfum magis fpecie, quam vi: quia cutn
venditor pendere juberetur, in partem pretii emptoribus
accrefcebat. But this inconvenience attends it on the
other hand, that thefe imports, if too heavy, are a
check and cramp upon trade ; and efpecially when the
value of the commodity bears little or no proportion
to the quantity of the duty impofed. This in confe-
quence gives rife alfo to Smuggling, which then be¬
comes a very lucrative employment: and it* natural
and moft reafonable puniffiment, viz. confifcation of
the commodity, is in fuch cafes quite ineffectual ; the
intrinfic value of the goods, which is all that the
fmuggler has paid, and therefore all that he can lofe,
being very inconfiderable when compared with his
profpeCt of advantage in evading the duty. Recourfe
muft therefore be had to extraordinary puniffiments
to prevent it ; perhaps even to capital ones : which
deftroys all proportion of punilhment, and puts
murderers upon an equal footing with fuch as are
really guilty of no natural, but merely a pofitive of¬
fence.
There is alfo another ill confequence attending high
imports on merchandife, not frequently confidered,
but ind.fputably certain ; that the earlier any tax is
laid on a commodity, the heavier it falls upon the
confumer in the end j for every trader, through
whofe
[ 31 ]
CUT [ 32 ] CUT
Cuftoms whofe hands it pafles, muft have a profit, not only up- may not come too fuddenly to the breadth of the thin
II on the^raw materials and his own labour and time in which would retard it,
-C 'U' _ preparing it, but alfo upon the very tax itfelf, which CUTANEOUS, in general, an appellation given
be advances to the government j otherwife he lofes the to whatever belongs to the cutis or fkin. Thus, we fay,
ufe and intereft of the money which he fo advances. cutaneous eruptions : the itch is a cutaneous difeafe*
To inftance in the article for foreign paper. The CUTH, or Cuthah, in Ancient Geography, a pro-
merchant pays a duty upon importation, which he does vince of AlTyria, which, as fome lay, lies up'm the A«
tiot receive again till he fells the commodity, perhaps raxes, and is the fame with Culh j but others take it
at the end ot three months. He is therefore equally to be the fame with the country which the Greeks call
entitled to a profit upon that duty which he pays at the Sufiana, and which to this very day, fays Dr Wells is
cuftomhoufe, as to a profit upon the original price by the inhabitants called Chufeflan* F. Calmet is* of
which he pays to the manufacturer abroad j and con- opinion that Cuthah and Scythia are the fame place,
fiders it accordingly in the price he demands of the and that the Cuthites who were removed into Samaria
ftationer. When the ftationer fells it again, he re- by Salmanefer (2 Kings xvii. 24.) came from Culh, or
quires a profit of the printer or bookfeller upon the Cuth, mentioned in Gen. ii. 23. See the article Cush*
whole fum advanced by him to the merchants : and The Cuthites worlhipped the idol Nergal, Id. ibid. 30.
the bookfeller does not fail to charge the full propor- Thefe people were tranfplanted into Samaria in the
tion to the fludent or ultimate confumer ; who there- room of the Iraelites, who before inhabited it. Calmet
fore does not only pay the original duty, but the pro- is of opinion, they came from the land of Culh, or
fits of thefe three intermediate traders who have fuc- Cuthah, upon the Araxes ; and that their firft fettle-
celfively advanced it for him. This might be carried ment was in the cities of the Medes, fubdued by Sal-
much farther in any mechanical, or more complicated, manefer and the kings of Aflyria his predecefibrs. The
branch of trade. Scripture obferves, that the Cuthites, upon their ar-
CUSTOM-Houfe, an office eftablilhed by the king’s rival in this new country, continued to worlhip the
authority in the maritime cities, or port towns, for the gods formerly adored by them beyond the Euphrates,
receipt and management of the cuftoms and duties of Efarhaddon king of Aflyria, who fucceeded Senache-
importation and exportation, impofed on merchandifes, rib, appointed an Ifraelitilh priefl to go thither, and in-
and regulated by books of rates. ftruft them in the religion of the Hebrews. But thele
GUSTOS BREVIUM, the principal clerk belonging people thought they might reconcile their old fuper-
to the court of common pleas, whofe bufinefs it is to fiition with the worffiip of the true God. They there-
receive and keep all the writs made returnable in that fore framed particular gods for themfelves, which they
court, filing every return by itfelf; and, at the end of placed in the feveral cities where they dwelt. The
each term, to receive of the prothonotaries all the re- Cuthites then worffiipped both the Lord and their falfe
cords of the nifi prius, called the pojleas. gods together, and chofe the lowefl of the people to
CUSTOS-Rotulorum, an officer who has the cuftom of make priefts of them in the high places; and they
tbe rolls and records of the feffion of peace, and alfo of continued this pratflice for a long time. But after-
the commiffion of the peace itfelf. Wards they forfook the worffiip of idols, and adhered
He ufually is fome perfon of quality, and always a only to the law of Mofes, as the Samaritans, who are
'juflice of the peace, of the quorum, in the county where defcended from the Cuthites, do at this day.
he is appointed. ■ > CUTICLE, the Scarf Skin. See Anatomy/«**>
Custos Spintuahum, he that -exercifes the fpirituai CU IICULAR, the fame with Cutaneous.
jurifdiaion of a diocefe, during the vacancy of any fee, CUTIS, the Skin. See Anatomy Index.
which by the canon law, belongs to the dean and chap- CUTTER, a fmall velfel, commonly navigated m
ter ; but at prefent, in England, to the archbiffiop of the channel of England. It is furniffied with one mad
the province by prefcription. and rigged as a floop. Many of thefe veffiels are ufed’
Custos Temporohum, was the perfon to whom a va- in an illicit trade, and others are employed by govern-
cant fee or abbey was given by the king, as fupreme ment to take them ; the latter of which are either un-
lord. His office was, as Reward of the goods and pro- der the dire6tion of the admiralty or cuftom-houfe. See
fits, to give an account to the efcheator, who did the a reprefentation of a cutter of this fort in the plate re¬
like to the exchequer. ferred to in the article Vessel.
CUI'-FEATHER, in the lea-language. If a (hip has Cutter, is alfo a fmall boat ufed by (hips of war.
too broad a bow, it is common to fay, Jhe will not cut CUTTER of the Tallies, an officer of the exchequer
a feather} that is, ffie will not pafs through the Water whofe bufinefs is to provide wood for the tallies, to cut
fo ^V|ft as to make it foam or froth, or notch the fum paid upon them ; and then to call them
LUT-Furfe, in Law ; it any perfon clam et fecrete, into court, to be written upon. See Tally.
and without the knowledge of another, cut his purfe or CUTTING, a term ufed in various fenfes and va-
pick his pocket, and fteal from thence above the value rious arts; in the general it implies a divifion or fepa-
«f twelve pence, it is felony excluded clergy. ration. r
CuT-purfes, or faccularii, were more feverely puniffi- Cutting is particularly ufed in heraldry where the
ed than common thieves by the Roman and Athenian ffiield is divided into two equal parts, from right to left,
* r , , , - parallel to the horizon, or in the feffe-way.
CUT-Water, the ffiarp part of the head of a (hip be- The word is alfo applied to the honourable ordina-
low the beak. It is lo called, becaufe it cuts or di- nes, and even to animals and moveables whentheyare
rides the water before it comes to the bow, that it divided equally the fame way ; fo, however, as that
one
Ctt
Cutting.
;
CUT [ 33 ] CUT
Oittlng. one moiety Is colour, the other metal. The ordinaries
“—v""~* are faid to be cut, couped, when they do not come full
to the extremities of the thield.
Cutting, in Surgery, denotes the operation of ex-
tradting the Hone out of the bladder by fe&ion. See
Lithotomy, Surgery Index.
Cutting, in coinage. When the laminae or plates
of the metal, be it gold, filver, or copper, are brought
to the thicknefs of the fpecies to be coined, pieces are
cut out, of the thicknefs, and nearly of the weight, of
the intended coin j which are now called planchets, till
the king’s image hath been ftamped on them. The in-
ftaument wherewith they cut, confifts of trvo pieces of
fieel, very (harp, and placed over one another j the
lower a little hollow, reprefenting a mortar, the other
a pelile. The metal put between the two, is cut out
in the manner defcribed under Coinage.
Note. Medallions, where the relievo is to be great,
are not cut, but caft or moulded.
Cutting, in the manege, is when the horfe’s feet
interfere ; or when with the Ihoe of one foot he beats
off the Ikin from the paltern joint of another foot.
This is more frequent in the hind feet than the fore :
the caufes are either wearinefs, weaknefs in the reins,
not knowing how to go, or ill (hoeing.
Cutting, in painting, the laying one ftrong lively
colour over another, without any (hade or foltening.
The cutting of colours has always a difagreeable tfferi.
CUTTING in wood, a particular kind of fculpture or
engraving j denominated from the matter wherein it is
employed.
It is ufed for various purpofes \ as for figured letters 5
head and tail pieces of books j and even for fchemes
and other figures, to fave the expences of engraving on
copper ; and the prints and llamps for paper, callieoes,
linens, &c.
The invention of cutting in wood, as well as that
in copper, is afcribed to a goldfmith of Florence ; but
it is to Albert Durer and Lucas they are both in¬
debted for their perfeftion. See Engraving and
Printing.
One Hugo de Carpi invented a manner of cutting
in wood, by means whereof the prints appeared as if
painted in clair-obfcure. In order to this, he made
three kinds of damps for the fame defign } which
were drawn one after another through the prefs for
the fame print ; they were fo conduced, as that one
ferved for the grand lights, a fecond for the demi-
teints, and a third for the outlines and the deep
Ihadows.
The art of cutting in wood was certainly carried
to a very great pitch above two hundred years ago j
and might even vie, for beauty and juftnefs, with that
of engraving in copper. At prefent it is in a low con¬
dition, as having been long negleried, and the appli¬
cation of artifts wholly employed on copper, as the
more eafy and promifing province ; not but that wood¬
en cuts have the advantage of thofe in copper on many
accounts *, chiefly for figures and devices in books ; as
being printed at the fame time and in the fame prefs
as the letters ; whereas for the other there is required
a particular impreffion. In the reprefentation of plants
and flowers, and in defigns for paper-hangings, where
$he outline only is wanted to be printed in *a bold
VOL. VII. Part I.
full manner, this method will be found cheaper and Cutting',
more effectual than the ufe of copperplates. 1
The cutters in wood begin with preparing a plank
or block of the fize and thicknefs required, and very
even and fmooth on the fide to be cut : for this, they
ufually take beech, pear-tree, or box ; though the lat¬
ter is the beft, as being the clufeft, and leaft liable to
be worm-eaten. The wood being cut into a proper
form and fize, (hould be planed as even and truly as
poffible : it is then fit to receive the drawing or chalk¬
ing of the defign to be engraved. But the effe6l may¬
be made more apparent, and the ink, if any be ufed in
drawing, be prevented from running, by fpreading
thinly on the furface of the wood white lead tempered
with water, by grinding with a brulh pencil, and after¬
wards rubbing it well with a fine linen rag whilft it is
wet : and when it is dry, bruflring off any loofe or
powdery part with a foft pencil.
On this block they draw their defign with a pen or
pencil, juft as they would have it printed. Thofe
who cannot draw their own defign, as there are many
who cannot, make ufe of a defign furniftred them by
another ; faftening it upon the block with pafte made
of flour and water, with a little vinegar or gum
tragacanth j the ftrokes or lines turned towards the
wood.
When the paper is dry, they wafti it gently over
with a fponge dipped in water 5 which done, they
take off the paper by little and little, ftill rubbing it
a little firft with the tip of the finger j till at length
there be nothing left on the block but the ftrokes of
ink that form the defign, which mark out fo much of
the block as is to be fpared or left ftanding. Figures
are fometimes cut out of prints, by taking away all the
white part or blank paper, and cemented with gum-
water to the furface of the wood. The reft they cut
off, and take away very curioufly with the points of
very (harp knives, or little chifels or gravers, according
to the bignefs or delicacy of the Work : for they need
no other inftruments.
It differs from engraving in copper, becaufe in the
former the impreffion comes from the prominent parts
or ftrokes left uncut $ whereas in the latter, it comes
from the channels cut in the metal.
The manner of printing with wooden prints is much
more expeditious and eafy than that of copper-plate :
becaufe they require only to be dipt in the printing-
ink, and imprefled on the objeft in the fame manner
and with the fame apparatus as the letter-printing is
managed : and for purpofes that do not require great
correrinefs, the impreflion is made by the hand 6nly, a
proper handle being fixed to the middle of the print,
by which it is firft: dipped in the ink, fpread by means
of a bruftr on a block of proportionable fize covered
with leather ; and then lifted up inftantly, and dropped
with fome little force on the paper which is to receive
the impreffion.
Moft of our readers are probably not ignorant that
the art of engraving on wood has been revived of late
years, and has been carried to great perfeftion by
Meffrs Bewick of Newcaftle, and other ingenious
artifts. Of this number we may mention Meffrs Nef-
bit and Anderfon of London. The Natural Hiftory
of Quadrupeds, in one volume 8vo, and the Natural
E Hiftorv
CUT [ 34 ] C Y A
Cutting Hiftory of Britifli Birds, in two volumes, publifhed
I! with engravings cut in wood by Meffrs Bewick, are
t'uUs' , excellent fpecimensof the degree of perfeflion at which
'* "" this art has arrived.
Cuttings, or flips, in Gardenings the branches or
fprigs of trees or plants, cut or flipped off to fet again $
which is done in any moift fine earth.
I he beft feafon is from Auguft to April j but care
is to be taken, when it is done, the fap be not too much
in the top, left the cut die before that part in the earth
have root enough to fupport it : nor yet muft it be too
dry or fcanty 5 the fap in the branches aflifting it to
take root.
In providing the cuttings, fuch branches as have
joints, knots, or burrs, are to be cut off two or three
inches beneath them, and the leaves to be ftripped off
fo far as they are fet in the earth. Small top branches,
of two or three years growth, are fitteft for this opera¬
tion.
CUT1 LE-fish. See Sepia. The bone of the
cuttle-fifti is hard on one fide, but foft and yielding on
the other; fo as readily to receive pretty neat impref-
fions from medals, &c. and afterwards to ferve as a
mould for carting metals, which thus takes the figure
©f the. original 5 the bone is likewife frequently em¬
ployed for cleaning or polifliing filver. This fifli con¬
tains in a certain diftintt veffel a fluid as black as ink \
which it is faid to emit when purfued, and thus to
conceal itfelf by difcolouring the water. The parti¬
cular qualities of this liquor are not yet determined.
Dr Leigh fays, he faw a letter which had been written
with it ten years before, and which ftijl continued.
Some report that the ancients made their ink from it;
and others, that it is the bafts of China or Indian ink •,
but both thefe accounts appear to have little founda¬
tion. Pliny, fpeaking of the inks made ufe of in his
time, after obferving that the cuttle-fifti is in this re-
fpeft of a wonderful nature, adds exprefsly, that ink
was not made, from it.
CUTTS, John Lord, a foldier of moft hardy bravery
in King William’s wars, was fon of Richard Cults,
Efq. of Matching in Effex ; where the family were
fettled about the time of Henry VI. and had a great
eftate. He entered early into the fervice of the
duke of Monmouth, was aid-de-camp to the duke of
Lorrain in Hungary, and fignalized himfelf in a
very extraordinary manner at the taking of Buda by
the Imperialifts in 1686 j which important place had
been for near a century and a half in the hands of the
Turks. Mr Addifon, in a Latin poem, worthy of the
Auguftan age, plainly hints at Mr Cutts’s diftinguifli-
ed bravery at that fiege. Returning to England at
the revolution, he had a regiment of foot; was creat¬
ed baron of Gowran in Ireland, Dec. 6. 1690 ; ap¬
pointed governor of the ifle of Wight, April 14. 1693 ;
was made a major-general 5 and when the affaflina-
tion project was difcovered, in 1695-6, was captain of
the king’s guard. In 1698 he was complimented by
Mr John Hopkins, as one to whom “ a double crown
■was due,” as a hero and a poet. He was colonel of
the Coldftream, or fecond regiment of guards, in 1701 j
when Mr Steele, who was indebted to his intereft for
a military commiflion, infcribed to him his firft work
“ The Chriftjan Hero.” On the acceflion of Queen
Anne, he was made a lieutenant-general of the forces
• ' ' 7
in Holland ; commander in chief of the forces in Ire- cutts
land, under the duke of Ormond, March 23. 1704-5 j |j
and afterwards one of the lords juftices of that king- Cyaxares.
dom, to keep him out of the way of aftion j a circum-
ftance which broke his heart. He died at Dublin,
Jan. 26. 1706-7, and is buried there in the cathedral
of Chrift church. He wrote a poem on the death of
Queen Mary ; and publiftied, in 1687, “ Poetical Ex-
ercifes, written upon feveral occafions, and dedicated
to her Royal highnefs Mary princefs of Orange.” It
contains, befides the dedication figned J. Cutts, verfes
to that princefs j a poem on Wifdom ; another to Mr
Waller on his recommending it j feven more copies of
verfes (one of them called La Mufe Cava/ier, which had
been afcribed to Lord Peterborough, and as fuch men¬
tioned by Mr Walpole in the lift of that nobleman’s
writings), and 11 fongs $ the whole compofing but a
very thin volume 3 which is by no means fo fcarce as
Mr Walpole fuppofes it to be. A fpecimen of his
poetry (of which the five firft lines are quoted by
Steele in his fifth Taller) is here added :
Only tell her that I love,
Leave the reft to her and fate 5
Some kind planet from above
May perhaps her pity move 3
Lovers on their ftars muft wait 5
Only tell her that I love.
Why, oh, why fliould I defpair ?
Mercy’s pidtur’d in her eye 3
If fhe once vouchfafe to hear,
Welcome hope, and welcome fear.
She’s too good to let me die 3
Why, oh, why Ihould 1 defpair ?
CUVETTE, or Cunette, in Fortification, is a ditch
within a ditch, being a pretty deep trench, about four
fathoms broad, funk, and running along the middle
of the great dry ditch, to hold water 3 ferving both to
keep off the enemy, and prevent him from mining.
CYANITE, a fpecies of mineral. See Minera¬
logy Index.
CYATHUS, Kvctiof (from the verb to pour
out), was a common meafure among the Greeks and
Romans, both of the liquid and dry kind. It was
equal to an ounce, or the twelfth part of a pint. The
cyathus was made with a handle like our punch-ladle.
The Roman topers ufed to drink as many cyathi as
there were mufes, i. e. nine 3 alfo as many as there were
letters in the patron’s name. Thus, they had modes of
drinking fimilar to the modern health-drinking or toaft-
ing. The cyathus of the Greeks weighed 10 drachms 3
but Galen fays that a cyathus contains 12 drachms of
oil, 13 drachms and one foruple of wine, water, or vi¬
negar, and 18 drachms of honey 3 and he adds that
among the Veterinarii the cyathus contained two
ounces.
CYAXARES, fon of Phraortes, was king of Me¬
dia and Perfia. He bravely defended his kingdom,
which the Scythians had invaded. He. made war
againft Alyattes king of Lydia 3 and fubjeiRed to his
power all Afia beyond the river Halys. He died after
a reign of 40 years, in the year of Rome 160.
Cyaxares IF. is fuppofed by fome to be the fame
as Darius the Mede. He was fon of Aftyages king
of Media. He added feven provinces to his father’s
dominions.,,
CYC [ 35 1 CYC
Cyaxares dominions, and made war againft the Affyrians, whom
II Cyrus favoured.
Cycas. CYBEBE, a name of Cybele, from wfafaiv, becaufe
in the celebration of her feftivals men were driven to
madnefs.
CYBELE, in Pagan mythology, the daughter of
Coelus and Terra, and wife of Saturn. She is fup-
poi'ed to be the fame as Ceres, Rhea, Ops, Vefta, Bo¬
na Mater, Magna Mater, Berecynthia, Dindymene,
&c. According to Diodorus, ihe was the daughter
of a Lydian prince, and as foon as fhe was born Hie
was expofed on a mountain. She was preferved by
fucking fome of the wild beads of the foreft, and re¬
ceived the name of Cybele from the mountain where
her life had been preferved. When Ihe returned to
her father’s court, die had an intrigue with Atys, a
beautiful youth, whom her father mutilated, &c. All
the mythologifts are unanimous in mentioning the
amours of Atys and Cybele. In Phrygia the fellivals
of Cybele were obierved with the greated; folemnity.
Her prieds, called Corybantes, Galli, &c. were not ad¬
mitted in the fervice of the goddefs without a previous
mutilation. In the celebration of the fedivals, they
imitated the manners of madmen, and filled the air with
Ihrieks and bowlings mixed with the confufed noife of
drums, tabrets, bucklers, and fpears. This was in com¬
memoration of the furrow of Cybele for the lofs of
her favourite Atys. Cybele was generally reprefented
as a robuft woman far advanced in her pregnancy, to
intimate the fecundity of the earth. She held keys in
her hand, and her head was crowned with rifing tur¬
rets, and fometimes with the leaves of an oak. She
fometimes appears riding in a chariot drawn by two
tame lions: Atys follows by her fide, carrying a ball
in his hand, and fupporting himfelf upon a fir-tree
which is facred to the goddefs. Sometimes fhe is re¬
prefented with a fceptre in her hand, with her head
covered with a tower. She is alfo feen with many
breads, to (how that the earth gives aliments to all li¬
ving creatures ; and fhe generally carries two lions un¬
der her arms. From Phrygia the worfhip of Cybele
pafied into Greece, and was folemnly eftablifhed at
Eleufis under the name of the Eleujinian myjleries of
Ceres. The Romans, by order of the Sibylline books,
brought the ftatue of the goddefs from Pefilnus into
Italy ; and when the fhip which carried it had run on
a fhallow bank of the Tiber, the virtue and innocence
of Claudia were vindicated in removing it with her
girdle. It is fuppofed that the myfteries of Cybele
were firft known about 257 years before the Trojan
war, or 1580 years before the Auguftan age. The
Romans were particularly fuperflitious in wafhing every
year, on the 6th of the kalends of April, the fhrine
of this goddefs in the waters of the river Almon.
There prevailed many obfcenities in the obfervation
of the feflivals; and the priefts themfelves were the
mod eager to ufe indecent expreffions, and to fhow
their unbounded licentioufnefs by the impurity of their
actions.
CYBELLICUM MARMOR, a name given by the
ancients to a fpecies of marble dug in a mountain of
that name in Phrygia. It was of an extremely bright
white, with broad veins of bluifh black.
CYCAS, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging
to the natural order, Palnue. See Botany Index.
This is a valuable tree to the inhabitants of India, as Cycas
it not only furnifhes a confiderable part of their conitant 1!
bread, but alfo fupplies them with a large article of Cyclades.
trade. The pith confids of a farinaceous fubdance, *
which is extracted from it and made into bread in
this manner: they faw the body into fmall pieces, and
after beating them in a mortar, pour water upon the
mafs ; this is left for fome hours to fettle. When fit,
it is drained through a cloth, and the finer particles
of the mealy fubdance running through with the wa¬
ter, the grofs ones are left behind and thrown away.
After the farinaceous part is fufficiently fubfided, the
water is poured off, and the meal being properly dried,
is occafionally made into cakes and baked. Thefe
cakes are faid to eat nearly as well as wheaten bread,
and are the fupport of the inhabitants for three or four
months in the year.
The fame meal more finely pulverized, and reduced
into granules, is what is called /ago, which is fent
into all parts of Europe, and fold in the (hops as a great
drengthener and redorative.
There is a fort of fago made in the Wed Indies, and
fent to Europe in the fame manner as that from the
Ead $ but the Wed India fago is far inferior in quality
to the other. It is fuppofed to be made from the pith
of the areca oleracea. See Areca.
The brood boom (or bread-tree) of the Hotten¬
tots, a plant dilcovered by Profeffor Thunberg, is
defcribed as a new fpecies of this genus, by the name
of cycas Caffra, in the Nova Adla Reg. Soc. Scient.
VpJ. vol. iii. p. 283. Table V. The pith, or medulla,
which abounds in the trunk of this little palm, Mr
Sparrman informs us, is colle&ed and tied up in drelfed
calf or fheep-fkins, and then buried in the earth for
the fpace of feveral weeks, till it becomes fufficiently
mellow and tender to be kneaded up with water into
a pade, of which they afterwards make fmall loaves or
cakes, and bake them under the affies. Other Hot¬
tentots, not quite fo nice, nor endued with patience
enough to wait this tedious method of preparing it,
are faid to dry and road the pith or marrow, and after¬
wards make a kind of frumenty of it.
CYCEON, from xoKxuy, “ to mix j” a name given
by the ancient poets and phyficians to a mixture of
meal and water, and fometimes of other ingredients.
Thefe condituted the two kinds of cyceon j the coarfer
being of water and meal alone; the richer and
more delicate compofed of wine, honey, flour, water,
and cheefe. Homer, in the nth Iliad, talks of cy¬
ceon made with cheefe and the meal of barley mixed
with wine, but without any mention either of honey
or water ; and Ovid, defending the draught of cyceon
given by the old woman of Athens to Ceres, mentions
only flower and water. Diofcorides underdood the
word in both thefe fenfes ; but extolled it mod in the
coarfe and fimple kind : he fays, when prepared with
water alone, it refrigerates and nouriffies greatly.
CYCINNIS, a Grecian dance, fo called from the
name of its inventor, one of the fatyrs belonging to
Bacchus. It confided of a combination of grave and
gay movements.
CYCLADES INSULAE : ifiands anciently fo called,
as Pliny informs us, from the cyclus or orb in which
they lie; beginning from the promontory Geraeftum
of Euboea, and lying round the ifiand Delos, (Pliny).
E 2 Where
CYC t 3<5 ] C Y D
Cyclades Where they are, and what their number, is hbt fo
II generally agreed. Strabo fays, they were at firft
Cycloid, reckoned 12, but that many others were added: yet
moft of them lie to the fouth of Delos, and but few to
the north ; fo that the middle or centre afcribed to
Delos, is to be taken in a loofe, not a geometrical,
lenfe. Strabo recites them after Artemidorus, as fol¬
lows : Helena, Ceos, Cynthus, Seriphus, Melus, Si-
phus, Cimolus, Prepefinthus, Olearus, Naxus, Parus,
Syrus, Myconus, Tenus, Andrus, Gyarus : but he
excludes from the number Prepefinthus, Olearus, and
Gyarus.
CYCLAMEN, Sowbread 5 a genus of plants,
belonging to the pentandria clafs 5 and in the natural
method ranking under the 21ft order, Precis. See
Botany Index.
CYCLE, in Chronology, a certain period or feries
of numbers, which regularly proceed from the firft to
the laft, and then return again to the firft, and fo cir¬
culate perpetually. See CHRONOLOGY, N° 26.
CYCLE of IndiRion, is a feries of 15 years, return¬
ing conftantly around, like the other cycles, and com¬
menced from the third year before Chrift 5 whence it
happens, that if 3 be added to any given year of Chrift,
and the fum be divided by 13, what remains is the year
of the indidlion.
CYCLE of IndiRton, a period of 15 years, in ufe a-
mong the Romans. It has no connexion with the
celeftial motion, but was inftituted, according to Ba¬
ronins, by Conftantine } who having reduced the time
which the Romans were obliged to ferve to 13 years,
he was confequently obliged every 13 years to impofe,
or indicere according to the Latin expreflion, an extra¬
ordinary tax for the payment of thofe who were dif-
charged $ and hence arofe this cycle, which, from the
Latin word indicere, was ftyled indiRion.
CYCLE of the Moon, called alfo the golden number,
and the Metonic cycle, from its inventor Melon the
Athenian, is a period of 19 years, which when they
are completed, the new moons and full moons return
on the fame days of the month, fo that on whatever
days the new and full moons fall this year, 19 years
hence they will happen on the very fame days of the
month, though not at the fame hour, as Melon and
the fathers of the primitive church thought j and
therefore, at the time of the council of Nice, when
the method of finding the time for obferving the feaft
of Eafter was eftablifhed, the numbers of the lunar cycle
were inferted in the kalendar, which, upon the ac¬
count of their excellent ufe, were fet in golden letters,
and the year of the cycle called the golden number of
that year.
Cycle of the Sun, a revolution of 28 years, which
being elapfed, the dominical or Sunday letters return
to their former place, and proceed in the fame order as
before, according to the Julian kalendar.
CYCLISUS, in Surgery, an inftrument in the form
of a half moon, ufed in fcraping the fkull, in cafe of
fra&ures on that part.
CYCLOID, a curve on which the do&rine of pen¬
dulums, and time-meafuring inftruments, in a great
meafure depends, Mr Huygens demonftrated, that from
whatever point or height, a heavy body, ofcillating on
a fixed centre, begins to defcend, while it continues
to move in a cycloid, the time of its falls or ofcillations
will be equal to each other. It is likewife demonftra-
ble, that it is the curve of quickeft defcent, i. e. a
body falling in it from any given point above, to ano¬
ther not exaftly under it, will come to this point in a
lefs time than in any other curve pafling through thofe
two points. This curve is thus generated : fuppofe a
wheel or circle to roll along a tiraight line till it has
completed juft one revolution ; a nail or point in that
part of the circumference of the circle, which at the
beginning of the motion touches the ftraight line, will;
at the end of the revolution, have defcribed a cycloid
on a vertical plane.
CYCLOPAEDIA, or Encyclopaedia, denotes
the circle or compafs of arts and fciences. A cyclo¬
paedia, fay the authors of the French Encyclopedic,
ought to explain as much as poflible the order and
connexion ot human knowledge. See Encyclopae¬
dia.
CYCLOPS, in fabulous hiftory, the funs of Nep¬
tune and Amphitrite ; the principal of whom were
Brontes, Steropes, and Peracmon j but their whole
number amounted to above a hundred. Jupiter threw
them into Tartarus as foon as they were born ; but
they were delivered at the interceflion of Tellus, and
became the aftiftants of Vulcan. They were of pro¬
digious ftature, and had each only one eye, which
was placed in the middle of their foreheads.
Some mythologifts fay, that the Cyclops fignify the
vapours raifed in the air, which occafion thunder and
lightning : on which account they are reprefented as
forging the thunderbolts of Jupiter. Others repre-
lent them as the firft inhabitants of Sicily, who were
cruel, of a gigantic form, and dwelt round Mount
AEtna.
CYCLOPTERUS, the Sucker, a genus of fiflies
belonging to the order of amphibia nantes. See Ichv
THYOLOGY Index.
CYDER, or ClDER, an excellent drink made of
the juice of apples, efpecially of the more curious ta¬
ble kinds j the juice of thefe being efteemed more cordial
and pleafant than that of the wild or harfti kinds. In
making this drink, it hath long been thought neceflary,
in every part of England, to lay the harder cyder!
fruits in heaps for fome time before breaking their
pulps p but the Devonfhire people have much impro¬
ved this pradtice. In other countries the method is to
make thefe heaps of apples in a houfe, or under fome
covering inclofed on every fide. This method hath
been found deftdtive, becaufe, by excluding the free
air, the heat foon became too violent, and a great
perfpiration enfued, by which in a ftiort time the
lofs of juice was fo great, as to reduce the fruit to
half their former weight, attended with a general rot-
tennels, rancid fmell, and difagreeable tafte. In the
South-hams, a middle way has been purfued, to avoid
the inconveniences and lofs attending the above. They
make their heaps of apples in an open part of an or¬
chard, where, by the means of a free air and lefs per¬
fpiration, the defired maturity is brought about, with
an inconfiderable wafte of the juices and decay of the
fruit entirely free of ranknefs ; and though fome ap¬
ples rot even in this manner, they are very few, and
are ftill fit for ufe ; all continue plump and full of
juices, and very much heighten the colour of cyders,
without ill tafte or fmell.
In
C Y D [ 37 ] C Y D
In purfuing the Devonfhire method it is to be ob-
' ferved, I. That all the promifcuous kinds of apples
that have dropped from the trees, from time to time,
are to be gathered up and laid in a heap by them-
felves, and to be made into cyder after having fo lain
about ten days. 2. Such apples as are gathered from
the trees, having already acquired feme degree of ma¬
turity, are likewife to be laid in a heap by themfelves
for about a fortnight. 3. The later hard fruit, which
are to be left on the trees till the approach of froft is
apprehended, are to be laid in a feparate heap, where
they are to remain a month or fix weeks, by which,
notwithftanding froft, rain, &c. their juices will re¬
ceive fuch a maturation, as will prepare them for a
kindly fermentation, and which they could not have
attained on the trees by means of the coldnefs of the
feafon.
It is obfervable, that the riper and mellower the
fruits are at the time of collefling them into heaps, the
fhorter fhould be their continuance there ; and on the
contrary, the hardier, immaturer, and harder they are,
the longer they fhould reft.
Thefe heaps ftiould be made in an even and open part
of an orchard, without any regard to covering from rain,
dew, or what elfe may happen during the apples flaying
there j and whether they be carried in and broke in
wet or dry weather, the thing is all the fame. If it
may be objected, that during their having lain together
in the heap, they may have imbibed great humidity, as
well from the air as from the ground, rain, dews, &c.
which are mixed with their juices ; the anfwer is, this
will have no other efiTed than a kindly diluting, na¬
tural to the fruit, by which means a fpeedier fermen¬
tation enfues, and all heterogeneous humid particles are
thrown off.
The apples are then ground, and the pummice is
received in a large open-mouthed veffel, capable of
containing as much thereof as is fufficient for one ma¬
king, or one cheefe. Though it has been a cuftom to
let the pummice remain fome hours in the veffel appro¬
priated to contain it, yet this practice is by no means
commendable 5 for if the fruits did not come ripe from
the trees, or otherwife matured, the pummice remain¬
ing in the vat too long will acquire fuch ftiarpnefs and
coarfenefs, from the {kins, as is never to be got rid of-,
and if the pummice is of well ripened fruit, the con¬
tinuing too long there will occafion it to contra61 a
fharpnefs that very often is followed with want of fpi-
rit and pricking: nay, fometimes it even becomes vi¬
negar, or always continues of a wheyifh colour ; all
which proceeds from the heat of fermentation that it
almoft inftantly falls into on lying together j the pum-
mice therefore ftiould remain no longer in the vat
than until there may be enough broke from one prefting,
or that all be made into cheefe, and preffed the fame
day it is broken. See farther on this fubjeft Agri¬
culture Index.
In Plate CLXVIII. is a perfpesftive view of the cy¬
der prefs and apple-mill. A, B, the bottom or lower-
beam ; C, D, the upper beam 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, the
rights ; 4, 4, e, e, fpurs ; Z, 2, 12, braces, or crofs-
pieces; a, 6. capitals; X, blocks;^, the ferew; E, the
back or receiver ; F, the cheefe or cake of pummice,
placed on the ftage or bafon ; G, the ftage or bafon ;
10, 10, beams that fupport the pieces of which the
bafon is compofed; 11, perpendicular pieces for fup- Cyder
porting thefe beams ; H, the buckler ; R, S, Q, a cir- I!
cular trough of the apple-mill; T, L, V, compart-, cy^on*a-
ments or divifions, for difterent forts of apples; M,
the mill-ftone ; L, M, axis of the mill-ftone; N, the
fpring-tree bar.
CTDEB-Sfiirit, a fpirituous liquor drawn from cyder
by diftillation, in the fame manner as brandy from
wine. The particular flavour of this fpirit is not the
moft agreeable, but it may with care be divefted wholly
of it, and rendered a perfe£lly pure and infipid fpirit
upon redtification. The traders in fpirituous liquors
are well enough acquainted with the value of fuch a
fpirit as this : they can give it the flavour of fome
other kinds, and fell it under their names, or mix it in
large proportion with the foreign brandy, rum and ar¬
rack, in the fale, without any danger of a difeovery of
the cheat.
CTDER-Wine. See AGRICULTURE Index.
CYDERKIN. See Agriculture Index.
CYDIAS, a painter who made a painting of the
Argonauts in the 11th Olympiad. This celebrated
piece was bought by the orator Hortenfius for 164
talents.
CYDNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Cili¬
cia ; rifing in Mount Taurus, to the north of Tarfus,
through whofe middle it ran, in a very clear and cold
ftream, which had almoft proved fatal to Alexander
on bathing in it; falling into the fea at a place called
Rhegma, a breach, the fea breaking in there, and af¬
fording the people of Tarfus a ftation or port for
their fhips. The water of the Cydnus is commended
by Strabo, as of fervice in nervous diforders and the
gout.
CYDON, in Ancient Geography, one of the
three moft illuftrious cities of Crete, fituated in the
north-weft of the ifland, with a locked port, or walled
round. The eircumftances of the founding of Cydon
are uncertain. Stephen of Byzantium fays, that it was
at firft named Apollonia from Cydon the fon of Apol¬
lo. Paufanias aferibes the founding of it to Cydon
the fon of Tegetus, who travelled into Crete. Hero¬
dotus affirms, that it was founded by- the Samians, and
that its temples were erected by them. Alexander,
in the firft book of the Cretans, informs us, that it
received its name from Cydon the fon of Mercury.
Cydon was the largeft city in the ifland ; and was
enabled to hold the balance between her contending
neighbours. She fuftained fome famous fieges. Pha-
leucus, general of the Phocians, making an expedi¬
tion into Crete with a fleet and a numerous army, in-
vefted Canea both by fea and land, but loft his army
and his life before its walls. In fucceeding times
when Metellus fubdued the ifland, he afiailed Cydon
with all his forces ; and after combating an obftinate
refiftance fubje&ed it to the power of Rome. Cydon
occupied the prefent fituation of Canea ; only extend¬
ing half a league farther towards St OJero; where on
the fta-ffiore the remains are ftill to be feen of fome an¬
cient walls which appear to have been of a very folid
conftruftion. See Canea.
CYDONIA, the Quince ; fo called from Cydon,
a town of Crete, famous for its abounding with this
fruit. Linnaeus has joined this genus to the apple and
pear; but as there is fuch a remarkable difference be¬
tween
C Y M [ 38 ] C Y N
Cvdonia
' li
Cymbal.
tween the fruits, Mr Miller treats the quince as a
genus by itfelf. The fpecies are, r. The oblonga, with
an oblong fruit, lengthened at the bafe. 2. The mali-
forma, with oval leaves, woolly on their upper fide,
with fome other varieties. The Portugal quince is
the mod; valuable : its pulp turns to a fine purple when
dewed or baked, and becomes much fofter and lefs
audere than the others ; fo is much fitter for making
marmalade. The trees are all eafily propagated, ei¬
ther by layers, fuckers, or cuttings*, which mud be
planted in a moid foil. Thofe raifed from fuckers are
feldom fo well rooted as thofe which are obtained from
cuttings or layers, and are fubjeft to produce fuckers
again in greater plenty ; which is not fo proper for
fruit-bearing trees. Thefe trees require very little
pruning : the chief thing to be obferved is, to keep
their dems clear from fuckers, and cut off fueh branches
as crofs each other: likewife all upright luxuriant
(hoots from the middle of the tree Ihould be taken off,
that the head may not be too much crowded with wood,
which is of ill confequence to all fruit-trees. Thefe
forts .may alfo be propagated by budding or grafting
upon docks raifed by cuttings 5 fo that the bed forts
may be cultivated this way in greater plenty than by
any other method. Thefe are alfo in great edeem to
bud or graft pears upon $ which for dimmer or autumn
fruits are a great improvement to them, efpeeially
thofe defigned for walls and efpaliers; for the trees
upon thefe docks do not (hoot fo vigoroufly as thofe
upon free docks, and therefore may be kept in lefs
compafs, and fooner produce fruit : but hard winter
fruits do not fucceed fo well upon thefe dock?, their
fruit being fubjeft to crack, and are commonly dony,
efpecially all the breaking pears: therefore thefe docks
are only fit for melting pears and a moid foil.
CYGNUS,the Swan. See Anas, Ornithology
Index.
Cygnus, the Swan, in AJlronomij, a condellation
of the northern hemifphere, between Lyra and Cepheus.
The dars in the condellation Cygnus, in Ptolemy’s ca¬
talogue, are 19; in Tycho’s 18 j in Hevelius’s 475
in the Britannic catalogue 81.
CYLINDER, in Geometry, a folid body fuppofed
to be generated by the rotation of a parallelogram.
Rolling or Loaded CTLJNDEB, a cylinder which rolls
up an inclined plane ; the phenomena of which are
explained under Mechanics.
CYLINDROID, in Geometry, a folid body ap¬
proaching to the figure of a cylinder, but differing from
it in fome refpeds, as having the bafes elliptical, but
parallel and equal.
CYL1NDRUS, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a
genus of (hell-fifh, of which there are many elegant and
precious fpecies.
CYMA, in Botany, the tender dalks which herbs
fend forth in the beginning of the fpring, particularly
thofe of the cabbage kind.
Cyma, or Cymatium, in ArchiteBure, a member
or moulding of the corniche, the profile of which is
waved, that is, concave at top, and convex at bottom.
CYMBAL, a mufical indrument in ufe
among the ancients. The cymbal was made of brafs,
like our kettle-drums, and, as fome think, in their form,
but fmaller, and of different ufe. Ovid gives cymbals
3
the epithet of gemalia, becaufe they were ufed at wed- Cymbal
dings and other diverfions.
Cadiodorus and Ifidore call this indrument acetabu- Cynsegirus.
lum, the name of a cup or cavity of a bone wherein an-
other is articulated ; and Xenophon compares it to a
horfe’s hoof; whence it mud have been hollow ; which
appears, too, from the figure of feveral other things de¬
nominated from it ; as a bafin, caldron, goblet, ca(k,
and even a dfoe, fuch as thofe of Empedocles, which
were of brafs.
In reality, the ancient cymbals appear to have been
very different from our kettle-drums, and their ufe of
another kind : to their exterior cavity was fadened a
handle ; whence Pliny compares them to the upper part
of the thigh, and Rabanus to phials.
They were druck againd one another in cadence,
and made a very acute found. Their invention was
attributed to Cybeie ; whence then ufe in leads and
facrifices : fetting afide this occafion, they were feldom
ufed but by diffolute and effeminate people. M. Lampe,
who has written exprefsiy on the fubjedl, attributes the
invention to the Curetes, or inhabitants of Mount Ida
in Crete 5 it is certain thefe, as well as the Corybantes
or guards of the kings of Crete, and thofe of Rb des
and Samothraeia, were reputed to excel in the mufic
of the cymbal.
The Jews had their cymbals, or at lead indruments
which tranllators render cymbals j but as to their mat¬
ter and form, critics are dill in the dark. The mo¬
dern cymbal is a mean indrument, chiefly in ufe among
vagrants, gyplies, &c. It confifts of Heel wire in a
triangular form, whereon are paffed five rings, which
are touched and (hifted along the triangle with an iron
rod held in the left hand, while it is fupported in the
right by a ring, to give it the freer motion. Durandus
fays, that the monks ufed the word cymbal for the cloif-
ter bell, ufed to call them to the refedtory.
CYME, in Ancient Geography, a city built by Pe-
lops on his return from Greece. Cyme the Amazon
gave it name, on expelling the inhabitants, according
to Mela. Latin authors, as Nepos, Livy, Mela, Pliny,
Tacitus, retain the appellation Cyme, after the Greek
manner. It dood in YEolia, between Myrina and
Phocaea, (Ptolemy) : and long after, in Peutinger’s
map, is fet down nine miles didant from Myrina.—
From this place was the Sibylla Cumaea, called Ery-
thrcea, from Erythra, “ a neighbouring place.” It was
the country of Ephorus. Heiiod was a Cumean origi¬
nally (Stephanus) j his father coming to fettle at Afcra
in Boeotia.
CYMENE, in Botany, a name given by the ancient
Greeks to a plant with which they ufed to dye woollen
duffs yellow, and with which the women of thofe times
ufed alfo to tinge the hair yellow, which was then the
favourite colour. The cymene of the Greeks is evi¬
dently the fame plant with the lutea herba of the La¬
tins j or what is now called dyers weed. See Reseda,
Botany Index.
CYNiEGIRUS, an Athenian, celebrated for his
extraordinary courage. Fie was brother to the poet
JEfchylus. After the battle of Marathon he purfued
the flying Perfians to their (hips, and feized one of
their veffels with his right hand, which was imme¬
diately fevered by the enemy. Upon this he feized
the
7
C Y N [ 39 ] C Y N
Cynscgirus the veflel with his left hand, and when he had loft that
|| alfo, he {li!l kept his hold with his teeth.
Cynics. CYNANCHE, in Medicine, a difeafe, in which the
w * ~ throat is inflamed and fvvelled to fuch a degree as fome-
times to threaten fuft'ocation. See MEDICINE Index.
CYNANCHUM, Bastard Dogsbane ; a genus
of plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs; and in
the natural method ranking under the 30th order, Con-
tortce. See Botany Index.
CYNARA, the Artichoke ; a genus of plants
belonging to the fyngenefia clafs. See Botany Index.
The varieties of the artichoke are propagated by
flips or fuckers, arifing annually from the ftool or root
of the old plants in fpring, which are to be taken
from good plants of any prefent plantation in March
or the beginning of April, and planted in the open
quarter of the kitchen garden, in rows five feet afunder :
and they will produce artichokes the fame year in
autumn. It fhould, however, be remarked, that
though artichokes are of many years duration, the an¬
nual produce of their fruit will gradually leflen in the
fize of the eatable parts after the third or fourth year,
fo that a freih plantation fliould be made every three or
four years. The cardoon is a very hardy plant, and
profpers in the open quarters of the kitchen garden.
It is propagated by feed fown annually in the full
ground in March ; either in a bed for tranfplantation,
or in the place where they are defigned to remain.
The plants are very large, fo muft ftand at confiderable
diftances from one another. By this means you may
have fome fmall temporary crops between the rows, as
of lettuce, fpinach, endive, cabbage, favoy, or broco-
li plants. In the latter end of September, or in Oc¬
tober, the cardoons will be grown very large, and their
footftalks have acquired a thick fubftance ; you muft
then tie up the leaves of each plant, to admit of earthing
them clofely all round for blanching, which will take
up fix or eight weeks; and thus the plants will come
in for ufe in November and December, and continue
all winter.
CYNEUS, of Theffaly, the fcholar of Demofthenes,
flouriftied 275 years before Chrift. Pyrrhus had fo
high an efteem for him; that he lent him to Rome to
folicit a peace ; and fo vaft was his memory, that the
day after his arrival, he faluted all the fenators and
knights by name. Pyrrhus and he wrote a Treatife of
War, quoted by Tully.
CYNICS, a fecvQ«<;, crooked;
a kind of torture or punifhment in ufe among the an¬
cients.
The learned are at a lofs to determine what it was.
Some will have it to be that mentioned by Jerome
in his Life of Paul the Hermit, chap. 2. which con-
Med in fmearing the body over with honey, and thus
expofing the perfon, with his hands tied, to the warm
fun, to invite the flies and other vermin to perfecute
him.
CYFRALA, or Cowrie, a genus of fhells belong- Cyprasa
ing to the order of vermes tellacea. See CoNCHOLOGY jj
Index. Cypnanus,
This genus is called cypreen and venerea from its being
peculiarly dedicated to Venus, who is laid to have en¬
dowed a fhcli of this genus with the powers of a remora,
fo as to impede the courfe of the fhip which was fent by
Periander tyrant of Corinth, with orders to emaleulate
the young nobility of Corcyra,
CYPRESS. See Cupressus, Botany Index.
CYPRIANUS, Thascius Caxilius, a principal
father of the Chriftian church, was born at Carthage
in Africa, at the latter end of the fecond 01 beginning
of the third century. We know nothing more of his
parents than that they were Heathens ; and he himfelf
continued fuch till the laft 12 years of his life. He
applied himfelf early to the ftudy of oratory ; and
fome of the ancients, particularly La&antius, inform
us, that he taught rhetoric in Carthage with the high-
eft applaufe. Cyprian’s converiion is fixed by Pear-
fon to the year 2465 and was at Carthage, where, as
St Jerome obferves, he had often employed his rhe¬
toric in the defence of Paganifm. It was brought
about by one Caecilius, a prieft of the church of Car¬
thage, whofe name Cyprian afterwards took ; and
between whom there ever after fubfifted fo clofe a
friendfiiip, that Caecilius at his death committed to Cy¬
prian the care of his family. Cyprian was alfo a
married man himfelf 5 but as foon as he was convert¬
ed to the faith, he refolved upon a ftate of continence,
which was thought a high degree of piety, as not be¬
ing yet become general. Being now a Chriftian, he
was to give the ufual proof of the fincerity of his eon*
verfion $ and that was by writing againft Paganifm
and in defence of Chriftianity. With this view he
compofed his piece De Gratia Dei, or “ concerning
the grace of God,” which he addreffed to Donatus.
It is a work of the fame nature with the Apologetic
of Tertullian, and the Oftavius of Minutius Felix. He
next compofed a piece De Idolorum Vanitatc, or “ up¬
on the vanity of idols.” Cyprian’s behaviour, both
before and after his baptifm, was fo highly pleafing
to the biftiop of Carthage, that he ordained him a
prieft a few months after. It was rather irregular to
ordain a man thus in his very noviciate ; but Cyprian
w'as fo extraordinary a perfon, and thought capable
of doing fuch Angular fervice to the church, that it
ftemed allowable in this cafe to difpenfe a little with
the form and difeipline of it. For befides his known
talents as a fecular man, he had acquired a high re¬
putation of fandlity fince his converfion ; having not
only feparated himfelf from his wife, as we have ob-
ferved before, which in thofe days was thought an ex¬
traordinary adt of piety, but alfo configned over all
his goods to the poor, and given himfelf up entirely
to the things of God. It was on this account no doubt,
too, that when the bilhop of Carthage died the year-
after, that is, in the year 248, none was judged fo
proper to fucceed him as Cyprian. The quiet and re-
pofe which the Chriftians had enjoyed during the laft
40 years, had, it feems, greatly corrupted their man¬
ners ; and therefore Cyprian’s firft care, after his ad¬
vancement to the bilhopric, was to corredl diforders
and reform abufes. Luxury was prevalent among
them j and many of their women were not fo ftriiS
a?
7
C Y P [
©yprianus as ^iey Hiould be, efpecially in tlie article of drefs.
U This occafioned him to draw up his piece De habitu
Cyprus, virginum, “ concerning the drefs of young women j”
* in which, befides what be fays on that particular
head, he inculcates many leflhns of modefty and fo-
briety. In the year 249, the emperor Decius be¬
gan to iflue out very fevere edicts againft the Chrifti-
ans, which particularly affedted thofe upon the coalt
ef Africa •, and in the beginning of 250, the Heathens
in the circus and amphitheatre of Carthage, infilled
loudly upon Cyprian’s being thrown to the lions : a
common method of deftroying the primitive Chrifti-
ans. Cyprian upon this withdrew from the church at
Carthage, and fled into retirement, to avoid the fury
ef the perfecutions. He wrote, in the place of his re¬
treat, pious and inftruflive letters to thofe who had
been his hearers j and alfo to the hbellatici, a name
by which thofe pufillanimous Chriftians were called,
who procured certificates of the Heathen magiftrates,
to (how that they had complied with the emperor’s or¬
ders in facrificing to idols. At his return to Carthage,
he held feveral councils on the repentance of thofe who
had fallen during this perfecution, and other points of
difcipline \ he oppofed the fchemes of Novatus and
Novatianus •, and contended for the rebaptizing of thofe
w7ho had been baptized by heretics. At laid he died a
martyr in the perfecution of Valerian and Gallienus, in
258. Cyprian wrote 81 letters, and feveral treatifes.
The belt editions of his works are thofe of Pamelius in
1568 j of Rigaltius in 1648 ; and of Oxford in 1682.
'His works have all been tranflated into Englilh by Dr
Marfhal.
CYPRINUS, a genus of fifhes, belonging to the
order of abdominales. See Ichthyology Index.
CYPRIPEDIUM, the Lady’s Slipper ; a genus
of plants belonging to the gynandria clafs, and in the
natural method ranking under the 7th order, Orchidece.
See Botany Index.
CYPRUS, an ifiand fituated in the Levant, or mod
eafterly part of the Mediterranean fea, between 33 and
36 degrees of eaft longitude, and 30 and 34 of north
latitude. In ancient times this ifiand was known by
the names of Acamis, Ceraftis, Afpalia, Amathus,
Macaria, Cryptos, Colinia, Sphecia, Paphia, Salaminia,
/Erofa, and Cyprus, The etymologies of thefe names
are neither very eafily found, nor are they of much
importance. The name by which it was mod gene¬
rally known is that of Cyprus, faid 10 be derived from
cypros, the name of a dirub or tree with which the ifland
abounds } fuppofed to be the cyprefs.
Cyprus, according to Eratodhenes, was fird difco-
vered by the Phoenicians, two or three generations be¬
fore the days of Aderius and Minos, kings of Crete ;
that is, according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s computation,
2006 years before the Chriftian era. ItTvas at that
time fo full of wood that it could not be tilled, and
the Phoenicians fird cut down that wood for melting
copper, with which the ifland abounded } and after¬
wards, when they began to fail without fear on the
Mediterranean, that is, after the Trojan war, they built
great navies of the wood produced on this ifland. Jo-
fephus, however, informs us, that the defcendants of
Cittim, the fon of Javan, and grandfon of Japhet, were
the original inhabitants of Cyprus. According to his
•account, Cittim, feeing his brother Tarfhifh fettled in
Vcl. VII. Part I,
41 1 C Y P
Cilicia, where he built the city of Tarfus, fettled with Cyimn,
his followers in this oppofite ifland ; and either be or ——
his defcendants laid the foundation of the city of Cittim,
which according to Ptolemy, was the "mod ancient in
the ifland. As Cyprus was too narrow to contain the
great numbers who attended him, be left'here as mat y
as might ferve to people the country, and with the reft
paffed over to Macedon.
The ifland of Cyprus was divided among feveral
petty kings till the time of Cyrus the Grtat. He fub-
dued them all j but left each in poff< flion of his kn g-
dom, obliging them only to pay him an annual tribute*
and to fend fupplies of men, money, and fliips when
required. The Cyprian princes lived thus fubjeU to
the Perfians till the reign of Darius Hyflafpes, when
they attempted to (hake off the yoke, but with bad fuc-
cefs ; their forces being entirely defeated, and them-
lelves agam obliged to fubmit. They made another
more fuccefsful attempt about the year before Chrid
357 } but, however, could never totally free them-
felves from their fubjeiffion. It is very probable that
they fubmitted to Alexander the Great, though hido-
rians are filent as to that event. On the death of the
Macedonian conqueror, the dominion of Cyprus was
difputed by Antigonus and Ptolemy the fon of Lsgus.
At lad Antigonus prevailed, and the whole ifland fub¬
mitted to him about 304 years before Chrifl. He and
his fon Demetrius kept poffeffion of it for 11 years,
when it was recovered by Ptolemy, and quietly pof-
feffed by him and his defcendants till 38 years before
Chrifl, when it was mdfl unjuflly feized by the Ro¬
mans. In the time of Augudus, it began to be rank¬
ed among the proconfular provinces, and to be govern¬
ed by magidrates fent thither by the fenate. In the
year 648 it was conquered by the Saracens } but reco¬
vered by the Romans in 957. They held it, however,
but for a very diort time, and the barbarian^ kept pof¬
feffion of it till the time of the croifades. It was then
reduced by the croifaders *, and Richard I. of England
gave it to the princes of the Lufignan family, who
held it till the year 1370. They divided it into 12
provinces, in each of which was a capital city from
which the province was denominated. So confider-
able was the ifland at this time, that befides the cities
above mentioned, and others of lefs note, it contained
800 villages. In 1570 it was taken by the Turks, and
though it hath ever fince continued under their tyran¬
nical yoke, is (till To confiderable as to be governed by
a beglerbeg, and feven fangiacs under him.
The air in this ifland is for the moft part very un-
wholefome, on account of the many fens and marflies
with which the country abounds. The foil is an ex¬
cellent fertile clay 5 and would produce all the necef-
faries of life in abundance, if properly cultivated.
There are but few fprings or rivers in this ifland ; fo
that when the rains do not fall plentifully at the ufual
feafons, the inhabitants are much diftreffed by the
fcarcity of water. By reafon of the uncultivated Hate
of the country, they are alfo greatly infelled with poi-
fonous reptiles of various kinds. The people are ex¬
tremely ignorant and lafcivious, as indeed they are re¬
marked to have been from the remoteft antiquity. An*
ciently the worffiip of Venus was eftablifhed in this
ifland, whence her title among the poets of the Cyprian
queen; and fuch an inclination had the inhabitants to
E become
C Y R [ 42 ] € Y R
Cyprus become t-Ke votaries of this goddefs, both in theory and
A:- that the young women ufed to profiitute
i.. J'rfc““'"a‘. themfelves in her temple in order to raife themfelves
portions. Nor are their fucceflors faid to be much bet¬
ter at this day. The exports of the ifland are filks,
oil, cotton, wine, fait, and turpentine : the imports
are French and Venetian broad cloths 5 and fometimes
a few bales of Englilb manufacture, cutlery wares, fu-
gar, tin, lead, &c.
Knights of CTPHUS, an order inftituted by Guy de
Lufignan, titular king of Jerufalem, to whom Richard I.
of England, after conquering this ifland, made over his
right.
C\ RAlNiO, Bergerac, a French author, born in
Gaicony, about the year 1620. He firft entered into
the army, where his natural courage engaged him fre¬
quently in duels in the quality of a lecond ; which,
with other rath actions, procured him the title of the
Intrepid. But the little profpeCt he faw of prefer¬
ment made him renounce the trade of war for the
exercife of wit. His comic hittories of the Rates and
empires in the fun and moon, thow him well acquaint¬
ed with the Cartefian philofophy, and to have a lively
imagination. Our Lord Orrery claffes him with Swift
for his turn of humour, which he fays the latter adopt¬
ed and purfiied.
CYRENAICA, an ancient kingdom of Africa, cor-
refponding to the prefent kingdom and defert of Barca
and J I'ipoli. It was originally inhabited by a number
of barbarous nations, differing little from great gangs
of robbers. Afterwards fome colonies from Greece fet¬
tled here, and Cyrenaica became fo powerful a ftate,
that it waged war with Egypt and Carthage, often
with fuccefs. In the time of Darius Hyftafpes, Arce-
filaus, the reigning prince in Cyrenaica, was driven
from the throne : on which his mother Pheretima ap¬
plied for afliftance to the king of Cyprus. Her fon af¬
terwards returning to Barca, the chief city of Gyrene,
was there affaflinated, together with his father-in-law.
Pheretima finding herfelf difappointed by the king of
Cyprus, applied to Darius Hyftafpes, and by the aftift-
ance of the Perfians reduced Barca. Here (he beha¬
ved .with the utmoft cruelty, caufing all thofe who
had been concerned in her fon’s death to be impaled,
and the breads of their wives to be cut off and affixed
near them. She is faid to have been afterwards devour¬
ed by worms ; which was looked upon as a divine judg¬
ment for her excefllve cruelty. The prifoners in the
mean time were fent to Darius, who fettled them in a
diftrift of Baftria, from them called Barca. Cyre¬
naica, however, feems to have remained free till the
time of Alexander the Great, who conquered it along
with Egypt. Soon after his death the inhabitants
recovered their liberty ; but were in a ftiort time redu¬
ced by Ptolemy king of Egypt. Under thefe kings
it remained till Ptolemy Phyfcon made it over to his
baftard fon Apian, who in the 658th year of Rome left
it by vvill to the Romans. The fenate permitted all
the cities to be governed by their own laws j and this
immediately filled the country with tyrants, thofe who
were moft potent in every city or diftrift endeavour¬
ing to affume the fovereignty of it. Thus the kingdom
was thrown into great confufion : but Lucullus in a
good meafure reftored the public tranquillity on his
coming thither during the firft Mithridatie war, It was
• ?
found impoflible, however, totally to fupprefs thefe Cyrenaica
difturbances till the country was reduced to the form |)
of a Roman province, which happened about 20 years tyrih
after the death of Apian, and 76 before Chrift. Upon '
a revolt, the city,of Gyrene was ruined by the Romans;
but they afterwards rebuilt it.. In procefs of time it
fell to the Arabs, and then to the Turks, who are the
prefent mafters of it.
CYRENAICS, a fe6l of ancient philofoph ers, fo
called from their founder Ariftippus of Gyrene, a dif-
ciple of Socrates.
The great principle of their doftrine was, that the
fupreme good of man in this life is pleafure ; whereby,
they not only meant a privation of pain, and a tran¬
quillity of mind, but an affemblage of all mental and
fenfual pleafures, particularly the laft.
Cicero makes frequent mention of Ariftippus’s fchool,
and fpeaks of it as yielding debauchees.. Three difciples
of Ariftippus, after his death, divided the fed! into three
branches; under which divifion it languilhed and funk^.
the firft called the Hegejiac fchool ; the fecond the
Klnnicerian; and the third the Theodoran; from the
names of their authors.
GYRENE, in Ancient Geography, the capital of
Cyrenaica, and one of the cities called Pentapolis, di»
ftant from Apollonia, its fea-port, 10. miles, fituated
on a plain, of the form of a table, according to Stra¬
bo : A colony of the Thereans. Though they were
defcendants of the Lacedcemonians, yet they differed
from them in their turn of mind or difpofition, apply¬
ing themfelves to philofophy ; and hence arofe the Cy-
renaic fedl, at the head of which was Ariftippus, who
placed all happinefs in pkafure.. The Cyreneans were
a people much given to aurigation, or the ufe of the
chariot, from their excellent breed of horfes, (Pindar,
Ephorus, Strabo).
CYRIL, St, biftiop of Jerufalem, fucceeded Maxi¬
mus in 350. He was afterwards depofed for the crime
of expofing to fale the treafures of the church, and ap¬
plying the money to the fupport of the poor during a
great famine. Under Julian he was reftored to his fee,
and was firmly eftablilhed. in all his old honours and
dignities under Theodofius ; in which he continued un-
molefted to his death in 386'. The remains of this
father confift only of 23 catechefts, and one letter to
the emperor Conftantius.
Cyrie, St, patriarch of Alexandria, fucceeded
Theophilus, his uncle, 10412. Scarce was he inftal-
led, when he began to exert his authority with great
rigour; he drove the Novatians and Jews from Alex¬
andria, permitting their wealth and iynagogues to be
taken from them. This proceeding highly difpleafed
Oreftes, the governor of the city, who law that if the
bilhop’s authority was not foon fuppreffed, it might
grow too ftrong for that of the magiftrate. Upon which
a kind of civil war broke out between Oreftes and the
biftiop ;; many , tumults were railed, and fome battles
fought in the very ftreets of Alexandria. St Cyril alfo
diftinguiftied himfelf by his zeal againfi Neftorius bi-
fhop of Conftantinople, who in fome of his homilies,
had afferted that the Virgin Mary ought not to be cal¬
led the mother of God. T he difpute at firft- proved
unfavourable to Cyril, whofe opinion was not only
condemned, but himfelf deprived of his biftiopric and
thrown into prilon. But he was fhon after releafed,
and
C Y K
^yrjl( and gained a complete viftory over Neftorius, Avho in
Cyrus. 431 was depofed from his fee of Conftantinople. Cyril
v returned to his fee at Conftantinople, where he died
in 444. St Cyril alfo wrote agalnft Theodoras of
Mopfuefta, Diodorus of Tarfus, and Julian the apo-
ftate. He compofed commentaries on St John’s gof-
pel, and wrote feveral other books. His works were
publiftied in Greek and Latin in 1638, in fix volumes
folio.
CYRUS, the fon of Cambyfes the Perfian, by Man-
dane the daughter of Aftyages king of the Medes.
The two chief hiftorians, who have written the life of
Cyrus, are Herodotus and Xenophon } but their ac¬
counts of him are different, in as much as the latter
makes his father a king of Perfia, and the former a
meaner man. The account of Herodotus, as Dr Pri-
deaux obferves, indeed contains narratives that are
much more ftrange and furprifing, and confequently
more diverting and agreeable to the reader : and for
this reafon more have chofen to follow him than Xeno¬
phon.
Herodotus informs us, that Aftyages king of the
Medes dreamed that a vine fprung from the womb
of his daughter Mandane, the branches whereof over-
fhadowed all Afia; whereupon having confulted the
foothfayers, he was told that his dream portended the
future power and greatnefs of a child who ftiould be
born of his daughter : and further that the lame child
fhould deprive him of his kingdom. Aftyages, to pre¬
vent the accomplilhment of this prediction, inftead of
marrying his daughter to fome powerful prince, gave
her to Cambyfes, a Perlian of mean condition, and one
who had no great capacity for forming any important
delign, nor for fupporting the ambition of his fon by
his own riches and authority. Nor did Aftyages Hop
here : the apprehenlions he was under left Mandane’s
Nfon might perhaps find that afliftance in his own cou¬
rage, or fome lucky circumftance which his family
was not able to fupply him with, induced him to take
a refolution of defpatching the child, if there Ihould be
any. As foon, therefore, as he underftood his daugh¬
ter was with child, he commanded one of his officers
whofe name was Harpagus, to deftroy the infant as
foon as it came into the world. Harpagus, fearing
the refentment of Mandane, put the child into the
hands of one who was the king’s (hepherd, in order to
expofe him. The fhepherd’s wife was fo extremely
touched with the beauty of Cyrus, that fhe defired her
hufband rather to expofe her own fon, who was born
fome time before, and preferve the young prince. Af¬
ter this manner Cyrus was preferved, and brought up
among the king’s fhepherds.
One day, as the neighbouring children were at play
together, Cyrus was chofen king; and having punifh-
ed one of his little playfellows with fome feverity, for
-difobeying his commands, the child’s parent complain¬
ed of Cyrus to Aftyages. This prince fent for young
Cyrus, and obferving fomething great in his air, his
manner and behaviour, together with a great refem-
blance of his daughter Mandane, he made particular
inquiry into the matter, and difcovered that, in reality,
Cyrus was no other than his grandfon. Harpagus,
who was the inftrument of preferving him, was punifh-
•«d with the death of his own fon : however, Aftyages
believing that the .royalty which the foothfayers had
0 Y Ft
promifed to the young prince, was only that which he Cyrus,
had lately exercifed among the fhepherds children, ——y—
troubled himfelf no more about it. Cyrus being grown
up, Harpagus diielofed the whole fecret of his birth to
him, together with the manner wherein he bad deliver¬
ed him from the cruel refolution of his grandfather.
He encouraged him to come into Media, and promifed
to furnifti him with forces, in order to make him ma¬
iler of the country, and depole Aftyages. Cyrus heark¬
ened to thefe propofitions, engaged the Perfians to take
up arms againft the Medes, marched at the head of
them to meet Aftyages, defeated him, and poflefled
himfelf of Media. He carried on many other wars j
and at length fat down before Babylon, which after a
long fiege he took.
The relation of Cyrus’s life from Xenophon is as
follows: Aflyages king of Media married his daugh¬
ter Mandane to Cambyles king of Perfia, fon to Achge-
menes king of the fame nation. Cyrus was born at
his father’s court, and was educated with all the care
his birth required. When he was about the age of
12 years, his grandfather Aftyages fent for him to
Media, together with his mother Mandane. Some
time after, the king of Affyria’s fon having invaded
Media, Aftyages, with his fon Cyaxares and his grand¬
fon Cyrus, marched againft him. Cyrus diftinguifh-
ed himfelf in this war, and defeated the Affyrians.
Cambyfes afterwards recalled him, that he might have
him near his own perfon ; and Aftyages dying, his fon
Cyaxares, uncle by the mother’s fide to Cyrus, fue-
ceeded him in the kingdom of Media.
Cyrus, at the age of 30 years, was, by his father
Cambyfes, made general of the Perfian troops j and
fent at the head of 30,000 men to the affiftance of his
uncle Cyaxares, whom the king of Babylon, with his
allies the Cappadocians, Carians, Phrygians, Cilicians,
and Paphlagonians were preparing to attack. Cyax¬
ares and Cyrus prevented them, by falling upon them
and difperfing them. Cyrus advanced as far as Baby¬
lon, and fpread terror throughout the country. From
this expedition he retired to his uncle, towards the
frontiers ef Armenia and Affyria, and was received by
Cyaxares in the tent of the Aflyrian king whom he had
defeated.
After this Cyrus carried the war into tfie countries
beyond the river Halys, entered Cappadocia, and fub-
dued it entirely. From thence he marched againft;
Crcefus king of Lydia, beat him in the firft battle ;
then befieged him in Sardis his capital •, and after a
fiege of fourteen days obliged him to furrender. See
Croesus. After this, Cyrus having reduced almoft
all Afia, repaffed the Euphrates, and made war upon
the Affyrians. He marched direftly to Babylon, took
it, and there prepared a palace for his uncle Cyaxares,
whither he might retire, if at any time he had an in¬
clination to come to Babylon $ for he was not then in
the army. After all thefe expeditions, Cyrus return¬
ed to his father and mother into Perfia, where they
were ftill living : and going fome time after to his
uncle Cyaxares into Media, he married his coufin the
only daughter and heirefs of all Cyaxares’s dominions,
and went with her to Babylon, from whence he fent
men of the firft rank and quality to govern all the fe¬
veral nations which he had conquered. He engaged
again in feveral wars, and lubdued all the nations
F 2 which
t 43 1
c Y R r 44 ] C Y S
{#,-119. whicfi lie between Syria and the Red Tea. He died
.Wp-y——the age of 70 years, after a reign of 30 : but au¬
thors differ very much concerning the manner of his
death. Herodotus, Juftin, and Valerius Maximus re¬
late, that he died in the war againft the Scythians ;
and that tailing into an ambulh which Queen Tomyris
bad laid for him, fhe ordered his head to be cut off,
and call into a veffel full of blood, faying, “ Thou haft
always thirlfed after human blood, now glut thyfelf
with it.” Diodorus the Sicilian fays, that he was taken
in an engagement and hanged. Ctefias affures us, that
he died of a wound which he received in his thigh :
but by Xenophon’s account he died peaceably in his
bed, armdft his friends and his fervants $ and certain it
b, that in Alexander’s time his monument was fhown
at Pafagarda in Perfia.
From all this it is eafy to conclude, that we are but
imperfectly acquainted with the hiftory of this great
prmce, the founder of the Perfian, and deft rover of the
Chaldean, empire. We learn fewer particulars of it
from Scripture, but then they are more certain than
any that we have produced. Daniel (viii. 3—20.)
in the famous vifion wherein God fhovved him the ruin
of feveral great emperors, which were to precede the
birth of the Mefliah, reprefents Cyrus to us under the
idea of “ a ram, which had two horns ; and the two
horns were high, but the one was higher than the
other, and the higher came up laft. This ram pufhed
welt ward, and northward, and fouthvvard, fo that no
beads might Hand before him ; neither was there any
that could deliver out of his hand, but he did ac¬
cording to his will, and became great.” The ram’s
two. horns fignify the two empires which Cyrus re¬
united in his perfon $ that of the Medes, and that of
the Perfians. The lalt was greater and more power¬
ful than the empire of the Medes ; or otherwife, thefe
two horns fignify the two branches of Cyrus’s fuccef-
f’ors. His fon Cambyfes dying, the empire was tranf-
ferred to Darius the fqn of Hyftafpes, and was conti¬
nued down to Darius" Codomannus, who, as Calmet
thinks, is the great horn which the he-goat, that de¬
notes Alexander, run againft. In chap. vii. 5. Daniel
compares Cyrus to a bear, with three ribs in the mouth
of it, to which it was faid, “ Arife, devour much
flefh.” Cyrus fucceeded his father Cambyfes in the
kingdom of Perfia, and Darias the Mede, by Xeno-
ph on called Cyaxares, and Aftyages in the apocryphal
chapter (xiii. 1.) of Daniel,, in the kingdom of the
Medes and empire of Babylon. He was monarch of
all the eaft j or as he fpeaks (2 Chr. xxxvi. 22, 23.
and Ezr. i, 1, 2.) “ of all the earth,” when he per¬
mitted the Jews to return to their own country, in
the year of the world 3466, before Jefus Chrift 538.
The enemies of the Hebrews, making ufe of this
prince’s affection to his own religion, prevailed with
him to put a flop by his orders to the building of
the temple at Jerufalem ; (Ezra iv. 5*). The pro¬
phets frequently foretold the coming of Cyrus ; and
Ifaiah (xiiv. 28.) has been fo particular as to declare
his name 200 years before he was born. Jofephus
(i\.ntiq. lib. ii. c. 2.) fays, that the Jews of Babylon
fhowed this ; adage of the prophet to Cyrus •, and that
this prince, in the editft which he granted them for
their return, acknowledged that he received the empire
«f the world from the God of Ifrapl; and that the
' ?
lame God had dtferibed him by name in the writings Cynr
of the prophets, and foretold that he Ihould build a Cyft.
temple to him at Jerufalem. Cyrus is pointed out in v v
Scripture under the name of the righteous man and
the ftiepherd of Ifrael, (Ifaiah xli. 2. 10. xliv. 28.) and
xlvi. 11. Notwithftanding this, God fays of him
(Ifaiah xlv. 5.) “ I girded thee, though thou haft not
known me.” And Jeremiah calls Cyrus and his peo¬
ple who overthrew the Babylonifti empire, thieves and
robbers. The taking of Babylon by Cyrus is clearly
fet down by the prophets, and may be feen under the
the articles Babylon and Belshazzar. Archbilhop
Ufher fixes the birth of Cyrus to the year of the world*
3405 ; his firft year at Babylon to 3466, and his-
death to 3475. The eaftern people will have it, that
Cyrus by his mother’s fide was defeended from fome
of the Hebrew prophets : as alfo that his wife was a
Jew, which is the reafon (fay they) that this prince fo
attached himfelf to the Jews, to whom he was fo near¬
ly allied.
Cyrus II. was the younger fon of Darius Noth us,
and the brother of Artaxerxes. He was fent by his
father at the age of 16 to aflift the Lacedaemonians
againft Athens. Artaxerxes fucceeded to the throne
at the death of Nothus ; and Cyrus, who was of an
afpiring foul, attempted to affaffinate him. He was.
difeovered, and had been puniflied with death, had not
his mother Paryfatis faved him from the hands of the-
executioner by her tears and entreaties. This circum-
ftanee did not in the leaft check the ambition of Cy¬
rus j he was appointed over Lydia and the fea coafts,
where he fecretly fomented rebellion and levied troops
under various pretences. At laft he took the field
with an army of 100,000 barbarians, and 13,000
Greeks under the command of Clearchus. Artaxer¬
xes met him with 900,000 men near Cunaxa. The
battle was long and bloody j and Cyrus might have-
perhaps obtained the viflory, had not his uncommon
raftinefs proved his ruin. It is faid that the two royal
brothers met in perfon, and their engagement ended
in the death of Cyrus, 401 years before the Auguftan
age. Artaxerxes was fo anxious of its being univerfal-
ly reported that his brother bad fallen by his hand,
that he put to death two of his fubje&s for boafting
that they had killed Cyrus. I he Greeks, who were
engaged in this expedition, obtained much glory in the
battle ; and after the death of Cyrus they remained
vi&orious in the field without a commander. They
were not difeouraged though at the diftance of above
6ao leagues from their country, and furrounded on
every fide by a powerful enemy. They unanimoufly
united in the eledfion of commanders, and traverfed all
Afia, in fpite of the continual attacks of the Perfians •
and nothing is more truly celebrated in ancient hiftory
than the bold retreat of the ten thoufand. The jour¬
ney that they made from the time of their firft embar¬
kation till their return, has been calculated at lice
league:, performed in the fpaie of 15 months, including
all the time which was devoted to take rtft and re-
frefhmf nt. Tl his retreat has been celebrated by Xe¬
nophon, who was one of their leaders, and among the
friends and fupporters of Cyrus.
CYST, the bag or tunic including all eneyfted tu¬
mors, as the feirrhus, atheroma, fteatoma, meliceres
qlc, ’
CYSTIC
c
Z A
[ 45 J
C Z E
€yftic
I!
Czar.
CYSTIC, in Anatomy, a name given to two arte¬
ries and two veins.
Cl's TIC Du6i. See Anatomy Index.
CYTHERA, -orum, in Ancient Geography, an ifland
oppofite to Mallea, a promontory, and to Boiae a town
of Laconia ; with a cognomina! town, which has an
excellent port called Scandea. The ifland was facred
to Venus, with a very ancient temple of that goddefs
exhibited in armour at Cythera, as in Cyprus : now
Ctrigo.
CYTHEREA, in Mythology, the furname of Ve¬
nus, fo called from Cythera an ifland, where fire had
a temple efteemed the moft ancient in Greece, and on
the flrores of which ihe was believed to be borne by the
Zephyrs, furrounded by the Loves, the Tritons, and
Nereids, reclining in a languifliing poflure in a fea-
fhell. They give the name of Cytheriades to the Graces
which attended her on the Ihore without quitting her,
except on thofe occafions when ihe rather chofe to be
waited upon by the Pleafures.
CYTINUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
gynandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking
under the nth order, Sarmentacece. See Botany
Index.
CYTISUS, Tree Trefoil, a genus of plants be-
longing to the diadelphia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 32d order, Papilionacece. See
Botany Index.
CYZICENS, Cyzicena, among the ancient Greeks,
were a fort of magnificent banqueting houfes, always
looking toward the north, and ufually opening upon
gardens.
They had their name from Cyzicus, a city very con-
fiderable for the grandeur of its buildings j fituated in
an ifland of Myfia, bearing the fame name.
CYZICUM, or Cyzicus, in Ancient Geography, one
of the noblefi: cities of the hither Afia *, fituated in a
cognominal ifland of the Propontis, on the coaft of My¬
fia j joined to the continent by two bridges (Strabo) 5
the firfl by Alexander j the city, a colony of the Mi-
lefians (Pliny). Rendered famous by the fiege of Mi-
thridates, which was raifed by Lucullus.—The inhabi¬
tants were made a free people by the Romans, but for¬
feited their freedom under Tiberius. It was adorned
with a citadel and walls round it j had a port and
marble towers ; and three magazines, one for arms,
another for warlike engines, and a third for corn.
Cyziceni, the people ; noted by the ancients for their
timidity and effeminacy : hence the proverb in Zeno-
dotus and others, Tintfura Cijzenica, applied to perfons
guilty of an indecency through fear j but Stateres Cy-
%iceni, nummi Cyxiceni, denote things executed to per-
feiRion.
CZACKTHURN, a ftrong town of Germany, in
Auftria, and near the frontiers of Hungary. It is
feated between the rivers Drave and Muhir, in E.
Long. 17. 19. N. Lat. 46. 24.
CZAR, a title of honour, affumed by the grand
dukes, or, as they are now ftyled, emperors of Ruflia.
The natives pronounce it tear, or -zaar; and this, by
corruption (it has been fancied), from Cafar, “ em-
peror,” from fome imagined relation to the Roman
emperors. But this etvmology does not feem corre£E
When the czar Peter formerly required of the Euro¬
pean courts an acknowledgement of his imperial titles,
i,
and that the appellation of Emperor tt\ould never be
omitted, there was great difficulty made about it,
elpecially at the court of Vienna ; which occafioned
him to produce the famous letter, written in the Ger¬
man tongue, from Maximilian I. emperor of Germany,
to Vaffili Ivanovitch, confirming a treaty of alliance
offenfive and defenfive againft Sigifmund king of Po¬
land. In this difpatch, which is dated Auguft the
4th, 1514, and is ratified with the feal of the golden
bull, Maximilian addreffts Vaffili by calling him Kayfer
and Herrfcher aller Rujfen, “ emperor and ruler of all
the Ruffias.” But independently of this document,
there could be no doubt that the foreign courts, in
their intercourfe with that of Mofcow, ftyled the fove-
reigns indilcriminately Great Duke, Czar, and Em¬
peror. With refpeft to England in particular, it is
certain that in Chancellor’s Account of Ruffia, fo
early as the middle of the 16th century, Ivan Vaffilie-
vitch II. is called Lord and Emperor of all Ruf/ia ; and
in the Englith difpatches, from the reign of Elizabeth
to that of Anne, he is generally addreffed under the
fame appellation. When the European powers, how¬
ever, ftyled the czar Emperor of Mufcovy, they by no
means intended to give him a title fimilar to that
which was peculiar to the emperor of Germany j bufc
they beftowed upon him that appellation as upon
an Afiatic fovereign, in the fame manner as we
now fay the emperors of China and Japan. When
Peter, therefore, determined to affume the title of em¬
peror, he found no difficulty in proving that it had
been conferred upon his predeceffors by moft of the
European powers j yet when he was delirous of affix¬
ing to the term the European fenfe, it was confidered
as an innovation, and was produftive of more negotia¬
tions than would have been requifite for the termina¬
tion of the moft important ftate affair. At the fame
time it occafioned a curious controverfy among the
learned, concerning the rife and pmgrefs of the titles
by which the monarchs of this country have been di-
ftinguiffied. From their refearches it appeared, that
the early fovereigns of Ruffia were called great dukes,
and that Vaffili Ivanovitch was probably the firft who
ftyled himfelf tear, an expreffion which in the Sclavo-
nian language fignifies ; and that his fucceffbrs
continued to bear within their own dominions that title
as the moft honourable appellation, until Peter the
Great firft took that of Povelitel, or emperor. After
many delays and objedtions, the principal courts of
Europe confented, about the year 1722, to addrefs the
fovereign of Ruffia with the title of Emperor ; without
prejudice, neverthelefs, to the other crowned heads of
Europe.
CZASLAU, a town of Bohemia, and capital of a
circle of the fame name. The principal church has
the higheft tower in Bohemia *, and near this place the
king of Pruffia gained a vidlory over the Aultrians in
1742. It is feated on the river Crudenka, in E. Long.
15. 33. N. Lat. 49. 50.
CZENS TOKOW, a town of Poland in the pala¬
tinate of Cracovia, with a fort, in which they keep a
rich trealure called “ the treafure of the Virgin Maiy.’*
The pilgrims flock hither fo much for the fake of a
convent near it, that it is called the Loretto of Poland.
The town is fituated on the river Warte. E. Long.
19. 15. N. Lat. 50. 48.
Czar
CZERNIC,,
D A C
[ 46 ]
D A C
Czernic, CZERNIC, a town of Carniola, in Auftria, fituated
Czernikon. in E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 46. 12. Ii L remarkable
for its lake ; for a particular defcription of which fee
the article CiRCHNITZER.
CZERNIKOU, a confiderable town of Mufcovy,
and capital of a duchy of the fame name, with a caftle.
It is feated on the river Dezna, in E. Long. 32. 13. Czernikou.
N. Lat. 51. 20, (Jzongrodt.
CZONGRODT, a town of Upper Hungary, and
capital of a territory of the fame name, at the conflu¬
ence of the rivers Teifle and Keres, E. Long. 20. 37.
N. Lat. 46. 50.
TA THE fourth letter of the alphabet, and the
II 5 third confonant.
Dacca. Grammarians generally reckon D among the lingual
—-y-' ■■» letters, as fuppofing the tongue to have the principal
(hare in the pronunciation thereof j though the Abbot
de Dangeau feems to have reafon in making it a palate
letter. The letter D is the fourth in the Hebrew,
Chaldee, Samaritan, Syriac, Greek, and Latin alpha¬
bets ; in the five firft of which languages it has the
fame name, though fomewhat differently fpoke, e. g.
in Hebrew, Samaritan, and Chaldee, Da/eth, in Syriac
Do/eth, and in Greek Delta.
The form of our D is the fame with that of the
Latins, as appears from all the ancient medals and in-
fcriptions, and the Latin D is no other than the Greek
A. rounded a little, by making it quicker and at two
ftrokes. The A of the Greeks, again, is borrowed from
the ancient charafter of the Hebrew Daleth : which
form it ftill retains, as is (hown by the Jefuit Souciet,
in his differtation on the Samaritan Medals.
D is alfo a numerical letter, fignifyingyfw hundred,
which arifes hence, that in the Gothic charafters, the
D is half the M, which fignifies a thoufand, hence
the verfe,
Litera D vclut A quingentos Jignificabit.
A daffi added a-top o, denotes it to ftand for Jive
thoufand.
Ufed as an abbreviation, it has various fignifications:
thus D ftands for Doctor j as, M. D. for Doctor of
Medicine; D. T. Doftor of Theology; D. D. im¬
plies Dodtor of Divinity, or “ dono deditD. D. D.
is ufed for “ dat, dicat, dedicatand D. D. D. D.
for “ dignum Deo donum dedit.”
DAB, the Engliffi name of a fpecies of Peeuro-
NECTES. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
DABUL, a town of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, on
the coaff of Malabar, and to the foutb of the gulf of
Cambaye, on a navigable river. It was formerly very
flouriffiing, but is now much decayed. It belongs to
the Portuguefe, and its trade confiffs principally in
pepper and fait. E. Long. 72. 50. N. Lat. 17. 30.
DACCA, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Ben¬
gal in the Eaft Indies, fituated in E. Long. 86. 10.
N. Lat. 24. o.—The advantages of the fituation of
this place, and the fertility of the foil round it, have
long fince made it the centre of an extenfive commerce.
The courts of Delhi and Muxadavad are furniflied from
thence with the cottons wanted for their own con-
fumption. They each of them maintain an agent on Dacss
the fpot to fuperintend the manufadlure of them ; and Dace,
he has an authority, independent of the magiftrate,—v——
over the brokers, weavers, embroiderers, and all of the
workmen whole bufinefs has any relation to the objeft
of his commiflion. Thefe unhappy people are forbid¬
den, under pecuniary and corporeal penalties, to fell, to
any perfon whatever, a piece exceeding the value of
three guineas: nor can they, but by dint of money, re¬
lieve themfelves from this oppreflion.
In this, as in all the other markets, the Europeans
treat with the Moorifti brokers fettled upon the fpot,
and appointed by the government. They likewife lend
their name to the individuals of their own nation, as
well as to Indians and Armenians living in their fettle-
ments, who, without this precaution, would infallibly
be plundered. The Moors themfelves, in their private
tranfaflions, fometimes avail themfelves of the fame
pretence, that they may pay only two, inftead of five
per cent. A diftin&ion is obferved, in their contrails,
between the cottons that are befpoke and thofe w hich
the weaver ventures, in feme places, to manutailure on
his own account. The length, the number of threads,
and the price, of the former are fixed : nothing further
than the commiffion for the latter is ftipulated, becaufe
it is impoflible to enter into the fame detail. Thefe
nations that make a point of having fine goods, take
proper meafures that they may be enabled to advance
money to their workmen at the beginning of the year.
The weavers, who in general have but little employ¬
ment at that time, perform their work with lefs hurry
than in the months of Oilober, November, and De¬
cember, when the demand is prefling.
Some of the cottons are delivered unbleached, and
others half bleached. It were to be wilhed that this
cuftom might be altered. It is very common to fee
cottons that look very beautiful to go off in the bleach-
ing. Perhaps the manufaflurers and brokers forefee
how they will turn out ; but the Europeans have not
fo exquifite a touch, nor fuch an experienced eye, to
difcern this. It is a circumftance peculiar to India,
that cottons, of what kind foever they are, can never
be well bleached and prepared bul in the place where
they are manufadlured. If they have the mbforlune
to get damage before they are flopped for Europe,
they muft be fent back to the places from whence they
came.
DACE, a fpecies of Cyprinus. See Ichthyology
.Index.
This
D A C [ 47 ] D A C
^,ace This fi(h is extremely common in our rivers, and
~U gives the expert angler great diverfion. The dace will
Dacier. bite at any fly 5 but he is more than ordinarily fond of
-—v~~ the ftone caddis, or May fly,, which is plentiful in the
latter end of April and the whole month of May.
Great quantities of thefe may be gathered among the
reeds or fedges by the water-iide, and on the hawthorn
bullies near the waters. Thefe are a large and hand-
fome bait ; but as they only laid a fmall part of the year
in feafon, recourfe is to be had to the ant-fly. Of thefe
the black, ones found in large mole-hills or ant-hills-
are the beft. Thefe may be kept alive a long time in
a bottle, with a little of the earth of the hill, and fome
roots of grafs y and they are in feafon throughout the
months of June, July, Auguft, and September. The
beft feafon of all is when they fwarm, which is in the
end of July or beginning of Auguft j and they may
be kept many months in a veffel walhed out with a fo-
lution of honey in water, even longer than with the
earth and grafs-roots in the vial •, though that is the
mold convenient method with a fmall parcel taken for.
one day’s fiftiing. In warm weather this fifti very fel-
dom refufes a fly at the top of the water ; but at other
times he muft have the bait funk to within three
inches of the bottom. The winter ffthing for dace
requires a very different bait : this is a white maggot
with a reddifti head, which is the produce of the eggs
of the beetle, and is turned up with the plough in
great abundance. A parcel of thefe put in any veffel,
with the earth they were taken in, will keep many
months, and are an excellent bait. Small dace may
be put into a glafs jar with frefli water ; and there pre-
ferved alive fora long time, if the water is properly
changed. They have been obferved to eat nothing
but the animalcula of the water. They will grow very
tame by degrees.
DACHAW, a town of Bavaria in Germany. It is
pretty large, well built, and feated on a mountain near
the river Amber, io miles N. W. of Munich. Here
the elefdor has a palace and fine gardens. E. Long.
11. 30. N. Lat. 48. 20.
DACIA, in Ancient Geography, a country which
Traj an, who reduced it to a province, joined to Moefia
by an admirable bridge. This country lies extended be¬
tween the Danube and Carpathian mountains, from the
river Tibifcus, quite to the north bend of the Danube j
fo as to extend thence in a direft line to the mouth of
the Danube and to the Euxine j on the north fide,
next the Carpates, terminated by the river Hierafus,
now the Pruth ; on the weft by the Tibifcus or Teifsj
comprifing a part of Upper Hungary, all Tranfylvania
and Wallachia, and a part of Moldavia. Daci, the
people j a name which Strabo takes to be the fame
with the Davi of comedies; neighbours, on the weft,
to the Getce, an appellation common alfo in come¬
dies. Jofephus mentions a fet of religious men among
the Daci, whom he calls Plifti, and compares with the
Effeni : of thefe Plifti no other author makes any men¬
tion. Dacicus, the epithet affumed by fome empe¬
rors (Juvenal). There was a Dacia Aureliana, a
part of Illyricum, which was divided into the eaftern
and weftern 5 Sirmium being the capital of the latter,
and Sardica of the former. But this belongs to the
lower age.
DACIER, Andrew, born at Caftres in Upper
Languedoc, 1651, had a great genius and inclination
for learning, and ftudied at Saumur under Tannegui
le Fevre, then engaged in the inftruftion of his daugh¬
ter, who proved afterwards an honour to her fex. This
gave rife to that mutual tenderneis which a marriage
of 40 years could never weaken in them. The duke of
Montaufier hearing of his merit, put him in the lift of
commentators for the ufe of the Dauphin, and engaged
him in an edition of Pompeius Feltus, which he pu-
bliftied in 1681. His edition of Horace, printed at
Paris in ten vols 12mo, and his other works, raifed
him a great reputation. He was made a mejuber of
the academy of infcriptions in 1695. When the hif-
tory of Louis XIV. by medals was finiftied, he was-
chofen to prefent it to his majefty $ who being inform¬
ed of the pains which he had taken in it, fettled upon
him a penfion of 2000 livres, and appointed him keep¬
er of the books of the king’s clolet in the Louvre,
When that poft was united to that of library keeper to
the king, he was not only continued in the privilege of
his place during life, but the furvivance was granted to
his wife ; a favour of which there had been no inftance
before. But the death of Madame Dacier in 1720, ren¬
dered this grant, which was fo honourable to her, in-
effeflual. He died September 18. 1722, of an ulcer
in the throat. In his manners, fentiments, and the
whole of his condufl, he was a complete model of that
ancient philofophy of which he was fo great an ad¬
mirer, and which he improved by the rules and princi¬
ples of Chriftianity.
Dacier, Anne, daughter of Tannegui le Fevre,
profeffor of Greek at Saumur in France. She early
{bowed a fine genius, which her father cultivated with
great care and fatisfaftion. After her father’s death
ftie went to Paris, whither her fame had already reach¬
ed j (he was then preparing an edition of Callimachus,
which fhe publiftied in 1674. Having fhown fome
{beets of it to M. Huet, preceptor to the dauphin, and
to feveral other men of learning at the court, the work
was fo highly admired, that the duke of Montaufier
made a propofal to her of publiftiing feveral Latin au¬
thors for the ufe of the dauphin. She rejedled this pro¬
pofal at firft, as a talk to which ihe was not equal.—=■
But the duke infifted upon it j fo that at laft he gained
her confent ; upon which {he undertook an edition
of Florus, publithed in 1674. Her reputation being
now fpread over all Europe, Chriftina, queen of Swe¬
den, ordered Count Konigfmark to make her a compli¬
ment in her name : upon which Madamoifelle le Fevre
lent the queen a Latin letter with her edition of Flo¬
rus 5 to which her majefty wrote an obliging anfwer,
and not long after fent her another letter, to perfuade
her to abandon the Proteftant religion, and made her
confiderable offers to fettle at her court. In 1683 the
marred Mr Dacier j and foon after declared her defign
to the duke of Montaufier and the biftiop of Meaux of
reconciling herfelf to the church of Rome, which (he
had entertained for fome time : but as Mr Dacier was
not yet convinced of the reafonablenefs of fuch a
change, they retired to Caftres in 1684, where they
had a fmall eftate, in order to examine the points of
controverfy between the Proteftants and the Roman
Catholics. They at laft determined in favour of the
latter, and made the public abjuration in 1685. Af¬
ter this, the king gave both hufband and wife marks
4 ȣ
-DAG [ 48 ] DAD
'Bader of Ins favour. In 1693, ^le applied herfelf to tbe cdu-
II cation of her fon and daughter, who made a prodigi-
I)a^yh‘ ous progrefs: the fon died in 1694, and the daughter
became a nun in the abbey of Longehamp. She had
another daughter, who had united in her all the vir¬
tues and accomplifhments that could adorn the fex ; but
fhe died at 18. Her mother has immortalized her me¬
mory in the preface to her tranflation of the Iliad.
Madame Dacier was in a very infirm Hate of health the
two laft years of her life ; and died, after a very pain¬
ful ficknefs, Auguft 17. 1720, aged 69. She was re¬
markable for her firmnefs, generofity, equality of tem¬
per, and piety.
D ACTYL,(daElyIus), a font in the Latin and Greek
poetry, confifting of a long fyllable, followed by two
ftiort ones ; as cantiine.
Some fay it is derived from “ a finger,”
becaufe it is divided into three joints, the firft of which
is longer than the other two.
The dadtyl is faid to have been the invention of
Dionyfius or Bacchus, who delivered oracles in this
meafure at Delphos, before Apollo. The Greeks call
it TTiXiriKaf. The daftyl and fpondee are the molt
confiderable of the poetical feet ; as being the mea-
fures ufed in heroic verfe by Homer, Virgil, &c.
Thefe two are of equal time, but not equal^ motion.
The fpondee has an even, flrong, and fteady pace, like a
trot: the da6fy Irefembles the nimbler ftrokes of a gallop.
DACIYLI ID^EI ; the Fingers of Mount Ida.
Concerning thefe, Pagan theology and fable give very
different accounts. The Cretans paid divine worfhip
to them, as thofe who had nurfed and brought up the
god Jupiter ; whence it appears that they were the
fame as the Corybantes and Curetes. Neverthelefs
Strabo makes them different ; and fays, that the tradi¬
tion in Phrygia was, that “ the Curetes and Corybantes
were defcended from the Daftyli Idaei : that there were
originally an hundred men in the ifland, who were cal¬
led Da&y/i hleci; from whom fprang nine Curetes, and
each of thefe nine produced ten men, as many as the
fingers of a man’s two hands; and that this gave the
name to the anceftors of the Haftyli Idaei.” He re¬
lates another opinion, which is, that there were but
five Daffyli Idasi 5 who, according to Sophocles, were
the inventors of iron : that thefe five brothers had five
fillers, and that from this number they took the name
of Fingers of Mount A/a, becaufe they were in number
ten : and that they worked at the foot of this moun¬
tain. Diodorus Siculus reports the matter a little dif¬
ferently. He fays, “ the firft inhabitants of the ifiand
of Crete were the Da£lyli Idcei, who had their refi-
dence on Mount Ida : that fome faid they were an
hundred j others only five in number, equal to the fin¬
gers of a man’s hand, whence they had the name of
DaByli: that they were magicians, and addicted to
myftical ceremonies : that Orpheus was their difciple,
and carried their mylleries into Greece: that the Dac-
tyli invented the ufe of iron and fire, and that they
had been recompenfed with divine honours.”
Diomedes the grammarian fays, the Dadtyli Idgei
Were priefts of the goddefs Cybele : called Idcei, be¬
caufe that goddefs was chiefly worlhipped on Mount
Ida in Phrygia; and DaBy/i, ‘becaufe that, to prevent
Saturn from hearing the cries of infant Jupiter, whom
Cybele had committed to their cullody, they ufed to
fing certain verfes of their own invention, in the Dac- Daflyli
tylic meafure. See Curetes and Corybantes. |j
^ 1 f°mething that has a relation to Dad“chi.
Anciently there were daflylic as well as fpondaic
flutes, tibice daByiicce. The dafiylic flutes confifted of
unequal intervals $ as the dadylic foot does of unequal
meafures.
DaC'TTLIC Verfes are hexameter verfes, ending in
a da61yl inftead of a fpondee; as fpondaic verfes are
thofe which have a fpondee in the fifth foot inftead of a
dadlyl.
An inftance of a dactylic verfe we have in Virgil ;
Bis patrice cecidere manus ; quin protinus omnia
Per/egerent ocu/is.— AEn. vi. 33.
DACI YLIOMANCY, (DaBy/iomantia), a fort
of divination performed by means of a ring. The
word is compofed of the Greek cltcKTvXios, “ ring,” of
Writes, “ a finger,” and feamne, “ divination.”
Dattyliomancy confifted principally in holding a
ring, fufpended by a fine thread over a round table,
on the edge whereof were made divers marks with the
twenty-four letters of the alphabet. The ring in (bak¬
ing, or vibrating over the table, flopped over certain
of the letters, which, being joined together, compofed
the anfwer required. But the operation was preceded
and accompanied by feveral fuperftitious ceremonies:
for firft the ring was to be confecrated with a great
deal of myftery ; the perfon who held it was to be clad
in linen garments to the very Ihoes; his head was to be
lhaved all round ; and in his hand he was to hold ver¬
vain. And before he proceeded, the gods were firft;
to. be appealed by a formulary of prayers, &c. Ara-
mianus Marcellinus gives the procefs at large in his
29th book.
n^CJ ^LIS, Cock’s foot Grass, a genus of
plants belonging to the triandria clafs ; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 4th order, Grarnina.
See Botany Index.
DACTYLS, the fruit of the palm-tree, moreufuallv
called dates.
DAC1YLUS, a fort of dance among the ancient
Greeks, chiefly performed, Hefychius obferves, by the
athletae.
Dactylus, a name given by Pliny to a fpecies of
Pholas. See Pholuas, Conchology Index.
DADUCHI, in antiquity, priefts of Ceres. That
goddefs having loft her daughter Proferpine, fay my-
fhologifts, began to make fearch for her at the begin¬
ning of the night. In order to do this in the dark,
fire lighted a torch, and thus fet forth on her travels
throughout the world : for which reafon it is that Ihe
is always feen reprefented with a lighted torch in her
hand. On this account, and in commemoration of
this pretended exploit, it became a cuftom for the
priefts, at the feafts and facrifices of this goddefs, to
run about in the temple, with torches after this man¬
ner ; one of them took a lighted torch from off the
altar, and holding it with his hand, ran with it to a cer¬
tain part of the temple where he gave it to another,
faying to him, Tibi trado: this fecond ran after the
like manner to another part of the temple, and gave
it to the third, and fo of the reft. From this cere¬
mony .the priefts became denominated daduchi,
q> d.
DAE [ 49 1 ^ A E
Da^uchl, d- 3edaius. nous wood, as pine, fir,” Sec. whereof the ancients
ta‘"—■V——' made torches j and “ I have, I hold.”—The A-
thenians alfo gave the name daduchus to the high-prieft
of Hercules.
DAEDAL A, a mountain and city of Lycia, where
Dmdalus was buried, according to Pliny.—illfo two
feltivals in Boeotia, fo called j one of them obferved
at Alalcomenos by the Plataeans in a large grove,
where they expofed in the open air pieces of boiled
flefli, and carefully obferved whither the crows that
came to prey upon them direfted their flight. All the
trees upon which any of thefe birds alighted were im¬
mediately cut down, and with them ftatues were made,
called D&dala, in honour of Daedalus. The other fef-
tival was of a more folemn kind. It was celebrated
every 60 years by all the cities of Boeotia, as a com-
penfation for the intermiflion of the fmaller feftivals,
for that number of years, during the exile of the Pla-
taeans. Fourteen of the flatues called Dcedala were
diftributed by lot among the Plataeans, Lebadaeans,
Coroneans, Orchomenians, Thefpians, Thebans, Ta-
nagrseans, and Chaeroneans, becaufe they had effedled
a reconciliation among the Plataeans, and caufed them
to be recalled from exile about the time that Thebes
was reflored by Caffander the fon of Antipater. Du¬
ring this feftival a woman in the habit of a bridemaid
accompanied a ftatue which was drefled in female gar¬
ments, on the banks of the Eurotas. This proceflion
was attended to the top of Mount Cithseron by many
of the Boeotians, who had places afligned them by lot.
Here an altar of fquare pieces of wood cemented to¬
gether like (tones was erected, and upon it were thrown
large quantities of combuflible materials. Afterwards
a bull was facrificed to Jupiter, and an ox or heifer to
Juno, by every one of the cities of Boeotia, and by
the moft; opulent that attended. The poorer citizens
offered fmall cattle ; and all thefe oblations, together
■with the Daedala, were thrown into the common heap
and fet on fire, and totally reduced to afhes. They
originated in this : When Juno, after a quarrel with
Jupiter, had retired to Euboea, and refufed to return
to his bed, the god, anxious for her return, went to
confult Cithceron king of Plataca, to find fome effc6!ual
meafure to break her obftinacy. Cithaeron advifed
him to drefs a ftatue in woman’s apparel, and carry it
in a chariot, and publicly to report it was Plataea the
daughter of Afopus, whom he was going to marry.
The advice was followed ; and Juno, informed of her
hulband’s future marriage, repaired in hafte to meet
the chariot, and was eafily united to him, when (lie
difeovered the artful meafures he made ufe of to effedt
a reconciliation.
DJEDALUS, an Athenian, fon of Eupalamus, de-
feended from Erichtheus king of Athens. He was
the moft ingenious artift of his age ; and to him we are
indebted for the invention of the wedge and many
other mechanical inftruments, and the fails of (hips.
He made ftatues which moved of themfelves, and feem-
ed to be endowed with life. Talus his fifler’s fon
promifed to be a.- great as himfelf by the ingenuity of
his inventions j and therefore from envy he threw
him down from a window and killed him. After the
murder of this youth, Daedalus, with his fon Icarus,
fled from Athens to Crete, where Minos king of the
. Vol. VII. Part I.
country gave him a cordial reception. Daedalus made
a famous labyrinth (or Minos, and aftifted Pafipbae
the queen to gratify her unnatural paflxon (or a bull.
For this aftion Dtedalus incurred the difpleafure of
Minos, who ordered him to be confined in the laby¬
rinth which he had conftrii&ed. Here he made him¬
felf wings with leathers and wax, and carefully fitted
them to his body and that of his fon, who was the
companion of his confinement. They took their flight
in the air from Crete : but the heat of the fun melted
the wax on the wings of Icarus, whofe flight was too
high, and he fell into that part of the ocean which
from him has been called the Icanan fea. ihe lather,
by a proper management of his wings, alighted at
Cumae, where he built a temple to Apollo, and thence
dire&ed his courfe to Sicily, where he was kindly re¬
ceived by Cocalus, who reigned over part of the coun¬
try. He left many monuments of his ingenuity ill
Sicily, which flill exifted in the age of Diodorus Si¬
culus. He was defpatched by Cocaius, who was afraid
of the power of Minos, who had declared war againft
him becaufe he had given an afylum to Daedalus. L he
flight of Daedalus from Crete with wings is explained
by obferving that he was the inventor of fails, which
in his age might pafs at a diflance for wings. He lived
1400 years before the Chriftian era. There were two
ftatuaries of the fame name $ one of Sicyon, fon of Pa-
troclus ; the other a native of Bithynia.
DiEMON, a name given by the ancients
to certain fpirits or genii, which they fay appeared to
men, either to do them fervice or to hurt them.
The Greek word 'ba.ip.uv is derived (according to
Plato, in his Cratylus, p. 398, ed Servant, vol. i.) from
dxt/twv, “ knowing or intelligent 5” but according to
others from Scttopxt, “ to diftribute,” (fee the Scholiaft
on Homer, II. 1. ver. 222.). Either of thefe deriva¬
tions agrees with the office aferibed to daemons by the
ancient heathens, as the fpirit intruded with the in-
fpeftion and government of mankind. For, accor¬
ding to the philofophers, daemons held a middle rank
betrveen the celeftial gods, and men on earth, and car¬
ried on all intercourfe between them ; conveying the
addreffes of all men to the gods, and the divine benefits
to men. It was the opinion of many, that the ce¬
leftial divinities did not themfelves interpofe in hu¬
man affairs, but committed the entire adminiftration
of the government of this lower world to thefe fubal-
tern deities : Neque enitn pro majeftate dcum ccdeJHum
fuerit, hcec curare ; (Apuleius da deo Socratts, p. 677.).
Cun&u cceleJHutn voluntate, numine, et autiioritate, fed
daemonum obfequio, ct opera et miwjierio fieri arbitran-
dum ef;) Id. p. 675.). Hence they became the ob-
jeft of divine worlhip. “ If idols are nothing,” fays
Celfus Qapud Origen. cont. Celf. lib. viii. p. 393.) “ what
harm can there be to join in the public feftivals ? If
they are daemons, then it is certain that they are gods,
in whom we are to confide, and to whom we ftiould offer
facrifices and prayers to render them propitious.”
Several of the heathen philofophers held that there
were different kinds of daemons ; that fome of them
were fpiritual fubftances of a more noble origin
than the human race, and that others had once been
men.
But thofe daemons who rvere the more immediate
objects of the eftabliftied worftrip among the ancient
G nations
Dardali'i?,
Daemon.
DAE [ 50 ] DAE
Daemon, nations were human fpirits, fuch as were believed to
become daemons or deities after their departure from
their bodies. Plutarch teaches (Vit. Romul. p. 36.
ed. Parts), “ that according to a divine nature and ju-
ftice, the fouls of virtuous men are advanced to the
rank of daemons j and that from daemons, if they are
properly purified, they are exalted into gods, not by
any political inftitution, but according to right reafon.”
The fame author fays in another place (r/e I/l et. OJir.
p. 361.), “ that Ifis and Ofiris were, for their virtue,
changed from good daemons into gods, as were Her¬
cules and Bacchus afterwards, receiving the united ho¬
nours botli of gods and daemons.” Hefiod and other
poets, who have recorded the ancient hiftory or tradi¬
tions on which the public faith and worthip were found¬
ed, affert, that the men of the golden age, who were
fuppofed to be very good, became daemons after death,
and difpenfers of good things to mankind.
Though deemon is often ufed in a general fenfe as
equivalent to a deity, and is accordingly applied to
fate or fortune, or whatever elfe was regarded as a god j
yet thofe daemons who were the more immediate ob¬
jects of divine worfhip amongft the heathens, were hu¬
man fpirits ; as is thovvn in Farmer on Miracles, chap,
iii. feft. 2.
The word daemon is ufed indifferently in a good and
a bad fenfe. In the former fenfe, it was very com¬
monly ufed among the ancient heathens. “ We muft
not [fays Menander) think any daemon to be evil,
hurtful to' a good life, but every god to be good.”
Neverthelefs, thofe are certainly miftaken who affirm,
that deemon never fignifies an evil being till after the
times of Chrift. Pythagoras held daemons who fent
difeafes to men and cattle (Diog. Laert. Fit. Pyt/ia-
gor. p. 514. ed. Atnflel.). Zaleucus, in his preface to
his Laws {apud Stobceum, Serm. 42.) fuppofes that an
evil daemon might be prefer^ with a man, to influence
him to injuftice. The daemons of Empedocles were
evil fpirits, and exiles from heaven •, '(Plutarch rsf
ptYiSeiv ^ccm^urdctd). And in his life of Dion (p. 958.),
he fays, “ It was the opinion of the ancients that evil
and mifehievous daemons, out of envy and hatred to
good men, oppofe whatever they do.” Scarce did any
opinion more generally prevail in ancient times than
this, viz. that as the departed fouls of good men became
good daemons, fo the departed fouls of bad men became
evil daemons.
It has been generally thought, that by daemons we
are to underftand devils, in the Septuagint verfion of
the Old Teftament. Others think the word is in that
verfion certainly applied to the ghufts of fuch dead men
as the heathens deified, in Deut. xxxii. 17. Pf. cvi. 37.
That daemon often bears the fame meaning in the New
Teftament, and particularly in Adts xvii. 18. 1 Cor. x.
21. 1 Tim. iv. 1. Rev. ix. 13. is ffiown at large by
Mr Jofeph Mede (Works, p. 623, etfeqd). That the
word is applied always to human fpirits in the New
Teftament, Mr Farmer has attempted to ffiow in his
Eflay on daemoniacs, p. 208, et feq. As to the mean¬
ing of the word daemon in the fathers of the Chriftian
church, it is ufed by them in the fame fenfe as it was
by the heathen philofophers, efpecially the latter Pla-
tonifts •, that is, fometimes for departed human fpirits,
and at other times for fuch fpirits as had never inha¬
bited human bodies, . In the fathers, indeed, the word
is more commonly taken in an evil fenfe, than in the Dremon
ancient philofophers. Befides the two forementioned Dxmoniae.
kinds of daemons, the fathers, as well as the ancient ~v—J
philofophers, held a third, viz. fuch as fprang from the
congrefs of fuperior beings with the daughters of men.
In the theology of the fathers, thefe were the worfl:
kind of daemons.
Different orders of daemons had different ftations and
employments affigned them by the ancients. Good
daemons were conlidered as the authors of good to
mankind \ evil daemons brought innumerable evils both
upon men and beafts. Amongft evil daemons there urns
a great diftinefion with rtfpedl to the offices affigned
them ; fome compelled men to wickednefs, others fti-
mulated them to madnefs. See DjEMONIAC.
Much has been faid concerning the daemon of So¬
crates. Fie pretended to his friends and difciples, and
even declared to the world, that a friendly fpirit,
whom he called his deemon, directed him how to a£t on
every important occafion in his life, and reftrained him
from imprudence of conduct.
In contemplating the chara&er of this great philo-
fopher, while we admire him as the nobleft pattern
of virtue and moral wifdom that appeared in the hea¬
then world, we are naturally led to inquire, whether
what he gave out concerning his daemon were a trick
of impofture, or the reverie of a heated imagination, or
a fober and true account of a favour which heaven de-
figned to confer on fo extraordinary a man.
To afeertain in this cafe the objedt of .our inqui¬
ries, is by no means fe eafy as the fuperficial thinker
may be apt to imagine. When we confider the dig¬
nity of fentiment and fimplicity of manners which So¬
crates difplayed through the general tenor of his life,
we cannot readily bring ourfelves to think that he
could be capable of fuch a trick of impofture. No¬
thing of the wfildnefs of an enthufiaft appears in his
character 5 the modefty of his pretenfions, and the
refpedt which in his converfation and condudl he uni¬
formly teftified for the ordinary duties of focial life,
fufficiently prove that he was free from the influence
of blind enthufiafm : we cannot infer, therefore, that,
like the aftronomer in Rafelas, he was deceived Avith
refpedt to his daemon by an overheated imagination.
It is no lefs difficult to believe, that God would di-
ftinguiffi a heathen in fo eminent a manner, and yet
leave him uninftrudted in the principles of true reli¬
gion. Surely, if ever fcepticifm be reafonable, it muft
be in fuch matters as the prefent.
Yet, if it be ftill infifted, that fome one of thefe
three notions concerning the daemon of Socrates muft
be more probable than the others $ we would rather
efteem Socrates an enthufiaft in this inftance, than
degrade him to the bafe character of an impoftor, or
fuppofe that a fpiritual being adtually revealed himfelf
to the philofopher, and condefcended to become his
conftant attendant and counfellor. People are often
under the influence of an overheated imagination with
regard to fome one thing, and cool and fober as to
every thing elfe.
DiEMONIAC deemon), a human being whofe Definition*
volition and other mental faculties are overpowered and
reftrained, and his body poffeffed and adtuated, by fome
created fpiritual being of fuperior power.
Such feems to be the determinate fenfe of the word *,
but
DAE [ S
tisemoniac. but it is difputed whether any of mankind ever were
v—' in this unfortunate condition.
« It is generally agreed, that neither good nor evil
Difpute ^ fpjrJts are known to exert fuch authority at prefent
isemoniacs. over the human race : but in the ancient heathen world,
and among the Jews, particularly in the days of our
Saviour, evil fpirits at leaft are thought by many to
3 have been more troublefome.
Notions of The Greeks and Romans imagined that their dei-
the Greeks tjes? t0 reveal future events, frequently entered into
and Ro- ^ pr0piiet or prophetefs who was confulted, over-
powered their faculties, and uttered refponfes with
poffeflion. their organs of fpeech. Apollo was believed to enter
into the Pythonefs, and to diflate the prophetic an-
fwers received by thofe who confulted her. Other
oracles befide that of Delphi were fuppofed to unfold
futurity by the fame machinery. And in various other
cafes either malignant daemons or benevolent deities
were thought to enter into and to adluate human affairs.
The Lymphatic^ the Cerriti, the Larvati, of the Romans,
were all of this defcription } and the Greeks, by the
ufe of the word Sxiponfyicsm, fhow that they referred
to this caufe the origin of madnefs. Among the an¬
cient heathens, therefore, it appears to have been a ge¬
nerally received opinion, that fuperior beings entered
occafionally into men, overpowered the faculties of their
minds, and aftuated their bodily organs. They might
imagine that this happened in inftances in which the
effedts were owing to the operation of different caufes j
but an opinion fo generally prevalent had furely fome
4 plaufible foundation.
Of the The Jews, too, if we may truft the facred writings
Jews. an(l Jofephus, appear to have believed in daemoniacal
poffeffion. The cafe of Saul may be recolledled as one
among many in which fuperior created beings were
believed by the Jews to exert in this manner their in¬
fluence over human life. The general tenor of their
hiftory and language, and their dodtrines concerning
good and evil fpirits, prove the opinion of demoniacal
poffeffion to have been well known and generally re-
g ceived among them.
Of mankind In the days of our Saviour, it would appear that
in fhe da^s ^8emon*acal poffeffion was very frequent among the
of our Sa-5 Jews and the neighbouring nations. Many were the
viour. evil fpirits whom Jefus is related in the gofpels to have
ejedted from patients that were brought unto him as
poffeffed and tormented by thofe malevolent daemons.
His apoftles too, and the firft Chriftians, who were
moft adlive and fuccefsful in the propagation of Chri-
ftianity, appear to have often exerted the miraculous
powers with which they were endowed on fimilar oc-
cafions. The daemons difplayed a degree of know¬
ledge and malevolence which fufficiently diftinguiffied
them from human beings : and the language in which
the daemoniacs are mentioned, and the adlions and fen-
timents afcribed to them in the New Teftament, fhow
that our Saviour and his apoftles did not confider the
idea of daemoniacal poffeffion as being.merely a vulgar
error concerning the origin of a difeafe or difeafes pro¬
duced by natural caufes.
The more enlightened cannot always avoid the ufe
of metaphorical modes of expreffion j which, though
founded upon error, have yet been fo eftablifhed in
language by the influence of cuftom, that they cannot
be fuddenly difmiffed. When we read in the book of
; ] DAE
Joffiua, that the fun on a certain occafion flood ftill, Demoniac,
to allow that hero time to complete a vidlory ; we
eafily find an excufe for the conduit of the facred hi-
fi orian, in accommodating his narrative to the popular
ideas of the Jews concerning the relative motions of
the heavenly bodies. In all fimilar inftances, we do
not complain much of the ufe of a fingle phrafe, ori¬
ginally introduced by the prevalence of fome ground-
lefs opinion, the falfity of which is well known to the
writer.
But in defcriplions of characters, in the narration of
faCts, and in the laying down of fyftems of doCtrine,
we require different rules to be obferved. Should any
perfon, in compliance with popular opinions, talk in
ferious language of the exiftence, difpofitions, declara¬
tions, and aCtions of a race of beings whom he knew
to be abfolutely fabulous, we furely could not praife
him for candid integrity : we muft fuppofe him to be
either exulting in irony over the weak credulity of
thofe around him, or taking advantage of their weak-
nefs, with the diftioneft and the felfifh views of an
impoftor. And if he himfelf ftiould pretend to any
connexion with this imaginary fyftem of beings, and
ftiould claim, in confequence of his connexion with
them, particular honours from his contemporaries j
whatever might be the dignity of his character in all
other refpeCts, nobody could hefitate even for a mo¬
ment to brand him as an impoftor of the bafeft charac-
ter. ^
Precifely in this light muft we regard the conduCt jefus
of our Saviour and his apoftles, if the ideas of daemo- chrift and
niacal poffeffion were to be confidered merely as a vul- his apoftles
gar error. They talked and aCted as if they believed e
that evil fpirits had aCtually entered into thofe ™hod£Emonia_
were brought to them as poffeffed with devils, and Cal poflef-
as if thofe fpirits were aCtually expelled by their au-hontoba
thority out of the unhappy perfons whom they kadre£fi*
poffeffed. They expeCted, they demanded too, to
have their profeffion and declarations believed, in con¬
fequence of their performing fuch mighty works, and
to be honoured as having thus triumphed over the
powers of hell. The reality of dsemoniacal poffeffion
Hands upon the fame evidence with the gofpel fyftem
in general.
Neither is there any thing abfurd or unreafonable in neafon_
this doCtrine. It does not appear to contradiCl thofe abiCnefs of
ideas which the general appearance of nature and the this doc-
feries of events fuggeft concerning the benevolencetrme*
and wifdom of the Deity, and the councils by which
he regulates the affairs of the univerfe. We often
fancy ourfelves able to comprehend things to which
our underftanding is wholly inadequate : we perfuade
ourfelves, at times, that the whole extent of the works
of the Deity muft: be well known to us, and that his
defigns mull always be fuch as we can fathom. We
are then ready, whenever any difficulty arifes to us, in
confidering the conduCt of Providence, to model things
according to our own ideas j to deny that the Deity
can poffibly be the author of things which we cannot
reconcile $ and to affert, that he muft a<5l on every oc¬
cafion in a manner confiftent with our narrow views.
This is the pride of reafon ; and it feems to have fug-
gefted the ftrongeft objedlions that have been at any
time urged againft the reality of dsemoniacal poffef¬
fion. But the Deity may furely conned one order of
G 2 his
DAE
Daemoniac. his creatures with another. We perceive mutual re-
*’“l v lations and a beautiful connexion to prevail through
all that part of nature which falls within the f’phere
of our obfervation. The inferior animals are con-
nefled with mankind, and fubje&ed to their autho¬
rity, not only in inftances in which it is exerted for
their advantage, but even where it is tyrannically
abufed to their deftrudlion. Among the evils to which
mankind have been fubje<5ted, why might not their
being liable to dsemoniacal poffeflion be one ? While
the Supreme Being retains the fovereignty of the
univerfe, he may employ whatever agents he thinks
proper in the execution of his purpofes j he may either
commiflion an angel or let loofe a devil 5 as well as
bend the human will, or communicate any particular
impulfe to matter.
All that revelation makes known, all that human
reafon can conjeflure, concerning the exiftence of va¬
rious orders of fpiritual beings, good and bad, is
perfe&ly confident with, and even favourable to, the
doftrine of dsemoniacal pofieffion. It was generally
believed through the ancient heathen world ; it was
equally well known to the Jews, and equally refpedled
by them ; it is mentioned in the New Teftament in
luch language, and fuch narratives are related concern¬
ing it, that the gofpels cannot well be regarded in any
other light than as pieces of impofture, and Jefus
Chrift mud be eonfidered as a man who dilhoneftly
took advantage of the weaknefs and ignorance of his
contemporaries, if this dodlrine be nothing but a vulgar
error : it teaches nothing inconfifient with the general
condu£t of Providence 5 it is not the caution of philo-
fophy, but the pride of reafon, that fuggelts objedlions
{; againfi: this dodtrine.
Arguments Thofe, again, who are unwilling to allow that angels
of the Anti-or devils have ever intermeddled fo much with the
smomlts. COTlcerns 0f human life, urge a number of fpecious ar-
9 guments in oppofition to thefc.
The cafes The Greeks and Romans of old, fay they, did be-
the'cteeks ^ reality demoniacal pofieffion. They
IndRomans^PP0^ t5iat fpi”tual beings did at times enter into
fuppofed ^ fons or daughters of men, and diftinguiffi them-
daemoniacal felves in that fituation by capricious freaks, deeds of
pofTeffion, wanton mifchief, or prophetic enunciations. But in
inftances of .the *n which they fuppofed this to happen, it
xnadnefs, *s evident that no fuch thing took place. Their ac-
&c. counts of the ftate and condufl of thofe perfons whom
they believed to be poffefled in this fupernatural man¬
ner, (how plainly that what they aferibed to the in¬
fluence of daemons were merely the effefts of natural
difeafes. Whatever they relate concerning the larvati,
the cerriti, and the hjmphattci, fhows that thefe were
merely people difordered in mind, in the fame unfor¬
tunate fituation with thofe madmen and idiots and
melancholy perfons whom we have among ourfelves.
Feftus defcribes the Larvati as being furiofi et mente
nidi. Horace fays,
Hellade percuffa, Marius cum praxipitat fs,
Cerritus fuit ?
Jhe J™6 Plat0>In h5s Timceus, fays, tvnvs ftctilatn
tVedsmo- iv6‘0'”c’ Lucian defcribes daemoniacs as lunatic,
niacs of the and as faring with their eyes, foaming at the mouth,
New Tef* and being fpeechlefs.
tamest. It appears ftill more evidently, that all the perfons
7
D A E
fpoken of as pofliffed ivith devils in the New Tef- DasmoniTC
tament, were either mad or epileptic, and precifely • •••••• j- 1 t
in the fame condition with the madmen and epileptics
ol modern times. The Jews, among other reproaches
which they threw out again,ft our Saviour, faid, He
hath a devil, and is mad: vcluj hear ije him ? The ex-
preffions, he hath a devil, and is mad, were certainly ufed
on this occafion as fynonymous. With all their vi¬
rulence, they would not furely afcnbe to him at once
two things that were ineonfiftent and contradi&ory.
1 hofe who thought more favourably of the charafter
of Jefus, aflerted concerning his difcourfes, in reply to
his adverfaries, 2 hefe are not the words of him that hath
a dcemon ; meaning, no doubt, that he Ipoke in a more ra¬
tional manner than a madman could be expe&ed to fpeak.
The Jews appear to have aferibed to the influence of
daemons, not only that fpecies of madnefs in which the
patient is raving and furious, but alfo melancholy mad-
nels. Of John, wno lecluded himfelf from intercourfe
with the world, and was diftinguilined for abilinence
and ads of mortification, they faid, He hath a dcemon.
The youth,_ whofe father applied to Jefus to free him
from an evil fpirit, dtferibing his unhappy condition
in thefe words, Have mercy on my fan, for he is lunatic
and fore vexed with a dcemon ; for oft times he fillet It
into the fire, and oft into the water, was plainly epileptic.
Every thing indeed that is related in the New Tefta¬
ment concerning dmmoniacs, proves that they w'ere
people affefled with fuch natural difeafes as are far
from being uncommon among mankind in the prefent
age. When the fymptoms of the diforders cured by
our Saviour and his apoliies as cafes of dcernoniacal
jpofifeffion, correspond fo exactly with thofe of difeafes
well known as natural in the prefent age, it would be
abfurd to impute them to a iupernatural caufe. It is
much more confiftent with common fenfe and found
philofophy to fuppofe, that our Saviour and his apol-
tles wifely, and with that condefcenfion to the weak¬
ness and prejudices of thofe with whom they converfed,
which fo eminently diftinguilhed the character of the
Author of our holy religion, and mult always be a pro¬
minent feature in the chara&er of the true Chnftian,
adopted the vulgar language in [peaking of thofe un¬
fortunate perfons who were groundlefsly imagined to
be poffefied of daemons, though they well knew the
notions which had given rife to fuch modes of ex-
preffion to be ill-founded j than to imagine that dif¬
eafes, which arife at prefent from natural caufes, were
produced in days of old by the intervention of dae¬
mons^ or that evil fpirits flill continue to enter into
mankind in all cafes ol madnels, melancholy, or epi-
lepfy. 1
Befides, it is by no means a fufficient reafon for
receiving any dodrine as true, that it has been ge¬
nerally received through the world. Error, like an epi¬
demical difeafe, is communicated from one to another.
In certain circumftances, too, the influence of imagi-
nation predominates, and reftrains the exertions of
reafon. Many falfe opinions have extended their in¬
fluence through a very wide circle, and maintained it
long.. On every fuch.occafion as the prefent, there-
foie, it becomes us to inquire, not fo much how gene¬
rally any opinion has been received, or how long it
has prevailed, as from, what caufes it has originated,
and on what evidence it refts.
[ 52 1
When
DAG
Dsemoniac When we contemplate the frame of nature, we behold
|| a grand and beautiful fimplicity prevailing through
Dagon. the whole: Notwithftanding its immenfe extent, and
though it contains fuch numberlefs diverlities of being •,
Inference yet 'tlie firnPlert machine conflrufted by human art
fromdie does not difplay eafier fimplicity, or an happier connec-
analogy of tion of parts. We may therefore venture to draw an
nature. inference by analogy, from what is obfervable of the
order of nature in general to the prefent cafe. To
permit evil fpirits to intermeddle with the concerns of
human life, would be to break, through that order
which the Deity appears to have eftablilbed through'
his works } it would be to introduce a degree of
confufion unworthy of the wifdom of Divine Provi¬
dence.
Such are the moft rational arguments that have been
urged on both fides in this controverfy. Perhaps the
dsemonianifts have the ftronger probabilities on their
fide ; but we will not prefume to take upon ourfelves
the office of arbitrators in the difpute.
D/EMONI ACS, in church hiftory, a branch of the
Anabaptifts; whofe diftinguiffiing tenet is, that the de¬
vils (hall be faved at the end of the world.
DAFFODIL. See Narcissus, Botany Index.
DAGELET, an ifiand on the coaft of Corea, dif-
covered by La Peroufe in the year 1787. It is about
three leagues in circumference, and is encircled with
fleep rocks, excepting a few fandy creeks, which
form convenient landing places. The ifiand is covered
with fine trees 5 and at the time the French navigator
vifited it, feme boats were found on the flocks of a
Chinefe conftruflion. The workmen, who were fup-
pofed to be Corean carpenters, were employed upon
them, but fled to the w’oods on the approach of the
fhips. La Peroufe fuppofes that the ifiand is unin¬
habited, and that thefe people go from Corea, and
live there only during the fummer, for the purpofe
of building boats. The north-eafl point of this ifiand
is in N. Lat. 33. 15. E. Long. 129. 2. from Paris.
DAGHESTAN, a country of Afia, bounded by
Circaffia on the north, by the Cafpian fea on the eafl,
by Chirvein a province of Perfia on the fouth, and by
Georgia on the well. Its chief towns are Tarku and
Derbent, both fituated on the Cafpian fea.
DAGNO, a towm of Turkey in Europe, in Albania,
with a biffiop’s fee. It is the capital of the diflrifl of
Ducagini, and is feated on the rivers Drino, and Nero,
near their confluence. It is 1 ^ miles fouth-eaft of Scu¬
tari, and 15 north-eafl of Aleffio. E. Long. 19. 48.
N. Lat. 42. o.
DAGO, or Dagho, an ifiand in the Baltic fea,
on the coaft of Livonia, between the gulf of Finland
and Riga. It is of a triangular figure, and is about
20 miles in circumference. It has nothing confidera-
ble but two caftles, called Dagger-wort and Padcn.
E. Long. 22. 30. N. Lat, 38. 48.
•See x Sam. DAGON, the faffe god of Aflidod or as the
chap. v. Greeks tall it Axotus. He is commonly reprefented as
a monfler, half man and half fifh; whence moft learned
men derive his name from the Hebrew’ dag, which fig-
nifies “ fiffi.” Thofe who make him to have been the
inventor of bread corn, derive his name from the He¬
brew Dagon, which fignifies frumentum ; whence Philo
Biblius calls him Zev? Agctkuos, Jupiter Aratriuu
This deity continued to have a temple at Aflidod
D A H
during all the ages of idolatry to the time of the Mac- Dagon
cabees $ for the author of the firlt book of Maccabees il
tells us, that “ Jonathan, one of the Maccabees, having , a ,umy'
beaten the army of Apollonius, Demetrius’s general,
they fled to Azotus, and entered into Bethdagon (the
temple of their idol): but that Jonathan fet fire to
Azotus, and burnt the temple of Dagon and all thofe
who had fled into it.”
Dagon, according to fome, was the fame with Ju¬
piter, according to others Saturn, according to others,
Venus, and according to moft, Neptune.
DAHALAC is the largeft ifland in the Red fea,
and is placed by Mr Bruce, who has given a minute
defeription of it, between 15. 27. and 15. 54. N. Lat.
It is a low, flat ifland, with a fandy foil, mixed with
fhells, and in fummer deftitute of every kind of herb¬
age, excepting a fmall quantity of bent grafs, which is
barely fufficient to feed a few antelopes and goats. In
many places the ifland is covered with extenfive plan¬
tations of acacia trees, which rarely exceed eight feet
in height, fpreading wide, and turning flat at top,
probably from the influence of the wind, which blow’s
from the fea. No rain falls in Dahalac from the end
of March to the beginning of Oftober; but in the in¬
termediate months there are heavy fliowers, during
which the water is collected in a great number of ar¬
tificial eifterns, to ferve the inhabitants during the en-
fuing fummer. Of thefe cifterns, which are laid to be
the work of the Perfians, or, as fome fuppofe, of the
firft Ptolemies, 370 yet remain, cut out of the folid
rock.
The inhabitants of Dahalac are a fimple, fearful,
and inoffenfive people. It is the only part of Arabia
■where no one is furniflied with arms of any kind. Af¬
ter the rains fall, the grafs fprings up with great luxu¬
riance, and then the goats give the inhabitants a copi¬
ous fupply of milk, which in winter is the principal
part of their fubfiflence. The poorer fort live entirely
on ffiell and other fiffi. The foie employment of the
inhabitants is to work the veffels which trade to the
different parts of the coatt. Dahalac contains 12 vil¬
lages or towns, each of which is furrounded with a
plantation of doom trees. Of the leaves of this tree,
which are of a glofiy white when dried, the inhabitants
make balkets of great beauty and neatnefs. '1 his
fee ms to be the only thing like manufa&ure in the
ifland. Dahalac, as well as the other iflands of the
Red fea, is dependent upon Mafuah. Each of the 12
villages fumiffies a goat monthly to the governor, and
every veffel putting in there for Mafuah, pays him a
pound of coffee, and every one from Arabia a dollar.
Thefe are his principal revenues. In the. time of the
Ptolemies, the pearl fifhery in the vicinity of Daha¬
lac flouriffied greatly, as well as another valuable fifliery,
namely, that of tortoifes.
DA HOMY, or Dauma, a powerful kingdom of
Africa, on the coaft of Guinea. Aberny, the modern
capital, lies in N. Eat. 7. 59. This kingdom occurs
in its true pofition, in the maps of Sanuto, Plancius,
and Mercator, where Dawhee, the ancient capital, is
denominated Dauitia. In J 700, it was erafed from
the maps of Africa, and the exiftence of the ancient
nation of Dauma denied, till 1727, when it emerged
from obfeurity, and became known by the conquefts of
the maritime ftates of Whidah and Ardra. Between
Dauma
[ 53 1
D A H [ 54 ] DAI
Dahomy. Dauina and Gago the lake Sigefmes, or Guards,
—”v~—J (which extends about loo leagues from ealt to weft,
and 50 from north to fouth, which lies about 370 miles
N. N. E. of Arada, and is reprefented as the lource of
various large rivers, which defcend into the gulf of
Guinea) is placed by Barbot and Snelgrave, who de¬
rived their authority from the native traders. It nei¬
ther occurs in Edrili nor Leo, though it is found in
the maps to Rufcelli’s edition of Ptolemy, in 1561.
Dahomy is a fertile cultivated country $ the foil is a
deep rich reddilh clay, intermixed with fand, fcarcely
containing a ftone of the fize of an egg in the whole
country. It is extremely productive of maize, millet,
beans, yams, potatoes, caffada, plantain, and the ba¬
nana ; indigo, cotton, tobacco, palm-oil, and fugar,
are railed, as well as a fpecies of black pepper. Bread,
and a fpecies of liquor, or rather diluted gruel, are
formed of the lotus-berry. Animals, both wild and
tame, are numerous, and the lakes abound in filh. The
maritime diftri&s of Whidah and Ardra, before they
were ruined by the Dahomans, were highly cultivated
and beautiful.
The charaCler of the Daumanefe, or Dahomans, is
original and ftrongly marked j they have retained pe¬
culiar manners, and have had little intercourfe with
either Europeans or Moors. They exhibit the germ
of peculiar inftitutions and modifications of manners,
that have appeared incredible to modern nations, when
they perufed the ancient records of the Egyptians,
Hindus, and Lacedaemonians. Like the Lacedaemo¬
nians, they difplay a lingular mixture of ferocity and
politenefs, of generofity and cruelty. Their conduCt
towards ftrangers is hofpitable, without any mixture of
rudenefs or infult. Their appearance is manly, and
their perfons ftrong and a&ive j and though they are
lefs addicted to the pradice of tatowing than their
neighbours, their countenance rather difplays ferocity
than courage. Their government is the pureft defpo-
tifm ; every fubjeCt is a Have ; and every Have impli¬
citly admits the right of the fovereign to difpofe of his
property and of his perfon. “ I think of my king,”
faid a Dahoman to Mr Norris, “ and then I dare en¬
gage five of the enemy rnyfelf. My head belongs to
the king, not to myfelf: if he pleafe to fend for it, I
am ready to i-efign it ; or if it be Ihot through in bat¬
tle, I am fatisfied—if it be in his fervice.” This at¬
tachment continues unlhaken, even when their neareft
relations become the victims of the avarice or caprice
of the king, and his enormities are always attributed
to their own indifcretions. With this devoted fpirit,
the Dahoman rulhes fearlefs into battle, and fights as
long as he can wield his fabre.
The modern hiftory of the Dahomans realizes all
that hiftory has recorded of ancient Lacedaemon,
and of thofe Lacedaemonians of the north, the in¬
habitants of Jomlburgh, who were forbidden to men¬
tion the name of Fear, even in the moft imminent
dangers, and whp proudly declared that they would
fight their enemies, though they were ftronger than
the gods. Saxo relates, that when Frotho king of
Denmark, was taken prifoner in battle, he obftinately
refufed to accept of life, declaring, that the reftoration
of his kingdom and treafures could never reftore his
honour, but that future ages would always fay, Frotho
has been taken by his enemy.
The palace of the king of Dahomy is an extenfive Dahon-,yr
building of bamboo and mud-walled huts, furrounded faille.
by a mud-wall about 20 feet high, inclofing a quadrangu- ' v—-
lar fpace of about a mile fquare. The entrance to the
king’s apartment is paved with human fculls, the late¬
ral walls adorned with human jaw-bones, with a few
bloody heads intermixed at intervals. The whole
building refembles a number of farm-yards, with lorn*
thatched barns and (beds for cattle, interfeCled with
low mud-walls. On the thatched roofs, numerous hu¬
man fculls are ranged at intervals, on fmall wooden
flakes. In allufion to thefe, when the king iffues or¬
ders for war, he only announces to his general, that
his houfe wants thatch. In this palace, or large houfe,
as it is termed by the Dahomans, above 3000-female3
are commonly immured, and about 500 are appropri¬
ated by each of the principal officers. From this inju¬
rious and deteftable praClice, originate many flagrant
abufesj the population is diminiffied, the fources of
private happinefs deftroyed, and the belt feelings of
human nature being outraged, the energies of paflion
are converted into bitternefs and ferocity.
The religion of Dahomy is vague and uncertain in
its principles, and rather confifts in the performance of
feme traditionary ceremonies, than in any fixed fyflem
of belief, or of moral condudt. They believe more
firmly in their amulets and fetiches, than in the deity ;
their national fetiche is the Tiger; and their habita¬
tions are decorated with ugly images, tinged with
blood, ftuek with feathers, befmeared with palm-oil,
and bedaubed with eggs. As their ideas of deity do
not coincide with thofe of Europeans, they imagine
that their tutelary gods are different. “ Perhaps,”
faid a Dahoman chief to Snelgrave, “ that god may be
yours, who has communicated fo many extraordinary
things to white men 5 but as that god has not been
pleafed to make himfelf known to us, we muft be fa¬
tisfied with this we worfhip.” The Dahomans manu-
fafture and dye cotton-cloth, and form a fpecies of
cloth of palm-leaves. They are tolerably Ikilful in
ivorking in metals. The bards, who celebrate the ex¬
ploits of the king and his generals, are likewife the hi-
ftorians of the country.
DAILLE, John, a Proteftant minifter near Paris,
was one of the moft learned divines of the 17th centu¬
ry, and was the moft efteemed by the Catholics of all
the controverfial writers among the Proteftants. He
was tutor to two of the grandfons of the illuftrious M.
Du Pleflis Mornai. M. Daille having lived 14 years
with fo excellent a mafter, travelled into Italy with his
two pupils ; one of them died abroad ; with the other
he faw Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Flanders, Hol¬
land, and England, and returned in 1621. He was
received minifter in 1623, and exercifed his office
in the family of M. Du Pleffis Mornai j but this did
noUaft long, for that lord died foon after. The me¬
moirs of this great man employed M. Daille the fol¬
lowing year. In 1625 he was appointed minifter of
the church of Saumur, and in 1626 removed to Paris.
He fpent all the reft of his life in the fervice of this
laft church, and compofed feveral works. His firft
piece was his mafterpiece, and an excellent work, Of
the Ufe of the Fathers, printed 1631. It is a ftrong
chain of reafoning, which forms a moral demonftration
againft thofe who would have religious disputes decid¬
ed
?
Bailie
li
Dalaca.
DAL [
ed by the authority of the fathers. He died in l6’]0}
aged 77. .
DA1RI, or Dairo, in the hiftory of Japan, is the
fovertign pontiff of the Japanefe j or, according to
Ksempfer, the hereditary ecclefiaftical monarch of Ja¬
pan. In etfe£f, the empire of Japan is at prefent un¬
der two fovereigns, viz. an ecclefiallical one called the
dairo, and a fecular one who bears the title of k'ubo.
The laft is the; emperor, and the former the oracle of
the religion of the country.
DAIRY, in rural affairs, a place appropriated for
the management of milk, and the making of butter,
cheefe, &c. See Agriculture Index.
The dairy-houfe thould always be kept in the neateft
order, and fo fituated as that the windows or lattices
never front the fouth, fouth-eafl, or fouth-weff. Lat¬
tices are alfo to be preferred to windows, as they ad¬
mit a more free circulation of the air than glazed
lights poflibly can do. It has been obje&ed, that they
admit cold air in winter and the fun in fummtr j but
the remedy is eafily obtained, by making a frame the
(ize of or fomewhat larger than the lattice, and cofiftruft-
ing it fo as to Aide backward and forward at pleafure.
Packthread {trained acrofs this frame, and oiled cap-
paper palled thereon, will admit the light, and keep
out the fun and wind.
It is hardly poffible in the fummer to keep a dairy-
houfe too cool j on which account none fhould be fitu¬
ated far from a good fpring or current of water. They
fhould be neatly paved either with red brick or fmooth
hard done •, and laid with a proper defcent, fo that no
water may lodge. This pavement fhould be well
waflied in the fummer every day, and all the utenfils
belonging to the dairy fhould be kept perfeftly clean.
Nor fhould we ever fuffer the churns to be fcalded in
the dairy, as the fleam that aiifes from hot water will
injure the milk. Nor fhould cheefe be kept therein,
nor rennet for making cheefe, nor a cheefe-prefs be
fixed in a dairy, as the whey and curd will diffufe their
acidity throughout the room.
The proper receptacles for milk are earthen pans,
or wooden vats or trundles $ but none of thefie fhould
be lined with lead, as that mineral certainly contains a
poifonous quality, and may in fome degree affedt >he
milk : but if people are fo obflinate as to per fill in ufing
them, they fhould never forget to fcald them, fcrub
them well with fait and water, and to dry them thorough¬
ly, before they depofit the milk therein. Indeed all
the utenfils fhould be cleaned in like manner before
they are ufed ; and if after this, they in the leaft de¬
gree fmell four, they muft undergo a fecond fcrubbing
before they are fit for ufe.
DAIS, a genus of plants belonging to the decandria
clafs j and in the natural method ranking under the
31ft order, Vepreculce. See Botany Index.
DAISY. See Bellis, Botany Index.
DAKIR, in our ftatutes, is ufed for the twentieth
part of a laft of hides. According to the ftalute of
51 Hen. III. De compojitione pondernm et menfurarum,
a laft of hides confifts of twenty dakirs, and every da-
kir of ten hides. But by 1 Jac. cap. 33. one laft of
hides or fkins is twelve dozen. See Dicker.
DALACA, an ifland of the Red fea, which is faid
to be very fertile, populous, and remarkable for a
55 1 DAL
pearl fifhery. It is probably the fame with DAHALAC, Dalaea
which fee. _ n 1 ^ •
DALBERGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the Dalmatia.
diadelphia clafs. Bee Botany Index.
DALE A, a province of Sweden, bounded on the
weft by Dalecarlia, on the eaft by the Wermeland
and the lake Wener, on the fouth by Gothland, and
on the north by Norway and the fea.
DALEBURG, a town of Sweden, and capital of
the province of Dalea, ieated on the weftern bank of
the lake Wener, 50 miles north of Gottenburg. E,
Long. 13. O. N. Lat. 59. o.
DALECARLIA, a province of Sweden, fo called
from a river of the lame name, on which it lies, near
Norway. It is divided into three parts, which they
call valleys ; and is about 175 miles in length and ico
in breadth. It is full of mountains, which abound in
mines of copper and iron, fome of which are of a pro¬
digious depth. The towns are very fmall, and Idra is
the capital. The inhabitants are rough, robuft, and
warlike : and all the great revolutions in Sweden had
their rife in this province. T he river rifes in the Dof-
rine mountains, and running fouth-eaft through the
province, falls into the gulf of Bothnia.
DALECHAMP, James, a phyfician, was born at
Caen in Normandy, in 1513. He was diftinguifhed
for his induftry in botany, as well as in other branches
of literature. He wrote notes on Pliny’s Natural Hif-
torv, and tranflated Athenaeus into Latin. He added
30 plates of rare plants to the Diofcorides of Ruellius,
printed in 1552. After his death appeared his “ Hif~
toria generalis Plantarum in xviii. libros digejla” Lugd.
1387, two vols folio. In this work, which is faid to
have been the labour of 30 years, the author propofed
to include all the botanical difcoveries previous to his
own time, as well as thole which he had made himfelf
in the vicinity of Lyons and the Alps. He alfo pub-
lifhtd editions of Paul us iEgineta and Ctelius Aure-
lianus, with notes j a work on furgery, and another De
Pijle, lib. iii.
He pradlifed pbyfic at Lyons from 1552 to 1558,
when he died, aged 75.
DALECHAMPi A, a genus of plants belonging
to the moncecia clafs 5 and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 38th order, Tricoccce. See Botany
Index.
DALEM, a town of the united provinces of Hol¬
land, and capital of a diftridt of the fame name. It
was taken by the French in 1672, who demolifhed the
fortifications. It is feated on the river Bervine, five
miles north-eaft of Liege. E. Long. 3. 59* ■^,a^
50. 40.
D’ALEMBERT. See Alembert.
DALKEI TH, a town of Scotland, in Mid-Lothian,
fix miles fouth-eaft of Edinburgh j W. Long. 2. 20.
N. Lat. ^5. 50. It is the principal refidence of the
duke of Buccleugh, who has here a noble houfe and
extenfive parks. In this houfe, which at the time was
the head quarters of General Monk, the reftoration
of Charles II. was planned.—The duke’s eldeft fon
has the title of Earl of Dalkeith. Here is a zonfider-
able corn market weekly on Thurfdays, which fupplies
in part both Edinburgh and Glafgow.
DALMATIA, a province in Europe, bounded on
the
DAL [
Dalmatia, the north by Bofnia, on the fouth by the gulf of Ve-
Dair) mple. nice, on the eaft by Servia, and on the weft by Mor-
v lachia. Spalatro is the capital of that part belonging
to the Venetians ; and Raguza, of a republic of that
name; the lurks have a third, whofe capital is Her¬
zegovina. The air is wholefom'e, and the foil fruitful ;
and it abounds in wine, corn, and oil.
DALRYMPLE, Sir David, a Scottilh lawyer and
judge, was born in Edinburgh, on the 28th G A M
Damaik There is alfo a fluff in France called the zaffart-da- by him in a fmall town near Ypres : “ If I return to Damieas.
1) mafk, made in imitation of the true damaik, having France—Yes, I will return, I will die there, and the ——w—
Damiens. woof 0f JiaJrj coarfe filk, thread, wool, or cotton. Some greateft man on earth (hall die likewife, and you ihall
* have the warp of filk and the woof of thread j others hear news of me.” Thefe expreflions were uttered in
all thread or all wool. the month of Auguft 1756-, and it is probable that
Damask, is alfo a kind of wrought linen, made in
Flanders •, fo called, becaufie its large flowers referable
thofe of damalks. It is chiefly ufed for tables 5 a ta¬
ble-cloth and a dozen of napkins are called a damafk-
fervlce.
Damask is alfo applied to a very fine fteel, in fome
parts of the Levant, chiefly at Damafcus in Syria :
whence its name. It is ufed for fvvord and cutlafs
blades, and is finely tempered.
DAMASKEENING, or Damasking, the art or
operation of beautifying iron, fleel, &c. by making
rncifions therein, and filling them up with gold or filver
wire ; chiefly ufed for adorning fword-blades, guards
tnd gripes, locks of piftols, &c.
Damalkeening partakes of the mofaic, of engraving,
and of carving: like the mofaic, it has inlaid work ;
like engraving, it cuts the metal, reprefenting divers
figures ; and, as in chafing, gold and filver are wrought
in relievo. There are two ways of damalking : the
one, which is the fineff, is when the metal is cut deep
with proper inflruments, and inlaid with gold and filver
wire : the other is fuperficial only.
DAMELOPRE, a kind of bilander, ufed in Hol¬
land for conveying merchandife. from one canal to ano¬
ther ; being very commodious for palling under the
bridges.
DAMIANISTS, in church hiftory, a branch of
the ancient acephali-Everifae. They agreed with the
catholics in admitting the fixth council, but difowned
any diftin61ion of perfons in the Godhead ; and pro-
fieffed one Angle nature, incapable of any difference :
yet they called God “ the Father, Son, and Holy
k Ghoft.”
D/VMIENS, Robert Francais, an affaflin by
whom Louis XV. of France was wounded in the year
1757. He was born in the fuburbs of Arras, in the
year 1714 j and feems rather to have been aftuated by
frenzy or infanity in the perpetration of the horrid
deeds of which he was guilty, than by any of the mo¬
tives to which they have been afcribed. This fpirit
appeared in the early period of his life ; and fuch were
the extravagance and violence, of his conduiff, that he
was diftinguitbed, while a boy, by the appellation of
Robert the Devil.
When he grew up he entered into the army, ferved
as a feldter at the fiege of Philiplb irgh, and was pre-
fent at feveral engagements. He returned afterwards
to France, and became a domeftic fervant in the col¬
lege of Jefuits at Paris. He married in 1738, which
rendered it neceffary for him to refign this fervice.
He was then employed in the fame capacity by differ¬
ent mafters, one of whom, it is faid, he poifoned ;
and having robbed another, he was obliged to abfcond
to efcape the punifhment due to his crimes. During
a period of five months after the difcoverv of the rob¬
bery, he lurked in the neighbourhood of St Omer,
Dunkirk, and B ruffe Is ; and was obferved to exprefs
himfelf in an abfurd and incoherent manner concern¬
ing fome difputes which at this time prevailed in France.
The following foliloquy is faid to Jbave been uttered
they were regarded at the time only as the ravings of
a madman. He fpoke indeed in a fimilar drain in the
December following, at the houfe of a relation, at
Falefque near Arras, faying, “ That the kingdom,
his wife, and daughter, were all ruined !” It was
about this time that he fet out for Paris, and arrived
there on the 31ft of December. He Avas feen at Ver-
failles, on the firft day of January 1757. To blunt his
feeling*, and to prepare himfelf for the perpetration of
the horrid adl:, it is faid that he fwallowed opium for
feveral days. But the ftate of mind in which Damiens
is defcribed to have been for fome time before, feemed
to render fuch auxiliaries unneceffary.
It was on the 5th of January, between five and fix
in the evening, that Louis XV. Avas Avounded by the
hand of this frantic affaflin. He llruck Avith a knife
the right fide of the king, while he Avas iurrounded
Avith his courtiers, and juft as he Avas entering his car¬
riage to go to Trianon. Damiens Avas inftantly feized,
examined at Verfailles, and afterwards fent to P ris
and confined in the tower of Montgomeri, in an a-
partment prepared for him, near to that Avhich Avas for¬
merly occupied by Ravaillac the murderer of Hen¬
ry IV. The great court of parliament Avas charged
by the king to inftitute his procefs; and although he
was fubjefted to the moft cruel tortures, Avhich he bore
with unexampled fortitude, no confeffion or acknow¬
ledgment could be extorted which afforded the fmallefl:
ground for fufpicion that he had a Angle accomplice.
When it Avas found that the torture failed of the pur-
pofe for which it was inflicted, he Avas condemned to
die by the fame puniftiment Avhich Ravaillac fufftred.
The 28th of March following Avas fixed as the day
of his execution. On that day he was brought to the
Place de Greve, Avhere the apparatus and inflruments
of his deftru6tion Avere prepared. All thefe he beheld
with an undifmayed countenance and a tearlefs eye,
although he muft have knoAvn well that nerv and more
dreadful tortures yet arvaited him. His punifhment
commenced Avith burning his right hand ; his flefh was
then torn Avith red-hot pincers; and the Avounds Avere
filled with melted wax, pitch, and lead. In attempt¬
ing to quarter his body, the four horfes Avhich were
employed pulled in vain for 50 minutes. All their
efforts feemed to be ineffe&ual, till the executioners
cut with knives the ligaments Avith Avhich the limbs
are attached to the body. Even after the legs Avere
cut he was ftill alive, and it Avas only after the arms
were treated in the fame Avay that he eeafed to breathe,
and his body was difmembered. The period of his pu¬
nifhment, from the time he Avas put upon the fcaffold
till his death, Avas not lefs than an hour and a half;
during the greater part of it he feemed to retain his
recolle&ion ; for he raifed his head many times, and
caft hi* eyes on his mangled and burned limbs, and on
the horfes which Avere then exerting their whole force
to tear his body afunder. And even during the fe-
vereft of his tortures, the firmnefs of his mind was fo
little fhaken, that he affe&ed fome degree of jocula¬
rity.
Thus
Damiens,
Damietta.
DAM [
Thus perUhed this unfortunate aflafiin, the hiftory
. of whofe life, confidered in itfelf, is fearcely worthy
’ of a place even for the fhorteft Iketch j and indeed we
ftiould probably not have introduced it here, were it
not for the purpofe of rectifying the miftaken views of
feme of his biographers. While we are told that he
was an infane a Baffin, he is charged with the fame de¬
gree of guilt, as if he had been all his life in full pof-
ieffion of every rational faculty. But the events of his
life leave no doubt of his infanity ; and the laft horrid
deed which he perpetrated ftrongly confirms it. He
was not actuated by either public or private revenge j
he had no accomplices ; and it does not appear that he
had any purpofe whatever to ferve by taking away the
life of the monarch, even if he had fucceeded and ef-
caped. In the niidlt of his molt cruel tortures, he ob-
flinately perfifted that it was not his intention to kill
the king. According to his own fanatical language,
he wiffied that God would touch his heart to induce
him to give peace to his kingdom. Our readers will
probably anticipate us in remarking the needlefs excefs
of lingering puniffiment which was infli£ted on the in¬
fane Damiens ; and fome of them will perhaps be fur-
prifed to be told that the execution was attended by
fome of the ladies of the court. Many of them too will
naturally compare this event with what has happened
more lately in our own country ; and recoiled, that a
Nicholfun and a Hadfield, influenced by a fimilar frenzy
which urged them to a fimilar attempt, have been on¬
ly doomed to perpetual confinement, not as a puniffi¬
ment, but merely to preclude the poffibility of perpe¬
trating fuch deeds j becaufe in fuch a ftate of mind
they are not recognized by our milder and more equi¬
table laws as rational beings j and therefore they are
improper objeds of puniffiment.
DAMIETTA, a port-town of Egypt, fituated on
the eatlern mouth of the river Nile, four miles from the
fea, and too miles north of Grand Cairo. E. Long.
32. and N. Lat. 31. The prefent town Hands upon
a different fite from the ancient Damietta, fo repeated¬
ly attacked by the European princes. The latter, ac¬
cording to Abulfeda, was “ a town furrounded by
walls, and fituated at the mouth of the eaftern branch
of the Nile.” Stephen of Byzantium informs us, that
it was called Thamiatis under the government of the
Greeks of the lower empire, but that it was then very
mconfiderable. It increafed in importance every day,
in proportion as Pelufium, which was frequently plun¬
dered, loll its power. The total ruin of that ancient
town occafioned the commerce of the eaftern parts of
the Delta to be transferred to Damietta. It was, how¬
ever, no longer a place of ftrength, when, towards the
year 238 of the Hegira, the emperors of Conftantino-
ple took poffeffion of it a fecond time. The import¬
ance of a harbour fo favourably fituated opened the
eyes of the caliphs. In the year 244 of the Hegira,
Elmetouakkel furrounded it with ftrong walls. This
obftacle did not prevent Roger king of Sicily from ta¬
king it from the Mahometans in the year 550 of the
Hegira. He did not, however, long enjoy his con-
queft. Sal ah Eddin, who about that period mounted
the throne of Egypt, expelled the Europeans from Da¬
mietta. Fifteen years after they returned to befiege
it_; but this able fultan baffled all their efforts. Not-
Tidthftanding their land army was fupported by a fleet
3
60 ] DA M
of 1200 fail, they were obliged to make a difgraceful
retreat.
It was the fate of this place to be conftantly be-
fieged. In the year 615 of the Hegira, under the
reign of Eladel, the crufaders attacked it with a very
conliderable force. They landed on the weftern fflore
of the Nile j and their firft care was to furround their
camp with a ditch and pallifado. The mouth of the
river was defended by two towers, furniffied with nu¬
merous garrifons. An enormous iron chain, ftretch-
ing from one fide to the other, hindered the approach
of veffels. The crufaders carried by ftorm the tower
on the fame fide with their camp, broke the chain,
and opened the entrance of the river for their fleet.
Nejm Eddin, the fultan’s fon, who was encamped near
Damietta, covered it with an army. To flop the ene¬
mies veffels he threw a bridge over the Nile. The
Franks overturned it, and the prince adopted the mea-
fure of choking up the mouth of the river, which he
almoft rendered impaffable by feveral large boats he funk
there. After alternate and various fucceffes, many
bloody battles, and a liege of 17 months, the Chriftian
princes took Damietta by ftorm. They did not, how¬
ever, long enjoy the fruit of fo much blood fpilt, and of
an armament which had coft immenfe firms. Completely
invefted near the canal of Achmoun, by the waters of
the Nile and by the Egyptian army, they purchafed their
lives and their liberty by the facrifice of their csnqueft.
. One-and-thirty years after this defeat St Louis car¬
ried Damietta without ftriking a ftroke. The Arabs,
however, foon recovered it : but tired of keeping a
place which continually drew upon them the moft
wai nke nations of Europe, they totally deftroyed it,
and rebuilt it further up in the country. This modern
Damietta, firft called MencAie, as Abulfeda tells us,
has preferved the memory of its origin in a fquare ftill
called by that name. Writers in general have con¬
founded thefe two towns, afcribing to the one the at¬
tributes of the other. The modern Damietta is round¬
ed in a femicircle on the eaftern bank of the Nile, two
leagues and a half from the mouth of it. The eye
placed at one of the extremities of the crefcent, takes
in its whole extent. It is reckoned to contain 80,000
fouls. It has feveral fquares, the moft confiderable of
which has retained the name of Menchie. The bazars
are filled with merchants. Spacious okals or khans
colleamg under their porticoes the fluffs of India, the
Inks of Mount Lebanon, fal ammoniac, and pyramids
of rice, proclaim that it is a commercial town. The
houfes, thofe in particular which are on the banks of
the river, are very lofty. They have in general hand-
lorae faloons built on the top of their terraces, which
are cheerful belvideres, open to every wind, where the
. u^.k’ «ffeminately reclining on a fopha, paffes his life
in imoking, in looking on the fea, which bounds the
horizon on one fide, on the great lake that extends it-
lel on the other, and on the Nile, which, running
between them, traverfes a rich country. Several large
mofques, adorned with lofty minarets, are difperfed
over the town The public baths, lined with marble,
are diftnbuted in the fame manner as thofe of Grand
Cairo I he linen you are ferved with is clean, and
he water very pure. The heat and the treatment in
them, fo far from injuring the health, ferve to ftrength-
en, nay even to improve it, if ufed with moderation.
This
DAM . t 61 ] DAM
Damietta. Tins cuftom, founded on experience, is general in
Egypt.
The port of Damietta is continually filled with a
multitude of boats and fmall veffels. Thofe called
fcherm ferve to convey the merchandife on board the
{hips in the road, and to unload them j the other car¬
ry on the coafting trade. This town carries on a great
trade with Syria, with Cyprus, and Marfeilles. The
rice called meze/aoni, of the fineft quality there is in
Egypt, is cultivated in the neighbouring plains. The
exports of it amount annually to about fix millions of
livres. The other articles of the produce of the coun¬
try are linens, fal ammoniac, corn, &c. A ruinous
policy for the country prohibits the exportation of this
laft article ; but the law is evaded, and it paffes under
the name of rice.
The Chriftians of Aleppo and Damafcus, fettled in
this town, have for feveral ages carried on its principal
commerce. Turkifh indolence, content with extort¬
ing from them from time to time, fuffers them to be¬
come rich. The exportation of rice to foreign coun¬
tries is prohibited ; but by means of fome douceurs to
the cuftomhoufe-officers, the people of Provence load
annually feveral ffiips with it. The Bogaz preventing
them from entering the Nile, their cargoes are con¬
veyed on board by the boats of the country. This in¬
convenience is the fource of endlefs vexation and abu-
fes. The boat, which is loaded in the evening with
rice of the firft quality, is frequently not that which
arrives at the ffiip; an inferior quality is fubftituted for
it during the night. The Marfeilles captains, aware
of thefe rogueries, without being able to prevent them,
endeavour to play off trick againft trick, fo that this
commerce has become a general fcene of knavery. But
the badnefs of the port is (till more detrimental to Da¬
mietta. The road where the veffels lie being expofed
to every wind, the flighteft gale obliges the captains
to cut their cables and take ffielter at Cyprus, or to
ftand off to fea. It would be eafy, by cutting a canal
only of half a league, to open a paffage for ffiips into
the. Nile, where there is deep water. This work,
which might be executed at very little expence, would
render Damietta a noble harbour ; but defpotifm, in-
fenfible to the intereft of the people, is always fur-
rounded by deftru&ion in its progrefs, and wants both
the will and the power to create.
The tongue of land on which Damietta is fituated,
ftraitened on one fide by the river, and on the other
by the weftern extremity of Lake Menza/e, is only from
two to fix miles wide from eaft to weft. It is inter¬
fered by innumerable rivulets in every direftion, which
render it the moft fertile fpot in Egypt. The foil
there produces, communibus annis, 80 buffiels of rice for
one.. The other produce is in the fame proportion.
It is there that nature, laviffiing profufely her pomp
and riches, prefents flowers, fruits, and harvefts, at
every feafon of the year. Winter never deprives it of
thefe advantages j its beauties are never impaired by
fummer. Deflru6Hve heats, as well as chilling colds,
are equally unknown in that happy fpot. The ther-
niometer varies only from 9 to 24 degrees above the
freezing point. Damietta is indebted for this charm¬
ing temperature to the immenfe quantity of water
with which it is furrounded. The verdure is no¬
where fo freffi j the trees are nowhere covered with
fuch quantities of fruit. The rivulets around the Damiett*
fields of rice are lined with feveral kinds of reeds, H
fome of which rife to a great height. The reed ca/a- Damon.
mus is here found in abundance, which is made ufe 0f
for writing by the orientals. Its flender ftalks bear
long narrow leaves, which hang gracefully, and fpread-
ing branches covered with white flowers. Here alfo
are to be feen forefts of papyrus, of which the ancient
Egyptians made their paper. Strabo, who calls it
bibhus, gives an accurate defeription of it. It is here
alfo that the /otus, of which the Arabs have preferved
the primitive name of nuphar, exalts its lofty ftalk above
the waters. Its large calyx blows either of an azure
blue or of a brilliant white, and it appears with the ma-
jefty of the king of the aquatic plants. The marffies
and the canals in the interior parts of the country are
filled with this fuperb flower, which diffufes a moft
agreeable odour.
There are a great many villages around Damietta,
in moft of which are manufactures where the moft
beautiful linens of the country are fabricated. The
fineft napkins in particular are made there, fringed
with filk. You are ferved at table with them, but
efpecially on ceremonial vifits, when the flave prefents
you with one to wipe your mouth with, after you have
drank your ftierbet, or eaten the fweatmeats, which are
carried round on a filver plate to all the company.
Thefe fmall towns, generally furrounded with little
woods, or trees promifcuoufly planted, form a whim-
fical and piClurefque affcmblage. By the fide of the
fycamore and the melancholy tamarind, one fees the
elegant caffia-tree, with its clufters of yellow flowers,
like thofe of the cytifus. The top of the date-tree,
loaded with enormous bunches, rifes above the grove.
The caffia, with its fweet-fcented flower, grows under
its {hade. The orange and lemon trees cover the la¬
bourer’s cabin with their golden fruit. The banana-
tree with its long leaves, the pomegranate with its
fcarlet flower, and the fig-tree with its fugary fruit,
through a vaft variety into thefe landfcapes.
DAMNII, anciently a people of Britain ; fituated
between the Selgovae to the fouth and the Caledonii to
the north. Now Clydefdale.
DAMNONII. See Danmonii.
DAMOCLES, one of the flatterers of Dionyfius
the Elder of Sicily. He admired the tyrant’s wealth,
and pronounced him the happieft man on earth. Dio¬
nyfius prevailed upon him to undertake for a while the
charge of royalty, and be convinced of the happinefs
which a fovereign enjoyed. Damocles afcended the
throne, and while he gazed upon the wealth and fplen-
dour that furrounded him, be perceived a fword hang¬
ing over his head by a horfe hair. This fo terrified him
that all his imaginary felicity vaniffied at once, and he
begged Dionyfius to remove him from a fituation which
expofed his life to fuch fears and dangers.
DAMON, the name of feveral illuftrious ancients,
particularly of a Pythagorean philofopher very inti¬
mate with Pythias. When he had been condemned to
death by Dionyfius, he obtained from the tyrant leave
to go and fettle his domeftic affairs, on promife of re¬
turning at a ftated hour to the place of execution.
Pythias pledged himfelf to undergo the puniffiment
which was to be infli&ed on Damon, ffionld he not re¬
turn in time, and he confequently delivered himfelf in.
DAM r 62 ] DAM
Damon to hands of the tyrant. Damon returned at the ap-
|) pointed moment, and Dionyfius was fo ftruck with the
Dampier. fidelity of thefe two friends, that he remitted the pu-
■—"Y—nilhment, and entreated them to permit him to ihare
their friendlbip and enjoy their confidence.
DAMPIER, William, an Englith navigator, was
born at Eaft Coker in SomerfetQiire, about the year
1652. His parents died while he was young, and ha¬
ving thus become an orphan, he was removed from
the Latin fchool, and placed with the mafter of a (hip
at Weymouth. In this (hip he made a voyage to New¬
foundland ; but, on his return, he left his mafler, with
the refolution, as he himfelf obferves, of never again
expofing himfelf to the pinching cold of that northern
climate. As the acquifition of experience in the art
of navigation was ever his great objedl, he engaged
bimfelf as a common failor in a voyage to the Eaft
Indies. He ferved in the Dutch war under Sir Ed¬
ward Sprague, and was prefent at two engagements.
The declining date of his health would not permit him
to remain on board the fleet 5 he therefore came on
(hore, and removed to the country, where he remained
fome time. The year following he accepted an offer
of employment in Jamaica as an under manager of an
eftate: but he only continued a (hort time in that fitu-
ation ; after which he engaged in a coafting trader,
and thus acquired an accurate knowledge of all the
ports and bays of that ifland. Soon after he entered
on board a veffel bound to the bay of Campeachy, and
returning a fecond time to the fame coaft, he remained
with the log-wood-cutters, and engaged himfelf as a
common workman. During his (lay in this country
he collefted the materials for the minute and intereft-
ing account which he has given of the laborious life
of thefe people, as well as of the geographical de-
fcription and the natural hiftory of the trail which they
occupy.
Satisfied with the knowledge which he had obtained
of the nature of the trade and country, he returned to
Jamaica, and from thence to England, where he ar¬
rived in 1678. About the beginning of the year fol¬
lowing he went out to Jamaica as a paffenger, with the
intention of revifiting the bay of Campeachy j but he
wTas perfuaded to .affociate himfelf with a body of
privateers, as they were called, who were then lying
in feveral veffels in a bay of that ifland. Thefe peo¬
ple who were called privateers, were pirates, who,
having no commiflion whatever from a iy government,
undertook a predatory warfare on the commerce and
fettlements of the Spaniards. This body of plunderers
was compofed of Englifti, Dutch, and French. In
this expedition Dampier croffed the ifthnms of Darien
with his affociates, and fpent the year 1680 on the Pe¬
ruvian coaft, and was occafionally fuccefsful in plun¬
dering the towns. The following year, in confequenee
of a diffenfion which arofe among them, Dampier, and
the minority with whom he had joined, recroffed the
ifthmus, and entered with another fleet of privateers,
which was then ftationed on the SpanHh main ; and,
having fpent another year among the Weft India
iflands, he, with fome others, proceeded to Virginia
in a (ingle (hip to difpofe of their prize goods. Here
he remained for .a year ; and afterwards engaged with
a Captain Cook, who, with about 70 men, undertook
an expedition againft the Spaniards in the South feas.
They failed in 1683 In the month of Auguft, touched Dampier.
at the cuaft of Guinea, and then proceeded round Cape —-v——
Horn into the Pacific ocean. Having fallen in with
a ihip from London, which had failed on a fimilar ex¬
pedition, they joined company $ and, having touched
at the ifland of Juan Fernandez, they made the coaft
of South America, cruiling along Chili and Peru.
They took fome prizes, and with them they proceeded
to the Mexican coaft, which they fell in with near
Cape Blanco. While they lay here Captain Cook
died, and the command devolved on Captain Davis.
Having feparated from the London (hip, they were
joined by another commanded by Captain Swan. An
attempt to plunder the town of Guaiaquil was unfuc-
cefstul, but at the mouth of the river they took fome
veffels which had about 100c (laves on board. With
tbefe negroes Dampier propofed to work the gold
mines in the neighbourhood of Santa Maria on the
ifthmus of Darien, from which the Spaniards had been
driven away by fome privateers. But this plan was
not attempted. The next object of plunder was the
Spanilh fleet having on board the treafure of the Peru¬
vian mines j but the Englilli being ill fupported by
fome French (hips which had joined them, the fleet,
after a running fight, got fafe into Panama.
The Englith (hips afterwards eruifing along the
coaft of Mexico, landed, took the town of Puebla
Nova, and burnt two others. Dampier leaving Davis,
went on board of Swan’s (hip, and proceeded with him
along the northern parts of Mexico, as far as the
fouthern part of California. During this expedition
they frequently landed for the. purpofe of plunder, but
particularly when they were in want of provifions.
Returning from the plunder of one place, 50 of the
party were killed by the Spaniards. This difafler fo
difeouraged them that they relinquiflied all farther at¬
tempts on thefe coafts. Swan then prqpofed to run
acrofs the Pacific ocean, and return by the Eaft
Indies j and in hopes of a fucceisful cruife off the
Manillas the crew were perfuaded, with a very (lender
provifion, to rilk this long paffage. On the lad day of
March 1686, they took their departure from Cape
Corrientes, and-on the ^2d day reached Guam, one of
the Ladrone iflands. About this time the crew talked
of killing and eating Swan and the officers, in cafe
their (lock of provifion (hould be exhaufled before it
could be fupplied. From Guam they proceeded to
Mindanao. While the (hip lay here a mutiny arofe
among the crew, and the majority carried her off, Swan
and fame of his people being left on the ifland. Among
the farmer was Dampier, although it is faid that he
had no concern in the mutiny. After cruizing fome
time off Manilla, and having careened their veffel at
Pulo Condore, in 1687 they were driven to the Chinefe
coaft, made the circuit of Luzonia and Mindanao,
paffed through the group of Spice iflands, and reached
the coaft of New Holland in the beginning of 1688.
They left this in March, and having paffed along the
weft coaft of Sumatra, they arrived at the Nicobar
i(lands, where Dampier, at his own requeft, and two
other Englifhmen, a Portuguefe, and fome Malays,
were fot on (bore. Dam pier’s objea was to eftablifti
a trade in ambergris. Attempting to navigate a canoe
to Acheen in Sumatra, they were overtaken by a fe-
vere ftorm, in which they experienced great hardftiips.
They
BAM t
73ampler. They at lad reached Sumatra; but the fatigues and di-
y——. ftrefs of tlie voyage proved fatal tofeveral of them, who
were carried off by a fever. Dampier himfelf was
fcarcely recovered at the end of a twelvemonth. After
making feveral voyages to different places of the Eaft
Indies, he afted for fbme time as gunner at the Englilh
fort of Bencoolen. In 1691, wilhing to revifit his na¬
tive country, he embarked on board a flop for England,
where he arrived in September. At this time he
brought with him a native of Meangis, one of the Spice
itlands, who was fuppofed to be the fon of a chief, and
after being exhibited as a fight, died of the fmallpox at
Oxford.
It is not known in what manner Dampier was em¬
ployed for feme years after this period. It appears,
however, that he was at laft engaged in the king’s
fervice. He had the command of the Roebuck, a
Hoop of 12 guns and 50 men. This veffel, it is fuppo¬
fed, was fitted out for fome voyage of difeovery, for
fhe had 20 months provifions on board.. He failed
from Britain in 1699, touched at the coalt of Brafil,
and then ran acrofs to the coaft of New Holland, and
arrived there on the id of Auguft, about latitude 26°.
He proceeded northwards along the coaft, exploring
the country in different places where he landed. To
procure refreffiments he found it neceffary to direft his
courfe towards Timor y and from this he failed to the
coaft of New Guinea, where he arrived on the 3d of
December. By failing along to its eafternmoft ex¬
tremity, he difeovered that it was terminated by an
ifland, which he circumnavigated, and named New
Britain.
Here it would appear from his own journal that he
encountered confiderable difficulties from the fmall
number of his men* and their eager defire to haften
home. On account of thefe difficulties he was pre¬
vented from profecuting his difeoveries. In May he
returned to Timor, and from thence proceeded home¬
ward by Batavia and the Cape of Good Hope. In Fe¬
bruary 1701 he arrived off the ifland of Afcenfion,
when the veffel fprung a leak and foundered j and it
was with mucb difficulty that the crew reached the
ifland. They remained at Afcenfion till they were
taken away by an Eaft India (hip, and conveyed to
England. This clofes the account of Dampier’s life and
adventures, as it is detailed by himfelf. It appears,
however, from the preface to the third volume, that he
was preparing in 1703 for another voyage. It is men¬
tioned alfo in Woodes Rogers’ Voyage round the World,
that Dampier had the command of a ffiip in the South
feas about the year 1705, along with Captain Strad-
ling, whofe veflel foundered at fea. Dampier accom¬
panied Woodes Rogers in his voyage round the world,
in the years 1708, 1709, «7IQ, and 1711 ; but only
in the capacity of pilot, which is fuppofed to be owing
to fomething faulty in his conduiR. During this expe¬
dition Guaiaquil was taken, and Dampier had the com¬
mand of the artillery. Nothing farther is known of the
life of Dampier ; and we are equally ignorant of the
place and time of his death.
The works of Dampier are- well known, and Have
been often reprinted. They confift of, I. A Voyage
round the world, 3 vols o6tavo. 2. A Supplement
to it, defcribing the countries of Tonquin, Malacca,
&c. 3.. Two Voyages to Campeachy. 4. A Dif-
63 ] DAM
courfe of Trade-winds, Seafons, Tides, &c. in the Tor-
rid Zone. 5. A Voyage to New Holland. His obfer- Damps.’
vations are curious and important, and conveyed in a —v—•
plain manly ftile. His nautical remarks difeover a great
deal of profeffional knowledge. His knowledge in na¬
tural hiftory is not fcientific j but it appears to be accu¬
rate, and has been frequently quoted.
DAMPS, m Natural Hifiory, (from the Saxon word
dampt fignifying vapour or exhalation), are certain
noxious exhalations iffuing from fome parts of the earth,
and which prove almoft inftantly fatal to thofe who
breathe them.
Thefe damps are chiefly obferved in mines and coal¬
pits 5 though vapours of the fame kind often iffue from
old lavas of burning mountains, and, in thofe countries
where volcanoes are common, it is faid that they fill the
houfes, and deftroy people fuddenly without the lead
warning of their approach. In mines and coal-pits they
are chiefly of two kinds, called by the miners and col¬
liers the choke and fire damps ^ and both go under one
general name of foul air. The choke-damps, known in
modern chemiftry by the name offxed air, or carbonic
acid gas, ufually infefts thofe places which have been
formerly worked, but long negledled, and are called
by the miners ivafes. No place, however, can be
reckoned fafe from this kind of damps, except where
there is a due circulation of air $. and the procuring of
this is the only proper means of preventing accidents
from damps of all kinds. The choke-damp fuffocates
the miners fuddenly,, with all the Appearances found in
thofe that are fuffocated by fixed air. Being heavy,
it defeends towards the loweft parts of the workings,
and thus is dangerous to the miners, who can fcarce
avoid breathing it. The fire-damp, which is inflamma¬
ble air, Injdrogen gas, rifes to the roof of the work¬
ings, as being fpecifically lighter than the common
atmofphere j and hence, though it will fuffbeate as
well as the other, it feldom proves fo dangerous in
this way as by its inflammable property, by which it
often takes fire at the candles, and explodes with ex¬
treme violence.
In the Phil. Tranf. N° 119. there is an account of
fome explofions by damps of this kind, on which we
have the following obfervations. 1. Thofe who are
in the place where the vapour is fired fuddenly find
themfelves furrounded with flames, hut hear little or
no noife ; though thofe who are in places adjacent, or
above ground, hear a very great one. 2. Thofe who
are furrounded by the inflamed vapour feel themfelves
fcorched or burnt, but are not moved out of their
places, though fuch as unhappily ftand in the way of
it are commonly killed by the violence of the ffiock,
and often thrown with great force out at the mouth of
the pit; nor are the heavieft machines found able to re¬
fill: the impetuofity ofthe blaft. 3. No fmell is perceived
before the fire, but a very ftrong one of brimflone is after¬
wards perceptible. 4. The vapour lies towards the roof,
and is not perceived if the candles are held low, but
when .thefe are held higher, the damp defeends like a
black mill, and catches hold of the flame, lengthening
it to two or three handfuls ; and this appearance ceafes
when the candles are held nearer the ground. 5. The
flame continues in the vault for feveral minutes after
the. crack. 6i Its colour is blue, fomething inclining
to green, and very bright. 7. On the explofion of the
vapour^,
DAM [ 64
Damps, vapour, a dark fmoke like that proceeding from fired
——V—gunpowder is perceived. 8. Damps are generally ob-
ferved to come about the latter end of May, and to
continue during the heat of fummer. They return fe-
veral times during the fummer feafon, but obferve no
certain rule.
Befides thefe kinds of damps, which are very com¬
mon, we find others deferibed in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, concerning the nature of which we can
fay nothing. Indeed the account feems fomewhat fuf-
picious. They are given by Mr Jeffop, from whom
we have the foregoing obfervations concerning the fire¬
damp, and who had thefe from the miners in Derby-
fhire. After defcribing the common damp, which
confifls of fixed air, “ They call the fecond fort (fays
he) the peafe-bloom damp, becaufe, as they fay, it fmells
like peafe-bloom. They tell me it always comes in the
fummer time j and thofe grooves are not free which
are never troubled with any other fort of damps. I
never heard that it was mortal j the fcent, perhaps
freeing them from the danger of a furprife : but by
reafon of it many good grooves lie idle at the belt and
moft profitable time of the year, when the fubterrane-
ous waters are the lowefl. They fancy it proceeds from
the multitude of red trefoil flowers, by them called ho-
neyfuchles, with which the limeftone meadows in the
Peake do much abound. The third is the ftrangeft and
moft peftilential of any j if all be true which is faid con¬
cerning it. Thofe who pretend to have feen it (for it
is vifible) defcribe it thus: In the higheft part of the
roof of thofe paflages which branch out from the main
groove, they often fee a round thing hanging, about
the bignefs of a foot-ball, covered with a fldn of the
thicknefs and colour of a cobweb. This, they fay, if it
is broke by any accident, as the fplinter of a ftone, or
the like, difperfeth itfelf immediately, and fuffocates
all the company. Therefore, to prevent cafualties, as
foon as they have efpied it, they have a way, by the
help of a ftick and long rope, of breaking it at a di-
ftance j which done, they purify the place well with
fire, before they dare enter it again. I dare not a-
vouch the truth of this ftory in all its circumftances,
becaufe the proof of it feems impoflible, fince they fay
it kills all that are likely to bear witnefs to the parti¬
culars : neither do I deny but fuch a thing may
have been feen hanging on the roof, fince I have heard
many affirm it.”—Some damps, feemingly of the fame
nature with thofe laft mentioned, are noticed by the
author of the Chemical Diflionary, under the word
Damps. “ Amongft the noxious mineral exhalations
(fays he), we may place thofe which are found in the
mines of fal gem in Poland. Thefe frequently appear
in form of light flocks, threads, and fpiders webs. They
are remarkable for their property of fuddenly catching
fire at the lamps of the miners with a terrible noife
and explofion. They inftantly kill thofe whom they
touch. Similar vapours are found in fome mines of
foffil coal.”
With regard to the formation of damps we have as
yet no certain theory ; nor, though the experiments
of aerologifts are abundantly able to (how the compo-
fition and manner of forming thefe noxious airs arti¬
ficially, have they yet thrown much light on the me¬
thod by which nature prepares them on a large fcale.
There are two general ways in which we may fuppofe
] BAM
this to be done : one by the ftagnation of atmofpheri- canlr,s
cal air in old wafte places of mines in coal-pits, and y-—.
its converfion into thefe mephitic exhalations ; the
other by their original formation from the phlogiftic
or other materials found in the earth, without any in¬
terference of the atmofphere. In favour of the for¬
mer opinion it may be urged, that old waftes are ne¬
ver free from damps, efpecially thofe of the kind re-
fembling fixed air j nor are they always deficient in
the inflammable kind. The fame is alfo true of old
wells, or even cellars, and in fliort every place
where the air ftagnates for any confiderable time. But,
on the other hand, we have many inftances of fixed
air coming out of the earth, and that in vaft quanti¬
ties, where no confiderable ftagnation of the atmo¬
fphere could be fufpe£led j as for inftance, in the grot¬
to del Cani in Italy, where a continual ftream of it has
iffued from time immemorial. The fame feems to be
the cafe with the tops of fome high mountains, parti¬
cularly Mont Blanc, the higheft in Europe ; on the
top of which M. Sauflure found the atmofphere fo
much impregnated with fixed air, that lime water ex-
pofed to it very quickly gathered a cruft on its furface.
Sir William Hamilton, in his account of the eruptions
of Vefuvius, informs us, that the inhabitants in the
neighbourhood of that mountain are infefted with a
kind ef peftilential vapours named by them tnnfetes,
which iflue from the old lava thrown out by the vol¬
cano. Thefe are of the nature of the damps in our
mines or coal-pits, and iflue forth in fuch quantity as
either to infedl the atmofphere for a very confiderable
way round, or to do mifchief by being carried from
place to place by the atmofpherical currents, which
are not ftrong enough to diffipate them for fome time.
From fome late accounts the famiel (or fcorching
winds, as they have been reprefented) in the eaftern
countries, feem to be no other than ftreams of fixed
air of confiderable extent, which exert their ufual and
fatal effe&s on thofe who breathe them. A ftrong ar¬
gument in favour of this opinion is, that thefe winds
cannot crofs a river, it being the nature of water to
abforb fixed air, and thus deftroy them.
Hence it is rendered probable that thefe mephitic
vapours are often to be met with in the open atmo¬
fphere, and confequently cannot always be the eflfeft
of ftagnation 5 nor indeed does it at all appear that
mere ftagnation can affefl the quality of the atmo¬
fphere either one way or other. This fluid cannot
have its properties altered but by fomething immerfed
in it upon which it can aft, and by means of which
aftion its component parts may be changed or fepa-
rated. While this procefs is going on, there is gene¬
rally, if not always, an abforption of air, accompanied
indeed frequently with an emiffion of fome aerial fluid
equal in quantity to that which is abforbed. Mr
Scheele, in his Effay on Fire, has ftiown by a number
of experiments the eflfeft of expofing certain fubftan-
ces to the aftion of air, both on the fubftances them-
felves and on the aerial fluid. The refult of all thefe
is no other than what we might expeft from a very flow
combuftion, and which perhaps may on inquiry be
found to be the only way by which air can be decom-
pofed. If the fubftance expofed to the air was capa¬
ble of abforbing that part of the fluid which had un-
dergone a change, there was always an evident dimi¬
nution
DAM r
■©ampv nation, but not otherwife. Thus, on inclofing fome
—cauftic fixed alkali in a phial of atmofpheric air, a con-
fiderable diminution took place j and the. alkali, by be¬
coming faturated with fixed air, (bowed that a decom-
pofition had taken place, and that the dephlogifticated
patt of the air had feparated from the other, attached
itfelf to the fixed alkali, and become fixed air by uni¬
ting with a certain proportion of phlogiftic matter.
Kence we may conceive, that in any place where the
a'ir was confined over a raft quantity of cauftic alkaline
felt, it would foon become unfit for the purpofes of
animal life, and we might fay that a damp would be
formed. But this would be a damp of a very different
kind from that ufilally met with in mines j for here
the dephlogifticated part of the atmofphere being con¬
verted into fixed air, and abforbed by the felt, only the
azotic gas, or, as it has been called, phlogijiicated air,
would remain, fo that no fixed air could ever be fepa¬
rated from it.
Let us now fuppofe, that inftead of the alkaline
fait a quantity of burning charcoal is confined in a
place where there is not a proper circulation of air,
and we (ball foon fee that a damp of the very fame
kind with that called by miners the chohe-damp will be
formed. But this takes place by reafon of the dif-
fipation of the charcoal by heat, and its union with the
pure part of the atmofphere, or oxygen gas, which
always conftitutes fixed air. In this cafe, however,
the damp muft be bat of (bort continuance, and will
foon be diflipated after the charcoal is extinguiftied $
but if, inftead of the charcoal, we fubftitute a large
quantity of fermenting liquor, from whence the fixed
air is naturally emitted, a damp will be formed much
more difficult to be diffipated than the former, becaufe
it renews itfelf in a very (bort time ; and, unlefs there
is a very conftant circulation of air, it will be danger¬
ous to enter the place where it is.
From the laft example we may form an idea of the
manner in which thefe damps, confiding chiefly, of
fixed air, are formed. We know not indeed thorough¬
ly the nature of fermentation ; but we are affured,
that it is always accompanied by an internal heat ;
which, in fome cafes, is raifed to the utmoft height,
infomuch that large quantities of moift vegetable fub-
ftances, packed tog-ether, will fometimes burft out into
flame. It is not, however, at all times neceffary for
the extrication of fixed air, that the heat ffiould come
to this extremity. The example of fermenting liquors
(hows, that in feme cafes a very moderate heat is fuf-
ficient for the purpofe. Now, though the compari-
fen may feem femewhat inadequate between the felid
fubftance of the earth and a fermenting liquid, yet
we know that a gentle beat conftantly takes place in
the bowels of the earth ; and that almoft all terreftrial
fubftances will emit fixed air on being expofed to
heat. It is not at all improbable, therefore, that, on
the large feale of nature, the quantity of materials may
compenfate for the weaknefs of the heat, and thus oc-
cafion a conftant emiffion of fixed air ; which, though
flow in comparifen of what is effected in our experi¬
ments by a violent artificial heat, may yet accumu¬
late in the narrow fpaces of mines in fuch a manner
as to be very troublefeme. In volcanic countries,
where the heat of the earth is much greater, the emif¬
fion of fixed air is in proportion: and thus we may
‘VOL. VII. Part I.
65 ] DA M
account for that continued dream of it, which iffues omp*.
from the grotto del Cani, and perhaps other places. ——v—
The mtfetes, which are faid to proceed from old lavas,
can only be accounted for by fuppofing the heat,
which originally took place in them, to be in feme
meafure renewed ; or that they have been again, by
feme means or other, difpofed to take fire as formerly i
but this we offer merely as a conjedture j there not be¬
ing as yet fufficient data to determine any thing pofi-
tively upon the fubjeft.
It may be objected to the hypothefis juft now laid
down, that, if there is a continual difpofition in the
earth to produce fixed air, the whole furface of it muft;
pour out fuch a quantity as would deftroy every living
creafffre upon it. This indeed might be granted,
w'ere the furface of the earth quite bare, and deftitute
of vegetation : but there is no abfurdity, in fuppofing
that the fixed air may be continually decompoled by
the vegetables which grow all over the furface of the
earth j and the atmofphere not only thus preferved
from any taint from it, but fupplied with a quantity of
pure air, which it is certain vegetables give out. It is
alfo certain, that wherever the atmofphere is fuflered
to be in contact with the bare furface of the ground for
feme time, a confiderable quantity of fixed air will
be produced, unlefs there is a conftant circulation
of atmofpherical air to carry off the former before it
has time to produce any fenfible effect. Hence we
may account for the damps in wells, cellars, and even
in the confined places of old caftles and ruinous build¬
ings, where the air is not in contact with the furface
of the ground itfelf, but with mere heaps of rubbith
and old walls.
With regard to what is called the fire-damp, the
cafe feems to be more plain. In the Phil. Tranf. N0
136. we have the following account of one of this
kind, which feemed evidently to iffue from the earth :
“ This work is upon a coal of five yards in thicknefs,
and hath been begun upon about fix or eight and
thirty years ago. When it was firft found, it was
extremely full of water, fe that it could not bs
wrought down to the bottom of the coal : but a wit-
chet, or cave, was driven out of the middle of it, upon
a level, for gaining room to work, and drawing down
the fpring of water that lies in the coal to the eye of
the pit. In driving of which witchet, after they had
gone a confiderable way under ground, and were fcant-
ed of wind, the fire-damps began by little and little to
breed, and to appear in crevices and flits of the coal,
where water had lain before the opening of the coal,
with a fmall bluiffi flame, working and moving conti¬
nually *, but not out of its firft feat, unlefs the work¬
men held their candles to it ; and then being weak,
the blaze of the candle would drive it out with a fed-
den fizz away to another crevice, where it would feon
after appear blazing and moving as formerly. This
was the firft knowledge of it in this work, which the
workmen made but a (port of, and fo partly neglefted,
till it bad gotten feme ftrength; and then upon a
morning the firft collier that went down, going for¬
wards in the witchet with his candle in his hand, the
damp prefently darted out fe violently at his candle,
that it (buck the man clear down, finged all his hair
and clothes, and difabled him from working for a while
after. Some other fmall warnings it gave them, infe-
I much
BAM [ 66 ] BAN
Damps, much that they refolved to employ a man on purpofe
“"“v ' that was more refolute than the reft, to go down a
while before them every morning, to chafe it from
place to place, and fo to weaken it. His ufual man¬
ner was to put on the worft rags he had, and to wet
them all in water, and when he came within the dan¬
ger of it, then he fell down grovelling upon his belly,
and fo went forward, holding in one hand a long wand
or pole, at the head whereof he tied candles burning,
and reached them by degrees towards !t; then the
damp would fly at them, and, if it miffed of putting
them out, would quench itfelf with a blaft, and leave
an ill-fcented fmoke behind. Thus they dealt with it
till they had wrought the coal down to the bottom,
and the water following, and not remaining as before
in the body of it, among fulphureous and braffy metal
that is in lome veins of the coal, the fire-damp was not
feen nor heard of till the latter end of the year 1675,
which happened as followeth :
“ After long working of this coal, it was found
upon the rifing grounds that there lay another roach
of coal at the depth of 14 yards under it, which proved
to be 3-J yards thick, and fomething more fulphure¬
ous. Ihis encouraged us to fink in one of the pits we
had formerly ufed on the five-yards coal. As we funk
the lower part of it, w7e had many appearances of the
fire-damp in the watery crevices of the rocks rve funk
through, flafhing and darting from fide to fide of the
pit, and Ihowing rainbow-like colours upon the furface
of the water in the bottom } but upon drawing up of
the water with buckets, which ftirred the air in the pit,
it would leave burning, till the colliers at work, with
their breath and fw'eat, and the fmoke of their candles,
thickened the air in the pit, and then it would appear
again ; they lighted their candles at it fometimes when
they went out; and fo in this pit it did no farther
harm.”
In another pit, however, it foon appeared, and at
laft produced a moft terrible explofion. This was oc-
eafioned by one of the workmen going imprudently
down with a lighted candle, after a ceffation of work
for fome days, and the force exerted by it feemed equal
to that of gunpowder.
The formation of inflammable air in mines is to be
afcribed, according to the dodtrines of modern chemi-
ftry, to the decompofition of water, a procefs which
is conftantly going on in places where metallic fub-
ftances are expofed to its adtion. As the metals are
oxidated by their combination with the oxygen, one
of the component parts of water, the hydrogen, its
other component part, is fet at liberty, and accumu¬
lates in thofe places where it is generated.
A much more important confideration than the for¬
mation of damps, however, is the proper method of
avoiding their pernicious effedls. The inflammability
of one kind affords an eafy method of preventing it
from accumulating, viz. by fetting fire to it. This
may be done with fafety, unlefs it has been fuffered to
go too far before the experiment is made ; for the in¬
flammable air being much lighter than any other
kind will naturally rife to the top ; fo that a man, ly¬
ing flat on the ground to avoid the force of the ex¬
plofion, and holding up a lighted candle fixed upon a
pole, may at once free the mine from fuch a trouble-
vome gueft. But where it has been allowed to accu-
2
mulate in too great quantity, fo that this method jyamps.
cannot be ufed, or in the other kind, which is not in- || P
flammable, the method commonly pra&ifed is to pro- Dan.
duce a conilant circulation of air as much as poflible
through all parts of the mine. To procure this, they
make a perpendicular opening, which they call ayZ>fl«£,
or Jhaft, fo that the mine may have two or more open¬
ings : and thus by reafon of the difference of tempera¬
ture between the open atmofphere and that in the
mine, there is a continual draught of air through
them both. This current will always be ftronger in
proportion to the difference between the external at¬
mofphere and that of the mine ; and likewife in pro¬
portion to the difference between the depth of the two
ftiafts. But as the temperature of the atmofphere is-
variable, it happens at certain feafons of the year,
that there is not a fufficient difference between that
of the atmofphere and in the mine to produce the ne-
ceffary circulation. This happens principally in the
fpring and autumn ; at which feafons it is neceffary to
light fires in the {hafts, which are always efficacious
for the purpofe defired.
Among the other ufes to which dephlogifticated air
might be applied, Mr Cavallo reckons that of fecuring
people from the dangerous effedls of damps in mines,
and other fubterraneous places. “ If a large bladder,”
fays he, “ into which a folution of lime in water is in¬
troduced, be filled with dephlogiftieated air, and a fmali
wooden cr glafs pipe be adapted to its neck, a man
may hold that pipe in his mouth, and may breathe
the dephlogifticated air ; and thus equipped, he may-
enter into thefe fubterranean places, amidft the van-
ous elaftic fluids contained in them. A large bladder
of dephlogifticated air will ferve for above a quarter of
an hour, which is a length of time fulficient for vari¬
ous purpofes; befides, if longer time is required to be
{pent in thefe places, a perfon may have two or more
bladders of dephlogifticated air along with him, and
may fliift as foon as the air of one is contaminated.
Without the neceflity of any more complicated appa¬
ratus, the bladders full of dephiogifticated air may be
kept flopped by putting corks into the glafs or wooden
pipes that are tied to their necks. This air might alfa
be ufed for diving-bells.”
DAMSEL, from the French dumoifel or damoifeau^
an appellation anciently given to all young people of
either lex, that were of noble or genteel extraction, as
the fons and daughters of princes, knights, and barons ;
thus we read of Damfel Pepin, Damfel Louis le Gros^
Damfel Richard Prince of Wales.
From the fons of kings this appellation firft paffed
to thofe of great lords and barons, and at length to
thofe of gentlemen who were not yet knights.
At piefent damlel is applied to all maids or girls not
married, provided they be not of the vulgar.
DAjV, or Jor-dan, which laft literally denotes
the rLer Dan j fo named from the people where it
has its fource, which is a lake called Phiala, from its
round figure, to the north of its apparent rifing from
the mountain Panium or Paneum, as was difcovered by
Philip, tetrarch of Irachonitesj for on throwing ligfit
bodifes into the Phiala, he found them to emerge again
at Paneum (Jofephus). From Paneum it runs in a di-
reCt courfe to a lake called Samachonites, as far as
which it is called Jordan the Lefs; and thence to the
lake
BAN [ 67 ] BAN
Yiati ^ke Genefaretb, or of Tiberias, where it comes in-
(| creafed by the lake Samachonites and its fprings, and
iDanaides js called the Greater Jordan; continuing its diredl
"y courfe fouthwards, till it fall into the Afphaltites.
Dan, in Ancient Geography, a town to the weft of
the fource of the Jordan j formerly called Lais (Jolhua,
Judges, Jofephus). This was the north, as Beertheba
was the fouth, boundary of the Ifraelitesj as appears
from the common expreflion in Scripture, from Dan to
Beerjheba. At Dan Jeroboam erected one of the gold¬
en calves (l Kings xii).
Dan, the tribe, extended itfelf weftward of Judah,
and was terminated by Azotas and Dora on the Medi¬
terranean (Jofephus.)
DANAE, in antiquity, a coin fomewhat more than
an obolus, ufed to be put into the mouths of the dead,
to pay their paffage over the river Acheron.
Danae, in fabulous hiftory, was the daughter of
Acrifius king of Argos, by Eurydice. She was con¬
fined in a brazen tower by her father, who had been
told by an oracle that his daughter’s fon would put
him to death. His endeavours to prevent Danae from
becoming a mother proved fruitlefs j and Jupiter, who
was enamoured of her, introduced himfelf into her bed
by changing himfelf into a golden fhower. From his
embraces Danae had a fon, with whom ftie was ex-
pofed on the fea by her father. The wind drove the
bark which carried her to the coafts of the ifland of Se-
riphus, where Ihe was faved by fome fifliermen, and
carried to Polydeftes king of the place, whofe bro¬
ther, called DiBys, educated the child called Per/eus,
and tenderly treated the mother. Polydedtes fell in
love with her •, but as he was afraid of her fon, he fent
him to conquer the Gorgons, pretending that he wifh-
ed Medufa’s head to adorn the nuptials which he was
going to celebrate with Hippodamia the daughter of
Oenomaus. When Perfeus had vidlorioufly finilhed
his expedition, he retired to Argos with Danae to the
houfe of Acrifius, whom he inadvertently killed. Some
fuppofe that it was Proetus the brother of Acrifius
who introduced himfelf to Danae in the brazen tower j
and inftead of a golden fliower, it was maintained that
the keepers of Danae were bribed by the gold of her
feducer. Virgil mentions that Danae came to Italy
with fome fugitives of Argos, and that (lie founded a
city called Ardea.
DANAIDES, in fabulous hiftory, the fifty daugh¬
ters of Danaus king of Argos. When their uncle I&-
gyptus came from Egypt with his fifty fons, they were
promifed in marriage to their coufms ; and before the
celebration of their nuptials, Danaus, who had been
informed by an oracle that he was to be killed by the
hands of one of his fons-in-lavv, made his daughters fo-
lemnly promife that they would deftroy their'hufbands.
They were provided with daggers bv their father j and
all except Hypermneftra ftained their hands with the
blood of their coufins the fiift night of their nuptials ; .
and, as a pledge of their obedience to their father’s in-
jundtions, they prefented him each with the head of
the murdered fons ot iEgyptus. Hypermneflra was
fummoned to appear before her father, and anfwer for
her difobedience in fuffering her hulband Lynceus to
efcape j but the unanimous voice of the people declared
her innocent, and (he dedicated a temple to the o0d-
d'efs of Perfuafion. The fifters were purified of this
murder by Mercury and Minerva by order of Jupiter'; DanaiJis
but according to the more received opinion, they were jj
condemned to fevere puniihment in hell, and were com- Dance,
pelled to fill with water a veflel full of holes, fo that *“***
the water ran out as foon as poured into it j and there¬
fore their labour was infinite, and their punilhment
eternal. The heads of the fons of j^Egyptus were bu¬
ried at Argos; but their bodies were left at Lerna^
where the murder had been committed.
DANAUS, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Belus and
Anchinoe, who, after his father’s death, reigned con¬
jointly with his brother iEgyptus on the throne of E-
gypt. Some time after, a difference arofe between the
brothers, and Danaus fet fail with his fifty daughters
in queft of a fettlement. He vifited Rhodes, where he
confecrated a ftatue to Minerva, and arrived fafe on
the coaft of Peloponnefus, where he was hofpitably
received by Gelanor king of Argos, Gelanor had late¬
ly afeended the throne, and the firft years of his reign
were marked with diffenfions with his fubje&s. Da¬
naus took advantage of Gelanor’s unpopularity, and
obliged him to leave the crown. In Gelanor, the race
of the Inachidae was extinguilhed, and the Bolides be¬
gan to reign at Argos in Danaus. Some authors fay,
that Gelanor voluntarily refigned the crown to Danaus,
on account of the wrath of Neptune, who had dried up
all the waters of Argolis, to punifti the impiety of
Inachus. The fuccefs of Danaus invited the fifty fons
of iEgyptus to embark for Greece. They w’ere kind¬
ly received by their uncle ; who, either apprehenfive
of their number, or terrified by an oracle which threat¬
ened his ruin by one of his fons-in law, caufed his daugh¬
ters, to whom they were promifed in marriage, to mur¬
der them the firft night of their nuptials. His order
ufas executed. Hypermneftra alone fpared the life of
Lynceus: (See Danaides). Danaus at firft perfe-
cuted Lynceus with unremitted fury ; but he was af¬
terwards reconciled to him, and he acknowledged him
for his fon-in-law and fucceffor after a reign of 50 years.
He began his reign about 1586 years before the Chri-
ftian era; and after death he was honoured with a
fplendid monument in the town of Argos, which ftill
exifted in the age of Paufanias. According to IPS-
chylus, Danaus left Egypt, not to be prefent at the
marriage of his daughters with the fons of his bro¬
ther j a connexion which he deemed unlawful and im¬
pious.
DANCE, or Dancing, as at prefent praSifed, may
be defined “ an agreeable motion of the body, adjufted
by art to the meafures or tone of inftruments, or of the
voice.”—But, according to what fome reckon more
agreeable to the true genius of the art, dancing is “ the
art of expreffing the fentiments of the mind, or the paf-
fions, by meafured fteps or bounds that are made in ca¬
dence, by regulated motions of the body, and by grace¬
ful geftures j all performed to the found of mufical in¬
ftruments or of the voice.”
i here is no account of the origin of the pra&ice of
dancing among mankind. It is found to exift among all
nations whatever, even the moft rude and barbarous ;
and, indeed, however much the afliftance of art may be
neceffary to make any one perfedl in the pradlice, the
foundation mull certainly lie in the mechanifm of the
human body itfelf.
The connexion that there is between certain founds
I 2 and
DAN [68] DAN
Dance, and thofe motions of the human body called dancing,
—“v—~ hath feldom or never been inquired into by philofo-
phers, though it is certainly a very curious fpeculation.
’I'he power of certain founds not only over the human
fpecies, but even over the inanimate creation, is indeed
very fufprifing. It is well known, that the mo ft folid
walls, nay the ground itielf, will be found to fhake at
fome particular notes in mufic. This ftrongly indi¬
cates the prefence of fome univerfally diftufed and ex¬
ceedingly elaftie fluid, which is thrown into vibrations
by the concuflions of the atmofphere upon it, produced
by the motion of the founding body.—If thefe con¬
cuflions are fo ftrong as to make the large quantity of
elaftic fluid vibrate that is difperfed through a ftone
wall or a confiderable portion of earth, it is no won¬
der they fhould have the fame effeft upon that invifi-
ble and exceedingly fubtle matter that pervades and
feems to rtfide in our nerves.
Some there are that have their nerves conflru&ed
in fuch a manner, that they cannot be afftfled by the
founds which affe£l others, and fome fcarce with any ;
while others have fuch an irritability of the nerves in
this cafe, that they cannot, without the greateft diffi¬
culty, fit or ftand ftill when they hear a favourite piece
of mufie played.
It is conie&ured by very eminent philofopbers, that
all the fenfations and paffions to which we are fubjefl,
do immediately depend upon the vibrations excited in
the nervous fluid above mentioned. Hence, mufical
founds have the greateft power over thofe people who
are of a delicate fenfible frame, and who have ftrong
paffions. If it be true, therefore, that every paffion
in the human nature immediately depends upon a cer¬
tain affeiflion of the nervous fyftem, or a certain mo¬
tion or vibration in the nervous fluid, we ftiall immedi¬
ately fee the origin of the different dances among dif¬
ferent nations. One kind of vibration, for inftance,
raifes the paffions of anger, pride, &c. which are in-
difpenfably neceffary in warlike nations. The founds,
for fuch there are, capable of exciting a fimilar vi¬
bration, would naturally conftitute the martial mufic
among fuch nations, and dances conformable to it
would be inftituted. This appears to be the cafe par¬
ticularly among barbarous nations, as we fliall prefent-
ly have occafion to remark. Other vibrations of the
nervous fluid produce the paffions of joy, love, &c. •,
and founds capable of exciting thefe particular vibra¬
tions will immediately be formed into mufic for dan¬
cers of another kind.
As barbarous people are obferved to have the ftrong-
eft paffions, fo they are alfo obferved to be the moft
tafily affe&ed by founds, and the moft addi&ed to dan¬
cing. Sounds to us the moft difagreeable, the drum¬
ming of fticks upon an empty cafk, or the nolle made
by blowing into reeds incapable of yielding one mufi¬
cal note tolerable to us, is agreeable mufic to them.
Much more are they affefted by the found^ of inftra-
ments which have any thing agreeable in them. Mr
Gallini informs us, that “ The fpirit of dancing pre¬
vails almoft beyond imagination among both men and
women in moft parts of Africa. It is even more than
inftimft, it is a rage, in fome countries of that part of
the globe.—Upon the Gold coaft efpecially the inha¬
bitants are fo paffionately fond of it, that in the midft
tf their hardeft labour, if they hear a perfon fing, or
any mufical inftrument played, they cannot refrain from Dancer
dancing.—There are even well attefted ftories of fome *—y—
negroes flinging themfelves at the feet of an European
playing on a fiddle, entreating him to defift, unlefs he
had a mind to tire them to death $ it being impoffibla
for them to Ceafe dancing while he continued playing.”
The fame thing is found to take place in America,
though, as the inhabitants of that continent are found
to be of a more fierce and barbarous nature than the
African nations, their dances are ftill more uncouth
and barbarous than thofe of the negroes. “In Mexi¬
co, fays Gallini, they have alfo their dances and mu¬
fic, but in the moft uncouth and barbarous ftyle. For
their fymphony they have wooden drums, fome thing
in form of a kettle-drum, with a kind of pipe or fla¬
geolet, made of a hollow cane or reed, but very gra¬
ting to an European ear. It is obferved they love
every thing that makes a noife, how difagreeable fo-
ever the found is. They will alfo hum over fomething
like a tune when they dance 30 or 40 in a circle,,
ftretching cut their hands, and laying them on each
others fhoulders. They ftamp and jump, and ufe the
moft antic geftures for feveral hours, till they are hear¬
tily weary. And one or two of the company fome-
times ftep out of the rings to make fport for the reft,
by fhowing feats of a&ivity, throwing their lances up
into the air, catching them again, bending backwards,
and fpringing forwards with great agility.”
The origin of dancing among the Greeks w'as moft
certainly the fame as among all other nations •, but as
they proceeded a certain length in civilization, their
dances were of confequence more regular and agree¬
able than thofe of the more barbarous nations. They
reduced dancing into a kind of regular fyftem j and had
dances proper for exciting, by means of the fympathy
above mentioned, any paflion whatever in the minds of
the beholders. In this way they are faid to have pro¬
ceeded very great lengths, to us abfolutely incredible.
At Athens it is faid, that the dance of the Eumeni-
des or Furies on the theatre had fo expreffive a cha-
rafter as to ftrike the fpe&ators with irrefiftible terror:
men grown old in the profeffion of arms trembled;
the multitude ran out j women with child mifearried j
people imagined they faw in earneft thofe terrible dei¬
ties commiffioned with the vengeance of heaven topur-
fue and punifti crimes upon earth.
The Greeks had martial dances, which they reckon¬
ed to be very ufeful for keeping up the warlike fpirit
of their youth ; but the Romans, though equally war¬
like with the Greeks, never had any thing of the kind.
This probably may be owing to the want of that ro¬
mantic turn for which the Greeks were fo remarkable.
1 he Romans had no heroes among them, fuch as Her¬
cules, Achilles, or Ajax ; nor does the whole Roman,
hiftory furnifh an example of a general that made war
after the manner of Alexander the Great. Though
their foldiers were as valiant as ever the Greeks could
pretend to be, the objeff with them was the honour of
the republic, and not their own perfonal praife. Hence
there was lefs fury, and much more cool deliberate va¬
lour, exercifed by the Romans than any other nation
whatever. 1 he paffions of pride, refentment, obftinacy,
&c. w'ere excited in them, not by the mechanical means
of mufic and dancing, but by being taught that it w’as
their chief honour to fight for the republic. It dees-
no- _
Dance.
DAN [ 69 ] DAN
not however appear, that the Romans were at all lefs
capable of being affe£led in this mechanical manner
than the Greeks. When dancing was once introduced,
it had the very fame efFefts at Rome as at Athens.
Among the Jews, dancing feems to have made a
part of the religions vvoriliip on fome occafions, as we
learn from fome paffages in the Pfalms, though we do
not find either that or tinging pofitively enjoined as a
divine precept. In the Chriflian churches mentioned
in the New Teftament, there is no account of dancing
being introduced as an aft of worfliip, though it is cer¬
tain that it was ufed as fuch in after ages. Mr Gal-
lini tells us, that “ at Limoges, not long ago, the
people ufed to dance the round in the choir of the
church which is undej- the invocation of their patron
faint ; and at the end of each pfalm, inftead of the
Gloria Patri, they fung as follows: St Marcel, pray
for us, and we will dance in honour of youl"—Though
dancing would now be looked upon as the higheft de¬
gree of profanation in a religious aflembly, yet it is
certain, that dancing, confidered as an expreflion of
ioy, is no more a profanation than finging, or than
fimple fpeaking-, nor can it be thought in the lead;
more abfurd, that a Chriftian (hould dance for joy that
Jefus Chrift is rifen from the dead, than that David
danced before the ark when it was returned to him
after a long abfence.
Plato reduces the dances of the ancients to three
claffes. 1. The military dances, which tended to make
the body rebuff, aftive, and well difpofed for all the
exercifes of war. 2. The domeftic dances, which had
for their objeft an agreeable and innocent relaxation
and amufement. 3. The mediatorial dances, which
■were in ufe in expiations and facrifices.—Of military
dances there were two forts : the gymnopedique dance,
or the dance of children •, and the enoplian, or armed
dance. The Spartans had invented the firfl for an
early excitation of the courage of their children, and
to lead them on infenfibly to the exercife of the armed
dance. This children’s dance ufed to be executed in
the public place. It was compofed of two choirs j the
one of grown men, the other of children : whence, be¬
ing chiefly defigned for the latter, it took its name.
They w'ere both of them in a flate of nudity. The
choir of the children regulated their motions by thofe
of the men, and all danced at the fame time, finging
the poems of Thales, Aleman, and Dionyfodotus.—
The enoplian or pyrrhic wras danced by young men
armed cap-a-pee, who executed, to the found of the
flute, all the proper movements either for attack or
for defence. It was compofed of four parts.—The
firtl the padiftn or footing 5 which confifted in a quick
fhifting motion of the feet, fuch as was neceffary for
overtaking a flying enemy, or for getting away from
him when an overmatch.—The fecond part was the
xiphifm : this was a kind of mock fight, in which the
dancers imitated all the motions of combatants ; aim¬
ing a ilroke, darting a javelin, or dexteroufly dodging,
parrying, or avoiding a blow or thruft. The third
part, called the homos, confifted in very high leaps or
vaultings, which the dancers frequently repeated for
the better ufing themfelves occafionally to leap over a
ditch, or fpring over a wall. The tetracomos was the
fourth and laft part : this was a fquare figure, execu¬
ted. by flow and majeftic movements j but it is uncer¬
tain whether this was everywhere executed in the fame Dance,
manner. <
Of all the Greeks, the Spartans were thofe who moft
cultivated the Pyrrhic dance. Athenaeus relates, that
they had a law by which they Avere obliged to exercife
their children at it from the age of five years. This
warlike people conftantly retained the cuftom of accom¬
panying their dances Avith hymns and fongs. The
following Avas fung for the dance called tnehona, faid
to be inftituted by Lycurgus, and which had its name
from its being compofed of three choirs, one of
children, another of young men, and the third of old.
The old men opened the dance, faying, “ In time paft
Ave were valiant.” The young men anfwered, “ We
are fo at prefent.” “ We (hall ftill be more fo whea
our time comes,” replied the chorus of children. The
Spartans never danced but Avith real arms. In procefs
of time, however, other nations came to ufe only Avea-
pons of wood on fuch occafions. Nay, it Avas only fo
late as the days of Athenseus, Avho lived in the fecond
century, that the dancers of the Pyrrhic, inftead of
arms, carried only ftafks, ivy-bound Avands (thyrfus)
or reeds. But even in Ariftotle’s days, they had be¬
gun to ufe thyrfufes inftead of pikes, and lighted tor¬
ches in lieu of javelins and fvvords. With thefe torches
they executed a dance called the conflagration of the
world.
Of the dances for amufement and recreation, foras
were but (imply gambols, or fport*iAre exercifes, Avhicl»
had no charafter of imitation, and of Avhich the greater
part exift to this day. The others Avere more complex,
more agreeable, figured, and were always accompanied.
Avith finging. Among the firft or fimple ones aaas the
afcoliafmus ; which confifted in jumping, Avith one foot
only, on bladders filled with air or Avine, and rub¬
bed on the outfide Avith oil. The dypodium was jumped
Avith both feet clofe. The hybejlefs Avas what is called
in this country the fomerfet.— Of the fecond kind Avas
that called the wine-prefs, of which there is a defeription
in Longinus, and the Ionian dances : thefe laft, in the.
original of their inftitution, had nothing but what
was decent and modeft j but, in time, their movements
came to be fo depraved, as to be employed in expref-
fing nothing but voluptuoufnefs, and even the groffeft
obfeenity.
Among the ancients there Avere no feftivals nor reli¬
gious aflemblies but Avhat were accompanied Avith fongs
and dances It Avas not held poflible to celebrate any
myftery, or to be initiated, Avithout the intervention of
thefe' two arts. In (hort, they Avere looked upon to be
fo effential in thefe kinds of ceremonies, that to exprefs
the crime of fuch as A\?ere guilty of revealing the facred
inyfteries, they employed the word hheifee, “ to be out
of the dance.” The moft ancient of thefe religious
dances is the Bacchic ; which Avas not only confecrated
to Bacchus, but to all the deities Avhofe feftival Avas ce¬
lebrated Avith a kind of enthufiafm. The moft grave
and majeftic Avas the hyporchematic; it was executed to
the lyre, and accompanied with the voice. At his re¬
turn from Crete, Thefeus inftituted a dance at Avhich
he himfelf aflifted at the head of a numerous and fplen-
did band of youths, round the altar of Apollo. The
dance Avas compofed of three parts: ihzjlrophe, the an*
tiftrophe, and the fationary. In the ftrophe, the move¬
ments were from the right to the left} in the antifiro-
phe,_
BAN
Bance.
phe, from the left to the right. In the flationary, they
— danced before the altar j fo that the ftationary did not
mean an abfolute paufe or reft, but only a more flow
or grave movement. Plutarch is perfuaded, that in
this dance there is a profound myftery. He thinks, that
by the ftrophe is indicated the motion of the world from
eaft to weft 5 by the antiftrophe, the motion of the pla¬
nets from the weft to the eaft ; and by the ftationary,
the liability of the earth. To this dance Thefeus gave
the name of geranos, or “ the crane j” becaufe the fi¬
gures which charafterifed it bore a refemblance to thofe
defcribed by cranes in their flight.
With regard to the modern praflrce of dancing as
an art, there are few diredtions that can be of much fer-
vice. The following is extracted from Mr Gallini’s
defcription of the feveral fteps or movements.
“ rhe dancing (fays he) is generally on a theatre,
or in a faloon or room. At the theatre there are four
parts to be confidered. 1. The neareft front to the
fpe&ators. 2, and 3. The two fides or wings. 4. The
fartheft front from the fpedlators.
“ a faloon or room, the place in which are the
fpedlators decides the appellation refpedlively to them
of right and left. The dancer Ihould place himfelf in
as advantageous a point of view to them as poflible.
“ In the dance itfelf, there are to be dillinguilhed,
the attitude of the body, the figure, the pofition,
the bends, the rifings or leaps, the fteps, the cabriole,
the fallings, the Hides, the turns of the body, the ca¬
dences.
1 he attitude of the body requires the prefenting
one’s felf in the moft graceful manner to the com¬
pany.
“ Thenar* is to follow the track prefcribed to the
fteps in the dance.
“ pofition is that of the varied attitudes, which
muft be at once ftriking and eafy, as alfo of the diffe¬
rent exertions offthe legs and feet in dancing.
“ The bends are inflexions of the knees, of the body,
of the head, of the arms.
“ The rifings are the contrail to the bends, the ex¬
tension of the knee. One of thefe two motions hecef.
farily precedes the other.
“ The fiep is the motion by the foot or feet from
one place to another.
. ** The leap is executed by fpringing up in the air 5
it begins with a bend, and proceeds with a quick ex-
tenfion of the legs, fo that both feet quit the ground.
“ The cabriole is the crofling, or cutting of capers,
during the leap, before the return of the feet to the
ground.
“ falling is the return of the feet to the ground
by the natural gravitation of the body.
The Jlide is the aXion of moving the foot along
the ground without quitting it. v
The turn is the motion of the body towards either
fide, or quite round.
The cadence is the knowledge of the different mea-
fures, and of the times of movement the moft marked
in the mufic.
“ The track is the line marked by the dance : it
may be either ftraight or curve, and ft fufceptible of all
the inflexions correfpondent to the various defigns of
the compofer. There are the right, the diametral
line, the circular line, and the oblique line. The right
t 70 ]
DAN
line is that which goes lengthwife, reckoning frotn one
end of the room towards the other. The diametral line
is acrofs the room, from one fide to the other. The
circular line is waving, or undulatory, from one place
to another. 1 he oblique line proceeds obliquely from
one quarter of the room towards another.—-Each of
thefe lines may direXly or feparately form the dancer’s
track, diverfified with fteps and pofitions.
“ The regular figure is when two or more dancers
move in contrary direXions ; that is to fay, that when
one moves towards the right, the other moves to the
left. The irregular line is when the couples figuring
together are both on the fame fide.
“ Commonly the man gives the right hand to the
lady in the beginning or ending of the dance, as we
fee in the minuet, louvre, &e.
“ When a great number of dancers figure together,
they are to execute the figure agreeably to the coropo-
fition of the dance, with fpecial attention to keep an
eye conftantly on the partner. When, in any given
dance, the dancers have danced for fome time in the
fame place, the track is only to be confidered as the
conduXor of \.befieps, but not of the figure ; but when
the dance continues, without being confined to the
fame place, then the track muft be confidered as the
conduXor both of the fteps and of the figure.
“ Now, to obferve the figure, the dancer muft have
placed himfelf at the beginning of the track upon
which he is to dance, and comprehend the figure before
he himfelf begins it. He is to remark and conceive
whether the figure is right, diametrical, circular, or ob¬
lique ; if it is progreflive or retrogreflive, or towards
the right or left. He ftiould have the air played or
fung to him, to underftand the movement.—Where the
tracks crofs one another, the fteps of each of the couples
muft leave a fufficient diftance between them not to
confufe the figure.
. “ There are commonly reckoned ten kinds of pofi¬
tions, which are divided into true and fa/fe, five each.—*
There are three principal parts of the foot to be obfer-
ved ; the toes, the heel, and the ancle.
“ The true pofitions are when the two feet are in a
certain uniform regularity, the toes turned equally out¬
ward's.—The falfe are divided into regular and irregu¬
lar. They differ from the true, in that the toes are either
both turned inwards; or if the toes of one foot are
turned outwards, the others are turned inwards.
In the firft of the true pofitions, the heels of the
two feet are clofe together, fo that they touch : the
toes being turned out. In the fecond, the two feet are
open m the fame line, fo that the diftance between the
two heels is precifely the length of one foot. In the
third, the heel of one foot is brought to the ancle
o; the otfher’ or feeI«s to lock in with it. In the fourth
the two feet are the one before the other a foot’s length
diftance between the two heels, which are on the fame,
line. In the fifth, the two feet are acrofs, the one be¬
fore the other j fo that the heel of one foot is direXly
oppolite to the toes of the other. J
“ In the firfl of the falfe pofitions, the toes of both
feet are turned inwards fo that they touch, the heels
being open. 1 he fecond is, when the teet are afunder
at a foot s diftance between the toes of each, which are
turned inward, the heels being on a line. The third
is when the toes of one foot are turned outwards, the
other
Banes,
DAN [
Dance, other inwards, fo that the two feet form a parallel.
— The fourth is, when the toes of the two feet are turn¬
ed inwards j but the toes of one foot are brought near¬
er the ancle of the other. The fifth is, when the toes
of the two feet are turned inwards, but the heel of one
foot is oppofite to the toes of the other.
“ There are mixed pofitions, compofed of the true
and falfe in combination j which admit of fuch infinite
variety, and are in their nature fo unfufceptible of de-
fcription by words, that it is only the fight of the per¬
formance that can give any tolerable idea of them.
“ Of the bends of the knee there are two kinds j
the one Jimple, the other/orm/. The fimple bend is
an infledHon of the knees without moving the heel,
and is executed with the foot flat on the ground. The
forced bend is made on the toes with more force and
lower.
“ Much is to be obferved on the head of Jfeps. Firft,
not to make any movement before having put the body
in an upright pofture, firm on the haunches.
“ Begin with the infle&ion of the knee and thigh ;
advance one leg foremoft, with the whole foot on the
ground, laying the ftrefs of the body on the advanced
leg.
“ There are fome who begin the ftep by the point
of the toes 5 but that has an air of theatrical afifedfa-
tion. Nothing can be more noble than a graceful eafe
and dignity of flep. The quantity of fteps ufed in
dancing are almoft innumerable ; they are neverthelefs
-reducible under five denominations, which may ferve
well enough to give a general idea of the different
movements that may be made by the leg; viz. the di-
rea ftep, the open ftep, the circular ftep, the twifttd
ftep, and the cut ftep.
i he direEl ftep is when the foot goes upon a n’oht
line, either forwards or backwards.
“ The open ftep is when the legs open. Of this ftep
there are three kinds j one when they open outwards •
another, when, defcribing a kind of circle, they form
an in-knee’d figure ; a third, when they open fidewife :
this is a fort of right ftep, becaufe the figure is in a
right line.
“ The round is when the foot, in its motion, makes
a circular figure, either inwards or outwards.
. “ Ti,e twifted ^, or pas torti//e, is when the foot in
its motion turns in and out. There are three kinds of
this ftep; one forwards, another backwards, and the
third fidelong.
n ■! ftep is when one leg or foot comes to
ftnke againft the other. There are alfo three forts of
this ftep ; backwards, and fidelong.
The fteps may be accompanied with bendings
rilings, leaps, cabrioles, fallings, Hidings, the foot in
the air, the tip-toe, the reft on the heel, quarter turns,
halt-turns, three-quarter turns, and whole turns.
“ There may be pratfifed three kinds of bends, or
mkmgs, in the fteps ; viz. bending before the ftep
proceeds, in the aft of ftepping, and at the laft of the
Heps.
“ The beginning or initial fink-pace is at the firft
letting oft, on advancing the leg.
“ i he bend in the aft of ftepping continues the
march or walk.
“ The final fink-pace clofes the march.
71 ] ban
“ The rifing is juft the reverfe of the bend, or fink- TWe
pace, which fhall have preceded it. - ^ ’3
“ Sumti great mafters in the art of dancing, having
obferved that mufic, which is infeparabie from it, was
capable of being preferved and conveyed bv the mufi-
cal charaiters, imagined by analogy, that the like ad¬
vantage could be procured to the compofiiion of dan¬
cers. Upon this plan they attempt what is called
the chorography, an art which they fuppoie was either
utterly unknown to the ancients, or not tranfmitted to
us from them.
“ It may indeed be eafily allowed, that the track or
figure ot a dance may be determined by writing or en¬
graved lines; but thefe lines will neceffarily appear fa-
perplexing, fo intricate, fo difficult, if not impoffible to
ieize in their various relations, that they are only fit to
difguft and difcoutage, without the poflibility of their
conveying a fatisfadory or retainable inftru&ion
hence it is, that the article Chorography in the
r rench Encyclopedic is univerfally exploded as unintel¬
ligible and ufelefs: though nothing more than an ele¬
mentary indication of the art; and an explanation,
luch as it is, of fome of the technical terms of it.”
Stage-DANCES. I'he Greeks were the firft who uni¬
ted the dance to their tragedies and comedies ; not in¬
deed as making part of thofe fpedfacles, but merely as
an accefiary. J
The Romans, as ufual, copied after the Greeks:
but in the reign of Auguftus they left their inftruaors
far behind them, d wo very extraordinary men made
their appearance at that time : they invented a new
fpecies of entertainment, and carried it to an aftoniffi-
ing degree of perfe&ion. Nothing was then talked of
brut *1fJwonderful tale»ts and amazing performances
of i vlades and Bathylus, who were the firft to in¬
troduce among the Romans what the French call the
ballet d'aflion, wherein the performer is both aflor and
dancer.
Pylades undertook the hard talk of reprefentino-
with the affiftance of the dance alone, ftrong and pa¬
thetic fituations. He fucceeded perhaps beyond his
own expe(Ration, and may be called the father of that
ftyle ot dancing which is known to us by the name of
grave or ferious pantomime.
Bathylus, an Alexandrian and a Freedman of Me-
cenas, took upon himfelf to reprefent fuch fubje fo that,
in fadl, whatever motion or pofition that takes, the
knee, foot, and leg, are obliged to follow.
M. Noverre condemns the tourne-haunch as a clumfy
and ufelefs invention, which, inftead of producing any
good effedl, ferves only to lame thofe who ufe it, by
giving a diftortion to the waift, much more difagree-
able than what it was intended to remove.
The fimpleft and moft natural means are thofe which
reafon and good fenfe ought to adopt ; and of thefe a
moderate but continual exercife H indifpenfable : the
practice of a circular motion or turning of the legs,
both inwardly and outwardly, and of boldly beating
at full extent from the haunch, is the only certain ex¬
ercife to be preferred. It infenfibly gives freedom,
fpring and pliancy $ while the motions acquired by
ufing the machine have more an air of conftraint,
than of that liberty and eafe which Ihould fhine con-
fpicuous in them.
It has been maintained, that a ftrong and vigorous
perfon ought to fpring higher and better than a {len¬
der or weaker man. But experience (fays M. Noverre)
daily proves the contrary. We fee many dancers, who
cut the time very ftrong, who beat with much vigour
and firmnefs, and yet cannot fpring to any confiderable
perpendicular elevation : for an oblique elevation, or on
one fide, ought here to be diftinguiftied from the former j
the latter is faint, and depends entirely upon addrefs in
the dancer. There are others, again, whofe {lender
form renders their execution lefs bold, and rather ele¬
gant than forcible, rather lively than nervous, but who
can rife to an extraordinary height: it is to the ftiape
and formation of the foot, and to the length and ela¬
fticity of the tendon, that this power of elevation is
originally owing j the knees, the loins, and the arms,
all-co-operate in this adlion $ the ftronger the preffure
upon the mufcles, the greater is the re-adlion, and the
Ranee.
DAN [78
fpring or leap is proportionably high. The alternate
~ motion of the knees participates with thofe of the
inftep and tendo Achillis, though the latter are ftill the
moft effential auxiliaries; the mufcles of the trunk
lend their aflillance, end preferve the body in a per¬
pendicular direction j while the arms, running imper¬
ceptibly to the mutual affiftance of all the parts, ferve
es wings to counterbalance the machine.
Obferve all thofe animals that have long and {lender
ancles, a« flags, roebucks, {beep, cats, monkeys, &c.
and you will perceive that they have a quicknefs and
facility of fpringing and leaping, which animals differ¬
ently formed in that part can never obtain.
But were a man endowed with all the other qualities
effential to the perfe&ion of the art, yet ftill without
ftrength and firmnefs in his loins he never can be a good
dancer. This ftrength is certainly the gift of nature $
but it may be much improved by the affiduity of an
able teacher. We daily fee dancers who have neither
perpendicularity nor firmnefs, and whofe performance
is altogether unftable and irregular ; and we likewife
fee others, who, though they poffefs not fo great a de¬
gree of native force, have all the appearance of finewy
firmnefs and mufcular ftrength in their haunches, back,
and loins. Art has furnilhed a fubftitute for nature,
in the leffons of fome excellent teacher, who has
convinced them, that when once they forego an at¬
tention to the loins, it is impoflible to keep themfelves
in a right perpendicular line ; and therefore all their
exertions will be devoid of tafte : that all wavering
and inftability in this part is inconfiftent with perpen¬
dicularity and firmnefs, and will certainly caufe dif-
tortion of the ftiape and waift : that the depreffure and
finking of the body deprives the lower parts of that
liberty which is neceffary to their eafy motion : that
hence the body is undetermined in its pofitions j fre¬
quently drags the limbs, and conftantly lofes the centre
of gravity ; and therefore cannot recover an equili¬
brium, but after various efforts and contortions totally
repugnant, to the graceful and harmonious motions of
good dancing.
Such is the performance of thofe dancers who have
no ftrength in their loins, or at leaft do not exert what
they poffefs. In order to dance well, the body ftiould
be film and fteady : it fhould particularly be motionlels
and free from wavering while the legs are in exertion j
for when the body follows the a&ion of the feet, it dif-
plays as many grimaces and diftortions as the legs exe¬
cute different fteps j the performance is then robbed
of its eafe, uniformity, harmony, exaftnefs, firmnefs,
perpendicularity, and equilibrium ; in a word, of all
thofe beauties and graces which are fo effential to make
dancing give pleafure and delight.
Many dancers are of opinion, that to be foft and
luxuriant, the knees muft be bent very low. But in
this they are moft certainly miftaken 5 for a more than
ordinary flexion of the knees gives rather a drynefs
and infipidity to dancing ; and a dancer may be very
inelegant, and jerk, as it were, all his movements, as
well in bending very low as in not bending at all. The
reafon will.appear natural and evident, when we refleft,
that the time and motions of the dancer are ftri6tly
fubordinate to the time and movements of the mufic •
purfuing this principle, it is not to be doubted, that
when the flexion of the knees is greater than what the
] dan
air or time of the dance requires, the meafure then
drawls along, languifties, and is loft. To recover and
catch again the time which this unneceffary flexion had
deftroyed, the extenfion of the knee muft be equally
quick ; and it is this hidden tranfition which gives fuch
a harftinefs and fterility to the execution, and renders
it as difguftful as the oppofite fault of ftiffnefs and in¬
flexibility.
. That luxuriant foftnefs requires more to its perfec¬
tion than merely an exa6t flexion and extenfion of the
knees ; the fpring of the inftep muft add its affiftance,
w'hile the loins muft balance the body to preferve thefe
fprings in proper bounds. It is this rare harmony of
motion (fays M. Noverre) which has procured the ce¬
lebrated Dupre the glorious title of the God of Dance.
I here are many dancers, and of an inferior clafs on¬
ly, who can difplay a great variety of fteps, badly
enough.chofen to be fure, and often difpiayed without
either judgment or tafte ; but it is very uncommon to
find among them that exaftnels of ear (that rare but
innate talent of a dancer), which gives life to and
ftamps a value upon fteps, and which diffufes over all
their motions a fpirit that animates and enlivens them.
There are fome ears ftupid and infenfible even to the
moft Ample, plain, and ftriking movements j there are
others, more cultivated or refined, that can feel and
comprehend the meafure, but cannot feize its intrica-
cies j and there are others again to whom the moft dif¬
ficult airs and movements are eafy and intelligible, and
at once comprehended. It is neverthelefs certain, that
a dancer may have a very perfed and nice feeling, and
yet not make his feeling intelligible to the audience,
if he has not the art of commanding thofe refources
which depend upon a proper exertion of the cou/> de
pied: awkwardnefs becomes vifible where the exadeft
proportion was neceffary ; and every ftep which would
have, been becoming, and produced the happieft eff d,
had it been fmartly introduced at the conclufion of the
meafure, will now be. cold and lifelefs, if all the limbs
are in motion at once. It requires more time to move
the whole body than to exert any fingle member 5 the
flexion and extenfion of the infttp is more readily and
quickly made than the reciprocal motion of all the
joints. This principle allowed, that the dancer is de-
ftitute of precifion, who (fuppofing he poffeffes a mufi-
cal ear), knows not how to time his fteps ; the elafticity
of the inftep, and the more or lefs adive play of the
mufcles, add to the natural fenfibility of the ear, and
ftamp value and brilliancy on the dance. The joint
charms of the harmony fpringing from the movements
of the mufic, and the motions of the dancer, captivate
even thofe whofe ears are the moft infenfible and leaft
iutceptible of mufical impreflion.
There are fome countries where the inhabitants in
general are. endowed with this innate mufical tafte.
The Palatinate, Wirtemberg, Saxony, Brandenburg,
Auftna, and Bohemia, fupply the orcheftras of the
German princes with many excellent muficians and e-
minent compofers. The Germans, indeed, are born
with a very lively and juft tafte for mufic, and have in
hem the feeds of true harmony ; nothing is more com¬
mon than to hear concerts, both in the ftreets and in the
fed Sneff Perf0rmed ''ilb
Such a natural and native tafte for mufic as we have
been
Dance.
DAN [ 79 ] DAN
Dance, been mentioning, is ufually accompanied by, or in-
»—— eludes in it, a fimilar one for dancing j ‘they are kin¬
dred arts; the tender and harmonious accents of the
one excite and produce the agreeable and expref-
five motions of the other, and their union entertains
the eye and ear with animated pictures of fentiments ;
thefe two fenfes again convey to the heart the inte-
refting images which affef! them, while the heart, in
its turn, communicates them to the mental faculty :
thus the pleafure refulting from the harmony and in¬
telligence of thefe two arts, enchants the fpe&ator,
and fills him with the moft feducing pleafures of vo-
luptuoufnefs.
Dancing is probably nowhere varied to fuch a de¬
gree as in the provinces of Germany *, where the well
known dances of one village are ftrangers in the adja¬
cent hamlet 5 their fongs of mirth and merriment have
no lefs different airs and movements, though they are
all marked with that of gaiety. Their dancer are
pleafing and engaging, becaufe the offspring of fimple
nature j their motions exprefs joy and pleafure j and
the exaftnefs with which the whole is performed, gives
a peculiar agreeablenefs to their fteps, geilures, and
attitudes. Do they fpring ?—a hundred perfons, af-
fembled round an oak, or fome ancient pillar, feize
the time at one inflant, bound up and defeend with the
fame exa<5tnefs. Do they wifh to mark the meafure
by a coup-de-pied?—all ftrike- with one confent j or
when they catch up their women, you fee them all in
the air at an equal height, nor do they defeend but at
the precife note that marks the time.
The counter-point, which is doubtlefs the touch-
ftone of a delicate ear, is to them an objeft of no dif¬
ficulty y hence their dance is fo particularly animated,
and the nicety of that organ has the effect of giving
their different motions an air of gaiety and variety al¬
together exquifite,
A dancer whofe ear is untuned to harmony, difplays
his fteps without order or regularity, wanders from his
part, and purfues the meafure without being able to
reach it: devoid of judgment, his dancing has nei¬
ther fentiment nor expreflion ; and the mufic which
fhould direct his motions, regulate his fteps, and guide
his time, ferves only to expofe his imperfeftions and
infufficiency. The ftudy of mufic fhould therefore be
applied to for the purpofe of obviating this defedt, and
giving more fenfibility and exadlnefs to the organs of
hearing.
_ It will not be expedfed that we fhould proceed to
give a defeription of all the intricacies and combina¬
tions of fteps that are or can be exerted in dancing ;
or enlarge on the mechanical particulars of the art.
A differtation on the latter would be infipid and dif-
guftful ; for the language of the feet and limbs is
addreffed to the eyes, not to the ears: and a detail
of the former would be endlefs, fince every dancer has
his peculiar manner of joining or varying the time.
It may be fufficient juft to mention on this point, that
it is in dancing as in mufic, and with dancers as with
muficians : dancing does not abound with more fun¬
damental fteps than mufic with notes ; but there are
o6!aves, breves, femibreves, minims, crotchets, double
and treble crotchets j times to count and meafures to
follow. This mixture, however, of a fmall number of
Heps, and a few notes, furnifhes dancers with a mul¬
titude of connexions and a variety of figures j tafte
and genius will always find a fource of novelty in ar¬
ranging them in different manners, and to exprefs va¬
rious ideas. Slow and lengthened, or quick and pre¬
cipitate fteps, and the time correfpondently varied, give
birth to this endlefs diverfity.
Country-DANCE. See COUNTS T-Dafice.
Country-Dance, commonly fo written, and hence
feeming to imply a ruftic way of dancing borrowed
from country people or peafants, is by others fuppofed
to be a corruption of the French Contre danfe, where a
number of perfons placing themfelves oppofite one to
another begin a figure.
Rope-DANGER, (fchcenobates^), a perfon who walks,
leaps, dances, and performs feveral other feats upon a
fmall rope or wire.
The ancients had their rope-dancers as well as we*
Thefe had four feveral ways of exercifing their art :
The firft vaulted, or turned round the rope like a wheel
round its axis, and there hung by the heels or neck.
The fecond flew or Aid from above, refting on theis
ftomach, with the arms and legs extended. The third
ran along a rope ftretched in a right line or up and
down. Laftly, the fourth not only walked on th&
rope, but made furprifing leaps and turns thereon*
They had likewife the cremnobates or orobates ; that
is, people who walked on the brinks of precipices.
Nay more, Suetonius in Ga/ba, c. 6. Seneca in his
85th Epiftle, and Pliny, lib. viii. c. 2. make men¬
tion of elephants, that were taught to walk on ths
rope.
St Vitus's Dance. See Medicine Index.
DANCETTE, in Heraldry, is when the outline of
any bordure, or ordinary, is indented very largely, the
largenefs of the indentures being the only thing that
diftinguifhes it from indented.
DANCING. See Dance.
DANGING-Gir/s of Egypt. See ALME.
Dancing girls are employed all over the eaft, as
affording great diverfion at all public entertainments.
They are all proftitutes \ and by the laws of their fo-
ciety, are bound to refufe no one for their price,
which is rated according to their beauty and other
accomplifhments. There are even particular fets of
them appropriated to the fervice of the Gentoo tem¬
ples, and the ufe ef the Bramin priefts who attend
them. Thefe poor creatures fay that they were firfl:
debauched by their god, and afterwards by him con-
figned over to the ufe of the priefts who belong to his
temple.
Thefe dancing-girls, whether in a fettled or unfet¬
tled condition, live in a band or community under the
direflion of fome fuperannuated female of the fame pro-
feffion, under whom they receive a regular education,
and are trained up in all the arts of love and pltafing,
like fcholars in an academy. Thus they acquire the
art of captivating the affe&ions of the other fex to fuch.
a degree, that nothing is more common, than for one
of the princes or chief people of the country to take a
liking to one of thefe girls, and wafte immenfe fums oa
her, though at the fame time their own haram is flocked
with beauties far fuperior, and who are befides poITefr
fed of the natural modefty of the fex, to which the others
have not the fmalleft pretenfions. Thus fome of thefe
girls acquire immenfe wealth. In the neigbourhood
ef
Dance
II
Dancing.
girls.
DAN [ 80 ] DAN
D .mcinj- of Goa, for Inftance on a part of the continent ^>or-
gir^s- dering on the diftriifl; of that ifland, the dancing-girls
,r v " founded a village, after being driven from Goa by the
zeal of the archbilhop. Here they refide in a body
corporate, and attend the parties of pleafure of the no¬
blemen and principal inhabitants, for it is not every
one’s purfe that can afford them. Here many of them
acquire confiderable fortunes by this fcandalous traffic,
and throw it into a common flock for the fake of car¬
rying on merchandife $ being concerned in (hipping
and the moll profitable voyages, for which they have
regular factors and brokers.
The drefs of thefe women varies according to the
country they live in ; but in all it is the moft gor¬
geous imaginable. They are loaded with jewels, lite¬
rally from top to toe, fince even on their toes they
wear rings. Their necks are adorned with carcanets,
their arms with bracelets, and their ancles with chains
of gold and iilver, often enriched with precious (tones.
They alfo wear nofe-jewels, w'hich at firft have an odd
appearance, but to which the eye is foon reconciled.
In Indoftan, thefe dancing-girls, as well as the other
women of the country, have a peculiar method of pre¬
paring and managing their breads, which at the fame
time makes no inconfiderable part of their finery.
They inclofe them in a pair of hollow cafes, exaftly
fitted to them ; made of very light wood, linked to¬
gether and buckled at the back. Thefe at once con¬
fine their breads fo that they cannot grow to any dif-
gudfully exuberant fize j though, from their fmooth-
nefs and pliancy, they play fo freely with every mo¬
tion of the body, that they do not crufh the tender
texture of the flefh in that part, like the diff whale¬
bone days in ufe among the Europeans. The out-
fide of them is fpread over with a thin plate of gold or
filver, or fet with gems, if they can afford it. An¬
other occafional ornament the dancing-girls put on, par¬
ticularly when they refort to their gallants, viz. a neck¬
lace of many loofe turns, compofed of dowers drun^
together, which they call mogrees, fomewhat refern^
bling Spanidi double jelTamy, but of a much dronger
and more agreeable fragrant odour, and far preferable
to any perfumes. “ They have nothing,” fays Mr
Grofe, 44 of that nauleous boldnefs which charadterizes
the European proditutes, their dyle of fedu&ion being
all foftnefs and gentlenefs.”
With regard to the performances of thefe women as
dancers, we have various accounts. The author of
Memoirs of the late war in Afia, acquaints us, “ that
their attitudes as well as movements are not ungrace¬
ful. 1 heir perfons are delicately formed, gaudily at¬
tired, and highly perfumed. By the continuation of
wanton attitudes, they acquire, as they grow warm in
the dance, a frantic lafcivioufnefs themfelves, and com¬
municate by a natural contagion, the mod voluptuous
defires to the beholders.” Mr Ives feems to have been
very cod on this fubjeft. 44 I could not (fays he) fee
any thing in their performance worthy of notice.
Their movements are more like tumbling or (bowing
podures than dancing. Their drefs is thin and light 5
and their hair, necks, ears, arms, wrids, fingers, legs,
feet, and even their toes, are covered with rings of
gold coats of
arms, and the houfing of their horfes, with fome figure
or device peculiar to themfelves, whereby they were
diftinguiftied from all others engaged in the fame com¬
bat or tournament. From all thefe circumftances he
conje&ures that this Guy chofe the dolphin for his
fignature ; that this was the creft of his helmet ; and
that he bore it on his coat on fome notable tournament
or battle, wherein he diftinguifties himfelf. And this,
Chorier makes no doubt, is the real origin of the ap¬
pellation. Nothing was more common in thofe times
than to make proper names become the names of fa¬
milies or dignities. Witnels the Ademars, Arthands,
Aynards, Atlemans, Berengers, and many others j
who all owe their names to fome one of their anceftors,
from whom it has been tranfmitted throughout the fa¬
mily,
The feigneurs or lords of Auvergne have likewife
born the appellation of dauphin; but the dauphins of
Auvergne had it not till a good while after thofe of
the Viennois, and even received it from them. The
manner was- this : Guy VIII. dauphin of Viennois, had
by his wife Margaret, daughter of Stephen earl of
Burgundy, a fon and' two daughters. The fon was
Guy IX. his fuccelfor. Beatrix, one of the daughters,
was married to the count d’Auvergne, who, according
to Blondel, was William V. or rather, as Chorier and
others hold, Robert VI. father of William V. This
prince loft the greateft part of the country of Auvergne,
which was taken from him by his uncle William, af-
3
DAY
filled by Louis the Young: and was only left mailer
of the little canton whereof Vodable is the capital.
He had a fon whom he called Dauphin, on account
of Guy,, or Guignes, his uncle by the mother’s fide.
From his time his fucceflors, holding the lame petty
canton of Auvergne, ftyled themfelves dauphins of Au¬
vergne, and bore a dolphin for their arms.
. Dauphins, or Delphins, in literary hiftory, a name
given to the commentators on the ancient Latin
authors, who were employed by Louis XIV. of
fiance for the benefit ot the prince, under the care
and direction of M. de Montaufier his governor, and
Boffuet and Huet his preceptors. They were 39 in
number.
DAUPHINA , a late province of France, bounded
on the weft by the Rhone, on the north by the Rhone
and Savoy, on the fouth by Provence, and on the call
by the Alps : and now forming the departments of
Drom.f, Ifere, and Upper Alps. In fome places it is
very fertile ; and produces corn, wine, olives, woad,
copperas, filk, iron, cryftal, and copper. But the
greateft part of the province is barren, and the inha¬
bitants are obliged to go into other countries for fub-
fiftence. The mountains abound in game of all forts:
and here are fir-trees proper for malls. The principal
rivers are the Rhone, the Durance, the Ifere, and the
Drome. There is a great number of mineral fprings 1
and Grenoble is the capital town.
D AURA I, John, an eminent French poet, born
in 1507.. In the reign of Henry II. he was preceptor
to the king’s pages, and Charles IX. who took great
delight m his converfation, honoured him with the title
of his poet ; but his generofity and want of manage¬
ment placed him in that clals of learned men who
have been very near ftarving. Conformable to the tafte
ot the age, he had lo much lk:ll in making anagrams,
that feveral illuftrious perfons gave him their names to
anagrammatize : he alfo undertook to explain the Cen¬
turies of Noftradamus. Making verfes was a difeafe
in him : for no book was printed, nor did any perfon
of confequence die, but Daurat made fome verfes on
the occafion 5 as it he had been poet ordinary, or his
mufe had been a hired mourner to the whole kingdom.
Scaliger tells us, that he fpent the latter part of his life
in endeavouring to find all the bible in Homer. He
died in 1588.
DAY, according to the moft natural and obvious
fenfe of the word, fignifies that fpace of time during
which it continues to be light in contradiftindlion to
night, which is that portion of time wherein it is dark :
but the fpaee of time in which it is light, being fome-
what vague and indeterminate, the time between the
rifing and the fetting of the fun is ufually looked on as
the day ; and the time which lapfes from its fetting to
its rifing again, the night.
The word is often taken in a large fenfe, fo as
to include the night alfo 5 or to denote the time of a
whole.apparent revolution of the fun round the earth 5
in which fenfe it is called by fome a natural day, and
by others an artificial one: but, to avoid confufion, it
is ufual to call it in the former fenfe Amply the day,
and in the latter a nychthemeron ; by which term that
acceptation of it is aptly denoted, as it implies both day
and night.
The
[ 100 ]
DAY [ ic
The nychthemeron is divided into twenty-four parts,
called hours which are of two forts, equal, and unequal
or temporary. See the article Hour.
Different nations begin their day at a different hour.
Thus the Egyptians begin their day at midnight ; from
whom Hippocrates introduced that way of reckoning
into aftronomy, and Copernicus and others have fol¬
lowed him : But the greateft part of aflronomers rec¬
kon the day to begin at noon, and fo count twenty-
four hours, till the noon of the next day j and not
twice twelve, according to the vulgar computa¬
tion. The method of beginning the day at midnight
prevails in Britain, France, Spain, and moft parts of
Europe. .
The Babylonians began their day at. funrifing:
reckoning the hour immediately before its rifing again,
the twenty-fourth hour of the day *, from whence the
hours reckoned in this way are called the Babijlomc. In
feveral parts of Germany, they begin their day at fun-
fetting, and reckon on till it fets next day, calling that
the twenty-fourth hour ; thefe are generally termed Ita¬
lian hours. The Jews alfo began their nychthemeron
at funfetting : but then they divided it into twice
twelve hours as we do ; reckoning twelve.for the day,
be it long or fhort, and twelve for the night ; fo.that
their hours continually varying with the day and night,
the hours of the day were longer than thofe of the
night for one half year, and the contrary the other •,
from whence their hours are called temporary : thofe at
the time of the equinoxes became equal, becaufe then
thofe of the day and night are fo. The Romans alfo
reckoned their hours after this manner, as do the
Turks at this day.
This kind of hours is called planetary, becaufe the
feven planets were anciently looked upon as prefiding
over the affairs of the world, and to take it by turns
each of thefe hours, according to the following order :
Saturn fir if, then Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mer¬
cury, and laft of all the IVfoon : hence they denomina¬
ted each day of the week from that planet whofe turn
it was to prefide the firft hour of the nychthemeron.
Thus, afligning the firft hour of Saturday to Saturn,
the fecond will fall to Jupiter, the third to Mars, and
fo the tvventy-fecond of the fame nychthemeron will
fall to Saturn again, and therefore the twenty-third to
Jupiter, and the laft to Mars : fo that on the firft hour
of the next day, it will fall to the fun to prefide ; and
by the like manner of reckoning, the firft hour of the
next will fall to the Moon ; of the next to Mars ; of
the next to Mercury ; of the next to Jupiter ; and of
the next to Venus: hence the days of the week came
to be diftinguifhed by the Latin names of Dies Saturni,
Solis, Luna-, Martis, Mcrcurii, Jovis, and Veneris;
and among us, by the names of Saturday, Sunday,
Monday, &c.
DAT Coal, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by the
miners of England, and the common people who live
in coal countries, to that feam or ftratum of the coal
which lies uppermoft in the earth. I he fame vein or
ftratum of coal ufually runs a great way through the
country, and dips and rifes in the earth at different
places fo that this upper ftratum, or day-coal, is in
the various parts of the fame ftratum, fometimes near
the furface, and fometimes many fathoms deep. The
fubterranean fires found in fome of our coal countries
>i ] D E A
feed principally on this coal j and are nearer to or far¬
ther from the furface as it rifes or finks.
DAT-Fly. See Ephemeris, Entomology Index.
DAT Net, among fowlers. See Net.
DATS of Grace, are thofe granted by the court at the
prayer of the defendant or plaintiff, in whofe delay it is.
DATS of Grace, in commerce, are a cuftomary num¬
ber of days allowed for the payment of a bill of ex¬
change, &c. after the fame becomes due..
Three days of grace are allowed in Britain ; ten in
France and Dantiic ^ eight at Naples ; fix at Venice,
Amfterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp j four at Franc-
fort ; five at Leipfic; twelve at Hamburgh $ fix in Por¬
tugal , 14 in Spain $ 30 in Genoa, &c.
In Britain the days of grace are given and taken as
a matter of courfe, the bill being only paid on the laft
day : but in other countries, where the time is much
longer, it would be reckoned difhonourable for a mer¬
chant to take advantage of it y bills are therefore paid
on the very day they fall due.
DAT'S-Man, in the north of England, an arbitrator
or perfon chofen t» determine an affair in difpute.
Intercalary DATS. See INTEBCALART Days.
DATS-Work, among feamen, the reckoning or ac¬
count of the fhip’s courfe during 24. hours, or between
noon and noon, according to the rules of trigonometry.
See Dead Reckoning.
DAZE, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by our
miners to a glittering fort of ftone, which often occurs
in their works •, and, as it is an unprofitable fubftance,
is one of thofe things they call weeds. The word da%e
takes in, with them, every ftone that is hard and glit¬
tering : and therefore it comprehends the whole genus
of the telangia or flony nodules, which have the
flakes of talc in their fubftance : thefe according to the
colour of the ftony matter they are bedded in, and their
own colour, give the names of black da%e, white, red,
and yellow da’ze, to thefe ftones.
DEACON, (Diaconusf a perfon in the loweft de¬
gree of holy orders, whofe bufinefs is to baptife, read in
the church, and aflift at the celebration of the eucharifl.
The word is formed from the Latin Diaconus, of the
Greek minifter, fervant. Deacons were in-
ftituted feven in number, by the apoftles, chap, vh
which number was retained a long time in feveral
churches. Their offlee was to ferve in the Agapae,
and to diftribute the bread and wine to the communi¬
cants. Another part of the office of deacons was to
be a fort of monitors and dire6tors to the people in the
exercife of their public devotions in the church ; for
which purpofe they made ufe of certain known forms of
words, to give notice when each part of the fervice be¬
gan. Whence they are fometimes called eirokerukes,
“ the holy cryers of the church.”
Deacons had, by licenfe and authority from the bi-
fliop, a power to preach, to , reconcile penitents and
grant them abfolution, and to reprefent their biffiops
in general councils. Their office out of the church was
to take care of the neceffitous, fuch as orphans, wi¬
dows, prifoners, and all the poor and fick who had any.
title to be maintained out of the revenues of the church y
to inquire into the morals and converfation of the peo¬
ple, and to make their report thereof to the biftiop.
Whence, on account of the variety of bufinefs, it was
ufual to have feveral deacons in the fame church.
D E A t i
Deacon, In the Romifh church, it is the deacon’s office to in-
Deaconefs. cenfe the officiating pried or prelate j to lay the cor-
v poral on the altar; to receive the patten or cup from
the fubdeacon, and prefent them to the perfon officia¬
ting ; to incenfe the choir ; to receive the pix from the
officiating prelate, and carry it to the fubdeacon ; and
at the pontifical mafs, when the bidiop gives the blef-
fing, to put the mitre on his head, and to take off the
archbidrop’s pall and lay it on the altar. In Eng¬
land, the form of ordaining deacons, declares that it is
their office to affid the pried in the didribution of the
holy communion : in which, agreeably to the praflice
of the ancient church, they are confined to the admi-
nidering the wine to the communicants. A deacon in
England is not capable of any ecclefiadical promotion j
yet he may be a chaplain to a family, curate to a be-
neficed clergyman, or le&urer to a paridr-church. He
may be ordained at 23 years of age, anno currente;
but it is exprefsly provided, that the bidrop fhall not
ordain the fame perfon a pried and deacon in the fame
day. Deacons, according to St Paul, fhould be chade,
fincere, and blamelefs ; neither great drinkers, nor gi¬
ven to filthy lucre : they drould hold the mydery of
the faith in a pure confcience ; and drould be well ap¬
proved before they are admitted to the minidry. In
the church of Scotland, the deacon’s office is only to
take care of the poor.
DEACONESS, a female deacon ; an order of wo¬
men who had their didimff offices and fervices in the
primitive church. This office appears as ancient as the
apodolical age : for St Paul calls Phebe a fervant
of the church of Cenchrea. The original word is
iitcKtvot, anfwerable to the Latin word minijlra. Ter-
tullian calls themwaW, “ widows,” becaufe they were
commonly chofen out of the widows of the church ;
and, for the fame reafon, Epiphanius, and the coun¬
cil of Laodicea, call them elderly women,
becaufe none but fuch were ordinarily taken into this
office. For, indeed, by fome ancient laws, thefe four
qualifications are required in every one that was to
be admitted into this order. 1. That die ffiould be a
widow. 2. I hat die diould be a widow that had born
children. 3. A widow that was but once married.
4. One of a confiderable age, 40, 50, or 60 years old.
Though all thefe rules admitted of exceptions. Con¬
cerning their ordination, whether it was always per¬
formed by impofition of hands, the learned are much
divided in their fentiments. Baronius and Valefius
think they were not, and make no other account of
them than as mere lay-perfons. But the author of the
conditutions, fpeaking of their ordination, requires
the bidiop to ufe impofition of hands, with the form of
prayer which is there recited. We are not, however,
to imagine, that this ordination gave them any power
to execute any part of the facerdotal office. They
were only to perform fome inferior fervices of the church,
and thofe chiefiy relating to the women for whofe fakes
they were ordained. One part of their office was to
affid the minider at the baptifing of women, to undrefs
them for immerfion, and to drefs them again, that the
whole ceremony might be performed with all the de¬
cency becoming fo facred an a&ion. Another part of
their office was to be private catechids to the women-
catechumens who were preparing for baptifm. They
were likewife to attend the women that were Tick and
Dead.
02 ] D E A
in diftrefs; to minider to martyrs and confeffors in Deaconefs
prifon ; to attend the women’s gate in the church : and
ladly, to affign all women their places in the church,
regulate their behaviour, and prefide over the red of
the widows $ whence in fome canons they are dyled
■Tr^exctlOz/Hiveti, “ governeffes.” This order, which fince
the 10th or I2th century has been wholly laid afide,
was not abolidied everywhere at once, but conti¬
nued in the Greek church longer than in the Latin,
and in fome of the Latin churches longer than in
others.
DEACONRY, Diaconate, the order or minidry
of a deacon or deaconefs. See Deacon and Dea¬
coness.
Deaconry, (Diaconia,) is alfo a name dill referved
to the chapels and oratories in Rome, under the di-
re&ion of the feveral deacons, in their refpedlive re¬
gions or quarters.
To the deaconries were annexed a fort of hofpitals
or boards for the didribution of alms, governed by the
regionary deacons, called cardinal deacons, of whom
there were feven, anfwering to the feven regions, their
chief being called the archdeacon.
The hofpital adjoining to the church of the dea¬
conry had an adminidrator for the temporal concerns,
called Has, father of the deaconry, who was fometimes a
pried and fometimes a layman.
At prefent there are fourteen of thefe deaconries
or hofpitals at Rome, which are referved to the car¬
dinals. Du Cange gives us their names : as, the dea¬
conry of St Maria in the Broad-way, the deaconry of
St Eudachio near the Pantheon, &c.
DEAD languages. See Philology, chap. ii.
Prefervation of Dead Bodies. See Embalming.
Feafl of the DEAD. See FEAST of the Dead.
DEAD-Lights, certain wooden ports which are made
to faden into the cabin windows, to prevent the waves
from guthing into the drip in a high fea. As they
are made exaftly to fit the windows, and are drong
enough to refid the waves, they are always fixed in
on the approach of a dorm, and the glafs lights taken
out, which mud otherwife be fhattered to pieces by
the furges, and fuffer great quantities of water to enter
the veffel.
DEAB-Mens-Eyes, in the fea language, a kind of
blocks, with many holes in them, but no theevers,
whereby the fhrouds are fadened to the chains: the
crow-feet reeve alfo through thefe holes j and, in fome
diips, the main-days are fet tight in them ; but then
they have only one hole, through which the lanyards
are paffed feveral times. See Plate CLXIX.
Deab^S Part. See Law Index.
DEAD Reckoning, in Navigation, the judgment or
edimation which is made of the place where a fhip is
fituated, without any obfervation of the heavenly bo¬
dies. It is difcovered by keeping an account of the di¬
dance (he has run by the log, and of her courfe deered
by the compafs; and by reftifying thefe data by the
ufual allowance for drift, lee-way, &c. according to
the (hip s known trim. 1 his reckoning, however, is
always to be correaed, as often as any good obferva¬
tion of the fun can be obtained.
DEAD-Sea, in Geography, a lake of Judea, into which
the river Jordan difcharges itfelf j being about 70
miles long and 20 broad. See Asphaltites.
DEAD-Tops,
D E A [ i°3 ] D E A
j DEAD~Tops, a difeafe incident to young trees, and
cured by cutting off the dead parts clofe to the next
Deafnefs. g00d twig or {hoot, and claying them over as in graft-
* ing.
DEAD-Water, at fea, the eddy-water juft aftern of
a (hip ; fo called becaufe it does not pal's away fo fwift
as the water running by her Tides does. They fay that
a (hip makes much dead-water when {he has a great
eddy following her ftern.
DEADLY -CARROT. See Thapsia.
DEADL T-Feud, in Englilh law-books, a profeflion of
irreconcileable enmity, till a perfon is revenged by the
death of his enemy. The word feud is derived from
the German Feud; which, as Hottoman obferves, fig-
*SeeF ffotted; having pellucid uings
under
Death.
D E A [
Death- under the vagina, a large cap or helmet on the head.
watch and two antennfe proceeding from beneath the eyes,
—and doing the office of probofcides. The part it beats
withal, he obferved, was the extreme edge of the face,
which he choofes to call the upper-lip, the mouth be-
ing protrafted by this bony part, and lying underneath
out of view.
This account is confirmed by Dr Derham *, with
this difference, that inftead of ticking with the upper
lip, he obferved the infe£t to draw back its mouth, and
beat with its forehead. That author had two death-
watches, a male and a female, which he kept alive in
a box feveral months •, and could bring one of them
to beat whenever he pleafed, by imitating its beating.
Ey this ticking noife he could frequently invite the
male to get up upon the other in the way of coition.
When the male found he got up in vain, he would get
off again, beat very eagerly, and then up again:
Whence the ingenious author concludes thofe pul-
fations to be the way whereby thefe infedfs woo' one
another, and find out and invite each other to copula¬
tion.
The fecond kind of death-watch is an infefl in ap¬
pearance quite different from the firff. The former
only beats feven or eight ffrokes at a time, and
quicker: the latter will beat fome hours together with¬
out intermiffion j and his flrokes are more leifurely,
and like the beat of a watch. This latter is a fmall
grayifh infedf, much like a loufe when viewed with the
naked eye.
It is very common in all parts of the houfe in the
furmner-months: it is very nimble in running to fhel-
ter, and fhy of beating when diflurbed ; but will beat
very freely before you, and alfo anfwer the beating, if
you can view it without, giving it difturbance, or fha-
king the place where it lies, &c. The author cannot
fay whether they beat in any other thing, but he never
heard their noife except in or near paper. As to their
noife, the fame perfon is in doubt whether it be made
by their heads, or rather fnouts, again ft the paper ; or
whether it be not made after fome fuch manner as
grafshoppers and crickets make their noife. He in¬
clines to the former opinion. The reafon of his doubt
is, that he obferved the animal’s body to fhake and
give a jerk at every beat, but could fcaree perceive any
part of its body to touch the paper. But its body is
fo fmall and near the paper, and its motion in tick¬
ing fo quick, that he thinks it might be, yet he not
perceive it. The ticking, as in the other, he judges
to be a wooing ae Mu- mus; and by this, according to Aridides *, their ac-
jicch db- i. tion, as well as recital, was regulated. But to ex¬
plain this feeming paradox, it will be neceffary to make
here fome preliminary remarks. The ancients gave a
much more extenfive fignification than we do to the
word miijic (mujica), which they derived from the
mufes, or at lead from fome of them. It is for this
'Teafon that the fame Aridides and Quintilian defined it
to be “ An art that teaches all that relates to the ufe
of the voice, and the manner of performing all the mo-
vtions of the body with grace Ars dccoris in vocibus
et motibus. Therefore poetry, declamation, dancing,
pantomimes, and many other gedures and exercifes,
were fubfervient to this art.
2. That part of general mufic which taught the art
of declamation and gedure according to the rules of
an edablilhed method (and which we perform by in-
dinft, or at mod by the aid of common fenfe), was
didinguilhed by the name hypocritic mufic; and this
mufical art was called by the Greeks orchejis, and by
the Romans fa/tatio. It W'as, however, fo far from
being an advantage to the ancients to have had this art,
which we have not, that it was, on the contrary, a mark
of great imperfe&ion. For, in the fird place, it was an
Indance of high abfurdity to reprefent a tragedy, or
comedy, before an audience of twenty thoufand people,
the far greated part of whom could neither hear nor
’fee what paffed to any good purpofe, unlefs they were
poffeffed of organs which we have not. The theatres
of London and Paris may conveniently contain about
a thoufand perfons; and that is found fufficient in the
mod populous cities, where there are feveral places of
entertainment on the fame day, and where the people
are reafonable enough to fucceed each other in their
diverfions. As the features of the face could not be
didinguKhed at fo great a didance, and dill lefs the
alteration of countenance ; in order to reprefent the
different paffions, they were obliged to have recourfe
to mafks, a wretched childidi invention, that dedroy-
cd all the drength and variety of expreflion. Their
a&ion became extravagant, and at the fame time
fubfervient to a regular mechanifm ; which prevented
all the refinement, and all the pkafure of furprife, in
o ] D E c
the performance, and mud have had an effeft horribly Declanu.
difagreeable to thofe who were placed near the dage. tion,
3. The egregious imperfection of their language ' v~—'
likewife, which confided of fyllables long and diort,
whofe duration was determined by a fet meafure of
time, and their manner of tuning thefe fyllables, after
the method of the orchefis of the Greeks, was another
difadvantage. For by this means they determined by
notes or characters placed after the, long and diort fyl¬
lables, not only the nature, but the duration, of each
aCtion. Now, nothing could be more affeCted, more
condrained and difgudful, than fuch a method of de¬
claiming. How far fuperior in this refpeCt are the
moderns, who confult nature alone in their theatric de¬
clamation; who can make the audience hear each figh;
who can accompany it with a proper attitude ; who
can inceffantly vary their aCtion ; who can feize the
lucky moment, and make the countenance fully ex-
prel's the fenfalions of the mind ! Nature does all here ;
and art, infinitely inferior to nature, did all among the
ancients. Modern declamation cannot be fubfervient
to a mufical rythmus, feeing we fpeak rapidly, and
without adeCfation. Our aCtors learn their art without
art, from nature itfelf, adided by redeCtion ; and they
arrive at a degree of excellence infinitely greater than
that of the ancients, by a method far more fimple, and
by efforts incomparably more eafy.
4* do not, however, precifely know what the
theatric declamation of the ancients was; nor what
were the mufical indruments which accompanied that
declamation. I he title to the Eunuch of Terence
fays, for example, that Flaccus, the freedman of
Claudius, made the mufic of that piece, in which he
employed the two flutes, the right and the left.” Thefe
flutes, it is likely, gave the tone to the aiRor, which
mud have had a very odd effeft on the audience. Moft
of the ancient pieces have fimilar titles. They who
would be particularly informed of the art of declaim¬
ing among the Greeks and Romans, may read to ad¬
vantage the Critical Reflexions on Poetry and Paint-
ing by the Abbe du Bos. The third part of that
work confifls entirely of learned refearches and inge¬
nious refleXions on this filly praXice of the ancients.
But as this art has happily no place in modern decla¬
mation, and can at beft ferve only te make a parade of
erudition, we (hall fay no more of it, but pafs to mat¬
ters of real utility.
3. We think there is good reafon to believe, more¬
over, that the moft: poliflied nations of modern Europe
do not accompany their difeourfes in general with lb
many gefticulations, as did the Greeks, the Romans,
and other inhabitants of warm climates. They ap¬
pear to have found the method of animating a difcourfe,
and giving it an expreflion, by the fimple inflexions of
the voice, and by the features of the countenance ;
which is far more decent, more juft and rational, than
all thofe contortions which perpetually derange the na¬
tural attitude of the body and its members, and give
the fj leaker the air of a harlequin.
6. Expreffion, therefore, forms at once the effence
and the end of declamation : and the means of produ-
cing it confifts, in a pronunciation that is fonorous, di-
ftinX, and pleafing, fupported by an aXion that is de¬
cent and proper to the fubjeX. If the beft dramatic
poet has need of a good declaimer or adlor to make
his
DEC
Decfama- his writings produce their proper efle&, the adtor has
d011- liicewife need of a good poet to enable him to pleafe
*—~'v ■' aad affedl by the adfion •, for it is to little purpofe
that he endeavours to charm his auditory by uniting,
with nature, all the powers of art, it the poet has not
furnifhed him with fentiments that are rational and af¬
fecting.
7. The adtor, in ftudying his part, before a large
mirror, where he can fee his whole figure, in order to
determine the molt proper expreffions for every thought,
Ihould confult nature, and endeavour to imitate her.
But, in this imitation, he (hould take care not to make
too fervile a copy. He has this to obferve, in common
with his colleagues, the matters in all the polite arts :
The theatre is intended to exhibit an imitation of na¬
ture, and not nature itfelf. Tragedy and comedy
form pidtures of human life ; but thefe pictures are alfo
pieces of perfpedtive, which require ftrokes fomewhat
itronger than nature that they may be difcerned at a
diflance. The adtor is elevated to a confiderable
height from the ground ; he is furrounded by fcenery,
he is feparated from the audience by the orcheltra, and
he fpeaks in verfe ; all this is not natural j but the
fpedtator is to accede to this neceffary illufion, in order
to promote his own pleafure, which would not be fo
great as it is were all thefe matters otherwife difpofed.
Declamation, therefore, {hould fomewhat exceed, but
never lofe fight of, nature.
8. The tone of the adfor’s voice fiiould be natural,
but regulated by the extent of the theatre ; fufficiently
loud to be heard by all the audience, but not fo vio¬
lent as to rend their ears. A pure and graceful pro¬
nunciation, without any provincial accent, is likewife a
great merit in an aCtor ; and he {hould alfo habituate
himfelf to fpeak in a manner perfectly diftinCt. It is
a capital point in the pronouncing of verfe, not to fe-
parate the two hemiftichs, by refting too long on the
ccefura in the middle, or dwelling on the end of each
hemiftich : for, by fo doing, the aCtor falls into a mo¬
notony, an infufferable uniformity of cadence, in a
piece that confifts of fome thoufand verfes. The gra¬
dations of the voice demand alfo a very judicious ob-
fervance. The fpeaker, who begins in a high tone,
will find it very difficult to fuftain it through the whole
piece ; and he, who clamours inceflantly, will find his
lungs fail him in thofe parts where the vehemence of
paffion requires the ftrongeft efforts. If we may be
allowed the expreffion, the ftrongeft touches, the bold-
eft figures, will not there ftand out from the picture in
a ftriking manner.
9. The deportment of an aCtor ftiould be conftantly
graceful, decent, and proper to the charaCter he repre-
fents. An old man has a different pofition of body
from a young petit-maitre j an aged queen from a
young princefs *, a noble gallant from a valet de chambre.
A rational obfervance of nature, and an imitation of
the beft aCtors, are here the fureft guides. The fame
may be faid of the aCtion of the hands, the theatric
ftep, &c. An inanimated figure, a body in the por¬
tion of a ftatue, and hands immoveable, are as dif-
pleafing in the fcene, as a player whole inceffant gefti-
culation refembles the aCtion of a puppet.
10. Every aCtor who afpires to make his art fome-
thing more than merely mechanical, will begin by
enabling himfelf readily to repeat his part,, that the
DEC
defeCt of his memory may not embarrafs his aCtion. Declams-
When he is fo far a mafter of it, he will make it the tion
fubjeCt of ferrous reflection in his clofet; endeavour to II
feize the true fenfe of the author 3 and to find out that, ec°^ . >
expreffion of each fentiment and paffion, which is the
molt natural, the molt ftriking, and beft adapted to the
ft age 3 and which he will cultivate by repeated effays,
till he is able to render it in its full force.
DECLARATORY action. See Law Index.
DECLENSION, in Grammary an inflection of
nouns according to their divers cafes 3 as nominative,
genitive, dative, &c. See Grammar.
DECLINATION, in Aftronomy, the diftance of
any celeltial objeCl from the equinoctial, either north- •
ward or fouthvvard. It is either true or apparent, ac¬
cording as the real or apparent place of the objeCt is
confidered. See Astronomy Index.
Declination of the Sea Compafs or Needle, is its
variation from the true meridian of any place.
DECLINATION of a Plane or Wall, in Dialing, is the
horizontal arch contained between the plane and the
prime vertical circle, if you reckon from eaft to weft 3
or between the meridian and the plane, reckoning
from north to fouth. Many ways are ufed for finding
this declination : but the moft eafy and praClicable is
by a declinator. See DECLINATOR.
DECLINATOR, or Declinatory, an inftrument
chiefly ufed in praCfical dialing, for taking the de¬
clinations, inclinations, or reclinations of the planes
on which the dials are to be delineated. See Dial¬
ing, N° 24, 25.
DECLINATURE o/’Judges. See Law Index.
DECLIVITY denotes the reverfe of Acclivi¬
ty.
DECOCTION, ufually fignifies either the adtion
of boiling a fubftance in water, or the water itfelf in
which the fubftance has been boiled. It is only appli¬
cable to matters containing fome principles foluble in
water: fuch particularly are animal and vegetable
matters. Decodfion ought not to be ufed with fuch
fubftances as contain any volatile principles, as they
would be diffipated in the air during the procefs. But
it may be fafely ufed, nay even becomes neceffary, when
the matters to be treated are folid, and of a clofe and
compadl texture 3 becaufe then the water could not
extradl its principles without a boiling heat. Moft foft
animal matters, as flefh, {kin, tendons, may be conve¬
niently boiled in water 3 becaufe they contain no prin¬
ciple volatile with a boiling heat. Water extradls from
them nothing but a gelatinous fubftance, and fome
oily parts which float on the farface of the W’ater. All
vegetable matters which are inodorous, and particular¬
ly thofe which are hard, as roots, barks, &c. are ge¬
nerally boiled, when an extradiion of their principles
by water is required.—To this rule, however, there
are fome exceptions. Peruvian bark, for inftance, gives
its ftrength to cold water better than to fuch as is boil¬
ing hot. Many other vegetables alfo have the fame
property of yielding lefs to boiling than to cold water.
And therefore a general rule may be eftabliffied, that
decodtion ought not to be employed but when abfo-
lutely neceffary 3 that is, when the fame principles, or
the fame quantities of thofe principles, cannot be ob¬
tained by an infufion, and that without heat, if it can
be fo done, confidering that the proximate principles
[ in 1
DEC
Decoftion vegetables are generally fo delicate, and fo fufcep-
|| tible of change and decompofition, that frequently the
Decoy, moft gentle heat changes much their nature and pro-
l“"" * perties.
DECOLLATION, Beheading, a term feldom
ufed but in the phrafe decollation of St John Baptitt;
which denotes a painting, wherein is reprefented the
Baptift’s head ftruck off from his trunk ; or the feaft
held in honour of that martyr.
DECOMPOSITION, in ChemiJIry, ufually figni-
fies the difunion or feparalion of the conftituent parts
of bodies.—It differs from mere mechanical divifion j
for when a body is chemically decompofed, the parts
into which it is refolved are effentially different from
the body itfelf: and though a mechanical force be ap¬
plied to it ever fo long, or with ever fo much violence,
the minuteft particles into which the body may be re¬
duced Hill retain their original nature. Thus, for ex¬
ample, though we fuppofe nitre, or any other fait, to
be reduced to ever fo fine powder, each particle retains
the nature of nitre, as much as the largeft unpounded
mafs j but if fulphuric acid be applied, a decompofition
takes place, and one of the component parts of the
nitre, namely the nitric acid, rifes in the form of
fumes, which never could have been fufpedted to lie
hid in the mild neutral fait.
DECORATION, in ArchiteBure% any thing that
adorns and enriches a building, church, triumphal arch,
or the like, either without fide or within.
The orders of architedture contribute greatly to the
decoration ; but then the feveral parts of thofe orders
mull: have their juft proportions, charadters, and orna¬
ments } otherwife the fineft order will bring confufion
rather than richnefs. See Architecture.
Decorations in churches are paintings, vafes, fef-
toons, &c. occafionally applied to the walls ; and with
fo much condudt and dilcretion, as not to take off any
thing from the form of the architedlure : as is much
pradtifed in Italy at the folemn feafts.
Decoration is more particularly applied to the
fcenes of theatres.
In operas, and other theatrical performances, the
decorations muft be frequently changed conformably
to the fubjedf.
The ancients had two kinds of decorations for their
theatres: the firft, called verfatiles, having three fides,
or faces, which were turned fuccefllvely to the fpedla-
tors : the other called cluffiles, Ihowing a new decora¬
tion by drawing or Hiding another before it. This
latter fort is Hill ufed, and apparently with much
greater fuccefs than among the ancients, who were
obliged to draw a curtain whenever they made a
change in the decoration ; whereas on our ftage the
change is made in a moment, and almoft without be¬
ing perceived.
DECORUM, in /IrchiteBure, is the fuitablenefs of
a building, and the feveral parts and ornaments there¬
of, to the ftation and oecafion.
DECOUPLE, in Heraldry, the fame as uncoupled ;
thus a chevron decouple is a chevron wanting fo
much of it towards the point, that the two ends ftand
at a diftance from one another, being parted and un¬
coupled.
DECOY, in naval affairs, a ftratagem employed
by a fhip of war to betray a veffel of inferior force into
DEC
an uncautious purfuit, till ftie has drawn her within the
range of her cannon, or what is called within gun-Jhot.
It is ufually performed by painting the ftern and lides
in fuch a manner as to difguife the fhip, and reprefent
her either much fmaller and of inferior force, or as a
friend to the hoftile veffel, which {he endeavours to
enfnare, by affuming the emblems and ornaments of
the nation to which the ftranger is fuppofed to belong.
When (he has thus provoked the adverfary to chafe, in
hopes of acquiring a prize, {he continues the decoy,
by fpreading a great fail, as endeavouring to efcape }
at the fame time that her courfe is confiderably retard¬
ed by an artful alteration of her trim till the enemy
approaches. Decoying is alfo performed to elude the
chafe of a fhip of a fuperior force in a dark night, by
throwing out a lighted calk of pitch into the fea, which
will burn for a confiderable time and mifguide the
enemy. Immediately after the calk is thrown out, the
{hip changes her courfe, and may eafily efcape, if at
any tolerable diftance from the foe.
Decoy, among fowlers, a place made for catching
wild-fowl. A decoy is generally made where there is
a large pond furrounded by a wood, and beyond that
a marftiy and uncultivated country : if the piece of wa¬
ter is not thus furrounded, it will be attended with the
noife and other accidents which may be expe&ed to
frighten the wild-fowl from a quiet haunt, where they
mean to fleep, during the day-time, in fecurity. If
thefe noifes or difturbances are wilful, it hath been
held that an a&ion will lie againft the difturber.—As
foon as the evening fets in, the decoy rifes (as they
term it), and the wild fowl feed during the night. If
the evening is {fill, the noife of their wings, during
their flight, is heard at a very great diftance, and is a
pleafing though rather melancholy found. This rifing
of the decoy in the evening, is in Somerfetfhire called
radding.
The decoy-ducks are fed with hempfeed, which is
thrown over the Ikreens in fmall quantities, to bring
them forwards into the pipes or canals, and to allure
the wild fowl to follow, as this feed is fo light as to
float.
There are leveral pipes, as they are called, which
lead up a narrow ditch that clofes at laft with a funnel-
net. Over thefe pipes (which grow narrower from
their firft entrance) is a continued arch of netting
fufpended on hoops. It is neceffary to have a pipe or
ditch for almoft: every wind that can blow, as upon
this circumftance it depends which pipe the fowl will
take to; and the decoy-man always keeps on the lee¬
ward fide of the ducks, to prevent his effluvia reaching
their fagacious noftrils. All along each pipe, at cer¬
tain intervals, are placed Ikreens made of reeds, which
are fo fituated, that it is impofiible the wild-fowl fliould
fee the decoy-man, before they have paffed on towards
the end of the pipe, where the purfe-net is placed.
The inducement to the wild-fowl to go up one of thtfe
pipes is, becaufe the decoy-ducks trained to this lead
the way, either after hearing the whiffle of the decoy-
man, or enticed by the hemp-feed ; the latter will dive
under water whilft the wild-fowl fly on, and are taken
in the purfe.
It often happens, however, that the wild-fowl are
in iuch a ftate of fieepinefs and dozing, that they will
not follow the decoy-ducks. Ufe is then generally
made
I ii* 1
DEC [ i
yjecoy made of a dog, who is taught his leffon ; he paffes
|J backwards and forwards between the reed Ikreens (in
Decreet- which are little holes, both for the decoy-man to fee,
. Arbitral. an(j ^ jjlt]e t() pafs through) j this attracts the
eye of the wild-fowl, who, not choofing to be inter¬
rupted, advance towards the ftnall and contemptible
animal, that they may drive him away. The dog all
the time, by the direction of the decoy-man, plays
among the Ikreens of reeds, nearer and nearer the
purfe-net $ till at laft, perhaps the decoy-man appears
behind a Ikreen, and the wild-fowl not daring to pafs
by him in return, nor being able to efcape upwards on
account of the net-covering, ru(h on into the purfe-net.
Sometimes the dog will not attract their attention, if a
red handkerchief, or fomething very lingular, is not put
about him.
The general feafon for catching fowls in decoy, is
from the latter end of October till February : the ta¬
king of them earlier is prohibited by an a<5t 10 Geo. II.
c. 32. which forbids it from June ill to Oftober lit,
under the penalty of five Ihillings for each bird deftroy-
ed within that fpace.
The Lincolnlbire decoys are commonly fet at a cer¬
tain pnnual rent, from 5 to 20 pounds a-year : and
there is one in Somerfetlhire that pays 30I. The for¬
mer contribute principally to fupply the markets in
London. Amazing numbers of ducks, widgeons, and
teal are taken : by an account fent us * of the number
Brit.Zool. caught a few winters paft, in one feafon, and in only
U'S9S‘ ten decoys, in the neighbourhood of^Wainfleet, it ap¬
peared to amount to 31,200, in which are included fe-
veral other fpecies of ducks j it is alfo to be obferved,
that, in the above particular, widgeon and teal are rec¬
koned but as one, and confequently fell but at half price
of the ducks. This quantity makes them fo cheap on
the fpot, that we have been affured, feveral decoy-men
would be content to contradl for years to deliver their
ducks at Bolton, for lod. per couple. The account of
the numbers here mentioned, relates only to thofe that
were fent to the capital.
It was cultomary formerly to have in the fens an
annual driving of the young ducks before they took
wing. Numbers of people affembled, who beat a valt
tra6t, and forced the birds into a net placed at the fpot
where the fport was to terminate. A hundred and fifty
dozens have been taken at once : but this praflice be¬
ing fuppofed to be detrimental, has been abolifhed by
adl of parliament.
DECREE, an order made by a fuperior power for
the regulation of an inferior.
Decree, in the civil law, is a determination which
the emperor pronounces upon hearing a particular caufe
between the plaintiff and defendant.
.Decrees of Councils, are the laws made by them,
to regulate the doflrine and policy of the church.
DECREES in Chancery, are the determination of the
lord chancellor, upon a full hearing of the merits of a
caufe.
DECREET, in the Law of Scotland, a final decree t
judgment of the lords of feffion, from which an ap¬
peal only lies to parliament. >
DECREET-Arbitral, in Scots Law, the fentence or
judgment of one to whom parties voluntarily fubmit
the determination of any quellion betwixt them. See
Law Index.
Vol. VII. Part I.
13 ] DEC
DECREMENT, in Heraldry, fignifies the wane of Decrement
the moon from the full to the new. The moon in this II
Hate is called moon decrefcent or in decours ; and when Decur10-
borne in coat armour, faces to the left fide of the v_ ' J
efcutcheon, as the does to the right fide when in the
increment.
DECREPITATION, in Chemijlry, fignifies the
quick fc-paralion of the parts of a body, occafioned by a
ftrong heat, and accompanied with a crackling noife.
This effect is moll frequently produced by water con¬
tained betwixt the parts of the decrepitating body,
when thefe parts have a certain degree of adhefion to¬
gether. This water being quickly reduced into vapour
by the heat fuddenly applied to it, rarefies and burlls
with noife the parts which comprefs it. The bodies
moll fubjefl to decrepitation are certain falls, fuch as
common fait, fulphate of potalh, nitrate of lead, &c.
the decrepitation of all which proceeds from the water
of their cryllallization. Clays which are not perfectly
dry, and flints, are alfo fubjefl to decrepitation.
DECREPITUDE, in Medicine, ihe confequence of
the infirmities of old age j which by degrees leads to
death. See Death.
DECRETAL, in the canon law, a letter of a pope,
determining fome point or quellion in the ecclelialli-
cal law. The decretals compofe the fecond part of
the canon law. The firft genuine one, acknowledged
by all the learned as fuch, is a letter of Pope Siricius,
written in the year 385, to Himerus bilhop of Tarra¬
gona in Spain, concerning fome diforders which had
crept into the churches of Spain. Gratian publilhed
a colleflion of decretals, containing all the ordinances
made by the popes till the year 1150. Gregory IX.
in 1227, following the example of Theodofius and Jufc
tinian, formed a conllitution of his own, collefling into
one body all the decifions and all the caufes which
ferved to advance the papal power $ which colleflion
of decretals was called the pentateuch, becaufe it con¬
tains five books.
DECUMARIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dodecandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under thofe of which the order is doubtful.
DECUMATES agri, tithed fields, or granted on
a tithe, as appears from Tacitus, to that rabble of Gauls
who fucceeded the Marcomanni, that had till then
proved a check to the Roman conquefts up the Rhine j
and hence probably their name, people living on the
marches or limits of the empire. In Cicero we have
Ager Decumans, which is of the fame import with the
Ager Decumas of Tacitus.
DECUPLE proportion, that of ten to one.
DECURIO, a fubaltern officer in the Roman ar¬
mies. He commanded a decuria, W'hich confifted of
ten men, and was the third part of a turma, or the
30th part of a legio of horfe, which was compofed of
580 men. There were certain magillrates in the pro¬
vinces called decuriones municipals, who formed a body
to reprefent the Roman fenate in free and corporate
towns. They confifted of ten, whence the name j and
their duty extended to watch over the interefls of their
fellow citizens, and to increafe the revenues of the com¬
monwealth. Their court was called curia decurionum
and minor fenatus; and their decrees, called decreta de¬
curionum, were marked with two D. D. at the top.
They generally flyled themfelves civitatum patres curia-
P
BED [ IH ] DEE
Decurio /><*» and honorati municipiorum fenatorum. They were
II eledled with the fame ceremonies as the Roman fena-
Pedication. tors . ^jiey were be at leaft 25 years of age, and to
~ be poffeffed of a certain fum of money. The eledtion
happened in the kalends of March.
DECURRENT leaf. See Botany Index.
DECURY, ten perfons ranged under one chief or
* leader, called the decurio.
The Roman cavalry was divided into ten decuries,
which were fubdivifions of a century, each century
containing ten decuries.
DECUSSATION, a term in geometry, optics, and
anatomy, fignifying the croffing of two lines, rays, or
nerves, when they meet in a point, and then go on fe-
parately from one another.
DECUSSORIUM, a furgeon’s inftrument, which,
by prefling gently on the dura mater, caufes an evacu¬
ation of the pus collefted between the cranium and
the before mentioned membrane, through the perfora¬
tion made by the trepan.
DEDHAM, a town of Eflex in England, confift-
ing of about 400 lofty houfes. The ftreets are not
paved, but very clean, occafioned by their lying pretty
high. It has one large old church, remarkable for a
fine Gothic fteeple, with a great deal of carved work
about it, but much injured by time. E. Long. 1. 10.
N. Lat. 52. 5.
DEDICATION, the a£l: of confecrating a tem¬
ple, altar, ftatue, palace, &c. to the honour of fome
deity.
The ufe of dedications is very ancient both among
the worfhippers of the true God and among the hea¬
thens 5 the Hebrews call it nann hhanuchah, “ imita¬
tion which the Greek tranflators render and
Hyy-ouvicrpos, “ renewing.”
In the Scripture we meet with dedications of the ta¬
bernacle, of altars, of the firtt and fecond temple, and
even of the houfes of private perfons. There are alfo
dedications of veffels, and garments of the priefts and
Levites, and even of the men themfelves.
The heathens had alfo dedications of temples, altars,
and images of their gods, &c. Nebuchadnezzar held a
foleran dedication of his flatue, Dan. iii. 2. Pilate
dedicated gilt bucklers at Jerufalem to Tiberius, Phi/o
de legal. Petronius would have dedicated a ftatue to
the emperor in the fame city, ibid. p. 791. Tacitus,
Hift. lib. iv. c. 53. mentions the dedication of the ca-
pitol, upon rebuilding it by Vefpafian, &c.
The Jews celebrated the anniverfary of the dedica¬
tion of their temple every year for eight days. This
was firft enjoined by Judas Maccabeus, and the whole
fynagogue, in the year of the Syro-Macedonian era 148,
i. e. 164 years before Chrift. The heathens had the
like anniverfaries, as that of the dedication of the tem¬
ple of Parthenope, mentioned by Lycophron. Under
Chriftianity, dedication is only applied to a church :
and is properly the confecration thereof, performed by
a bilhop, with a number of ceremonies prefcribed by
the church.
The Chriftians finding themfelves at liberty under
Conftantine, in lieu of their ruinous churches built
new ones in every place, and dedicated them with
much folemnity. The dedication was ufually per¬
formed in a fynod ; at leaft they affembled a number
af bilhops to aflift at the fervice. We have the defcrip-
tion of thofe of the churches at Jerufalem and Tyre Dedication
in Eufebius, and many others in later writers. *
Dedication, in literature, is an addrefs prefixed to
a book, foliciting patronage, or teftitying relped for
the perfon to whom it is made. The dedication of the
fourth part of Mr Edwards’s Hiftory of Birds, is cu¬
rious : To God ! the ONE eternal! the incomprehenfible,
the omniprejent, omnifcient and almighty Creator of all
things that exijl! from orbs immeajurably great, to the
minutejl points of matter !—this Shorn is dedicated and
devoted, with allpofjibie gratitude, humiliation, and wor-
Jhip, and the highejl adoration both of body and mind, by
his mofl refgned, low, and humble creature, G. E.
DEE, John, a famous mathematician and aftro-
loger, was born (July 1527) in London, where his fa¬
ther was a wealthy vintner. In 1542, he was fent to
St John’s college, Cambridge. After five years clofe
application to mathematical ftudies, particularly aftro-
nomy, he went to Holland, in order to vifit feverai
eminent mathematicians on the continent. Having con¬
tinued abroad near a year, he returned to Cambridge,
and was there eledted one ol the fellows of Trinity
college, then firft eredted by King Henry VIII. In
1548, he took the degree of matter of arts ; and, in
the fame year left England a fecond time j his ftay at
home being rendered uneafy to him, by the fufpicions
that were entertained of his being a conjuror ; anting
partly from his application to aftronomy, but elpecially
on account of a piece of machinery in the Eigijvjj of A-
riftophanes, which he exhibited to the univertity, and
in which he reprefented the fcarabeus flying up to
Jupiter, with a man and a batket of vidtuals on its
back. Thefe fufpicions he could never alter ftiake off •,
nor did his fubfequent condudt, as we fliall fee, tend to
clear him of the imputation j for if he was not adtually
a conjuror, it was not for want of endeavours..
Upon leaving England, he went to the univerfity of
Louvain ; where he was much efteemed, and vifitedby
feverai perfons of high rank. Here he refided about
two years, and then fet out for France j where, in the
college of Rheinas, he read ledtures of Euclid’s elements
with vaft applaufe. In 1551, he Returned to England,
and was introduced by the fecretary Cecil to King Ed¬
ward, who affigned him a penfion of 100 crowns,.which
he afterward relinquiflied for the redtory of Upton
upon Severn: but foon after the acceflion of Queen
Mary, having fome correfpondenee with the lady Eli¬
zabeth’s fervants, he was accufed of pradlifing againfl:
the queen’s life by enchantment. On this account he
fuffered a tedious confinement, and was feverai times
examined; till, in the year 1555, he obtained his li¬
berty by an order of council.
When Queen Elizabeth afcended the throne, our
aftrologxcal Dee was confulted by Lord Dudley, con¬
cerning a propitious day for her majefty’s coronation.
He was on this occafion introduced to the queen, who
made him great promifes, which were never performed,
though Ihe condefcended to receive his inftrudlions re¬
lative to the myftical interpretation of fome of his un¬
intelligible writings, which he publilhed about thistimei
In 1564, he made another voyage to the continent;
in order to prefent a book which he had dedicated to
the emperor Maximilian. He returned to England in
the fame year : but in 1571, we find him in Lorrain ^
where, being dangeroufly ill, the queen fent over two
phyficians
DEE - [ i
phyficians to his relief. Having once more returned
i to his native country, he fettled at Mortlake in Surrey,
where he continued his ftudies with unremitting ardour,
and colle6ted a confiderable library of curious books
and manufcripts, with a variety of inftruments; moft
of which were afterwards deftroyed by the mob, as
belonging to one who dealt with the devil. In 1578,
the queen being much indifpofed, Mr Dee was fent
abroad to confult with German phyficians and philofo-
phers (aftrologers no doubt) or> the occafion. We
now behold him again in England, where he was foon
after employed in a more rational fervice. Her ma-
jefty, defirous to be informed concerning her title to
thofe countries which had been difcovered by her fub-
jects, commanded Mr Dee to confult the ancient re¬
cords, and furnilh her with proper geographical de-
fcriptions. Accordingly, in a fhort time he prefented
to the queen, in the gardens at Richmond, two large
rolls, in which the difcovered countries were geogra¬
phically defcribed and hiftorically illuftrated. Thefe
rolls are preferved in the Cotton library, Jlugnjlus I.
His next employment was the reformation of the ka-
lendar, on which fubjedt he wrote a rational and learn¬
ed treatifc, preferved in the Athmolean library at Ox¬
ford.
Hitherto the extravagancies of our eccentrical phi-
lofopher feera to have been counterpoifed by a tolerable
proportion of reafon and fcience $ but henceforward we
conlider him as a mere necromancer and credulous al-
chymift. In the year 1581, he became acquainted
with one Edward Kelly, by whofe affiftance he per¬
formed diverfe incantations, and maintained a frequent
imaginary intercourfe with fpirits. He was particu¬
larly intimate, it feems, with the angels Raphael and
Gabriel. One of them made him a prefent of a black
fpeculum, in which his angels and demons appeared
as often as he had occafion for them 5 they anfwered
his queftions, and Kelly’s bufinefs was to record their
di&ates:
Kelly did all his feats upon
The devil’s looking-glafs, a ftone.
Hudib. Part II. Canto iii. 631.
In 1583, they were both introduced to a certain Po-
lilh nobleman, then in England, named Albert Lajki,
palatine of Siradia, a perfon equally addi&ed to the
fame ridiculous purfuits. He was fo charmed with
Dee and his companion, that he perfuaded them to ac¬
company him to his native country. They embarked
for Holland in Sept. 1583; and travelling over land,
arrived at the town of Lalki in February following.
Their patron, however, finding himfelf abufed by their
idle pretenfions, perfuaded them to pay a vifit to Ro-
dolph king of Bohemia ; who, though a credulous man,
was foon difgufted with their nonfenfe. They were
afterwards introduced to the king of Poland, but with
no better fuccefs. Soon after this, they were invited
by a rich Bohemian nobleman to his caftle of Trebona,
where they continued for fome time in great affluence :
owing, as they afferted, to their art of tranfmutation
by means of a certain powder in the poffefflon of
Kelly.
Dee, now quarrelling with his companion in iniqui¬
ty, quitted Bohemia, and returned to England, where
he was once more gracioufly received by the queen }
5 ] DEE
who, in 1595, made him warden of Manchefter col- Dee
lege, in which town he refided feveral years. In 1604, 11
he returned to his houfe at Mortlake, where he died ^)cer‘
in the year 1608, aged 815 leaving a large family,
and many works behind him.—The black Hone into
which Dee ufed to call his fpirits, was in the col-
le£tion of the earls of Peterborough, whence it came to
Lady Elizabeth Germaine. It was next the property
of the late duke of Argyle, and is now Mr Walpole’s.
It appears upon examination to be nothing but a po-
lilhed piece of cannel coal.—That Dee was a man of
confiderable acquirements, is beyond a doubt j his
mathematical knowledge is generally allowed : but,
unlefs we fuppofe him a wicked impoftor, which is by
no means improbable, we mufi: tranfmit him to pof-
terity as one of the mofl; foolilh fuperftitious necro¬
mancers of his time. Neverthelefs, th^ celebrated Dr
Hook, many years after Dee’s death, took it into his
head to prove that his journal, publilhed by Cafaubon,
was entirely cryptographical, concealing his political
tranfa&ions, and that he was employed by Queen Eli¬
zabeth as a fpy.
Dee, the name of feveral rivers in Scotland and
England $ as thofe whereon the cities of Chefler in
England, and New Aberdeen in Scotland, are fitu-
ated. The river Dee in Aberdeenlhire rifes in the
mountains of Mar foreft, and falls into the German
ocean at Aberdeen. It abounds with falmon, fo as to
form a confiderable falmon fifhing. Over this river
there is a fine bridge of feven arches, built by a bilhop
of Aberdeen, who left a revenue for its fupport.
DEED, an inftrument written on paper or parch¬
ment, comprehending fome contratt, bargain, or
agreement between the parties thereto, in relation to
the matter therein contained.
DEEMSTERS, or Demsters (from the Saxon
dema, judge or umpire). All controverfies in the ifle
of Man are decided without procefs, writings, or any
charges, by certain judges, chofen yearly from among
themfelves, called deemjlers ; there being two of them
for each divifion of the ifland : they fit judges in all
courts, either for life or property 5 and with the advice
of 24 keys, declare what is law in uncommon emer¬
gencies.
DEEPING, a town of Lincolnfhire in England,
feated in a fenny ground, on the river Weland, fix
miles eaft from Stamford. W. Long. o. 20. N. Lat.
52. 35.
DEER, in Zoology. See Cervus.—The method,
of hunting deer in the ifland of Ceylon is very parti¬
cular. The huntfmen go out in the night, and only
two ufually go together; the one of thefe carries upon
his head an earthen veflel, in which there is fome fire
burning and flaming ; the ingredients are generally
fmall flicks cut into pieces, and common rofin. Of
this the other man carries a fupply about him to re-
plenifh the pot when it grows low. The perfon who
has the fire upon his head, carries in one hand a ftaff,
on which there are fixed eight bells j and the larger
thefe are, the better. This man goes firft into the
woods, and the other follows clofe behind with a fpear
in his hand. As foon as the deer hears the noife of
the bells, he turns towards the place whence the found
comes; and feeing the fire, he eagerly runs up to it,
and Hands gazing at a fmall diftance : the fecond man
P 2 has
D E F [ i
jjecr has then nothing to do bat to kill him with the fpear $
H for he fees neither of them. Not only deerr but even
Defend, elks and hares are thus taken ; for they gaze at the
v fire, and never fee the men. The profits of this fort
of hunting are very large, and the danger nothing ;
for though there are numbers of tygers, elephants, and
wild boars, in thefe woods, the huntfmen are in no
danger from them while the fire burns, for they all run
a way from it.
De Facto, fomething a&ually in faff, or exifiing $
in contradiilindtion to de jure, where a thing is only fo
in juftice, but not in fadf : as a king defadio, is a per-
fon who is aftually in polfeffion of a crown, but has
no legal right to the fame ; and a king de jure, is the
perfon who has a juft right to the crown, though he is
out of pofleflion thereof.
DEFAMATION, the fpeaking fianderous words
of another j for which the flanderer is puniftiable, ac¬
cording to the nature of his offence, either by adlion
upon the cafe at common law, or by ftatute in the ec-
clefiaftical court.
DEFAULT, in Law, is generally taken for non-
appearance in court, at a day afiigned ; but imports
any omiflion of that which we ought to do, for which
judgment may be given againft the defaulter.
DEFEASANCE, or Defeisance, in Law, a con¬
dition relating to fome certain deed, which being per¬
formed, the deed is defeated and rendered void, as if
it had never been made. The difference between a
common condition and a defeafance is, that the condi¬
tion is annexed to, or inferted in, the deed ; and a
defeafance is a deed by itfelf concluded and agreed on
between the parties, and having relation to another
deed.
DEFECATE, in Chemijlry, a term applied to a
body freed and purged from faeces and impurities.
DEJECTION, the aft of abandoning or relin-
quilhing a party or intereft a perfon had been enga¬
ged in. The word is formed of the Latin deficio, ta
fall off.
DEFECTIVE, in general, an appellation given to
things which want fome of the properties that naturally
they ought to have. Thus,
Defective or Deficient Nouns, in Grammar, are
fuch as want either a whole number, a particular cafe,
or are totally indeclinable. See Noun.
The term defe&ive is alfo applied to a verb that has
not all its moods and tenfes. See Verb, Mood, &c.
DEFENCE, in Fortification, all forts of works
that cover and defend the oppofite pofts, as flanks,,
cafements, parapets, and fauffebrays. See Fortifi¬
cation.
Line of DEFENCE, a fuppofed line drawn from the
angle of the curtain, or from any other part in the cur¬
tain, to the flanked angle of the oppofite baftion.
DEFEND, in general fignifies much the fame with
protefting or keeping off injuries offered to any per¬
fon either by enemies or otherwife.
Defend, in our ancient laws and ftatutes, fignifies
to prohibit or forbid : as Ufuamos defendit quoque rex
Edwardus ne remanerenl in regno. L. L. Edw. Conf.
e. 38. j Kieb. 2. c. "j. In which fenfe Chaucer al¬
fo ufes it in the following paffage :
“ Where can you fay in any manner age,
“ That ever God defended marriage.”
2
16 ] r> e f
In 7 Edw. I. there is a ftatute entitled, “ Statutum de Defend
defenfione portandi armaf &c. And “ it is defended H
by law to diftrain on the highway.” Coke on Littl. Definite,
fol. 161. * v—.
DEI* END AN T, in Law, the perfon fued in an ac¬
tion perfonal ; as tenant is he who is fued in an aftion
real. See Action.
DEFENDER of the Faith (Fidei Defenforf a pe¬
culiar title belonging to the king of England ; as Ca-
tholicus to the king of Spain, and Chrfiianfiimus to the
king of France, &c. Thefe titles were given by the
popes of Rome. That of Fidei Defenfor was firft con¬
ferred by Leo X. on Ling Henry VIII. for writing
againft Martin Luther j and the bull for it bears date
quinto idus Oclob. 1521. It was afterwards confirmed
by Clement VII. But the pope, on Henry’s fuppref-
fing the houfes of. religion at the time of the Reforma¬
tion, not only deprived him of his title, but depofed
him from his crown alfo : though in the 35th year of
his reign, his title, &c. was confirmed by parliament j
and hath continued to be ufed by all fucceeding kings
to this day. Chamberlayne fays, the title belonged to
the kings of England before that time ; and for proof
hereof appeals to feve.ral charters granted to the univer-
fity of Oxford. So that Pope Leo’s bull was only a re¬
novation of an ancient right.
DEFENDERS, were anciently notable dignita¬
ries bsth in church and ftate, whofe bufinefs was to
look to the prefervation of the public weal, to pro-
teft the poor and helplefs, and to maintain the inte-
refts and caufes of churches and religious houfes. See
Protector. I he council of Chalcedon, can. 2. calls
the defender of a church ExJocaj. Codin, de offeiis
aulce Conjl. makes mention of defenders of the palace.
There were alfo a defender of the kingdom, defenfor
regm ; defenders of cities, defenfores civitatis ; defen¬
ders of the people, defenfores pie bis; of the poor, fa-
therlefs,. widows, &c.
About the year 420, each patriarchal church begam
to have its defender •, which cuflora was afterwards in¬
troduced into other churches, and continued to later
days under other names j as thofe of Advocate and
Advowee.
In the year 4°7> we ^ie council of Carthage
alked the emperor, for defenders, of the number of
Scholajlici, i.e. advocates who were in office ; and that
it might be allowed them to enter and fearch the cabi¬
nets and papers of the judges and other civil magif-
trates, whenever it ftiould be found neceffary for the
intereft of the church.
DEFERENS, or Deferent, in the ancient aftro-
nomy, an imaginary circle, which, as it were, carries
about the body of a planet, and is the fame with the
eccentric j being invented to account for the eccentri¬
city, perigee, and apogee of the planets.
DEFILE, in Fortification, a ftraight narrow paffage,
through which a company of horfe or foot can pafs only
in file, by making a fmall front.
DEFINITE, in Grammar, is applied to an article
that has a precife determinate fignification ; fuch as the
article the in Englifii, le and la in French, &c. which
fix and afeertam the noun they belong to, to fome par¬
ticular ; as the king, le roy: whereas, in the quality of
king, de roy, the articles of and de mark nothing pre¬
cife, and are therefore indefinite*
DEFINITION,
Definition
D E F [i
DEFINITION, in general, a fhort defcription of
|| a thing by its properties 5 or, in logic, the explica-
icfloration. tion of the effence of a thing by its kind and dif-
ference.
DEFINITIVE, a term applied to whatever termi¬
nates a pvocefs, queftion, &c. in oppofition to provi-
fional and interlocutory.
DEFLAGRATION, in Chemijlry, the kindling
or fetting tire to a fait or mineral, &c. either alone, or
mixed for that purpofe with a fulphureous one, in order
to purify it.
This ihort procefs has been often recommended to
the world as of great ufe in trying the ftrength of
brandies and other vinous fpirits, and has been greatly
improved in this refpeft by Mr Geoffrey.
The common way of trying fpirits by deflagration,
is to meafure out any quantity of it, then to heat it,
and fet it on fire. If, after it will no longer burn, the
remainder is half as much as the quantity meafured out
for the trial was, then the fpirit tried is found to con-
fift of half water, and half totally inflammable fpirit;
that is, it is fomewhat below what we underftand by
the term perfect proof.—This method is much more
certain than that by the crown of bubbles which arifes
upon (baking the fpirit in a phial. Monf. Geoffrey’s
method is this : Take a cylindric veffel two inches
high, and as much in diameter, confiding of thin plate
filver, that metal being much lefs liable to ruft than
copper *, this veffel mud be fitted with a little re£fan-
gular gage exadtly graduated into lines, half lines, &c.
then the veffei being fet level upon a copper cafe made
to contain it, a parcel of the brandy to be examined is
poured in, to the height of 16 lines. This height is
to be exactly hit by pouring in more than enough at
fird, and then fucking out the overplus with a very
fmall tube. Then the veffel being heated a little, Co
as jud to make the liquor fume, it is to be fet on fire
and left to go out of itfelfj at the inflant when the
flame expires, the gage is plunged perpendicularly into
the veffel, and the lines and quarters exadtly noted
which the liquor wants of its former height : this dif¬
ference gives the precife quantity of alcohol or pure
fpirit contained in the liquor. Thus, if eight lines of
phlegm are found remaining, this being the half of the
16 lines of the original filling, it is plain that the li¬
quor contained one half fpirit, or was fomething below
proof. If only four lines remained, it was nearly
double proof, or of a middle nature betwixt alcohol
and common proof-fpirit.
DEFLECTION, the turning any thing afide from
its former courfe by fome adventitious or external caufe.
The word is often applied to the tendency of a (hip
from her true courfe by reafon of currents, &c. which
turn her out of her right way. It is likewife applied
by adronomers to the tendency of the planets from the
line of their projection, or the tangent of their orbit.
Deflection of the Rays of Light, a property
which Dr Hook obferved in 1675, and read an ac¬
count of before the Royal Society, March 18th the
fame year. He fays he found it different both from
reflection and refraCtion, and that it was made towards
the furface of the opaque body, perpendicularly. This
is the fame property which Sir Ifaac Newton calls
inflection.
DEFLORATION, or Deflowering, the aCt of
17 ] D E F
violating or taking away a woman’s virginity. See Dcfloratioa
Virginity.—Death or marriage are decreed by the il
civil law in cafe of defloration. Defoe. ^
The ancients had fo much refpeCl for virgins, that
they would not put them to death till they had firft
procured them to be deflowered. It is laid, the na¬
tives of the coad of Malabar pay drangers to come and
deflower their brides.
In Scotland and the northern parts of England, it
was a privilege of the lords of the manor, granted them
by King Ewen, that they fliould have the fird night’s
lodging with their tenants wives. King Malcom III.
allowed the tenants to redeem this fervice at a certain
rate, called marcheta, confiding of a certain number
of cows: Buchanan fays it was redeemed with half a
mark of filver. The fame cudom had place in Wales,
Flanders, Friefland, and fome parts of Germany.
DEFLUXION, in Medicine, the fall of the
humours from a fuperior to an inferior part of the
body.
DEFOE, Daniel, a writer famous for politics
and poetry, was bred a hofier ; which profeflion how¬
ever he foon forfook, and became one of the mod en-
terprifing authors that any age produced. When dif-
contents ran high at the Revolution, and King William
was obliged to difmifs his Dutch guards, Defoe, who
had true notions of civil liberty, ridiculed the enemies
of government in his well-known poem, called the
True-Born Englifhman, which had a prodigious fale.
The next fatire he wrote was entitled Reformation of
Manners ; aimed at fome perfons of high rank, who
rendered themfelves a difgrace to their country. When
the ecclefiaftics in power breathed too much of a fpirit
of perfeeution, Defoe wrote a trad called the Short¬
ed Way with the Diffenters : for which he was called
to account, and explained himfelf with great firmnefs.
He was afterwards fentenced to the pillory for attack¬
ing fome public meafures j which fo little intimidated
him, that, in defiance of their ufage, he wrote a Hymn
to the Pillory. It would be endlefs to enumerate all
his publications', but the following are the principal:
the Hiffory of the Plague in 1665; a novel entitled
the Hiffory of Colonel Jack ; a new Voyage round the
World by a Company of Merchants, printed for Bet-
tefworth, 1725', the Hiflory of Roxana; Memoirs of
a Cavalier; the Hidory of Moll Fanders; a book
entitled Religious Courtfhip, which has undergone up¬
wards of 20 editions ; and the Life and adventures of
Robinfon Crufoe, an admirable performance, of which
there have been editions without number, but concern¬
ing which there is an anecdote that does the author of
it no credit as to the better part of a writer’s charac¬
ter, honefty. When Captain Woodes Rogers touched
at the ifland of Juan Fernandez, in the South fea, he
brought away Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch failor, who
had been left afliore there, and had lived on that defolate
place above four years. When Selkirk came back
to England, he wrote a narrative of his adventures,
and put the papers into the hands of Defoe, to
diged for publication ; who ungeneroufly converted
the materials into the Hiflory of Robinfon Crufoe,
and returned Selkirk his papers again ! A fraud for
which, in a humane view, the diftinguifhed merit of
that romance can never atone. Daniel Defoe died at
Iflington, in 1731. All his produ&ions of the ro-
mantis
D E F
Defoe, mantic fpecies, but efpecially the two laft mentioned,
'.)e)oliation. are much in vogue among country readers 5 and on
v account of their moral and religious tendency, may
very probably in fome meafure counteraft the perni¬
cious effects produced by the too general circulation of
modern novels, thofe occafional vehicles of impiety and
infidelity.
DEFOLIA.I ION, (from ?, and folium “ a leaf”)j
the fall of the leaves. A term oppofed to fronde-
fcentia, the annual renovation of the leaves, produced
by the unfolding of the buds in fpring. See Fronde-
scentia.
Moll: plants in cold and temperate climates Ihed their
leaves every year : this happens in autumn, and is ge¬
nerally announced by the flowering of the common
meadow faffron. T he term is only applied to trees
and flirubs; for herbs perifh down to the roots every
year, lofing ftem, leaves, and all.
All plants do not drop their leaves at the fame time.
Among large trees, the afh and walnut, although lateft
in unfolding, are fooneft divefled of them : the latter
feldom carries its leaves above five months.
On the oak and hornbeam, the leaves die and wi¬
ther as foon as the colds commence; but remain at¬
tached to the branches till they are pufhed off by the
new ones, which unfold themfelves the following
fpring. Thefe trees are doubtlefs a kind of evert
, greens : the leaves are prabably deftroyed only by
cold 5 and perhaps would continue longer on the
plant, but for the force of the fpring fap, joined to
the moiflure.
In mild and dry feafons, the lilach, privet, yellow jef-
famine of the woods, and maple of Crete, preferve their
leaves green until fpring, and do not drop them till the
new leaves are beginning to appear. The fig-tree, and
many other trees that grow between the tropics, are of
this particular clafs of evergreens. The trees in Egypt,
fays Doftpr Haffelquift, caff their leaves in the latter
end of December and beginning of January, having
young leaves ready before all the old ones are fallen
off j and, to forward this operation of nature, few of the
trees have buds; the fycamore and willow, indeed,have
fome, but with few and quite loole Jlipulcc or fcales.
Nature^ did not imagine buds fo neceffary in the fouth-
ern as in the northern countries : this occafions a great
difference between them. 6
Laftly, fome trees and ftirubs prelerve their leaves
conftantly through the whole year; and are not in the
leaf! influenced by the clemency or inclemency of fea¬
fons. Such are the firs, juniper, yew, cedar, cyprefs,
and many other trees, hence denominated evergreens.
Thefe preferve their old leaves a long time after the
formation of the new, and do not drop them at
any determinate time. In general, the leaves of
evergreens are harder, and lefs fucculent, than thofe
which are renewed annually. The trees are gene¬
rally natives of warm climates ; as the alaternufes of
France and Italy, the evergreen oak of Portugal and
Suabia. &
Some herbaceous perennials, as the houfe-leeks and
navel-worts, enjoy the fame privilege with the ever¬
green trees, and refill the feverities of winter : fome
even can difpenfe with the earth for fome time ; being
replete with juices, which the leaves imbibe from the
humidity of the atmofphere, and which, in fuch plants,
3
t 118 ] D E F
are of themfelves, fufficient for effe&ing the purpofes ■
of vegetation. It is for this reafon, That, unlefs in ex- 1 * °
ceflive hot weather, gardeners are feldom wont to wa¬
ter fat fucculent plants, as the aloes, which rot when
they are moiflened, if the fun does not quickly dry
them up.
The leaves of all the evergreen Ihrubs and trees
have a thin compaft Ikin or cover over their furface ;
as is eafily difcovered by macerating them in water, in
order to feparate the parenchyma, or pulp, from the
veffels of the leaves; which cannot be effedled in any
of thefe evergreens till a thin parchment-like colour is
taken off. Thefe trees and Ihrubs are found by ex¬
periment to perfpire but little, when compared with
others which Ihed their leaves; and it is, perhaps,
principally owing to this clofe covering, as alfo to the
fmall proportion of moifture contained in their vef-
fels, that they retain their verdure, and continue
through the winter on the trees. The nutritive juices
of thefe plants always abound, more or lefs, with an
oily quality, which fecures them from being injured
by fevere frolts ; fo that many of thefe evergreen trees
are adapted to grow in the coldeft parts of the habi¬
table world.
With refpeft to deciduous trees, the falling off of
the leaves feems principally to depend on the tempera¬
ture of the atmofphere, which likewife ferves to haften
or retard the appearance in queflion. An ardent fun
contributes to haflen the dropping of the leaves#
Hence in hot and dry fummers the leaves of the lime-
tree and horfe-chefnut turn yellow about the firfl: of
September ; whilft in other years, the yellownefs does
not appear till, the beginning of Oftober. Nothing,
however, contributes more to haften the fall of the
leaves than immoderate cold or moift weather in au¬
tumn ; .moderate droughts, on the other hand, ferve to
retard it. As a proof of this pofition, Mr Adanfon
relates, that in the year 1759, the leaves of the elm-
tree, which generally fall off about the 25th of No¬
vember continued in verdure and vigour at Paris
where the autumn was remarkably dry, till the 10th of
the following month.
The following table, refpefling the mean times in
which different trees fhed their leaves is founded upon
obfervation. r
Goofebery-tree and bladder-
fena,
Walnut and afti,
Almond-tree, horfe-chefnut,
and lime-tree,
Maple, hazel-nut, black pop¬
lar, and afpen-tree,
Birch, plane-tree, mountain-
ofier, falfe acacia, pear, and
apple-tree,
Vine, mulberry, fig, fumach,
and angelica-tree,
Elm-tree and willow,
Apricot and elder-trees,
O
cr
o
c
Oftober 1 ft.
15th.
20th.
* 25th.
November ill.
10th.
15th.
20th.
It deferves to be. remarked, that an evergreen tree
grafted upon a deciduous, determines the latter to re¬
tain its leaves. This obfervation is confirmed by re¬
peated experiments, particularly by grafting the laurel,
D E F [i
Defoliation or cherry-bay, an evergreen, on the common cherry j
|| and the ilex, or evergreen oak, on the oak.
Deformity. DEFORCEMENT, in Law, the calling any one
— v''' 1' out of his land, or withholding of lands and tenements
by force from the right owner.
Deforcement, in Scots Law, the oppofing or refill¬
ing of the officers of the law in the execution of their
office. See Law Index.
DEFORMITY, the want of that uniformity ne-
ceffary to conftitute the beauty of an objeft. See
Beauty.
Deformity is either natural or moral. Thefe are
both referred by Mr Hutchefon to an internal fenfe 5
and our perceptions of them, as he fuppofes, arife from
an original arbitrary ftru£ture of our own minds, by
which certain obje&s, when obferved, are rendered the
occafions of certain fenfations and affedlions.
That many objedts give no pleafure to our ienfe is
obvious. Many are certainly void of beauty j but then,
fays this author, there is no form which feems necef-
farily difagreeable of itfelf, when we dread no other
evil from it, and compare it with nothing better of the
kind. Many objedls are naturally difpleafing and dif-
tafteful to our external fenfes, as well as others pleafing
and agreeable ; as fmells, taftes, and fome feparate
founds; but with regard to our fenfe of beauty, no
compofition of objedls which give not unpleafant Am¬
ple ideas, feems pofitively unpleafant or painful of it-
, felf, had we never obferved any thing better of the
fame kind.
Had there been a fpecies of the form which we now
denominate ugly or deformed, and had we never feen or
expedled greater beauty, we ffiould have received no
difguft from it j though the pleafure would not have
been fo great in this form as in thofe we now admire.
Our fenfe of beauty feems defigned to give us pofitive
pleafure; but not pofitive pain or difguft, any farther
than what arifes from difappointment.
There are indeed many faces which at firft view
are apt to raife difiike. But this is generally not from
any pofitive deformity ; but either from want of expect¬
ed beauty, or from the carrying fome natural indica¬
tions of morally bad difpofitions, which we all acquire
a faculty of difcerning in countenances, airs, and gef-
tures. That this is not occafioned by any form pofi¬
tively difgufting, appears hence, that if, upon long ac¬
quaintance, we are lure of finding fweetnefs of temper,
humanity, and cheerfulnefs, though the bodily form
continues, it (hall give us no difguft. There are hor¬
rors raifed by fome objeCts, which are only the effeCt of
fear for ourfelves, or compaffion towards others,. when
either reafon, or fome fooliffi affociation of ideas, makes
us apprehend danger; and not the effeCt of any thing
in the form itfelf. For we find, that moft of thofe ob-
jeCls which excite horror at firft, when experience or
reafon has removed the fear, may become the occafion
of pleafure.
The cafual conjunClion of ideas gives us difguft,
when there is nothing difagreeable in the form itfelf.
And this, in effedl, is the caufe of moft of our fanta-
ftic averfions to the figures of divers animals, &c.
Thus ferpents of all kinds, and many infeCts, really
beautiful enough, are beheld with averfion by many
people, who have got fome accidental ideas of mif-
chiCf affociated to them. A fimilar reafoning is ap-
9 ] D E F
plied to our perception of moral beauty and deformity. Deformity.
Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Vir- v
tue, paflim.
But it is more juft to diftinguifti between the fenti-
ments of delight or difguft, excited in us by beautiful
or deformed objefts, which are effefts of fome caufes,
and the natural and real qualities of the perceived ob¬
jects by which they are produced. There are objeCls,
fays an excellent writer, which have a natural aptitude
to pleafe or offend, or between which and the contem¬
plating mind there is a neceffary congruity or incon¬
gruity j and though the aCtual perception of the un-
derftanding, and confequent feeling of the heart, in
contemplating the aCtions and affeCtions of moral agents,
may exift in very different degrees, on account of the
incidental obfiruCtions arifing from bodily indifpofilion,
mental prejudices and biaffes, and the affociation of
ideas ; yet, to every rational mind properly difpofed,
morally good aCtions muft for ever be acceptable,
and can never of themfelves offend ; and morally evil
aCtions muft for ever be difagreeable, and can never of
themfelves pleafe. What is right in aCtions and cha¬
racters is beautiful and amiable, and gives pleafure $
what is wrong is deformed and odious, and excites dif»
guft : right and pleafure, wrong and pain, are as diftinCt
as caufe and effeCt. It is no lefs abfurd to maintain,
that the perception of virtue is nothing diftinCt from
the perception of the pleafure refulting from it, than to
infer, with fome metaphyficians, that folidity, exten-
fion, and figure, are only particular modes of fenfation,
becaufe attended, whenever they are perceived, with
fome fenfations of fight or touch. Thus does the au¬
thor (how, that moral beauty and deformity are real
qualities of certain aCtions ; in which confifts the^r ap¬
titude to pleafe or difguft. With refpeCt to natural
beauty, he obferves, that uniformity amidft variety
pleafes, becaufe of the natures of variety and uniformi¬
ty, which are fuch, that whenever united, they are
adapted to pleafe every unbiaffed mind that difcerns
them. He accounts for the pleafure they afford, with¬
out referring them to an arbitrary internal fenfe, by the
following circumftances that attend them. They are
more eafily comprehended by the mind : order and fym-
metry give things their liability and ftrength, and fub-
ferviency to any valuable purpofe *, regularity and order
evidence art and defign. Diforder and confufion,
whence deformity arifes, denote only the negation of
regularity and order j or any arrangement and difpofi-
tion of things, which are not according to a law, rule,
or plan, and prove not defign. Thefe are not pofi¬
tively difpleafing ; except where we previoully expeCt-
ed order, or where impotence or want of Hull appear,
and the contriver has either failed of his defign or exe¬
cuted it ill.
In a work entitled Fugitive Pieces, is preferved an
effay on Bodily Deformity, by William Hay, Efq.
who was himfelf what he defcribes, and who, while
he rallies his own figure, with great pleafantry, difcuf-
fes the general fubjeCt in a manner equally inftruCtive
and agreeable. He confiders, 1. The natural confe-
quences of bodily deformity ; 2. How it affeCts the out¬
ward circumftances j and, 3. What turn it gives to the
mind.
1. It is certain, that the human frame, being warp¬
ed and difproportioned, is leffened in ftrength and ac¬
tivity,
-D E F r 120 ] I) E F
Deformity, tivlty, and rendered lefs fit for its functions. Scar-
v n»n had invented an engine to take off his hat; “ and
I with (fays our author) I could invent one to buckle
my (hoe, or to take up a thing from the ground, which
I can fcaree do without kneeling, for I can bend my
body no farther than it is bent by nature. For this
realon, when ladies drop a fan or glove, I am not the
firll to take it up ; and often retlrain my inclination
to perform thofe little fervices, rather than expofe my
fpiderlike fhape. And I hope it wdll not be conftrued
as pride, if I do not always rife from my feat when I
ought: for if it is low, I find fome trouble in it j
and my centre of gravity is fo ill placed, that I am
often like to fall back. Things hanging within the
reach of others are out of mine } and what they can
execute with eafe, I want ftrength to perform. I
am in danger of being trampled upon or llifled in a
crowd, where my back is a convenient lodgment for
the elbow of any tall perfon that is near. I can fee
nothing, and my whole employment is to guard my
perfon. I have forborne to attend his majeily in the
houfe of peers fince I was like to be fqueezed to death
there againft the wall. I would willingly come thither
when his majefty commands, but he is too gracious to
exp* ft impoffibilities. Befides, when I get in, I caw
never have the pleafure of feeing on the throne one of
the belt princes who ever fat on it. Thefe, and many
others, are the inconveniences continually attending a
figure like mine. I hey may appear grievous to per-
fons not ufed to them, but they grow eafier by habit;
and though they may a little dillurb, they are not fuf-
ficient to deftroy the happinefs of life ; of which, at
an average, I have enjoyed as great a fhare as moft
men. And perhaps one proof of it may be my writing
this effay ; not intended as a complaint againft Provi¬
dence for my lot, but as an innocent amufement to my-
felf and others.
As to what effe
town, which was afterwards demolifhed by the Dutch.
The fame year they erefted a fort higher up the ri-'
ver, upon Tenecum ifland, which they called New
Gottenburgh : they alfo about the fame time built forts
at Chefter, Elfinburgh, and other places. John Prinz
then governed the Swedes, who, in 1654, deputed
his fon-in-law, John Papgoia, and returned to Sweden.
Papgoia foon followed his father-in-law to his native'
country, and John Ryfing fucceeded to the govern¬
ment. In 1655, Dutch, under the command of
Peter Stuyvefant, arrived in Delaware river, from
New Amfterdam (New York), in feven veffels, with 6
or 700 men. They difpoffeffed the Swedes of their
forts on the river, and carried the officers and princi¬
pal inhabitants prifoners to New Amfterdam, and from
thence to Holland. The common people fubmitted
to the conquerors, and remained in the country. On
the firft of October 1664, Robert Carr obtained
the fubmiffion of the Swedes on Delaware river. Four
years after, Col. Nicolls, governor of New York, with
hF council, on the 2lft of April, appointed a fcout
and five other perfons to affift Capt. Carr in the go¬
vernment of the country. In 1672, the town of New¬
castle was incorporated by the government of New
York, to be governed by a bailiff and fix affiftants j
after the firft year, the four oldeft were to leave their
office, and four others to be chofen. The bailiff was
prefident, with a double vote j the conftable was cho¬
fen by the bench. They had power to try caufes not
exceeding 10I. without appeal. The office of fcoutr
was converted into that of ffieriff, who hadjurifdic-
tion in the corporation and along the. river, and was
annually chofen. They were to have a free trade,
without being obliged to make entry at New York,
as had formerly been the pra£lice* Wampum was at
this time the principal currency of the country. Go¬
vernor Lovelace of New York, by proclamation, or¬
dered that four white grains and three black ones
fliould pafs for the value of a ftiver or penny. This
proclamation was publiffied at Albany, Efopus, De¬
laware, Long-ifland, and the parts adjacent. In 1674.
Charles II. by a fecond patent, dated June 29th, grant¬
ed to his brother duke of York all that country called
by the Dutch New Netherlands, of which the three
counties of Newcaftle, Kent, and Suffex, were a part.
In 1683, the duke of York, by deed dated Aug. 24th,
fold to William Penn the town of Newcaftle, with the
diftrift of 12 miles round the fame; and by another
deed of the fame date, granted to him the remainder
of the territory, which till the revolution was called
the Three Lower Counties. Thefe three counties were -
confidered as a part of Pennfylvania in matters of go--
vernmeat^
[ 127 1
D E L r I
Delaware.
vernment. The fame governor prefided over both : but
the aflembly and courts of judicature were different 5
different as to their conftituent members, but in form
nearly the fame. At the late revolution they became
a diftindt territory, called
The Delaware State. This flate is bounded on the
north by the territorial line which divides it from
Pennfylvania ; on the eaft by Delaware river and bay j
on the fouth, by a due eaft and weft line, from Cape
Henlopen, in lat. 38. 30. to the middle of the penin-
fula; and on the weft by Maryland. The climate is
in many parts unhealthy. The land is generally low
and flat, which occafions the water to ftagnate, and the
confequence is, the inhabitants are fubjedf to intermit-
tents.
The Delaware ftate is divided into three counties,
viz. Newcaftle, Kent, Suffex : the chief towns of which
are, Wilmington and Newcaftle, Dover, Milford, and
Lewiftown.
Three rivers, the Choptank, Nanticok, and Poko-
moke, have their fources in this ftate, and are navi¬
gable for veffels of 50 or 60 tons, 20 or 30 miles into
the country. They all run a wefterly courfe into
Chefapeak bay. The fourth part of the ftate is a low
flat country, and a confiderable portion of it lies in
foreft. What is under cultivation is chiefly barren, ex¬
cept in Indian corn, of which it produces fine crops.
In fome places rye and flax may be raifed, but wheat
is a foreigner in thefe parts. Where nature is deficient
in one refource, fhe is generally bountiful in another.
This is verified in the tall thick forefts of pines which
are manufactured into boards, and exported in large
quantities into every fea-port in the three adjoining
ftates. As you proceed north, the foil is more fertile,
and produces wheat in large quantities, which is the
ftaple commodity of the ftate. They raife all the
other kinds of grain common to Pennfylvania. The
ftate has no mountain in it, except Thunder Hill, in
the weftern part of Newcaftle county, and is general¬
ly level, except fome fmall parts, which are ftony and
uneven. The trade of this ftate, which is inconfider-
able, is carried on principally with Philadelphia, in
boats and fljallops. The articles exported are princi¬
pally wheat, corn, lumber, and hay.
There are in this ftate, 21 Prefbyterian congrega¬
tions, belonging to the fynod of Philadelphia ; feven
Epifcopal churches j fix congregations of Baptifts,
containing about 218 fouls ; four congregations of the
people called Quakers; befides a Swedifti church at
Wilmington, which is one of the oldeft churches in
the United States, and a number of Methodifts. All
thefe denominations have free toleration by the confti-
tution, and live together in harmony.
In the convention held at Philadelphia, in the fum-
mer of 1787, the inhabitants of Delaware were rec¬
koned at 37,000, which is about 26 for every fquare
mile. There is no obvious chara&eriftical difference
between the inhabitants of this ftate and the Pennfyl-
vanians. See Pennsylvania.
Under the prefent conftitution, the legiflature is
divided into two diftinfl branches, which together are
flyled The General Ajjembly of Delaware. One branch,
called the Houfe of Affembly, confifts of feven repr'efen-
tatives from each of the three counties, chofen annu¬
ally by the freeholders. The other branch, called the
28 ] DEL
Councily confifts of nine members, three for a county, Delaware
who muft be more than 25 years of age, chofen like- —-v-w
wife by the freeholders. A rotation of members is
eftabliftied by difplacing one member for a county at
the end of every year. All money bills* muft origi¬
nate in the houfe of affembly, but they may be alter¬
ed, amended, or rejected by the legiflative council. A
prefident or chief magiftrate is choien by the joint bal¬
lot of both houfes, and continues in office three years j
at the expiration of which period, he is ineligible the
three fucceeding years. If this office becomes vacant
during the recefs of the legiflature, or he is unable to
attend to bufinefs, the fpeaker of the legiflative coun¬
cil is vice-prefident for the time j and in his abfence
the powers of the prefident devolve upon the ipeaker
of the affembly. A privy council, confifting of four
members, two from each houfe, chofen by ballot, i«
conftituted to affift the chief magiftrate in the admini-
ftration of the government. The three juftices of
the fupreme court, a judge of admiralty, and four
juftices of the common pleas and orphans courts, are
appointed by the joint ballot of the prefident and ge¬
neral affembly, and commiffioned by the prefident to
hold their offices during good behaviour. The prefi¬
dent and privy council appoint the fecretary, the at¬
torney-general, regifters for the produce of wills, regi-
fters in chancery, clerks of the common pleas and or¬
phans courts, and the clerks of the peace, who hold
their offices during five years, unlefs fooner removed
for mal-condu£t. The houfe of affembly name 24 per-
fons in each county for juftices of peace, from which
number the prefident, with the advice of his council,
appoints and commiffions twelve, who ferve for feven
years, unlefs fooner difmiffed for mal-adminiftration.
The members of the legiflative and privy councils are
juftices of the peace for the whole ftate.—The courts
of common pleas and orphans courts have power to
hold chancery courts in certain cafes. The clerk of
the fupreme court is appointed by the chief juftice,
and the recorders of deeds by the juftices of the com¬
mon pleas, for five years, unlefs fooner difmiffed. All
the military and marine officers are appointed by the
general affembly. The court of appeals confifts of
feven perfons : the prefident, who is a member, and pre-
fides by virtue of his office, and fix others, three to
be chofen by tire legiflative council, and three by
the houfe of affembly. To this court appeals lie
from the fupreme court, in all matters of law and
equity. The judges hold their office during good be¬
haviour.
The juftices of the feveral courts, the members of
the privy council, fecretary, truftees of the loan of¬
fice, clerks of the common pleas, and all perfons con¬
cerned in army or navy contracts, are ineligible to ei¬
ther houfe of affembly. Every member, before taking
his feat, muft take the oath of allegiance, and fub-
fcribe a religious teft, declaring his belief in God the
Father, in Jefus Chrift, and the Holy Ghoft j and in
the infpiration of the Scriptures.
The houfe of affembly have the privilege of im¬
peaching delinquent officers of government; and im¬
peachments are to be profecuted by the attorney-ge¬
neral, or other perfons appointed by the affembly, and
tried before the legiflative council. The puniffiment
may extend to temporary or perpetual difability to
hold
DEL [ 129 ] DEL
Delaware hold offices under government, or to fuch other penal-
(| ties as the laws (hall dirett.
Delen. There is in Delaware no eftablifhment of one reli-
" ' gious feft in preference to another j nor can any
preacher or clergyman, while in his paftoral employ¬
ment, hold any civil office in the date.
DELEGATE, in a general fenfe, a deputy or com-
miffioner.
Delegates, commiffioners appointed by the king
under the great feal, to hear and determine appeals
from the ecclefiadical court.
Court of Delegates, the great court of appeal in
all ecclefiaftical caufes. Thefe delegates are appointed
byithe king’s commiffion under his great feal, and if-
fuing out of chancery, to reprefent his royal perfon,
and hear all appeals to him made by virtue of the fta-
tute 25 Henry VIII. c. 19. This commiffion is ufual-
ly filled with lords fpiritual and temporal, judges of
the courts at Wefiminifter, and do&ors of the civil
law. Appeals to Rome were always looked upon by
the Engliffi nation, even in the times of Popery, with
an evil eye, as being contrary to the liberty of the fub-
jeft, the honour of the crown, and the independence
of the whole realm ; and were firft introduced, in very
turbulent times, in the 16th year of King Stephen
(A. D. 1151,) at the fame period (Sir Henry Spel-
man obferves) that the civil and canon laws were firft
imported into England. But in a few years after, to
obviate this growing practice, the conftitutions made
at Clarendon, 11 Hen. II. on account of the difturb-
ances railed by Archbiffiop Becket and other zealots of
the holy fee, exprefsly declare, that appeals in caufes
ccclefiaftical ought to lie from the archdeacon to the
tliocefan ; from the diocefan to the archbiffiop of the
province ; and from the archbiffiop to the king *, and
are not to proceed any farther without fpecial licenfe
from the crown. But the unhappy advantage that was
given in the reign of King John, and his fon Hen. III.
to the encroaching power of the Pope, who was ever
vigilant to improve all opportunities of extending his
jurifdi&ion to Britain, at length rivetted the cuftom
of appealing to Rome in caufes ecclefiaftical fo ftrong-
ly, that it never could be thoroughly broken off till
the grand rupture happened in the reign of Hen. VIII.
when all the jurifdidtion ufurped by the pope in matters
ecclefiaftical was reftored to the crown, to which it
originally belonged *, fo that the ftatute 25 Hen. VIII.
was but declaratory of the ancient law of the realm.
But in cafe the king himfelf be party in any of thefe
fuits, the appeal does not then lie to him in chancery,
which would be abfurd j but, by the 24 Henry VIII.
c. 12. to all the biffiops of the realm, sffembled in the
upper houfe of convocation.
DELEGATION, a commiffion extraordinary given
by a judge to take cognifance of, and determine, fome
caufe which ordinarily does not come before him.
Delegation, in Scots Law. See Law Index.
DELEN, Dirk Van, an eminent painter of ar-
chiteflure and perfpe£live, was born at Heuiden,
but in what year is not known. He was a difciple of
Francis Hals, in whofe fchool he pra6fifed to paint
thofe particular fubjefts which were moft efteemed by
that mafler, fuch as portraits and converfations j and
by that means he acquired the (kill to defign figures
with a great deal of fpirit and corre&nefs. But his
VOL. VII. Part I.
predominant inclination diredled him to paint archi-
te&ure and perfpeftive j and thofe he ftudied with fo
much care, as to make his works admired and coveted
through the Low Countries. His fubje&s were the in-
fides of churches, filled with figures; grand temples;
magnificent falcons and galleries, with people affembled
at concerts of mufic, feafting, or dancing. Thole fub-
je£ts he finiffied highly ; his architecture was in a noble
tafte ; and the figures were well defigned, as well as
grouped with a great deal of judgment. Several au¬
thors mention the performances of this mailer with large
commendation, for the goodnefs of his invention, and
neatnefs of his handling.
DELETERIOUS, an appellation given to things of
a deftrudive or poifonous nature. See Poison.
DELFT, a town of the United Provinces, and
capital of Delftland in Holland. It is a pretty large
place, very clean and well built, with canals in the
ftreets, planted on each fide with trees. The pub¬
lic buildings, efpecially the town-houfe, are very mag¬
nificent. Here are two churches ; in one is the tomb
of the prince of Orange, who was affaffinated ; and in
the other, that of Admiral Tromp. It has a fine arfenal,
well furniffied ; is about two miles in circumference,
and is defended again!! inundations by three dams
or dikes. Here is made a prodigious quantity of
fine earthen-ware called delft ware ; but the town
has no other trade. It is pleafantly fituated among
the meadows on the river Shie, in E. Long. 4. 13.
N. Lat. 32. 6.
DELFT-lVare, a kind of pottery of baked earth, co¬
vered with an enamel or white glazing, which gives it
the appearance and neatnefs of porcelain. Some kinds
of this enamelled pottery differ much from others, ei¬
ther in their fuftaining fudden heat without breaking,
or in the beauty and regularity of their forms, of their
enamel, and of the painting with which they are or¬
namented. In general, the fine and beautiful enamel¬
led potteries, which approach the neareft to porcelain
in external appearance, are, at the fame time, thofe
which leaft refill a brilk fire. Again, thofe which fuf-
tain a fudden heat, are coarfe, and referable common
pottery.
The balls of this pottery is clay, which is to be
mixed, when too fat, with fuch a quantity of fand, that
the earth ffiall preferve enough of its dudility to be
worked, moulded, and turned eafily ; and yet that its
fatnefs ffiall be fufficiently taken from it, that it may
not crack or Ihrink too much in drying or in baking.
Veffels formed of this earth mull be dried very gently
to avoid cracking. They are then to be placed in a
furnace to receive a flight baking, which is only meant
to give them a certain confiftence or hardnefs. And,
laftly, they are to be covered with an enamel or glazing,
which is done, by putting upon the veffels thus prepa¬
red the enamel, which has been ground very fine, and
diluted with water.
As veffels on which the enamel is applied are but
flightly baked, they readily imbibe the water in which
the enamel is fufpended, and a layer of the enamel ad¬
heres to their furface ; thefe veffels may then be painted
with colours compofed of metallic calces, mixed and
ground with a fufible glafs. When they are become
perfe it were toward
the extremity of one of the wings, you come again to
fepulchres hewn in the rock, and to a femicircular re-
cefs or niche with a feat as on the other fide. Higher
up than the village is the hollow of the ftadium, in
which were fome feats and fcattered fragments.
Higher up, within the village, is a piece of ancient
wall, concealed from view by a fhed, which it fup-
ports. The ftone is brown, rough, and ordinary,
probably that of ParnalTus. On the fouth fide are
many infcriptions, with wide gaps between the letters,
which are negligently and faintly cut; all nearly of the
fame tenor, and very difficult to copy. They regifter
the purchafe of flaves who had entrufted the price of
their freedom to the god : containing the contraft be¬
tween Apollo and their owners, witneffed by his
priefts and by fome of the archons. This remnant
feems to be part of the wall before Caffotis ; as above
it is ftill a fountain, which fupplies the village with ex¬
cellent water, it is likely from the ancient fource.
The water of Caftalia in the neighbourhood, from
which the Pythia, and the poets who verfified her an¬
fwers, were believed to derive a large fhare of their
infpiration, defcends through a cleft of Parnaffus ; the
rock on each fide high and fteep, ending in two fum-
mits ; of which one was called Hyampeia, and had be¬
neath it the facred portion of Autonous, a local hero
as diftinguifhed as Phylacus. From this precipice the
Delphians threw down the famous A£fop. By the
ftream within the cleft, are feen fmall broken flairs
leading to a cavity in which is water, and once per¬
haps up to the top. Grooves have been cut, and the
marks of tools are vifible on the rock ; but the cur¬
rent, inftead of fupplying a fountain, now paffes over
its native bed, and haftens down a courle deep-worn
to join the Pliftus. Clofe by, at the foot of the eaftern
precipice,
DEL [ 135 ] DEL
Delphos
II
Deluge.
Era of the
deluge.
precipice, is a bafon with fteps on the margin, once,
it is likely, the bath ufed by the Pythia. Above, in
the fide of the mountain, is a pretty church dedicated
to St John, within which are excavations refembling
niches, partly concealed from view by a tree.
DELTA, is a part of Lower Egypt, which takes
up a confiderable fpace of ground between the branches
of the Nile and the Mediterranean fea: the ancients
called it the rjle of Delta, becaufe it is in the lhape of
a triangle, like the Greek letter of that name. It is
about 130 miles along the coaft from Damietta to A-
lexandria, and 70 on the fides from the place where
the Nile begins to divide itfelf. It is the moft plenti¬
ful country in all Egypt, and it rains more there than
in other parts, but the fertility is chiefly owing to the
inundation of the river Nile. The principal towns
on the coaft are Damietta, Rofetta, and Alexandria 5
but, within land, Menoufia, and Maala or Elmala.
DELTOIDES, in Anatomy. See Anatomy, Table
of the Mufcles.
DELUGE, an inundation or overflowing of the
earth, either wholly or in part, by water.
We,have feveral deluges recorded in hiftory; as that
of Ogyges, which overflowed almoft all Attica 5 and
that of Deucalion, which drowned all Theffaly in
Greece 5 but the moft memorable was that called the
Univerfal Deluge, or Noah's Flood, which overflowed
and deftroyed the whole earth ; and from which only
Noah, and thofe with him in the ark, efcaped.
This flood makes one of the moft confiderable
epochas in chronology. Its hiltory is given by Mofes,
Gen. ch. vi. and vii. Its time is fixed, by the beft
chronologers, to the year from the creation 1656, an-
fwering to the year before Chrift 2293. From this
flood, the ftate of the world is divided into diluvian
and antediluvian. See Antediluvians.
Among the many teftimonies of the truth of this
part of the Mofaic hiftory, we may account the ge¬
neral voice of mankind at all times, and in all parts of
a the world. The objections of the free-thinkers have
Obje&ions indeed principally turned upon three points, viz. 1. The
to the fadt. Want of any direCl hiftory of that event by the profane
writers of antiquity 5 2. The apparent impoflibility of
accounting for the quantity of water neceffary to over¬
flow the whole earth to fuch a depth as it is faid to
have been ; and, 3. There appearing no neceflity for
an univerfal deluge, as the fame might have been ac-
complifhed by a partial one.
I. The former of thefe objeflions has given rife to
feveral very elaborate treatifes, though all that has yet
been done in this way has fcarcely been able to filence
the objeCtors. Mr Bryant, in his Syftem of Mythology,
has with great learning and confiderable fuccefs endea¬
voured to ftiow, that the deluge was one of the prin¬
cipal, if not the only foundation of the Gentile wor-
fhip ; that the firft of their deities was Noah 5 that all
nations of the world look up to him as their founder j
and that he, his fons, and the firft: patriarchs, are al¬
luded to in moft if not all of the religious ceremonies,
not only of the ancient but of the modern heathens. In
fhort, according to this author, the deluge, fo far from
being forgot, or obfcurely mentioned by the heathen
world, is in reality confpieuous throughout every one
of their afts of religious worftiip.
Xhe Egyptian Oliris, according to him, was the fame
with Ham the fon of Noah, though the name was iome- Deluge,
times beftowed on Noah himfelf. That this is the cafe, > " '-y »■■■■»
is evident, he thinks, from its being faid that he was 3 }
expofed in the ark, and afterwards reftored to day : a(>coUnt 0f
that he planted the vine, taught mankind agriculture, the ancient
and inculcated upon them the maxims of religion and heroes,
juftice. Something of the fame kind is related of
Perfeus. He is reprefented by fome ancient hiftorians
as a great aftronomer, and well verfed in other fciences.
After being conceived in a Ihower of gold, he was ex¬
pofed in an ark upon the waters, and is faid to have
had a renewal of life.—The hiftory of Myrina the A-
mazon affords a kind of abridgement and mixture of
the hiftories of Ofiris and Perfeus. Similar to thefe
is the hiftory of Hercules himfelf. But our author ob-
ferves, that under the titles of OJiris, Perfeus, Mijrina,
&c. the ancients fpoke of the exploits of a whole na¬
tion, who were no other than the Cuthites or Cufh-
ites, the defcendants of Culh the fon of Ham and
father of Nimrod. Thefe people fpread themfelves
into the moft remote corners of the globe ; and hence
the heroes whom they reprefented are always fet forth
as conquering the whole world.—According to Dio¬
dorus Siculus, the Egyptian Oliris was the fame with
the Dionufus of the Greeks. He is faid to have been
twice born, and to have had two fathers and two mo¬
thers j to have been wonderfully preferved in an ark j
to have travelled all over the earth \ taught the ufe
of the vine, to build, plant, &c. The Indians claim
him as a native of their country, though fome allow
that he came from the weft. Of Cronus and Aftarte,
it is faid that they went over the whole earth, dif-
pofing of the countries as they pleafed, and doing good
wherever they came. The fame is related of Oura-
nus, Themis, Apollo, &c. though all their exploits
are faid to have been the effects of conqueft, and
their benevolence enforced by the fword. In a fi-
milar manner he explains the hiftories of other heroes
of antiquity ; and having thus, in the characters and
hiftory of the moft celebrated perfonages, found
traces of the hiftory of Noah and his family, our
author proceeds to inquire into the memorials of
the deluge itfelf, to be met with in the hiftory or
religious rites of the different nations of antiquity. 4
“ We may reafonably fuppofe (fays he), that the par-
ticulars of this extraordinary event would be grate-^
fully commemorated by the patriarch himfelf, and be met
tranfmitted to every branch of his family j that they with in
were made the fubjeft of domeftic converfe, where ^eaJ^en
the hiftory was often renewed, and ever attended with avK 0lSj
a reverential awe and horror, efpecially in thofe who
had been witneffes to the calamity, and had experien¬
ced the hand of Providence in their favour. In pro-
cefs of time, when there was a falling off from the
truth, we might farther expedt, that a perfon of fo
high a character as Noah, fo particularly diftinguilhed
by the Deity, could not fail of being reverenced by
his pofterity j and when idolatry prevailed, that he
would be one of the firft among the fons of men to
whom divine honours would be paid. Laftly, we
might conclude, that thefe memorials would be inter¬
woven in the mythology of the Gentile world j and that
there would be continual allufions to thefe ancient oc¬
currences in the rites and myfteries as they were prac-
tifed by the nations of the earth. In conformity to
thefe t
„ s
Varions
titles by
which
Noah was
DEL [136
Deluge, thefe fuppofitions, I fhall endeavour to (hew that thefe
things did happen ; that the hiftory of the deluge was
religioufly preferved in the firfl: ages j that every cir-
cumftance of it is to be met with among the hiftorians
and mythologies of different countries : and traces of
it are to be found, particularly in the facred rites of
Egypt and of Greece.
“ It will appear from many circumftances in the
more ancient writers, that the great patriarch was
j\oati was highly reverenced by his pofterity. They looked up
diftinguifli- to as a Per^on highly favoured by heaven ; and ho¬
ed. noured him with many titles, each of which had a re¬
ference to fome particular part of his hiftory. They
ftyled him Prometheus, Deucalion, Atlas, Sheuth, Zuth,
Xuthus, Inachus, OJiris. When there began to be a
tendency towards idolatry, and the adoration of the
fun was introduced by the pofterity of Ham, the title
of Helms, among others, was conferred upon him.
They called him alfo Mijv and Mav, which is the moon.
When colonies went abroad, many took to themfelves
the title of Mmyadce and from him 5 juft as
others were denominated Acha-menida, Auritce, Heliadce,
from the fun. People of the former name are to be
found in Arabia and in other parts of the world. The
natives at Orchomenos were ftyled Minyce, as were
fome of the inhabitants of Theffaly. Noah was the
original Zeus and Dios. He was the planter of the
vine, and inventor of fermented liquors : whence he
was denominated Zeuth, which fignifies ferment, ren¬
dered Zeus by the Greeks. He was alfo called Dio-
nufos, interpreted by the Latins Bacchus, but very im¬
properly. Bacchus was Chus, the grandfon of Noah ;
as Ammon may in general be efteemed Ham, fo much
reverenced by the Egyptians.
“ Among the people of the eaft, the true name of
the patriarch was preferved ; they called him Noas,
Naus, and fometimes contracted Nous ; and many pla¬
ces of fanftity, as well as rivers, were denominated
from him. Anaxagoras of Clazomene had obtained
fome knowledge of him in Egypt. By him the pa¬
triarch was denominated Noas or Nous ; and both he
and his difciples were fenfible that this was a foreign
appellation $ notwithftanding which, he has aCted as if
it had been a term of the Greek language. Eufebius
informs us, that the difciples of Anaxagoras fay, ‘ that
Nous is, by interpretation, the deity Dis or Dios;
and they likewife efteem Nous the fame as Prome¬
theus, becaufe he was the renewer of mankind, and
was faid to have faftiioned them again,1 after they
had been in a manner extinCt. After this, however,
he gives a folution of the ftory, upon the fuppofition
that Nous is the fame with the Greek word vs#?, the
mind : that ‘ the mind was Prometheia; and Prome¬
theus was faid to renew mankind, from new forming
their minds, and leading them, by cultivation, from
ignorance.1
“ Suidas has preferved, from fome ancient author,
a curious memorial of this wonderful perfonage, whom
he affe&s to diftinguifh from Deucalion, and ftyles
Nannacus. According to him, this Nannacus was
a perfon of great antiquity, and prior to the time of
Deucalion. He is faid to have been a king, who
forefeeing the approaching deluge, collefted every
body together, and led them to a temple, where he
offered up his prayers for them, accompanied with
] BEL
many tears. There is likewife a proverbial expref-
fion about Nannacus applied to people of great anti- 6
quity. ' 'J
“ Stephanus gives great light to this hiftory, and fup-
plies many deficiencies. “ The tradition is (fays he), that
there was one formerly named Annaeus, the extent of
whofe life was above 300 years. The people who were
of his neighbourhood and acquaintance had inquired of
an oracle how long he was to live j and there was an
anfwer given, that when Annaeus died, all mankind
would be deftroyed. The Phrygians, upon this ac¬
count, made great lamentations, from whence arofe
the proverb re S7r< Airvax-y the lamentation of
Annaeus, made ufe of for people in circumftances
highly calamitous. When the flood of Deucalion
came, all mankind were deftroyed, according as the
oracle had foretold. Afterwards, when the furface of
the earth began to be again dry, Zeus ordered Prome¬
theus and Minerva to make images of clay in the form
of men ; and, when they were finiftred, he called the
winds, and made them breathe into each, and render
them vital.”
From thefe hiftories Mr Bryant concludes as fol¬
lows : ^ However the ftory may have been varied,
the principal outlines plainly point out the perfon who
is alluded to in thefe hiftories. It is, I think, mani-
feft, that Annaeus, and Nannacus, and even Inachus,
relate to Noachus or Noah. And not only thefe, Inacl^s
but the hiftories of Deucalion and Prometheus have Deucalion,
a like reference to the patriarch 5 in the 600th year, and Prome-
and not the 300th, of whofe life the waters pre. theus»the
vailed upon the earth. He was the father of man-^mehWltk
kind, who were renewed in him. Hence he is repre- °ah‘
fented by another author, under the charader of
Prometheus, as a great artift, by whom men were
formed anew, and were inftruded in all that was
good.
“ Noah was the original Cronus and Zeus ; though
the latter is a title conferred fometimes upon his fon
Ham. There is a very particular expreftion recorded
by Clemens of Alexandria, and attributed to Pytha¬
goras, who is faid to have called the fea the tear of
Clonus; and there was a farther tradition concerning
this perfon, that he drank, or fwallowed up all his
children. The tears of Ills are reprefented as very
myflerious. They are faid to have flowed whenever
the Nile began to rife, and to flood the country. The
overflowing of that river was the great fource of af¬
fluence to the people, and they looked upon it as their
chief blefling ; yet it was ever attended with myftical
tears and lamentations. This was particularly ob-
ferved at Coptos, where the principal deity was Ifis.
An ancient writer imagines that the tears and lamen¬
tations of the people were to implore an inundation j
and the tears of Ifis were fuppofed to make the river
fwell. But all this was certainly faid and done in me¬
morial of a former flood, of which they made the over¬
flowing of the Nile a type.
As the patriarch was by fome reprefented as a
king called NdacJius or NoucJius $ fo by others he was
fly led Inachus, and fuppofed to have reigned at Argos.
Hence Inachus was made a king of Greece ; and
Phoroneus and Apis brought in fucceflion after him.
But Inachus was not a name of Grecian original ^ it
is mentioned by Eufebius, in his account of the firfl;
ages,
DEL [ i
Deluge, ages, that there reigned in Egypt Telegonus a prince
of foreign extra&ion, who was the fon of Ones the
fhepherd, and the feventh in defcent from Inachus.
And in the fame author Ave read, that a colony went
forth from that country into Syria, where they found¬
ed the ancient city of Antioch; and that they were
conduced by Cafus and Belus, who Avere fons of Ina¬
chus. By Inachus is certainly meant Noah ; and
the hiftory relates to fome of the more early defcen-
dants of the patriarch. His name has been rendered
very unlike itfelf, by having been lengthened Avith
terminations, and likewife fafhioned according to the
idiom of different languages. But the circumflances
of the hiftory are -fo precife and particular, that Ave
cannot mifs of the truth.
“ He feems in the eaft to have been called Noas,
NoaGs, Nufus, and Nus ; and by the Greeks his name
Avas compounded The Ammonians, wherever
they came, founded cities to his honour j hence places
called Nufa, will often occur; and indeed a great many
of them are mentioned by ancient authors. Thefe,
though Avidely diftant, being fituated in countries far
removed, yet retained the fame original hiltories; and
Avere generally famous for the plantation of the vine.
Milled by this fimilarity of traditions, people in after
times imagined that Dionufus muft neceffarily have
been Avhere his hiftory occurred; and as it Avas the
turn of the Greeks to place every thing to the account
of conqueft, they made him a great conqueror, Avho
Avent over the face of the Avhole earth, and taught
mankind the plantation of the vine. We are informed,
that Dionufus went Avith an army over the face of the
Avhole earth, and taught mankind, as he paffed along,
the method of planting the vine, and how to prefs
out the juice, and receiv'e it in proper veffels. Though
the patriarch is reprefented under various titles, and
even thefe not always uniformly appropriated ; yet
there Avill continually occur fuch peculiar circumftances
of his hiftory as will plainly point out the perfon re¬
ferred to. The perfon preferved is always mentioned
as preferved in an ark. He is dtferibed as being in a
flate of darknefs, Avhich is reprefented allegorically as
a ftate of death. He then obtained a new life, which
is called a fecond birth ; and is faid to have his youth
renewed. He is, on this account, looked upon as the
firft-born of mankind ; and both his antediluvian
and poftdiluvian dates are commemorated, and fome-
times the intermediate ftate is alfo fpoken of. Diodo¬
rus calls him Deucalion i but deferibes the deluge as
in a manner univerfal. ‘ In the deluge which hap¬
pened in the time of Deucalion, almoft all flefti died.’
Apollodorus having mentioned Deucalion e» Xupxxi,
conjigned to the ark, takes notice upon his quitting
it, of his offering up an immediate facrifice to the
God who delivered him. As he Avas the father of all
mankind, the ancients have made him a perfon of
very extenfive rule ; and fuppofed him to have been a
king. Sometimes he is deferibed as a monarch of
the whole earth ; at other times he is reduced to a
petty king of Theffalv. He is mentioned by Hella-
dias in this latter capacity ; Avho fpeaks of the deluge
in his time, and of his building altars to the gods.
Apollonius Rhodius fuppofes him to have been a na¬
tive of Greece, according to the common notions :
but notwithftanding his prejudices he eives fo parti-
Vol. VII. Part I.
7 ] DEL
cular a character of him, that the true hiftory cannot
be miftaken. He makes him indeed the fon of Pro- v -f
metheus, the fon of Japetus ; but in thefe ancient my¬
thological accounts all genealogy muft be entirely difc
regarded. Though this character be not precifely
true, yet we may learn that the perfon reprefented Avas
the firft: of men, through Avhom religious rites Avere
reneAved, cities built, and civil polity eftablilhed in the
Avorld ; none of Avhich circumftances are applicable to
any king of Greece. We are affured by Philo, that
Deucalion Avas Noah ; and the Chaldeans likewife men¬
tioned him by the name of Xifuthrus, as Ave are inform¬
ed by Cedrenus. 7
“ That Deucalion was unduly adjudged by the Deucalion
people of Theffaly to their country folely, may be Pn'ved not
r r 1 r . . • • j- rr J . . rto have be-
proved irom his name occurring m different parts Oflonfretjto
the Avorld, and ahvays accompanied Avith fome hiftory xheffaly.
of the deluge. The natives of Syria laid the fame
claim to him. He Avas fuppofed to hae’e founded the
temple at Hierapolis, Avhere was a chafm through
Avhich the Avaters after the deluge Avere faid to have
retreated. He Avas likeAvife reported to have built
the temple of Jupiter at Athens ; where there Avas a
cavity of the fame nature, and a like tradition, that the
waters of the flood paffed off through this aperture.
HoAvever groundlefs the notions may be of the Avaters
having retreated through thefe paffages, yet they ftiow
Avhat impreflions of this event Avere retained by the
Ammonians, who introduced fome hiftory of it where-
ever they came. As different nations fucceeded one
another in thefe parts, and time produced a mixture of
generations, they varied the hiftory, and modelled it
according to their notions and traditions ; yet the
ground-work was always true, and the event for a long
time univerfally commemorated. Jofcphus, Avho feims
to have been a perfon of extenfive knowledge, and
verfed in the hiftories of nations, fays, that this great
occurrence was to be met Avith in the writings of all
perfons Avho treated of the firft ages. He mentions
Berofus of Chaldea, Hieronymus of Egypt, who Avrote
concerning the antiquities of Phoenicia ; alfo Alnafeas,
Abydenus, Melon, and Nicolaus Damafcenus, as Avri-
ters, by whom it Avas recorded, and adds, that it was
taken notice of by many others. 3
“ Among the eaftern nations, the traces of this Axccuntsof
event are more vivid and determinate than thofe of^J^00^
Greece, and more conformable to the accounts of Mo- eaftern inn-
fes, Eufebius has preferved a moft valuable extradl tonons.
this purpofe from Abydenus; which was taken from
the archives of the Medes and Babylonians. This
writer fpeaks of Noah, whom he names Seifithrus, as a
king; and fays, that the flood began upon the 15th
day of the month Delius ; that during the prevalence
of the waters, Seifithrus fent out birds, that he might
judge if the flood had remained ; but that the birds,
not finding any refting place, returned to him again.
This Avas repeated three times ; when the birds were
found to return Avith their feet ftained with foil ; by
Avhich he knew the flood Avas abated. Upon this
he quitted the ark, and Avas never more feen of men,
being taken away by the gods from the earth. Aby¬
denus concludes Avith a particular, in Avhich the eaftern
Avriters are unanimous ; that the place of defcent from
the ark rvas in Armenia, and fpeaks of its remains be¬
ing preferved for a long time. Plutarch mentions the
S Noachic
DEL [ 138 ] DEL
Twinge. Noacliic dove, and its being fent out of the ark. But
^ the moft particular hillory of the deluge, and the near¬
ed of any to the account given by Mofes, is to be
found in Lucian. He was a native of Samofata, a
city of Comagene, upon the Euphrates, a part of
the world where memorials of the deluge were par¬
ticularly preferved, and where a reference to that
hi ‘lory was Continually kept up in the rites and worlhip
of the country. His knowledge, therefore, was obtained
from the Afiatic nations among whom he was born,
and not from his kinfmen the Helladians, who were far
inferior in the knowledge of ancient times. He de¬
scribes Noah under the name of Deucalion; and fays,
* that the prefent race of mankind are different from
tbofe who firit exifled ; for thofe of the antediluvian
world were all deltroyed. The prefent world is peopled
from the fons of Deucalion j having increafed to fo
great a number from one perfon. In refpef! to the
former brood, they were men of violence, and lawlefs
so their dealings. They regarded not oaths, nor ob-
ferved the rights of hofpitality, nor {bowed mercy to
thofe who (ued for it. On this account they were
doomed to deftruflion ; and for this purpofe there was
a mighty eruption of waters from the earth, attended
with heavy {bowers from above j fo that the rivers
{welled, and the fea overflowed, till the whole earth
was covered with a flood, and all flefli drowned. Deu-
calion' alone was preferved to repeople the world,
i his mercy was fhown to him on account of his piety
and juftice. His prefervatiun was effedted in this man¬
ner : He put all his family, both his fons and their
wives, into a vaft ark which he had provided, and he
went into it himfelf. At the fame time animals of
every fpecies, boars, horfes, lions, ferpents, whatever
lived upon the face of the earth, followed him by pairs;
all which he received into the ark, and experienced
no evil from them ; for there prevailed a wonderful
harmony throughout, by the immediate influence of
the Deity. Thus were they wafted with him as long
as the flood endured.’ After this he proceeds to
mention, that upon the difappearing of the waters,
Deucalion went forth from the ark, and raifed an altar
to God ; but he tranfpofes the feene to Hierapolis in
Syria, where the natives pretended, as has been al¬
ready mentioned, to have very particular memorials of
9 the deluge.
Remains of “ Molt of the authors who have tranfmitted to us
the ark faid thefe accounts, at the fame time, inform us, that the
to have remains of the ark were to be feen in their days on one
viiible# °‘ the mountains of Armenia. Abydenus particular¬
ly fays, in confirmation of this opinion, that the people
of the country ufed to get fmall pieces of the wood,
which they carried about by way of amulet. And Be-
rofus mentions, that they feraped off the afphaltus with
which it was. covered, and ufed it as a charm. Some of
the fathers feem to infift on the certainty of the ark
being ftill remaining in their time. Theophilus fays
exprefsly, that the remains were to be feen upon the
mountains of Aram, or Armenia. And Chryfoftom
appeals to it as a thing well known. ‘ Do not
(fays he) thofe mountains of Armenia bear witnefs to
the t uth ? thofe mountains where the ark firft refted ?
A d are not the remains of it preferved there even un¬
to his day.’
“ There was a cuflom among the prieffs of Ammon,
of carrying a boat in proceflion at particular feafons, Dej ^
in which was an oracular (brine held in great venera- ■ v- '_j
tion. They were faid to have been 80 in number, 10
and to have carried the facred veffel about juff as they ^oats or
were dirtcied by the impulfe of the Deity. This cu-
ffom was likewife in ufe among the Egyptians j and etfiion by°*
Biibop Pocock has preferved three fpecimens of ancient the Ammo,
fculpture, wherein this ceremony is difplayed. They r,'ar,s anc^
a-e of wonderful antiquity, and were found by him in
Upper Egypt.
“ Part ot the. ceremony in moft of the ancient tny-
fteries confifted in carrying about a fliip or boat j which
cuftom, upon due examination, will be found to relate
to nothing elfe but Noah and the deluge. The ftiip of
Ills is well known, and the feftivity among the TEgyp-
tians whenever it was carried in public. The name of
this, and of all the navicular {brines, was Baris; which
is remarkable, for it was the very name of the moun¬
tain, according to Nicolaus Damaicenus, on which the
ark of Noah refted, the fame as Ararat in Armenia.
He mentions, that there is a large mountain in Arme¬
nia, which ftands above the country of the Minya^,
called Baris ; to this it was faid that many people be¬
took tkemfelves in the time of the deluge, and were
faved ; and there is a tradition of one perfon in parti¬
cular floating in an ark, and arriving at the fummit of
the mountain. We may be affured, then, that the
(hip of Ifis was a facred emblem ; in honour of which
there was among the Egyptians an annual feftival. It
was in after times admitted among the Homans, and
fet down in their kalendar for the month of Pvlarch.
i he former, in their defeription of the primary deities,
have continually fome reference to a fliip or float.
Hence we frequently read of vxvriXXtairn (failing
gods). They oftentimes, fays Porphyry, deferibe the
fun in the character of a man failing upon a float. And
Plutarch obferves to the fame purpofe, that they did
not reprefent the fun and moon in chariots, but wafted
about upon floating machines. In doing which they
did not refer to the luminaries, but to a perfon repre-
fented under thofe titles. The fun, or Orus, is like¬
wife deferibed by Jamblicbus as fitting upon the lotus,
and failing in a veffel.
“ It is {"aid of Sefoftris, that he conftru&ed a ftiip Wonderful
which was 280 cubits in length. It was of cedar, fliip of Se-
plated without with gold, and inlaid with fiiver ; andr°ftrisex-
it was, when finiftied, dedicated to Ofiris at Thebes.
It is not credible that there (hould have been a ftiip of
this fize, efpecially in an inland diftridt, the moft re¬
mote of any in Egypt. It was certainly a temple and
a fhrine. The former rvas framed upon this large
fcale ; and it was the latter on which the gold and fil-
ver were {b lavifhly expended. There is a remarkable
circumftance relating to the Argonautic expedition ;
that the dragon {lain by Jafon was of the fize of a
trireme ; by which muft be meant, that it was of the
fliape of a ftiip in general, for there were no triremes
at the lime alluded to. And I have moreover fhown,
that all thefe dragons, as they have been reprefented by.
the poets, were in reality temples, Dracontia ; where, ,
among other rites, the worftiip of the ferpent was in-
ftituted. There is therefore reafon to think, that this
temple, as well as that of Sefoftris, was faftiioned, in
refpedl to its fuperficial contents, after the model of
a as to the latter, it was probably intended
ia-r
DaJu^O.
12
Other em¬
blematical
reprefenta-
tions ex¬
plained.
DEL [ 139 ] ' D E L
in its outlines, to be the exa& reprefentation of the
ark, in commemoration of which it was certainly built.
It was a temple facred to Ofiris at Theba:- or, to fay
the truth, it was itfelf called Theba; and both the
city, faid to be one of the moft ancient in Egypt, as
well as the province, were undoubtedly denominated
from it. Now Theba was the name of the ark. It is
the very word made ufe of by the facred writer ; fo
that we may, I think, be affured of the prototype
after which this temple was faihioned. It is faid in¬
deed to have been only 280 cubits in length j whereas
the ark of Noah was 300. But this is a variation of
only one-fifteenth in the whole : and as the ancient
cubit was not in all countries the fame, we may fup-
pofe that this difparity arofe rather from the manner of
meafuring, than from any real difference in the. extent
of the building. It was an idolatrous temple, faid to
have been built by Sefoftris in honour of Ofiris. I
have been repeatedly obliged to take notice of the ig¬
norance of the Greeks in refpeft to ancient titles,
and have ftiown their mifapplication of terms in many
inftances j efpecially in their fuppofing temples to have
been ere&ed by perfons to whom they were in reality
facred. Sefoflris was Ofiris ; the fame as Dionufus,
Menes, and Noah. He is called Seifithrus by Abyde-
nus j Xixouthros by Berofus and Apollodorus j and is
reprefented by them as a prince in whofe time the de¬
luge happened. He was called Zuth, Xuth, and Zeus ;
and had certainly divine honours paid to him.
“ Paufanias gives a remarkable account of a temple
of Hercules at Evulhra in Ionia j which he mentions
as of the highelt antiquity, and very like thofe of
Egypt. The deity was reprefented upon a float, and
was fuppofed to have come thither in this manner from
Phoenicia. Ariftides mentions, that at Smyrna, upon
the feaft called Dionysta, a (hip ufed to be carried in
proceflion. The fame cuftom prevailed among the
Athenians at the Panathensea ; when what was termed
the facred fliip was borne with great reverence through
the city to the temple of Dameter at Eleufis. At
Phalerus, near Athens, there were honours paid to an
unknown hero, who was reprefented in the ftern of a
fliip. At Olympia, the moft facred place in Greece,
was a reprefentation of the like nature. It was a
building like the fore-part of a fliip, which flood facing
the end of the hippodromus $ and towards the middle
of it was an altar, upon which, at the renewal of each
olympiad, certain rites were performed.
“ I think it is pretty plain that all thefe emblemati¬
cal reprefentations, of which I have given fo many in¬
ftances, related to the hiftory of the deluge, and the
confervation of one family in the ark. I his hiftory
was pretty recent when thefe works were executed
in Egypt, and when the rites were firft eftabliftied :
and there is reafon to think, that in early times moft
fhrines of the Mizraim were formed under the refem-
blance of a ftiip, in memory of this great event. Nay,
farther, both fliips and temples received their names
from thence, being ftyled by the Greeks, who bor¬
rowed largely from Egypt, Nxvs, and Naaj, and mari¬
ners Nutvrx, Nautce, in reference to the patriarch, who
was varioully ftyled Noas, Nous, and Noah.
“ However the Greeks may in their myfteries have
fometimes introduced a ftiip as a fymbol, yet in their
reference to the deluge itfelf, and to the perfons pre-
ferved, they always fpeak of an ark. And though fttlnge.
they were apt to mention the fame perfon under va- va¬
rious titles, and by thefe means different people feem
to be made principals in the fame hiftory •, yet they
were fo far uniform in their account of this particular
event, that they made each of them to be expoftd in
an ark. Thus it is faid of Deucalion, Perfeus, and
Dionufus, that they were expofed upon the waters in.
a machine of this fabric. Adonis was hid in an ark
by Venus, and was fuppofed to have been in a ftate of
death for a year. Theocritus introduces a paftoral
perfonage named Comates, who was expofed in an ark
for the fame term, and wonderfully preferved. Of
Ofiris being expofed in an ark we have a very remark¬
able account in Plutarch ; who mentions, that it was
on account of Typhon, and that it happened on the
17th of the month Athyr, when the fun was in Scor¬
pio. This, in my judgment, was the precife time
when Noah entered the ark, and when the flood came,
which, in the Egyptian mythology, was called 7y-
phon. 13
“ Typhon is one of thofe whofe charaifter has been^xplana-
greatly confounded. This has arifen from two differ-
ent perfonages being included under one name, ^
undoubtedly were diftinguifhed in the language of E-
gypt. Typhon was a compound of Tuph or Tvpha-
On; and fignified a high altar of the Deity. There
were feveral fuch in Egypt, upon which they offered
human facrifices ; and the cities which had thefe al¬
tars were ftyled Typhonian. But there was another
Typhon, who was very different from the former, how¬
ever by miflake blended with that charaifter. By this
was fignified a mighty whirlwind and inundation ; and
it oftentimes denoted the ocean *, and particularly the
ocean in a ferment. For, as Plutarch obferves, by
Typhon was underftood any thing violent and unruly.
It was a derivative from Tuph, like the former name ;
which Tuph feems here to have been the fame as the
Suph of the Hebrews. By this they denoted a whirl¬
wind \ but among the Egyptians it was taken in a
greater latitude, and fignified any thing boifterous,
particularly the fea. Plutarch fpcaks of it as denoting
the fea ; and fays likewife, that the fait of the fea
was called the foam of Typhon. It fignifitd alfo a
whirlwind, as we learn from Euripides, who expreffts
it Tuph os; and the like is to be found in Hefychius,
who calls it a violent wind.
“ The hiftory of Typhon was taken from hiero-
glyphical deferiptions. In thefe the dove, ovias, was
reprefented as hovering over the mundane egg, which
was expofed to the fury of Typhon: For an egg,
containing in it the elements of life, was thought no
improper emblem of the ark, in which were preferved
the rudiments of the future world. Hence/in the
Dionuflaca, and in other myfteries, one part of the
nocturnal ceremony confifted in the confecration of an
egg. By this, we are informed by Porphyry, was
fignified the world. This world was Noah and his fa¬
mily j even all mankind, inclofed and preferved in the
ark.
“ In refpefl to Typhon, it muft be confeffed that
the hiftory given of him is attended with fome obfeu-
rity. The Grecians have comprehended feveral cha-
raffers under one term, which the Egyptians undoubt¬
edly diftinguifhed. The term was ufed for a title a*
S 2 w eEf
DEL [ 140 ] DEL
'■Delude, well as a name : and feveral of thofe perfonages which
had a relation to the deluge were ftyled Typhonian or
Diluvian. All thefe the Grecians have included un¬
der one and the fame name, Typhon. The real deity
by whom the deluge was brought upon the earth had
the appellation of Typhonian, by which was meant
Diluvii Deus (a). It is well known that the ark was
conilru£ted by a divine commiffion : in which, when
it was completed, God inclofed the patriarch and his
family. Hence it is faid, that Typhon made an ark
of curious workmanlhip, that he might difpofe of the
body of Otiris. Into this Ofiris entered, and was {hut
up By Typhon. All this relates to the Typhonian
deity who inclofed Noah, together with his family,
within the limits of an ark. The patriarch alfo, who
was thus interefted in the event, had the title of Ty¬
phonian. I have Ihown that the ark by the mytho-
logifts was fpoken of as the mother of mankind. The,
flay in the ark was looked upon as a ftate of death
and of regeneration. The paffage to life was through
the door of the ark, which was formed in its fide.
Through this the patriarch made his defcent; and at
this point was the commencement of time. This hi-
flory is obfcurely alluded to in the account of Typhon;
of whom it is faid, that without any regard to time
or place, he forced a paffage and burft into light ob¬
liquely through the fide of his mother. This return
to light was defcribed as a revival from the grave ; and
Plutarch accordingly mentions the return of Ofiris
from Hades, after he had been for a long feafon in¬
clofed in an ark and in a ftate of death. This re¬
newal of life was by the Egyptians efteemed a fecond
Hate of childhood. They accordingly, in their hiero¬
glyphics, defcribed him as a boy, whom they placed
upon the lotus or water-lily, and called him Orus. He
was the fuppofed fon of Ifis; but it has been fhown
that Ifis, Rhea, Atargatis, were all emblems of the
ark, that receptacle which was ftyled the mother of
mankind. Orus is reprefented as undergoing from
the Titans all that Ofiris fuffered from Typhon ; and
the hiftory at bottom is the fame. Hence it is faid
of Ifis, that {he had the power of making people im¬
mortal ; and that when {he found her fon Orus, in the
midft of the waters, dead through the malice of the
Titans, flie not only gave him a renewal of life, but
alfo conferred upon him immortality.”
In this manner does our author decipher almoft all
the ancient fables, of which no fatisfa&ory folution was
ever given before. He {hows that the primitive gods of
Egypt, who were in number eight, were no other than
the eight perfons faved in the ark; that almoft all the
heathen deities had one way or other a reference to
Noah. He {hows that he was chara&erifed under the
titles of Janus, Nereus, Proteus, Oannes, Dagon, &c.
&c. and in fliort, that the deluge, fo far from being
unknown to the heathens, or forgot by them, was in
a manner the bafis of the whole of their worfhip. Ht*
traces the hiftory of the raven and dove fent forth by
Noah in the cuftoms of various nations, not only in Delueet
the eaft but the weft alfo. Of the numberlefs tefti- —
monies of the truth of this part of facred hiftory to
be met with among the weftern nations, however, we
fhall felett one more, which is an ancient coin ufually
known by the name of the Apamean medal. “TheA 14
learned Falconerius (fays Mr Bryant) has a curious th^Apl-
differtation upon a coin of Philip the Elder, which mean me«
was ftruck at Apamea (b), and contained on its re-dal*
verfe an epitome of this hiftory. The reverfe of moft
Afiatic coins relates to the religion and mythology of
the places where they were ftruck. On the reverfe of
this coin is delineated a kind of fquare machine float¬
ing upon the water. Through an opening in it are
feen two perfons, a man and a woman, as low as the
breaft ; and upon the head of the woman is a veil.
Over this ark is a triangular kind of pediment, on
which there fits a dove ; and below it another, which
feems to flutter its wings, and hold in its mouth a fmall
branch of a tree. Before the machine is a man fol-
lowing. a woman, who by their attitude feem to have
juft quitted it, and to have got upon dry land. Upon
the ark itfelf, underneath the perfons there inclofed,
is to be read in diftindl chara&ers, NOE. The learn¬
ed editor of this account fays, that it had fallen to his
lot to meet with three of thefe coins. They were of
brafs, and of the medallion fize. One of them lie
mentions to have feen in the colleflion of the duke of
Tufcany ; the fecond in that of the cardinal Ottoboni ;
and the third was the property of Auguftino Chigi,
nephew to Pope Alexander VII.” ’
Not content with thefe teftimonies, however, which Accounts
are to be met with in the weftern regions, or at leaft the flood
in thofe not very far to the eaftward, our author {howsto be met
that “the fame mythology (of the Egyptians), andtS^a
the lame hieroglyphs, were carried as far as China Japan,
and Japan ; where they are to be found at this day.
I he Indians have a perfon whom they call Buto or
Budo. T his is the fame as Boutus of Egypt, Battus
of Gyrene, and Boeotus of Greece : the account gi¬
ven of him is fimilar to that of Typhon; for it is faid
that he did not come to life in the ufual way, but
made himfelf a paffage through the fide of his mother ;
which mother is reprefented as a virgin. This hiftory,
though now current among the Indians, is of great
antiquity, as we may learn from the account given of
this perfonage by Clemens Alexandrinus. “ There is
a caft of Indians (fays he) who are difciples of Bou-
tas. This perfon, on account of his extraordinary
fan&ity, they look up to as a god.” The name of
Boutas, Battus, and Boeotus, though apparently con¬
ferred upon the patriarch, yet originally related to the
machine in which he was preferved. Of this fome
traces may be found among the Greeks. One of the
Ammonian names for the ark was Aren, or Arene •
and Boeotus is faid by Diodorus Siculus to have been
the fon of Neptune and Arne, which is a contraflion
of arene the ark. The chief city, Boutus in Egypt,
where
(a) “ Plutarch owns that the Egyptians in fome inftances efteemed Typhon to be no other than Helius the
chief deity ; and they were in the right, though he will not allow it.”
(b) Our author had before ftiown that the ancient name of Apamea was Cibotus, one of the names of the
ark.
BEL [14
Deluge, where was the floating temple, fjgnifitd properly the
1—V——'city of the float or ark. The Boeotians, who in the
Dionufiaca fo particularly commemorated the ark, were
fuppofed to be defcended from an imaginary perfonage
Bceotus; and from him likewife their country was
thought to have received its name. But Bceotus was
merely a variation from Boutus, and Butus, the ark ;
which in ancient times was indifferently ftyled Theba,
Argus, Aren, Butus, and Boeotus. The term Cibo-
tus is a compound of the fame purport, and fignifies
both the temple of the ark and alfo a place for (hip-
ping.
All the myfferies of the Gentile world feem to
have been memorials of the deluge, and of the event
which immediately fucceeded. They confifted for the
moft part «f a melancholy procefs ; and were celebra¬
ted by night, in commemoration of the ftate of darknefs
in which the patriarch and his family had been invol¬
ved. The firft thing at tbofe awful meetings was to
offer an oath of fecrecy to all who were to be initiated :
after which they proceeded to the ceremonies : thefe
Explanation began with a defcription of chaos ; by which was figni-
of the word fled fome memorial of the deluge. Chaos was certain-
Chaoi. ly the fame as /3u0«j, the great abyfs* Who, fays Epi-
phanius, is fo ignorant as not to know, that Chaos and
Buthos, the abyfs, are of the fame purport ?
“ The names of the deities in Japan and China, and
the form of them, as well as the mythology with which
they are attended, point out the country from whence
they originally came. In China the deity upon the
lotus in the midff of waters, has been long a favourite
emblem, and was imported from the weft : the in-
ligne of the dragon was from the fame quarter. The
Cuthites worftiiped Cham, the fun ■, whofe name they
varioufly compounded. In China moft things which
have any reference to fplendour and magnificence, feem
to be denominated from the fame objeft. Cham is
faid, in the language of that country, to fignify any
iMyngfupreme. Cum is a fine building or palace, fimi-
lar to Coma of the Ammonians. Cum is a lord or ma¬
iler j Cham a fceptre. Laftly, by Cham is fignified a
prieft, analogous to the Chamanim and Chamenim of
Cutha and Babylonia. The country itfelf is by the
Tartars called Ham. The cities Cham-ju, Campion,
Compition, Cumdan, Chamul, and many others of the
fame form, are manifeftly compounded of the facred
term Cham. Cambalu, the name of the ancient me¬
tropolis, is the city of Cham-bal j and Milton ftyles it
very properly Cambalu, feat of Cathaian Chan. By
this is meant the chief city of the Cuthean monarch $
for Chan is a derivative of Cahen, a prince. It fee ms
fometimes in China and Japan to have been expreffed
Quan and Quano.
“ Two temples are taken notice of by Hamilton, near
Syrian in Pegu, which he reprefents as fo like in ftruc-
ture, that they feemed to be built on the fame model.
One of thefe was called Kiakiack, or the God of Goas
temple. The other is called the temple of Dagun ; and
the doors and windows of it are perpetually {hut, fo that
none can enter but the priefts. They will not tell of
what ftiape the idol is, but only fay that it is not of
human form. The former deity, Kiakiack, is repre-
fented as afleep, of a human (hape, and 60 feet long ;
and when he awakes, the world is to be deftroyed. As
jfoon as Kiakiack has diffblved the frame and being of
4
i ] DEL
this world, Dagun will gather up the fragments, and Delude,
make a new one. I make no doubt but the true name <—■ y——
of the temple was lach-Iach, and dedicated to the
fame god as the Jachufi in Japan. Mr Wife takes no¬
tice of the Grecian exclamation to Dionufus, when the
terms lacche, 0 lacche, were repeated : and he fuppofes,
with great probability, that the Peguan name had a
reference to the fame deity. It is certain, that the
worfhip of Dionufus prevailed very early among the
nations in the eaft. The Indians ufed to maintain,
that his rites firft began among them. Profeffor Bayer
has drown, that traces of his worlhip are ftill to be ob-
ferved among the Tamuli of Tranquebar. “ They
have a tradition- (fays he), that there was once a gigan¬
tic perfon named Maidajhuren, who was born of Nifa-
dabura near the mountain Meru. He had the horns
of a bull, and drank wine, and made war upon the gods.
He was attended by eight Pudam, who w'ere gigantic
and mifchievous dtemons, of the family of thofe Indian
ftiepherds called Kobalerl" In this account we have
a manifeft reference to the hiftory of Dionufus, as
well as that of the Dionufians, by whom his rites were
introduced. And we may perceive that it bears a
great refemblance to the accounts tranfmitted by the
Grecians. What are thefe Kobaler who were de¬
fcended from the (hepherds, but the fame as the Cobali
of Greece, the uniform attendants upon Dionufus ? a
fet of priefts whofe cruelty and chicanery rendered
them infamous. * The Cobali (fays an ancient author)
were a fet of cruel daemons, who followed in the retinue
of Dionufus. It is a term made ufe of for knaves and
cheats.'
As the deity, in the (econd temple of Syrian,
to which ftrangers were not admitted, was not of a hit¬
man form, and was called Dagun, we may eafily con¬
ceive the bidden'ehara£ler under which he was defcri-
bed. We may conclude, that it was no other than
that mixed figure of a man and a fifti, under which he
was of old worfhipped both in Paleftine and Syria.
He is expreffed under this fymbolical reprefentation in
many parts of India j and by the Bramins is called
Wiftnou or Vifhnou. Dagon and Vifhnou have a like
reference. They equally reprefent the man of the fea,
called by Berofus Oannes; whofe hiftory has been re-
verfed by the Indians. They fuppofe that he will re-
ftore the world, when it (hall be deftroyed by the chief
God. But by Dagon is fignified the very perfon
through whom the earth has been already reftored
when it was in a ftate of ruin, and by whom mankind
was renewed. Dagon and Noah, I have ftiown to be
the fame. Viftinou is reprefented, like Dagon, under
the mixed figure of a man and a fifti, or rather of a
man, a princely figure, proceeding from a fifti. The
name of this diftridt, near which the temples above
ftand, we find to be called Syrian ; juft as was named
the region where flood the temples of Atargatis and
Dagon. Syrus, Syria, and Syrian, are all of the fame
purport, and fignify Coeleftis and Solaris, from Sehor,
the fun.”
Our author next proceeds to defcribe fome of the
Indian temples or pagodas 5 particularly thofe of Sal-
fette, Elephanta, and another called Elora, near Au-
runghabad in the province of Balagate, which was
vifited by Thevenot. The traveller relates, that
“ upon making diligent inquiry among the natives
about
DEL [ r
. Deluge, about tbe origin of thefe wonderful buildings, the con-
V"~~ ftant tradition was, that all thefe pagodas, great and
fmall, with all their works and ornaments, were made
by giants ; but in what age they could not tell.
“ Many of thefe ancient ftruflures (continues Mr
Bryant) have been attributed to Riwijcandcr, or Alex¬
ander the Great; but there is nothing among thefe
{lately edifices that in the leaf! favours of Grecian
workmanfhip ; nor bad that monarch, nor any of the
princes after him, opportunity to perform works of
this nature. We have not the lead reafon to think
that they ever poffeiTed the country ; for they were
called off from their attention this way by feuds and
engagements nearer home. There is no tradition of
this country having been ever conquered except by the
fabulous armies of Hercules and Dionufus. What has
led people to think that thefe works were the operation
of Alexander, is the fimilitude of the name Ramtxan-
der< To this perfon they have fometimes been attri¬
buted ; but Ramtxander w-as a deity, the fuppofed
fon of Bal ; and he is introduced among the perfon-
ages who were concerned in the incarnations of Vifli-
nou.
“ The temple of Elora, and all the pagodas of
which I have made mention, muft be of great antiquity,
as the natives cannot reach their era. They were un¬
doubtedly the work of the Indo-Cuthites, who came
fo early into thefe parts. And that thefe ftruflures
were formed by them, will appear from many circum-
llances ; but efpecially from works of the fame magni¬
ficence which were performed by them in other places.
For fcarce any people could have effected fuch great *
works, but a branch of that family which erected the
tower in Babylonia, the walls of Baalbec, and the py¬
ramids of Egypt.”
Having then defcribed a number of Eaft Indian
idols of furprifing magnitude, “ the Babylonians and
Egyptians (fays he), and all of the fame great family,
ufed to take a pleafure in forming gigantic figures, and
exhibiting other reprefentations equally ftupendous.
Such were the coloffal flatues at Thebes, and the
tphinx in the plains of Coume, I. he ftatue erected
by Nebuchadnezzar in the plains of Dura, was in
height threefcore Babylonifh cubits. It was proba¬
bly railed in honour of Cham, the fun ; and perhaps it
was alfo dedicated to the head of the Chaldaic family,
who was deified, and reverenced under that title.
Marcellinus takes notice of a ftatue of Apollo named
Cornells j which, in the time of the emperor Verus, was
brought from Seleucia to Rome. This related to the
fame deity as the preceding. We may alfo infer, that
the temple at Kamju was erefted to Cham the fun,
whom the people worfliipped under the name of Samo-
nifu?'
It is remarkable, that in Japan the pnefts and no¬
bility have the title of Garni. The emperor Quebacon-
dono, in a letter to the Portuguefe viceroy, 1585, tells
him that Japan is the kingdom of Chamis ; whom,
fays he, we hold to be the fame as Scin, the origin of
all things. By Scin is probably meant San, the fun,
who was the fame as Cham, rendered here ChamiL
The laws of the country are fpoken of as the laws of
Chamis ; and we are told by Kaempfer, that all the
gods were ftyled either Sin or Cami. The founder of
the empire is faid to have been Tenfto Dai Sin or
42 ] DEL
“ Tenfio the god of light.” Near his temple was a
cavern religioufty vifited, upon account of his having
been once hid, when no fun nor ftars appeared. He
was efteemed the fountain of day, and his temple was
called the temple of Naiku. Near this cavern was ano¬
ther temple, in which the canufi or priefts {hawed an
image of the deity fitting upon a cow. It was called
Dainits No Ray, “ the great reprefentation of the fun.”
One of their principal gods is Jakujt, fimilar to the
lacchus of the weft. Kaempfer fays, that he is the
Apollo of the Japanefe, and they deferibe him as the
Egyptians did Orus. His temple ftands in a town
called Minnoki; and Jakufi is here reprefented upon a
gilt tarate flower ; which is faid to be the nymphcea pci*
Inf ris maxima, or faba Egyptiaca of Profper Alpinus.
One half of a large feallop thell is like a canopy placed
over him ; and his head is furrounded with a crown of
rays. They have alfo an idol named Menippe, much
reverenced in different parts. Both thefe, continues
our author, relate to the fame perfon, viz. Noah.
Kaempfer, an author of great credit, faw the temple
of Dabys, which he truly renders Daibod, at Jedo in
Japan. By Daibod was meant the god Budha, whofe
religion was ftyled the Rudfo, and which prevailed
greatly upon the Indus and Ganges. Ksempfer, from
whom Mr Bryant takes this account, fays, that the
people of Siam reprefent him under the form of a
Moor, in a fitting pofture, and of a prodigious fize.
His Ikin is black, and his hair curled (probably), and
the images about him are of the fame complexion.
“ This god was fuppofed (fays Mr Bryant) to have
neither father nor mother. By Budha we are certain¬
ly to underftand the idolatrous fymbol called by fome
nations Ruddo j the fame as ybngus and Eheba (names
for the ark). In the mythology concerning it, we
may fee a reference both to the machine itfelf and to
the perfon preferved in it. In confequence of which
we find this perfon alfo ftyled Bod, Budha, and Bud-
do ; and in the weft Batus, Battus, and Bceotus. He
was faid by the Indians not to have been born in the
ordinary way, but to have come to light indire&ly
through the fide of his mother. By Clemens of
Alexandria he is called Bouta; and in the hiftory of
this perfon, however varied, we may perceive a re¬
lation to the arkite deity of the fea, called Pofeidon
or Neptune ; alfo to Arculus and Dionufus, ftyled
Baotus and Thebanus. Kaempfer has a curious hiftory
of a deity of this fort called Bhutto; whofe temple
flood in the province of Bungo, upon the fea-fhore,
near the village of loma. About a quarter of a
German mile before you come to this village, flands
a famous temple of the god Abutto ; which is faid to
be very eminent for miraculoufly curing many invete¬
rate diftempers, as alfo for procuring a wind and good
paffage. for this reafon, failors and palfengers al¬
ways tie fome farthings to a piece of wood, and throw
it into the fea, as an offering to this Abutto, to obtain
a favourable wind. The fame deity, but under a dif¬
ferent name, w'as worftiipped in China. The Apis,
Mneuis, and Anubis of Egypt, have often been men¬
tioned and explained, as well as the Minotaur of Crete.
The fame hieroglyphics occur in Japan ; and we are
informed by Marco Polo, that the inhabitants worfhip
idols of different ftiapes. Some have the head of an
ox, fome of a fwine, and others the head of a doe.
Th#
Deli'
DEL [i
Deluge. The moft common reprefentation in this country is
—-y—~ that of Godfo Ten Go, or ‘ the ox-headed prince of
heaven.’
“ It has already been noticed, that the ark was
reprefented under the fymbol of an egg, called the
mundane egg ; which was expofed to the rage of Ty-
phon. It was alfo deferibed under the figure of a lu¬
nette, and called Selene, the moon. The perfon by
whom it was framed, and who through its means was
providentially preferved, occurs under the charadler of
a fleer, and the machine itfelf under the femblance of
a cow or heifer. We have moreover been told that
it was called Cibotus, which Clemens of Alexandria
calls Thebothn. Epiphanius mentions it by the name
Idaal Baoth; and fays that, according to an eaftern
tradition, a perfon named Nun w'as preferved in it.
The horfe of Neptune was another emblem, as was
alfo the hippopotamus or river-horfe. The people of
Elis made ufe of the tortoife for the fame purpofe,
and reprefented Venus as refting upon its back. Some
traces of thefe hieroglyphics are to be found in Japan,
which were certainly carried thither by the Indie E-
thiopians.
“ From an account of a temple of Daiboth (probably
the fame with Daibod) at Meaco in Japan, we may
perceive that the people there fpeak of the renewal
of the world at the deluge as the real creation, which
I have fhown to be a common miftake in the hiftories
of the event. And though the ftory is told with fome
variation, yet in all the circumftances of confequence
it accords very happily with the mythology of Egypt,
Syria, and Greece. It matters not how the emblems
have by length of time been mifinterpreted. We have
the mundane egg upon the waters, and the concomi¬
tant fymbol of the moon ; and the egg at la A opened
by the afliftance of the facred fleer, upon which, the
world iflues forth to this day.” The author proceeds
afterwards to mention the great veneration paid in
thefe parts to the ox and cow j and fays, that nobody
dares injure them. One deity of the Japanefe was
Canon, the reputed lord of the ocean. He was repre¬
fented in an ere E L
waters, and mankind and all that breathed perilhed. neiu
But Vilhnou took upon himfelf the form above de- '! ^
fcribed, and diving to the bottom of the fea, lifted up
the earth out of the waters,,and placed it, together
with the ferpent of a thoufand heads, upon the back of
a tortoife. ^
“ In the third volume of M. Perron’s Zendavefta Acc<>unt of
there is an account given of the cofmogony of thethe cofmo'
Perfees ; alfo of the fubfequent great events that en- deWe'^
fued. The fupreme Deity, called by him Ormifdaygw
both in the fmall feas, which according to his hypo¬
thefis were in the antediluvian earth (for he allows no
great ocean there as in ours), and alfo in the abyfs
which was under the upper cruft of the earth. And
this tide would rife and increafe all the time of the
approach of the comet towards the earth ; and would
be at its greateft height when the comet was at its
leaft diftance from it. By the force of which tide,
as alfo by the attraftion of the comet, he judges, that
the abyfs muft put on an elliptical figure, whofe fur¬
face being confiderably larger than the former fpheri-
cal one, the outward cruft of the earth, incumbent on
the abyfs, muft accommodate itfelf to that figure,
which it could not do while it held folid, and conjoined
together. He concludes, therefore, that it muft of ne-
ceffity be extended, and at laft broken by the violence
of the faid tides and attraction ; out of which the in¬
cluded water iffuing, was a great means of the deluge j
this anfwering to what Moles fpeaks of the “ foun¬
tains of the great deep being broken open.”—Again,
the fame comet, he (hows, in its defcent towards the
fun, paffed fo clofe by the body of the earth, as to in¬
volve it in its atmofphere and tail for a confiderable
time j and of confequence left a vaft quantity of its
vapours, both expanded and condenfed, on its furface j
a great part of which being rarefied by the folar
heat, would be drawn up into the atmofphere, and
afterwards return in violent rains; and this he takes
to be what Mofes intimates by “ the windows of hea¬
ven being opened,” and particularly by the “ forty
days rain.” For as to the following rain, which with
this made the whole time of raining 150 days, Mr
Whifton attributes it to the earth coming a fecond
time within the atmofphere of the comet, as the comet
was on its return from the fun. Laftly, to remove
this vaft orb of waters again, he fuppofes a mighty
wind to have arifen, which dried up fome, and forced
the reft into the abyfs through the clefts by which
it came up : only a good quantity remained in the al¬
veus of the great ocean, now firft made, and in leffer
feas, lakes, &c. This theory was at firft only propofed
as an hypothefis j but, on further confideration, Mr
Whifton thought he could aClually prove that a comet
did at that time pafs very near the earth, and that it
was the fame which afterwards appeared in 1688.
After this he looked upon his theory no longer as an
hypothefis, but publiffied it in a particular trad, en¬
titled The Caufe of the Deluge demonf rated. But the
uncertainty of the comet’s return in 1758, and the
abfolute failure of that which ought to have appeared
in 1788 or 1789, muft certainly render Mr Whifton’s
calculations for fueh a length of time extremely du¬
bious : and the great fimilarity between the tails of co¬
mets, and ftreams of electric matter, renders his fup-
pofitioa
Beluge.
*7 „
Theory of
Mr de la
Fryme.
a8
Hutchinfo-
nian theo¬
ry-
BEL [x
pofitlon of their being aqueous vapours exceedingly im-
1 probable.
5. According to Mr de la Pryme, the antediluvian
world had an external fea as well as land, with moun¬
tains, rivers, &c. and the deluge was effected by break¬
ing the fubterraneous caverns and pillars thereof, with
dreadful earthquakes, and caufing the fame to be for
the molt part, if not wholly, abforbed and fwallowed
up, and covered by the feas that we now have. Laft-
ly, th is earth of ours arofe out of the bottom of the
antediluvian fea: and in its room, juft as many iflands
are fwallowed dawn, and others thruft up in their ftead.
On this, as on all the other hypothefes, it may be re¬
marked, that it is quite arbitrary, and without the leaft
foundation from the words of Mofes. The facred hi-
ftorian fpeaks not one word of earthquakes, nay, from
the nature of the thing, we know it is impoffible that
the flood could have been occafioned by an earth¬
quake, and the ark preferved, without a miracle. It
is certain, that if a fliip finks at fea, the commotion
excited in the water by the defcent of fuch a large
body, will fwallow up a fmall boat that happens to come
too near. If the pillars of the earth itfelf then were
broken, what muft the commotion have been, when
the continents of Europe, Afia, and Africa, defcend-
ed into the abyfs at once j not to mention America,
which lying at fo great a diftance from Noah, he
might be fuppofed out of danger from that quarter.
By what miracle was the little ark preferved amidft
the tumult of thofe impetuous waves which muft have
rufhed in from all quarters ? Befides, as the ark was
built not at fea, but on dry ground, when the earth
on which it refted funk down, the ark muft have funk
along with it; and the waters falling in as it were over¬
head, muft have dallied in pieces the ftrongeft veffel
that can be imagined. Earthquakes, alfo, operate fud-
denly and violently j whereas, according to the Mofaic
account, the flood came on gradually, and did not ar¬
rive at its height till fix weeks, or perhaps five months,
after it began.
6. Mr Hutchinfon and his followers prefent us with
a theory of the deluge, which they pretend to derive
from the word of God itfelf. This theory hath been
particularly enlarged upon and illuftrated by Mr Cat-
cot, who in 1768 publilhed a volume on the fubjeft.
This gentleman afferts, that when the world was firft
created, at the time when it is faid to have been “ with¬
out form and void,” the terreftrial matter was then
entirely diflolved in the aqueous ; fo that the whole
formed, as it were, a thick muddy water. The figure
of this mafs was fpherical 5 and on the outfide of this
fphere lay the grofs dark air. Within the fphere of
earth and water was an immenfe cavity, called by
Mofes the deep; and this internal cavity was filled with
air of a kind fimilar to that on the outfide. On the
creation of light, the internal air received elafticity
fufficient to burft out through the external covering
of earth and water. Upon this the water defcended,
filled up the void, and left the earth in a form fimilar
to what it hath at prefent. Thus, according to him,
the antediluvian world, as well as the prefent, con-
fifted of a vaft colleftion or nucleus of water, called the
great deep, or the abyfs; and over this the fhell of
earth perforated in many places; by which means the
waters of the ocean communicated with the abyfs.
47 ] DEL
The breaking up of thefe fountains was occafioned by Deluge,
a miraculous preffure of the atmofphere, from the im- —'—v'—
mediate adlion of the Deity himfelf. So violent was
this preffure, that the air defcended to where it bad
been originally •, occupied the fpace of the abyfs j and
drove out the waters over the whole face of the dry
land. But this account, fo far from being infallibly
certain, feems inconfiftent with the moft common ob-
fervation. No preffure, however violent, will caufe
water rife above its level, unlefs the preffure is unequal.
If, therefore, the atmofphere entered into the fuppofed
abyfs, by a vehement preffure on the furface of the
ocean, that preffure muft only have been on one place,
or on a few places j and even though we fuppofe the
atmofphere to have been the agent made ufe of, it is
impoflible that it could have remained for any time
in the abyfs without a continued miracle ; as the pref¬
fure of the water would immediately have forced it up
again through thofe holes which had afforded it a paf-
fage downwards.
The explication given from Hutchinfon by Mr Cat-
cot, of the “ windows of heaven,” is fomewhat ex¬
traordinary. According to him, thefe windows are
not in heaven, but in the bowels of the earth $ and
mean no more than the cracks and fiffures by which
the airs, as he calls them, found a paffage through the
(hell or covering of earth, which they utterly diffolved
and reduced to its original ftate of fluidity. It is, how¬
ever, difficult to conceive how the opening of fuch
windows as thefe, could caufe a violent rain for 40 days
and nights.
It is not to be fuppofed, that we can pretend to af-
certain any thing on the fubjeff more than others have
done. The following conjectures, however, may be
offered on the manner in which the deluge might have
happened, without any violence to the eftablifhed laws
of nature.
I. If we confider the quantity of water requifite for Another
the purpofe of the deluge, it will not appear fo very ex-theory»
traordinary as has been commonly reprefented. The
height of the higheft hills is thought not to be quite
four miles. It will therefore be deemed a fufficient
allowance, when we fuppofe the waters of the deluge
to have been four miles deep on the furface of the
ground. Now it is certain, that water, or any other
matter, w^hen fpread out at large upon the ground,
feems to occupy an immenfe fpace in comparifon of
what it does when contained in a cubical veffel, or
when packed together in a cubical form. Suppofe
we wanted to overflow a room 16 feet every way, or
containing 256 fquare feet, with water, to the height
of one foot, it may be nearly done by a cubical veffel
of fix feet filled with water. A cube of eight feet will
cover it two feet deep, and a cube of ten feet will very
nearly cover it four feet deep. It makes not the leaft
difference whether we fuppofe feet or miles to be co¬
vered. A cube of ten miles of water would very near¬
ly overflow 256 fquare miles of plain ground to the
height of four miles. But if we take into our account
the vaft number of eminences with which the furface
of the earth abounds, the above-mentioned quantity of
water would do a great deal more. If, therefore, we
attempt to calculate the quantity of water fufficient to
deluge the earth, we muft make a very confiderable
allowance for the bulk of all the hills on its fuiface.
T 2 To
BEL [ 148 ] BEL
Deluge. To confider this matter, however, In its utmoft lati-
—“"V 1 tude : The furface of the earth is fuppofed, by the
latelf computations, to contain 199,512,595 fquare
miles. To overflow this furface to the height of four
miles, is required a parallelepiped of water 16 miles
deep, and containing 49,878,148 fquare miles of fur¬
face. Now, confidering the immenfe thicknefs of the
globe of the earth, it can by no means be improbable,
that this whole quantity of water may be contained in
its bowels, without the neceflxty of any remarkable
abyfs or huge colle&ion of water, fuch as molt of our
theorifts fuppofe to exift in the centre. It is certain,
that as far as the earth has been dug, it bath been
found not dry, but raoift j nor have we the leafl
reafon to imagine, that it is not at lead equally moift
all the way down to the centre. How moift it really
is cannot be known, nor the quantity of water requi-
fite to impart to it the degree of moifture it lias j but
we are fure it muft be immenfe. The earth is com¬
puted to be near 8000 miles in diameter. The ocean
is of an unfathomable depth ; but there is no reafon
for fuppofing it more than a few miles. To make all
reafonable allowance, however, we {hall fuppofe the
whole folid matter in the globe to be only equal to a
cube of 5000 miles ; and even on this fuppofition we
fhall find, that all the w'aters of the deluge would
Jiot be half fufficient to moiften it The above-men¬
tioned parallelepiped of water would indeed contain
798,050,368 cubic miles of the fluid ; but the cube
of earth containing no lefs than an hundred and twenty
five thoufand millions of cubic miles, it is evident that
the quantity afligned for the deluge would fcarce be
known to moiften it. It could have indeed no more
effeeft this way, than a Angle pound of water could have
upon 150 times its bulk of dry earth. We are per-
fuaded, therefore, that any perfon who will try by ex¬
periment how much water a given quantity of earth
contains, and from that experiment will make calcula¬
tions with regard to the whole quantity of water contain¬
ed in the bowels of the earth, muft be abundantly fatif-
fied, that though all the water of the deluge had been
thence derived, the diminution of the general ftore would,
comparatively fpeaking, have been next to nothing.
2. It was not from the bowels of the earth only
that the waters were difeharged, but alfo from the air $
for we are allured by Mofes, that it rained 40 days
and 40 nights. This fource of the diluvian waters hath
been confidered as of fmall confequence by almoft every
one who hath treated on the fubjeift. The general opi¬
nion concerning this matter we {hall tranferibe from the
Univerfal Hiftory, vol. i. where it is very fully exprefs-
ed. “ According to the obfervations made of the
quantity of water that falls in rain, the rains could not
afford one ocean, nor half an ocean, and would be a*
very inconfiderable part of what was neceflary for a
deluge. If it rained 40 days and 40 nights throughout
the whole earth at once, it might be fufficient to lay all
the lower grounds under water, but it would fignify
very little as to the overflowing of the mountains ^ fo
that it has been faid, that if the deluge had been
made of rains only, there would have needed not
40 days, but 40 years, to have brought it to pafs.
And if we fuppofe the whole atmofphere condenfed in¬
to water, it would not all have been fufficient for this
for it is certain that it could not have rifen
&
above 32 feet, the height to which water can be raifed Deluge.
by the preffure of the atmofphere ; for the weight of
the whole air, when condenfed into water, can be no
more than equal to its weight in its natural ftate, and
muft become no lefs than 800 times denier j for that
is the difference between the weight of the heavieft
air and that of water.”
On this fubjeft we muft obferve, that there is a very
general miftake with regard to the air, fimilar to the
above-mentioned one regarding the eaith. Uecaufe the
earth below our feet appears to our fenfes firm and com¬
pact, therefore the valt quantity of water, contained
even in the moft folid parts of it, and which will rea¬
dily appear on proper experiment, is overlooked, and
treated as a non-entity. In like manner, becaufe the
air does not always deluge with exceffive rains, it is
alfo imagined that it contains but very little water.
Becaufe the preffure of the air is able to raife only
32 feet of water on the furface of the earth, it is
therefore fuppofed we may know to what depth the
atmofphere could deluge the earth if it was to let fall
the whole water contained in it. But daily obferva- -
tion {hows, that the preffure of the atmofphere hath
not the leaft connexion with the quantity of water it
contains. Nay, if there is any connexion, the air
feems to be lighteft when it contains moft water. In
the courfe of a long fummer’s drought, for inftance,
the mercury in the barometer will ftand at 30 inches,
or little more. If it does fo at the beginning of the
drought, it ought to afeend continually during the time
the dry weather continues j beeaufe the air is all the
while abforbing water in great quantity from the furface
of the earth and fea. This, however, is known to be
contrary to fa£L At fuch times the mercury does not
afeend, but remains ftationary j and what is’ftijl more
extraordinary, when the drought is about to have an
end, the air, while it yet contains the whole quantity
of water it abforbed,and hath not difeharged one Ample
drop, becomes fuddenly lighter, and the mercury will
perhaps fink an inch before any rain falls. The moft.
furprifing phenomenon, however, is yet to come. Af¬
ter the atmofphere has been difeharging for a number
of days fucce{lively, a quantity of" matter 800 times hea¬
vier than itfelf, inftead of being lightened by the dif-
charge, it becomes heavier^ nay* Jpecifically heavier,
than it was before. It is alfo certain, that very dry
air, provided it is not at the fame time very hot, is al¬
ways heavieft ; and the drieft air which we are acquaint¬
ed with, namely Dr VneRXeyh deph/ogi/Hcated air (oxy¬
gen gas), is confiderably heavier than the air we com-,
monly breathe. For tbefe reafons, we think the quan¬
tity of water contained in the whole atmofphere ought
to be confidtred as- indefinite^ efpecially as we know that
by whatever agent it is fufpended, that agent muft coun-
teraft the force of gravity, otherwife the water would.
immediately dtlcend £ and while the force of gravity<
in any fubftance is countera&ed, that fub(lance cannot
appear to us to gravitate at all.
3. The above confiderations render it probable at leaft
that there is in nature a quantity of water fufficient to
deluge the world, provided it was applied to the pur-
pofe. We muft next confider whether there is any na¬
tural agent powerful enough to effe&uate this purpofe*.
We ffiall take the phrafes ufed by Mofes in their moft
obvious fenfe. The breaking up of the fountains of th&
deepy
DEL
[
Deluge.
deep, we may reafonably fuppofe to have been the open¬
ing of all pafiages, whether fmall or great, through
which the lubterraneous waters poffibly could difcharge
themfelves on the furface of the earth. The opening of
the windows of heaven we may alfo fuppofe to be the
pouring out of the water contained in the atmofphere,
through thofe invifible palfages by which it enters in fuch
a manner as totally to elude every one of our fenfes, as
when water is abforbed by the air in evaporation. As
both thefe are faid to have been opened at the fame time,
it feems from thence probable, that one natural agent
was employed to do both. Now it is certain, that the
induftry of modern inquiry hath difcovered an agent
unknown to the former ages, and whofe influence is
fo great, that with regard to this world, it may be
faid to have a kind of omnipotence. The agent we
mean is ele&ricity. It is certain, that, by means of it,
imrnenfe quantities of water can be raifed to a great
height in the air. This is proved by the phenomena
of water-fpouts. Mr Forfter relates, that he happen¬
ed to fee one break very near him, and obferved a tlafh
of lightning proceed from it at the moment of its
breaking. The conclufion from this is obvious. When
the ele£tric matter was difcharged from the water, it
could no longer be fupported by the atmofphere, but
immediately fell down. Though water-fpouts do not
often appear in this country, yet every one muft have
made an obfervation fomewhat fimilar to Mr Forfter’s.
In a violent florm of thunder and rain, after every flafh
of lightning or difcharge of ele£tricity from the clouds,
the rain pours down with increafed violence j thus {bow¬
ing, that the cloud, having parted with fo much of its
eledricity, cannot longer be fupported in the form of
vapour, but mull; defcend in rain. It is not indeed yet
difcovered that ele6fricity is the caufe of the fufpenfion
of water in the atmofphere ; but it is certain that eva¬
poration is promoted by electrifying the fluid to be
evaporated *. It may therefore be admitted as a poff-
bility, that the eleCtric fluid contained in the air is the
agent by which it is enabled to fufpend the water
which rifes in vapour. If therefore the air is deprived
of the due proportion of this fluid, it is evident that rain
muft fall in prodigious quantities.
Again, vve are aflured from the moft undeniable ob-
fervations that eleClricity is able to fwell up water on
the furface of the earth. This we can make it do even
in our trifling experiments; and much more muft the
whole force of the fluid be fuppofed capable of doing it,
if applied to the waters of the ocean, or any others.
The agitation of the fea in earthquakes is a fufficient
\SztEarth. proof of this f. It is certain, that at theft times there
is a difcharge of a vaft quantity of eleCfric matter from
the earth into the air ; and as foon as this happens, all
becomes quiet on the furface of the earth.
From a multitude of obfervations it alfo appears, that
there is at all times a paflage of eleClric matter from
the atmofphere into the earth, and, vice verfa, from
the earth into the atmofphere. There is therefore no
abfurdity in fuppofing the Deity to have influenced
the aClion of the natural powers in fuch a manner,
that for 40 days and nights the eleClric matter con¬
tained in the atmofphere fhould defcend into the bowels
of the earth,—if indeed there is occafion for fuppo¬
fing any fuch immediate influence at all, (ince it is not
impoftible that there might have been, from iome na-
Deluge.
*:See 'Elec¬
tricity and
Evapora¬
tion.
49 ] DEL
tural caufe, a defcent of this matter from the atmo¬
fphere for that time. But by whatever caufe the de- '
fcent was occafioned, the confequence would be, the
breaking up of the fountains of the deep, and the opening
the windows of heaven. The water contained in the
atmofphere being left without fupport, would defcend
in impetuous rains j while the waters of the ocean,
thofe from which fountains originate, and thofe con¬
tained in the folid earth itfelf, would rife from the very
centre, and meet the waters which defcended from
above. Thus the breaking up of the fountains of the
deep, and the opening the windows of heaven, would
accompany each other, as Moles tells us they actually
did 5 for, according to him, both happened on the fame
day.
In this manner the flood would come on quietly and
gradually, without that violence to the globe which
Burnet, Whifton, and other theorifts, are obliged to
fuppofe. The abatement of the waters would enfue
on the afcent of the ele&ric fluid to where it was be¬
fore. The atmofphere would then abforb the water as-
formerly 5 that which had afcended through the earth
would again fubfide ; and thus every thing would re¬
turn to its priftine ftate.
III. Having thus fhown in what manner it is poffible
that an univerfal deluge might take place by means of
the natural agents known to us at prefent, we ftiall
next confider fome more of the evidences that fuch an
event adfually did happen, and that the deluge was
univerfal. The proof here is fo ftrong from the tra¬
ditions prevalent among almoft every nation on the
face of the earth, and which have been already fo
amply treated, that, no farther obje&ion could be
made to the Mofaic account, were it not that the
neceJJitij of an univerfal deluge is denied by fome, who
contend that all the deluges mentioned in hiftory or
recorded by tradition were only partial, and may be
accounted for from the fwelling of rivers or other ac¬
cidental caufes. Many indeed, even of thofe who
profefs to believe the Mofaic account, have thought
that the deluge was not univerfal j or, though it
might be univerfal with refpeff to mankind, that it
was not fo with regard to the earth itfelf. The learn- 3°
ed Ifaac Voftius wa> of this opinion, though his rea- y.°®us s.
Ions ieem principally to have been that he could not partial de-
conceive how an univerfal deluge could happen. “ To luge,
effeft this (fays he) many miracles muft have concur¬
red 5 but God works no miracles in vain. What need
was there to drown thofe lands where no men lived, or
are yet to be found ! ’Tis a.foolifb thing to think that
mankind had multiplied fo much before the flood as to
have overfpread all the earth. How flow and fluggifh
the firft men were in propagating their kind, is evident
from hence, that Noah was but the ninth in a lineal
defcent from Adam. They are quite wide of the
truth, therefore, who think mankind to have fpread
over all the earth in the days of Noah, who perhaps
at that time had not extended themlelves beyond the
borders of Syria and Mefopotamia : but no realon ob¬
liges us to extend the inundation of the deluge be¬
yond thofe bounds which are inhabited 5 yea, it is al¬
together abfurd to aver,, that the effeft of a punifhment
inflitfted upon mankind only, fhould extend to thofe
p aces where no men lived. Although we fhould there¬
fore believe that part of the earth only to have been
overflowed..
DEL r 150'] DEL
Belu^e. overflowed by the waters which we have mentioned,
*—"v—and which is not the hundredth part of the terreftrial
globe, the deluge will neverthelefs be univerfal, cecume-
nical, fince the deftru&ion was univerfal, and over-
■whelmed the whole habitable world.”
Coetlogon’s Another fcheme of a partial deluge is publiflied by
fcheme. ]Vtr Coetlogon in his Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and
Sciences, under the article Antediluvians. This ap¬
pears to have been formed with a defign to accommo¬
date the belief of a deluge to the opinions of the free¬
thinkers, who deny the truth of the Mofaic accounts,
as he tells us that they are willing to allow it. Accord¬
ing to this author, the firfi inhabitants of the earth be-
ing placed at the confluence of two great rivers, the Eu¬
phrates and Tigris, thofe rivers may have overflowed
their banks all of a fudden, and furprifed the neighbour¬
ing inhabitants not yet accuftomed to fuch forts of vifits,
and drowned part of them (and if really defigned as a
punifhment), fuch as were more guilty. That fome of
the animals, particularly the more flothful, and con-
fequently not fo apprehenfive of danger or fo ready
to take to flight to avoid it, might have been involved
in the fame calamity, as well as fome of the volatiles,
which being deprived of food by the earth’s being co¬
vered with water, might have perifhed ; particularly
thofe who, by the too great weaknefs of their wings
to fupport their bodies, were not proper for a long
flight. As for others who had thefe advantages above
the reft, they would no doubt take care of their own
prefervation, by flying to thofe parts of the earth which
their natural inftin£l could fhow them free from the in-
. 32 . undation.
Ihffleet’1'1' '^L fcheme of a partial deluge is given by the
fcheme. S learned Biftiop Stillingfleet in his Origines Sacrce. “ I
cannot (fays he) fee any urgent neeeftity from the
Scripture to affert, that the flood did fpread itfelf all
over the furface of the earth. That all mankind
(thofe in the ark excepted) were deftroyed by it, is
moft certain, according to the Scripture. When the
Lord faid, that he would deftroy man from the face
of the earth, it could not be any particular deluge of
fo fmall a country as Paleftine, as fome have ridicu-
loufly imagined; for we find an univerfal corruption
in the earth mentioned as the caufe j an univerfal
threatening upon all men for this caufe j and after¬
wards an univerfal deftru&ion expreffed as the effeft
of this flood. So then it is evident, that the flood
was univerfal with regard to mankind ; but from
thence follows no neceffity at all of afferting the uni-
verfality of it as to the globe of the earth, unlefs it be
fufRciently proved that the whole earth was peopled
before the flood, which I defpair of ever feeing proved j
and what reafon can there be to extend the flood be¬
yond the occafion of it, which was the corruption of
mankind ?—The only probability then of afferting
the univerfality of the flood, as to the globe of the
earth, is from the deftru&ion of all living creatures, to¬
gether with man. Now though men might not have
fpread themfelves over the whole furface of the earth,
yet beafts and creeping things might, which were all
deftroyed with the flood ; for it is faid, ‘ that all flefti
died that moved upon the earth, both of fowl and of
cattle, and of every creeping thing that creepeth
upon the earth, and every man.’ To what end fhould
:there be not only a note of univerfality added, but fuch
3
a particular enumeration of the feveral kinds of beafts, Deluge,
creeping things and fowls, if they wrere not all de-
ftroyed ? To this I anfwer j I grant that, as far as
the flood extended, all thefe were deftroyed: but I
fee no reafon to extend the deftruftion of thofe beyond
that compafs and fpace of the earth where men inha¬
bited, becaufe the punifhment upon the beafts was oc-
cafioned by, and could not be concomitant with, the
deftruftion of man j but (the occafion of the deluge
being the fin of man, who was punilhed in the beafts
that were deftroyed for his fake, as well as in himfelf)
where the occafion was not, as where there were ani¬
mals and no men, there feems no neceflity of extend¬
ing the flood thither.—But to what end, will it there¬
fore be replied, did God command Noah, with fo
much care, to take all kinds of birdie,- beafts, and creep¬
ing things, into the ark with him, if all thefe living
creatures were not deftroyed by the flood ? I anfwer,
becaufe all thofe things were dettroyed wherever the
flood was. Suppofe then the whole continent of Alia
was peopled before the flood, which is as much as in
reafon we may fuppofe j I fay, all the living creatures
in that continent were deftroyed ; or if we may fuppofe
it to have extended over our whole continent of the
ancient known world, what reafon would there be, that
in the oppofite part of the globe, which we fuppofe to
be unpeopled then, all the living creatures ftiould there
be deftroyed, becaufe men had finned in this? and
would there not have been on this fuppofition a fuffi-
cient reafon to preferve living creatures in the ark for
future propagation ?”i&c< 33
Thus we have the ftrength of all the arguments A partial
that have been offered in fupport of a partial deluge, deluge pro.
and which may be all fummed up in the three follow-yet^
ing articles: 1. The impoflibility, in a natural way,
of accounting for the quantity of water, neceffary to
overflow the whole world ; 2. The fmall number of
mankind fuppofed at that time to have exifted on
the earth ; and, 3. The inutility of an univerfal de¬
luge, when the divine purpofts could have been equal¬
ly well anfwered by a partial one. But to all this
we may make one general anfwer, that a partial deluge
is in the nature of things impoflible. We cannot
imagine that the waters could accumulate upon any
country without going off to the fea, while the lat¬
ter retained its ufual level ; neither can we fuppofe
any part of the fea to remain above the level of the
reft. On the fuppofition of Bifliop Stillingfleet, there¬
fore, that the deluge extended over the whole conti¬
nent of Afia, we know that it muft have covered the
high mountains of Ararat, on which the ark reftedj
Caucafus, Taurus, &c. The height of Ararat is in-
determined, as no traveller of any credit pretends to
have sfcended to its top; but from the diftance at
which it is feen, we can fcarce look upon it to be in¬
ferior to the moft celebrated mountains of the old
continent*. Sir John Chardin thinks that fome part * See
of Caucafus is higher ; and fuppofing each of thefe to rat.
be only a mile and a half in height, the fea all round
the globe muft have been raifed to the fame height j
and therefore all that could remain of dry ground as
a ftielter to animals of any kind, muft have been the
uninhabitable tops of fome high mountains fcattered at
immenfe diftances from one another. We may there¬
fore with equal reafon fuppofe that thefe were in like
manner
DEL [i
manner covered, and that no living creature whatever
, ^ . Could find fhelter even for a moment: and it is cer¬
tainly more agreeable to the chara&er of the Deity to
belieVe, that he would at once deftroy animal life by
fuffocation in water, rather than allow numbers of
them to colleft themfelves on the tops of mountains
to perilh with hunger and cold. It is belides very
improbable, that any creature, whether bird or bead,
could iuftain a continued rain of 40 days and 40 nights,
even without fuppofing them to have been abfolutely
immerfed in water.
This confideration alone is fufficient to (how, that
if there was a deluge at all, it muft have been univerfal
with regard to the world as well as the human race j
and the poflibility of fuch a deluge by natural means
has already been evinced. Under the article Antedi¬
luvians it is (hown, that, according to the mod mo¬
derate compulation, the world mud have been vadly
more full of people than at prefent. The lead calcu¬
lation there made indeed feems incredible, fince, ac¬
cording to it, the world mud have contained upwards
of 68,719 times as many inhabitants as are at prefent
to be met with in the empire of China, the mod po¬
pulous country in the world : but China bears a much
larger proportion to the habitable part of the world
than this. The violences exercifed by mankind upon
one another have always been the means of thinning
their numbers, and preventing the earth from being
overdocked with inhabitants •, and the drong expref-
fion in Scripture, that the “ earth was filled with vio¬
lence diows that it mud have gone to an extraordi¬
nary height. But though this violence mud have un¬
doubtedly thinned the old world of its inhabitants, it
mud likewife have difperfed fome of them into didant
regions. There is therefore no reafon for fuppofing
that before the fiood the human race were not driven
into the remoted regions of the habitable world, or
that America was deditute of inhabitants then more
than it is at prefent. At any rate, the fchemes of
Vodius and Coetlogon, who would confine the whole
race of mankind to a fmall part of Afia, mud appear
evidently futile and erroneous in the highed degree.
Objedtions Some obje&ions have been made to the do&rine of
from fome an univerfal deluge from the date of the continent of
fpecies of America, and the number of animals peculiar to that
amnaals be-an(j other countries, which could not be fuppofed to
to^certain31 travsl to fuch a didance either to or from the ark of
countries. Noah. On this fubjeft Bifhop Stiilingdeet obferves,
that the fuppofition of animals bring propagated much
farther in the world than mankind before the flood,
feems very probable, “ becaufe the production of ani¬
mals is parallel in Genefis with that of fifhes, and both
of them different from man. For God faith, ^ Let the
waters bring forth every moving creature that hath
life, viz. fiflr and fowl:’ And accordingly it is faid, that
the waters brought forth abundantly every living crea¬
ture after their kind, and every fowl after his kind.
Accordingly, in the production of beads, we read,
* Let the earth bring forth the living creature after
his kind, cattle, and every creeping thing, and bead
of the earth, after his kind: and it was fo.’ But in
the production of man it is faid, * Let us make man
in our image, and after our likenefs.’ From hence I
obferve this difference between the formation of ani¬
mals and of man, that in one God gave a prolific
51 ] BEL
power to the earth and waters for the production of the Deluge,
feveral living creatures which came from them, fo that
the feminal principles of them were contained in the
matter out of which they were produced j which was
otherwife in man, who was made by a peculiar hand of
the great Creator himfelf, who thence is faid to have
formed man out of the dud of the ground.
“ If now this fuppofition be embraced, by it we
prefently clear ourfelves of many difficulties concern¬
ing the propagation of animals in the world, and their
confervation in the ark ; as how the unknown kind of
ferpent in Brazil, the flow-bellied creature in the In¬
dies, and all thofe drange fpecies of animals feen in
the Wed Indies, (hould either come into the ark of
Noah, or be conveyed out of it into thofe countries
which are divided by fo vad an ocean on one fide, and
at lead fo large a trad of land on the other. Befides,
fome kind of animals cannot live out of the climate
where they are ; and there are many forts of animals
difcovered in America, and the adjoining idands, which
have left no remainder of themfelves in thefe parts of
the world. And it feems drange, that thefe diould
propagate in thofe parts of the world from the place
of the dood, and leave none at all of their number be¬
hind them in thefe parts whence they were propaga-
ted.” ... 35
To this Mr Cockburn, in his treatife on the deluge, Replies by-
replies, 1. That as it pleafed God to create only one Mr ^ock“
man and one woman at the beginning, and their pode-^urn’
rity were fufficient to overfpread the earth, it might
well be fuppofed to be furnidied with animals from an
original p-ur of each. 2. On the fuppofition of many
pairs of brute animals having been created originally,
they mud, when the human race were few in number,
have multiplied to fuch a degree as to render the world
uninhabitable. In confirmation of this, he informs us
from the accounts of the Indian miffionaries, that in 36
the kingdom of Champua in the Indies, the river cal- Countries
led bv the natives TYflacorew, but by the Portuguefe rei^r<[c!
Vnr el la, goes up 80 leagues into the country to a moun- ble by the
tain called Moncalor, above which it is much broader, abundance
but not fo deep by far ; there being banks of fand in of brute
fome places, and lands overfiowed with water, wherecrcatures*
there are an infinite number of fowls that cover all the
country ■, infomuch, that by reafon of them the whole
kingdom of Chintalcuhos had for 40 years been defo¬
late, though it was eight days journey in length ;
which, at 30 miles a-day, made it 240 miles long.
After palling this country, another was met with more
wild, and full of great rocks ; where there were a vad
number of animals yet worfe than the fowls, as ele¬
phants, rhinocerofes, lions, bears, buffaloes, and other
beads, in fuch multitudes, that whatever men cultivat¬
ed for the fupport of life was fpoiled or dedroyed by
them, nor was it podible for the inhabitants to prevent
The ifle of France may be faid to be the\ingdom
of rats. They come down from the mountains like
an &rmy, creep up the deeped rocks, march into the
flat country, affemble in the marffiy grounds, and
bring defulation everywhere, efpecially in the night.
Men can fcarce fleep for them, and are obliged to roll
themfelves in fuch things as may beft fecure them from
their bitings. It was the fame in the ide of Bourbon,
which was as much infefted with them at firfl, till it
became
Deluge.
37
Vaft in-
creafe of
the animal
creation.
3*
Of the peo¬
pling of A-
menca, and
migration
of animals
to it.
DEL [15
became more fully peopled. “ We bave good rea-
fon therefore (fays Mr Cockburn) to conclude, that
there was but one pair of animals created at firfl, that
they might not increafe too faft for mankind ; and
though they would multiply much more, and increafe
farter than men could do, they had room to fpread
themfelves for a long time without much annoyance
to man ; and as men increafed in number, and ex¬
tended their habitations, they would be able to drive
them further off, or defend themfelves from their de¬
predations.” The fame mode of reafoning is by our
author made ufe of with regard to aquatic animals.
The multitude of thefe. indeed, however great, could
be no detriment to man, who lived on land 5 but if vve
confider how large and numerous a fpawn fifties cart at
once, and in how fhort a time they multiply to im-
menfe numbers, he thinks it reafonable to conclude,
that only one pair was created at once ; and that the
command to the waters to bring forth abundantly both
fifh and fowl, related only to the variety of fpecies, not
to a number of each.
3. Though at the reftoration of the world it was to
be repeopled by fix perfons inftead of two, and though
at the fame time animal food was given to man, yet
Noah was commanded only to take a Angle pair of
each of the animals, clean hearts, which are but few in
number, only excepted. It is further obfervable, that
notwithftanding this fcanty fupply of animals, they
had increafed fo much by the time of Nimrod, that it
then became neceffary to hunt and deftroy them ;
Nimrod was celebrated for his courage and fkill
in that neceffary employment. “ So numerous (adds
he) were the animals before the flood, though but
two of a kind were created, that Dr Woodward, from
the remains of that earth, as well the animal as vege¬
table produftions of it ftill preferved, concludes, that
* at the time the deluge came, the earth was fo loaded
with herbage, and fo thronged with animals, that fuch
an expedient was even wanting to eafe it of the bur¬
den, and to make room for a new fucceflion of its pro-
duftions.’
4. Mr Cockburn is of opinion, that America muft
have been peopled before the flood, as the old conti¬
nent could not be fuppofed able to hold the number of
inhabitants.
5. With regard to the main difliculty, vk. how the
animal? peculiar to different countries could travel to
fuch diftances to and from the ark, Mr Cockburn re¬
plies, that America, which Bifliop Stillingfleet chiefly
infifts upon, has nothing peculiar to it, but what may
equally well be urged both with refpeft to Afia and
Africa ; each of them having animals peculiar to them¬
felves. It is alfo poflible, that there might formerly
be a more eafy communication between the Afiatic
and American continents than there is now. See the
article America, N0 ioi—113.
Our author likewife obferves, that though the ark
refted on Mount Ararat, yet we are not told where it
was built, which might be far enough from the place
where it is commonly fuppofed j fo that thefe animals
which are peculiar to America m:ght not have fo far
to travel to the ark as is commonly imagined. This
argument, however, feems to be very inconclufive ;
for though we (hould fuppofe the ark to have been
eonftru&ed in America itfelf, the animals of Mefopo-
Deluge,
2 ] DEL
tamia would have had as far to travel from thence to
America, as the American animals from their own
country to Mefopotamia, according to the common '
opinion. But in whatever part of the earth Noah lived
and the ark was built, it was at God’s command that
the feveral kinds of animals came hither in order to
their prefervation ; and his command could bring
them irotn the fartheft parts of the earth during the
120 years that all the world lay under condemnation.
I hough, after all, none of the animals might have very
far to travel to the ark y for if only one pair of each
kind was cieated at firft, and all of thefe in or near
one place, fince they were ail brought before Adam,
and received names from him, there is no abfurdity in
fuppofing that fome of every kind might remain in the
country where they were firft produced, from thence
Noah’s habitation might not be very difiant. Neither
can any objt &ion be brought from the extinction of
fome fpecies of animals in certain countries of the
world, fince they might have been hunted and de-
ftroyed either by the human race or by other creatures.
I hus it is faid, that there are now few or no deer in
Switzerland, though formerly there were a great many
when it was full of woods. In Britain alfo there are
no wolves now to be found, though the ifland was in-
fefted with them in former limes.
In confidering the fubjeC of the deluge, among other of the fub-
queftions which occur, one is, by what means were fiftence of
ravenous animals, which feed only upon fitfti, fup- carnivorous
ported in the ark? For this fome authors have fup-anireiaIsin
pofed, that Noah, befides thefe animals whom he torfkthe ark‘
into the ark for prefervation, took likewife a m-eat
number for {laughter. For this purpofe Biftiop Wil¬
kins has allowed no fewer than 1825 ftieep, though
he was of opinion that there were no carnivorous
animals befoie the flood j and this latter opinion is
adopted by Mr Cockburn. The idea indeed of {laugh-
tering a number of harmlefs animals to fatisfy a few
vile rapacious ones, and that too in a place defigned
for the common afylum of the animal creation, feems
inconfiftent with that fcheme of mercy difplayed in
the whole tranfaCion. It is by much the more pro¬
bable fuppofition then, that though fome animals had
been accuftomed to live on flefti in their natural
ftate, they could neverthelefs fubfift upon vegetable
food. This feems the more probable, as fome animals
naturally carnivorous, particularly dogs and cats, may
be fupported in their domeftic ftate by vegetable food
alone. If we extend this to the whole canine and fe¬
line genera, we {hall take in moft of the hearts of
prey •, as lions, tygers, leopards, panthers, wolves,
foxes, hyaenas, See. Bears are well known fometitnes
to feed on berries j fnakes will eat bread and milk;
and there is no reafon to fuppofe that even the moft
carnivorous birds could not be kept alive by grain or
other vegetable food. By thus excluding fuch a num¬
ber of ufelefs animals, a very confiderable fpace will
be allowed for the circulation of air in the ark the
want of. which feems to be the moft inexplicable dif¬
ficulty, if we may judge from the prefent conftitution
of things. It feems indeed to be certain, that no
equal number of animals could fubfift for a twelvemonth
in an equal fpace fo clofely ftmt up as they were.
The ark, it is true, contained near two millions of
cubic feet , but confidering the number of its in¬
habitants.
Deluge.
DEL
the great fpace necefiary for
habitants,
with which they were to be fupplied, and the con¬
tinual pollution of the air by their dung and filth,
as well as the effluvia from their bodies, there
feems little probability that even fuch a vaft bulk of
air could fuffiee for any length of time. This diffi¬
culty will appear the greater, when we confider that
any ventilation was impoffible, as this could not have
teen done without opening both the door and win¬
dow ; and the former, we are certain, was not opened
until the time that the command was given to come
forth out of the ark. Neither is there the fmalleft
probability, that the opening of a Angle window could
renew the air in fuch a manner as to make it fit for
breathing throughout the whole extent of the ark.
In this particular, therefore, we mult have recourfe to
the immediate interpofition of Divine power, and fup-
pofe that the air was miraculoufly preferved of a fuffi-
cient degree of purity, as the garments of the Ifrae-
lites were preferved from turning old, and their feet
from being affected by the journey through the defert
in which they wandered fo long.—Many other que-
ftions concerning the economy of the ark might be
propofed ; as, how they fupplied themfelves with wa¬
ter ) in what manner they could ufe fire for the dref-
fing of their vittuals, &c. But as every anfwer to
thefe muft be founded wholly upon conjefture, and
none can pretend that there was a natural impoffibility
of effedling any of thefe things, we forbear to infill
farther upon them. The cafe, however, is very dif¬
ferent with refpe£t to the air neceflary for fuftaining
animal life ; for here there is a plain impoffibility in a
natural way 5 nay, we may even doubt whether the
general mafs of atmofphere, after being deprived of its
ele&ric matter, or otherwife altered in fuch a manner
as to let fall fuch a quantity of the water it contain¬
ed, was fit for the fupport of animal life ; fo that a
miracle would have been neceffary at any rate. To
this indeed it may be replied, that on fuch a fuppofi-
tion, men and other animals would have been de-
ftroyed, not by the flood, but by the vitiated air they
breathed. But, as has been already hinted, it is im¬
probable that any living creature could refill the vio¬
lent rain which took place, and which would foon
drive the birds from their Ihelter, as the waters begin¬
ning to overflow the ground would foon expel the hu¬
man race from their houfes ; and it would not be till
the end of the 40 days and 40 nights that the air could
be at its worft llate, long before which time all animal
life would be extinft.
We lhall conclude this article with confidering fome
which have of the alterations which are fuppofed to have taken
taken olace place in the world in confequence of the deluge. One
of thefe is the much greater quantity of water on the
fent than on the old world. Dr Keill has indeed
to prove, that the prefent extent of the
furface of the waters is neceflary to raife fuch a quan¬
tity of vapours as may fupply the furface of the earth
with rain and with fprings. In anlwer to this, it is
faid, that it may be juftly queftioned whether all fprings
avo derived from the vapours raifed by the fun’s heat ?
and, 2. Whether the primitive earth flood in need of
fuch a quantity of rain to render it as fertile as the pre¬
fent ? Dr Woodward gives the following reafon for
fuppofing the antediluvian feas to have been nearly of
Vol. VII. Part I.
„ 41
Changes
in confe
quence of
the deluge. Pr
endeavoured
[ 153 ] DEL
the food the fame extent with thofe at prefent, viz. that “ the Deluge.
fpoils of the fea, the {hells and other marine bodies, v~“
are left in fuch prodigious numbers, and in heaps upon
heaps in the earth, befides thofe which have long fince
periflied, that they could not have been left in fuch
quantities, had not the feas occupied much the fame
fpace as they do now.” This argument, however, is
thought by Mr Cockburn to be alfo inconclufive :
“ For (fays he), 1. Animal food, whether fiffi or flefli,
was not ufed by mankind before the deluge : but,
2. Suppofe it had, yet for the firft 500 years the num¬
ber of mankind was but ftnall, and likely at a great
dillance from the fea j fo that the increafe of all kinds
of fiffi during fo long a time muft have been prodigi¬
ous. We need not be furprifed, then, at the immenfe
quantities of the exuvias of marine animals left on the
earth by the deluge. But the r^afon he brings to
prove that the feveral continents of the world were
encompafled with feas as they are now, viz. that as
there are different forts of fifties in the different feas
of the world, fo the exuviae of the fame kind are ge¬
nerally found upon contiguous lands, does not always
hold, fince there are fome (hells found in the continent
which are ftrangers to the parts of the fea contermi¬
nous to thefe continents. That the feas in the pre¬
fent earth are vaftly more extended, and confequently
the dry land fo much lefs in proportion, may likewife
be inferred from the great multitude of iflands that
lie near the (bores of the greater continents, if it be
true what fome allege, that they are parts broken off
by the deluge from the main land, which before that
reached to and beyond them. And though iflands are
thought to be rarely found in the great ocean, yet there
have of late been found in the midft of the Indian
ocean vaft clufters of iflands, &c.
To all this it may be replied, That the Mofaic ac¬
count fays nothing of the extent of the feas either be¬
fore or after the flood ; but limply tells us, that the
waters were poured out upon the furface of the earth
from the windows of heaven and the fountains of the
deep, and that as the flood decreafed, the waters re¬
turned from off the face of the earth. If part of them
returned, we have not the lead reafon to fuppofe that
the whole did not do fo likewife. That the fifti, as well
as land animals, were more numerous in the antedi¬
luvian world than now when fuch quantities are de-
ftroved by mankind, is very probable, as we fee they
abound to this day in uninhabited places. This may
account for the aftoniffiing quantities of their exuvifce
to be met with in many different parts of the earth j
but from the formation of iflands nothing can be
concluded concerning the antediluvian world. Late
difeoveries have (hown that many iflands have a volca¬
nic origin ; others are formed by the growth of coral j
fome by an accumulation of fea-weeds and other mat¬
ters floating on the furface of the ocean, and detained
upon fand banks or funk rocks: while not a few of
thofe near the great continents owe their origin to the
quantities of mud brought down by the great rivers
which empty themfelves into the ocean. Authentic
biftory fcarcely affords an inftance of an ifland formed
by the breaking off a piece from the continent, though
it does many of iflands being joined to continents by
fome one or other of the caufes juft mentioned.
The inferior fertility of the earth after the deluge is
U much!
f
DEL r 154 l DEL
Deluge, much infifted upon by the fame author, for the follow-
——y-—i ing reafons : “ 1. The grant of animal food to Noah
and his pofterity : which he thinks is an indication of
greater barrennefs in the ground than formerly. 2. Our
Saviour compares the days of Noah with thofe of
Lot *, and as the country about Sodom is faid to have
been exceedingly fertile like the garden of the Lordy
he is of opinion that the antediluvian world muft have
been very fertile alfo. 3. As (according to Dr Wood¬
ward) the firft earth brought forward all manner of
plants of itfelf, without any labour or culture of man,
and even before there was a man to till the ground,
we may reafonably fuppofe that the exterior ftratum
or furface of the earth confided of fuch terreftrial
matter as was fit for thefe produ6tions; that is, of
a rich light mould, affording plentifully matter for
vegetation. Now, though God was pleafed, upon
man’s trangreffion, to withdraw in part his benedic¬
tion from the earth j yet the earth itfelf was untouch¬
ed till the deluge, the fame furface of rich mould was
Hill upon it, and brought forth plentifully, efpecially
when man’s culture for corn was added. But the
inundation of waters at the deluge greatly altered the
conftitution of the earth itfelf; it mixed and confound¬
ed this upper ftratum of vegetative earth with other
terreftrial matter not fit for Vegetation, with fand, gra¬
vel, {tones, and all kinds of mineral matter, which muft
needs render the earth in general much lefs fertile than
before, and which made the plough neceffary to dig
up the proper vegetative mould, and bring it to the
furface, and alfo manure or compoft to increafe and
enrich it; neither of which before the flood it needed.
4. There is a moral reafon why the earth after the
flood fhould be lefs fertile, than before. The luxu¬
riant productions of the firft earth, after man’s nature
became corrupted, and to deviate more and more from
righteoufnefs, ferved only to excite and foment his
lulls, and to minifter plentiful fuel to his vices and
luxury. To cut off, therefore, fuch occafion of fin
and wickednefs, God, in great mercy to men, retrench¬
ed the earth in its former fertility, thereby obliging
them to labour and diligence, and employing moft of
their time to procure their neceffary fubfiftence, which
the earth by diligent culture will Hill afford, but not
that luxuriant abundance it did before the flood. If
we take a furvey of the different regions and countries
of the world, we (hall find this to be the truth of the
cafe. Some places, both in Afia and America, are
as it were a paradife in refpeft of the reft, to fhow
us perhaps what was and would have been the ftate of
the earth had not man finned; but far the greateft
part is nothing to be compared to thefe, and evidently
(hows that effeCl which the fins of men had upon the
earth itfelf. In a word, if we take a furvey of the
whole, it cannot be thought that the firft bleffing was
reftored to the earth after the flood, or that it came
out of the hands of its Maker, in the ftate it is at pre-
fent, fince fo great a part of it bears ftill the marks of
the curfe laid upon it.”
Notwithftanding all that is here alleged, the extra¬
ordinary fertility of the ancient earth muft ftill ap¬
pear very problematical, if we confider all circumftan-
ees. For,
1. Even at the creation, when the earth was at its
fctinoft perfection, we cannot. fuppofe that every part
I
of it produced fpontaneoufly like the garden of Eden,
On the contrary, we are told that this garden was
planted by the Lord God, and that Adam was put into
it to drefs it and keep it. It appears, therefore, that
even in the Paradifaical ftate the earth would not have
produced food for man without culture ; for as God
planted the firft garden, there can be no doubt that
had man continued in his ftate of innocence and mul¬
tiplied, he muft have planted other gardens when it be¬
came neceffary. After the fall, the fertility of the
earth was exprefsly removed, and that not in a flight
degree ; but if we can judge from the prefent ftate of
things, it muft have become extremely wild and bar¬
ren. Thus, when it is faid, “ Thorns alfo and tbiftles
fhall it bring forth to thee we may judge of the
ftate of the foil from that which we fee bringing forth
thorns and thiftles at this day. Every one knows that
an abundant crop of thefe weeds indicates poor ground,
which will require a great deal of cultivation to bring
it into order. Nay, that we may be fure that the cul¬
tivation of the earth was at this time no eafy matter,
it is likewife faid, “ In forrow fhalt thou eat of it all
the days of thy life.” Kence it would appear, that
the antediluvian earth, inftead of being more fertile,
was much more barren than at prefent. That the la¬
bour of cultivating the ground at that time was alfo
fo great as to be almoft intolerable, is evident from the
fpeech of Lamech on the birth of Noah : “ This fame
(fays he) fliall comfort us concerning our work and
toil of our hands, concerning the ground which the
Lord hath curfed.”
2. There is a very evident natural reafon why the
antediluvian world fhould have been more barren than
the prefent, and why the deluge fhould have removed
that barrennefs. Under the article ANTEDILUVIANS,
N° 19. it is hinted, that the purity of the air at that
time was a principal caufe of the longevity of the hu¬
man race. If this was really the cafe, which is very
probable, we muft fuppofe the atmofphere to have
then contained a greater quantity of pure air than it
does at prefent; for experiments have put it beyond
doubt, that from this the fupport of animal life is im¬
mediately derived. But this kind of air, however fa¬
vourable to animal life, is found to be very unfavour¬
able to vegetation ; and therefore in proportion to its
abundance in the antediluvian atmofphere, the animals
will be healthy, and the vegetables weak, puny, and
fiekly. But the deluge, by overflowing the earth for
a whole year, deftroyed every animal and vegetable,
and confequently induced a vaft putrefa&ion all over
the globe; the eonfequence of which was the produc¬
tion of an immenfe quantity of what is calledphlogifti-
catedair {evzotic gas). This mixing with the pure atmo¬
fphere, vitiated it to fuch a degree as to make it lefs
friendly to animal life, but more fo to vegetation.
Hence the prefent world muft neceflarily be more fer¬
tile than the former ; and not only on this account,
but by reafon of its being manured by the ftagnation
of the waters upon its furface for a twelvemonth, and
the immenfe quantity of animal matter left by them,
the ground, inftead of being leffened in its fertility, as
Dr Woodward fuppofes, muft have been reftored, as
far as w'e can judge, to the very ftate it was in at its
original formation.
3. That this was really the cafe appears probable from
what
«
I
DEL [ 155 ] DEM
Celuge. tvliat the Deity faid to Noah after offering up his facri-
fice. “ I will not (fays he) curfe the ground any more
for man’s fake.” Now this was plainly intimating that
the earth was reflored to its primitive fertility, and that
he would no more take it away ; for when he did fo to
the primitive world, it wfas in thefe words, “ Curfed is
the ground for thy fake.” That the curfe here allud¬
ed to was really the depriving the earth of its fertility,
and not the overflowing the earth with water, is evi¬
dent ; becaufe, after declaring that he would no more
curfe the ground for man’s fake, ha adds, “ Neither
will I again fmite every living thing as I have
done.”
4. The moral recfons aflighed why the prefent world
Ihould be lefs fertile than the former, feem to be incon-
cluflve. However barren we may reckon the earth juft
now, it is certain that it produces, or might produce,
much more than would fuffice for all its inhabitants.
The difficulties which mankind undergo are not at all
owing to the barrennefs of the earth, but to their own
conduft, or their oppreffion of one another. Neither
does it clearly appear that animal food is in any degree
cheaper than vegetable, but rather on the contrary : fo
that whatever was the reafon of this grant after the
flood, we cannot fairly afcribe it to a forefight of the
future barrennefs of the earth.
Another queflion which naturally occurs on the fub-
jeft of the deluge is, Whether there was any rain be-
for it or not ? The argument againft the exiftence of
rain before the flood, is obvioufly derived from the
rainbow being made a lymbol of the divine favour im¬
mediately after. It is certain, indeed, that unlefs we
fuppofe the nature of light or of water to have been
different before this event from what it was afterwards,
there is a natural impobibility of the refrafdon of the
fun’s light being prevented from fhowing the appearance
of a rainbow, whenever the fun and clouds were in a
certain pofition with regard to one another. It appears
improbable to thofe who take this fide of the queftion,
that the Deity fliould inftitute any thing as an emblem
of his difpleafure being turned away, when the fame
emblem had been feen perhaps a very fhort time before
the cataftrophe happened. On the other hand, it is re¬
plied, that there is no abfurdity in fuppofing this to
have been the cafe ; for though the rainbow exifted be¬
fore the deluge, yet it never was appointed to be the
fymbol of this particular event, viz. the reconciliation
of the Deity j and the impoffibility of vegetables being
fupplied with a fufficient quantity of moifture without
rain, is likewife urged as a decilive argument. Still,
however, it appears, that even vegetation may fubfift,
and that in its utmoft perfe£lion, without rain 5 for we
are informed, that by means of a mift the ground was
originally watered, and vegetables fupplied with moif¬
ture, before there was any rain ; and if this was the
cafe at one time, it might have been at any other, or at
any number of times we can fuppofe. Indeed, as mat¬
ters ftand at prefent, this would undoubtedly be a very
fcanty fupply ; and perhaps fo it was in the antedilu¬
vian world $ and thus the want of rain might have been
one caufe of that barrennefs in the antediluvian world
which we have already mentioned as probable, and
which Mr Bryant mentions as the opinion of all the an¬
cient mythologifts.
DEMADES, a famous Athenian, who from being Demndes
a mariner, became a great orator, and appeafed Philip II
by his eloquence, after the famous viftory over the A- Dcm^Lr‘us'
thenians at Cheronea, in the 338th year B. C.
DEM A IN, or Demesne, in Law, is commonly
underftood to be the lord’s chief manor place, with
the lands thereto belonging, which he and his ancef-
tors have, time out of mind, kept in their own manual
occupation.
DEMAND, in its popular fenfe, denotes a calling
for or requiring one’s due.
Demand, in Law, has a more fpecial fignification, as
contradiftinguiftied from plaint; for all civil adtions are
purfued either by demands or plaints •, according to
which the purfuer is called either demandant or plaintiff;
viz, in real adtions, demandant ; and in perfonal adtions,
plaintiff. See Plaintiff.
DEMERARY, formerly a Dutch fettlement in
Guiana, now in poffeffion of the Englifli. See Suri¬
nam.
DEMESNE. See Demain.
Demesne Lands. See Revenue.
DEMETRIA, a feftival in honour of Ceres, called
by the Greeks Demetcr. The votaries of the goddefs
laflied themfelves with whips made with the bark of
trees. The Athenians had a folemnity of the fame
name in honour of Demetrius Poliorcetes.
DEMETRIUS, a fon of Antigonus and Strato-
nice, furnamed Poliorcetes, “ Deftroyer of towns.” At
the age of 22, he was fent by his father againft Ptolemy,
who invaded Syria. He was defeated near Gaza $
blit he foon repaired his lofs by a vidtory over one of
the generals of the enemy. He afterwards failed with
a fleet of 250 fliips to Athens, and reftored the Athe¬
nians to liberty, by freeing them from the power of
Caffander and Ptolemy, and expelling the garrifon,
which was ftationed there under Demetrius Phalereus.
After this fuccefsful expedition, he befieged and took
Munychia, and defeated Caffander at Thermopylae.
His reception at Athens after thefe vidlories was at¬
tended with the greateft fervility, and the Athenians
were not alhamed to raife altars to him as a god, and
confult his oracles. This uncommon fuccefs raifed
the jealoufy of the fuccefiors of Alexander 5 and Seleu-
cus Caffander and Lyfimachus united to deftroy An¬
tigonus and his fon. Their hoftile armies met at Ipfus,
299 years before the Auguftan age. Antigonus was
killed in the battle *, and Demetrius, after a fevere
lofs, retired to Ephefus. His ill fuccefs raifed him
many enemies 5 and the Athenians, who had lately
adored him as a god, refufed to admit him into their
city. He foon after ravaged the territory of Lyfima-
chus, and reconciled himfelf to Seleucus, to whom he
gave his daughter Stratonice in marriage. Athens now
laboured under tyranny, and Demetrius relieved it and
pardoned the inhabitants. The lofs of his poffeffions
in Afia recalled him from Greece, and he eftablifhed
himfelf on the throne of Macedonia by the murder of
Alexander the fon of Caffander. Here he was conti¬
nually at war with the neighbouring ftates, and the
fuperior power of his adverfaries obliged him to leave
Macedonia, after he had fat on the throne for feven
years. He paffed into Afia, and attacked feme of the
provinces of Lyfimachus, with various fuccefs $ but fa-
U 2 min*
DEM
Demetrius, mine and peftilence deftroyed the greateft part of his
—v—*■-' army, and he retired to the court of Seleucus for fup-
port and affiftance. He met with a kind reception ;
but boftilities were foon begun $ and after he had
gained fame advantages over his fon-in-law, Demetrius
was totally forfaken by his troops in the field of battle,
and became an eafy prey to the enemy. Though he
was kept in confinement by his fon-in-law, yet he
maintained himfelf like a prince, and paffed his time
in hunting, and in every laborious exercife. His fon
Antigonus offered Seleucus all his poffeffions, and even
his perfon, to procure his father’s liberty; but all
proved unavailing, and Demetrius died in the 54th year
of his age, after a confinement of three years, 286
years before Chrift. His remains were given to An¬
tigonus, and honoured with a fplendid funeral pomp
at Corinth, and hence conveyed to Demetrias. His
pofterity remained in poffeffion of the Macedonian
throne till the age of Perfeus, who was conquered by
the Romans. Demetrius has rendered himfelf famous
for his fondnefs of diffipation when among the diffolute,
and for his love of virtue and military glory in the
field of battle. He has been commended as a great
warrior $ and his ingenious inventions, his warlike en¬
gines, and ftupendous machines in the war with the
Rhodians, juftify his claims to that charafler. He has
been blamed for his voluptuous indulgences 5 and his
biographer obferves that no Grecian prince had more
wives and concubines than Poliorcetes. His obedience
and reverence to his father has been juftly admired j
and it has been obferved, that Antigonus ordered the
ambaffadors of a foreign prince particularly to remark
the cordiality and friendfhip which fubfifted between
him and his fon-
Demetrius, furnamed Donatus, fiicceeded his father
Antigonus on the throne of Macedonia. He reigned
12 years, and was fucceeded by his fon Philip-
Demetrius, a fon of Philip king of Macedonia,
delivered as a hoftage to the Romans. His modefty
delivered his father from a heavy aceufation laid be¬
fore the Roman fenate. When he returned to Mace¬
donia, he was falfely accufed by his brother Perfeus,
who was jealous of his popularity, and his father too
creduloufly confented to his death.
Demetrius I. furnamed Soter or Saviour, was fon of
Seleucus Philopatorr the fon of Antiochus the Great,
king of Syria. His father gave him as a hoftage to
the Romans. After the death of Seleucus, Antio¬
chus Epiphanes, the deceafed monarch’s brother, ufur-
ped the kingdom of Syria,, and was fucceeded by his
fon Antiochus Eupator. This ufurpation difpleafed
Demetrius, who was detained at Rome. He procured
his liberty on pretence of going to hunt, and fled to
Syria, where the troops received him as their lawful
fovereign. He put to death Eupator and Lyfias, and
eftablilhed himfelf on his throne by cruelty and oppref-
fion. Alexander Bala, the fon of Antiochus Epiphanes,
laid claims upon the crown of Syria, and defeated De¬
metrius in a battle, 250 years before Chrift.
Demetrius II. furnamed Nicator, or Conqueror, was
fon of Soter, to whom he fucceeded by the afliftance
of Ptolemy Philometor. He married Cleopatra, the
daughter of Ptolemy, who was before the wife of the
expelled monarch Alexander Bala. Demetrius gave
DEM
himfelf up to luxury and voluptuoufnefs, and fuffered Demetrius
his kingdom to be governed by his favourites. At j|
that time a pretended fon of Bala, called Diodorus Demi-At.
Tryphon, feized a part of Syria j and Demetrius, to tiC1‘
oppofe his antagonift, made an alliance with the Jews,
and marched into the eaft, where he was taken by the
Parthians. Phraates, king of Parthia, gave him his
daughter Rodogyne in marriage ; and Cleopatra was
fo incenfed at this new connexion, that ftie gave her-
felf up to Antiochus Sidetes her brother-in-law, and
married Him. Sidetes was killed in a battle againft ths
Parthians, and Demetrius regained the poffeffion of his
kingdom. His pride and oppreffion rendered him odi¬
ous j and his fubjefls alked a king of the houfe of Se¬
leucus from Ptolemy Phyfcon king of Egypt ; and De¬
metrius, unable to refift the power of his enemies, fled
to Ptolemais, which was then in the hands of his wife
Cleopatra. The gates were (hut up againft his approach
by Cleopatra j and he was killed by order of the gover¬
nor 6f lyre, whither he had fled for prote£lion, A. U.
C. 627'. He was fucceeded by Alexander Zebina,
whom Ptolemy had raifed to the throne.
DEMETRIUS Phalereus, a celebrated orator and Pe¬
ripatetic philofopher, was the fcholar of Theophraftus.
He acquired fo much authority at Athens, that he go¬
verned the city for ten years j and ruled with fo much
wifdom and virtue, that they fet up 36 ftatuesin honour
of him. By the flanders of fbme malicious perfons in
his abfence, he was, however, condemned to die j and
his image was pulled down j which, when Demetrius
heard, he laid, they could not pull down that virtue
for which thofe images were fet up. He efcaped inta
Egypt, and was proteSed by Ptolemy Lagus.. This
king, it is faid, alked his advice concerning the fuccef-
fion of his children to the throne; viz. whether he
ought to prefer thofe he had by Euridice to Ptolemy
Philadelphus, whom he had by Berenice ? and Deme¬
trius advifed him to leave his crown to the former.
This difpleafed Philadelphus fo much, that his father
being dead, he banilhed Demetrius ; who was after¬
wards killed by the bite of an afp. Demetrius compofed
more works in profe and verfe than any other Peripa¬
tetic of his time ; and his writings confifted of poetry,
hiftory, politics, rhetoric, harangues, and embaffies.
None of them are extant except his rhetoric, which is
ufually printed among the Rhetores SeleBi.
Demetrius, a Cynic philofopher, difeiple of Apol¬
lonius Tyanaeus, in the age of Caligula. The empe¬
ror wilhed to gain the philofopher to his intereft by a
large prefent; but Demetrius refufed it with indigna¬
tion, and faid, If Caligula wilhes to bribe me, let him
fend me his crown. Vefpafian was difpleafed with his
infolenee, and banilhed him to an illand. The Cynic
derided the punilhment, and bitterly inveighed againft.
the emperor. He died in a great old age ; and Seneca
obferves that M nature had brought him forth to Ihow
mankind that an exalted genius can live fecurely, with¬
out being corrupted by the vices of the world.”
DEMI (formed from dimidiumy, a word ufed in
compofition with other words to fignify half..
DEMl-Attici, boroughs or larger villages of Attica-
The Athenian tribes were diftinguilhed into Demi. Ho¬
mer, in his catalogue, diftinguilhes the Athenians by
the appellation Demos. And when Thefeus prevailed
®n
[ 156 ]
DEM [ i
m; A.t- on t0 t^ie country and fettle at iVtliens, they
^Tici ftill continued to frequent the demi, and to perform
]| their feveral religious ceremonies there.
Demo- DEMI-Culverin, a piece of ordnance ufually 4^ inches
L cntus' , bore. 2700 pounds weight, 10 feet long, and carrying
' point blank 175 paces. A demi-culverin of the leaft
fize is 4! inches bore, 10 feet long, and 2000 pounds
■weight. It carries a ball of 4 inches diameter and of
9 pounds weight, and its level range is 174 paces. A
demi-culverin of the largeft fort is 4^ inches bore,
134- feet long, and weighs 3000 pounds weight. It
carries a ball 4^ inches diameter, weighing 12 pounds
11 ounces, point blank 178 paces.
Demi God. See Hero.
DEMI-Gorge, in Fortification, is that part of the poly¬
gon which remains after the flank is raifed, and goes
from the curtain to the angle of the polygon. It is half
of the vacant fpace or entrance into a baftion.
DEMI Quaver, a note in Mujic, two of which are
equal to a quaver.
DEMI-Semi-Qtiaver, in Mujic, the fhortefl: note, two
of them being equal to a femi-quaver.
DEMISE, in Law, is applied to an eftate either in
fee-fimple, fee-tail, or for a term of life or years; and
fo it is commonly taken in many writs. The king’s
death is in law termed the demife of the king.
DEMISE and Redemife, denote a conveyance where
there are mutual leafes made from one to another of
the fame land, or fomething out of it.
DEMIURGE (from ^<9?, which denotes a “ public
fervant,” and {gy9r, “ work”), in the mythology of the
eaftern philofophers, was one of the /EONS employed
by the fupreme Deity in the creation of the world.
The charafter they gave him is a compound of fhining
qualities and infupportable arrogance ; and his exceflive
luft of empire effaces his talents and virtues. He is
reprefented as claiming dominion over the new world
he has formed, as his fovereign right ; and excluding
totally the fupreme Deity from all concernment in it,
he demands from mankind, for himfelf and his affo-
eiates, divine honours.
DEMOCRACY, from “ people,” and xgasrsn,
“ to command” or “ govern;” the fame with a popular
government, wherein the fupreme power is lodged in
the hands of the people; fuch were Rome and Athens
of old ; but as to our modern republics, Bafil only ex¬
cepted, their government comes nearer to ariftocracy
than democracy. See Law Index.
DEMOCRITUS, one of the greateft philofophers
of antiquity, was born at Abdera, a town of i hrace,
about the 80th Olympiad ; that is, about 460 years
before Chrtft. His father, fays Valerius Maximus,
was able to entertain the army of Xerxes ; and Dio¬
genes Laertius adds, upon the teftimony of Herodotus,
that the king, in requital, prefented him with fome
Magi and Chaldeans. From thefe Magi and Chalde¬
ans Democritus received the firft part of his education ;
and from them, whilft yet a boy, he learned theology
and aftronomy. He next applied to Leucippus, and
learned from him the fyftem of atoms and a vacuum.
His father dying, the three fons, for fo many there were,
divided the eftate. Democritus made choice of that
part which confifted in money, as being, though the
leaft (hare, the moft convenient for travelling ; and it
is faid, that his portion amounted to above 100 talents,
7 ] DEM
which is near 20,0001. fterling. His extraordinary Demo-
inclination for the Iciences and tor knowledge, induced critu%
him to travel into all parts of the world where he hoped Dv»itm,re'
to find learned men. He went to vifit the priefts of
Egypt, from whom he learned geometry ; he confulted
the Chaldeans and the Perfian philofophers ; and it is
faid that he penetrated even into India and Ethiopia,
to confer with the Gymnofophifts. In thefe travels
he wafted his fubftance ; after which, at his return, he
was obliged to be maintained by his brother ; and if
he had not given proofs of the greateft underftanding,
and thereby procured to himfelt the higheft honours,
and the ftrongeft intereft of his country, he would have
incurred the penalty of that law which denied in¬
terment in the family-fepulchre to thofe who had fpent
their patrimony. After his return from travelling, he
lived at Abdera, and governed there in a moft abfolute
manner, by virtue of his confummate wifdom. 1 he
magiftrates of that city made him a prefent of 500 ta¬
lents, and ere&ed ftatues to him even in his lifetime :
but being naturally more inclined to contemplation
than delighted with public honours and employments,
he withdrew into folitude and retirement. Democri¬
tus inceffantly laughed at human life, as a continued
farce, which made the inhabitants of Abdera think he
was mad ; on which they fent Hippocrates to cure
him ; but that celebrated phyfician having difcourfed
with the philofopher, told the Abderians, that he had
a great veneration for Democritus ; and that in his
opinion, thofe who efteemed themfelves the moft heal¬
thy were the moft diftempered. Democritus died, ac¬
cording to Diogenes Laertius, in the 361ft year before
the Chriftian era, aged 109. It is faid that he put out
his eyes, in order that he might meditate more pro¬
foundly on philofophical fubjefls; but this has little pro¬
bability. He was the author of many books, which are
loft; and from thefe Epicurus borrowed his philofophy.
DEMOIVRE, Abraham, an eminent mathema¬
tician, was born at Vitri in Champagne, May 1667.
The revocation of the edift of Nantz, in 1685, deter¬
mined him to fly into England, rather than abandon
the religion of his fathers. He laid the foundation of
his mathematical ftudies in France, and perfefted him¬
felf at London ; where a mediocrity of fortune obliged
him to employ his talents in this way, and to read pu¬
blic leisures for his better fupport. The Principia
Mathematica of Newton, which chance is faid to have
thrown in his way, made him comprehend at once,
how little he. had advanced in the fcience he profeffed.
He fell hard to work : he fucceeded as he went along ;
and he foon became connected with, and celebrated
among, the firft-rate mathematicians. His eminence
and abilities foon opened to him an entrance into the
Royal Society of London, and afterwards into the Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris. His merit was fo known
and acknowledged by the former, that they judged him
a fit perfon to decide the famous conteft betvreen New¬
ton and Leibnitz. The colle61ion of the academy of
Paris contains no memoir of this author, who died at
London Nov. 1754, foon after his admiflion into it y
but the Philofophical Tranfa&ions of London have fe¬
veral, and all of them interefting. He publiftied alfo
fome capital works, fuch as, Mifcellanea Anolytica. de
feribus et quodratitris, &c. 1730, 4to. But perhaps
hd has been more generally known by his “ Do&rine
DEM
Demoivre of Chances j or, Method of calculating the Pro-
ii babilities of Events at Play.” This work was firft
thenes." Pr,*nte<^ 16l3, in 410, and dedicated to Sir Ifaac New-
u^y^L/ton: it was reprinted 1738, with great alterations'and
improvements $ and a third edition was afterwards pu-
blilhed with additions, and “ A Treatife on Annui¬
ties,” dedicated to Lord Carpenter.
DEMONSTRABLE, a term ufed in the fchools
to fignify that a thing may be clearly proved. Thus,
it is demonftrable, that the three angles of a triangle
are equal to two right ones.
DEMONSTRATION, in Logic, a feries of fyllo-
gifms, all whole premifes are either definitions, felf-
- evident truths, or propofitions already eflablifhed. See
Logic.
DEMONSTRATIVE, in Grammat', a term given
to fuch pronouns as ferve to indicate or point out a
thing. Of this number are hie, hcec, hoc, among the
Latins $ and this, that, thefe, thofe, in Englifh.
DEMOSTHENES, the famous Athenian orator,
was born at Athens 381 B. C. He loft his father at
feven years of age j and was placed under the conduct
of guardians, who robbed him of his fubftance, and ne¬
glected his education. Demofthenes repaired this lofs
by his love of eloquence and his extraordinary abilities.
He became the difciple of Ifseus and Plato, and ap¬
plied himfelf to ftudy the orations of Ifocrates. At
the age of 17 he gave an early proof of his eloquence
and abilities againft his guardians, from whom he ob¬
tained the retribution of the greateft part of his eftate.
His rifing talents were, however, impeded by various
natural defedfts. But thefe were at laft conquered by
dint of refolution and unwearied attention. He de¬
claimed by the fea-fnore, that he might be ufed to the
noife of a tumultuous affembly 5 and with pebbles in
his mouth, that he might correct a defefl in his fpeech.
He praftifed at home with a naked fword hanging
over his fhoulder, that he might check an ungraceful
motion to which he was fubjeCL He alfo confined
himfelf in a fubterraneous cave, to devote himfelf more
clofely to ftudious purfuits ; and to eradicate all curio-
fity of appearing in public, he fhaved one half of his
head. In this folitary retirement, by the help of a
glimmering lamp, he compofed the greateft part of his
orations, which have ever been the admiration of every
age ; though his contemporaries and rivals inveighed
againft them, and obferved that theyfmelt of oil. His
abilities as an orator raifed him to confequence at A-
thens, and he was foon placed at the head of govern¬
ment. In this public capacity he roufed his country¬
men from their indolence, and animated them againft
the encroachment of Philip of Macedonia. In the
battle of Cheronaea, Demofthenes betrayed his pufilla-
nimitv, and faved his life by flight. After the death
of Philip, he declared himfelf warmly againft his fon
and fucceffor Alexander ; and when the Macedonians
demanded of the Athenians their orators, Demofthenes
reminded his countrymen of the fable of the Iheep,
which delivered their dogs to the wolves. By the
prevalence of party, however, he was forced to retire
from Athens; and in his banifhment, which he pafled
at Troezen and /Egina, he lived with more effemi¬
nacy than true heroifm. When Antipater made war
againft Greece after the death of Alexander, Demof¬
thenes was publicly recalled from his exile, and a galley
DEM
was fent to fetch him from iEgina. His return was Demof.
attended with much fplendour, and all the citizens thenes.*
crowded at the Piragus to fee him land. His triumph **~-
and popularity were (hort. Antipater and Craterus
were near Athens, and demanded all the orators to be
delivered up into their hands. Demofthenes fled to
the temple of Neptune in Calauria ; and when he faw
that all hopes of fafety were vaniftied, he took a dofe
of poifon, which he always carried in a quill, and ex¬
pired on the day that the Thefmophoria were celebra¬
ted, 322 years before Chrift. The Athenians raifed a
brazen tlatue to his honour, with an infeription tranf-
lated into this diftich :
Si tihi par mend robur, Vir magne, fnijjet,
Gracia non Macedo fuccubuijfet hero.
Demofthenes has been defervedly called the prince
of orators. Indeed no orator had ever a finer field
than Demofthenes in his Olynthiacs and Philippics,
which are his capital orations ; and undoubtedly to
the greatnefs of the fubjeft, and to that integrity and
public fpirit which breathe in them, they owe a large
portion of their merit. The fubjedl is, to excite
the indignation of his countrymen againft Philip of
Macedon, the public enemy of the liberties of Greece ;
and to guard them againft the treacherous meafures
by which that crafty tyrant endeavoured to lull them
into a negledft of their danger. To attain this end,
we fee him ufe every proper means to animate a
people diftinguifhed byjuftice, humanity, and valour,
but in many inftances become corrupt and degenerate.
He boldly accufes them of venality, indolence, and
indifference to the public good ; while, at the
fame time, he reminds them of their former glory
and of their prefent refources. His contemporary
orators, who were bribed by Philip, and who perfuaded
the people, to peace, he openly reproaches as trai¬
tors to their country. He not only prompts to vi¬
gorous meafures, but teaches how they are to be
carried into execution. His orations are ftrongly a-
nimated, and full of the impetuofity and ardour of
public fpirit. His compofition is not diftinguifhed by
ornament and fplendour. It is an energy of thought,
peculiarly his own, which forms his chara&er, and
raifes him above his fpecies. He feems not to attend
to.words, but to things. We forget the orator, and
think of the fubjedh He has no parade and oftenta-
tion, no ftudied introdu&ions : but is like a man full
of his fubjeft ; who after preparing his audience by a
fentence or two for the reception of plain truths, en¬
ters direflly on bufinefs.
1 he ftyle of Demofthenes is ftrong and concife ;
though fom.etimes it muft be confeffed, harfh and
abrupt. His words are highly expreflive, and his ar¬
rangement firm and manly. Negligent of leffer graces,
he feems to have aimed at that fublime which lies in
fentiment. His adtion and pronunciation are faid to
have been uncommonly vehement and ardent ; which,
from the manner of his writings, we fhould readily
believe. His chara&er appears to have been of the
auftere rather than of a gentle kind. He is always
grave, ferious, paflionate ; never degrading himfelf,
nor attempting any thing like pleafantry. If his
admirable eloquence be in any refpedt faulty, it is
that he fometimes borders on the hard and dry. He
may
[ 158 ]
DEM [ i
Demo- may be thought to want fmoothnefs and grace $ which
fthenes, js attributed to his imitating too clofely the manner
Dempfter. 0f Thucydides, who was his great model for ftyle,
L • and whole hiftory he is faid to have tranfcribed eight
times with his own hand. But thefe defedls are
more than atoned for by that mafterly force of maf-
culine eloquence, which, as it overpowered all who
heard it, cannot in the prefent day be read without
emotion.
Cicero calls him a perfect model, and fuch as he him-
felf wilhed to be. Thefe two great princes of eloquence
have been often compared together ; but the judgment
hefitates to which to give the preference. The arch-
bilhop of Cambray, however, feems to have ftated their
merits with great judgment and perfpicuity in his Reflec¬
tions on Rhetoric and Poetry. The paffage, tranila-
ted, is as follows : “ I do not hefitate to declare that
I think Demofthenes fuperior to Cicero. I am per-
fuaded no one can admire Cicero more than I do. Pie
adorns whatever he attempts. Pie does honour to lan¬
guage. Pie difpofes of words in a manner peculiar
to himfelf. His ftyle has great variety of character.
Whenever he pleafes, he is even concife and vehement j
for inftance, againft Catiline, againft Verres, againft
Antony. But ornament is too vilible in his writings.
His art is wonderful, but it is perceived. When the
orator is providing for the fafety of the republic, he
forgets not himfelf, nor permits others to forget him.
Demofthenes feems to elcape from himfelf, and to fee
nothing but his country. He feeks not elegance of
expreffion j unfought for, he poflefles it. He is fupe¬
rior to admiration. He makes ufe of language, as a
modeft man does of drefs, only to cover him. He
thunders, he lightens. He is a torrent which carries
every thing before it. We cannot criticife, becaufe
we are not ourfelves. His fubjedl enchains our atten¬
tion, and makes us forget his language. We lofe him
from our fight: Philip alone occupies our minds. I
am delighted with both thefe orators j but I confefs
that I am lefs affe£fed by the infinite art and magnifi¬
cent eloquence of Cicero, than by the rapid fimplicity
of Demofthenes.”
DEMPSTER, Thomas, a very learned man, but
of a lingular character. He was born in Scotland, but
we do not find in what year. He went over to France
for the fake of embracing the Catholic religion, and
taught claffical learning at Paris about the beginning
of the 17th century. Though his bufinefs was to teach
fchool, yet he was as ready to draw his fword, and as
quarrelfome, as if he had been a duellift by profeffion :
and it is faid, that there fcarce paffed a day but he had
fomething or other of this kind upon his hands. This
fpirit and turn of temper drew him into many fcrapes $
and one in particular, which obliged him to quit the
country. Grangier, principal of the college of Beau¬
vais at Paris, being obliged to take a journey, appoint¬
ed Dempfter his fubftitute. Dempfter caufed whip a
fcholar, in full fchool, for challenging one of his fel¬
lows to fight a duel. The fcholar, to revenge this af¬
front, brought three gentlemen of his relations, who
were of the king’s life-guards, into the college. Demp¬
fter made the whole college take arms ; hamftrung the
three life-guard-men’s horfes before the college-gate j
and put himfelf in fuch a pofture of defence, that
59 1 DEN
the three fparks were forced to alk for quarter. He DempftM
gave them their lives $ but imprifoned them, and did H
not releafe them for fome days. They fought another Denbigh.^
way to revenge themfelves : they caufed an informa- ^
tion to be made of the life and moral behaviour of
Dempfter, and got fome witnefles to be heard againft
him. Upon this he went over to England, where he
found refuge $ but did not make any long flay. He
went abroad again, and read le&ures upon polite learn¬
ing in feveral univeidities ; in that of Nifmes particu¬
larly, where he difputed for a profeffor’s chair, and ob¬
tained it. He went to Bologna, and was profefibr
there for the remainder of his life 5 and was there alfo
admitted a member of the Academy Della Rotte. He
died there in September 1625, leaving behind him fe¬
veral learned works j as Commentaries on Rojinus d»
Sintiquitatibus Roman or urn, and uponClaudian, &c.} four
books of epiftles j feveral dramatic pieces, and other
poems ; fome books of law 5 an Apparatus to the Hif¬
tory of Scotland; a Martyrology of Scotland; and a-
Lift of the Scottifh Writers.
DEMFSTER of Court, the name formerly given i»
Scotland to the common executioner or hangman.
DEMSTER, or Deemster. See Deemster.
DEMULCENTS, among phyficians, medicines
good againft acrimonious humours. Such are the root*
of marih-ftiallows, of white lilies, of liquorice, and of
viper-grafs, the five emollient herbs, &c.
DEMURRAGE, in Commerce, an allowance made
to the mafter of a ftiip by the merchants, for flaying in
a port longer than the time firft appointed for his de¬
parture.
DEMURRER, in Law, a flop put to any a&ion
upon fome point of difficulty which muft be determined
by the court, before any further proceedings can be had
in the fuit.
DEN, a fyllable which, added to the names of
places, (hows them to be fituated in valleys or near
woods; as Tenterden.
DENARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the chief filver
coin among the Romans, worth in our money about
fevenpence three farthings. As a weight, it was th«
feventh part of a Roman ounce.
Denarius is alfo ufed in our law-books for an Eng-
IHh penny.
DENBIGHSHIRE, a county of Wales, bounded
on the fouth by Merioneth and Montgomery {hires,
on the north by Flintftiire and the Iriffi fea, on the
weft by Caernarvon, and part of Merionethlhire. It is
about 40 miles long and 21 broad. The air is whole-
fome, but fliarp, the county being pretty hilly, and the
fnow lying long on the tops of the mountains. The foil
in general is barren : but the vale of Clwyd, fo called
from its being watered by that river, is a very fertile
pleafant fpot of great extent, and well inhabited. The
chief commodities are black cattle, fheep, and goats,
rye, called here amelcorn, and lead-ore. I he county
fends two members to parliament, viz. a knight for the
{hire, and a burgefs for Denbigh the capital.
Denbigh, the capital town in Denbighfhite in North
Wales. It is feated on the fide of a rocky hill, on a
branch of the river Clwyd, and was formerly a place
of great ftrength, with an impregnable caftle, now de-
molilhed. It is pretty large, well-built, and inhabited
by.
BEN [ 160 I BEN
Benbigh by tanners and glovers, and gives the title of earl to
II the noble family of Fielding. W. Long. 3. 30.
Dendro- j
merer ^
« DENDERA, a town of Egypt, on the weft fide of
the Nile. Near it are very magnificent rums, fuppofed
to be. thofe of an ancient temple of Serapis. It is 48
miles fouth-fouth-eaft of Girge, and 242 fouth of Cairo.
E. Long, 31. 40. N. Lat. 26. 10.
DENDERMOND, a handfome and ftrong town
of the Auftrian Netherlands, in Flanders, with a ftrong
citadel. It was taken by the allies in 1706, and by
the French in 1745. It is furrounded by marlhes and
fine meadows, which the inhabitants can. lay under
water when they pleafe. It is feated at the confluence
of the Dender and Scheldt. E. Long. 4. 3. N. Lat.
51* 3*
DENDRACH AXES, in Natural Hiftory, the name
ufed by the ancients for an extremely elegant and
beautiful fpecies of agate, the ground of which is
whitilh, variegated with veins of a brighter white.
Thefe veins are beautifully difpofed in a number of va¬
rious figures; but generally in many concentric irregu¬
lar circles, drawn round one or more points. It is
common alfo, in various parts of this ftone, to find very
beautiful delineations of trees, mofles, fea-plants, and
the like, fo elegantly expreffed, that many have erro-
neoufly taken them for real plants included in the fub-
ftance of the ftone ■: whence the name dendrachates.
DENDROME TER, (from a tree, and [AtT^tu
I meafure'), an inftrument invented by Meffrs Dun-
combe and Whittel, for which they obtained a patent ;
and fo called from its ufe in meafuring trees. This in-
Plate ftrument confiftsof afemicircle A (fig. 1.), divided into
CLXVIIf. two quaclrants, and graduated from the middle : upon
S' I* the diameter B there hangs a plummet L for fixing the
inftrument in a vertical pofition : there is alfo a chord
D parallel to the diameter, and a radius E, palling at
right angles through the diameter and chord. From
a point on the radius hangs an altimeter C, between
the chord and diameter, to which is fixed a fmall femi-
circle G. and a ferew, to'confine it in any pofition.
The altimeter, which is contrived to form the fame
angle with the radius of the inftrument as the tree
forms with the horizon, is divided from its centre both
wavs into forty equal parts : and thefe parts are again
fuhdivided into halves and quarters. Upon the fmall
femicircle G, on which is accounted the quantity of
the angle made by the altimeter and radius, are ex-
prefled degrees from 60 to 120, being 30 on each qua¬
drant. The radius is numbered with the fame fcale
of divifions as the altimeter. There is alfo a nonius
to the fmall femicircle, which (hows the quantity of
an angle to every five minutes. On the back of the
inftrument the ftock M of the Hiding piece is confined
to the axis N, which moves concentrically parallel to
the elevation index F on the oppofiie fide, to which it
is fixed. This index is numbered by a fcale of equal
divifions with the altimeter and radms : at the end of
the index is a nonius, by which the angles of elevation
above, or of depreftion below, the horizon, meafured
upon the femicircle of the inftrument, are determined
to every five minutes. There is alfo a groove in the
radius, that Aides acrofs the axis by means of a ferew
I, working between the chord and femicircle of the
inftrument j and this ferew is turned by the key O.
Upon the ftock M (fig. 2.) is a Hiding piece P, that al- Dentfra-
ways adls at right angles with the altimeter, by means of meter,
a groove in the latter. To the fhank of the Hiding
piece is affixed a moveable limb Q, which forms the*1§'*‘
fame angle with the altimeter as the bough forms
with the body or trunk of the tree. This limb may
be of any convenient length, divided into equal parts
of the fame fcale with all the foregoing diyifions. At
the extremity of the fixed axis, on a centre, an index
R, with telefcope fights, works horizontally upon the
moveable limb of the Hiding piece. Upon this hori¬
zontal index R may be fixed a fmall quadrant T, de-
feribed with any convenient radius from the centre on
which the index moves, and divided into 90 degrees,
beginning at a right line drawn from the centre at
right angles with the fiducial edge of the faid index ;
and upon the extremity of the axis is a nonius, where¬
by to determine the quantity of an angle upon the
quadrant every five minutes. There are alfo two fmall
circular arches S, S, ferving to keep the fights in a
parallel pofition, each containing an equal number of
degrees. Upon thefe arches is meafured the angle,
fubtending a fide equal to the difference of the altitudes
of the obferved objects above the plane of the horizon,
and whofe bafe is the nearefi diflance between the per¬
pendiculars in which thefe objefls are fituated. The
dendrometer is fitted to a theodolite, and may be ufed
either with or without it as occafion requires.
The principal ufe of this inftrument L for meafuring
the length and diameter of any tree, perpendicular or
oblique to an horizontal plane, or in any fituation of
the plane on which it refts, or of any figure, whether
regular or irregular, and alfo the length and diameter
of the boughs, by mere infpeflion; and the inventors
of it have calculated tables, annexed to their account
of the inftrument itfelf, by the help of which the quan¬
tity of timber in a tree is obtained without calculation,
or the ufe of the Hiding rule. The infirument is rec¬
tified by fetting it in a perpendicular pofition, by means
of the plummet, and ferewing it to the flaff; then the
altimeter is placed in the exa£t pofition of the tree,
whether perpendicular, reclining, or inclining, and
ferewed faft. If the tree Hands on level ground, the
horizontal difiance from the tree to the axis of the in¬
ftrument is meafured with a tape-line, and the radius
is moved with the key till that diftance be cut upon it
by the infide of the diameter ; but if the ground be
flanting, the diftance from the tree to the inftrument
is meafured, and the elevation index is moved till the
point of the tree from which the diftance was meafured
is feen through the fights and there ferewed faft ; and
the radius is moved backwards or forwards with the
key, till this diftance is cut upon the elevation index
by the perpendicular line of the altimeter ; and the
horizontal line will be marked upon the radius by the
infide of the diameter. In order to obtain the length
of the tree, the elevation index is firft moved down¬
wards, till the bottom of the tree cut by the hori¬
zontal wires is obferved through the fights, and the
feet and inches marked by the index upon the alti¬
meter below the point of fight or horizontal line
are noted down : then the index is moved upwards
till the part to which you would meafure, cut by the
horizontal wires, is feen, and the feet and inches
marked on the altimeter above the point of fight are
noted ;
DEN [161] DEN
noted : tliefe two quantities added together give the
^ then 6o.i)34350o(=
5715.5 inches.
“ Hence it appears, that an error of of a minute
in the angle A, would caufe an error of 9 inches and
a half in the diftance AB, or about part of the
whole ; the accuracy, therefore, of thus taking diftances,
depends upon the accuracy wherewith angles can be
afcertained ; and the error in diftance will bear the
fame proportion to the aftual diftance, as the error in
taking the angle does to the adhial angle.
“ but this method of afeertaining diftances cannot
be applied to inacceflible objedfs, and it is moreover
fubjedf to the inconvenience of an afiiftant being ob¬
liged to go to the objedt whofe diftance is required,
(an inconvenience almoft equal to the trouble of ac¬
tual admeafurement), therefore the perfedlion of the
fecond method propofed (if attainable) is principally
to be dtfired ; namely, that of conceiving the obfer-
vation made on the circumference of a circle, whofe
centre is in the objedt Avhofe diftance is to be afcertain¬
ed ; and none of our inftruments now in ufe being
adapted to this mode of obfervation, a new conftrudlion
of a mathematical inftrument is therefore propofed, the
name intended for which is the Dcmlrometer.
“ This name is not now ufed for the firft time, it
was applied in the fame way by a gentleman who had,
as I have been informed, turned his thoughts to this
particular fubjedl ; but I do not find that he ever
brought his inftrument into ufe, or explained its prin¬
ciples ; nor do I underftand that this principle has ever
been applied in pradlice, for the familiar purpofe of
afeertaining terreftnal diftances in furveying, or other-
wife ; though the fame principle has been fo generally,
and fuccefsfully, applied, in determining the diftance of
the heavenlv bodies by means of their parallax.
“ The following principles of eonftrudlion are pro¬
pofed, which may perhaps be otherwife varied and im¬
proved. O, fig. 4. the objeft whofe diftance is re¬
quired ; ABCDE the inftrument in piano ; BC, a te-
lefcope, placed exaftlv parallel to the fide AE ; CE,
an arch of a circle, whofe centre is at A, accurately
divided from E, in degrees, &c. ; AD, an index,
moveable on the centre A, with a nonius fcale at the
end D, graduated to apply to the divifions of the arch j
alfo with a telefcope, to enable the obferver to diferi-
minafe the objedl, or any particular part or fide there¬
of, the more accurately. The whole fhould be mounted
an three legs, in the manner of a plain table, or theo-
ter.
dolite, and furnilhed with fpirit-tubes to adjuft it to anDemW
horizontal pofition. The inftrument being placed in
fuch pofition, the telefcope BC muft be brought upon
the objedl O, or rather upon fome particular point or
fide thereof j when, being there fattened, the index
AD muft be moved, till its telefcope exactly Itnkes
the fame point of the objeft j then the divifions, on
the arch Ei), maik out the angle J3AE j which will
be exaftly equal to the angle BOA, as is demonftrated
in the 15th and 29th propofitions of Euclid, Book I. j
and the fide BA being already known, the diftance
BO, or AO, may be ealily determined in two differ¬
ent ways j viz. firft, by fuppofing the triangle BOA
an ifofceles triangle ; then mulriply the fide BA by
3435> as before, and divide the produft by the mi¬
nutes contained in the angle DAE = tht angle BOA;
the quotient will be the diftance BO = AO, very
nearly ; or, fecondly, by fuppoftng the triangle ABO
right-angled at.B, then, as the fine of the angle found
HAE:z:BOA is to the fide known BA, fo is the ra¬
dius to the fide AO, or fo is the fine of the angle
BAO to the fide BO. To illuftrate this by an exam¬
ple, fuppofe the fide BA = 1 yard, the angle found
b^AE BOA = c° 15', then, per firft method,
I5)3435(—229 yards ~ the diftance BO, or AO.
Or, by the fecond method,
As the fine of the angle found o° 15'=: 7.6398160
Is to the fide BAm yard = 0.0000000
So is radius 90° o'= 10.0000000
To the log. of the fide AO=229 yards = 2.3601840
Or,
As the fine of the angle found o° 15'=: 7.6398160
Is to the fide BA = i yard= o.oocoooo
So is the fine of the angle
To the log. of the fide BO =r 229 yards = 2.3601799
“ As the perfeflion of this inftrument depends to¬
tally upon its accuracy in taking fmall angles, which
accuracy muft depend, for its minute divifions, upon
its being fitted with a micrometer; and as the writer
of this cannot doubt that the particular mode of doing
this muft be familiar to the intelligent inftrument-ma-
ker,. he cannot but ftrongly recommend it to the at¬
tention of the ingenious of that profeftion, as an ob-
jeft which, when perfe&ed, would be a real and con-
fiderable improvement in their art, and an ufeful in¬
ftrument to the-pia6Hcal furveyor. Its accuracy would
alfo, in fome meafure, depend upon the length of the
line BA in the figure ; that line might therefore be
extended, by the inftrument being conftruaed to fold
or Hide out to a greater length, when in ufe ; upon
which principle, connefled with the application of a
micrometer, an accurate and ufeful inftrument might
certainly be conftrufted. Eo adjuft luch inftrument
for ufe, let a ftaff be held up at a diftance, in the
manner of fig. 1. exactly equal in length to the diftance
of the two telefcopes, and the index AD being brought
exactly upon the fide AE, if the two telefcopes accu¬
rately ftrike either end of the ftaflf, the ijiftrument is
properly adjufted.
“ The
Cyder press
PAATEczxmr.
E. Afrt
DEN [ 163 ] DEN
Dendrome- “ The conftruftion of a fimilar Inftrument, on the
ter principles of Hadley’s quadrant, for naval obfervations,
II would alfo doubtlefs be an acceptable object in naviga-
^Deneb. ^ tjon^ ^ enabling the mariner to afcertain the diftances
of fhips, capes, and other objefts, at a Angle obferva-
tion j and that, perhaps, with greater accuracy than
can be done by any method now in ufe.
“ For this purpofe, the following conftru&ion is
pjg_ propofed : ABCDE, fig. 5. the inftrument in piano ;
O, the objeft whofe diftance is required ; at A, at C,
at E, and at 3, are to be fixed fpeculuvns, properly
framed and fitted, that at 3 having only its lower part
quickfilvered, the upper part.being left tranfparent, to
view the object j the fpeculum at A being fixed ob-
- liquely, fo that a line A I, drawn perpendicular to its
furface, maybifeft the angle BAG in equal parts; that
at C being perpendicular to the line C 2; thofe at E
and 3 being perpendicular to the index E 3, and that
at E being furnilhed with a fight; the arch DC to be
divided from D, in the manner of Hadley’s quadrant;
the movement of the index to be meafured, as before,
by a micrometer ; and, as the length of the line AE
would tend to the perfedlion of the infirument, it may
be conftru&ed to fold in the middle, on the line C 2,
into lefs compafs, when not in ufe; the infirument may
be adjufted for ufe by holding up a ftaff at a diftance,
as before propofed, whofe length is exaftly equal to
the line AE.
“ To make an obfervation by this inftrument, it
being previoufly properly adjufted, the eye is to be
applied at the fight in the fpeculum E, and the face
turned toward the objeft ; when the object, being re¬
ceived on the fpeculum A, is refle&ed into that at C,
and again into that at E, and that at 3 on the index ;
the index being then moved, till the refle&ed objeft,
in the fpeculum at 3, exaftly coincides with the real
objeft, in the tranfparent part of the glafs, the divi-
fions on the arch D 3, fubdivided by the micrometer,
will determine the angle DE 3 zr the angle AOE ;
from which the diftance O may be determined as be¬
fore.
“ It is very probable that this arrangement may be
improved, by thofe who are familiar with the beft con-
ftru&ion of Hadley’s quadrant ; which the writer of
this profeffes himfelf not to be, farther than its general
principle. He has not the leaft doubt that ufeful prac¬
tical inftruments may be conftrufled on the principles
here defcribed ; and, upon this idea, cannot but recom¬
mend the fubjeft to the attention of thofe concerned in
the manufafture of fimilar inftruments.” Repertory of
Arts, vol. i.
DENDROPHORIA, in antiquity, the carrying of
boughs or branches of trees ; a religious ceremony fo
called, becaufe certain priefts, called from thence den-
drophon, tree-bearers, marched in proceffion, carrying
the branches of trees in their hands in honour of fome
god, as Bacchus, Cybele, Sylvanus, &c. The col¬
lege of the dendrophori is often mentioned in ancient
marbles ; and we frequently fee in baffo relievos the
bacchanals reprefented as men carrying little ftirubs or
branches of trees.
DENEB, an Arabic term fignifying tail, ufed by
aftronomers to denote feveral fixed ftars. Thus, dencb
eleet, fignifies the bright ftar in the lion’s tail. Deneb
adigege, that in the fwan’s tail.
Denmark.
DENHAM, Sir John, an eminent Englilh poet, Denham
the only fon of Sir John Denham, chief baron of the
exchequer in Ireland, and one of the lords commiflion-
ers there, was born in Dublin in 1615 : but his fa¬
ther, in 1617, being made a baron of the exchequer
in England, he received his education in that country.
In his youth he followed gaming more than any
thing elfe ; but in 1641, publilhed a tragedy called
the Sophy, which was much admired by the beft
judges; and, in 1643, wrote his famous poem called
Cooper's Hill, which Mr Dryden pronounces will ever
be the ftandard of good writing for majefty of ftyle.
Denham was fent ambaffador from Charles II. to the
king of Poland : and at the Reftoration was made
furveyor-general of his majefty’s buildings, a’-'d crea¬
ted knight of the Bath. On obtaining this poft, he is
faid to have renounced his poetry for more important
ftudies; though he afterwards wrote a fine copy of
verfes on the death of Cowley. He died at his office
in Whitehall in 1668 ; and his works have been often
fince printed.
DENIER, a fmall French copper coin, of which
12 make a fol.
There are two kinds of deniers, the one tournois,
the other parifois, whereof the latter was worth a fourth
part more than the former.
DENIZEN, in Law, an alien made a fubieft by
the king’s letters patent; otherwife called donatfon, be¬
caufe his legitimation proceeds ex donatione regis, “ from
the king’s gift.”
A denizen is in a kind of middle flate between an
alien and a natural-born fubjedl, and partakes of both
of them. He may take lands by purchafe or devife,
which an alien may not; but cannot take by inheri¬
tance ; for his parent, through whom he muft claim,
being an alien, had no inheritable blood, and there¬
fore could convey none to the fon ; and, upon a like
defied! of blood, the iffue of a denizen born before deni¬
zation, cannot inherit to him ; but his iflue born after
may. A denizen is not excufed from paying the
alien’s duty, and fome other mercantile burdens. And
no denizen can be of the privy-council, or either houfe
of parliament, or have any office of truft civil or mili¬
tary, or be capable of any grant of lands, &c. from
the crown.
DENMARK, one of the moft ancient monarchies
in Europe, comprehending the peninfula of Jutland,
and the iflands of Zealand, Funen, &c. But Denmark,
properly fo called, is only that part of Scandinavia which
formerly went by the name of Cimbrica Cherfonefus, and
now is called Jutland. Including Holftein, it is bound¬
ed by the fea called Categate on the north ; by the Bal¬
tic on the eaft ; by the river Elbe, which feparates it
from Bremen, on the fouth ; and by the duchy of Saxe-
Lauenburg towards the fouth-eaft ; extending from 54.
40. to 58. 20. N. Lat.
The origin of the name Denmark is very uncertain.
The moft probable conjecture concerning it is that of whence de-
Saxo-Grammaticus, the moft ancient and beft Danifh rived,
hiftorian. He derives it from Dan the fon of Humble,
the firft king, and Mark or Marc, fignifying a coun¬
try in feveral dialeCls of the Teutonic; according to
which etymology, the word Denmark fignifies the
land or country of Dan. This Dan is thought toj)anthe
have lived about 1038 years before the Chriftian era. firft king,
X 2 Almoft
BEN [i
"'Denmark. Almoft all hiftorians agree that he was the fbn of
Humble, a native of Zealand. His poffeffions and in¬
fluence were very confiderable not only in Zealand,
but in the illands of Langland and Mona. It was his
courage, however, and Ikill in the art of war, that in¬
duced the inhabitants of Denmark to choofe him for
their king. He was called to the affiflanee of the Jut¬
landers upon an irruption of the Saxons into their ter¬
ritories, and promifed the fovereignty of the country
if he drove out the enemy. On this he immediately
raifed an army, gained a complete victory over the
Saxons, and obliged them to leave the country } and
3 he was accordingly elefted king.
Hiftory of In fuch early ages as thefe, we are not to look for
fabulous tbi-any authentic. hiftoi7 either of this or any other king-
many ages. uom. The hiftory of Denmark, for a great number of
ages after the reign of Dan, is filled with fabulous ex¬
ploits of heroes, encounters with giants, dragons, &c.
One of tneir kings named Frotho, who reigned about
761 years before Chrift, is faid to have conquered all
Lrnain, Slefwick, Ruftia, Pomerania, Holftein, &c. an
aftertion which cannot eafily be credited, confidering
the difficulty which fucceeding warriors, even the
greateft. in the world, found to fubdue the inhabitants
of thofe countries.—It is certain, however, that an¬
ciently the kingdom of Denmark made a much more
confpicuous figure than it does at prefent. The Danes
appear to have had a very confiderable naval force al¬
moft from the foundation of their empire j and the
conquefts they undoubtedly made in our ifland are cer¬
tain proofs of their valour.
-The natural enemies of the Danes, were the Swedes,
Norwegians, and Saxons j efpecially the firft. With
one or other of thefe nations almoft perpetual war was
carried oh. 1 he kingdom was alfo often rent by civil
dilTenfions ; which the neighbouring monarchs did not
fail to take advantage of, in order to reduce the king¬
dom of Denmark under their fubjeaion. As neither
party, however, generally came off with advantage,
4 the hiftory of thefe wars affords nothing interefting or
Valdemar entertaining. One of the greateft of the Danith mo-
I. a great narchs was Valdemar /. who obtained the throne in
monarch.
Power of
Denmark,
in 11 <>5.
1157 5 having defeated and killed his competitor Sweyn,
after a ten years civil war. He maintained a long war
with the Vandals, whofe power he at laft entirely
broke, and reduced under his fubje&ion the iftand
of Rugen. He alfo proved victorious over the Norwe¬
gians, fo that their king and queen came in perfon to
fubmit to him. In 1165, he alfo laid the foundations
of the city of Dantzic, which, though it hath fince
become a place of much confequence, confifted at firft
only of a few poor fifhermen’s huts ; but the privileges
and immunities conferred upon it by this monarch,
foon proved the means of its becoming a flourifhing
city.—In 1169, he entirely fubdued the Courlanders •,
and, foon after, was invefted with the duchy of Hol¬
ftein, by the emperor Frederic Barbaroffa. He is faid
to have been poifoned by a quack medicine, given with
a defign to recover him from a diftemper with which
he was feized in 1182.
In the year 1195, Canute, Valdemar’s fucceffor,
caufed a mufter to be made of all the men fit to bear arms
in his dominions ; and ordered each province to fit out
its proportion of {hipping, every way equipped, and
ready for atftion. The whole force of Denmark, at
64 ] DEN
that time, confifted of 670 fliips of war, befides the Denmark,
fquadrons fupplied by vaffals, tributary ftates, and al- s—y—
lies. The number of the land forces is not mentioned.
In the reign of this prince, the Danilli dominions were
enlarged by the entire conqueft of Stromar, the dif-
trnfts of Lubec and Hamburgh, formerly known by
the name of Nordalbingia, but now included under the
general name of Holjlein. He died in 1203, and was
fucceeded by Valderoar II. who proved a very great
and warlike prince. In 1211, he founded the city of
Stralfund, oppofite to the ifle of Rugen. The fame
year his queen died in childbed ; and in memory of
her he built the caftle of Droningholm, that name im- 6
porting the Queen's IJland. In 1218, he undertook an Expedition
expedition againft the Livonians, having received ad-0^Vl^e'
vice, that they, affifted by the Lithuanians, Mufcovites, ^
and other barbarous nations, had driven from their ha-Livonians,
bitations all thofe in the neighbourhood who had em¬
braced Chriftianity, and taken an oath of allegiance
to the crown of Denmark. Fitting out a powerful
fleet, therefore, he immediately fet fail for that coun- '
try ; but his troops were no fooner landed, than they
were feized with a panic at the fight of fuch a power¬
ful army of favages as were affembled to oppofe them.
I he king himfelf was difmayed at the unufual fpedtacle
of a whole army clothed in fkins, and refembling beafts
more than human creatures. Encouraged, however,
by the bifhops who attended him, he ventured an en¬
gagement, and overthrew the barbarians with incre¬
dible {laughter. This vi&ory was gained near the
fortrefs of Valdemar, which received its name on that
account. ^
How potent and flouriftiing the kingdom of Den- Flourilhing
mark was at this time, appears from an eftimate
the revenue of the tributary provinces, thofe countrieskin^dom‘
conquered by Valdemar, and the {landing forces of the
whole kingdom. This account was copied by Ponta-
nus from Witfield, a writer of thofe days, who had it
from a regifter kept by Valdemar’s fteward. From
the provinces were daily fent in 24 lafts of oats, 24 lafts
of rye, and half that quantity of wheat, xa, talents oi
cheefe and butter, and nine of honey j 24 oxen, 300
ftieep, 200 hogs j and 6oo marks of coined money.
1 his was the certain revenue : but to this was added
near an equal fum from adventitious circumftances y
fuch as lines, forfeitures, taxes on law-fuits and plead¬
ings, with a variety of other contingencies j the whole
amounting to upwards of 100,000 marks a day, or
23>730>00°h Per annum j a fum in thofe days almoft
incredible. With this revenue were kept for conftant
fervice 1400 great and {mall {hips for the king’s ufe,
each of which at a medium carried 121 foldiers ; ma¬
king the whole of the Handing forces, befides garrifons,
confift of 169,400 fighting men.
In 1223, a very great misfortune befel Valdemar,
notwkhftanding all his power. Henry earl of Swerin,
otherwife called Henry Palatine, a German prince, ha- g
ving been deprived of part of his dominions by Valde-Vnldemar
mar, furprifed and carried off the king himfelf, and taken pri-
kept him clofe prifoner for three years. The condi-k'161*
lions on which he at laft obtained his liberty were very
hard. He was obliged to pay a prodigious fum of gejeafe(i ojs
money; to relinquiffi Holftein, Swerin, Hamburgh, condition of
and all his poffeffions on the other fide of the Elbe; ceding part
and laftly, folemnly to fwear that he would maintainofl?IS terru
this
DEN
[
10
He breaks
the treaty,
but is de¬
feated.
Denmark, this compulfive contract, and never take any meafures
U.. v ' to punifh Henry or his aflociates. This treaty was
figned on the 25th of March 1226.
Befides thefe territories which the Danifti monarch
had been obliged to cede by treaty, many tributary
princes took the opportunity of his captivity to re¬
cover their liberty ; and among the reft, the inhabitants
of Lubec revolted, and entered into alliance with
Albert duke of Saxony againft Valdemar. The latter,
however, was not of a difpofition to fubmit tamely to
fuch treatment. He obtained a difpenfation from the
pope to break his engagements with Henry, and im¬
mediately entered Holftein at the head of a numerous
army. Here he was met by feveral German princes,
at the head of a very numerous army $ and a defperate
engagement enfued. Valdemar at firft had the advan¬
tage j but being wounded in the eye, his troops were
at laft defeated with great flaughter. It doth not ap¬
pear that ever the king of Denmark was able to re¬
venge himfelf of his enemies, or to recover the domi¬
nions he had loft. So far from this, he was obliged, in
1228, to cede Lauenburg to the duke of Saxony, who
had already feized on Ratzburg and Molna. Soon
after this, his eldeft fon Valdemar was accidentally kil¬
led as he was hunting, and his two other Tons married
the daughters of his two greateft enemies. Abel, the
third fon, married the daughter of Adolphus duke of
Holftein ; and Eric, the fecond, married the duke of
Saxony’s daughter. Thefe misfortunes are fuppofed to
have haftened. his death, which happened in the month
of April 1242.
On the death of Valdemar, the kingdom was di¬
vided between the two young princes 5 and between
them a war commenced the very next year. A peace
was concluded the year following, and war renewed
the year after : but how long it continued, v'e are not
informed. In 1250, Eric paid a vifit to his brother
Abel, intreating his mediation between him and the
princes of Holftein, with whom he was then at war.
Abel received him, in appearance, with great kindnefs,
and promifed that his utmoft endeavours to procure a
reconciliation fhould not be wanting : but in the mean¬
time, laid a plan for having him murdered at fea : this
was effected, and Abel became mafter of the whole
kingdom.
The new king did not long enjoy the fovereignty he
had fo wickedly obtained. He was tormented by his
own confcience ; efpecially when he found among his
brother’s papers, one by which he was left heir to the
whole kingdom on the death of Eric, and many kind
expreffions with regard to himfelf. He was at laft kil¬
led in a battle with his own fubjefts in 1252, on ac¬
count of fome taxes he intended to impofe.
From this time to the year 1333, the kingdom of
Denmark gradually declined. Ufurpers ellablifhed
themfelves in different provinces ; while the kings of
)f petty ty-Sweden did not fail to avail themfelves of the diftrafl-
ants. ed ftate of the Danifh affairs. In 1333, died Chrif-
topher II. who poffeffed only the cities of Scanderburg
in Jutland and Neoburg in Fionia, with fome few
other inconfiderable places, of all the hereditary do¬
minions of Denmark. Halland, Holbec, Calemburg,
and Samfoe, were held by Canute Porfius; Schonen,
Lyftre, and Bleking, by the king of Sweden, to whom
they had been lately fold j John earl of Wagria had
it
GWil war
between
his two
ions.
18
Kingdom
iivided
among
1 number
65 ] DEN
the jurifdi&ion of Zealand, Falftre, Laaland, and Fe- Denmark,
merin j Gerhard, of Jutland and Fionia ; and Lawrence —y-1
Jonea of Longland and Arras.
After the death of Chriftopher, an interregnum of
feven years enfued.—The firft attempt for the fove¬
reignty was made by Otho, fecond fon to the late king,
who laid a fcheme for driving Gerhard out of Jutland j
but not being able to accompliflr it, he was taken pri-
foner, and clofely confined by Gerhard. The king of
Sweden next wrote to Pope Benedidl XIII. befeech-
ing his Holinefs to confirm to him the provinces of
Schonen and others which he poffeffed ; and to allow
him to fubdue the reft of the kingdom, which was now
ufurped and rendered miferable by a fet of petty
princes, who kneVv not how to govern. To influence
him the more powerfully, he alfo promifed to hold
this kingdom of the pope : and to pay him the ufual
tax collected by the church. This requeft, however,
was refufed. Valdemar of Slefwic, nephew to Ger¬
hard, then afpired to the fovereignty. He had for¬
merly been ele&ed king j but had given over all
thoughts of enjoying the fovereignty, on account of
the fuperior influence of Chriftopher ; but now refumed
his ambitious views at the infligation of his uncle.
Several of his nobility alfo caft their eyes on young
Valdemar, Chriftopher’s fon, now at the emperor’s
court. But while each of thefe princes were laying
fchemes to aggrandife themfelves, the unhappy Danes
were diftreffed by exorbitant taxes, famine, and pefti- Diftreffed
lence *, the two laft in confequence of the former. The ftate of the
peafants negle£led to cultivate the lands, which they kingdom,
held on a very precarious tenure •, the confequence of
this was poverty and an unwholefome diet; and this,
co-operating' with the peculiar difpofition of the air,
produced a plague, which deftroyed more than half
the inhabitants of the country. The poor dropped
down dead on the ftreets with difeafe and hunger, and
the gentry themfelves were reduced to a ftate of wretch-
ednefs; yet, though the whole of the kingdom was
evidently on the verge of ruin, ambitious projects em¬
ployed the great, as if every thing had been in the
moil profound tranquillity.
In the midft of thefe grievous calamities, Gerhard
fovereign of Jutland, propofed to his nephew Valdemar
an exchange of territories, which he believed would
prove favourable to the defigns of the latter on the
crown. A treaty for this purpofe was aflually drawn
up and figned ; but the inhabitants, notwithftanding
their diftreffed fituation, fo highly refented their being
difpofed of like cattle from one mafter to another, that
they refufed to pay the ufual taxes. Gerhard refolved
to compel them ; and therefore led io,oco men, whom
he had levied in Germany, into the heart of the pro¬
vince. Providence, however, now railed up an enemy
to this tyrant. One Nicholas Norevi, a man greatly
efteemed for his courage, public fpirit, and prudence, ]gorevi re_
beheld with forrow the condition to which Denmark covers the
was reduced. He had long meditated a variety of liberties of
proje&s for its relief, and at laft imagined things werelriftaad.
in fuch a fituation that the whole depended on his fingle
arm. Young Valdemar, Chriftopher’s fon, had a num¬
ber of adherents in the kingdom : his moft dangerous
enemy was Gerhard ; and could he be removed, the
Jutlanders would at leaft be free from an oppreffnr,
and might choofe.Valdemar, or any other they thought
proper,
Denmark.
He is killed.
16
Margaret
unites the
crowns of
Denmark
Sweden,
and Nor¬
way.
BEN [166] BEN
proper, for their fovereign, Colle&Ing a body of cho-
fen horfe, therefore, he marched in the night to Ran-
derthnfen, where Gerhard had fixed his head quarters 5
and having forced open the tyrant’s quarters, imme¬
diately put him to death. He then fled with the ut-
moft expedition 5 but was purfued and overtaken by a
party of the enemy’s horfe, through which he forced
his way and efcaped. Gerhard’s fons, hearing of his
death, retired into Holftein, from whence they had
come; leaving the army, compofed chiefly of Hol-
fleiners, to be cut in pieces by the enraged peafants,
who fell upon them from every quarter.
Still, however, the Holfteiners kept pofleflion of the
citadels and fortified places, from W'hence Nicholas re-
folved to diflodge them. He accordingly raifed a
body of forces j attacked and took Landen, a caftle
fituated on the river Scheme : After which he laid
fiege to Alberg $ but the garrifon making an obftinate
defence, he turned the fiege into a blockade, by which
they were foon reduced to great extremity. The go¬
vernor fent an exprefs to the fons of Gerhard, ac¬
quainting them with the impoflibility of his holding
out more than a few days, without being relieved.
This determined them to march to the relief of fo im¬
portant a place. They came up with Nicholas juft as
the governor was ready to furrender, but were defeat¬
ed *, though Nicholas was unfortunately killed in the
engagement.
Jutland having thus regained its liberty, the reft of
the kingdom followed its example. Zealand firft
openly declared itfelf. Here Henry, Gerhard’s fon,
maintained feveral garrifons j and refolved to defend
his poffeffions in fpite of all the power of the inhabi¬
tants. For this purpofe he drew together an army :
but, in the mean time, a tumult arofe among the pea¬
fants on account of a Danifli nobleman flain by the
Holfteiners. By this the people were at laft fo irri¬
tated, that falling upon the Holfteiners fword in hand,
they killed 300 of them, drove the reft out of the
ifland, and chofe Valdemar, Chriftopher’s fon, for their
fovereign.
The Danes now refumed their courage ; the lands
were cultivated, the famine and peftilence ceafed, and
the kingdom began to flourilh as formerly. Matters
continued in a profperous way till 1387, when Mar¬
garet mounted the throne. She raifed the kingdom to
its higheft pitch of glory, as partly by her addrefs, and
partly by her hereditary right, ftie formed the union of
Calmar, by which (he was acknowledged fovereign of
Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. She held her dig¬
nity with fuch firmnefs and courage, that {he was juft-
ly ftyled the Semiramis of the North. Her fucceffors
being deftitute of her great qualifications, the union of
Calmar fell to nothing: but Norway ftill continued
annexed to Denmark. About the year 1448, the
crown of Denmark fell to Chriftian count of Olden¬
burg, from whom the prefent royal family of Denmark
is defcended ; and in 1536, the Proteftant religion
was eftablithed in Denmark by that wife and politic
prince Chriftian III.
Chriftian IV. of Denmark, in 1629, was chofen for
the head of the Proteftant league formed againft the
houfe of Auftria : but, though brave in his own per-
fon, he was in danger of lofing his dominions 5 when
lie was fucceeded in that command by the famous Gu-
3
ftavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. The Dutch ha- Denmark
ving obliged Chriftian, who died in 1648, to lower'—-7^—-
the duties of the Sound, his fon Frederic III. con-
fented to accept of an annuity of 150,000 florins for
the whole. The Dutch, after this, perfuaded him to
declare war againft Charles Guftavus king of Sweden,
which had almoft coft him his crown in 1657. Charles
ftormed the fortrefs of Frederickftadt; and in the fuc-
ceeding winter, he marched his army over the ice to
the ifland of Funen, where he furprifed the Danifli
troops, took Odenfee and Nyburg, and marched over
the Great Belt to befiege Copenhagen itfelf. Crom¬
well, the Englifti ufurper, interpofed : and Frederic de¬
fended his capital with great magnanimity till the x7
peace of Rofchild 5 by which Frederic ceded the pro-Scveral^ro.
vinces of Halland, Bleking, and Sconia, the ifland 0fvinces ^e‘
Bornholm, Bahus, and Drontheim, in Norway, to thet0^we"
Swedes. Frederic fought to elude thofe fevere terms
but Charles took Cronenburg, and once more befieged
Copenhagen by fea and land. The fteady intrepid con-
du6l of Frederic under thefe misfortunes endeared
him to his fubje&s j and the citizens of Copenhagen
made an admirable defence, till a Dutch fleet arrived
in the Baltic, and beat the Swedifh fleet. The for¬
tune of war was now entirely changed in favour of Fre¬
deric, who ftiowed on every occaflon great abilities,
both civil and military : and having forced Charles to
raife the fiege of Copenhagen, might have carried the
war into Sweden, had not the Englifti fleet, under
Montague, appeared in the Baltic. This enabled
Charles to befiege Copenhagen a third time $ but
France and England offering their mediation, a peace
was concluded in that capital ; by which the ifland of
Bornholm returned to the Danes $ but the ifland of
Rugen, Bleking, Halland, and Schonen, remained with
the Swedes.
The year 1660 affords us an example of a revolu-
tion almoft unequalled in the annals of hiftory, viz. able revo*
that of a free people refigning their liberty into the ^don, by
hands of their fovereign ; and of their own accord, and^hicl?the
without the leaft compulfion, rendering him defpotic. SdYbfo"-
This was occafioned by the great character which Fre-lute.
deric had acquired by his prudent and valiant conduft
when Copenhagen was befieged by the king of Swe¬
den ^ and at that time he had alfo taken care to ingra¬
tiate himfelf with the commonalty, by obliging the
nobility to allow them fome immunities which they
did not enjoy before ; allowing them alfo, by a fpecial
edi£l, to poffefs lands, and enjoy all the privileges of
nobility. After the conclufion of the treaty with
Sweden, a diet was fummoned at Copenhagen, to take
into confideration the ftate of the kingdom, which was
now very much exhaufted, both by reafon of the debts
in which it was involved, and by the calamities of war.
This diftreffed ftate of affairs was, by the commons, at¬
tributed to the nobility ; who, on the other hand, took
no care to conciliate the affe&ions of the inferior claf-
fes, but rather increafed the difcontents by their arro¬
gance. They had even the imprudence to remonftrate
againft the immunities above mentioned, which had
been granted by the king during the fiege. In confe-
quence of this, the deputies of the commons and clergy
united againft them ; and being joined by the citizens
of Copenhagen, formed a very confiderable party. On
bringing forward in the affembly the fums neceffary for
the
BEN [ 167 ] DEN
Denmark, th® national exigencies, a general excife was propofed
\mm y by the nobles on every article of confumpt ; and to
which they themfelves rvere willing to fubmit, though,
by an exprefs law, their order was to be exempted
from all taxes. This offer was accompanied with a re-
monltrance to the king 5 in which they endeavoured,
not only to reclaim many obfolete privileges, but to add
frefh immunities, and introduce many other regula¬
tions, all of them tending to diminilh the royal prero¬
gative, and check the riling influence of the commons
and clergy. This propofal occafioned great difputes
in the diet *, and the two inferior orders infilled that
they would not admit of any fax which Ihould not be
levied equally upon all ranks, without referve or reftric-
tion. The nobles not only refufed to comply with this
propofal, but even to be fubjeft to the tax for more
than three years; pretending that all taxes whatever
were infringements on their privileges. By way of
compenfation, however, they propofed new duties upon
leather and ftaraped paper, and at laft offered to pay a
poll-tax for their peafants. This exchange feemed at
flrfl: to be agreeable to the two inferior eflates ; but
they fuddenly altered their mind, and demanded that
the fiefs and domains, which the nobles had hitherto
poffeffed exclufively, and at a very moderate rent,
Ihould be let to the higheft bidder.
Such a propofal appeared to the nobles to be to the
laft degree unreafonable. They faid it was an infraflion
of their deareft privileges; as, by the 46th article of
the coronation oath taken by Frederic, the poffeflion
of the royal fiefs was guaranteed to their order ; but,
in the heat of difpute, one of the chief fenators having
imprudently thrown out fome reproachful expreffions
againft the commons, a general ferment enfued, and
the affembly was broken up in confufion. This gave
occafion to the interpofition of the king’s friends j and
an idea of rendering the crown hereditary, and enlar¬
ging the royal prerogative, began to be fuggefted as
the proper method of humbling the nobility. This
Was firlt broached by the bifhop of Zealand, at whofe
houfe a numerous meeting was held on the 6th of Oc¬
tober 1660, where the fcheme was fully laid open and
approved •, an a£t for rendering the crown hereditary
drawn up j and the beft method of publicly producing
it taken into confideration. All this time the king
feemed quite inaftive, nor could he be prevailed upon
to take any part in an affair which fo nearly concerned
him. But this indolence was abundantly compenfated
by the alertnefs and diligence of the queen $ between
whom and the heads of the party matters were foon
concerted. On the morning of the 8th of Oftoher,
therefore, the bifhop of Zealand having obtained the
confent and fignature of the eccle.fiaftical deputies, de¬
livered it to Naufen, burgomafter of Copenhagen and
Ipeaker of the commons. The latter, in a mod perfua-
fiye fpeech, expatiated upon the wretched Hate of the
kingdom, the oppreflive power of the nobles, and the
virtue of the king; concluding with an exhortation to
the commons, to fubfcribe the aft, as the only means of
faving their country.
The exhortations of the fpeaker had fuch an effeft
upon the affembly, that they fubfcribed it without a
Angle diffent; the nobles being all the while in perfeft
fecurity, and entirely ignorant of the tranfaftion. Next
day it was prefented to the king by the bifhop and
Naufen ; and as they were returning from the palace, Denmark.
they met the fenator who had already given offence v-—v— 1
to the commons. With him they had a violent al¬
tercation, and were threatened with imprifonment for
prefuming to approach the king without acquainting
the order of nobles. This threat was now altogether
nugatory. The nobles having got fome intelligence
of what was going forward, had juft affembled in order
to confider of what was to be done, when the deputies
of the two other eftates entered, and informed them of
their proceedings, and delivered to them the propofal
for rendering the crown hereditary. By this declara¬
tion the nobles were thrown into the utmoft confterna--
tion} but judging it improper to put a negative on the
propofal at prefent, they endeavoured to gain time,
and replied, that though they willingly gave their af-
fent to the declaration, yet that, as it was a matter of
great confequence, it deferved the moft ferious dif-
cuflion. Naufen, however, replied, that the other
eftates had already taken their refolution j that they
would lofe no time in debate; and that if the nobles
would not concur with them, they would immediately
repair to the palace by themfelves, where they had not
the leaft doubt that the king would gracioufly accept
their proffer.
In the mean time the nobles had privately difpatch-
ed a meffage to the king, intimating, that they were
willing to render the crown hereditary to the male line
of his iffue, provided it was done with all the ufual for¬
malities. But this propofal did not prove agreeable to
his majefty, unlefs they would confirm the right of fuc-
ceflion in the female line alfo. He added, however,
with great appearance of moderation, that he by no
means wiflied to prefcribe rules for their conduft ; they
were to follow the diftates of their own judgment ; but
as for his part, he would owe every thing to their free
confent. While the nobles were waiting for this an-
fwer, the other deputies, perceiving that they wifhed
to keep the matter in fufpenfe, loft all patience, and
repaired in folemn proceflion to the court j where, be¬
ing admitted into the royal prefence, the matter was
opened by the bifhop of Zealand. He addreffed his
majefty on the refolution taken by the clergy and com¬
mons, offering in their name to render the crown he¬
reditary, and to inveft him with abfolute authority ;
adding, that they were ready to facrifice their lives in
the defence of an eftablifhment fo falutary to their coun¬
try. His majefty thanked them for their favourable
intentions; but mentioned the concurrence of the nobles
as a neceffary condition ; though he had no doubt of
this when they fhould have time to accompany the de¬
claration with all the neceffary formalities ; he affured
them of his proteftion, promifed a redrefs of all griev¬
ances, and difmiffed them with an exhortation to con¬
tinue their fittings, until they fhould have brought
their defign to perfection, and he could receive their
voluntary fubmiffion with all due folemnity.
On departure of the commons from the place where
they had been conferring with the nobles, the latter
had been fo diftrafted and confufed, that they broke
up without coming to any refolution, defigning, how¬
ever, to decide the matter finally at their meeting on
the afternoon of the following day. But while they
were thus wavering and irrefolute, the court and the
popular party took the neceffary meafures to force them
to
BEN [ 168 ] BEN
Denmark. to 3 concurrence. This was effectually done by an
Y—order to (hut the gates; by this they were fo much
difpirited,'tbat they inffantly defpatched deputies to the
court,, with a meffage that they were ready to concur
with the commons, and fubfcribe to all the conditions
of the royal pleafure.
Nothing now remained but to ratify the tranfa&ion
with all proper folemnity. Accordingly, on the 16th
of OClober, the eflates annulled, in the moft folemn
manner, the capitulation or charters figned by the king
on his acceflion to the throne ; abfolved him from all
his engagements; and cancelled all the limitations im-
pofed upon his fovereignty. The whole was concluded
by the ceremony of doing homage, taking the new
oath with great ceremony *, after which a new form of
government was promulgated under the title of The
Royal Law of Denmark.
Frederic was fucceeded in 1670 by his fon ChriftianV.
who obliged the duke of Holftein Gottorp to renounce
all the advantages he had gained by the treaty of Rof-
child. He then recovered a number of places in
Schonen ; but his army was defeated in the bloody
battle of Lunden by Charles XI. of Sweden. This
defeat did not put an end to the war, which Chriftian
obftinately continued, till he was defeated entirely at
the battle of Landfcroon j and he had almoft exhaufted
his dominions in his military operations, till he was in
a manner abandoned by all his allies, and forced to fign
a treaty on the terms prefcribed by France, in 1679.
Chriftian, however, did not defift from his military at¬
tempts j and at laft he became the ally and fublidiary
of Louis XIV. who was then threatening Europe with
chains. Chriftian, after a vaft variety of treating and
lighting with the Holfteiners, Hamburghers, and other
northern powers, died in 1699. was fucceeded by
Frederic IV. who, like his predeceffors, maintained his
pretenfions upon Holftein ; and probably muft have
become mafter of that duchy, had not the Englilh and
Dutch fleets raifed the fiege of Tonningen ; while the
young king of Sweden, Charles XII. who was no more
than 16 years of age, landed within eight miles of Co¬
penhagen, to affiif his brother-in-law the duke of Hol¬
ftein. Charles probably would have made himfelf ma¬
fter of Copenhagen, had not his Danifh majefty agreed
to the peace of Travendahl, which was entirely in the
duke’s favour. By another treaty concluded with the
ftates-general, Frederic obliged himfelf to furnifh a
body of troops, who were to be paid by the confederates j
lr) and who afterwards did great fervice againft the French.
Perpetual Notwithflanding this peace, Frederic was perpetual-
wars with ly engaged in a war with the Swedes j and while Charles
Sweden. was an exile at Bender, he marched through Holftein
into Swedifh Pomerania j and in the year 1712 into
Bremen, and took the city of Stade. His troops,
however, were totally defeated by the Swedes at Ga-
defbufch, who laid his favourite city of Altena in afhes.
Frederic revenged himfelf, by feizing great part of the
ducal Holftein, and forcing the Swedilh general, Count
Steinbock, to furrender himfelf prifoner, with all his
troops. In the year 1716, the fucceffe* of Frederic
were fo great, by taking Tonningen and Stralfund, by
driving the Swedes out of Norway, and reducing Wif-
mar and Pomerania, that his allies began to fufpeft he
was aiming at the fovereignty of all Scandinavia. Up¬
on the return of Charles of Sweden from his exile, he Denmark
renewed the war againft Denmark with a moft era- ‘ , r_j
bittered fpirit 5 but on the death of that prince, who
was killed at the fiege of Fredericlhal, Frederic durft
not refufe the offer of his Britannic majefty’s mediation
between him and the crown of Sweden $ in confequence
of which, a peace was concluded at Stockholm, which
left him in poffeflion of the duchy of Slefwick. Fre¬
deric died in the year 1730, after having, two years
before, feen his capital reduced to alhes by an acciden¬
tal fire. His fon and fucceffor, Chriftian Frederic,
made no other ufe of his power, and the advantages
with which he mounted the throne, than to cultivate
peace with all his neighbours, and to promote the hap-
pinefs of all his fubjedts, whom he eafed of many op-
preffive taxes.
I734r after guaranteeing the Pragmatic Sanc¬
tion, Chriftian fent 6000 men to the afliftance of the
emperor, during the difpute of the fucceflion to the
crown of Poland. Though he was pacific, yet he was
jealous of his rights, efpecially over Hamburgh. He
obliged the Hamburghers to call in the mediation of
Pruffia, to aboliih their bank, to admit the coin of
Denmark as current, and to pay him a million of fil-
ver marks. He had, two years after,'viz. in 1738, a
difpute with his Britannic majefty about the little
lordlhip of Steinhorft, which had been mortgaged to
the latter by the duke of Holftein Lauenburg, and
which Chriftian faid belonged to him. Some blood
was fpilt during the conteft ; in which Chriftian, it is
thought, never was in earneft. It brought on, how-,
ever, a treaty, in which he availed himfelf of his Bri-tageOUIan’
tannic majefty’s prediledlion for his German domi-treaty with
nionsj for he agreed to pay Chriftian a fubfidy of Gi;eat
70,000!. fterling a-year, on condition of keeping in^1"*
readinefs 7000 troops fojr the protedlion of Hanover :
this was a gainful bargain for Denmark. And two
years after, he feized fome Dutch ftiips for trading
without his leave to Iceland : but the difference was
made up by the mediation of Sweden. Chriftian had f
fo great a party in that kingdom, that it was general¬
ly thought he would revive the union of Calmar, by
procuring his fon to be declared fucceffor to his then
Svvedifli majefty. Some fteps for that purpofe were
certainly taken : but whatever Chriftian’s views might
have been, the defign was fruftrated by the jealoufy
of other powers, who could not bear the thoughts of
feeing all Scandinavia fubjeft to one family. Chriftian
died in 1746, with the charafter’of being the father of
his people.
His fon and fucceffor, Frederic V. had, in 1743,
married the princefs Louifa, daughter to his Britannic
majefty. He improved upon his father’s plan for the
happinefs of his people 5 but took no concern, ex¬
cept that of a mediator, in the German war. For it
was by -his intervention that the treaty of Clofter- v
feven was concluded between his royal highnefs the
duke of Cumberland and the French general Riche¬
lieu. Upon the death of his firft queen, the mother of
his fucceffor, he married a daughter of the duke of
Brunfwick Wolfenbuttel $ and died in 1766.
He was fucceeded on the throne by his fon
Chriftian VII. who married the princefs Carolina
Matilda of England. But this alliance proved ex¬
tremely
BEN r 169 ] BEN
Denmark, tremely Unfortunate, which is generally aferibed to
' the intrigues of the queen-dowager, mother-in-law to
,21 the prefent king. She is reprefented as ambitious,
th^dowa0 artfu^ an^ defigning ; and as one who wiflied to have
ger, and fct afide the king himfelf in kivour of her own fon Fre-
misfortunes deric. On the arrival of the young queen, however,
of the young fog received her with much apparent affeftion, telling
queen. j]er fau]{-s 0f fog,, hufband, at the fame time promi-
{ing to affitt her on all occafions in reclaiming him
from his vicious courfes. Thus, under pretence of kind1-
nefs and friendftiip, (he fowed the feeds of diffenfion be¬
tween the royal pair, before the unfortunate princefs
bad the lead fufpicion of her danger •, and while the un¬
thinking queen revealed to the dowager all her fecrets,
the latter is faid to have placed fpies about the king to
keep him conftantly engaged in riot and debauchery,
to which he was at any time too much inclined.
At lad it was contrived to throw a midrefs in his
way, whom he was advifed to keep in his palace.
— It was impoffible that any woman could pafs fuch
a piece of condudt unnoticed ; however, in this affair,
the queen dowager behaved with her ufual duplicity.
In the abfence of the king, (he pretended great refent-
ment againd him, and even advifed the queen not to
live with him ; but as foon as he returned, when his
confort reproached him, though in a gentle manner,
with his conduct, die not only took his part, t it in-
fided that it was prefumptuous in a queen of Den¬
mark to pretend to direfl her hufband’s conduff. Not-
withdanding this incendiary behaviour, the queen was
in a fhort time reconciled to her hufband, and lived on
very good terms with him until die again excited the
jealoufy of the dowager, by affuming to herfelf the
diredlion of that part of the public affairs which the
dowager had been accudomed to look upon as her
own privilege. For feme time it feemed to be difficult
for her to form any effectual plan cf revenge, as the
king had difplaced feveral of her friends who had for
fome time had a (hare in the adminidration. Two
new favourites, Brandt and Struenfee, had now appear¬
ed ; and as thefe paid great court to the queen, the
dowager took occafion to infinuate, not only that the
queen was harbouring improper defigns with regard
to the government, but that die had an intrigue with
Struenfee. The new miniders indeed behaved impru¬
dently, in attempting to make a reformation in feve¬
ral of the departments of the date at once, indead of
waiting patiently till an opportunity diould offer ;
and jn thefe precipitate fchemes they were certainly
fupported by the queen. Thefe indances of want of
circumfpeftion in the miniders were reprefented by the
dowager and her party to be a fettled fcheme to make
an alteration in the government 5 and a defign was
even fpoken of to fuperfede the king as being incapable
of governing, to declare the queen regent during the
minority of her fon, and to make Struenfee prime mi-
nider.
Thus a very formidable oppofition was formed a-
gaind Brandt and Struenfee ; and as the latter had made
fome innovations in the military department as well as
the civil, fonie of the principal officers who were the
creatures of the dowager, reprefented him as defign-
ing to overthrow the whole fydem of government.
When matters were brought to a proper bearing, it
was at lad refolved to furprife the king in the middle
Vol.VII. Part i.
of the night, and force him indantly to fign an order, Denmark,
which was to be ready prepared, for committing the 1
obnoxious perfons to feparate prifons, accufe them of
high treafon in general, and particularly with a defign
to dethrone or poifon the king. If this could not be
properly authenticated, it was determined to fuborn
witneffes to confirm the report of a criminal corre-
fpondence between the queen and Count Struenfee.
This defign was executed on the night of the 16th of
January 1772, when a mafked ball was given at the
court of Denmark. The queen, after having danced
mod part of the night with Count Struenfee, retired to
her chamber about two in the morning. About four
the fame morning Prince Frederic got up, and went
with the queen-dowager to the king’s bed-chamber,
accompanied by General Eichdedt and Count Rantzau.
Having ordered the king’s valet de chambre to awake
him, they informed his majedy, that the queen, with
Count Struenfee, his brother, and Brandt one of the
new miniders, were at that moment bufy in drawing
up an a£t of renunciation of the crown, which they
would immediately after compel him to fign j and
therefore there was a neceflity for him to give an order
for their arredment. The king is faid to have hefita-
ted for fome time, and inclined to refufe this fcandalous
requifition ; but at length, through importunity, and,
according to fome accounts, being even threatened in¬
to compliance, he confented to what they required.
Count Rantfcau was difpatched at that untimely hour
into the queen’s apartments, and immediately executed
the orders of the king. The unfortunate princefs was
conveyed in one of the king’s coaches to the cadle of
Cronenburgh, together with the infant princefs, attend¬
ed by Lady Modyn, and efcorted by a party of dra¬
goons. Struenfee and Brandt were feized in their
beds and imprifoned, as well as feveral other members
of tl^e new adminidration, to the number of 18. The
queen-dowager and her adherents feemed to alfume the
government entirely into their own hands, and a total
change took place in the departments of adminidration.
The prince royal, fon of Queen Matilda, then in the
fifth year of his age, was put under the care of a lady
of quality who was appointed governefs, under the
fuperintendency of the queen-dowager. Struenfee and
Brandt were put in irons, and very feverely treated :
they underwent long and frequent examinations 5 and
Struenfee at lad confeffed that he had a criminal inter- 22
courfe with the queen. Both their heads were druck Execution
off on the 28th of April ; but many of their parti fan s0Qtruenl'“1
were fet at liberty. The confeffion of Struenfee is byrtn ^ranc
many, and indeed with no fmall degree of probability,
fuppofed to have been extorted by fear of the torture,
and to have no foundation in truth ; but as no means
were ufed by the court of Britain to clear up.the queen’s
character, the affair mud undoubtedly wear a fufpici-
ous afpeft. At lad, however, his Britannic majedy
interfered fo far as to fend a fmall fquadron of diip*
to convey the unhappy princefs to Germany. Here
the city of Zell was appointed for her refidence ; and
in this place die died of a malignant fever on the loth
of May 1775? aged 23 years and 10 months.
The inhuman treatment of this princefs did not
long prove advantageous to the queen-dowager and her
party: A new revolution took place in April 1784, Change in
■^hen the queen-dowager’s friends were removed, atheadmini.
Y ftratien,
DEN [ 170 ]’ DEN
Denmark, new council was formed under the aufpices of the prince
v royal, and no indrument deemed authentic unlefs iign-
ed by the king and counterfigned by the prince. Since
that time, the king, who from the beginning of his
adminiftrafcion fhowed a great degree of incapacity,
ha- been entirely laid afide from public bufinefs, and
has no lhare in the government. The Danes en-
gaged on the fide of Ruflia in her laft war with the
lurks, the immediate opponent of Denmark being
24 Sweden.
Divifion of 1 he kingdom of Denmark at prefent is divided into
£rand diftridls or provinces 5 viz. 1. Denmark pro¬
perly fo called, comprehending the illands of Zealand,
hunen, Langland, Laaland, Falftria, Mona, Samfoe,
Arroe, Bornholm, Anholt, Leffaw, and that part
of the continent called North Jutland. 2. The duchy
of Slefwick, or South Jutland. 3. The duchy of Hol-
fiein. 4. I he earldoms of Oldenburg and Delmen-
horft. 5. J he kingdom of Norway ; and, 6. Iceland,
with the iflands lying in the northern feas 5 for a par-
25 titular defcription of which fee thefe articles.
Language, 1 he language of Demark, is a dialed! of the Teu-
religion, tonic, and bears a ftrong affinity to the Norwegian
tongue } but is difagreeable to ftrangers, on account of
the drawling tone with which it is pronounced. They
have borrowed many words from the German j and
indeed the High Dutch is ufed in common difcourfe
by the court, the gentry, and the burghers. The bet¬
ter fort likewife underffand French, and fptak it flu¬
ently. The Lutheran dodfrine is univerfally embraced
through all Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ; fo that,
there is not another fedi in thefe kingdoms. Denmark
is divided into fix diocefes, one in Zealand, one in Fu-
nen, and four in Jutland : but the bbhops are, proper¬
ly fpeaking, no other than fuperintendants, or prtmi
inter pares. . They have no cathedrals, ecclefiaifical
courts, or temporalities. Their bufinefs is to infpedt
the dodfrine and morals of the inferior clergy. The re¬
venue of the bilfiop of Copenhagen amounts to about
2000 rix-dollars ; and this is the richeft benefice in the
kingdom. The clergy are wholly dependant on the
government. I hey never intermeddle, and are never
employed or confulted in civil affairs. They neverthe-
lels have acquired great influence, and eredted a fort
of fpiritual tyranny over the mind- of the common
people, by whom they are much revered. They are,
generally fpeaking, men of exemplary lives, and fome
erudition. Their churches are kept more clean, and
better adorned, than thofe of England ; the people are
great lovers of mufic, and their organitts commonly
entertain the congregation for half an hour before and
after fervice. The ifate of literature is very low in
Denmark. There is, indeed, an univerfity at Copen¬
hagen ; but meanly endowed, and very ill fupplied with
mafters. Tafie and the belles lettres are utterly un¬
known in this country, which yet has produced fome
men of great eminence in mathematics and medicine ;
25 fuch as Tycho Brahe, Borrichius, and the Bartholines.
Govern- The conifitution of Denmark was heretofore of the
ment. froe Gothic original. The convention of the efiates,
even including the representatives of the boors or pea-
fants, eledled a king for his pr rfmal virtues, having
ft ill a regard to the fon of their late monarch, whom,
however, they made no fcruple of fetting afide, if they
deemed him unworthy of the royal dignity. They
4
enadted laws 5 conferred the great offices of ftate ; de- Denmark,
bated all affairs relating to commerce, peace, war, and l—y-—
alliances j and occafionally gave their conlent to the
impofition of neceffary taxes. The king was no other
than chief magilirate, generaliffimo, and as it were,
prime minifter to his people. His bufinefs was to fee
juftice adminiftered impartially 5 to command the army
in time of war, to encourage induftry, religion, arts,
and fciences j and to watch over the intereits of his
fubjedls.
In 1660, however, the conftitution was new model¬
led, as has been already related, and which was to the
following purport. “ The hereditary kings of Den¬
mark and Norway fliould be in effedl, and ought to be
efteemed by their fuojedls, the only fupreme head up¬
on earth $ they thall be above all human laws, and fhall
acknowledge, in all ecclefiaftical and civil affairs, no
higher power than God alone. The king (hall enjoy
the right of making and interpreting the. laws, of
abrogating, adding to, and difpenfing with them. He
may alio annul all the laws which either he or his pre-
deceflors fhall have made, excepting this royal law,
which mutt remain irrevocable, and be confidered as
the fundamental law of the ftate. He has the power
ot declaring war, making peace, impoling taxes, and
levying contributions of all forts,” &c. &o.
1 hen follow the regulations for the Older of lucceL
fion, the regency in cale ot minority, the majority of
the king, the maintenance of the royal family 5 and,
after having enumerated all the poffible prerogatives
ot regal uncncumicribed authority, as if fufficient had
not yet been laid down, it is added in the 26th article :
All that we have hitherto laid ot power and emi¬
nence, and lovefeignty, and it there is any thing fur¬
ther which has not been exprefsly fpecifii d, fhall ail be
compriled in the following words: * The king of Den¬
mark and Norway fhall be the hereditary monarch,
and endued with the higheft authority $ iniomuth,
that all that can be laid and written to the advantage
of a Chiiitian, hereditary, and abfolute king, fhail be
extended under the moft favourable interpretation to
the hereditary king and queen ot Denmark and Nor¬
way,” &e. &.C.
The laws of Denmark are fo concife, that the whole Laws7&c.
body is contained in one quarto volume, written in the
language ot the countiy. Every man may plead his
own caule, without employing either counlel or attor¬
ney j but there are a lew advocates for the benefit of
thofe who cannot or will not fpeak in their own de¬
fence. The proceedings are fo luminary, that a luit
may be cairitd through all the courts, and finally de¬
cided in 13 months. J here are three courts in Den¬
mark, and an appeal lies from the interior to the fiupe-
rioi tribunal. i he loweft of thele is, in cities and
towns, denominated the Bi/J ghds Court j arid in the
country, the Herredsfoagds. Caules may be appealed
from this to the Cutjlag, or general head court tor
the province j but the final appeal lies to the court of
High right in Copenhagen, where the king prefides in
perion, affilted by the prime nobility. The judges of
tne two other courts are appointed by his majefty’s
letters patent, to fit and determine caules durante bene
placito. I hele are punifhable lor any mifdemean-
ours ol which they may be guilty ; and when convidfted
of having paffed an unjuft fentence, they are condemned
to
DEN [ 171 ] BEN
Denmark, to make reparation to the injured party. Their falaries
— v ■■■ ' are very ineonfiderable, and paid out of the king’s trea-
fury, from the fines of delinquents, befides a fmall gra¬
tuity from the plaintiff and defendant when fentence is
paffed. Such is the peculiar privilege enjoyed by the
city of Copenhagen, that caufes appealed from the By-
foglids court, inltead of palfing through the provincial
court, are tried by the burgomafter and common coun¬
cil ; from whence they proceed immediately to the
higheft court as the laft refource. Affairs relating to
the revenue are determined in the rent-chamber of
Denmark, which is analogous to our court of exche¬
quer. To another tribunal, compoftd of fome mem¬
bers from this rent-chamber, from the admiralty, and
college of commerce, merchants appeal for redrefs
when their commodities are feized for non-payment of
duties. All difputes relating to the fea are determined
by the court of admiralty, conftituted of commiffioners
appointed for thefe purpofes. The chancellary may be
more properly termed a fecretarij''s office. It confifts of
clerks, who write and iffue all the king’s decrees and
citations, tranfcribe papers, and according to the di-
redlions they receive, make draughts of treaties, and
alliances with other nations. The government of Den¬
mark is very commendable for the excellent police it
maintains. Juftice is executed upon criminals with
great feverity ; and fuch regulations are eftablifhed as
, effeflually prevent thofe outrages that are daily com¬
mitted in other countries. No man prefumes to wag
his tongue againft the government, far lefs to hatch
fchemes of treafon. All the fubjedls are, or feem to
be, attached to their fovereign by the ties of affedHon.
Robbery on the highway, burglary, coining or clip¬
ping, are crimes feldotn or never heard of in Den¬
mark. The capital crimes ufually committed are theft
and manflaughter. Such offenders are beheaded very
dexteroufly with one ftroke of a fword. The exe¬
cutioner, though infamous, is- commonly rich ; be-
caufe, befide the proper fundtions of his office, he is em¬
ployed in other mean occupations, which few other
perfons will undertake. He, by means of his under-
ftrapper, called the pracher, empties all the jakes, and
removes from houfes, ftables, or flreets, dead dogs,
horfes, &c. which no other Dane would vouchfafe to
28 touch on any confideration whatever.
Slaviftieon- The Danifh nobility and gentry are all included in
dition of tf)e term nob/ejfe; and formerly there were no diflinc-
fubjeds'111 t'ons > but; within thefe 60 or 70 years fome
few favourites have been dignified with the titles of count
and baron. Thefe, and thefe only, enjoy the privilege
of difpofing of their eftates by will ; though others
may make particular difpofitions, provided they have
fufficient intereft to procure the king’s approbation and
fignature. The nobleffe of Denmark formerly lived at
their own feats with great magnificence ; and at the
conventions of eftates met the king with numerous
and fuperb retinues ; but fince he became abfolute,
they are fo impoveriftied by exorbitant taxes, that they
can hardly procure fubfiftence; but for the mod: part
live obfcurely in fome corner of their ruined coun¬
try palaces, unlefs they have intereft enough to pro¬
cure fome. employment at court. They no longer in¬
herit the fpirit and virtues of their anceftors ; bu' are
become fervile, indolent, oftentatious, extravagant, and
oppreffive.
Iheir general charadter is a ftrange compofition of Denmark,
pride and meannefs, infolence and poverty. If any gen- ■ y — '
tleman can find a purchafer for his eftate, the king, by
the Danifh laws, has a right to one third of the pur-
chafe-money ; but the lands are fo burdened with im-
politions, that there would be no danger of an aliena¬
tion, even though this reftridfion was not in force.—.
Nay, fome gentlemen in the ifland of Zealand have ac¬
tually offered to make a furrender to the king of large
tradls of very fertile land in the ifiand of Zealand, if
his majefty would be pleafed to accept of them in place
of the impofitions laid on them. The reafon of this is,
becaufe, by the law of Denmark, if any eftate is bur¬
dened beyond what it can bear, the owner muft make
up the deficiency out of his other eftates, if he has any.
Hence the king generally refufes fuch offers; and fome
gentlemen have been tranfported with joy when they
heard that his majeftv had been “ gracioufly pleafed to
accept their whole eftates.”
This oppreflion of the nobles by the king produces
in them a like difpofition to opprefs the commons j and
the confequence of all this is, that there is no part of
the world where extravagance and diffipation reij^n to
fuch a degree. The courtiers maintain fplendid equi¬
pages, wear fine clothes, drink a vaft quantity of French
wine, and indulge themfelves with eating to excefs.
Such as derive money from their employment, inftead
of purchafing land in Denmark, remit their cafti to the
banks of Hamburgh and Amfterdam. The merchants
and burghers tread in the fteps of their fuperiors 5 they
fpend all their gains in luxury and pleafure, afraid of
incurring the fufpicion of affluence, and being ftripped
by taxation. The peafant, or boor, follows the fame
example. No fooner has he earned a rix-dollar than he
makes hafte to expend it in brandy, left it fhould fall
into the hands of his oppreflive landlord. This lower
clafs of people are as abfolute flaves as the negroes in
the Weft Indies, and fubfift upon much harder fare.
The value of eftates is not computed by the number of
acres, but by the ftock of boors, who, like the timber,
are reckoned a parcel of the freehold j and nothing can
be more wretched than the ftate of thefe boors ; they
feed upon ftock-fifh, faked meats, and other coarfe diet ;
there is not the leaft piece of furniture of any value in
their houfes, except feather-bed1', of w'hich there is
great plenty in Denmark, and which are ufed not only
as beds to lie on, but as blankets for covering. After
the boor has toiled like a Have to raife the king’s taxes,
he muft pay the overplus of his toil to his needy land¬
lord. Should he improve his ground and repair his
farm houfe, his cruel mafter will immediately tranfp^ant
him to a barren farm and a naked habitation, that he
may let the improved ground to another tenant at a
higher price. The peafants likewife fuftain a great deal
of damage and violence from the licentious foldiers that
are quartered in their houfes. They are moreover obli¬
ged to furniflr horfes and waggons for the royal family
and all their attendants, when the king makes a progrefs
through the countiy, or removes his refidence from
one place to another. On fuch occafions the neigh¬
bouring boors are fummoned to affemble with their
cattle and carriages, and not only to live at their own
expence, but to bear every fpecies of outrage from the
meaneft lacquies of thofe who attend his majefty. The
tvarlike fpirit of the Danes no longer fubfifts j the com-
Y 2 mon
DEN [17
15’ninark. mon people are mean-fpirited, fupieious, and deceitful,
—v nor have they that talent for mechanics, fo remarkable
in fome northern nations. While the peafants are em¬
ployed in their labour without doors, the women are
occupied at home in fpinning yarn for linen, which is
29 here made in great perfection.
Dref<, See. Jn Denmark all perfons of any rank above the vul¬
gar drefs in the French tafte, and affeCt finery ; the
winter-drefs of the ladies is peculiar to the country,
very neat, warm, and becoming. The common peo¬
ple are likewife remarkably neat, and pride them-
ielves in different changes of linen. They are very
little addiCled to jollity and diverfion 5 their whole
amufements confilt in running at the goofe on Shrove
Tuefday, and in winter in being drawn in fledges up¬
on the ice. WTith refpcCt to marriage, the man and
woman frequently cohabit together in contraCl long
before the ceremony is performed ; the nobility and
gentry pique themfelves on fumptuous burials and
monuments for the dead : the corpfe is very often
kept in a vault, or in the chancel of a church, for
feveral years, before an opportunity offers-of celebra- .
ting the funeral.
The taverns in this country are poorly fupplied •,
and he who diets in them muft be contented to eat in
a public room, unlefs he will eondefeend to pay an ex¬
travagant price for a private apartment ; the metropo¬
lis is but indifferently furnifhed with game ; the wild
ducks and plover are hardly eatable; but the hares
are good, and the markets fometimes produce tolerable
roebuck $ their fea-filh are not to be commended j but
the rivers produce plenty of delicious carp, perch, and
craw-fifty •, the gardens of the gentry are well provided
with melons, grapes, peaches, and all forts of greens
and falads in perfeCfion..
Army of The army of Denmark is compofed, I. of the troops
Denmark., of Denmark and Holftein ; and 2. of Norway..
The forces of Denmark and Holftein are divided
into regulars and national or militia. Thefe forces
(the foot and horfe guards excepted, who are all regu¬
lars) are not feparated, as in our army, into diftinCt
regiments, but are formed in the following manner:
Before the late augmentation, every regiment of in¬
fantry, when complete, confifted of 26 officers and
1632 privates, divided into ten companies of fufileers
and two of grenadiers. Of thefe 1632 privates, 480,
who are chiefly foreigners enlifled in Germany, are
regulars. The remaining 1152 are the national mi¬
litia, or peafants who refide upon the eftates of their
landholders, each eftate furniffiing a certain number in
proportion to its value. Thefe national troops are occa-
fionally exercifed in fmall corps upon Sundays and holi¬
days ; and are embodied once every year for about 17
days in their refpe&ive diftri&s. By a late addition
of ten men to each company, a regiment of infantry is
increafed to 1778, including-officers. The expence
of each regiment which before amounted to 6000I. has
been raifed by the late augmentation to 8000L The
cavalry is upon the fame footing; each regiment con-
lifting of 17 officers, including ferjeants and corporals,
and 565 privates, divided into five fquadrons. Of
thefe about 260 are regular, and the remainder national
troops. 1 he regiments of foot and horfe guards are
regulars : the former is compofed of 21 officers and 465
s
2 1 BEN
men, in five companies ; and the latter of 7 officers Denmark,
and 154 men, in two i'quadrons. s
The forces of Norway are all national troops or mi¬
litia, excepting the two regiments of Sundenfield and
Nordenfield; and as the peafants of that kingdom
are free, the iorces are levied in a different manner
from thofe of Denmark. Norway is divided into a
certain number ot dilincts, each whereof furnifties a
foldier. All the pealants are, upon their birth, rs-
ghtered for the militia; and the farft on the 1 ill Ap¬
plies the vacancy for the diltiidt to which he belongs.
After having ferved from 10 to 14 years, they are ad¬
mitted among the invalids ; and when they have at¬
tained the feniority or that corps, receive their difniif-
fion. Thefe troops are not continually under arms
but are only occalionally exercifed, like the national
forces of Denmark. A fixed ftipend is affigned k>
the officers, nearly equal to that of the officers in the
regulars; but the common foldiers do not receive any
pay, except when they are in aftual lervice, or perform¬
ing their annual manoeuvres. The Academy of Land
Cadets, inftiluted by Frederic IV. lupplies the army
with officers. According to this foundation, 74 ca¬
dets are inftruffted in the military fciences at the ex¬
pence of the king. The whole amount of the Danifli
troops is computed at 60,000.
From their infular fituation, the Danes have always
excelled as a maritime people. In the earlier ages,
when piracy was an honourable profeffion, they were
a race of pirates, and iffued from the Baltic to the
eonquefts of England and Normandy. And though,
fince the improvement of navigation by the invention
of the compafe,' other nations have rilen to a greater
degree of naval eminence, ilill, however, the Danes,
as they inhabit a clufter of iflands, and poffefs a large
trafft of fea-coaft, are well verfed in maritime affairs,
and are certainly the moft numerous, as well as the
moft experienced, failors of the north.
The greateft part of the Danifli navy is ftationed
in the harbour of Copenhagen, which lies within the
fortifications; the depth of water being only 20 feet,
the fliips have not their lower tier of guns on board, but
take them in when they get out of port. Befides large
magazines, each veffel has a feparate ftorehoufe on
the water’s edge, oppofite to which fhe is moored when
in harbour, and may by this means be inftantly
equipped ; the number of regiflered feamen is near
40,000, and are divided into two claffes; the firft com-
prifes thofe inhabiting the eoafts, who are allowed to
engage in the fervice of merchant-fliips trading to any
part of the world. Each receives 8s. annually from
the crown, as long as he fends a certificate of his be¬
ing alive ; but is iubjedl to a recal in cafe of war.
The fecond comprehends the fixed failors, who are
conftantly in the employ of the crown, and amount
to about 4000, ranged under four divifions, or 40
companies : they are ftationed at Copenhagen for the
ordinary fervice of the navy, and work in the dock¬
yard. Each of them, when not at fea, receives 8s.
per month, befide a fufficient quantity of flour and
other provifions; every two years a complete fuit of
clothes ; and every year breeches, (lockings, (hoes,
and a cap. Some of them are lodged in barracks.
When they fail, their pay is augmented to 20s. per
murdh.
PLATE CLXX.
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■Hii E S r 18
Deffatilt. fecuted with the uttnoft ardour and fuccefs. He fpent
—V—^ aim oft the whole of his time at the anatomical theatres
and hofpitals ; but by this clofe attendance his health
fuffered greatly. He was feized with a cache&ical dif-
eafe, which confined him to bed for a twelvemonth ;
and- he was indebted for his recovery to the vigour of
his conftitution, and the kind offices of a young friend
who conftantly watched the progrefs of his diforder.
His health being re-eftabliftied, neither his circum-
ftances nor the activity of his mind would permit him
to indulge in repofe. He commenced teacher of ana¬
tomy in the winter of 1766, and was foon attended by
300 pupils, a great proportion of whom was older than
himfelf. But this fuccefs excited the jealoufy of the
eftablifhed teachers and profeffors, who exerted all the
influence of authority to filence him ; and although he
was patronifed and protefted by fome furgeons of great
eminence, the oppofition which he met with would
have obliged him to renounce public teaching, had he
not been permitted to go on by the expedient of adopt¬
ing the name of another as a fan&ion. His reputation
was now greatly extended $ but ftill he declined private
pra&ice, till he was eftabliffied in fome diftinguiffied
public ftation. In the year 1776, he was admitted a
member of the corporation of furgeons, and it would
appear that his finances were at this time extremely li¬
mited, from the circumflance of his being indulged by
that body in paying his fees when it ffiould be conve-
Tliient for himfelf. He fucceffively filled the honourable
ftations in the corporation and academy of furgery, and
in the year 1782, he was appointed furgeon-major to
the hofpital De la Charite.
Deffault was now regarded as one of the firft fur-
georss of Paris. He fucceeded to the next vacancy at
the Hotel Dieu •, and after the death of Moreau, al-
moft the whole furgical department of that hofpital
was intrufted to him. Here he inilituted a clinical
fchool of furgery, on a liberal and extenfive plan,
which attrafled a great concourfe of ftudents, not on¬
ly from every part of France, but alfo from foreign
countries. An audience compofed of 600 ftudents
frequently met to hear his inftruftions, and moft of the
furgeons of the French army derived their knowledge
from his leftures.
The furgical praftice of DelTault was always diftin-
guilhed for its efficacy and fimplicity. Among the im¬
provements which he introduced into furgery may be
mentioned bandages for the retention of fraftured
limbs, the ufe of compreffions in promoting the cure
of ulcers, the ufe of ligature in umbilical hernia of
children, the extraftion of loofe cartilages in joints,
the ufe of bougies in fchirrofities of the reftum, and
that of elaftic probes in contraftions of the urethra.
He alfo introduced efferitial improvements in the con-
ftruftion of various furgical inftruments.
In the year 1791, he publiffied a work entitled
Journal de Clrirurgerie, the objeft of which was to re¬
cord the moft interefting cafes which occurred in his
clinical fchool, with the remarks which he made upon
them in the courfe of his leftures. The editing of
this work avas intrufted to his pupils. But in the midft
• of his valuable labours he became obnoxious to fome
of the prevailing parties of that turbulent period, and
in 1792 he was denounced to the popular feftions in
.the cant language of the times, as an egoti/l or indif-
4 ] D E S
ferent. After being twice examined, he was feized Deffauit
while he was delivering a lefture, carried away from ||
his theatre, and committed to the prifon of the Luxem- ®effulWr.
bourg. But in three days he was liberated and per- ' ’ J
mitted to rtfume all his funftions. When the fchool
of health was eftablifhed, he was appointed clinical
profeifor for external maladies ; and it was through his
means that the Eveche was converted into an hofpital
for furgical operations.
The horrid fcenes which were exhibited in May
1795, made fo deep an impreffion on his mind, from
the apprehenfion of a renewal of the horrors which
he had formerly experienced, that he was feized with a
fever, accompanied with delirium ; and this put an
end to his life on the firft of June, the fame year, at
the age of 51. He had attended the dauphin in the
temple ; and from the circumftance of his death ha¬
ving happened but a ffiort time before that prince, an
opinion was prevalent among the populace that he was
poifoned, becaufe he refufed to do any thing againft
the dauphin’s life. This ftory feems to have no
foundation, but it affords a proof of the opinion held
by the public of Deffault’s integrity. A penfion was
fettled on his widow by the republic. Fame, and
not emolument, had been always the objeft of his
ambition ; for he neglefted many opportunities of ac¬
quiring wealth. Indifferent to all other pleafures and
purfuits, Deffault was folely and paffionately attached
to his profeflion. His temper was ardent, and fome-
times rather violent j but his fentiments were always
elevated and noble. The only work of which he is
to be confidered as the foie author, is entitled Traitd
des Maladies chirurgicales, et des Operations qui leur
conviennent, in 2 vols 8vo.
DESSAW, a city of Upper Saxony, in Germany,
fituated on the river Elbe, 60 miles north-weft of Dref-
den, and fubjeft to the prince of Anhalt Deffaw. E.
Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 51. 50.
DESSERT, or Desert, a fervice of fruits and
fweetmeats, ufuafly ferved up laft at table.
DESSICCATIVE, or Desiccative, in ’Pharmacy,
an epithet applied to fuch topical medicines as dry up
the humours flowing to a wound or ulcer.
DESTINIES, in Mythology. See Parc.®.
DESTINY, among philoiophers and divines. See
Fate.
DESTRUCTION, in general, an alteration of any
thing from its natural ftate to one contrary to nature,
whereby it is deemed the fame with CORRUPTION.
A chemical deftruftion, or corruption, is nothing
but a refolution of the whole naturally mixt body into
its parts.
DESUDATION, in Medicine, a profufe and inor¬
dinate fweat, . fucceeded by an eruption of puftules,
called fudamina. or heat pimples.
DESULTOR, in antiquity, a vaulter or leaper,
who, leading one horfe by the bridle, and riding an¬
other, jumped from the back of one to the other, as the
cuftom was after they had run feveral eourfes or heats.
—This praftice required great dexterity, being per¬
formed before the ufe of either faddles or ftirrups.
The cuftom was praftifed in the army when neceffity
required it ; but chiefly amongft the Numidians, who
always carried with them two horfes at leait for that
purpofe, changing them as they tired. The Greeks
and
BET [ 185 ] B E U
Defu’tor and Romans borrowed the pracliee from them j but
fl only ufed it at races, games, &e. The Sarmatae were
J>»nue. g,.eat makers of this exercift, and the huffars have ftill
~v fomp remains of it.
DETACHMENT, in military affairs, a certain
number of foldiers drawn out from feveral regiments
or-companies equally, to be employed as the general
thinks proper, whether on an attack, at a liege, or in
parties to fcour the country.
DETENTION (from detineo, “ I detain”,) the pof-
feilion or holding of lands, or the like, from fome
other claimant. The word is chiefly ufed in an ill
fenfe, for an unjufl: withholding, &c.
DETENTS, in a clock, are thofe flops which, by
being lifted up or let fall down, lock and unlock the
clock in ftriking.
DETENT-IV/del, or Hoop-Wheel, in a clock, that
wheel which has a hoop almofl round it, wherein
there is a vacancy, at which the clock locks.
DETERGENTS, in Pharmacy, fuch medicines as
are not only foftening and adhefive, but alfo, by a pe¬
culiar aftivity, conjoined with fuitable configuration
of parts, are apt to abrade and carry along with them
fuch particles as they lay hold on in their paffage.
DETERIORATION, the impairing or rendering
any thing worle; it is juft the reverfe of melioration.
DETERMINATE PROBLEM, is that which has
bnt one folution, or a certain limited number of folu-
tions ; in contradiftindftion to an indeterminate problem,
which admits of infinite folutions.
DETERMINATE Seclion, the name of a tract or gene¬
ral problem, written by the ancient geometrician Apol¬
lonius. None of this work has come down to us, ex¬
cepting fome extracts and an account of it by Pappus,
in the Preface to the 7th book of his Mathematical
Colledlions. He there fays, that the general problem
was “ To cut an infinite right line in one point fo,
that, of the fegments contained between the point of
fedlion fought, and given points in the faid line, either
the fquare on one of them, or the reflangle contained
by two of them, may have a given ratio, either to the
redangle contained by one of them and a given line,
or to the rectangle contained by two of them.”
DETERMINATION, in mechanics, fignifies much
the fame with the tendency or diredion of a body in
motion. See Mechanics.
Determination, among fcbool-divines, is an ad of
divine power, limiting the agency of fecond caufes, in
every inftance, to what the Deity predeflinated con¬
cerning them. See PREDESTINATION.
DETERSIVES, the fame with Detergents.
DETINUE, in Law, a writ or adion that lies
againft one who has got goods or other things deli¬
vered to him to keep, and afterwards refufes to deliver
them.—In this adion, the thing detained is generally
to be recovered, and not damages *, but if one can¬
not recover the thing itfelf, he fhall recover damages
for the thing, and alfo for the detainer. Detinue lies
for any thing certain and valuable, wherein one may
have a property or right •, as for a horfe, cowr, ftieep,
hens, dogs, jewels, plate, cloth, bags of money, facks
of corn, &c. It muft be laid fo certain, that the
thing detained may be known and recovered: and
therefore, for money out of a bag, or corn out of a
fack, &.c. it lies not j for the money or corn cannot
Vol. VII. Part I.
in this cafe be known from other money or corn ; fo Detinue
that the party mull have an adion on the cafe, &c. II
Yet detinue may be brought for a piece of gold of the Deucallon'
price of 22s. though not for 22s. in money. ——y—
DE r ON AT I ON, in Chemiftry, fignifies an explo-
fion with noiie made by the ludden inflammation of
fome combuflible body : fuch are the explofions of
gunpowder, fulminating gold, and fulminating powder.
See Chemistry Index.
DETRANCHE, in Heraldry, a line bend-wife,
proceeding always from the dexter fide, but not from
the very angle, diagonally athwart the fliield.
DE I'TINGEN, a village of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and in the territory of Hanau.
Here the Auftrians and the Britilh, in June 1743,
were attacked by the French, who met with a repulfe;
but as the allies were inferior in number, they could
not make the advantage of it they might otherwife
have done. E. Long. 8. 45. N. Lat. jc. 8.
DEVA, or Deuna, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Cornavii in Britain. Now Chefer, on the Dee.
W. Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 53. 15.
DEUCALEDONIUS oceanus, fuppofed to be
derived from the Gaelic words Duuh Gael, the north¬
ern Highlanders : the fea on the north-weft of Scot¬
land.
DEUCALION, king of Theffaly. The flood faid
to have happened in his time (1500 B. C.), is fup¬
pofed to have been only an inundation of that coun¬
try, occafioned by heavy rains, and an earthquake
that flopped the courfe of the river Peneus where it
ufually difeharged itfelf into the fe.a. On tbeife cir-
cumftanees the fable of Deucalion’s flood is founded.
—According to the fable, he was the fon of Prome-
th eus. Pie governed his people with equity ; but the
reft of mankind being extremely wicked, were de-
ftroyed by a flood, while Deucalion and Pyrrha his
queen faved themlelves by afeending Mount Parnaffus.
When the waters were decreafed, they went and con-
fulted the oracles of Themis, on the means by which
the earth was to be repeopled : when they were or¬
dered to veil their heads and faces, to unloofe their gir¬
dles, and throw behind their backs the bones of their
great mother. At this advice Pyrrha was feized with
horror ; but Deucalion explained the myftery, by ob-
ferving, that their great mother muft mean the earth,
and her bones the ftones; when taking them up, tliofe
Deucalion threw over his head became men, and ikofe
thrown by Pyrrha, women.
Some have fuppofed that Deucalion, whom the
Greeks have reprefented under a variety of charafters,
and concerning whom their poets have given many fa¬
bulous accounts, was the fame with the patriarch
Noah } and that Deucalion’s flood in Theffaly, as well
as that of Ogyges in Attica, and of Prometheus in
Egypt, were the fame with that of Noah recorded m
feripture. Diodorus Siculus exprefsly fays, that in the
deluge which happened in the time of Deucalion
almoft all flefh died. Apollodorus having mentioned
Deucalion w “ configned to the ark,” takes no¬
tice upon his quitting it, of his offering up an imme¬
diate facrifice, A« “ to the God who delivered
him.” As he was the father of mankind, the an¬
cients have given him great dignity and univerfal mo¬
narchy j though fometimes he is reduced to a petty
A a king
Deucalion
I!
Deverenx.
l)e Lea Sy
t in, vol. ii.
p. 88z.
DEV [i
king of Tbeffaly. Apollonius Rliodius makes him a
native of Greece, and the fon of Prometheus. We
may learn, however, from their confufed hiftory, that
the perfon reprefented was the firft of men, through
whom religious rites were renewed, cities built, and
civil polity eftablilhed in the world ; none of which
circumftances are applicable to any king of Greece.
Philo allures us, that the Grecians call the perfon
Deucalion, but the Chaldeans ftyle him Noe, in vvhofe
time there happened the great eruption of waters.
' But as Lucian has given the moft particular hiftory
of the deluge, and that which comes neareft to the
account given by Mofes 5 and as he was a native of
Samofata, a city of Commagene upon the Euphrates,
a part of the world where memorials of the deluge
were particularly preferved, and where an obvious re¬
ference to that hiftory may be obferved in the rites
and worfhip of the country, we (hall give the following
extraft of what he fays on the fubjeft. Having de-
fcribed Noah under the name of Deucalion, he fays,
that the prefent race of mankind are different from
thofe who firft exifted ; for thofe of the antedijuvian
world were all deftroyed. The prefent world is peo¬
pled from the fons of Deucalion ; having increafed to
fo great a number from one perfon. In refpeft to tne
former brood, they were men of violence, and lawlefs
in their dealings. They regarded not oaths, nor ob¬
ferved the rites of hofpitality, nor (howed mercy to
thofe who fued for it. On this account they were
doomed to deftrudlion ; and for this purpofe there was
a mighty eruption of waters from the earth, attended
with heavy ftiowe:s from above j fo that the rivers
fwelled, and the fea overflowed, till the whole earth
was covered with a flood, and all flefti drowned. Deu¬
calion alone was preferved, to repeople the world. This
mercy was fhown to him on account of his juftice and
piety. His prefervation was effe&ed in this manner ;
he put all his family, both his fons and their wives,
into a vaft ark which he had provided, and he went
into it himfelf. At the fame time animals of every
fpecies, boars, horfes, lions, ferpents, whatever lived
upon the face of the earth, followed him by pairs : all
which he received into the ark, and experienced no
evil from them ; for there prevailed a wonderful har¬
mony throughout by the immediate ii ftuence of the
Deity. Thus were they wafted with him as long as
the flood endured. After this he proceeds to mention,
that, upon the difappearing of the waters, Deucalion
went forth from the ark, and raffed an altar to God.
Dr Bryant produces a variety of monuments that
bear an obvious reference to the deluge in the Gentile
hiftory, befides this account of Deucalion and his
flood. Analyfis of Ancient Mythology, vol. ii. p. 193
—250.
DEVENSHRING. See Devonshering.
DEVEN TER, a laroe, ftrong, trading, and po¬
pulous town of the United Provinces, in Overyffel. with
an unlverfity. It is furrounded with ftrong walls,
flanked with feveral towers, and with ditches full of
water. It is feated on the river Iffel, 55 miles call of
Amfterdam. and 42 weft of Bentheim. E. Long. 5.
8. N. Lat. 52. 18.
DEVEREUX, Robert, earl of Effex, the fim of
Walter Devereux. Vifcount Hereford, was born at Ne¬
ther Wood in Herefordlhire, in the year 1367. He
86 ] DEV
fucceeded to the title of earl of Effex. at ten years of Devereuj*-
age j and about two years after was fent by his guar- mj
dian, Lord Burleigh, to Trinity-college in Cambridge.
He took the degree of mafter of arts in 1582, and foon
after retired to his feat at Lampfie in South Wales.
He did not, however, continue long in this retreat; for
we find him, in his feventeenth year, at the court of
Queen Elizabeth, who immediately honoured him with
lingular marks of her favour. Authors feem very
unneceffarily perplexed to account for this young earl’s
gracious reception at the court of Elizabeth. The-
reafons are obvious; he was her relation, the fon of one
of her moft faithful fervants, the fon-in-law of her fa¬
vourite Leicefter, and a very handfome and accom-
plilhed youth. Towards the end of the following
year, 1585, he attended the earl of Leicefter to Hol¬
land ; and gave fignal proofs of his perfonal courage
during the campaign of 1586, particularly at the battle
of Zutphen, where the gallant Sidney was mortally^
wounded. On this occafion the earl of Leicefter con¬
ferred on him the honour of knight banneret.
In the year 1587, Leicefter being appointed lord
fteward of the houfehold, Effex fucceeded him in the
honourable poft of mafter of the horfe j and the year
following, when the queen affembled an army at Til¬
bury to oppofe the Spanifti invafion, Effex was made
general of the horfe. From this time he Avas confider-
ed as the happy favourite of the queen. And if there
was any mark yet wanting to fix the people’s opinion
in that refpe£l, it was fhown by the queen’s conferring-
on him the honour of the Garter.
We need not wonder that fo quick an elevation, and
to fo great a height, fhould afft,£i fo young a man as
the earl of Effex ; Avho {howed from henceforwards a
very high fpirit, and often behaved petulantly enough
to the queen herfelf, who yet did not love to be con¬
trolled by her fubje&s. His eagernefs about this time
to difpute her favour with Sir Charles Blunt, afterwards
Lord Mountjoy and earl of Devonfhire, coft him fume
blood ; for Sir Charles, thinking himfelf affronted by
the earl, challenged him, and after a fhort difpute
Avounded him in the knee. The queen, fo far from
being difpleafed Avith it, is faid to have fworn a good
round oath, that it Avas fit fomebody fhould take him
down, other wife there would be no ruling him. Hoav-
ever, fhe reconciled the rivals j who, to their honour^
continued good friends as long as they lhred.
The gallant Effc x, however, Avas not fo entirely cap¬
tivated Avith his fifuation as to become infenfible to the
allurements of military glory. In 1589, Sir John-
Norris and Sir Francis Drake having failed on an ex¬
pedition againft Spain, our young favourite, without
the permiflion or knowledge of his royal miftrefs, fol¬
lowed the fleet j which he joined as they were failing
towards Lifbon, and afted with great refolutron in the
repulfe of the Spanifh garrifon of that cit\v I he queen
wrote him a very fevere letter on the occafion ; but fhe
Avas, after his return, foon appeaftd. Yet it Avas not
long before he again incurred her difpleafure, by mar¬
rying the widow of Sir Philip Sidney. In 1591, he
was fent to France with the command of 4000 men
to the affiftame of Henry IV. In 1596, be was joined
Avith the lord high admiral Hoxvard in the command
of the famous expedition againft Cadiz, the ficcefs
of which is univerlally knoAvn. In 1597 he Ava* ap¬
pointed
DEV
Devereux. pointed matter of the ordnance ; and the fame year
k—-y—~ commanded another expedition againfl: Spain, called
the IJland voyage, the particulars of which are alfo well
known.
Soon after his return, he was created earl marlhal of
England •, and on the death of the great Lord Burleigh,
in 1598, elefted chancellor of the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge. This is reckoned one of the laft inftances ef
-this great man’s felicity, who was now advanced too
high to fit at eafe; and thofe who longed for his ho¬
nours and employments, very clofely applied tbem-
felves to bring about his fall. The firft great fliock he
received in regard to the queen’s favour, arofe from a
warm difpute between her majelly and himfelf, about
the choice of fome fit and able perfon to fuperintend
the affairs of Ireland. The affair is related by Cam¬
den ; who tells us, that nobody was prefent but the
lord-admiral, Sir Robert Cecil fecretary, and Winde-
bank clerk of the feal. The queen looked upon Sir
William Knolls, uncle to Eflex, as the moft proper
perfon for that charge : Eflex contended, that Sir
George Carew was a much fitter man for it. When
the queen could not be perfuaded to approve his choice,
he fo far forgot himfelf and his duty, as to turn his
back upon her in a contemptuous manner j which in-
folence her majefty not being able to bear, gave him a
box on the ear, and bid him go and be hanged. Eflex,
like a blockhead, pqt his hand to his fword, and fwore
revenge. Where was his gallantry on this occafion ?
Could a Itroke from an angry woman tinge the honour
of a gallant foldier ? This violent ftorm, however, foon
fubfided $ and they were again reconciled, at lead ap¬
parently.
The total reduction of Ireland being brought upon
the tapis foon after, the earl was pitched upon as the
only man from whom it could be expe£led. This was
an artful contrivance of his enemies, who hoped by this
means to ruin him. Nor were their expectations dif-
appointed. He declined this fatal preferment as long
as he could ; but perceiving that he fhould have no
quiet at home, he accepted*, and his commiflion for
lord lieutenant pafled the great feal on the 12th of
March 1598. His enemies now began to infinuate
that he had fought this command, for the fake of
greater things which he then was meditating j but
there is a letter of his to the queen, preferved in the
Harleian colleClions, which (how's, that he was fo far
from entering upon it with alacrity, that he looked
upon it rather as a banifhment, and a place afligned him
for a retreat from his fovereign’s difpleafure, than a
potent government bellowed upon him by her favour.
“ To the ^ueen.
“ From a mind delighting in forrow ; from fpirits
“ wafted with paflion; from a heart torn in pieces
“ with care, grief, and travail ; from a man that
“ hateth himfelf and all things elfe that keep him alive j
“ what fervice can your majefty expeft, fince any fer-
“ vice paft deferves no more than banilhment and pro-
“ fcription to the curfodeft of all iflands ? It is your
“ rebels pride and fucceffion muft give me leave to
“ ranfom myfelf out of this hateful prifon, out of my
“ loathed body ; which if it happen fo, your majefty
“ fhall have no caufeto m’flike the faftiion of my death,
* fince the courfe of my life could never pleafe you.
D E V
Happy he could finifh forth his fate,
“ In fome unhaunted defert moft oblcure
“ From all fociety, from love and hate
“ Of worldly folk ; then fliould he fieep fecure.
“ Then wake again, and yield God ever praife,
“ Content with hips and haws, and brambleberry *,
“ In contemplation palling out his days,
“ And change of holy thoughts to make him merry.
“ Who when he dies, his tomb may be a buth
“ Where harmlels robin dwells with gentle thrulh.
“ Your majefty’s exiled fervant,
“ Robert Essex.”
The earl met with nothing in Ireland but ill fuc-
eels and crofles : in the midit of which, an army was
fuddenly railed in England, under the command of the
earl of Nottingham j nobody well knowing why, but
in reality from the fuggeftions of the earl’s enemies to
the queen, that he rather meditated an invafion on his
native country, than the reduction of the Inlh rebels.
This and other confiderations made him refolve to quit
his poll, and come over to England ; which he accord¬
ingly did without leave. He buift into her majefty’s
bed-chamber as the was riling, and (he received him
with a mixture of tendernefs and feverity : but Ihe
foon after thought fit to deprive him of all his employ¬
ments, except that of mailer of the horfe. He was
committed to the cuftody of the lord keeper, with
whom he continued fix months. No fooner had he re¬
gained his liberty, than he was guilty of many extra¬
vagancies } to which he was infligated by knaves and
fools, but perhaps more powerfully by his own poffions.
He firft determined to obtain an audience of the queen
by force. He refufed to attend the council when fum-
moned. When the queen fent the lord keeper, the
lord chief juftice, and two others, to know his grievan¬
ces, he confined them ; and then marched with his
friends into the city, in expectation that the people
would rife in his favour; but in that he was difap-
pointed. He was at laft befieged, and taken in his
houfe in Eflex-ftreet; committed to the Tower; tried
by his peers, condemned, and executed. Thus did
this brave man, this favourite of the queen, this idol of
the people, fall a facrifice to his want of that diflimu-
lation, that cunning, that court-policy, by which his
enemies were enabled to effeCt his ruin. He was a po¬
lite fcholar, and a generous friend to literature.
To thofe who have not taken the trouble to confult
and compare the feveral authors who have related the
ftory of this unfortunate earl, it muft appear wonder¬
ful, if, as hath been fuggefted, he was really beloved
by Queen Elizabeth, that ftie Ibould confent to his exe¬
cution. Now that ftie had conceived a tender paflion
for him is proved beyond a doubt by Mr W'alpole ii\
his very entertaining and inftruCtive Catalogue of Noble
Authors :—“ I am aware (fays that author) that it is
become a mode to treat the queen’s paflion for him as
a romance. Voltaire laughs at it ; and obferves, that
when her ftruggle about him muft have been the great-
eft (the time of his death), (he was fixty-eight.—Had
he been fixty-eight, it is probable ftie would not have
been in love with him.”—“ Whenever Efli x aCled a fit
of fieknefs, not a day pafled without the queen’s fi-rfl¬
ing often to fee him ; and once went fo far as to fit
A a 2 long
[ 187 ]
Bevereux.
DEV [ 188 ] DEV
long by him, and order bis broths and things. It is re¬
corded by a diligent obferver of that court, that in one
of his fick. moods, he took the liberty of going up to
the queen in his night-gown. In the height of tbefe
fretful fooleries, there was a malk at Black Fryars
on the marriage of Lord Herbert and Mrs RuflTel.
Eight lady mafkers cbofe eight more to dance the
mealures. Mrs Fitton, who led them, went to the
queen, and wooed her to dance. Her majefly alked
what (lie was ? AffeElion. (be faid. Affetiton ! faid the
queen j AjfcEilon is falfe. Were not thefe the murmurs
of a heart ill at eafe ? Yet her majefly rofe, and
danced. She was then fixty-eight. Sure it was as na¬
tural for her to be in love.’’
Mr Walpole farther obferves, that her court and
contemporaries had an uniform opinion of her paflion
for Effex, and quotes ftvtral inftances from a letter
written by Sir Francis Bacon to the earl ; in which,
among other things, he advifes him to confult her tafte
in his very apparel and geflures, and to give way to
any other inclination ibe may have. Sir Francis advi-
fed the queen herfelf, knowing her inclination, to keep
the earl about her for focisty. What Henry IV. of
France thought of the queen’s affection for Efl'ex, is
evident from what he faid to her atnbalTador—“ &ue
fa majefle ne litijferoit jamais fan coujin d'E/fcx eloigner
de fon cotUlon."—After his confinement, on hearing
he was ill, Ihe fent him word, with tears in her eyes,
that if flie might with her honour, (he would vifit him.
“ If (fays Mr Walpole) thefe inftances are proble¬
matic, are the following fo ? In one of the curious
letters of Rowland White, he fays, the queen hath of
lute ufed the fair Mrs Bridges with words and blows of
anger. In a fubfequent letter, he fays, the earl is again
fallen in love with his fclircf B. It cannot choofe but
come to the queen's ear, and then he is undone.'1'1—Effex
himfelf fays, that her fond parting with him when he
fet out for Ireland, pierced his very foul.
Probably the reader has now very little doubt as to
()ueen Elizabeth’s affe&ion for the unfortunate EtTex ;
but, in proportion to our belief of the exlftenee of the
affe&ion, her motives for confenting to his execution
became more inexplicable. Queen Elizabeth had a
very high opinion of her beauty and perfonal attrac¬
tions, and probably expe&ed more entire adoration
than the earl’s paflion for variety would fuffer him to
pay. Towards the latter end of her life, (lie was cer¬
tainly an obje& of difguft. He had too much honeft
fimplicity in his nature to feign a paflion which he did
not feel. She foolifhly gave credit to the ftories of his
ambitious projects incompatible with her fafety •, and
was informed that he had once inadvertently faid, that
Jhe %rew old and cankered, and that her mind was be¬
come as crooked as her carcafe. If this be true, where
is the woman that would not facrifice fuch a lover to
her refentment ?
It is faid, however, that concerning his execution,
her majefty was irrefolute to the laft, and fent orders to
countermand it : but, confidering his obflinacy in re¬
filling to afk her pardon, afterwards directed that he
ftiould die. It is reported that the queen, in the height
of her paflion for the earl of Effex, had given him a
ring, ordering him to keep it, and that whatever crime
be fhould commit, (be would pardon him when he
Should return that pledge. The earl, upon his con-
I
Device.
demnation, applied to Admiral Howard’s lady, his re- Devertus
ladon, defiring her, by a perfon whom (he could trull,
to return it into the queen’s own hands : but her huf-,
band, who was one of the earl’s greateft enemies, and
to whom Ihe had imprudently told the circumfiance,
would not fufi'er her to acquit herfelf of the commiflion j
fo that the queen conftnted to the earl’s death, being
full of indignation againft fo proud and haughty a fpi-
rit, who chofe rather to die than implore her mercy.
Some time after, the admiral’s lady fell fick, and being
near her death, Ihe fent word to the queen that fhe had
fomething of great conftquence to communicate before
file died. The queen came to her bedfide, and having
ordered all her attendants to withdraw, the lady re¬
turned, but too late, the ring, defiring to be excufed
that Ihe did not return it fooner: on which, it is
faid, the queen immediately retired, overwhelmed with
£riref-
The earl of Efftx died in the thirty-fourth year of
his age j leaving by his lady one fon and two daugh¬
ters.
DEVICE, .among painters. See Devise.
DEVIL (Diabolusj, an evil angel, one of thofe ce-
leftial fpirits caft down from heaven for pretending to
equal himfelf with God. The Ethiopians paint the
devil white, to be even with the Europeans who paint
him black.
There is no mention of the word devil in the Old
Teflament, but only of the word Satan audi Belial: nor
do we meet with it in any heathen authors, in the fenfe
it is taken among Chriftians, that is, as a creature re¬
volted from God. Their theology went no farther
than to evil genii or daemons.
Some of the American idolaters have a notion of
two collateral independent beings, one of whom is
good and the other evil: which laft they imagine has
the direffion and fuperintendence of this earth, for
which reafon they chiefly worfbip him : whence thofe
that give us an account of the religion of thefe favages
give out with fome impropriety, that they worlhip
the devil. The Chaldeans, in like manner, believed
both a good principle and an evil one j which laft they
imagined was an enemy to mankind.
Ifaiah, fpeaking, according to fome commentators,
of the fall of the devil, calls him Lucifer, from his
former elevation and flate of glory : but others explain
this paffage of Ifaiah in reference to the king of Ba¬
bylon, who had been precipitated from his throne and
glory. The Arabians call Lucifer Eblis ^ which fome
think is only a diminutive or corruption of the word
Eiabo/us.
DEVIL on the Neck, a tormenting engine made of
iron, ftraitening and wincing the neck of a man, with
his legs together, in a horrible manner: fo that the
more he ftirreth in it, the ftraiter it prefleth him $ for¬
merly in ufe among the perfecuting papifts.
DEVINGTION jDevinSlioj, in antiquity, was ufed
to fignify a love charm or incantation to gain the affec¬
tion of a perfon beloved.
It was done by tying knots; and is thus defcribed
by Virgil in his eighth Eclogue :
Ne&e tribus nodis ternos, Amarylli, colores :
NeBe, Amarylli, modo; et Veneris, die, vincula neBo^,
DEVISE, or Device, in Heraldry, Painting, and
Sculpture^
Devlfe
I! .
Devonfhire.
DEV [ ,i
Sculpture, any emblern ufed to rcprefent a certain fa¬
mily, perfon, a&ion, or quality ; with a fuitable motto,
applied in a figurative fenfe. See Motto.
The eifence of a device confifts in a metaphorical fi-
militude between the things reprefenting and repre-
fented : thus, a young nobleman, of great courage and
ambition, is faid to have borne for his devife, in a late
caroufal at the court of France, a rocket mounted in
the air, with this motto in Italian, “ poco duripurche
m'inal’ziexpreffing, that he preferred a Ihort life,
provided he might thereby attain to glory and emi--
nence.
The Italians have reduced the making of devifes in¬
to an art, fome of the principal laws of which are thefe ;
I. That there be nothing extravagant or monftrous in
the figures. 2. That figures be never joined which
have no relation or affinity with one another •, except¬
ing fome whimfical unions eftabliffied in ancient fables,
which cuftom has authorifed. 3. That the human
body be never ufed. 4. The fewer figures the better.
5. The motto ffiould be every way fuitable.
Devise, in Law, the a£! whereby a perfon bequeathes
his lands or tenements to another by his lalt will or
teftament.
DEUNX, in Roman antiquity, 11 ounces, or of
the Libra.
DEVOLVED, fomething acquired by right of de¬
volution. Such a right is devolved to the crown •,
fuch an eftate devolved on M by the death of
N
The word is alfo ufed for a right, acquired by a fu-
perior, of conferring a benefice, when the inferior and
ordinary collator has negledled to confer, or has con¬
ferred it on an unqualified perfon.
If a perfon neglefts to prefent to a benefice in fix
months, the prefentation lapfes or devolves upon the
bifliop, from thence to the primate, and from thence
to the king.
DEVOLUTION, in Law, a right acquired by fuc-
ceffion from one to another.
DEVONSHERING, a term ufed by the farmers
to exprefs the burning of land by way of manure : the
method is to cut off the turf about four inches thick,
and burn it in heaps, and then fpread the alhes upon
the land. The name is probably derived from its having
been earlieft pra£Hfed in Devonffiire.
DEVONSHIRE, a county of England, bounded
on the fouth by the Engliffi channel, on the north by
the Briftol channel, on the eafl by Somerfetffiire, and
on the weft by Cornwall. It is about 69 miles long
and 66 broad. The foil is various ; in the weftern
parts of the county it is coarfe and mooriffi, bad for
iheep, but proper for black cattle. In the northern
parts, the dry foil and downs are well adapted to fheep,
with numerous flocks of which they are well covered.
Tolerable crops of corn are alfo produced there when
the land is manured. The foil of the reft of the
country is rich and fertile both in corn and pafture,
yielding alfo in fome places plenty of marie for ma¬
nuring it. In other places they pare off and burn the
furface, making ufe of the affies as a manure. Dr
Campbell ftyles it a rich and pleafant country j as in
different parts it abounds with all forts of grain, pro¬
duces abundance of fruit, has mines of lead, iron, and
felver, in which it formerly exceeded Cornwall, though
89 ] D E V
now it is greatly inferior. On the coaft: alfo they haveDevonfiiire,
herring and pilchard filheries. Devonfture fends two Devotion..
members to parliament, and gives title of duke to the ^
noble family of Cavendilh.
DEVOTION, (Devotio), a fincere ardent wotffiip
of the Deity.
Devotion, as defined by Jurieu, is a foftening and
yielding of the heart, with an internal confolation,
which the. fouls of believers feel in the pra&ice or ex-
ercile of piety. By devotion is alfo underftood certain
religious praflices, which a perfon makes it a rule to
-ifcharge regularly •, and with reafon, if the exaflitude
be founded on folid piety, otherwife it is vanity or fu-
perftition. That devotion is vain and trifling, which
would accommodate itfelf both to God and to the
world. Trevoux.
The character of devotion has frequently fuffered
from the forbidding air rvhich has been thrown over it,
by the narrownefs of bigotry on the one hand, or the.
gloom of fuperilition on the other. When freer and
more cheerful minds have not had occafion to fee it
accompanied with thofe feelings of delight and bene¬
volence which naturally attend it, they are apt to be
prejudiced againft piety at large, by miftaking this un¬
gracious appearance for its genuine form. Nor has
the rant of vulgar enthufiafts contributed a little to-
beget or ftrengtben the fame averfion, in perfons of a
cool and fpeculative temper ; who have happened to
meet with fuch images and phrafes among religionifts
of a certain (train, as ill fuit the rational, pure, and
fpiritual nature of true devotion. It may likewife be
remarked on the other fide, that people of tafte and
fenfibility have not feldom been difgufted with the in-
fipid ftyle too often employed on fuch fubjedts, by
thofe who poffefs neither, or who purpofely avoid every
thing of that kind, from an aim at fimplicity mifun-
derilood, or perhaps from a fear of being thought too
warm, in an age of faffiionable indifference and falfe
refinement.
Wherever the vital and unadulterated fpirit of Chri-
ftian devotion prevails, its immediate objeft will be to
pleafe him whom we were made to pleafe, by adoring
his perfeflions j by admiring his works and ways •, by
entertaining with reverence and complacence the va¬
rious intimations of his pleafure, efpecially thefe con¬
tained in holy writ ; by acknowledging our abfo-
lute dependence, and infinite obligations j by confef-
fing and lamenting the diforders of our nature and
the tranfgreffions of our lives •, by imploring his grace
and mercy through Jefus Chrift ; by interceding for
our brethren of mankind ; by praying for the propa¬
gation and embellifhment of truth, righteoufnefs, and
peace on earth ; in fine, by longing for a more entire
conformity to the will of God, and breathing after the
everlafting enjoyment of his friendlhip. The effefts
of fuch a fpirit habitually cherifhed, and feelingly ex-
preffed before him, with conceptions more or lefs en¬
larged and elevated, in language more or lefs empha-
tical and accurate, fententious or diffufe, muft furely
be important and happy. Among thefe effefls may
be reckoned, a profound humility in the fight of God,
a high veneration for his prefence and attributes, an
ardent zeal for his worflrip and honour, an affectionate
faith in the Saviour of the world, a conftant imitation
of his divine example, a diffufive charity for men of all
denominations. ,
DEV r 190 ] DEW
Devotion, denominations, a generous and unwearied felf-denial
Deutero- for the fake of virtue and fociety, a total refignation to
canonical. providence, an increafing efteem for the gofpel, with
clearer and firmer hopes of that immortal life which
it has brought to light.
Devotion, among the Romans, was a kind of fa-
crifice or ceremony, whereby they confecrated them-
felves to the fervice of fome perfon. The ancients had
a notion, that the life of one might be ranfomed by
the death of another ; whence tbofe devotions became
frequent for the lives of the emperors. Devotion to
any particular perfon was unknown among the Ro¬
mans till the time of Auguftus. The very day after
the title of Auguftus had been conferred upon Ofla-
vius, Pacuvius, a tribune of the people, publicly de¬
clared, that he would devote himfelf to Auguftus, and
obey him at the expence of his life (as was the praftice
among barbarous nations), if he was commanded. His
example was immediately followed by all the reft : till
at length it became an eftablifhed cuftom never to go
to falute the emperor, without declaring that they v’ere
devoted to him.—Before this, the praflice of the Ro¬
mans was that of devoting themfelves to their country.
See Decius.
DEUTEROCANONICAL, in the fchool theo¬
logy, an appellation given to certain books of holy
Scripture, which were added to the canon after the
reft } either by reafon they were not wrote till after
the compilation of the canon, or by reafon of fome
difpute as to their canonicity. The word is Greek,
being compounded of ^evrsga?, fecond, and Kxvonx,«sf ca-
tionical.
The Jews, it is certain, acknowledged feveral books
in their canon, which were put there later than the
reft. They fay, that under Efdras, a great affembly
of their do<5Ws, which they call by way of eminence
the great fynagogue, made the colle&ion of the facred
books which we now have in the Hebrew Old Tefta-
ment. And they agree that they put books therein
which had not been fo before the Babylonifli captivity ;
fuch are thofe of Daniel, Ezekiel, Haggai, &c. and
thofe of Efdras and Nehemiah.
And the Romifh church has fince added others to
the canon, that were not, and could not be, in the
canon of the Jews, by reafon fome of them were not
compofed till after. Such is the book of Ecclefiafticus,
with feveral of the apocryphal books, as the Maccabees,
Wifdom, &c. Others were added ftill later, by reafon
their canonicity had not been yet examined j and till
fuch examen and judgment they might be fet afide at
pleafure.—But fince that church has pronounced as to
the canonicity of thefe books, there is no more room
now for her members to doubt of them, than there was
for the Jews to doubt of thofe of the canon of Efdras.
And the deuterocanonical books are with them as cano¬
nical as the protocanonical j the only difference between
them confiding in this, that the canonicity of the one
was not generally known, examined, and fettled, fo foon
as that of the others.
The deuterocanonical books in the modern canon,
are the book of Efther, either the whole, or at leaft:
the feven laft chapters thereof; the Epiftle to the
Hebrews; that of James ; and that of Jude ; the fe¬
cond of S* Peter ; the fecond and third of St John ; and
the Revelation. The deuterocanonical parts of books
are in Daniel, the hymn of the three children ; the neuteTo
prayer of Azariah ; the hiftories of Sufannah, of Bel canonical
and the Dragon ; the laft chapter of St Mark ; the I
bloody fweat, and the appearance of the angel, related ^ew‘
in St Luke, chap. xxii. ; and the hiftory of the adulte- '
rous woman in St John, chap. viii.
DEU l ERONOMY, one of the facred books of
the Old Teftament; being the laft of thefe written by
Mofes ; (See Pentateuch). The word is Greek,
compounded of fecond, and veptos, /aw.
Deuteronomy was written in the 40th year after the
delivery from Egypt, in the country of the Moabites,
beyond Jordan ; Mofes being then in the X20th year
of his age. It contains, in Hebrew, 11 paraches;
though only 10 in the edition of the rabbins at Venice ;
20 chapters, and 955 Verfes. In the Greek, Latin,
and other verfions, it contains 34 chapters. The
laft is not of Mofes. Some fay, it was added by
Joftiua immediately after Mofes’s death ; which is the
moft probable opinion. Others will have it added by
Efdras.
DEUTEROPOTMI, in Grecian antiquity, a de-
fignation given to fuch of the Athenians as had been
thought dead, and, after the celebration of the fu¬
neral rites, unexpeftedly recovered. It was unlaw¬
ful for the deuteropotmi to enter into the temple of
the Eumenides, or to be admitted to the holy rites,
till after they were purified, by being let through the
lap of a woman’s gown, that they might feem to be
new born.
DEUTEROSIS, the Greek name by which the
Jews called their Mifchnah, or fecond law. See Ml-
SCNAH.
DEUTZIA, a genus of plants belonging to the de-
candria clafs. See Botany Index.
DEW, a denfe, moift vapour, found on the earth
in fpring and fummer mornings, in form of a mifling
rain, being collefled there chiefly while the fun is be¬
low the horizon.
It hath been difputed whether the dew is formed
from the vapours afeending from the earth during the
night time, or from the defeent of fuch as have been
already raifed through the day. The moft remarkable
experiments adduced in favour of the firft bypothefis
are thofe of Dr Dufay of the Royal Academy of Sci¬
ences, at Paris. He fuppofed, that if the dew afeended
it muft wet a body placed low down fooner than one
placed in a higher fituation ; and, if a number of bodies
were placed in this manner, the lowermofi: would be
wetted firft ; and the reft in like manner, gradually up
to the top.
To determine this, he placed two ladders againft:
one another, meeting at their tops, fpreading wide
afunder at the bottom, and fo tall as to reach 32 feet
high. To the feveral fteps of thefe he fattened large
fquares of glafs like the panes of windows, placing
them in fuch a manner that they fliould not overftiadc
one another. On the trial it appeared exaftly as Dr
Dufay had apprenended. The lower furface of the
loweft piece of glafs was firft wetted, then the upper,
then the lower furface of the pane next above it; and
fo on, till all the pieces were wetted to the top. Hence
it appeared plain to him, that the dew confifted of the
vapours afeending from the earth during the night¬
time ; which, being condenfed by the coldnefs of the
atmofphere,
!'
DEW [ 191 ] DEW
Pew, atmofphare, are prevented from being diflipated as in
^ v.; the day-time by the fun’s heat. He afterwards tried
a fimilar experiment with pieces of cloth inftead of panes
of glafs, and the refult was quite conformable to his
expectations. He weighed all the pieces of cloth next
morning, in order to know what quantity of water each
had imbibed, and found thofe that had been placed
lowermoft confiderably heavier than fuch as had been
placed at the top ; though he owns that this experiment
did not fucceed fo perfectly as the former.
M. Mufchenbroek, who embraced the contrary opi¬
nion, thought he had invalidated all Dr Dufay’s proofs,
by repeating his experiments, with the fame fuccefs,
on a plane covered with Iheet-lead. But to this Dr
Dufay replied, that there was no occalion for fuppo-
fing the vapour to rife through the lead, nor from that
very fpot j but that as it arofe from the adjoining
open ground, the continual HuCluation of the air could
not but fpread it abroad, and carry it thither in its
afcent.
But though this experiment of M. Mufchenbroek’s
is not fufficient to overthrow thofe of Dr Dufay, it
muft ftill remain dubious whether the dew rifes or falls.
One thing which feems to favour the hypothefis of its
defcent is, that in cloudy weather there is little or no
dew to be obferved. From this M. de Luc brings an
argument in favour of the hypothefis juft now men-
Phil Tranf.tinned. He accounts for it in the following manner:
rol. ii. When there are no clouds in the air, the heat of the
mrtii. inferior air and that which rifes from the earth difli-
pates itfelf into the fuperior regions ; and then the va¬
pours which are difperfed throughout the air condenfe,
and fall down in dew : But, when the clouds continue,
they feparate the inferior from the fuperior part of the
atmofphero, and thus prevent the diflipation of the
heat, by which means the vapours remain fufpended.
When the Iky grows cloudy, fome hours after funfet,
although the heat has been fenfibly diminiihed, it is
again increafed j becaufe continuing to rife out of the
earth, it is accumulated in the inferior air. But nei¬
ther can this be reckoned a pofitive proof of the de¬
fcent of the dew ; fince we may as well fuppofe the
heat of the atmofphere to be great enough to diftipate
it in its afcent, as to keep it fufpended after its afcent
through the day.
On the other hand, its being found in greater quan¬
tities on bodies placed low down than on luch as are
high up, is no proof of the afcent of the dew ; becaufe
the fame thing is obferved of rain. A body placed low
down receives more rain than one placed in an elevated
lituation •, and yet the rain certainly defeends from the
atmofphere. The reafon why the dew appears firft on
the lower parts of bodies may be, that, in the evening,
the lower part of the atmofphere is firft cooled,»and
conf quently moft difpofed to part with its vapours. It
is alfo certain, that part of the water contained in the
air may be condenfed at any time on the fides of a
glafs, by means of cold, fo as to run down its fides in
fmall drops like dew. It feem* therefore, that this
fubjeeft is not fufficiently determined by fuch experi¬
ments as have yet been made j nor indeed does it ap¬
pear eafy to make fuch experiments as (hall be perfect¬
ly decifive on the matter.
Several fubftances expofed to the fame dew receive
and charge themfelves with it in a very different man-
4
ner; forae more, others lefs, and fome even not at alk Dew.
The drops feem to make a fort of choice of what bo- —
dies they fliall affix themfelves to •, glafs and cryftals
are thofe to which they adhere in the moft ready man¬
ner, and in the largeft quantity ; but metals of all kinds
never receive them at all, nor do the drops ever adhere
to them. The reafon of this is, probably, becaufe me¬
tals promote evaporation more than glafs does. Thus,
if a piece of metal and a piece of glafs are both made
equally moift, the former will be found to dxy in much
lefs time than the latter. Hence it would feem, that
there is between metals and water fome kind of re-
pulfion $ and this may be fufficient to keep off the very
fmall quantity that falls in dew ; for whatever tends
to make water evaporate after it is aftually in contaCl
with any fubftance, alfo tends to keep the water from
ever coming into contaft with it. On this fubjtCk
feveral curious particulars are mentioned by Dr Per-
cival relative to the attraction and repulfion between
dew and glafs of metalline veffels. The experiments
xvere made by M. Dufay, who, in order to determine
with certainty whether the difference between vitrified,
fubftances and metals was the fame in all eafes, fet a
china faucer in the middle of a filver plate, and on one
fide, adjoining to it, was placed a china plate, with
a filver difti very much refembling the faucer in the
middle. In this experiment the china faucer was co¬
vered with dew, but the plate, though extending four
inches round it, was not moiftened in the leaft. The
china plate alfo had become quite moift, while the filver
veffel in the middle had not received the fmallett drop.
M. Dufay next endeavoured to afeertain whether a
china faucer fet upon a plate of metal, as already deferi-
bed, did not reteive more dew than it would have done
if expofed alone. To accomplifh this delign, he took
two watch cryftals of equal dimenfions, and placed the
one upon a plate of filver, the other upon a plate of
china, each with its concavity uppermoft. That which
was upon the filver plate he furrounded with a ferrel
of the fame metal, well polifhed, that no watery par-,
tides might attach themfelves to the convex furface of
the glafs. In this fituation he expofed the cryftals
for feveral days fueceflively, and always found five or
fix times more dew in that which was on the china plate
than on the other placed on the filver. The repulfion
between the dew and filver is further confirmed by the
following experiment of M. Dufay, with regard to the
cryftal on the filver plate. He informs U', that the fmall
quantity of dew on the fide near the centre, was in
minute drops j and that round the border there was a
fpaee of five or fix lines perfe&ly dry ; towards which
the drops regularly decreafed in magnitude, as if the
filver ferrel had driven away the dew from that part of
the glafs which was contiguous to it. Thefe experi¬
ments were repeated thirty times with invariable fuc¬
cefs. M. Dufay’s experiments have received a re¬
markable confirmation, from fome lately made by Dr
Watfon, now biftiop of Llandaff, with a view to de¬
termine the quantity of vapour that afeends from a
given furface of earth. “ By means of a little bees¬
wax (fi*vs he), I faftened a half-crown very near, but
not quite contiguous, to the fide of the g’afs ; and,
fetting the glaff with its mouth downward on the
gra;s, it peefently became covered with vapour, except
that part of it which was next the half-crown. Not only
D E W [ Uj
liie half-crown itfclf was free from vapour, but it had
hindered any from fettling on the glafs which was near
it; for there was a little ring of glafs furrounding the
half-crown, to the diftance of a quarter of an inch,
which was quite dry, as well as that part of the glafs
which was immediately under the half-crown j it feem-
ed as if the filver had repelled the water to that dif¬
tance. A large red wafer had the fame effed as the
half-crown *, it was neither wetted itfelf, nor was the.
ring of glafs contiguous to it wetted. A circle of
white paper produced the fame effed, fo did feverai
other fubitances, which it would be too tedious to enu¬
merate.”
Subftances of a very different kind from the ufual
dew are faid to have fometimes fallen from the atmo-
fphere. In the Phil. Tranf. we are told, that in the
year 1695 there fell in Ireland, in the provinces of
Leinfter and Munfter, for a bonfiderable part of the
winter and fpring, a fatty fubflance refembling butter,
inflead of the common dew. It was of a clammy tex¬
ture, and dark-yellow colour ; and was, from its great
refemblance, generally called clew-butter by the coun¬
try people. It always fell in the night, and chiefly in
the moorifh low grounds *, and was found hanging on
the tops 6f the grafs, and on the thatch of the houfes of
the poor people. It was feldom obferved to fall twice
in the fame place ; and ufually, wherever it fell, it lay
a fortnight upon the ground before it changed colour ;
but after that it gradually dried up, and became
black. The cattle fed in the fields where it lay as
well as in others, and received no harm by it. It
fell in pieces of the bignefs of one’s finger-end •, but
they were difperfed fcatteringly about, and it had an
ofFenfive fmell like a churchyard. There were in
the fame places very {linking fogs during the winter,
and fome people fuppofed this no other than a fediment
from the fog. It would not keep very long, but never
bred worms.
May-DEW whitens linen and wax ; the dew of au¬
tumn is converted into a white froff. Out of dew pu-
trified by the fun, arifes divers infefts, which change
apace from one fpecies into another j what remains is
converted into a fine white fait, with angles like thofe
of faltpetre, after a number of evaporations, calcina¬
tions, and fixations.
There is a fpirit drawn from May-dew, which has
wonderful virtues attributed to it. The method of col-
lefling and preparing it, is defcribed by Hanneman,
phyfician at Kiel. It is to be gathered in clean linen
cloths } expofed to the fun ir. clofe vials ; then diftilled,
and the fpirit thrown upon the caput mortuum ; this is
to be repeated till the earth unite with the fpirit, and
become liquid •, which happens about the feventh or
eighth cohobation or diftillation. By fuch means you
gain a very red, odoriferous fpirit. Stolterfoht, a pby-
lician of Lubec, thinks May-dew may be gathered in
glafs-plates, efpecially in dill weather, and before fun-
rife j and Etmuller is of the fame fentiment. It might
likewife be colle&ed with a glafs funnel, expofed to the
air, having a crooked neck to bring the dew into a vial
in a chamber. See Phil. Tranf. N° 3. Hoffman, and
ethers. It is apparently from the preparation of this
dew, that the brothers of the Rofy-Crofs took their de¬
nomination. See Rosicrucians.
DEW-Born, in country affairs, a diftemper in cattle,
2 ] DEW
being fwelled in the body, as much as the In can Dew
hold, fo that fome beads are in danger of burding. ||
This didemper proceeds from the greedinefs of ahead Mt.
to feed, when put into a rank padure, but commonly 'T—
when the grafs is full of water. In this cafe the bead
diould be tlirred up and down, and made to purge
well j but the proper cure is bleeding in the tail j then
take a grated nutmeg, with an egg, and breaking the
top of the {hell, put out fo much of the white as you
may have room to dip the nutmeg into the diell ; mix
them together, and then let diell and all be put down
the bead’s throat 5 that done, walk him up and down,
and he will foon mend.
DEW-Worm. See Lumbricus, Helminthology
Index.
DEWAN, in the Mogul government, is the recei¬
ver-general and civil governor of the province. In pri¬
vate affairs the fame word fignifies a deward.
DEWANNY, the revenue depaument of a pro¬
vince.
DE WIT, John, the famous penfionary, was born
in 1625, at Dort ; where he profecuted his dudies fo
diligently, that, at the age of 23, he publidied E/e-
menta Curvarum Linearttm, one of the profounded books
in mathematics at that time. After taking his degrees,
and travelling, he, in 1650, became penfionary of Dort,
and didinguidied himfelf very early in the management
of public affairs. He oppofed with all his power the
war between the Englilh and the Dutch 5 and when
the event judified his predictions, he was unanimoufly
chofen penfionary of Holland. In this capacity he
laboured to procure a peace with Cromwell $ in which
peace a fecret article was introduced by one fide or
other, for the exclufion of the houfe of Orange. In
the war with England after the king’s redoration,
■when it was thought expedient, on Opdam’s defeat
and death, that fome of their own deputies drould com¬
mand the fleet, he was one of the three put in commif-
fion j and wrote an accurate relation of all that hap¬
pened during the expedition he was engaged in, for
which, at his return, he received the folemn thanks of
the dates general. In 1667, he edablifhed the per¬
petual ediCl for abolifhing the office of dadtholder, to
fix the liberty of the republic, as it was hoped, on a
firm bafis *, which produced {editions and tumults, that
redored the office, on pretence that the De Wits were
enemies to the houfe of Orange, and plundered the
date. The penfionary begged difmiffion from his pod j
which was granted, with thanks for his faithful fervices.
But the invafion of the French, and the internal divi-
fions among the Hollanders themfelves, fpread every¬
where terror and confufion ; which the Orange party
heightened to ruin the De Wits. Cornelius, the pen-
fionary’s brother, was imprifoned and condemned to
exile *, and a report being raifed that he would be ref-
cued, the mob armed, and furrounded the prifon where
the two brothers then were together, dragged them
out, barbaroudy murdered them, hung the bodies on the
gallows, and cut them to pieces, which many of them
even broiled and ate with favage fury. Such was the
end of one of the greated geniufes of his age $ of whom
Sir William Temple, who was well acquainted with
him, writes with the greated edeem and admiration.
He obferves, that when he was at the head of the go¬
vernment, he differed nothing in his manner of living
from
D I A
[ 193 ] D I A
DeWit from an ordinary citizen. His office, for tlie firft ten
SI years, brought him in little more than 300I. and in the
Dmoolus^ Matter part of his life, not above 700I. per annum. He
refufed a gift of io,OOGl. from the ftates-general, be-
caufe he thought it a bad precedent in the govern¬
ment. With great reafon, therefore, Sir William
Temple, fpeaking of his death, obferves, cgav, or upper quarter or
part of the city.—The laws of Solon imported, that
Pififtratus ftiould be chief of the diacrii j though the
fcholiaft on Ariftophanes’s comedy The Walps, af¬
firms, that Pandion diftributed the quarter of the dia¬
crii among his fons, and put Lycus at their head.
DIADELPHIA “ twice,” and a&Aipoj, “ a
brother”), the 17th clafs in the fexual fyftem, com¬
prehending thofe plants which bear hermaphrodite
ffiwers with two fets of united ftamina ; but this cir-
cumftance muft not be abfolutely depended on. They
are the papilionacei of Tournefort, the irregulares tetra-
petah of Rivinus, and the leguminofee of Ray. See
Botany Index.
DIADEM, in antiquity, a head-band or fillet, worn
by kings as a badge of their royalty. It was made of
filk, thread, or wool, and tied round the temples and
forehead, the ends being tied behind, and let fall on
the neck. It was ufually white and quite plain ;
though fometimes embroidered with gold, and fet with
pearls and precious ftones. In latter times, it came to
be twifted round crowns, laurels, &c. and even ap¬
pears to have been worn on divers parts of the body.
See Crown. The word comes from the Latin diade-
ma ; of the Greek lhoihtp.01, “ a little band encompafs-
ing the head,” of the verb cingo, “ I gird.”
Diadem, in Heraldry, is applied to certain circles
or rims ferving to inclofe the crowns of fovereign
princes, and to bear the globe and crofs, or the fleur
de lis, for their creft. The crowns of fovereigns are
bound, fome with a greater and fome with a lefs num¬
ber of diadems.—The bandage about the heads of
Moors on ffiields is alfo called diadem in blazoning.
DUERESIS, in Surgery, an operation ferving to
divide and feparate the part when the continuity is a
hinderance of the cure.
Diacresis, in Medicine, is the confuming of the vef-
fels of an animal body, when, from fome corroding caufe,
certain paffages are made which naturally ought not
B b to
Diabolus
. n,
Diaerefis.
D I A [ 194 ] D I A
Qiserefis to have been $ or certain natural paffages are dilated
|| beyond their ordinary dimenfions, fo that the humours
Diah. which ought to have been contained in the veffels ex-
v_~ ' travafate or run out. ,
DijerESIS, in Grammar, the divifion of one fyl-
lable into two, which is ufually noted by two points
over a letter, as aulu'i, inftead of aulce, diflbluenda for
dijjblvenda.
DI^TET^E, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of
judges, of which there were two forts, the cleroti and
dialla&erii. The former were public arbitrators, chofen
by lot to determine all caufes exceeding ten drachms,
within their own tribe, and from their fentence an ap¬
peal lay to the fuperior courts.
The dialla&erii, on the contrary, were private arbi¬
trators, from whole fentence there lay no appeal, and
accordingly they always took an oath to adminifter juf-
tice without partiality.
DIAGLYPHICE, the art of cutting or engraving
figures on metals, fuch as feals, intaglios, matrices of let¬
ters, Sec. or coins for medals. See Engraving.
DIAGNOSIS, (from (itctyvaa-TLa, to difeern or di-
JlinguiJh), the diagnoftics or the figns of a difeafe.
They are of two kinds, viz. the adjunft and the pa¬
thognomonic : the fir ft are common to feveral difeafes,
and ferve only to point out the difference between dif¬
eafes of the fame fpecies j the latter are thofe which
always attend the difeafe, and diftinguilh it from all
others.
DIAGNOSTIC, in Medicine, a term given to thofe
figns which indicate the prefent ftate of a difeafe, its
nature and caufe.
DIAGONAL, in Geometnj, a right line drawn a-
crofs a quadrilateral figure, from one angle to another ;
by fome called the diameter, and by others the diame¬
tral, of the figure. See GEOMETRY.
DIAGORAS, furnamed the Athei/f, lived in the
91ft Olympiad. Hje was not a native of Athens, but
he philofophifed there. He delighted in making ver-
fes, and had compofed a poem which a certain poet
Hole from him. He fued the thief, who fwore it was
his own, and got glory by it. This tempted Diago-
ras to deny a Providence. The Athenians fummoned
him to give an account of his doftrine. He fled, and
they fet a price upon his head, promifing a reward to
any who Ihould kill him j but he took (hipping, and
■was call away.
DIAGRAM, in Geometry, a fcheme for explaining
and demonftrating the properties of any figure, whe¬
ther triangle, fquare, circle, &c. See Geometry.
Diagram, among ancient muficians, the fame with
the fcale of the modern. See Scale.
DIAH, Diat, a name given by the Arabs to the
punilhment of retaliation. By the Mahometan law',
a brother, or the next relation of a murdered perfon,
ought to take part again!! the murderer, and demand
his blood in reparation for that which he has Hied. Be¬
fore the time of Mahomet, the Arabs had a cuftom of
putting a freeman of their prifoners to death in lieu of
every Have they loft in battle, and a man for every
woman that was killed. But Mahomet regulated the
laws of reprifal; dire fling in the Alcoran, by the diat,
that a freeman (hould be required for a freeman, and a
flave for a Have. The Turks, probably in confequence
of this law', formerly maffacred almoft all their prifo¬
ners of war, but they now content themfelves with en- j);a|
Having and felling them. ||
DlAHEXAPLA, or Diahexapte, among far- Dialedics.
riers, a compound medicine, fo called from its contain- v ’
ing fix ingredients, viz. birthwort and gentian roots,
juniper-berries, bay-berries, myrrh, and ivory lhavings.
It is commended for colds, confumptions, purfinefs, and
many other diforders in horfes.
DIAL, an inftrument ferving to meafure time ;
which, if effefled by the aid of the fun, is called a fun-
dial. The word is from the Latin dies, “ day,” becaufe
indicating the hour of the day. The ancients alfo call¬
ed it feiatherium, from its effefl by the lhadow. See
the article Dialling.
DIALECT, an appellation given to the language
of a province in fo far as it differs from that of the
whole kingdom. The term, however, is more parti¬
cularly ufed in fpeaking of the ancient Greek, whereof
there were four dialefts, the Attic, Ionic, iEolic, and
Doric ; each of which was a perfeft language in its
kind, that took place in certain countries, and had pe¬
culiar beauties.
In Great Britain, befides the grand diverfity of Eng-
lilh and Scotch, almoft every county has a dialefl of
its own, all differing confiderably in pronunciation,
accent, and tone, although one and the fame lan¬
guage.
DIALECTICS, in the literary hiftory of the an¬
cients, that branch of logic, which taught the rules and
modes of reafohing. See Logic, Part III.
Zeno Eleates was the firft who difeovered the natural
feries of principles and conclufions obferved in reafoning,
and formed an art thereof in form of a dialogue ; which,
for this reafoning, was called dialeBica.
The dialedlica of the ancients is ufually divided into
feveral kinds ; the firft: was the eleatica, that of Zeno
Eleates, which was threefold 5 viz. confecutionum, col-
locjuutionum, and contentionum. The firft confifting of
rules for deducing or drawing conclufions. The fe-
cond the art of dialogue $ which became of fuch uni-
verfal ufe in philofophy, that all reafoning was called
interrogation : then, fyllogifm being laid afide, the phi-
lofi-pliers did all by dialogue ; it lying on the refpon-
dent to conclude and argue from the feveral conceftions
made. The laft part of Zeno’s dialeiflics, was
contentious, or the art of difputing and contradifling ;
though fome, particularly Laertius, aferibe this part to
Protagoras, a difeiple of Zeno.
The fecond is the dialeBica megaricd, whole author
is Euclid, not the mathematician, but another of Me-
gara. He gave much into the method of Zeno and
Protagoras : though there are tvm things impropriated
to him : the firft, that he impugned the demonftra-
tions of others, not by affumptions, but conclufions j
continually making illations, and proceeding from con¬
fequence to confequence : the fecond, that he fet afide
all arguments drawn from comparifons of fimilitude as
invalid.
He was fucceeded by Eubulides, from whom the
fophiftic way of reafoning is faid to be derived. In his
time the art is deferibed as manifold : mentions, fallens,
eleiftra, obvelata, arcevalis, cornuta, and calva. See
Sophism.
The third is the dialedlics of Plato, which he pro-
pofes as a kind of analyfis to dire6! the human mind,
by
D I A [
)iale&iCs. by dividing, defining, and bringing things to the firft
—Y—' trutb j where being arrived, and flopped there a little,
it applies itfelf to explain fenfible things, but with a
view to return to the firft truth, where alone it can reft.
Such is the idea of Plato’s analyfis.
The fourth is Ariftotle’s dialeflics; containing the
do&rine of fimple words, delivered in his books of Prae-
dicaments j the dodlrine of propofitions, in his book
De Interpretatione; and that of the feveral kinds of
fyllogifra, in his books of Analytics, Topics, and Elen-
chufes.
The fifth is the dialedics of the Stoics j which they
call a part of philofophy, and divide into rhetoric and
diaieftic •, to which forae add the definitive, whereby
things are juftly defined *, comprehending likewife the
canons or criterions of truth.
The Stoics, before they come to treat of fyllogifms,
have two principal places 5 the one about the fignifica-
tion of words, the other about the things fignified. On
oceafion of the firft, they confider abundance of things
belonging to the grammarian’s province : what, and
how many letters j what is a word, diftion, fpeech,
&c. On occafion of the latter, they confider things
themfelves, not as without the mind, but as in it, re¬
ceived in it by means of the fenfes. Accordingly, they
firft teach, that nil Jit in intellettu, quod non pnus fue-
rit in fenfu; “ whatever is in the mind came thither by
the fenfes j” and that aut incurjione fui, as Plato, who
meets the fight; autJimilitudine, as Qefar by his effigy ;
aut proportions, either by enlarging as a giant, or by
diminifhing as a pigmy J out tranjlatione, as a Cy¬
clops j aut compojitione, as a Centaur j aut contrano, as
death j aut privations, as a blind man.
The fixth is Epicurus’s dialeflics j for though he
feems to have defpifed dialeftic, he cultivated it with
195 1 D 1 A
vigour. He was only averfe to that of the Stoics j Dialectics
who he thought attributed too much to it, as pro- !!
nouncing him alone wife who was well verfed in dia-,
ledlics.
• For this reafon, Epicurus, feeming to fet afide the
common dialeftics, had recourfe to another way, viz.
to certain canons which he fubftituted in their ftead,
the colleflion whereof he called canomca : and as all
queftions in philofophy are either ds re or de voce, he
gave feparate rules for each. See Epicureans.
DIALIA, in antiquity, facrifices performed by the
flamen dialis. See Flamen.
DIALING, or Dialling. See Dialling.
DIALIS, in antiquity, a Latin term fignifying
fomething that belongs to Jupiter.—The word is form¬
ed from Aioj, the genitive of Zsuj, Jupiter.
Flamen DIALIS. See Flamen.
DIALITHA, in the writings of the ancients, a
word ufed to exprefs the elegant ornaments of the
Greeks and Romans, compofed of gold and gems.
They alfo called thefe lithocolla, “ cemented ftones or
gems j” the gold being in this cafe as a cement to hold
the ftones together. They wore bracelets and other
ornamental things about their habits thus made ; and
their cups and table-furniture, for magnificent treats,
were of this kind. The green ftones were found to
fucceed bell of all in thefe things; and the emerald
and greenifh topaz, or, as we call it, chryfolite, were
moft in efteem for this purpofe. This ufe of the ftones
explains what Pliny very often fays of them in his de-
fcription : Ni/iiljucundius aurum decet, “ Nothing be¬
comes gold better-,” this he fays of the green topaz or
chryfolite j and this and many other like paflages have
greatly perplexed the critics, who did not hit upon
this explication.
DIALLING,
r'F’HE art of drawing dials on the furface of any gi-
ven body or plane. The Greeks and the La¬
tins call this art gnomonica and fciatherica, by reafon it
diftinguilbes the hours by the ftiadovv of the gnomon.
Some call it photo-fcialherica, becaufe the Hours are
fometimes fliown by the light of the fun. Laftly,
1 others call it horologiography.
Utility of Dialling is a moft neceflary art: for notwithftanding
13 ar,:' we are provided with moving machines, fuch as clocks
and watches, to fhow time ; yet thefe are apt to be out
of order, go wrong, and flop \ confequently they Hand
frequently in need of regulation by fome invariable in-
ftrument, as a dial5 which being rightly conftrudled and
duly placed, will always, by means of the fun, inform
us of the true folar time ; which time being corredled
by the equation table publifhed annually in the ephe-
merides, almanacks, and other books, will be the mean
a time to which clocks and watches are to be fet.
Hiftory. Xhe antiquity of dials is beyond doubt. Some at¬
tribute their invention to Anaximenes Milefius *, and
others to Thales. Vitruvius mentions one made by
the ancient Chaldee hiftorian Berofus, on a reclining
plane, almoft parallel to the equinoctial. Ariftarchus
Samius invented the hemifpherical dial. And there
were fome fpherical ones, with a needle for a gnomon.
The difcus of Ariftarchus was a horizontal dial, with
its limb raifed up all around, to prevent the fhadow
ftretching too far. ,
It was late ere the Romans became acquainted with
dials. The firft fun-dial at Rome was fet up by Papi-
rius Curfor, about the year of the city. 460; before
which time, fays Pliny, there is no mention of any ac¬
count of time but by the fun’s rifing .and fetting : it
was fet up at or near the temple of Quirinus, but went
ill. About 30 years after, M. Valerius Meffala. being
conful, brought out of Sicily another dial, which he
fet up on a pillar near the roftrum ; but for want of
its being made for that latitude, it could not go true*
They made ufe of it 99 years 5 till Martius Philippus
fet up another more exaft.
But there feem to have been dials among the Jews
much earlier than any of thefe. Witnefs the dial of
Ahaz *, who began to reign 400 years before Alexan¬
der, and within 12 years of the building of Rome :
mentioned by Ifaiah, chap, xxxviii. ver.. 8.
The firft profeffed writer on dialling is Clavius; who
demonftrates all, both the theory and the operations,
after the rigid manner of the ancient mathematicians j
B b 2 but
kj6 DIAL
but fo intricately, that few, we dare fay, ever read them
all. Dechales and Ozanam gave much eafier demon-
ftrations in their Courfes, and Wolfius in his Elements.
M. Picard has given a new method of making large
dials, by calculating the hour-lines j and M. de la
Hire, in his Dialling, printed in 1683, a geometrical
method of drawing hour-lines from certain points
determined by obfervation. Eberhardus Welperus, in
1625, publifhed his Dialling, wherein he lays down a
method of drawing the primary dials on a very eafy
foundation. The fame foundation is defcribed at length
by Sebaflian Munfter, in his Rudimenta Mathematica,
publifhed in 1551. Sturmius, in 1672, publifhed a
new edition of Welperus’s Dialling, with the addition
of a whole fecond part, about inclining and declining
dials, &c. In 1709, the fame work, with Sturmius’s
additions, was republifhed, with the addition of a
fourth part, containing Picard’s and de la Hire’s me¬
thods of drawing large dials. Paterfon, Michael, and
Muller, have each wrote on dialling in the German
tongue ; Coetfius in his Horo/ogiographia Plana, print¬
ed in 1689; Gaupennius, in his Gnomomca Mechanic a ;
Bion, in his life of Mathematical Injlruments ; the late
ingenious Mr Fergufon, in his Select LeSiures; Mr
Emmerfon, in his Dialling j and Mr W. Jones, in his
2 Injlrumental Dialling.
Definitions. A Dial, accurately defined, is a plane, upon which
lines are defcribed in fuch a manner, that the fhadow
of a wire, or of the upper edge of another plane, ere6l-
ed perpendicularly on the former, may fhow the true
time of the day.
The edge of the plane by which the time of the day
is found, is called the Jtile of the dial, which muft be
parallel to the earth’s axis; and the line on which the
faid plane is eredled, is called the fuhfile.
The angle included between the fubftile and ftile,
is called the elevation or height of the file.
Thofe dials whofe planes are parallel to the plane of
the horizon, are called horizontal dials; and thofe
dials whofe planes are perpendicular to the plane of the
horizon, are called vertical or ereB dials.
Thofe ere£l dials, whofe planes direftly front the
north or fouth, are called direB north or fouth dials ;
and all other ereft dials are called decliners ; becaufe
their planes are turned away from the north or fouth.
Thofe dials whofe planes are neither parallel nor per¬
pendicular to the plane of the horizon, are called in¬
clining or reclining dials, according as their planes
make acute or obtufe angles with the horizon ; and if
their planes are alfo turned afide from facing the fouth
or north, they are called declining-inclining or declining-
reclining dials.
The interfe&ion of the plane of the dial, with that
of the meridian, paflxng through the ftile, is called the
meridian of the dial, or the hour-line of XII.
Thofe meridians, whofe planes pafs through the
ftile, and make angles of 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90
degrees with the meridian of the place (which marks
the hour-line of XII) are called hour circles; and
their interfe&ions with the plane of the dial are called
hour-lines.
In all declining dials, the fubflile makes an angle
with the hour-line of XII, and this angle is called the
difance of the fuhfile from the meridian.
The declining plane’s difference of longitude, is the
LING.
angle formed at the interfe&ion of the ftile and plane
of the dial, by two meridians ; one of which paffes
through the hour-line of XII, and the other through
the fubftile.
Thus much being premifed concerning dials in ge¬
neral, we {hall now proceed to explain the different me¬
thods of their conftrudlion. Plate
If the whole earth aPep were tranfparent, and fLXXI.
hollow, like a fphere of glafs, and had its equator fig u
divided into 24 equal parts by fo many meridian Theuniver-
femicircles, a, b, c, d. e,f,g, &c. one of which is the fal principle
geographical meridian of any given place, as London °n which
(which is fuppofed to be at the point a) j and if theclia^inSde*
hour of XII were marked at the equator, both uponlJen S‘
that meridian and the oppofite one, and all the reft of
the hours in order on the reft of the meridians, thofe
meridians would be the hour-circles of London : then,
if the fphere had an opaque axis, as PEjo, terminating
in the poles P and p, the fhadow of the axis would fall
upon every particular meridian and hour, when the fun
came to the plane of the oppofite meridian, and would
confequently fhow the time at London, and at all other
places on the meridian of London. 5
If this fphere were cut through the middle by a folid Horizontal
plane ABCD, in the rational horizon of London, one
half of the axis EP would be above the plane, and the
other half below it •, and if flraighl lines were drawn
from the centre of the plane to thofe points where its
circumference is cut by the hour-circles of the fphere,
thofe lines would be the hour-lines of a horizontal dial
for London : for the fhadow of the axis would fall
upon each particular hour-line of the dial, when it
fell upon the like hour-circle of the fphere.
If the plane which cuts the fphere be upright, asFig. 2,
AFCG, touching the given place (London) at F,
and direflly facing the meridian of London, it will
then become the plane of an ere6l diredf fouth dial : and
if right lines be drawn from its centre E to thofe points ^
of its circumference where the hour-circles of the fphere Vertical
cut it, thefe will be the hour-lines of a vertical or diredldial.
fouth-dial for London, to which the hours are to be fet
as in the figure (contrary to thofe on a horizontal dial),
and the lower half E p of the axis will caft a fhadow on
the hour of the day in this dial, at the fame time that
it would fall upon the like hour-circle of the fphere, if
the dial plane was not in the way.
If the plane (ftill facing the meridian) be made to
incline or recline any given number of degrees, the
hour-circles of the fphere will ftill cut the edge of the
plane in thofe points to which the hour-lines muft be
drawn ftraight from the centre ; and the axis of the
fphere will caft a ftiadow on thefe lines at the refpe61ive
hours. The like will ftill hold, if the plane be madejpdinJn^
to decline by any given number of degrees from the reclining,
meridian towards the eaft or weft : provided the decli-fnd d.eclin"
nation be lefs than 90 degrees, or the reclination beingdials’
lefs than the co-latitude of the place: and the axis of
the fphere will be a gnomon or flile for the dial. But
it cannot be a gnomon, when the declination is quite
90 degrees, nor when the reclination is equal to the co-
latjtude ; becaufe in thefe two cafes, the axis has no ele¬
vation above the plane of the dial.
And thus it appears, that the plane of every dial re-
prefents the plane of fome great circle upon the earth ;
and the gnomon of the earth’s axis, whether it be a
fmall
I
r»g. i, *•
8
Dialling by
:he com-
non terre-
irial globe,
9
To con-
ftrud a ho¬
rizontal
dial.
DIALLING.
fmall wire as in the above figures, or the edge of a thin
plate, as in the common horizontal dials.
The whole earth, as to its bulk, is but a point, if
compared to its diftance from the fun 5 and therefore,
if a fmall fphere of glafs be placed upon any part of
the earth’s furface, fo that its axis be parallel to the
axis of the earth, and the fphere have fuch lines upon
it, and fueh planes within it, as above defcribed ; it
will (how the hours of the day as truly as if it were
placed at the earth’s centre, and the (hell of the earth
were as tranfparent as glafs.
But becaufe it is impoffible to have a hollow fphere
of glafs perfedlly true, blown round a folid plane j or
if it was, we could not get at the plane within the glafs
to fet it in any given pofition ; we make ufe of a wire-
fphere to explain the principles of dialling, by joining
25 femicircles together at the poles, and putting a thin
flat plate of brafs within it.
A common globe of x 2 inches diameter has gene¬
rally 24 meridian femicircles drawn upon it. If fuch
a globe be elevated to the latitude of any given place,
and turned about until one of thefe meridians cut the
horizon in the north point, where the hour of XII is
fuppofed to be marked, the reft of the meridians will
cut the horizon at the refpeftive diftances of all the
other hours from XII. Then if thefe points of diftance
be marked on the horizon, and the globe be taken out
of the horizon, and a flat board or plate be put into its
place, even with the furface of the horizon ; and if
ftraight lines be drawn from the centre of the board
to thofe points of diftance on the horizon which were
cut by the 24 meridian femicircles ; thefe lines will be
the hour-lines of a horizontal dial for that latitude, the
edge of whofe gnomon muft be in the very fame fitua-
tion that the axis of the globe was, before it was taken
out of the horizon 5 that is, the gnomon muft make an
angle with the plane of the dial equal to the latitude
of the place for which the dial is made.
If the pole of the globe be elevated to the co-lati¬
tude of the given place, and any meridian be brought
to the north point of the horizon, the reft of the me¬
ridians will cut the horizon in the refpedlive diftances
of all the hours from Xi for a diredf fouth dial, whofe
gnomon muft be an angle with the plane of the dial,
equal to the co latitude of the place ; and the hours
muft be fet the contrary way on this dial to what they
are on the horizontal.
But if your globe have more than 24 meridian femi¬
circles upon it, you muft take the following method
for making hori%ontal and fouth dials.
Elevate the pole to the latitude of your place, and
turn the globe until any particular meridian (fuppofe
the firft) comes to the north point of the horizon,
and the oppofite meridian will t ut the horizon in the
fouth. Then fet the hour-index to the uppermoft
XII on its circle ; which done, turn the globe weft-
Ward until 15 degrees of the equator pafs under the
brazen meridian, and then the hour index will be at
/ (for the fun moves 15 degrees every hour), and the
firft meridian will cut the horizon in the number of
degrees from the north point that I is diftant from
XII. Turn on until other 15 degrees of the equa¬
tor pafs under the brazen meridian, and the hour in¬
dex will then be at //, and the firft meridian will cut
the horizon in the number of degrees that 11 is di-
. 3
ftant from XII1 and fo by making 15 degrees of
the equator pafs under the brazen meridian for every
hour, the firft meridian of the globe will cut the ho¬
rizon in the diftances of all the hours from XII to
VI, which is juft 90 degrees 5 and then you ne^d go
no farther, for the diftances of XI, X, IX, VIII,
VII, and VI, in the forenoon, are the fame from XII
as the diftances of I, II, III, IV, V, and VI, in the
afternoon : and thefe hour-lines continued through the
centre, will give the oppofite hour-lines on the other
half of the dial.
Thus, to make a horizontal dial for the latitude of
London, which is 51 £ degrees north, elevate the north
pole of the globe 51^-degrees above the north point
of the horizon ; and then turn the globe until the firft
meridian (which is that of London on the Engliftx ter*«
reftrial globe) cuts the north point of the horizon, and
fet the hour-index to XII at noon.
Then turning the globe weft ward until the index
points fucceflively to I, II, III, IV, V, and VI, in the
afternoon, or until 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 degrees
of the equator pafs under the brazen meridian, you will
find that the firft meridian of the globe cuts the hori¬
zon in the following number of degrees from the north
towards the eaft, viz. xx-y, 244) 53^» 7^tV> and
90 } which are the refpe&ive diftances of the above
hours from XII upon the plane of the horizon.
To transfer thefe, and the reft of the hours, to a Fig. 3.
horizontal plane, draw the parallel right lines a c and
d b, upon the plane, as far from each other as is equal
to the intended thieknefs of the gnomon or (file of
the dial, and the fpace included between them will be
the meridian or twelve-o’clock line on the dial. Crofs
this meridian at right angles with the fix-o’clock line
g h, and fetting one foot of your compafles ,in the in-
terfeftion a, as a centre, defcribe the quadrant g e
with any convenient radius or opening of the compaf-
fes : then, fetting one foot in the interfe£Hon b, as a
centre, with the fame radius defcribe the quadrant f h,
and divide each quadrant into 90 equal parts or de¬
grees, as in the figure.
Becaufe the hour-lines are lefs diftant from each other
about noon, than in any other part of the dial, it is
beft to have the centres of thefe quadrants at a little di¬
ftance from the centre of the dial plane, on the fide op¬
pofite to XII, in order to enlarge the hour-diftances
thereabouts, under the fame angles on the plane. Thus
the centre of the plane is at C, but the centres of tha.
quadrants are at a and b.
Lay a ruler over the point b (and keeping it there
for the centre of all the afternoon hours in the quadrant
f h') draw the hour-line of I through iiy degrees in the
quadrant ; the hour-line of II, through 24-J degrees j
of III, through 38A degrees-, ////, through 53^--,
and V, through 71^ : and becaufe t he fun rifes about Fig. 3.
four in the morning, on the longed days at London,
continue the hour-lines of IIII and V in the afternoon
through the centre b to the oppofite fide of the dial
This done, lay the ruler to the centre a of the quadrant
eg ; and through the like divifions or degrees of that
quadrant, viz. 114, 24-3:, 38T'T, 53L and 7iTY, draw
the forenoon hour-lines of XI, X, IX, VIII, and VII,
and becaufe the fun fets not before eight in the even¬
ing on the longeft day, continue the hour-lines oi VII
and VIII in the forenoon through the centre a, to.
198
Fig. 4.
10
An ere(fl
fouth dial.
DIAL
VII and VIII in the afternoon } and all the hour-lines
■will be finilhcd on this dial; to which the hours may
be fet, as in the figure.
Laftly, though 514- degrees of either quadrant, and
from its centre, draw the right line ag for the hypo-
thenufe or axis of the gnomon agi; and from let
fall the perpendicular g i, upon the meridian line a 2,
and there will he a triangle made, whofe fides are a g,
g i, and i a. If a plate fimilar to this triangle be made
as thick as the difiance between the lines a c and b d,
and fet Upright between them, touching at a and b, its
hypolh'enufe ag will be parallel to the axis of the world,
when the dial is truly fet ; and will call a fliadow on
the hour of the day.
N. B. The trouble of dividing the two quadrants
may be faved if you have a fcale with a line of chords
upon it (as reprefented in the plate) j for if you ex¬
tend the compaffes from o to 60 degrees of the line of
chords, and with that extent, as a radius, deferibe the
two quadrants upon their refpeftive centres, the above
diftances may be taken with the compaffes upon the
lines, and fet off upon the quadrants.
To make an ere6i direB fouth dial. Elevate the pole
to the co-latitude of your place, and proceed in all
refpedls as above taught for the horizontal dial, from
VI in the morning to VI in the afternoon j only the
hours muft be reverfed as in the figure j and the
hypothenufe of the gnomon agf muft make an
angle with the dial-plane equal to the co-latitude of
the place. As the fun can ftiine no longer on this
dial than from fix in the morning until fix in the even¬
ing, there is no occafion for having any more than 12
hours upon it.
To make an ere£i dial, declining from the fouth to-
clining dial wargs the eajl or 'itiefl. Elevate the pole to the latitude
of your place, and ferew the quadrant of altitude to
the zenith. Then, if your dial declines towards the
eaft (which we {hall fuppofe it to do at prefent), count
in the horizon the degrees of declination, from the eaft
point towards the north, and bring the lower end of
the quadrant to that degree of declination at which the
reckoning ends. This done, bring any particular me¬
ridian of your globe (as fuppofe the firft meridian) di-
redlly under the graduated edge of the upper part of
the brazen meridian, and fet the hour to XII at noon.
Then, keeping the quadrant of altitude at the degree
of declination in the horizon, turn the globe eaftward
on its axis, and obferve the degrees cut by the firft
meridian in the quadrant of altitude (counted from the
zenith) as the hour-index comes to XI, X, IX, &c. in
the forenoon, or as 15, 30, 45, &c. degrees of the
equator pafs under the brazen meridian at thefe hours
refpedlively ; and the degrees then cut in the quadrant
by the firft meridian, are the refpe&ive diftances of the
forenoon hours from XII on. the plane of the dial.—
Then, for the afternoon hours, turn the quadrant of
altitude round the zenith, until it comes to the degree
in the horizon oppofite to that where it was placed be¬
fore $ namely, as far from the weft point of the hori¬
zon towards the fouth, as it was fet at firft from the
eaft point towards the north ; and turn the globe 'weft-
ward on its axis, until the firft meridian comes to the
brazen meridian again, and the hour-index to XII:
then, continue to turn the globe weftward ; and as the
index points to the afternoon hours I, II, III, &c. or
it
Eredt de-
L I N G.
as 15, 30, 45, &c. degrees of the equator pafs under
the brazen meridian, the firft meridian will cut the
quadrant of altitude in the refpedlive number o( degrees
from the zenith that each of thefe hours is from XIIon
the dial.—And note, that when the firft meridian goes
off the quadrant at the horizon in the forenoon, the
hour-index (hows the time when the fun will come upon
this dial $ and when it goes off the quadrant in the af¬
ternoon, the index will point to the time when the fun
goes off the dial.
Having thus found all the hour-diftances from XII,
lay them down upon your dial-plane, either by dividing
a femicircle into two quadrants of 90 degrees each (be¬
ginning at the hour-line of XII), or by the line of
chords, as above diredled.
In all declining dials, the line on which tho ftile or
gnomon ftands (commonly called the fubfile-hne) makes
an angle with the twelve o’clock line, and tails among
the forenoon hour-lines, if the dial declines towards the
eaft j and among the afternoon hour-lines, when the
dial declines towards the weft j that is, to the left hand
from the twelve o’clock line in the former cafe, and to
the right hand from it in the latter.
To find the diftance of the fubftile from the twelve
o’clock line 5 if your dial declines from the fouth to¬
ward the eaft, count the degrees of that declination in
the horizon from the eaft point towards the north, and
bring the lower end of the quadrant of altitude to that
degree of declination where the reckoning ends : then
turn the globe until the firft meridian cuts the horizon
in the like number of degrees, counted from the fouth
points towards the eaft j and the quadrant and firft me¬
ridian will then crbfs one another at right angles j and
the number of degrees of the quadrant, which are in¬
tercepted between the firft meridian and the zenith, is
equal to the diftance of the fubftile line from the twelve
o’clock line *, and the number of degrees of the firft
meridian, which are intercepted between the quadrant
and the north pole, is equal to the elevation of the ftile
above the plane of the dial.
If the dial declines weftward from the fouth, count
that declination from the eaft point of the horizon to¬
wards the fouth, and bring the quadrant of altitude to
the degree in the horizon at which the reckoning ends j
both for finding the forenoon hours and diftance of the
fubftile from the meridian : and for the afternoon hours,
bring the quadrant to the oppofite degree in the hori¬
zon, namely, as far from the weft towards the north,
and then proceed in all refpefls as above.
Thus we have finifhed our declining dial j and in fo
doing we made four dials, viz.
1. A north dial, declining eaftward by the fame
number of degrees. 2. A north dial, declining the
fame number weft. 3. A fouth dial, declining eaft.
And, 4. A fouth dial, declining weft. Only, placing
the proper number of hours, and the ftile or gnomon
refpeftively, upon each plane. For (as above-men¬
tioned) in the fouth-weft plane, the fubftilar line falls
among the afternoon hours j and in the fouth-eaft, of
the fame declination, among the forenoon hours, at
equal diftances from XII. And fo all the morning hours
on the weft decliner will be like the afternoon hours
on the eaft decliner : the fouth-eaft decliner will pro¬
duce the north-weft decliner ; and the fouth-weft de¬
cliner the north-eaft decliner, by only extending the
hour-lines,
199
12
An eafy
method for
conltru fl¬
ing of dials.
Fig. 5*
DIALLING.
hour-lines, ftile and fubftile, quite through the centre ;
the axis of the ftile (or edge that cafts the fliadow on
the hour of the day) being in all dials whatever paral¬
lel to the axis of the world, and confequently pointing
towards the north pole of the heaven in north latitudes,
and towards the fouth pole in fouth latitudes.
But becaufe every one who would like to make a
dial, may perhaps not be provided with a globe to aflift
him, and may probably not underftand the method of
doing it by logarithmic calculation ; we ftiall fhow how
to perform it by the plain dialling lines, or fcale of la¬
titudes and hours (as reprefented on the Plate), and
which may be had on fcales commonly fold by the ma-
thematical-inftrument-makers.
This is the eafieft of all mechanical methods, and by
much the beft, when the lines are truly divided : and
not only the half-hours and quarters may be laid down
by all of them, but every fifth minute.by moft, and
every Angle minute by thofe where the line of hours is
a foot in length.
Having drawn your double meridian line a b, cd, fig.
5. on the plane intended for a horizontal dial, and crof-
fed it at right angles by the fix o’clock line f e (as in
fig. 3.), take the latitude of the place with your com-
paffes, in the fcale of latitudes, and fet that extent
from c to e, and from a to /, on the fix o’clock line :
then, taking the whole fix hours between the points
of the compaffes in the fcale of hours, with that ex¬
tent fet one foot in the point c, and let the other foot
fall where it will upon the meridian line c d, as at d.
Do the fame from/to b, and draw the right lines e d
and fb, each of which will be equal in length to the
whole fcale of hours. This done, fetting one foot of
the compaffes in the beginning of the fcale at XII, and
extending the other to each hour of the fcale, lay off
thefe extents from d to e for the afternoon hours, and
from b to f for thofe of the afternoon : this will divide
the lines d e and b f \n the fame manner as the hour-
fcale is divided at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 ; on which the
quarters may alfo be laid down, if required. Then,
laying a ruler on the point c, draw the firft five hours
in the afternoon, from that point, through the dots at
the numeral figures, r, 2, 3, 4> 5> on ^*ne d e ; and
continue the lines of IIII and V through the centre c
to the other fide of the dial, for the like hours of the
morning : which done, lay the ruler on the point a, and
draw the laft five hours in the afternoon through the
dots, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, on the line/£ ; continuing the hour-
lines of VII and VIII through the centre a to. the
other fide of the dial, for the like hours of the evening }
and fet the hours to their refpeftive lines, as in the
figure. Laftly, make the gnomon the fame way as
taught above for the horizontal d'.al, and the whole will
be finiftied.
To make an eredl fouth dial \ take the co-latitude
of your place from the fcale of latitudes, and then pro¬
ceed in all refpefls for the hour-line as in the hori¬
zontal dial; only reverfing the hours, as in fig. 4. and
making the angle of the ftile’s height equal to the co¬
latitude.
But, left the young diallift ftrould have neither globe
nor wooden fcale, we {hall now {how him how he.may
make a dial without any of thefe helps. Only, if he
has not a line of chords, he muft divide a quadrant zn-
3
to 90 equal parts or degrees for taking the proper angle
of the ftile’s elevation } which is eafily done.
With any opening of the compaffes, as ZL, fig. 6. Fig. 6.
deferibe the two femicircles LF k and k, upon the
centres Z and 2;, where the fix o’clock line croffes the
double meredian line, and divide each femicircle into
12 equal parts, beginning at L (though, ftridtly fpeak- ^
ing, only the quadrants from L to the fix o’clock line Horizontal
need be divided) ; then connect the divifions which dial,
are equidiftant from L, by the parallel lines KM, IN,
HO, GP, and FQ. Draw VZ for the hypothenufe
of the ftile, making the angle VZE equal to the lati¬
tude of your place 5 and continue the line VZ to R.
Draw the line R r parallel to the fix o’clock line j and
fet off the diftance a K from Z to V, the diftance b 1
from Z to X, c H from Z to W, d G from Z to I /,
and e F from Z to S. Then draw the lines S r, T /,
W w, X x, and Y y, each parallel to R r. Set off the
diftance y Y from a to 11, and from y'to 1 } the diftance
w X from £ to 10, and from £ to 2™ W from c to 9,
and from ^ to 3 ; / T from d to 8, and from 2 to 4 j
s S from e to 7, and from n to 5. Then laying a ruler
to the centre Z, draw the forenoon hour lines through
the points II, 10, 9, 8, 7 j and laying it to the centre
draw the afternoon lines through the points 1, 2,
3, 4, 5 j continuing the forenoon lines of VII and
P7//through the centre Z, to the oppofite fide of the
dial, for the like afternoon hours •, and the afternoon
lines IIII and V through the centre •z, to the oppo¬
fite fide, for the like morning hours. Set the
hours to thefe lines as in the figure, and then eredt
the ftile or gnomon, and the horizontal dial will be
finiftied.
To conftrudt a fouth dial, draw the line VZ, making
an angle with the meridian ZL, equal to the co latitude
of your place : and proceed in all refpedls as in the
above horizontal dial for the fame latitude, reverfing
the hours as in fig. 4. and making the elevation of the
gnomon equal to the ce-latitude.
Perhaps it may not be unacceptable to explain the
method of conftrudling the dialling lines, and fome
others ; which is as follows :
With any opening of the compafles, as EA, fig- 7* Dialling
according to the intended length of the fcale, deferibe imes. how
the circle ADCB, and crofs it at right angles by theconftrudled,
diameters CEA and DEB. Divide the quadrant AB 1 Jg' 7>
firft into 9 equal parts, and then each part into 10 j
fo (hall the quadrant be divided into 90 equal parts or
degrees. Draw the right line AFB for the chord of
this quadrant j and fetting one foot of the compafles
in the point A, extend the other to the feveral divi¬
fions of the quadrant, and transfer thefe divifions to
the line. AFB by the arcs 10, 10, 20, 20, &c. and
this will be a line of chords, divided into 90 unequal
parts •, which, if transferred from the line back again
to the quadrant, will divide it equally. It is plain by
the figure that the diftance from A to 60 in the line
of chords, is juft equal to AE, the radius of the circle
from which that line is made; for if the arc 60, 60,
be continued, of which A is the centre, it goes exaftly
through the centre D of the arc AB.
And therefore, in laying down any number of de¬
grees on a circle, by the line of chords., you muft firft
open the compaffes fo as to take in juft 60 degrees
upon
200
Fig 8.
JS
A dial on
card.
DIAL
Upon that line as from A to 60 : and then, with that
extent, as a radius, defcribe a circle, which will be
exactly of the fame fize with that from which the line
was divided : which done, fet one foot of the compafles
in the beginning of the chord line, as at A, and ex¬
tend the other to the number of degrees you want
upon the line ; which extent, applied to the circle, will
include the like number of degrees upon it.
Divide the quadrant CD into 90 equal parts, and
from each point of divifion draw right lines, as f £/,
&c. to the line CE, all perpendicular to that line, and
parallel to DE, which will divide EC into a line of
fines : and although thefe are feldom put among the
dialling lines on a fcale, yet they aflift in drawing the
line of latitudes. For if a ruler be laid upon the point
D, and over each divifion in the line of fines, it will di¬
vide the quadrant CB into 90 unequal parts, as B «,
B b, &c. thovvn by the right lines 10 a, 20b, 30 c, &c.
drawn along the edge of the ruler. If the right line
BC be drawn, fubtending this quadrant, and the near-
eft diftances B «, B 6, B c, &c. betaken in the compaf-
fes from B, and fet upon this line in the fame manner
as diredled for the line of chords, it will make a line of
latitudes BC, equal in length to the line of chords AB,
and of an equal number of divifions, but very unequal
as to their lengths.
Draw the right line DGA, fubtending the quadrant
DA ; and parallel to it, draw the right line r s, touch¬
ing the quadrant DA at the numeral figure 3. Divide
this quadrant into fix equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, &.c. and
through thefe points of divifion draw right lines from
the centre E to the line rr, which will divide it at the
points where the fix hours are to be placed, as in the
figure. If every fixth part of the quadrant be fubdi-
vided into four equal parts, right lines drawn from the
centre through thefe points of divifion, and continued
4;o the line r s, will divide each hour upon it into quar¬
ters.
In fig. 8, we have the reprefentation of a portable
dial, which may be eafily drawn on a card, and carried
in a pocket-book. The lines a d, a b, and be oi the
gnomon, muft be cut quite through the card ; and as
the end o ^ of the gnomon is railed occafionally above
the plane of the dial, it turns upon the uncut line cd
as on a hinge. The dotted line A B muft be flit quite
through the card, and the thread C muft be put through
the flit, and have a knot tied behind, to keep it from
being eafily drawn out. On the other end of this thread
is a fmall plummet D, and on the middle of it a fmall
bead for fhowing the hour of the day.
To redlify this dial, fet the thread in the flit right
againft the day of the month, and ftretch the thread
from the day of the month over the angular point
where the curve lines meet at XII; then fhift the bead
to that point on the thread, and the dial will be re£li-
fied.
To find the hour of the day, raife the gnomon (no
matter howT much or how little) and hold the edge of
the dial next the gnomon towards the fun, fo as the
uppermoft edge of the lhadow of the gnomon may
juft cover the Jhudow line; and the bead then playing
freely on the face of the dial, by the weight of the
plummet, will (how the time of the day among the
hour lines, as it is forenoon or afternoon.
To find the time of fun-rifing and fetting, move the
LING.
thread among the hour-lineSj until it either covers fome
one of them, or lies parallel betwixt any two; and then
it will cut the time of fun-rifing among the forenoon
hours, and of fun-fetting among the afternoon hours,
for that day of the year to which the thread is fet in
the fcale of months.
To find the fun’s declinationj ftretch the thread from
the day of the month over the angular point at XII,
and it will cut the fun’s declination, as it is north or
fouth, for that day, in the proper fcale.
To find on what days the fun enters the figns, when
the bead, as above redfified, moves along any of the
curve-lines which have the figns of the zodiac marked
upon them, the fun enters thofe figns on the days
pointed out by the thread in the fcale of months.
The conftrudtion of this dial is very eafy, efpecially
if the reader compares it all along with fig. 9. Plate
CLXXII. as he reads the following explanation of that
figure.
Draw the occult line AB (fig. 9.) parallel to the -g^xir.
top of the card, and crofs it at right angles with the fix 'fig. 5.*
o’clock line ECD ; then upon C, as a centie, with the
radius CA, defcribe the femicircle AEL, and divide it
into 1 2 equal parts (beginning at A), as A r, A x, &c.
and from thefe points of divifion draw the hour-lines r,
x, t, u, v, E, w, x, all parallel to the fix o’clock line
EC. If each part of the femicircle be fubdivided into
four equal parts, they will give the half-hour lines and
cjuarters, as in fig. 2. Draw the right line ASD 0,
making the angle SAB equal to the latitude of your
place. Upon the centre A defcribe the arch RST,
and fet off upon it the arcs SR and ST, each equal to
234 degrees, for the fun’s greateft declination; and
divide them into 234 equal parts, as in fig. 2. Through
the interfedion D wf the lines ECD and AD 0, draw
the right line FDG at right angles to AD 0. Lay a
ruler to the points A and R, and draw the line ARF
through 234 degrees of fouth declination in the arc
SR ; and then laying the ruler to the points A and T,
draw the line A 1 G through 234 degrees of north de¬
clination in the arc ST : fo {hall the lines ARF and
ATG cut the line IDG in the proper lengths for the
fcale of months. Upon the centre D, with the radius
DF, defcribe the femicircle F 0 G ; which divide into
fix equal parts, F w, m n, n 0, &c. and from thefe points
of divifion draw the right lines mh,ni,pk, and y/,
each parallel to oD. Then fetting one foot of the
compaffes in the point F, extend the other to A, and
defcribe the arc AZH for the tropic of vy ; with the
fame extent, fetting one foot in G, defcribe the arc
AEO for the tropic of as. Next fetting one foot in
the point k, and extending the other to A, defcribe the
arc ACI for the beginnings of the figns zz and Fig. 9 com*
and with the fame extent, fetting one foot in the point with
/, defcribe the arc AN for the beginnings of the figns s*
n and £1,. Set One foot in the point f, and having
extended the other to A, defcribe the arc AK for the
beginnings of the figns X and ttp ; and with the fame
extent, fet one foot in k, and defcribe the arc AM for
the beginnings of the figm % and -nj.. Then fetting
one foot in the point D, and extending the other to A,
defcribe the curve AL for the beginnings of fy and eca;
and the figns will be finiftied. This done, lay a ruler
from the point A over the fun’s declination in the arch
RST ; and where the ruler cuts the line EDG, make
marks:
201
DIALLING.
marks : and place tlie days of tlie months right againft
thefe mark*, in the manner drown by fig. 2. Lafily,
draw the fhadow line PQ^ parallel to the occult line
AB j make the gnomon, and fet the hours to their
refpeflive lines, as in fig. 2. and the dial will be fi-
15 niflied.
Iniverfal There are feVeral kinds of dials called univerfal, be-
ials. caufe they ferve for all latitudes. One, of Mr Pardie’s
eonftruftion, was formerly confidered as the bell. It
Plate confiils of three principal parts \ the firlt whereof is
CLXXII called the horizontal plane, A fig. 10. becaufe in
^S’ 10‘ pra61ice it mutt be parallel to the horizon. In this
plane is fixed an upright pin, which enters into the edge
of the fecond part BD, called the meridional plane ;
which is made of two pieces, the lowelt whereof B
is called the quadrant, becaufe it contains a quarter of
a circle, divided into 90 degrees ; and it is only into
this part, near B, that the pin enters. The other piece
is a femicircle D adjufted to the quadrant, and turn¬
ing in it by a groove, for raifing or deprefling the dia¬
meter EF of the femicircle, which diameter is called
the axis of the inflrumenU The third piece is a circle
G, divided on both fides into 24 equal parts, which
are the hours. This circle is put upon the meridional
plane fo that the axis EF may be perpendicular to
the circle, and the point C be the common centre of
the circle, femicircle, and quadrant. The ftraight edge
of the femicircle is chamfered on both fides to a fliarp
edge, which paflfes through the centre of the circle.
On one fide of the chamfered part, the firft fix months
of the year are laid down, according to the fun’s de¬
clination for their refpe&ive days, and on the other fide
the laft fix months. And againft the days on which the
fun enters the figns, there are ftraight lines drawn upon
the femicircle, with the chara6fers of the figns marked
upon them. There is a black line drawn along the
middle of the upright edge of the quadrant, over which
hangs a thread H, with its plummet I, for levelling
the inftrument. N. B. From the 23d of September to
the 20th of March, the upper furface of the circle
muft touch both the centre C of the femicircle, and
the line of T and :0=; and from the 20th of March to
the 23d of September, the lower furface of the circle
muft touch that centre and line.
To find the time of the day by this dial. Having
fet it on a level place in funftiine, and adjufted it by
the levelling fcrews k and /, until the plumb-line hangs
over the back line upon the edge of the quadrant, and
parallel to the faid edge j move the femicircle in the
quadrant, until the line of ‘Y' and =Q= (where the circle
touches) comes to the latitude of your place in the
quadrant: then turn the whole meridional plane BD,
with its circle G, upon the horizontal plane A, until
the edge of the fhadow of the circle fall precifelyion
the day of the month in the femicircle ; and then the
meridional plane will be due north and fouth, the axis
EF will be parallel to the axis of the world, and will
caft a ftiadow upon the true time of the day among the
hours on the circle.
N. B. As, when the inftrument is thus redlified, the
quadrant and femicircle are in the plane of the meri¬
dian, fo the circle is then in the plane of the equinoc¬
tial. Therefore, as the fun is above the equino£Iial in
fummer (in northern latitudes), and below it in winter 5
the axis of the femicircle wnll caft a fhadow' on the
Vol. VII. Part I.
hour of the day, on the upper 'furface of the circle,
from the 20th of March till the 23d of September ;
and trom the 23d of September to the 20th ot March,
the hour of the day will be determined by the (hadow
of the femicircle upon the lower furtace of the circle.
In the former cafe, the ftiadow of the circle falls upon
the day of the month, on the lower part of the dia¬
meter of the lemicircle $ and in the latter cale, on the
upper part.
The method of laying down the months and figns
upon the femicircle is as follows : Draw the right line
ACB, fig. I 1. equal to the diameter of the femicircle Fig. it.
ADB, and crofs it in the middle at right angles with
the line ECD, equal in length to ADB; then EC will
be the raciius of the circle FCG, w'hich is the fame as
that of the lemicircle. Upon E, as a centre, delcribe
the circle FCG, on which fet off the arcs C h and C I,
each equal to 234- degrees, and divide them accordingly
into that number for the fun’s declination. 1 hen lay¬
ing the edge of a ruler over the centre E, and alfo over
the fun’s declination for every fifth day of each month
(as in the card-dial), mark the points on the diameter
AB of the femicircle from a to g, which are cut by the
ruler *, and there place the days of the months accord¬
ingly, anfwering to the fun’s declination. Ihis done,
fetting one foot of the compaffes in C, and extending
the other to a or g, defcribe the femicircle abed efg;
which divide into fix equal parts, and through the points
of divifion draw right lines parallel to CD, for the be¬
ginning of the fines (of which one half are on one fide
of the femicircle, and the other half on the other), and
fet the chara&ers of the fines to their proper lines, as in
the figure.
An univerfal dial, of a very ingenious conftruflion, A new one
has lately been invented by Mr G. Wright of London. by Mr O.
The hour-circle or arch E. (fig. 19.), and latitude arch
C, are the portions of two meridian circles ; one cLXXIII.
fixed, and the other moveable. The hour or dial-plate fig. 19.
SEN at top is fixed to the arch C, and has an index
that moves with the hour-circle E; therefore the con-
ftruflion of this dial is perfectly fimilar to the conftruc-
tion of the meridians and hour-circle upon a common
globe. The peculiar problems to be performed by
this inftrument are, 1. To find the latitude of any place.
2. The latitude of the place being known, to find the
time by the fun andfiars. 3. To find the fun or far's
azimuth and altitude.
Previous to ufe, this inftrument ftrould be in a well-
adjufted ftate : to perform which, you try the levels of
the horizontal plates A a, by firft turning the fcrews
BBBB till the bubbles of air in the glafs tubes of the
fpirit-levels (which levels are at right angles to each
other) are central or in the middle, and remain fo
when you turn the upper plate A half round its cen¬
tre; but if they fliould not keep fo, there are fmall
fcrews at the end of each level, which admit of being
turned one way or the other as may be requifite, till
they are fo. The plates A a being thus made horizon¬
tal, fet the latitude arch or meridian C fteadily between
the two grooved fides that hold it (one of which is feen
at D) by the ferew behind. On this fide D is divided ‘
the nonius or vernier, correfponding with the divifions
on the latitude arch C, and which may be fubdivided
into 5 minutes of a degree, and even lefs if required.
The latitude arch C is to be fo placed in D, that the
C c
DIALLING.
pole M may be in a Vertical pufllion j wnich is done by
making 9c0 on the arch at bottom coincide with the o
of the nonius. The arch is then fixed by the tighten*
ing fcrew at the back of D, Hang a filken plumb-
line on the hook at G 5 which line is to coincide with a
mark at the bottom of the latitude arch at H, all the
while you move the upper plate A round its centre.
If it does not fo, there are four fcrews to regulate this
adjuftment, two of which pafs through the Safe I into
the plate A ; the other two fcrews fallen the nonius
piece D together 5 which when unfcrewed a thread or
two, the nonius piece may be eafily moved to the right
or left of 90° as may be found requifite.
Pro':. 1. To find the latitude of the place. Fallen the
latitude and hour circles together, by placing the pin K
into the holes; Hide the nonius piece E on the-hour-
circle to the fun’s declination for the given day : the
fun’s declination you may know in the ephemeris by
White, or other almanacks, for every day in the year.
The nonius piece E mull be fet on that portion of the
hour-circle marked ND or SD, according as the fun
has north or fouth declination. About 20 minutes
or a quarter of an hour before noon, obferve the fun’s
ihadow or fpot that palfes through the hole at the axis
O, and gently move the latitude arch C down in its.
groove at D, till you obferve the fpot exadlly fall on
the crols line on the centre of the nonius piece at L ;
ard by the falling of this fpot, fo long as you obferve
the fun to increafe in altitude, you deprefs the arch
C : but at the inftant of its ftationary appearance the
fpot will appear to go no lower; then fix the arch by
the fcrew at the back of D, and the degrees thereby
cut by the nonius on the arch will be the latitude of
the place required : if great exadlnefs is wanted, al¬
lowance (hould be made for the refraflion of the at-
mofphere, taken from fome nautical or aftronomical
treatife.
Prob. 2. The latitude of the place being given,, to find
the time by the fun or Jlars. From an ephemeris, as be¬
fore, you find the fun’s declination for the day north or
louth, and fet the nonius piece E on the arch accord¬
ingly. Set the latitude arch C, by the nonius at D,
to the latitude of the place; and place the magnifying
glafs at M, by which you will very correctly fet the
index carying a nonius to the upper XII at S* Take
out the pin K, flacken the horizontal fcrew N, and
gently move, either to the right or left as you fee ne-
ceffary, the hour-circle £, at the fame time with the
other hand moving the horizontal plate Around its axis
to the right and left, till the latitude arch C fall
into the meridian ; which you will know by the fun’s
fpot falling exaftly in the centre of the nonius piece,,
or where the lines interfe6l each other. The time
may be now read off exafUy to a minute by the no¬
nius on the dial-plate at top, and which will be the
time required. The horizontal line drawn on the no¬
nius piece L, not feen in the figure, being the paral¬
lel of declination, or path that the fun-dial makes,
therefore can fall on the centre of that line at no
other time but when the latitude arch C is in the
meridian, or due north and foutb.. Hence the hour-
circle, on moving round with the pole, muff give the
true time on the dial plate at top. There is a hole to
the right, and crofs hairs to the left, of the centre axis
hole O, where the fun’s rays pafs through j whence
the fun’s fhadow or fpot will alfo appear on the right
and left of the centre on the nonius piece L, the holes,
of which are occafionally ufed as fights to obferve
through. If the fun’s rays are too weak for a fhadow,
a dark glafs to fereen the eye is occafionally placed
over the holt*. The moll proper time to find a true
meridian is three or four hours before or after noon ;
and take the difference of the fun’s declination from
noon at the time you obferve.. If it be the morning,
the difference is that and the preceding day ; if after¬
noon, that and the following day ; and the meridian be¬
ing once found exa£l, the hour circle E is to be brought
into this meridian, a fixed place made for the dial, and
an object to obferve by it alfo fixed for it at a great
diilance. The fights LO muff at all times be directed
againll this fixed objedd, to place the dial truly in the
meridian, proper for obferving the planets, moon, or
bright flars, by night.
Prob. 3,. Tofind the fun's a%imuth and altitude. The
latitude arch C being in the meridian, bring the pole
M into the zenith, by fetting the latitude arch to 90°.
Fallen the hour-circle E in the meridian by putting in
the pin K ; fix the horizontal plates by the fcrew
N ; and fet the index of the dial plate to XII, which
is the fouth point: Now take out the pin K, and gent¬
ly move the hour-circle E ; leaving the latitude arch
fixed, till the fun’s rays or fpot pafling through the
centre hole in the axis O fall on the centre line of the
hour-circle E, made for that purpofe. The aximuth in
time may be then read off on the dial-plate at top by
the magnifying glafs. This time may be converted
into degrees, by allowing at the rate of 15 for every
hour. By Aiding the nonius piece E, lo that the
fpot fhall fall on the crols line thereon, the altitude
may be taken at the fame time if it does not exceed 45
degrees. Or the altitude may be taken more univer-
fally, by fixing the nonius piece E to the o on the di-
vifions, and fading down the latitude arch in fuch a
manner in the groove at D, till the fpot falls exaftJy
on the centre of the nonius E. The degrees and mi¬
nutes then fhown by the nonius at D, taken from 90,
will be the altitude required. By looking through the
fight-holes LO, the altitude of the moon, planets, and
flars, may be eafily taken. Upon this principle it is
fomewhat adapted for levelling alfo; by lowering the
nonius piece E, equal altitudes of the fun may be had ;
and by railing it higher, equal cepreffions.
More completely to anfvver the purpofes of a good
theodolite, of levelling, and the performance of pro¬
blems in pradlical allronomy, trigonometry, &c. the
horizontal plate D is divided into 360°, and an oppo-
fite nonius on the upper plate A, fubdividing the de¬
grees into 5 or more minutes. A telefcope and fpirit-
level applies on the latitude arch at HG by two ferews,
making the latitude arch a vertical arch ; and the
whole is adapted to triangular ilaffs with parallel plates,
fimilar to thole ufed with the befl theodolites. 18
A dial more univerfal for the performance of pro-An eq11': ,
blems than the above, though in feme particulars notnoc^iaLa
fo convenient and accurate, has been invented by lomeverfai>
inllrument-makers. It confifts of the common equato¬
rial circles reduced to a portable fize, and inflead of a
telefcope carries a plain fight. Its principal parts con- plate
fill of the fight piece OP, fig. 20. moveable over theCLXXIlI.
declination’s femicircle D. It has a nonius £) to the % 10,
femicirde..
203
DIAL
Semicircle, A dark glafs lo fkreen the eye applies oc-
cafionally over either of the holes at O : thefe holes on
the inner fide of the piece are interfe&ed by crofs lines
as feen in the figure below j and to the fight P two
pieces are fcrewed, the lower having a fmall hole for
the fun’s rays or fhadow, and the upper two crofs hairs
or wires.
The declination circle or arch D is divided into two,
90° each ; and is fixed perpendicularly on a circle with
a chamfered edge, containing a nonius divifion that fub-
divides into fingle minutes the under equatorial circle
MN, which in all cafes reprefents the equator, and is
divided into tv/ice 12 hours, and each hour into five
minutes. At right angles below this equatorial circle
is fixed the femicircle of altitude AB, divided into two
quadrants of 90° each. This arch ferves principally to
meafiire angles of altitude and depreflion } and it moves
centrally on an upright pillar fixed in the horizontal
circle EF. This circle EF is divided into four qua¬
drants of 9O0 each, and againft it there is fixed a fmall
nonius plate at N. The horizontal circle, may be turn¬
ed round its centre or axis ; and two fpirit levels LL
are fixed on it at right angles to one another.
We have not room to detail the great variety of
aftronomical and trigonometrical problem^, that may
be folved by this general intlrument, which is defcribed
in Jones’s “ Infirumental Dialling.” One example con-
ne£ted with our prefent purpofe may here fuffice, viz.
To find the time when the latitude is$iven. Suppofing the
inftrument to be well adjufted by the diredlions here¬
after given : 1 he meridian of the place thould be firft
obtained to place the inftrument in, which is fettled
by a diftant mark, or particular cavities to receive the
fcrews at IGH, made in the bafe it ftands on. The
meridian is beft found by equal altitudes of the fun.
In order to take thefe, you fet the middle mark p>f
the nonius on the declination arch D at o, and fix it
by the ferew behind ; then fet the horary or hour-circle
to XII. The circle EF being next made horizontal, you
direct the fights to the fun, by moving the horizontal
circle EF and altitude femicircle AB : the degrees and
minutes marked by the nonius on the latter will be the
altitude required. To takee^rWaltitudes, you obferve
the fun’s altitude in the morning two or three hours be¬
fore noon bv the femicircle AB : leave the inftrument in
the fame fitnation perfectly unaltered till the afternoon,
when, by moving the horizontal circle EF, only find
the direftion of the fight or the fun’s fpot to be juft
the fame, which will be an equal altitude with the
morning. Tlie place of the horizontal circle EF
againft the nonius at each time of obfervation is to be
carefully noted *, and the middle degree or part between
each will be the place where the femicircle AB, and
fight OP, will (land or coincide with, when direfled
to the fouth or north, according to the fun’s fituation
north or fouth at noon at the place of obfervation.
Set the index, or fight piece OP, very accurately to
this middle point, bv dire&ing the fight to fome. di¬
ftant objeft ; or againft it, let one be placed up ; this
objeft will be the meridian mark, and will always
ferve at any future time. To find the time, the me¬
ridian being thus previoufly known bv equal altitudes
of the fun (or ftar), and determined by the meridian
mark made at a diftance, or by the cavities in the bafe
to fet the ferew in : Place the equatorial accordingly,
LING.
and level the horizontal circle EF by the fpirit-levels
thereon. Set the femicircle AB to the latitude of the
place, and the index of the fights OP to the declina¬
tion of the fun, found by the ephemeris, as before di-
refted. Turn the femicircle D till the fight-holes are
accurately directed to the fun, when the nonius on the
hour-circle MN will (how the time. It may eafily be
kn own when the fun’s rays are direct: through, by the
fpot falling on the lourer interfe&ors of the marks acrofs
the hole at O. See the figure S adjoining.
The adjuftments of this equatorial dial are to be
made from the following trials, ift, To adjuft the
levels LE on EF : Place the o of any of the divi-
fions on EF to the middle mark or ftroke on the
nonius at N : bring the air-bubbles in the levels in the
centres of each cafe, by turning the feveral fcrews
at IGH ; this being exactly done, turn the circle EF
to 90° or half round : If the bubble of the air then
remains in the centre, they are right, and properly ad¬
jufted for ufe ; but if they are not, you make them fo
by turning the neceflary fcrews placed for that purpufe
at the ends of the level-cafes by means of a turn-ferew,
until you bring them to that fixed pofition, that they
will return when the plate EF is turned half round.
2dly, To adjuft the line of fight OP : Set the no¬
nius to o on the declination arch D, the nonius on the
hour circle to VI, and the nonius on the femicircle
AB to 90°. Direfl to fome part of the horizon where
there may be a variety of fixed ohje&s. Level the
horizontal circle EF by the levels LL, and obferve
any objefl that may appear on the centre of the crofs
wires. Reverfe the femicircle AB, viz. fo that the
oppofite 90° of it be applied to the nonius, obferving
particularly that the other honii preferve their fitua¬
tion. If then the remote object formerly viewed ft ill
continues in the centre of the crofs wires, the line of
fight OP is truly adjufted j but if not, unferew the
two fcrews of the frame carrying the crofs wires, and
move the frame till the interfedlion appears againft
another or new object, which is half way between the
firft and that which the wires were againft on the re-
verfion. Return the femicircle AB to its former po¬
fition : when, if the inlerfe£lion of the wires be found
to be againft the half-way objeiR, or that to which they
were laft divided, the line of fight is adjufted 5 if not,
the operation of obferving the interval of the two ob~
jefls, and applying half way, muft be repeated.
It is neceflary to obferve, that one of the wires ftiould
be in the plane of the declination circle, and the other
wire at right angles 5 the frame containing the wires
is made to (hift for that purpofe.
The hole at P which forms the fun’s fpot is alfo to
be adjufted by direfting the fight to the fun, that the
centre of the ftiadow of the crofs hairs may fall ex-
a611y on the upper hole : the lower frame with the hole
is then to be moved till the fpot falls exactly on the
lower fight-hole.
Laftly, it is generally neceflary to find the correc¬
tion always to be applied to the obfervations by the
femicircle of altitude AB. Set the nonius to o on
the declination arch D, and the nonius to XII on the
equator or hour-circle : Turn the fight to any fixed
and diftinft objeft, by moving the arch AB and circle
EF only : Note the degree and minute of the angle of
altitude or depreffion ; Reverfe the declination femi-
C c 2 circle
204
. ^
Univertal
ring-dial.
Fig. 2X, 32,
ad-
Plate
GLXXI1I.
20
Its «fe.
DIAL
circle by placing lire nonius on the hour-circle to the
oppofite XU: Direct the fight to the fame obje£l
again as before. If the altitude or depreffion now gi¬
ven be the fame as was obferved in the former pofition,
no correction is wanted $ but if not the fame, half the
difference of the two angles is the correction to be add¬
ed to all obfervations or rectifications made with that
quadrant by which the lealt angle was taken, or to be
iubtraCted from all obfervations made with the other
quadrant. Thefe feveral adjuftments are abfolutely
neceffary previous to the ufe of the inltrument} and
when once well done, will keep fo, with care, a confi-
derable time.
The Univerfal or XJh o no mica l EquinoRial Ring-Dial,
is an inltrument of an old conftruCtion, that alfo ferves
1 to find the hour of the day in any latitude of the earth
(fee fig. 21.) It confifts of two flat rings or circles,
, ufually from 4 to 12 inches diameter, and of a mode¬
rate thicknefs 5 the outward ring AE reprefenting the
meridian of the place it is ufed at, contains two divifions
of 90° each oppofite to one another, ferving to let the
Hiding piece H, and ring G (by which the dial is ufually
fufpended), be placed on one fide from the equator to
the north pole, and on the other fide to the foulh, ac¬
cording to the latitude of the place. The inner ring
B reprefents the equator, and turns diametrically within
the outer by means of two pivots inferted in each end
uf the ring at the hour XII.
Acrofs the two circles is fcrewed to the meridian a
thin pierced plate or bridge, with a curfor C, that
Hides along the middle of the bridge : this curfor has
a fmall hole for the fun to (bine through. The middle
of this bridge is conceived as the axis of the world,
and its extremities as the pules : on the one fide
are delineated the 12 figns of the zodiac, and fome-
times oppofite the degrees of the fun’s declination j
and on the other fide the days of the month through¬
out the year. On the other fide of the outer ring A
are the divifions of 90°, or a quadrant of altitude :
It ferves, by the placing of a common pin P in the
hole h (fee fig. 22.), to take the fun’s altitude or height,
and from which the latitude of the place may eafily be
found.
Ufe of the Dial. Place the line a in the middle of
the Hiding piece H over tl e degree of latitude of the
place. Suppofe, for example, 514 for London j put
the line which croffes the hole of the curfor C to the
day of the month or the degree of the fign. Open
the inftrument till the two rings be at right angles to
each other, and fufpend it by the ring G j that the
axis of the dial reprefented by the middle of the bridge
be parallel to the axis of the earth, viz. the north pole
to the north, and vice verfa. Then turn the flat fide
of the bridge towards ,the fun, fo that his rays palling
through the fmall hole in the curfor may fall exaflly in
a line drawn through the middle of the concave fur-
face of the inner ring or hour circle, the bright fpot
by which Ihows the hour of the day in the faid con¬
cave furface of the dial. Note, The hour XII cannot
be Ihown by this dial, becaufe the outer ring being
then in the plane of the meridian, excludes the fun’s
rays from the inner •, nor can this dial (how the hour
when the fun is in the equinoctial, becaufe his rays then
falling parallel to the plane of the inner circle or equi¬
noctial, are excluded by it.
LING.
To take the altitude of the fun by this dial, and with
the declination thereby to find the latitude of the place.
Place a common pin P in the hole h, projecting in
the fide of the meridian where the quadrant of altitude
is; then bring the centre mark of the Hiding piece PI
to the o or middle of the two divifions of latitude on
the other fide, and turn the pin towards the fun till it
cuts a lhadow over the degree of the quadrant of alti¬
tude ; then what degree the lhadow cuts is the altitude.
Thus, in fig. 22. the lhadow h g appears to cut 350, the
altitude of the fun.
The fun’s declination is found by moving the curfor
in the Hiding piece till the mark acrofs the hole Hands
juft againft the day of the month ; then, by turning to
the other fide of the bridge, the mark will Hand againft
the fun’s declination.
In order to find the latitude of the place, obferve
that the latitude and the declination be the fame, viz.
both north or fouth ; lubtraCl the declination from the
meridian or greateft daily altitude of the fun, and the
remainder is the complement of the latitude j which
fub traded from 90°, leaves the latitude.
Example.
Deg. Min.
The meridian altitude may be 57 48
The fun’s declination for the day 19 18
Complement of latitude 38 30
90 o
The latitude 51 30
But if the latitude and declination be contrary, add
them together, and the fum is the complement of the
latitude. This dial is fometimes mounted on a ftand,
with a compafs, two fpirit levels, and adjufting fcrews,
&c. &c. (lee fig. 23.), by which it is rendered more
ufeful and convenient for finding the fun’s azimuth,
altitudes, variation of the needle, declinations of planes,
&c. &c. j,
An Univerfal Dial on a plain crofs, is defcribed byUniveifal
Mr Fergufon. It is moveable on a joint C, for ele-crofs-dial.
vating it to any given latitude on the quadrant C 0 90, z^’^
as it Hands upon the horizontal board A. The arms
of the crofs ftand at right angles to the middle part y
and the top of it, from a to n, is of equal length with
either of the arms n e or m k. See fig. 24.
This dial is rectified by felting the middle line / a to
the latitude of the place on the quadrant, the board
A level, and the point N northward by the needle;
thus, the plane of the crofs will be parallel to the
plane of the equator. Then, from ///o’clock in the
morning till VI, the upper edge I l of the arm i 0
will call a ftiadow on the time of the day on the fide
of the arm c m ; from VI till IX, the lower edge i of
the arm i 0 will call a (hadow on the hours on the fide
0 q; from IX in the morning to Xll at noon, the
edge a b oi the top part a n will call a ftiadow on the
hours on the arm n ef; from XIIXo Him the after¬
noon, the edge c d oi the lop part will call a fhadow
on the hours on the arm him; from III to VI in the
evening, the edge ^ / will call a ftiadow on the hours
on the part p q; and from F/ till IX, the lhadow oi
tka
1
DIALLING.
20 q
g- iS«
22
-afy me.
hod of
rawing a
ial by the
iniverfal
aeohanical
ral.
r‘8- *7-
the edge ff will lliow the time on the top part a n.
The breadth of each part, ab, ef &c. muft be fo
great, as never to let the fhadow fall quite without the
part or arm on which the hours are marked, when the
fun is at his greateft declination from the equator.
To determine the breadtli of the Tides of the arms
which contain the hours, fo as to be in juft propor¬
tion to their length j make an angle ABC (fig. 25.) of
degrees, which is equal to the fun’s greateft de¬
clination *, and fuppofe the length of each arm, from
the fide of the long middle part, and alfo the length
of the top part above the arms, to be equal to B d.
Then, as the edges of the fliadow, from each of the
arms, will be parallel to B e, making an angle of 234-
degrees with the fide B // of the arm, when the fun’s
declination is 23 4°, it is plain, that if the length of
the arm be B r/, the leaft breadth that it can have, to
keep the edge B e of the (hadow ¥> eg d from going off
the fide of the arm d e before it comes to the end of
it e d, muft be equal toe K, h q M,
N r O* and P J J making the diftances between the
tips of thefe hollows, as I K, L M, N O, and P Q,
each equal to the radius of the quadrants j and leaving
fufficient room within the angular points p q r and r,
for the equinoctial in the middle.
To divide the infide of thefe angles properly for the
hour fpaces thereon, take the following method :
Set one foot of the compares in the point I as a
centre, and open the other to tv ; and with that open¬
ing deferibe the are K t; then, without altering the
compaffes, fet one foot in K, and with the other foot
deferibe the arc I t. Divide each of thefe arcs, from
I and K to their interfeClion at /, into four equal parts;
and from their centres I and K, through the points of
divifion, draw the right lines J 3, I 4, I 5, I 6, I 7 ;
and K 2, K 1, K 1 2, K j 1 ; and they will meet the
fides Kp and I p of the angle I /> K where the hours
thereon muft be placed. And thefe hour fpaces in the
are muft be fubdivided into four equal parts, for the
half hours and quarters. Do the like for the other
three angles, and draw the dotted lines, and fet the
hours in the infides where thofe lines meet them, as in
the figure ; and the like hour-lines will be parallel to
each other in all the quadrants and in all the angles.
Mark points for all thefe hours on the upper fide ;
and cut out all the angular hollows and the quadrantal
ones quite through the places where their four gno¬
mons muft ftand ; and lay down the hours on their in¬
fides (as in fig. 18 ), and fet in their gnomons, which
muft be as broad as the dial is thick ; and this breadth
and thicknefs muft be large enough to keep the fha-
dows of fhe gnomons from ever falling quite out at the
fides of the hollows, even when the fun’s declination is
at the greateft.
Laftly, Draw the equinoCHal dial at the middle, all
the hours of which are equidiftant from each other; and
the dial will be finiflied.
As the fun goes round, the broad end of the fliadow
of the ftile a c b d will {how the hours in the quadrant
Ac from funrife till VI in the morning: the fhadow
from the end M will {how the hours on the fide I. q
from Vto /Ain the morning; the fiiadow of the ftile
efgh in the quadrant D^ (in the long day'.) will {how
the hours from funrife till K/in the morning; and the
fhadow of the end N will ftiow the morning hours on
the fide 0 r from III to VII.
Juft as the fhadow of the northern ftile abed
goes off the quadrant A c, the fliadow of the fouthern
ftile i k l m begins to fall within the quadrant F /,
at VI in the morning ; and {hows the time, 'in that
quadrant, from VI till XII at noon ; and from noon
till VI in the evening in the quadrant m E. And
the fhadow of the end O fliows the time from A/in
the forenoon till ///in the afternoon, on the fide r N;
as the ftiadow on the end P {hows the time from IX
in the morning till I o’clock in the afternoon, on the
fide
At noon, when the ftiadow of the eaftern ftile efgh
goes off the quadrant h C (in which it {bowed the time
from VI in the morning till noon, as it did in the qua¬
drant g D from funrife till VI\r\ the morning), the
ftiadow of the weftern ftile n 0 p q begins to enter the
quadrant H p, and ftiows the hours thereon from XII at
noon till VI in the evening ; and after that till funfet,
in the quadrant q G, and the end (£ cafts a ftiadow on
the fide P s from Vin the evening till /A at night, if
the fun be not fet before that time.
The ftiadow of the end i ftiows the time on the fide
K p from HI till VII in the afternoon ; and the ftiadow
of the ftile abed thows the time from VI in the even¬
ing till the fun fets.
The ftiadow of the upright central wire that fup¬
ports
207
DIALLING.
parts the globe at top, (haws the time of the day, in
the middle or equinoctial dial, all the fummer half-year,
when the fun is on the north fide of the equator.
Having Ihown how to make fun-dials by the affift-
ance of a good globe, or of a dialling fcale, we lhall now
proceed to the method of conidru&ing dials arithmeti¬
cally ; which will be more agreeable to thofe who have
learned the elements of trigonometry, becaufe globes
and feales can never be fo accurate as the logarithms in
finding the angular diitanee of the hours. Yet as a
globe may be found esaft enough for fome other requi-
fites in dialling, we lhall take it oceafionally.
The confhucVion of fan-dials on all planes whatever
may be included in one general rule ; intelligible, if
that of a horizontal dial for any given latitude be well
underfiood. For there is no plane, however obliquely
fituated with refpeH to any given place, but what is
paraded to the horizon of ferme other place ; and there¬
fore, if we can find that other place by a problem on
the terreftrial globe, or by a trigonometrical calculation,
and conftruCl a horizontal dial for it, that dial applied
to the plane where it is to ferve will be a true dial
for that place. Thus, an ereff direCl fouth dial in
51^ degrees north latitude, would be a horizontal dial
on the fame meridian, 90 degrees fouthward of jii de¬
grees of north latitude. But if the upright plane declines
from facing the fouth at the given place, it would ftill
be a horizontal plane 90 degrees from that place, but
for a different longitude, which would alter the rec¬
koning of the hours accordingly.
Case I. 1. Let us fuppofe that an upright plane at
London declines 36 degrees weftward from facing the
fouth, and that it is required to find a place on the
globe to whofe horizon the faid plane is parallel j and
alfo the difference of longitude between London and
t at place.
Reftify the globe to the latitude of London, and
bring London to the zenith under the brafs meridian
then that point of the globe which lies in the horizon
at the given degree of declination (counted weftward
from the fouth point of the horizon) is the place at
which the above-mentioned plane would be horizontal.
—Now, to find the latitude and longitude of that place,
keep your eye upon the place, and turn the globe eaft-
ward until it comes under the graduated edge of the
brafs meridian ; then the degree of the brafs meridian
that Hands direflly over the place in its latitude, and
the number of degrees in the equator, which are
intercepted between the meridian of London and
the brafs meridian, is the place’s difference of longi¬
tude.
1 hus, as the latitude of London is 31^ degrees
north, and the declination of the place is 36 degrees
well 5 elevate the north pole 51J degrees above the ho¬
rizon, and turn the globe until London comes to the
zenith, or under the graduated edge of the meridian j
then count 36 degrees on the horizon weftward from
the fouth point, and make a mark on that place of the
globe over which the reckoning ends, and bringing the
mark under the graduated edge of the brafs meridian,
ft will be found to be under 305 degrees in fouth lati¬
tude j keeping it there, count in the equator the num¬
ber of degrees between the meridian of London and the
4
brazen meridian (which now becomes the meridian of
the required place), and you will find it to be 424.
Therefore an upright plane at London, declining 36
degrees weft ward from the fouth, would be a horizon¬
tal plane at that place, whofe latitude is 30^ degrees
fouth cT the equator, and longitude 42|- degrees we lb
of the meridian of London.
Which difference of longitude being converted into
time, is 2 hours 51 minutes.
The vertical dial declining weftward 36 degrees at
London, is therefore to be drawn in all refpedts as a
horizontal dial for fouth latitude 30^ degrees j fave on¬
ly that the reckoning on the hours is to anticipate the
reckoning on the horizontal dial by 2 hours 51
minutes ; for fo much fooner will the fun come to the
meridian of London, than to the meridian of any
place whofe longitude is 42^ degrees weft from Lon¬
don.
2. But to be more exa£l than the globe will Ihow up,
we (hall ufe a little trigonometry.
Let NESW (fig. 12.) be the horizon of London,
Avhofe zenith is Z, and P the north pole of the fphere j
and let Z« be the pofition of a vertical plane at Z, de¬
clining weft ward from S (the fouth) by an angle of 36
degrees 5 on which plane an ereft dial for London at
Z is to be deferibed. Mp.ke the femidiameter ZD per¬
pendicular to TLh; and it will cut the horizon in D,
36 degrees weft of the fouth S. Then a plane, on the
tangent HD, touching the fphere in D, will be paral¬
lel to the plane Z ,4; and the axis of the fphere will be
equally inclined to both thefe planes.
Let WQE be the equinodlial, whofe elevation above
the horizon of Z (London) is 384 degrees j and PRD;
be the meridian of the place D, cutting the equinoftial
in R. Then it is evident, that the arc RD is the lati¬
tude of the place D (where the plane K h would be
horizontal) and the arc RQ^ is the difference of longi¬
tude of the planes Z h and DH.
In the fpherical triangle WDR, the are WD is
given, for it is the complement of the plane’s declina¬
tion from S to fouth j which complement is 540 (viz.
90°—36°) ; the angle at R, in which the meridian of
the place D cuts the equator, is a right angle j and
the angle RWD meafures the elevation of the equinoc¬
tial above the horizon of Z, namely 384 degrees. Say
therefore, as radius is to the co-fine of the plane’s de¬
clination from the fouth, fo is the co-fine of the lati¬
tude of Z to the fine of RD the latitude of D j which
is of a different denomination from the latitude of Z,
becaufe Z and D are on different fides of the equa
tor*.
As radius - - 10.00000
To co-fine 36° o'zrRQ^ 9.90796
So co-fine 510 3o'=£)Z 9-794i5
To fine 30° I4'=DR (9.7021 i) = the latitude of D,
whofe horizon is parallel to the vertical plane Z h
at Z.
N. B. When radius is made the firft term, it may
be omitted ; and then by fubtradling it mentally from
the fum of the other two, the operation will be ihort-
ened. Thus, in the prefent cafe,
Plate
CLXXII.
fig. 12.
To
aoS DIM.
To the logarlthoilc Hoe of WR—* 540 a' 9.90796
Add the logarithmic fine of RD~f 3803o' 9-79415
Their fum—radius - 9.70211
gives the fame folution as above. And sve ill all keep
to this method in the following part of this article.
To find the difference of longitude of the places D
and Z, fay, As radius is to the co-fine of 38^ degrees,
the height of the equino&ial at Z, fo is the co tangent
of 36 degrees, the plane’s declination, to the cotan¬
gent of the difference of longitudes. Thus,
To the logarithmic fine of % 510 30' 9-89354
Add the logarithmic tang, of § 540 o' 10.13874
Their fum—radius - - - 10.03228
is the neareft tangent of 470 8'=WR : which is the
co-tangent of 420 52'=R(^, the difference of longi¬
tude fought. Which difference, being reduced to time,
is 2 hours 51^ minutes.
3. And thus having found the exaft latitude and
longitude of the place D, to whofe horizon the verti¬
cal plane at Z is parallel, we (hall proceed to the con-
ftru&ion of a horizontal dial for the place D, whofe
latitude is 38° 14' fouth 5 but anticipating the time at
D by 2 hours 51 minutes (negle&ing the 4 minute in
praftice), becaufe D is fo far weftward in longitude
from the meridian of London; and this will be a
true vertical dial at London, declining weftward 36
degrees.
Affume any right line CSL (fig. 13.^ for the fubftile
of the dial, and make the angle KCP equal to the la¬
titude of the place (viz. 30® 14'), to whofe horizon
the plane of the dial is parallel 5 then CRP will be
the axis of the ftile, or edge that calls the ftiadow on
the hours of the day, in the dial. This done, draw
the contingent line EQ, cutting the fubftilar line at
right angles in K *, and from K make KR perpendicu¬
lar to the axis CRP. Then KG (=KR) being made
radius, that is, equal to the chord of 6o° or tangent of
45° on a good fedlor, take 42° 52' (the difference of
longitude of the places Z and D) from the tangents,
and having fet it from K to M, draw CM for the
hour-line of XII. Take KN, equal to the tangent of
an angle lefs by 15 degrees than KM ; that is, the
tangent of 27° 52': and through the point N draw CN
for the hour-line of I. The tangent of 12° 52' (which
is 150 lefs than 270 42'), fet off the fame way, will
give a point between K and N, through which the
hour-line of II is to be drawn. The tangent of 2° 8',
(the difference between 450 and 52° 52') placed on
the other fide of CL, will determine the point through
which the hour-line of III is to be drawn : to which
a10 8', if the tangent of 150 be added, it will make
170 8' 5 and this fet off from K towards on the line
will give the point for the hour-line of IV; and
fo of the reft.—The forenoon hour-lines are drawn the
fame way, by the continual addition of the tangents
I5°> 30°> 45<,» ^cc* to 42° S2' C12 t^ie tangents
L I N G.
KM) for the hours of AT, Xt IX, See. as far as n<*»
ctffary ; that b, until there be five hours on each fide
of the fubftile. The fixth hour, counted from that
hour or part of the hour on which the fubftile falls,
svill be always in a line perpendicular to the fubftile,
and drawn through the centre C.
4. In all ere£l dials, CM, the hour-line of.XII, is
perpendicular to the horizon of the place for which the
dial is to ferve ; for that line is the interfeftion of a
vertical plane with the plane of the meridian of the
place, both which are perpendicular to the plane of the
horizon : and any line HO or /i 0, perpendicular to
CM, will be a horizontal line on the plane of the dial,
along which line the hours may be numbered j and
CM being fet perpendicular to the horizon, the dial
will have its true pofition.
5. If the plane of the dial had declined by an equal
angle towards the eaft, its defeription would have dif¬
fered only in this, that the hour-line of XII would
have fallen on the other fide of the fubftile CL, and
the line HO would have a fubcontrary pofition to what
it has in this figure.
6. And thefe two dials, with the upper points of
their ftiles turned toward the north pole, will ferve for
other two planes parallel to them j the one declining
from the north toward the eaft, and the other from the
north toward the weft, by the fame quantity of angle.
The like holds true of all dials in general, whatever be
their declination and obliquity of their planes to the
horizon.
Cask II. 7. If the plane of the dial not only de¬
clines, but alfo reclines, or inclines. Suppofe its de¬
clination from fronting the fouth S (fig. 14.) be equal
to the arc SD on the horizon 5 and its reclination be
equal to the arc D r/ of the vertical circle DZ : then
it is plain, that if the quadrant of altitude Z D on
the globe cuts the point D in the horizon, and the re¬
clination is counted upon the quadrant from D to d;
the interfeflion of the hour-circle PR , with the equi-
noftial WQE, will determine R d, the latitude of the
place d, whofe horizon is parallel to the given plane
Z ^ at Z ; and R() will be the difference in longitude
of the places at d and Z.
Trigonometrically thus : Let a great circle pafs
through the three points, W, d, E ; and in the tri¬
angle WD d, right-angled at D, the fides WD and
D d are given ; and thence the angle DW d is found,
and fo is the hypothenufe W d. Again, the difference,
or the fum, of DW d and DWR, the elevation of the
equinodtial above the horizon of Z, gives the angle
°
die ftands over from the north or the fouth, and it will rjdjaaijna,
be the declination of the plane from the north or fouth
accordingly. In this cafe allowance muft be made for
the variation of the needle (if any) at the place $ and
which, if not previoufly known, will render this ope¬
ration very inaccurate. At London it is now 2 2° 30'
to the weft.
Another way more exaft may be ufed,. when the
fun ftiines out half an hour before noon. The fide
ACB being placed againft the plane, the quadrant muft
be fo moved on the femicircle AGB, and the index
CF on DE, till the fun’s rays palling through the
hole at F fall exa&ly on the mark at G, and conti¬
nued fo till the fun requires the index to be raifed no
higher: you will then have the meridian or greateft
altitude of the fun •, and the angle contained between
G and E will be the declination required. The pofi¬
tion of CD is the meridian or 12 o’clock line. But
the moft exa
Fig. 36.
Fig.
214
' Fig- 31*
DIAL
angles of the flile’s height equal to the complement of
the latitude.
This trigon may be likewife ufed for drawing verti¬
cal declining dials (fig. 31.) as it is with the fame facility
applied to the lines At,), GB, and the hours and quar¬
ters marked off as before dire&ed.
LING.
On the fcale BD of the trigon is graduated a lirre
of chords, which is found ufeful for laying off the necef-
fary angles of the ftile’s height. The fcales of this tri¬
gon, when not in ufe, lie very clofe together, and pack
up into a portable cafe for the pocket.
D I A
^Line's5 Dialling Lines, or Scales, are graduated lines pla-
Jj| ced on rules, or the edges of quadrants, and other in-
Dialogue. ftruments, to expedite the conftruftion of dials. See
1 y Plate CLXXI.
Dialling Seftor. See Dialling, p. 212. and
Plate CLXXiV.
DIALLING Sphere, is an inftrument made of brafs,
with feveral femicircles Aiding over one another, on a
moving horizon, to demonftrate the nature of the do&rine
of fpherical triangles, and to give a true idea of the
drawing of dials on all manner of planes.
Dialling Trigon. See Dialling, p. 213, and
Plate CLXXIV.
Dialling, in a mine, called alfo Plumming, is the
ufing of a compafs (which they call dial), and a long
line, to know which way the load or vein of ore in¬
clines, or where to fhift an air-fhaft, or bring an adit
to a defired place.
DIALOGISM, in Rhetoric, is ufed for the folilo-
quy of perfons deliberating with themfelves. See So¬
liloquy.
DIALOGUE, in matters of literature, a converfa-
tion between two or more perfons either by writing
or by word of mouth.
Compojition and Style of written DIALOGUE. As the
end of fpeech is converfation, no kind oi writing can
be more natural than dialogue, which reprefents this.
And accordingly we find it was introduced very early,
for there are feveral inftances of it in the Mofaic hif-
tory. The ancient Greek writers alfo fell very much
into it, efpecially the philofophers, as the moft conve¬
nient and agreeable method of communicating their
fentiments and inftruftions to mankind. And indeed
it feems to be attended with very confiderable advan¬
tages, if welland judicioufly managed. For it is ca¬
pable to make the drieft fubjedts entertaining and plea-
iant, by its variety, and the different charadlers of the
fpeakers. Befides, things may be canvaffed more mi¬
nutely, and many leffer matters, which ferve to clear
up a fubjeft, may be introduced with a better grace,
by quellions and anfwers, objedHons and replies, than
can be conveniently done in a continued difcourfe.
There is likewife a further advantage in this way of
writing, that the author is at liberty to choofe his
Speakers : and therefore, as Cicero has well obferved,
when we imagine that we have perfons of an eftablilhed
reputation for wifdom and knowledge talking together,
it n^ceffarily adds a weight and authority to the dif¬
courfe, and more clofely engages the attention. The
fubjedl matter of it is very extenfive*, for whatever is
a proper argument of difcourfe, public or private, fe-
rious or jocofe 5 whatever is fit for wife and ingenious
D I A
men to talk upon, either for improvement or diverfion, Dialogu;,
is fuitable for a dialogue. v—-y-**,
From this general account of the nature of dialogue,
it is eafy to perceive what kind of flyle beft fuits it.
Its affinity with Epistles, fhows there ought to be
no great difference between them in this refpedl. In¬
deed, fume have been of opinion, that it ought rather
to fink below that of an epiftle, becaufe dialogues
(hould in all refpedts reprefent the freedom of conver¬
fation ; whereas epiftles ought fometimes to be compo-
fed with care and accuracy, efpecially when written to
fuperiors. But there feems to be little weight, in this
argument, fince the defign of an epiftle is to fay the
fame things, and in the fame manner, as the writer
judges would be moft fit and proper for him to fpeak,
if prefent. And the very fame thing is defigned in a
dialogue, with refpeft to the feveral perfons concerned,
in it. Upon the whole, therefore, the like plain, eafy,
and Ample ftyle, fuited to the nature of the fubjedl,
and the particular charadlers of the .perfons concerned,
feems to agree to both.
But as greater fkill is required in writing dialogues
than letters, we {hall give a more particular account of
the principal things neceffary to be regarded in their
compofition, and illuftrate them chiefly from Cicero’s
excellent dialogues concerning an orator.-—A dia¬
logue then confifts of two parts ; an introduRion, and
the body of the difcourfe.
1. The acquaints us with the place, time,
perfons, and occafion of the converfation. Thus Ci¬
cero places the fcene of his dialogues at Craffus’s coun¬
try feat 5 a very proper recefs, both for fuch a debate
and the parties engaged in it. And as they were per¬
fons of the firft rank, and employed in the greateft af¬
fairs of Hate, and the difcourfe held them for two days j
be reprefents it to have happened at the time of a fe-
ftival, when there was no bufinefs done at Rome, which
gave them an opportunity to be abfent.
And becaufe the greateft regard is to be had in the
choice of the perfons, who ought to be fuch as are
well acquainted with the fubje■ v-» ties. I. The caryophyllus, or clove gilliflower, inclu¬
ding all the varieties of carnation. It rifes with many
fliort trailing (hoots from the root, garnilhed with long,
very narrow, evergreen leaves 5 and amidft them up¬
right flender flower-ftalks, from one to three feet high,
emitting many fide (hoots; all of which, as well as the
main flalk, are terminated by large folitary flowers,
having (hort oval fcales to the calyx, and crenated pe¬
tals. The varieties of this are very numerous, and un¬
limited in the diverfity of flowers. 2. The del-
toides, or common pink, rifes with numerous (hort
leafy (hoots, crowning the root, in a tufted head clofe
to the ground, clofely garniftied with fmall narrow
leaves; and from the ends of the (hoots many ere6t
flower-ftalks, from about 6 to 15 inches high, termi¬
nated by folitary flowers of different colours, (ingle
and double, and fometimes finely variegated. This
fpecies is perennial, as all the varieties of it commonly
cultivated alfo are. 3. The Chinenfis, Chinefe or Indian
pink, is an annual plant with upright firm flower-
ftalks, branching ereft on every fide, a foot or 13
inches high, having all the branches terminated by fo-
' litary flowers of different colours and variegations, ap¬
pearing from July to November. 4. The barbatus, or
bearded dianthus, commonly called fweet-william.
This rifes with many thick leafy (hoots, crowning the
root in a clufter clofe to the ground ; garniftied with
fpear-ftiaped evergreen leaves, from half an inch to
two inches broad. The ftems are upright and firm,
branching erefl two or three feet high, having all
the branches and main ftem crowned by numerous
flowers in aggregate clufters of different colours and
variegations.
Culture. Though the carnations grow freely in al-
moft any garden earth, aYid in it produce beautiful
flowers, yet they are generally fuperior in that of a
light loamy nature ; and of this kind of foil the florifts
generally prepare a kind of compoft in the following
manner, efpecially for thofe fine varieties which they
keep in pots. A quantity of loamy earth muft be
provided, of a light fandy temperature, from an up¬
land or dry pafture field or common, taking the top
fpit turf and all, which muft be laid in a heap for a
year, and turned over frequently. It muft then be
mixed with about one-third of rotten dung of old hot¬
beds, or rotten neats dung, and a little fea-fand, form¬
ing the whole into a heap again, to lie three, four, or
fix months, at which time it will be excellent for ufe \
and if one parcel or heap was mixed with one of thefe
kinds of dungs, and another parcel with the other, it
will make a change, and may be found very beneficial
in promoting the fize of the flowers. This compoft,
or any other made ufe of for the purpofe, (hould not
be fifted, but only well broken with the fpade and
hands.—When great quantities of carnations are re¬
quired, either to furnifh large grounds, or for market,
or when it is intended to raife new varieties, it is eafily
effe&ed by fowing fome feed annually in fpring, in
common earth, from which the plants will rife abun¬
dantly. Several good varieties may alfo be exposed
from the plants of each fowing; and noflibly not one
exaftly like thofe from which the feed was faved. The
Angle flowers are always more numerous than the double
ones y but it is from the latter only that we are to fe-
3
8 ] D I A
left our varieties. The feafon for fowing the feed is tv f«
any time from the 20th of March to the 15th ' r' ^
April.—The plants generally come up in a month af¬
ter fowing : they muft be occafionally weeded and wa¬
tered till July, when they will be fit for tranfplanting
into the nurfery beds. Thefe beds muft be made
about three feet wide, in an open fituation ; and ta¬
king advantage of moift weather, prick the plants
therein four inches afunder, and finifh with a gentle
watering, which repeat occafionally till the plants have
taken good root. Here they muft remain till Septem¬
ber, when they will be fo well advanced in growth as
to require more room j and (hould then have their
final tranfplantation into other three feet wide beds of
good earth, in rows 9 inches afunder, where they are
to be placed in the order of quincunx. Here they are to
remain all winter, until they flower, and have ob¬
tained an increafe of the approved varieties of doubles
by layers: and until this period, all the culture they
require is, that if the winter (hould prove very fevere,
an occafional (belter of mats will be of advantage. In
fpring, the ground muft be loofened with a hoe ; they
muft be kept clear from weeds : and when the flower-
ftalks advance they are to be tied up to flicks, efpe¬
cially all thofe that promife by their large flower-pods
to be doubles.
The only certain method of propagating the double
varieties is by layers. The proper parts for layers are
thofe leafy (hoots arifing near the crown of the root,
which, when about five, fix, or eight inches long, are
of a proper degree of growth for layers. The general
feafon for this work is June, July, and the beginning of
Auguft, as then the (hoots will be arrived at a proper
growth for that operation ; and the fooner it is done
after the (hoots are ready the better, that they may
have fufficient time to acquire ftrength before winter j
thefe laid in June and July will be fit to take off
in Auguft and September, fo will form fine plants in
the month of Oftober. The method of performing
the work is as follows. Firft provide a quantity
of fmall hooked flicks for pegs. They muft be three
or four inches long 5 and their ufe is to peg the layers
down to the ground. Get ready alfo in a barrow a
quantity of light rich mould, to raife the earth, if
neceffary, round each plant, and provide alfo a (harp
penknife. The work is begun by dripping off all the
leaves from the body of the (hoots, and (hortening
thefe at top an inch or two evenly. Then choofe a
ftrong joint on the middle of the (hoot or thereabouts,
and on the hack or under fide thereof, cut with the
penknife the joint half way through, direfting your
knife upwards fo as to (lit the joint up the middle, al-
moft to the next joint above, by which you form a
kind of tongue on the back of the (hoot *, obferving
that the fvvelling (kinny part of the joint remaining at
the bottom of the tongue muft be trimmed off, that
nothing may obftruft the iffue of the fibres ; for the
layers always form their roots at that part. This done,
loofen the earth about the plant •, and, if neceffary, add
fome frefh mould, to raife it for the more ready recep¬
tion of the layers; then with your finger make a hol¬
low or drill in the earth to receive the layer ; which
bend horizontally into the opening, railing the top up¬
right, fo as to keep the gafli or flit part of the layer
open j and, with one of the hooked flicks, peg down
D I A [2
Diantlius the body of the layer, to fecure it in its proper place
Diapafon! and pofition, dill preferving the top ereft and the flit
—y—'open, and draw the earth over it an inch or two,bring¬
ing it clofe about the credit part of the ftioot ; and
when all the {hoots of each plant are thus laid, give
direftly fotne water to fettle the earth clofe, and the
work is finifhed. In dry weather the waterings mult
be often repeated, and in five or fix weeks the layers
will have formed good roots. They mult then be fe-
parated with a knife from the old plant, gently railed
out of the earth with the point of a knife or trowel, in
order to preferve the fibrous roots of the layers as en¬
tire as poflible ; and when thus taken up, cut off the
naked fticky part at bottom clofe to the root, and trim
the tops of the leaves a little. They are then ready
for planting either into beds or pots. In November
the fine varieties in pots fliould be moved to a funny
fheltered fituation for the winter ; and if placed in a
frame, to have occafional protedition from hard froft, it
will be of much advantage. In the latter end of Fe¬
bruary, or fome time in March, the layers in the fmall
pots, or fuch as are in beds, fliould be tranfplanted with
balls into the large pots, where they are to remain for
flower. To have as large flowers as poflible, curious
florifts clear off all fide {boots from the flower ftem, fuf-
fering only the main or top buds to remain for flower¬
ing. When the flowers begin to open, attendance
fliould be given to aflifl the fine varieties, to promote
their regular expanfion, particularly the largeft kinds
called burjiers, whofe flowers are fometimes three or
four inches diameter. Unlefs thefe are aflifted by art,
they are apt to burft open on one fide, in which cafe
the flower will become very irregular ; therefore, at¬
tending every day at that period, obferve, as foon as
the calyx begins to break, to cut it a little open at two
other places in the indenting at top with narrow-point¬
ed fciffars, and hereby the more regular expanfion of the
petals will be promoted : obferving, if one fide of any
flower comes out fafter than another, to turn the pot
about, that the other fide of the flower may be next the
fun, which will alfo greatly promote its regular expan¬
fion. Wben any fine flower is to be blown as large and
fpreading as poflible, florifts place fpreading paper col¬
lars round the bottom of the flowers, on which they
may fpread their petals to the utmoft expanfion. Thefe
collars are made of ftiff white paper, cut circular about
three or four inches over, having a hole in the middle
to receive the bottom of the flower, and one fide cut
open to admit it. This is to be placed round the bot¬
tom of the petals in the infide of the calyx, the leaves
of which are made to fpread flat for its fupport. The
petals muft then be drawn out and fpread upon the col¬
lar to their full width and extent-, the longeft ones un-
dermoft, and the next longeft upon thefe 5 and fo on 5
obferving that the collar muft nowhere appear wider
than the flower ", and thus a carnation may be rendered
very large and handfome.
Thefe directions will anfwer equally well for the pro¬
pagation of the pinks and fweet-williams, though neither
of thefe require fuch nicety in their culture as the car¬
nations.
DIAPASON, in Mujic, a mufical interval, by which
moft authors who have written on the theory of mufic
' ufe to exprefs the OCTAVE of the Greeks.
Diapason, among the mufical-inftmment-makers, a
9 ] D I A
kind of rule or fcale whereby they adjuft the pipes of Diapafon
organs, and cut the holes of hautboys, flutes, &c. in
due proportion for performing the tones, femitones, and ia^‘3
concords, with precifion. v-—
DIAPASON Diaex, in Mujic, a kind of compound
concord, whereof there are two forts $ the greater,
which is in the proportion of 10-3 ; and the leffer, in
that of 16-5.
DIAPASON Diapente, in MyJtc^ a compound confo-
nanee in a triple ratio, as 3-9. This interval, fays
Martianus Capella, confifts of 9 tones and a femitone j
19 femitones, and 38 diefes. It is a fymphony made
when the voice proceeds from the firft to the twelfth
found.
DIAPASON Diatejfiaron, in Mufic, a compound con¬
cord founded on the proportion of 8 to 3. To this in¬
terval Martianus Capella allows 8 tones and a femitone j
17 femitones, and 34 diefes. This is when the voice
proceeds from its firii to its eleventh found, ihe mo¬
derns would rather call it the eleventh.
Diapason Ditone, in Mufic, a compound concord,
whofe terms are as 10-4, or as 5- 2.
Diapason Semiditone,\w Mufic, a compound concord,
whofe terms are in the proportion of 12-5.
DIAPEDESIS, in Medicine, a tranfudation of the
fluids through the fides of the veffels that contain them,
occafioned by the blood’s becoming too much attenua¬
ted, or the pores becoming too patent.
DIAPENSIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
DIAPENTE, in ancient mufic, an interval mark¬
ing the fecond of the concords, and with the diateffaron.
an oiffave •, and in modern mufic is called a fifth.
DIAPER, a kind of cloth on which are formed va¬
rious figures, and which is chiefly employed for table-
linen.
DIAPHANOUS, an appellation given to all tranf-
parent bodies, or fuch as tranfmit the rays of light.
DIAPHORESIS, in Medicine, an elimination of
the humours in any part of the body through the pores
of the lkin. See PERSPIRATION.
DIAPHORETICS, among phyficians, all medi¬
cines which promote perfpiration.
DIAPHRAGM, ™ Anatomy, a part
vulgarly called the midriff, and by anatomifts feptum
tranfverfum. It is a ftrong mufcular fubftance, fepara-
ting the breaft or thorax from the abdomen or lower
venter, and ferving as a partition between the abdomi¬
nal and the thoracic vifeera. See Anatomy Index.
Plato, as Galen informs us, firft called it diaphragm,
from the verb to feparate or be between two.
Till his time it had been called from a notion
that an inflammation of this part produced frenzy 5
which is not more warranted by experience than ano¬
ther tradition, that a tranfverfe feftion of the diaphragm
with a fword caufes the patient to die laughing.
DIAPHORESIS, (AueP«gJis-<{), in Rhetoric, is ufed
to exprefs the hefitatlon or uncertainty of the fpeaker.
We have an example in Homer, where Ulyffes, go¬
ing to relate his fufferings to Alcinotis, begins thus j
T< ‘Xg'UTOV 'll iTTtflst, Tt S’ VTCtTlM XSlTCltelitl ?
^uid primum, quid deinde, quid pofiremo alloquar?
This figure is moft naturally placed in the exordium
or introdu&ion to a difeourfe. See Doubting.
E e 2 DIARBECK,
D I A [ 220 ] D I A
DIARBECK, or DiARBEKR, an extenfive pro¬
vince of Eaftern Afiatic Turkey *, comprehending, in
its lateft extent, Diqrbehr, properly fo called, lerach or
Chaldea, and Cur di/Ian, which were the ancient coun¬
tries of Mefopotamia, Chaldea, and Affyria, with Ba¬
bylon. It is called Diarbeck, Diarbeker, or Diarbekr, as
fignifying the “ duke’s country,” from the word dhyar
“ a duke,” and bekr, “ country.” It extends along the
banks of the Tigris and Euphrates from north-north-
weft to Ibuth-eaft, that is, from Mount Taurus, which
divides it from Turcomania on the north, to the inmoft
recefs of the Perfian gulf on the fouth, about 600
miles ; and from eaft to weft, that is, from Perfia on
the eaft to Syria and Arabia Deferta on the weft, in
fome places 200, and in others about 300 miles,
but in the fouthern or lower parts not above 150. As
extending alfo from the 30th to the 38th degree of
latitude, it lies under part of the fifth and fixth cli¬
mates, whofe longeft day is about 14 hours and a half,
and fo in proportion, and confequently enjoys a good
temperature of air, as well as, in the greater part of it,
a rich and fertile foil. There are indeed, as in all hot
countries, fome large deferts in it, which produce no
fuftenance for men or cattle, nor have any inhabitants.
Being a qpnfiderable frontier towards the kingdom of
Perfia, it is very well guarded and fortified ; but as for
thofe many cities once fo renowned for their greatnefs
and opulence, they are at prefent almoft dwindled into
heaps of ruins. Bagdad, Moufiul, Caramed, and a
few more, indeed continue to be populous and wealthy ;
but the reft can fcarce be called by any other name
than that of forry places. The rivers Euphrates
and Tigris have almoft their whole courfe through this
country.
Diarbech Proper is bounded on the north by Turco-
xnania, on the weft by Syria, on the fouth by part of
Arabia Deferta and Irack Proper, and on the eaft
by Curdiftan. It was named by Mofes Padan-Aram ;
the latter being the general name of Syria j and the
former fignifying fruitful, a proper epithet for this
country, which is really fo to a very high degree,
efpecially on the northern fide, where it yields corn,
wine, oil, fruits, and all neceffaries of life in great abun¬
dance. Formerly it was the refidence of many famed
patriarchs, yet was overrun with the grofieft idolatry,
not only in the time of Abraham’s coming out of it,
and Jacob’s fojourning in it, but likewife during the
time it continued under the dominion of the Affyrians,
Babylonians, Medes, Perfians, and Romans. It re¬
ceived indeed the light of the gofpel foon after our
Saviour’s afcenfion, from St Thaddaeus, who is faid
to have been fent thither by St Thomas, at the requeft
of Abgarus king of Edeffa. This account, together
with that monarch’s letter to Jefus Chrift, we have
from Eufebius, who took it from the archives of that
city ; and the whole had paffed current and uncon-
tradi&ed for many ages, till our more enlightened mo¬
derns found reafons to condemn it ; but whether right
or wrong, it plainly appears that Chriftianity flourifti-
ed here in a moft eminent manner, till its purity was
fullied about the beginning of the fixth century by
the herefy of the Jacobites, whofe patriarch ftill re-
fides here, with a jurifdidlion over all that fedt in the
Turkilh dominions.
Diarbeck Proper is a beglerbegate, under which
are reckoned twelve fangiacs j and the principal towns Diarbed-
in it are, Diarbekir or Caramed, Rika, Moufful, Or- Diarbekir
fa or Edefla, Elbir, Nifibis, Gezir Merdin, Zibin, Ur ' v "**
of the Chaldees, Amad, and Carafara ; but all now of
little note excepting Diarbekir and Moufful.
DIARBEKIR, the capital of the above diftridt, is
fituated on a delightful plain, on the banks and near
the head of the Tigris, about 155 miles or 15 cara¬
van days journey north-eaft from Aleppo, in latitude
37° 35', eaft longitude 40° 50'. The bridge of 10
arches over the faid river is faid to have been built by
the order of Alexander the Great. It is one of the
richeft and moft mercantile cities in all Afiatic Tur¬
key $ and is well fortified, being encompafied with a
double wall, the outermoft of which is flanked, with 72
towers, faid to have been raifed in memory of our Saviour’s
72 difciples. It has feveral ftately piazzas or market¬
places, well ftored with all kinds of rich merchandife,
and 12 magnificent mofques, faid to have been formerly
Chriftian churches. Its chief manufadlure is the dref-
fing, tanning, and dying of goats Ikins, commonly
called Turkey leather, of which the vent is almoft in¬
credible in many parts of Europe and Afia : befides.
this, there is another of dyed fine linen and cotton
cloths, which are nearly in the fame requeft. The
waters of the Tigris are reckoned extraordinary for
thofe two branches of trade, and give red leather a
finer grain and colour than any other. There is 3
good number of large and convenient inns on both
fides of .the river, for the caravans that go to and from
Perfia and on the road near the town is a chapel with
a cupola, where Job is faid to lie buried. This place
is much frequented by pilgrims of all nations and re¬
ligions, and a Turkifti hermit has a cell clofe to it.
The fair fex, who, in moft other parts of the Turkilh
empire, are kept quite immured, and confidered as
mere Haves, enjoy here an extraordinary liberty, and
are commonly feen on the public walks of the city in
company with the Chriftian women, and live in great
friendthip and familiarity with them. The fame is
faid of the men, who are polite, affable, and courteous,
and very different from what they affe£t to be, efpe¬
cially the Turks, in other cities of this empire. The
city is under the government of a bafha, who has great
power and very large dominions. He has commonly
a body of 20,000 horfe under him, for repelling the
frequent incurfions of the Curdes and Tartars, who
always go on horfeback to rob the caravans. The ad¬
jacent territory is very rich and beautiful; the bread,
wine, and flefli are excellent j the fruits exquifite, and
the pigeons better and larger than any in Europe.
Mr Ives, who paffed through this city in 1758, in¬
forms us, that “ about two years ago it was very po¬
pulous, its inhabitants amounting to 400,000 fouls ;
but in the laft year 300,000 died either by cold or
famine. The Chriftians refiding in the city before
this calamity w'ere reckoned to amount to 26,000, of
whom 20,000 died. This account we had from one
of the French miffionaries, a Capuchin, who alfo faid,
that before the famine the city contained 60,000 fight¬
ing men, but that now they are not able to mufter
10,000. He affures us, that the houfes and ftreets,
nay the very mofques, were filled with dead $ that
every part of the city exhibited a dreadful image of
death $ and that the furviving inhabitants not only
greedily
D I A [2
arbekir greedily devoured all kinds of beafts, brutes, and rep-
|| tiles, but alfo were obliged to feed on human bodies,
ialtole. Yet, in the midft of this fcene of horror, the grandees
of the city had every thing in plenty j for they had
taken care to monopolize vail quantities of corn, which
they fold out to the other inhabitants at moft extra¬
vagant prices, and thereby acquired for themfelves im-
menfe fortunes. Corn rofe from two piaitres a mea-
fure to 50, 60, and even 70, in the fpace of fix months.
The father added, that the very fevere winter of 1756,
and the locufts in 1757, were the caufes of this dread¬
ful vifitation : for by reafon of the former, there were
but few acres of land fown with corn 5 and by the lat¬
ter, the fmall crop they had was in a great meafure
deftroyed. He fpoke of the feverity of that winter in
terms almoft incredible : that it was common to fee the
people fall down dead in the flreets •, that he himfelf
once on quitting a warm room, and going into the
open air, fell down motionlefs $ and that his brother, in
attempting to aflift him met with the fame fate.
This account of the effedts of cold in the city of Di-
arbekir, which lies only in about 38° north, feems at
firft very furprifing ; but confidering that the place
Hands on a rifing ground in the midil of an extenfive
plain, and that the high Curdiftan mountains lie to
the fouth and eaft of it, and the Armenian or Turco-
manian to the north, whofe heads are always covered
Avith fnow, and even now in July fupply the city with
ice •, it Avill not appear at all improbable, that in a very
fevere Avinter, fuch as that Avas in 1736, the inhabi¬
tants of this city fhould fo feverely feel the effe6ts of
it. Befides, fuel mufl: have been extremely fcarce,
efpecially among the poorer fort, as nothing of this
kind is produced but upon the mountains, and thefe lie
at fuch a diftance that the price of it muft thereby be
greatly enhanced.”
DIARRHOEA, or Looseness, in Medicine, is a
frequent and copious evacuation of liquid excrement by
ftool. See Medicine Index.
DIARTHROSIS, in Anatomy, a kind of articula¬
tion or jun&ure of the bones *, which being pretty lax
affords room for a manifeft motion. The Avord comes
from 'box., and junchtre, qffemblage. It is oppof-
ed to fynarthro/is, Avherein .the articulation is fo clofe
that there is no fenfible motion at all. See Anatomy,
N° 2.
DIARY, a term fometimes ufed for a journal or day¬
book, containing an account of every day’s proceedings.
Thus we fay, diaries of the weather, &c.
DlAR T Fever, is a fever of one day. See Ephe¬
mera.
DIASCHISM, among muficians, denotes the differ¬
ence betw'een the comma and enharmonic diefis, com¬
monly called the iej/er comma.
DI ASCORDIUM, in Pharmacy, a celebrated com-
pofition, fo called from fcordium, one of its ingredients.
See Pharmacy.
DIASTOLE, among phyficians, fignifies the dila¬
tation of the heart, auricles, and arteries; and Hands
oppofed to the systole, or contra&ion of the fame
parts. See Anatomy Index.
Diastole, in Grammar, a figure in profody evhere-
by a fyllable naturally (hcrt is made long. Such is the
firff fyllable of Priamides in the following verfe of
Virgil:
1
21 ] DIG
Atque hie Priamides ! nihil 6 tibi, amice, reliftum. Diaftole
DIASYRMUS, in Rhetoric, a kind of hyperbole,Dichondfa;,
being an exaggeration of fome low, ridiculous thing.
DIATESSARON, among ancient muficians, a con¬
cord or harmonical interval, compofed of a greater tone,
a lefs tone, and one greater femitone 5 its proportion in
numbers is as 4 : 3.
DIATONICK, in Mafic, (compounded of two
Greek words, viz. the prepofition fignifying a tran-
fition from one thing to another, and the fubflantive
Tev«5, importing a given degree of tenfion or mufical
note), is indifferently applied to a fcale or gammut, to
intervals of a certain kind, or to a fpecies of mufic,
Avhether in melody or harmony, compofed of thefe in¬
tervals. Thus we fay the diatonick feries, a diatonick
interval, diatonick melody or harmony. As the diato¬
nick fcale forms the fyflem of diatonick mufic, and
confifis of diatonick intervals, it Avill be neceffary, for
underffanding the former, that avc fliould explain the
latter. See Interval.
DIATRAGACANTH, in Pharmacy, a name ap¬
plied to certain poAvders, of which gum tragacanth is
the chief ingredient.
DIBBLE, or Dibber, a fimple but ufeful inflru-
ment in gardening, ufed for planting out all forts of.
young plants, &c.
DIBBLING wheat. See Agriculture Index.
DIB 10, or Divio, in Ancient Geography, the Divio-
nenfe Cajlrum and the Divionum of the loAver age : a
towm of the Lingones, in Gallia Belgica : Dibionenfes
the people. Now Dijon the capital of Burgundy. E.
Long. 5. 5. N. Lat. 47. 1,5.
DICE, among gameHers, certain cubical pieces of
bone or ivory, marked with dots on each of their
faces, from one to fix, according to the number of
faces.
Sharpers have feveral Avays of falfifying dice. 1. By
Hicking a hog’s briflle in them, fo as to make them
run high or Ioav as they pleafe. 2. By drilling and
loading them Avith quickfilver; which cheat is found
out by holding them gently by two diagonal corners :
for if falfe, the heavy fides Avill turn ahvays down.
3. By filing and rounding them. But all thefe Avays
fall far (hort of the art of the dice-makers ; fome of
Avhora are fo dexterous this way, that your fharping
gamefler Avill give any money for them.
Dice formerly paid 5s. every pair imported, with an
additional duty of 4s. f°r every 20s- value uPon
oath ; but are uoav prohibited to be imported.
DIC/EARCHUS, a fcholar of Ariffotle, compof¬
ed a great number of books Avhich Avere much efleem-
ed. Cicero and his friend Pomponius Atticus valued
him highly. He wrote a book to prove, that men.
fuffer more mifehief from one another than from all
evils befide. And the Avork he coropofed concerning
the republic of Lacedemon Avas extremely honoured,
and read every year before the youth in the affembly
of the ephori. Geography Avas one of his principal
Hudies, on which fcience there is a fragment of a trea-
tife of his Hill extant, and preferved among the Veteris,
geographice feriptores tninores.
6 DICHON DR A, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the order Campanacece. See Botany Index.
DICHOTOMOUS,
DIG [2
Dichoto- DICHOTOMOUS, in See Botany
meus DICHOTOMY, a term ufed by aftronomers for that
. II phafis or appearance of the moon, wherein (lie is bifedl-
PLctatoi. e(j^ or p10WS jufl; jia]f }ier In this fituation the
moon is faid to be in a quadrate afpedl, or to be in her
quadrature.
DICKER, in old writers, denotes the quantity of
ten hides of fkins, whereof 20 made a laft : alfo 10 pair
of gloves, ten bars of iron, and the like, are fometimes
exprefled by the term dicker.
DICKINSON, Edmund, a celebrated Englilh phy-
fician and chemift, was born in 1624. He ftudied and
took his degrees at Merton college, Oxford ; and in
1659 publifhed his Delphi Phcenicvzantes, &c. in which
he atteinpted to prove, that the Greeks borrowed the
dory of the Pythian Apollo, and all that rendered the
oracle at Delphos famous, from the Holy Scriptures,
and the book of Jolhua in particular : a work that pro¬
cured him great reputation both at home and abroad.
He praclifed phylic firft at Oxford ; but removing to
London in 1684, his good fortune in recovering the
earl of Arlington from a dangerous ficknefs, procured
his promotion to be phyfician in ordinary to Charles II.
and to his houfehold. As that prince underflood and
loved chemiftry, Mr Dickinfon grew into great favour
at court, and was continued in his appointments under
James II. After the abdication, he retired from prac¬
tice, and died in 1707. He publHhed many other
things, particularly Physica vetus et vera, &c. con¬
taining a fyftem of philofophy, chiefly framed on prin¬
ciples collefted from the Mofaic hiftory.
DICRANUM, a genus of mofles, including various
fpecies, brought together from the Mrriutn, and Bryum,
chiefly, and partly from the Hypnum of Linnaeus. See
Smith’s Flora Britannica.
DICTAMNUS, White Dittany, or Fraxinella;
a genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs •,
and in the natural method ranking under the 26th
order, Multifiliquce. See Botany Index.
DICTATOR, a magiftrate at Rome invefted with
regal authority. This officer was firft chofen during
the Roman wars againft the Latins. The coniuls be¬
ing unable to raife forces for the defence of the ftate,
becaufe the plebeians refufed to inlift if they were not
difeharged of all the debts they had contra&ed with
the patricians, the fenate found it neceflary to elett a
new magiftrate with abfolute and uncontrollable power
to take care of the ftate. The dictator remained in
office for fix months, after which he was again ele£led
if the affairs of the ftate feemed to be defperate $ but
if tranquillity was re-eftabliffied, he generally laid down
his power before the time was expired. He knew no
fuperior in the republic, and even the laws were fub-
je£ted to him. He was called didlator, becaufe di£lust
named by the conful, or quoniam diclis ejus patebat po~
pulus, becaufe the people implicitly obeyed his com¬
mand. He was named by the conful in the night
viva voce, and his eledtion was confirmed by the au¬
gurs. As his power was abfolute, he could proclaim
war, levy forces, condudl them againft an enemy, and
diffiand them at his pleafure. He puniffied as he pleafed,
and from his decifion there lay no appeal, at leaft till
latter times. He was preceded by 24 lidlors with the
fafees ; during his adminiftration, all other officers, ex¬
cept the tribunes of the people, were fufpended, and
22 ] DIG
he was the mafter of the republic. But amidft all this Dlflar- l
independence, he was not permitted to go beyond jj \
the borders of Italy*, he was always obliged to marchDi&bnar J
on foot in his expeditions j he never could ride in '’""’"Y'—
difficult and laborious marches without previoully ob¬
taining a formal leave from the people. He was cho¬
fen only when the ftate was in imminent danger from
foreign enemies or inward feditions. In the time of
a peftilence, a didlator was fometimes eledled, as alfo
to hold the comitia or to celebrate the public feftivals,
or drive a nail into the capitol, by which fuperftitious
ceremony the Romans believed that a plague could
be averted or the progrefs of an enemy flopped. This
office, fo refpedtable and illuftrious in the firft ages of
the republic, became odious by the perpetual ufurpa-
tions of Sylla and Julius Cmiar 5 and after the death of
the latter, the Roman fenate paffed a decree which for
ever after forbade a didlator to exift in Rome. The
diftator, as foon as eledled, chofe a fubordinate of¬
ficer called his mafter of horfe, magijlcr equitum. This
officer was refpedlable : but he was totally fubfervient
to the will of the dictator, and could do nothing with¬
out his exprefs order. This fubordination, however,
was fome time after removed ; and during the fecond
Punic war the mafter of the horfe was invefted with a
power equal to that of the didlator. A fecond dida-
tor was alfo chofen for the eleflion of magiftrates at
Rome after the battle of Cannae. The diflatorfliip
was originally confined to the patricians j but the ple¬
beians were afterwards admitted to fhare it. Titus
Lartius Flavus was the firft di&ator, in the year of
Rome 253.
DICTION, the phrafe, elocution or flyle, of a wri¬
ter or fpeaker. See Oratory, N° 99—122.
DICTIONARY, in its original acceptation, is the
arranging all the words of a language according to the
order of the alphabet, and annexing a definition or ex¬
planation to each word. When arts and fciences began
to be improved and extended, the multiplicity of tech¬
nical terms rendered it neceffary to compile di&ionaries,
either of fcience in general, or of particular fciences,
according to the views of the compiler.
DICTION ART of the Englijh Language. The defign
of every didlionary of language is to explain, in the
moft accurate manner, the meaning of every word j
and to ffiow the various ways in which it can be com¬
bined with others, in as far as this tends to alter its
meaning. The didtionary which does this in the moft
accurate manner is the moft complete. Therefore the
principal ftudy of a lexicographer ought to be, to dif-
cover a method which will be beft adapted for that
purpofe. Dr Johnfon, with great labour, has col-
ledled the various meanings of every word, and quoted
the authorities : but, would it not have been an im¬
provement if he had given an accurate definition of
the precife meaning of every word ; pointed out the
way in which it ought to be employed with the
greateft propriety *, ftiowed the various deviations from
that original meaning, which cuftom had fo far efta-
bliffied as to render allowable ; and fixed the precife
limits beyond which it could not be employed with¬
out becoming a vicious expreffion ? With this view, it
would have been neceffary to exhibit the nice di-
ftindlions that take place between words which are
nearly fynonymous. Without this, many words can
DIG
flionary. onty ^e^ne(i *n a tnanner, as that they mud
.-y——^ be confidered as exactly fynonymous. We omit giv¬
ing any quotations from Johnfon, to point out thefe
defe£ts j and fhali content ourfelves with giving a
few examples, to (how how, according to our idea, a
dictionary of the Englilh language ought to be com¬
piled.
IMMEDIATELY, adv. of time.
1. Inftantly, without delay. Ahvays employed to
denote future time, and never pad. Thus, we may
fay, I will come immediately ; but not, I am im¬
mediately come from fuch a place. See PRESENTLY.
2. Without the intervention of any caufe or event j
as oppofed to mediately.
PRESENTLY, adv. of time.
1. Indantly, without delay. Exactly fynonymous
with immediately ; being never with propriety em¬
ployed to denote any thing but future time.
2. Formerly it was employed to exprefs prefent time.
Thus, The houfe prefent/y poffeffed by fuch a one,
was often ufed : but this is now become a vicious
expredion ; and we ought to fay, The houfe pofef-
fed at prefent. It differs from immediately in this,
that even in the mod corrupt phrafes it never can
denote pad time.
FORM.yi/^/?. The external appearance of any ob-
jeCl, when confidered only with refpeCl to diape
or figure. This term therefore, in the literal
fenfe, can only be applied to the objeCts of the
fight and touch j and is nearly fynony nous with
fgure: but they differ in fome refpeCls. Form
may be employed to denote more rude and unfi-
nilhed diapes; fgure, thofe which are more per-
feft and regular. Form can never be employed
without denoting matter ; whereas figure may be
employed in the abdraCI ; thus, we fay a fquare
or a triangular yfij-are ; but not a fquare or triangu¬
lar form. And in the fame manner we fay, the
figure of a houfe ; but we mud denote the fub-
dance which forms that figure, if we ufe the
word form; as, a cloud of the form of a houfe,
&c. See Figure.
2. In contrad to irregularity or confufion. As
beauty cannot exid without order, it is by a fi¬
gure of fpeech employed to denote beauty, order,
&c.
3. As form refpeCIs only the external appearance
of bodies, without regard to their internal qua¬
lities, it is, by a figure of fpeech, employed in
eontrad to thefe qualities, to denote empty fhow,
without effential qualities. In this fenfe it is
often taken when applied to religious ceremonies,
&c.
4. As form is employed to denote the external ap¬
pearance of bodies; fo in a figurative fenfe, it is
applied to reafoning, denoting the particular mode
or manner in which this is conduced; as, the
form of afyllogifm, &c.
5. In the fame manner it is employed to denote the
particular mude of procedure edablifhed in courts
of law •, as, the forms of law, religion, &c.
6. Form is fometimes, although improperly, ufed to
denote the different circumdances of the fame
body j as, water in a fluid or a fio/id form. But as
this phrafe regards the internal qualities rather
DIO
than the external figure, it is improper ; and ought Di&ionary.
to be, water in a fluid or a folidfate. —v -*
7. But when bodies of different kinds are compared
with one another, this term may be employed to
denote other circumdances than lhape or figure :
for we may fay, a juice exfuding from a tree in
the form of wax or refin ; although, in this cafe,
the confidence, colour, &c. and not the exter¬
nal arrangement of parts, conditutes the refem-
blance.
8. From the regular appearance of a number of per-
fons arranged in one long feat, fuch perfons fo.
arranged are fometimes called a form ; as, a form
offtudents, &c. And,
9. By an eafy tranfition, the feat itfelf has alfo ac- /
quired that name.
GREAT, adj. A relative word, denoting large-
nefs of quantity, number, &c. ferving to aug¬
ment the value of thofe terms with which it is
combined, and oppofed to fmall or little. The
principal circumdances in which this word can be
employed are the following :
1. When merely z’wanimate obje&s are confidered
with regard to quantity, great is with propriety
employed, to denote that the quantity is confi-
derable ; as, a great mountain, great houfe. See. and
it is here contraded with fniall. When great is
thus employed, we have no other word that is
exa6Hy fynonymous.
2. When z'«animate obje&s are confidered with re- ~
gard to their extent, this term is fometimes em¬
ployed, although with lefs propriety ; as, a great
plain, a great field, &c. And in this fenfe it is
nearly fynonymous with large; and they were of¬
ten ufed indiferiminately, but with fome differ¬
ence of meaning: for, as large is a term chiefly
employed to denote extent of fuperficies, and as
great more particularly regards the quantity of
matter •, therefore, when large is applied to any
obje£t which is not merely fuperficial, it denotes
that it is the extent of furface that is there meant
to be confidered, without regard to the other di-
menfions: whereas when the term great is em¬
ployed, it has reference to the whole contents.
If, therefore, we fay, a large houfe, or a large
river, we exprefs that the houfe, the river, have
a furface of great extent, without having any ne-
ceffary connexion with the fize in other refpe&s.
But if we fay, a great houfe, ox a great river, it
at once denotes that they have not only a large
furface, but are alfo of great fize in every re-
fpe and the country has
fince been further explored by other navigators. Here
is a very fafe road, named by Captain Cook Adven¬
ture Bay. Two other harbours or bays Avere difcover¬
ed or explored by Meflrs Bafs and Flinders, viz. Port
Dalrymple and Frederick Henry bay, and tw'o con-
fiderable rivers, which have been called Fort Dalrymple
and Derwent rivers. The parts adjoining to Adventure
bay are moftly hilly, and form an entire foreft of tall
trees, rendered almoft impaflable by brakes of fern,
Ihrubs, &c. , The foil on the flat land, and on the lowr-
er part of the hills, is fandy, or confifts of a yelloAvifli
earth, and in fome parts of a reddilh clay ; but further
up the hills it is of a gray rough caft. The foreft trees
are all of one kind, generally quite ftraight, and bearing
clufters of fmall white flowers. The principal plants
obferved Avere wood-forrel, milk-wort, cudweed, bell-
floAver, gladiolus, famphire, and feveral kinds of fern.
The only quadruped feen diftindlly was a fpecies of
opoffum, about tAvice the fize of a large rat. The kangu-
roo, found farther northAvard in Ncav Holland, may alfo
be fuppofed to inhabit here, as fome of the inhabitants
had t
Diemen’s
laud,
Diemer-
broek.
DIE [ 230 ] DIE
bad pieces of the {kin of that animal. The principal
forts of birds in the woods are brown hawks or eagles,
crows, large pigeons, yellowifh paroquets, and a fpe-
cies which was called motacilla cyanea, Irom the beauti¬
ful azure colour of its head and neck. On the fhore
were feveral gulls, black oyfter-catehers or lea pies,
and plovers of a Hone colour. In the woods were feen
fume blackilh fnakes of a pretty large fize $ and a fpe-
cies of lizard fifteen inches long and fix round, beauti¬
fully clouded with yellow and black. Among a varie¬
ty of fifh caught, were fome large rays, nurfes, leather-
jackets, bream, foies, flounders, gurnards, and ele¬
phant filh. Upon the rocks are mufcles and other
Ihell fifh, and upon the beach were found fome pretty
Medufa’s heads. The moft troublefome infe&s met
%vith were the mofchettoes *, and a large black ant, the
bite of which inflifts extreme pain.
The inhabitants feemed mild and cheerful, w ith little
of that wild appearance which favages in general have.
They are almolt totally devoid of perfonal aftivity or
genius, and are nearly upon a par with the wretched
natives of Terra del Fuego. They difplay, however,
fome contrivance in their method of cutting their
arms and bodies in lines of different directions, raifed
above the furface of the fkin. Their indifference for
prefents offered them, their general inattention and
want of curiofity, were very remarkable, and teftified
no acutenefs of underftanding. Their complexion is
a dull black, which they fometimes heighten by fmut-
ting their bodies, as was fuppofed from their leaving
a mark behind on any clean fubftance. Their hair is
perfectly woolly, and is clotted with greafe and red
ochre like that of the Hottentots. Their nofes are
broad and full, and the lower part of the face projeCts
confiderably. Their eyes are of a moderate fize ; and
though they are not very quick or piercing, they give
the countenance a frank, cheerful, and pleafing caff.
Their teeth are not very white nor well fet, and their
mouths are wide •, they wear their beards long and
clotted with paint. They are upon the whole well
proportioned, though their belly is rather protuberant.
Their favourite attitude is to ftand with one fide for¬
ward, and one hand grafping acrofs the back the op-
polite arm, which on this occafion hangs -down by the
fide that proje&s.
Near the (bore in the bay were obferved fome wretch¬
ed conffruCtions of {ticks covered with bark •, but thefe
feemed to have been only temporary, and they had
converted many of their largeft trees into more com¬
fortable and commodious habitations. The trunks
of thefe were hollowed out to the height of fix or feven
feet by means of fire. That they fometimes dwell in
them was manifelt from their hearths in the middle
made of clay, round which four or five, perfons m-ght
fit. Thefe places of fhelter are rendered durable by
their leaving one fide of the tree found, fo that it con¬
tinues growing with great luxuriance.
DIEMER.BROEK, Isbrand, a learned profeflor
of phyfic and anatomy at Utrecht, was born at Mont-
fort, in Holland, in 1609, where he acquired great re¬
putation by his leClures and his praCtice j and died at
Utrecht in 1074. wrote a treatife on the plague,
■which is efteemed ; and feveral learned works in ana¬
tomy and medicine, which were printed at Utrecht in
1685 in folio.
DIEPPE, a handfome fea-port town of France, in
Upper Normandy, in the territory of Caux j with a
good harbour, an old caftle, and two handfome moles.
The parilh church of St James is an elegant UruCture •,
and there is a tower from which, in fine weather, the
coaft of England may be ieen. The population
amounts to 20,000. The principal trade conlilts in the
filheries, ivory, toys, and laces. It was bombarded by
the Englifti in 1694, and it is not now fo confidtrable
as it was formerly. It is feated at the mouth of the
river Bethune, in E. Long. 1. 12. N. Lat. 49 55.
DIES marchial, was the day of congrefs or meet¬
ing of the Engliih and Scots, annually appointed to be
held on the marches or borders, in order to adjuft all
differences between them.
DIESIS, in Mu fie, is the divifion of a tone lefs than
a fenutone ; or an interval confifting of a lefs or im-
perfeCt femitone.
Diefis is the fmalleft and fofteft change or inflexion
of the voice imaginable •, it is called a faint, expreffed
thus X, by a St Andrew’s crofs or faltier.
DIESPITER, in antiquity, a name given to Ju¬
piter ; and fignitying dieipater, “ father of the day.”
St Auguftin derives the name from dies, “ day,” and
partus, “ produdiwn, bringing forth $” it being Jupiter
that brings forth the day. Of which fentiment were
Servius and Macmbiusj the former adding, that in
the language of the Ofci they called him Lucencius, as
Dieppe
il
Diet.
Dicjpiler in Latin.
DIE !', in Medicine, according to fome, compre¬
hends the whole regimen or rule of life with regard to
the fix non-naturals j air, meats and drinks, fleep and
watching, motion and reft, paflions of the mind, reten¬
tions and excretions. Orhers reffrain the term of diet
to what regards eating and drinking, or folid aliments
and drinks. See Food.
The natural conffitution of the body of man is fucb,
that it can eafily bear fome change and irregularities
without much injury. Had it been otherwife, we
fhould be almoft conftantly put out of order by every
flight caufe. This advantage arifes from thofe won¬
derful communications of the inward parts, whereby,
when one part is affeCled, another comes immediately
to its relief.
Thus, when the body is too full, nature caufes eva¬
cuations through fome of the outlets j and for this rea-
fon it is, that difeafes from inanition are generally more
dangerous than from repletion j becaufe we can more
expeditioufly diminilh than increafe the juices of the
body. Upon the fame account, alfo, though temperance
be beneficial to all men, the ancient phyficians advifed
perfons in good health, and their own mafters, to in¬
dulge a little now and then, by eating and drinking
more plentifully than ufual. But, of the two, intem¬
perance in drinking is fafer than in eating 5 and if a
perfon has committed excefs in the latter, cold water
drank upon a full ftomach will help digeftion j to which
it will be of fervice to add lemon juice or elixir of vi¬
triol. If he has eaten high feafoned things, rich fauces,
&c. tb*m let him fit up for lome little time, and after¬
wards fleep. But if a man happen to be obliged to
faff, he ought to avoid all laborious work. From fa-
tiety it is not proper to pafs diredfly to (harp hunger,
nor from hunger to fatiety ; nek her will it be fafe to
indulge ablolute reff. immeuiateiy after exceffive labour,
nor
4
DIE [ 231 ] DIF
t,;et nor fuddenly to fall to hard work after long idlenefs.
|| In a word, therefore, all changes in the way of living
)ietrich. (hould be made by degrees.
—v The fofter and milder kinds of aliment are proper
for children, and for youth the ftronger. Old people
ought to leffen the quantity of their food, and increafe
that of their drink ; but yet fome allowance is to be
made for cutlom, efpecially in the colder climates like
ours j for as in thefe the appetite is keener, fo is the
digeition better performed. Mead’s Manila et Free-
cepta.
DIET Drinks, a form in P/iysic, including all the
medicated wines, ales, and wheys, ufed in chronic cafes.
They require a courle or continuation to anfwer any
intention of moment.
DIET of Appearance, in Scots Law, the day to which
a defender is cited to appear in court j and every other
day to which the court fliall afterwards adjourn the
confideration of the queftion.
Diet, or Dyet, in matters of policy, is ufed for the
general affembly of the ftates or circles of the. empire
of Germany and of Poland, to deliberate and concert
meafures proper to be taken for the good of the
public.
The general diet of the empire is ufually held at
Ratifbon. It confifts of the emperor,, the nine ele£tors,
and the ecclefiaftical princes j viz. the archbifhops,
bilhops, abbots, and aobeffes ; the fecular princes*
who are dukes, marquifes, counts, vifeounts, or ba¬
rons ; and the reprefentatives of the imperial cities.—
It meets on the emperor’s fummons, and any of the
princes may fend their deputies thither in their (lead.
The diet makes laws, raifes taxes, determines differ¬
ences between the feveral princes and ftates, and can
relieve the fubjefts from the oppreflions of their fove-
reign®.
The diet of Poland, or the aflembly of the ftates,
eonfifted of the fenate and deputies, or reprefentative of
every palatinate or county and city j. and ufually met
every two years, and oftener upon extraordinary occa-
fion^, if fummoned by the king, or, in his abfence, by
the archbiftiop ot Gnefna. Ihe general diet of Po¬
land fat but fix weeks, and often broke up in a tu¬
mult much fooner ; for one diffenting voice prevented
their paffing any laws, or coming to any refolutions, on
what was propofed to them from the throne. Switzer¬
land has alfo a general diet, which is ufually-held every
year at Baden, and reprefents the whole Helvetic bo¬
dy ; it feldom lafts longer than a month. Befides this
general diet, there are diets of the Proteftant can¬
tons, and diets of the Catholic ones *, the firft aflemble
at Araw, and are convoked by the canton of Zurich j
the fecond at Lucern, convoked by the canton of that
name.
DIETETIC, denotes fomething belonging to diet,
but particularly that part of phyfic which treats of this
fubjeft. See Diet, Food, and Drink.
DIETRICH, or Dietricy, Christian William
Ernest, a modern artift, who was born at Weimar
in 1712. He refided chiefly at Drefden, where he
was profeflbr of the Academy of Arts. He was a
painter of very extenfive abilities, and fucceeded both
in hiftory and landfcape. We have by him a great
number of fmall ftibje&s, to the amount of 150 or
more, which he engraved from his own compofitions,
in the ftyle (fays Bafan) of Oftade, of Lairefle, and of Dietrich'
Salvator Rofa* Sixty of thefe etchings are exceeding- ||
ly rare. Diffeientml
DIETS, a town in the circle of the Upper Rhine ClUatlon'.
in Germany, fituated on the river Lohn, 20 miles north
of Mentz, and fubjeft to the houfe of Naflau-Orange.
E. Long. 7. 40. N. Lat. 50. 28.
DIU ET mon droit, i. e. God and my right, the
motto of the royal arms of England, firft affumed by
King Richard I. to intimate that he did not hold his
empire in vaffalage of any mortal.
It was afterwards taken up by Edward III. and was
continued without interruption to the time of the late
King William, who ufed the motto Je tnaintiendray,
though the former was ftill retained upon the great
feal. After him Queen Anne ufed the motto Semper
eadem, which had been before ufed by Queen Eliza¬
beth y but ever fince Queen Anne, Dieu et mon droit
continues to be the royal motto.
DIFF, is the name of an inftrument of mufic among
the Arabs, ferving chiefly to beat time to the voice j
it is a hoop, fometimes with pieces of brafs fixed to it
to make a jingling, over which a piece of parchment is
diftended. It is beat with the fingers, and is the true
tympanum of the ancients.
DIFFARREATION, among the Romans, a ce¬
remony whereby the divorce of their priefts was
folemnized. The word comes from the prepofition
dis; which is ufed, in compofition, for divijion or fe-
paration ; and farreatio, a ceremony with wheat, oi far,
“ wheat.”
Diffarreation was properly the diflblving of marriages
contra6led by confarreation ; which were thole of the
pontifices or priefts. Feftus fays, it was performed
with a wheaten cake. Vigenere will have confarrea¬
tion and diffarreation to be the fame thing.
DIFFERENCE, in Mathematics, is the remainder,
when one number or quantity is fubtra^ted from an¬
other.
DIFFERENCE, in Logic, an effential attribute, be¬
longing to fome fpecies, and not found in the genus j
being the idea that defines the fpecies. Thus body and
fpirit are the two fpecies of fubftance, which in their
ideas include fometbing more than is included in the
idea of fubftance. In body, for inftance, is found im¬
penetrability and extenfion } in fpirit, a power of think¬
ing and reafoning : fo that the difference of body is
impenetrable extenfion, and the difference of Ipirit is
cogitation.
Difference, in Heraldry, a term given to a certain
figure added to coats of arm>, ferving to dtftinguilh
one family from another j and to (how how diltant
younger branches are from the eider or principal
branch.
DIFFERENTI AL, (Diferentialef in the higher
geometry, an infinitely fmall quantity, or a particle of
quantity lo fmall as to be lefs than any aflignable one.
It is called a differential, or differential quantity, beeaufe
frequently confidered as the difference of two quanti¬
ties ; and, as fuch, is the foundation of the differential
calculus: Sir Ifaac Newton, and the Englilh, call it a
moment, as being confidered a>> the momentary increafe
of quantity. See Fluxions. _ •
DIFFERENTIAL Equation^ is an equation involving
or containing differential quantitiei j as the equati n
3 x'dx
DIF [ 232 1 DIF
Differential ^x'Jx—'laxdx4- nyilx-}-nX(h/—Q. Some mathematici-
Equation anSj as Stirling, &c. have alio applied the term differ-
Method. entlal equation in another ienle, to certain equations de-
> ■ t - ■ fining the nature of feries.
DIFFERENTIAL Method, a method of finding quan¬
tities by means of their fucceffive differences.
This method is of very general life and -application,
but efpecially in the conitru£Hon of tables, and the
fummation of feries, &c. It was firft ufed, and the
rules of it laid down, by Briggs, in his conltrudtion of
Logarithms and other Numbers, much the fame as they
were afterwards taught by Cotes, in his ConJlruRio Ta-
bularum per Differentia?.
The method was next treated in another form by
Newton in the 5th Lemma of the 3d book of his Prin-
cipia, and in his Methodus Differentialis, published by
Jones in 1711, with the other tra£ls of Newton. This
author here treats it as a method of defcribing a curve
of the parabolic kind, through any given number of
points. He diftinguiihes two cafes of this problem ;
the firft when the ordinates drawn from the given
points to any line given in pofition, are at equal dif-
tances from one another j and the fecond, when thefe
ordinates are not at equal diftances. He has given a
folution of both cafes, at firft without demonftration,
which was afterwards fupplied by himfelf and others :
fee his Methodus Differenlialis above mentioned j and
Stirling’s Explanations of the Newtonian Differential
Method, in the Phil. Tranf. N* 362. j Cotes, De Me-
thodo Differentiali Newtonians, publifhed with his Har-
monia Menfurarum; Herman’s Phoronomia; and Le
Seur and Jacquier, in their Commentary on Newton’s
Principia. It may be obferved, that the methods there
demonftrated by fome of thefe authors extend to the
.defcription of any algebraic curve through a given num¬
ber of points, which Newton, writing to Leibnitz, men¬
tions as a problem of the greateft ufe.
By this method, fome terms of a feries being given
and conceived as placed at given intervals, any interme¬
diate term may be found nearly •, which therefore gives
a method for interpolation. Brigg’s Arith. Log. ubi
fupra; Newton, Method. Differ, prop. 5. j Stirling,
Methodus Dfferentialis.
Thus alfo may any curvilinear figure be fquared
nearly, having fome few of its ordinates. Newton,
ibid. prop. 6.*, Cotes De Method. Differ.; Simpfon’s
Mathematical Diflert. p. 115. And thus may mathe-
.matical tables be conftru&ed by interpolation : Briggs,
ibid. Cotes Canonotechnia.
The-fucceflive differences of the ordinates of para¬
bolic curves, becoming ultimately equal, and the inter¬
mediate ordinate required being determined by thefe
differences of the ordinates, is the reafon for the name
Differential Method.
To be a little more particular.—The firft cafe of
Newton’s problem amounts to this ; A feries of num¬
bers, placed at equal intervals, being given, to find
any intermediate number of that feries, when its inter¬
val or diftance from the firft term of the feries is given.
Subtract each term of the feries from the next fol¬
lowing term, and call the remainders firft differences,
then fubtraft in like manner each of thefe differences
from the next following one, calling thefe remainders
3d differences j again, fubtraft each 2d difference from
the next following, for the 3d differences; and fo on : Differed
then if A be the lit term of the feries, Methw
d' the firft of the ift differences,
d" the firft of the 2d differences,
d'" the firft of the 3d differences,
and if x be the interval or diftance between the firft
term of the feries and any term fought, T, that is, let
the number of terms from A to T, both included, be
5 then will the term fought, T, be—
. X ,, X X
A-j—d'A—.
1 1 1 2
ld"+-.X—.^-ld'", &c.
I 2 3
Hence, if the differences of any order become equal,
that is, if any of the diffs. d", d'", &c. become—o,
the above feries will give a finite expreflion for T the
term fought •, it being evident, that the feries muft ter¬
minate when any of the differences d", d"', &c. be¬
come—o.
It is alfo evident that the co-efficients ——f
11 2
&c. of the differences, are the fame as to the terms of
the binomial theorem.
For ex. Suppof® it were required to find the log.
tangent of 5' 1" I2m 24"", or 5' 1" or 5' 1" *2066,
&c.
Take out the log. tangents to feveral minutes and
feconds, and take their firft and fecond differences, as
below :
S' o"
5 1
5 2
5 3
Tan.
7,i626964
7*1641417
7*1655821
7*1670178
d' d'
M453
14404
14357
—49
—47
1
-48
Here A=:7*i64I4I7 ; j d'=.14^0^and
the mean 2d difference d"——48. Hence
A - - - - 7*1641417
xd' - - . . 2977
Thcref.the tang, of 5' 1" 12"' 24"" is 7*1644398
Hence may be deduced a method of finding the fums
of the terms of fuch a feries, calling its terms A, B,
C, D, &c. For, conceive a new feries having its ift
term = o, its 2d = A, its 3d = A-fB, its 4th =
A-J-B-j-C, its 5th rz A-j-B-f-C-f-D, and fo on;
then it is plain that affigning one term of this feries, is
finding the fum of all the terms A, B, C, D, &c.
Now fince thefe terms are the differences of the fums,
o, A, A-j-B, A-}-B-f-C, &c.; and as fome of the dif¬
ferences of A, B, C, &c. are =r o by fuppofition ; it
follows that fome of the differences of the fums will be
% ft ft J
= o ; and fince in the feries A —. d^t
1 23
&c. by which a term was afligned, A reprefented the
ift term : d* the iff of the ift differences, and x the
interval between the firft term and the laft ; we are to
write o inftead of A, A inftead of d', tf inftead of d”,
d"
DIG [ 233 ] DIG
[fferential d" inftead of d"\ &c. alfo «-j-i inftead of x ; which
Method being done, the feries expreffing the futns will be
H . X+T- \ 1 X+l X J! ,X+l X X—1 Q n -C
Digby. 0-}—-|-AH —.-d'd”, &c. Or, if
the real number of terms of the lines be called z,
that is, if or x—%,—1, the fum of the feries
willbe Az + -.—&c. See
12 123
De Moivre’s D6£h of Chances, p. 59, 60 ; or his
Mifcel. Analyt. p. 153. j or Simpfon’s Eflays, p. 95.
For ex. To find the fum of fix terms of the feries of
fquares 14“4-f-9 + i6-J-25+36, of the natural num¬
bers.
Terms
I
4
9
16
25
d' d'1
Here Am, d'=^, d,f-=z2, d"' &c. =0, and Z—6 J
therefore the fum is 6-j-4-4"3+T-4-T'2::=^-}-45'^"40
^91 the fum required, viz. of I-f-4-f'9+T6+25 + 36.
A variety of examples may be feen in the places
above cited, or in Stirling’s Met/iodus Differcntialis,
&c.
As to the differential method, it may be obferved,
that though Newton and fome others have treated it as
a method of defcribing an algebraic curve, at leaft of
the parabolic kind, through any number of given
points; yet the confideration of curves is not at all ef-
fential to it, though it may help the imagination. The
defcription of a parabolic curve through given points,
is the fame problem as the finding of quantities from
their given differences, which may always be done by
algebra, by the refolution of Ample equations. Hut¬
ton's Math. DiB.
DIFFORM, Dfformis, (from forma, “ a fliape”),
is a word ufed in oppofition to uniform ; and fignifies
that there is no regularity in the form or appearance
of a thing. The botanifts ufe it as a diftin&ion of the
flowers of feveral fpecies of plants.
DIFFUSE, an epithet applied to fuch writings as
are wrote in a prolix manner. Among hillorians, Sal-
luft is reckoned fententious, and Livy diffufe. Thus
alfo among the oratox-s, Demofthenes is clofe and con-
cife; Cicero, on the other hand, diffufe.
DIFFUSION, the difperfion of the fubtile effluvia
of bodies into a kind of atmofphere all round them.
Thus the light diffufed by the rays of the fun, iffues all
round from that amazing body of fire.
DIGASTRIC US, in Anatomy, a mufcle of the low¬
er jaw, called alfo Biventer. See Anatomy, Table of
the Mufc/es.
DIGBY, Sir KenelM, an Englifli philofopher,
was born at Gothurft in Buckinghamfflire in 1603, and
became very illuftrious for his virtue and learning.
He was defcended of an ancient family. His great¬
grandfather, accompanied by fix of his brothers, fought
valiantly at Bofworth field on the fide of Henry VII.
againft the ufurper Richard III. His father, Sir
Everard Digby, was engaged in the gunpowder plot
againft Kmg James I. and for that crime was beheaded j
but his fon was reftored to his eftate. King Charles I.
made him gentleman of the bedchamber, commiffioner
Vol. VII. Part. I.
of the navy, and governor of the Trinity houfe. He Diglw,
granted him letters of reprifal againft the Venetians, by D’geft.
virtue of which he took feveral prizes with a fmall fleet
under his command. He fought the Venetians near the
port of Scanderoon, and bravely made his way through
them with his booty. He was a great lover of learn¬
ing, and tranflated feveral authors into Englilh; and
his “ Treatife of the Nature of Bodies and the Immor¬
tality of the Soul,” difcovers great penetration and ex-
tenfive knowledge. He applied to chemiftry j and
found out feveral ufeful medicines, which he gave free*
ly away to people of all forts, efpecially to the poor.
He diftinguithed himfelf particularly by his fympalhe-
tic powder for the cure of wounds at a diftance ; his
difcourfe concerning which made a great noife for a
while. He had conferences with Des Cartes about the
nature of the foul.
In the beginning of the civil wars, he exerted him¬
felf very vigoroufly in the King’s caufe $ but he was
afterwards imprifoned by the parliament’s order, In
Winchefter-houfe, and had leave to depart thence in
1643. He afterwards compounded for his eftate, but
was ordered to leave the nation ; when he went to
France, and was fent on two embaffies to Pope Inno¬
cent X. from the queen, widow to Charles I. whofe
chancellor he then was. On the reftoration of Charles
II. he returned to London j where he died in 1663,
aged 60.
This eminent perfon, on account of his early talents,
and great proficiency in learning, was compared to
the celebrated Picus de Mirandola, who wTas one of
the wonders of human nature. His knowledge, though
various and extenfive, appeared to be greater than it
really was; as he had all the powers of elocution
and addrefs to recommend it. He knew how to
fliine in a circle of ladies or philofophers ; and was as
much attended to when he fpoke on the moft trivial
fubjedls, as when heconverfed on the moft important. It
is faid that one of the princes of Italy, who had no
child, was defirous that his princefs ftiould bring him a
fon by Sir Kenelm, whom he efteemed a juft model of
perfection.
DIGEST, (Digefuni), a collection of the Roman
laws, ranged and digefled under proper titles, by order
of the emperor Juftinian.
That prince gave his chancellor Tribonianus a com
miffion for this purpofe 5 who, in confequence thereof,
chofe fixteen jurifconfulti, or lawyers, to work upon
the fame. Thefe, accordingly, took out the belt and
fineft decifions from the two thoufand volumes of the
ancient jurifconfulti, and reduced them all into one
body ; which was publiftied in the year 533> under the
name of the Digeji. To this the emperor gave the
force of a law, by a letter at the head of the work,
which ferves it as a preface.
The Digeft makes the firft part of the Roman law,
and the firft volume of the corpus or body of the civil
law, contained in fifty books. It was tranflated into
Greek under the fame emperor, and called PandeBa.
See Pandects.
Cujas fays, that Digef is a common name for all
books difpofed in a good order and economy j and
hence it is that Tertullian calls the gofpel of St Luke
a Digeft.
Hence alfo abridgements of the common law are
G g denominated
Digeft
II
Digges.
D I G
[ 234.
]
D I G
denominated digejls of the nuntetoUs cafes, arguihents,
readings, pleadings, &c. difperfed in the year books,
and other reports and books of law, reduced under
proper heads or common places. The firft was that
of Statham, which comes as low as Henry VI. That
of Fitzherbert was publilhed in 1516 j Brook’s in
1573, of which Hughes’s, publilhed in 1663, is a fe-
quel. Rolls, Danvers, and Nelfon, have alfo publifhed
Digefts or abridgements of this kind, including the
cafes of later days •, to which may be added the New
Abridgement, Viner’s Abridgement, &c.
DIGESTION, in the animal economy, is the dif-
folution of the aliments into fuch minute parts as are
fit to enter the ladleal veffels, and circulate with the
mafs of blood. See Anatomx Index.
Digestion, in Ckemi/lry, is an operation which con-
fifts in expofing bodies to a gentle heat, in proper vef¬
fels, and during a certain time. This operation is very
ufeful to favour the adtion of certain fubftances upon
each other j as, for example, of well calcined, dry,
fixed alkali upon redtified fpirit of wine. When thefe
two fubftances are digefted together in a matrafs, with
a gentle fand bath heat, the fpirit of wine acquires a
reddilh-yellow colour, and an alkaline quality. The
fpirit would not fo well acquire thefe qualities by a
lironger and ftiorter heat.
DIGESTIVE, in Medicine, fuch remedies as
flrengthen and increafe the tone of the ftomach, and
affift in the digeftion of foods. To this clafs belong all
ftomachics and ftrengtheners or corroborants.
Digestive, in Surgery, denotes a fort of unguent,
plafter, or the like, that is fuppofed to ripen and prepare
the matter of wounds, &c. for fuppuration.
DIGGES, Leonard, an eminent mathematician
in the 16th century, was defcended from an an¬
cient family, and born at Digges-court in the parilh
of Barham in Kent •, but in what year is not known.
He was educated for fome time at Oxford, where he
laid agood foundation of learning. Retiring from thence,
he profecuted his fludies, and became an excellent ma¬
thematician, a fkilful architedl, and an expert furveyor
of land, &c. He corapofed feveral books: as, 1. Tedio-
nicum : briefly (hewing the exaft Meafuring, and fpeedy
Reckoning of all manner of Lands, Squares, Timber,
Stones, Steeples, &c. 1556, qto. Augmented and pub¬
lifhed again by his fon Thomas Digges, in 1592 ; and
alfo reprinted in 1647.—2* A Geometrical Pradlieal
Treatife, named Pantometria, in three books. This he
left in manufcript j but after his death, his fon fupplied
fuch parts of it as were obfcure and imperfedl, and pub¬
lifhed it in 1591, folio; fubjoining, “A Difcourfe
Geometrical of the five regular and Platonic bodies,
containing fundry theoretical and praftical propofitions,
arifing by mutual conference of thefe folids, Infcrip-
tion, Circumfcription, and Transformation.”—3. Prog-
noftication Everlafting of right good effedl: or Choice
Rules to judge the weather, by the Sun, Moon, and
Stars, &c. in qto, 1555, 155^, and 1564: corre&ed
and augmented by his fon, with divers general tables,
and many compendious rules, in 410, 1502. He died
about the year 1574.
DlGGEs, Thomas, only fon of Leonard Digges,
after a liberal education from his tendereft years, went
and ftudied for fome time at Oxford ; and by the im¬
provements he made there, and the fubfequent inftruc-
tions of his learned father, became one of the beft ma¬
thematicians of his age. When Queen Elizabeth fent
fome forces to aflift the oppreffed inhabitants of the
Netherlands, Mr Digges was appointed mufter-mafter
general of them : by which he became well (killed in
military affairs ; as his writings afterwards fliewed. He
died in 1595.
Mr Digges, befides reviling, corre£ling, and enlarg¬
ing fome pieces of his father’s already mentioned, wrote
and publifhed the following learned works himfelf: viz,
I. Alee Jive Scalce Mathematicce ; or Mathematical Wings
or Ladders, 1573, 4to: A book which contains feve¬
ral demonftrations for finding the parallaxes of any co¬
met, or other celeftial body, with a corredlion of the
errors in the ufe of the radius aftronomicus.—2. An
Arithmetical Military Treatife, containing fo much of
Arithmetic as is neceffary towards military difeipline,
1579, 4to.—3. A Geometrical Treatife, named Stratio-
ticos, requifite for the perfection of Soldiers, 1579, 4to.
This was begun by his father, but finifhed by himfelf.
They rvere both reprinted together in 1590, with feve¬
ral additions and amendments, under this title : “ An
Arithmetical Warlike Treatife, named ■SV/'fl/fo/'/coj', com-
pendioufly teaching the fcience of Numbers, as well in
Fractions as Integers, and fo much of the Rules and
Equations Algebraical, and art of Numbers Coflical,
as are requifite for the proftflion of a foldier. To¬
gether with the Moderne militaire difeipline, offices,
lawes, and orders in every well-governed campe and
armie, inviolably to be obferved.” At the end of this
work there are two pieces; the firft, “ A briefe and true
report of the proceedings of the earle of Leycefter,
for the reliefe of the town of Sluce, from his arrival at
Vlifhing, about the end of June 1587, Untill the furren-
drie thereof 26 Julii next enfuing. Whereby it fliall
plainlie appear, his excellencie was not in any fault for
the Ioffe of that towme the fecond, “ A briefe dif-
courfe what orders were beft: for repulfing of foraine
forces, if at any time they flrould invade us by fea in
Kent or elfewhere.”—-4. A perftCl Defcription of the
Celeftial Orbs, according to the moft ancient doCtrine
of the Pythagoreans, &c. This was placed at the end
of his father’s “ Prognoftication Everlafting,” &c.
printed in 1592, 4(0.—5. A humble motive for affo-
ciation to maintain the religion eftablifhed, 1601, 8vo.
To which is added, his Letter to the fame purpofe to
the archbifhops and bifhops of England.-—6. England’s
Defence : or, A Treatife concerning Invafion. This
is a trad of the fame nature with that printed at the
end of his Stratioticos, and called, A briefe Difcourfe,
&c. It was written in 1599, but not publifhed till
1686.—7. A Letter printed before Dr John Dee’s
Parallaticte Commentationis pruxco/que nucleus quid am,
1573, 410.—-Befides thefe, and his Nova Corpora, he
h ft fcveral mathematical treatifes ready for the prefs;
which, by reafon of lawfuits and. other avocations, he
was hindered from publifhing.
DIGGING, among miners, is appropriated to the
operation of freeing any kind of ore from the bed or
ftratum in which it lies, where every ftroke of their
tools turns to account : in contradiftinClion to the open¬
ings made in ft arch of fuch ore, which are called hatches,
or ejjay-hatches; and the operation itfelf, tracing of
mines, or hatching.
When a bed of ore is difeovered, the beele-men, fo
called
DIG [ 235 ] DIG
*ng called from tlie inflrumeht they life., which is a kind of
0|! pickaxe, free the ore from the foflils around it; and the
)ignity. fliovel-men throw it up from one fhamble to another,
till it reaches the mouth of the hatch.
In feme mines, to fave the expence as well as fatigue
of the (hovel-men, they raife the ore by means of a
winder and two buckets, one of which goes up as the
other comes down.
DIGIT, in AJlronomy, the twelfth part of the dia¬
meter of the fun and moon, ufed to exprefs the quantity
of an eclipfe. Thus an eclipfe is faid to be of fix digits,
when fix of thefe parts are hid.
Digits, or Monocles, in Arithmetic, fignify any in¬
teger under 10 ; as, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and by
means of which all numbers are expreffed.
Digit is alfo a meafure taken from the breadth of
the finger. It is properly three-fourths of an inch, and
contains the meafure of four barley corns laid breadth-
wife.
DIGITALIS, Fox-glove ; a genus of plants, be¬
longing to the didynamia clafs ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 28th order, Luridce. See Bo¬
tany Index.—Fox-glove has been employed in cafes of
hsemoptyfis, of phthifis, and of mania, with apparent
good effe&s : but its ufe in thefe difeafes is lefs com¬
mon, and lefs efficacious than in dropfy. It ffiould be
adminiftered with great cuution. See MEDICINE and
Materia Medica Index.
DIGITATED, among botanifts. See Botany
Index.
DIGLYPH, in ArchiteBure, a kind of imperfedl
triglyph, confole, or the like ; with two channels or
engravings, either circular or angular.
DIGNE, an epifcopal town in the department of the
Lower Alps, formerly Provence, in France, famous for
its hot fprings. It is feated on a river called Bleonne,
30 miles S. by W. of Embrun, in E. Long. 6. 12. N.
Lat. 44. 10. The population is nearly 3000 fouls.
DIGNITARY, in the canon law, a perfon who
holds a dignity, that is, a benefice which gives him
feme pre eminence over mere priefts and canons. Such
is a biffiop, dean, archdeacon, prebendary, &c.
DIGNITY, as applied to the titles of noblemen,
fignifies honour and authority. And dignity may be
divided into fuperior and inferior 5 as the titles of duke,
earl, baron, &e. are the higheft names of dignity; and
thofe of baronet, knight, ferjeant at law, &c. the low¬
ed. Nobility only can give fe high a name of dignity
as to fupply the want of a furname in legal proceed¬
ings ; and as the omiffion of a name of dignity may be
pleaded in abatement of a writ, &c. fe it may be where
a peer who has more than one name of dignity, is not
named by the moft noble. No temporal dignity of any
foreign nation can give a man a higher title here than
that of ESQUIRE.
Dignity, in the human chara&er, the oppofite of
Meannefs.
Man is endued with a SENSE of the worth and ex¬
cellence of his nature : he deems it more perfeft than
that of the other beings around him 5 and he perceives
that the perfedlion of his nature confifts in virtue, par¬
ticularly in virtues of the higheft rank. To exprefs
that fenfe, the term dignity is appropriated. Further,
to behave with dignity, and to refrain from all mean
a&ions, is felt to be, not a virtue only, but a duty:
it is a duty every man owes to himfelf. By a&ing in Dignuy.
that manner, he attracts love and efteem : by a**£<«), in antiquity, a folemnity
kept in the fpring at Megara, in memory of the Athe¬
nian hero, who died in the defence of the youth he
loved.
DIOCL ESI ANUS, Caius Valerius .Tovius, a
celebrated Roman emperor, born of an obfcure family
in Dalmatia in 245. He was firft a common foldier,
and by merit and fuccefs he gradually rofe to the office
of a general; and at the death of Numerian in 284 he
was inverted with imperial power. In this high ftation
he rewarded the virtues and fidelity of Maximian, who
had fhared with him all the fubordinate offices in the
army, by making him his colleague on the throne. He
created two fubordinate emperors, Conftantius and Ga-
lerius, whom he called Caefars, whilft he claimed for
himfeif and his colleague the fuperior title of Auguftus.
Dioclefian has been celebrated for his military virtues ;
and though he was naturally unpoliffied by education
and ftudy, yet he was the friend and patron of learn¬
ing and true genius. He was bold and refolute, adtive
and diligent, and well acquainted with the arts, which
will endear a fovereign to his people, and make him re-
fpedfable even in the eyes of his enemies. His cruelty,
however, againft the followers of Chriftianity, has been
defervedly branded with infamy. After he had reign¬
ed 22 years in the greateft profperity, he publicly ab¬
dicated
DIO t 240 ] DIO
Dioclefia- dicated the crown at Nicomedia in 305, and retired to
nus a private ftation at Salona. Maximian his colleague
II . followed his example, but not from voluntary choice ;
1 loeoia> ancj when he fome time after endeavoured to roufe the
ambition of Dioclefian, and perfuade him to reaffume
the imperial purple, he received for anfwer, that Dio¬
clefian took now more delight in cultivating his little
garden than he formerly enjoyed in a palace, when his
power was extended over all the earth. He lived nine
years after his abdication in the greateft fecurity and
enjoyment at Salona, and died in 314, in the 68th
year of his age. Dioclefian is the firft fovereign who
voluntarily refigned his power. His bloody perfecu-
tion of the Chriftians forms a chronological era, called
the era of Dioc/efiart, or of the martyrs. It was for a
long time in ufe in theological writings, and is fiill fol¬
lowed by the Copts and Abyffinians. It commenced
' Auguft 29. 284.
DIODATI, John, a famous minifter, and profef-
for of theology at Geneva, was born at Lucca in 1579,
and died at Geneva in 1652. He is diftinguifhed by
tranflations, 1. Of the Bible into Italian, with notes,
Geneva, 1607, 4to. The beft edition at Geneva in
1641, folio. This is faid to be more a paraphrafe than
a tranflation, and the notes rather divine meditations
than critical reflexions. 2. Of the Bible into French,
Geneva, 1644. 3* ^ Father Paul’s Hiflory of the
Council of Trent into French.
DIODIA, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 47th order, Stellatce. See Botany Index.
DIODON, or Sun-fish, a genus of fifties belong¬
ing to the order of amphibia nantes. See Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
DIODORUS, an hiftorian, furnamed Siculus be-
caufe he was born at Argyra in Sicily. He wrote a
hiftory of Egypt, Perfia, Syria, Media, Greece, Rome,
and Carthage j and it is faid that he vifited all the
places of which he has made mention in his hiftory.
It was the labour of 30 years. He is, however, too
credulous in fome of his narrations ; and often wanders
far from the truth. He often dwells too long upon
fabulous reports and trifling incidents j while events of
the greateft importance to hiftory are treated with bre¬
vity, and fometimes palled over in filence. He lived
in the age of Julius Csefar and Auguftus ; and fpent
much time at Rome to procure information, and au¬
thenticate his hiftorical narrations. This important
work, which he compofed in Greek, contained 40
books, of which there are only 15 remaining. The
ftyle is clear and neat, and very fuitable to hiftory.
The beft edition is that of Amfterdam, 1743, in 2 vols
folio.
DIOECIA, (from twice, and a houfe or
habitation) two houfes 5 the name of the 22d clafs in
Linnaeus’s fexual method, confiding of plants which
having no hermaphrodite flowers, produce male and
female flowers on feparate roots. Thefe latter only
ripen feeds ; but require for that purpofe, according to
the fexualifts, the vicinity of a male plant ", or the af-
perfion, that is, fprinkling of the male dull. From
the feeds of the female flowers are raifed both male and
female plants. The plants then in the clafs dicecia are
all male and female ; not hermaphrodite, as in the
greater number of claffes j nor with male and female
flowers upon one root, as in the clafs monbecia of the Dioecia,
fame author. See Botany Index. Diogenes
DIOGENES of Apollonia, in the ifland of Crete, " ’ ^
held a confiderable rank among the philofophers who
taught in Ionia before Socrates appeared at Athens.
He was the fcholar and fuccelfor of Anaximenes, and
in fome meafure reXified his matter’s opinion concern¬
ing air being the caufe of all things. It is faid, that he
was the firft who obferved that air was capable of con-
denfation and rarefaXion. He paffed for an excellent
philofopher, and died about the 450th year before the
Chriftian era.
Diogenes the Cynic, a famous philofopher, was
the fon of a banker of Sinope in Pontus. Being ba-
niftied with his father for coining falfe money, he retired
to Athens, where he ftudied philofophy under Antif.
thenes. He added new degrees of aurterity to the feX
of the Cynics, and never did any philofopher carry fo
far a contempt for the conveniences of life. He was
one of thofe extraordinary men who run every thing to
extremity, without excepting even reafon itfelf •, and
who confirm the faying, that “ there is no great ge¬
nius without a tinXure of madnefs.” He lodged in a
tub j and had no other moveables befides his ftaff, wal¬
let and wooden bowl, which laft he threw away on
feeing a boy drink out of the hollow of his hand. He
ufed to call himfelf a vagabond, who had neither houfe
nor country $ was obliged to beg, was ill clothed, and
lived from hand to mouth ; and yet, fays iElian, he took
as much pride in thefe things as Alexander could in the
conqueft of the world. He was indeed not a jot more
humble than thofe who are clothed in rich apparel, and
fare fumptuoufly every day. He looked down on all
the world with fcorn j he magifterially cenfured all
mankind, and thought himfelf unqueftionably fuptrior
to all other philofophers. Alexander one day paid him
a vifit, and made him an offer of riches or any thing
elfe j but all that the philofopher requefted of him
was, to ftand from betwixt the-fun and him. As if
he had faid, “ Do not deprive me of the benefits of
nature, and I leave to you thofe of fortune.” The con¬
queror was fo affeXed with the vigour and elevation of
his foul, as to declare, that “ if he was not Alexander^
he would choofe to be Diogenes that is, if he was
not in poffeflion of all that was pompous and fplendid
in life, he would, like Diogenes, heroically defpife it.
Diogenes had great prefence of mind, as appears from
his fmart faying and quick repartees •, and Plato feems
to have hit off his true charaXer when he called him a
Socrates run mad. He fpent a great part of his life at
Corinth, and the reafon of his living there was as fol¬
lows j as he was going over to the ifland /Egina, he
was taken by pirates, who carried him into Crete, and
there expofed him to fale. He anfwered the crier
who afleed him rvhat he could do, that “ he knew how
to command men:” and perceiving a Corinthian who
was going by, he {hewed him to the crier, and faid
“ Sell me to that gentleman, for he wants a mafter.”
Xeniades, for that was the Corinthian’s name, bought
Diogenes, and carried him with him to Corinth. He
appointed him tutor to his children, and intrufted him
alfo with the management of his houfe. Diogenes’s
friends being defirous to redeem him, “ You are
fools (faid he); the lions are not the flaves of thofe who
feed them, but they are the fervants of the lions.” He
therefore
DIO [ 241 ] DIO
agenes. therefore plainly told Xeniades, that he ought to obey
B (. -y——v as people obey their governors and phyficians.
Some fay, that Diogenes fpent the remainder of his life
in Xeniades’s family ; but Dion Chryfoftom aflerts that
he pa fled the winter at Athens, and the fummer at Co-
-rinth. He died at Corinth when he was about 90 years
old : but authors are not agreed either as to the time or
manner of his death. The following account, Jerome
fays, is the true one. As he was going to the Olym¬
pic games, a fever feized him in the way ; upon which
he lay down under a tree, and refufed the affiftance of
thofe who accompanied him, and who offered him
either a horfe or a chariot. “ Go you to the games
/fays he), and leave me to contend with my illnefs.
If I conquer, I will follow y;»u ; if I am conquered, I
/hall go to the (hades below.’’ He defpatched h'm(elf
that very night j faying, that “ he did not fo properly
die, as get rid of his fever.” He had for his difciples
Oneficritus, Phocion, Stilpo of Megara, and feveral
other great men. His wmrks are loit.
Diogenes Laertius, fo called from Laerta in Cili¬
cia where he was born, an ancient Greek author, who
wrote ten books of the Lives of the Philofophers, (fill
extant. In what age he flouriftied, is not eafy to de¬
termine. The oldeft writers who mention him are So-
pater Alexandrinus, who lived in the time of Conftan-
tine the Great, and Hefychius Milefius, who lived un¬
der Juftinian. Diogenes often (peaks in terms of ap¬
probation of Plutarch and Phavorinus ; and therefore,
as Plutarch lived under Trajan, and Phavorinus under
Hadrian, it is certain that he could not flouriflt before
the reigns of thofe emperors. Menage has fixed him
to the time of Severus ; that is, about the year of
Chrift 200. From certain expreffions in him, fome
have fancied him to have been a Chriftian ; but, as
Menage obferves, the immoderate praifes he bellows
upon Epicurus will not fuffer us to believe this, but
incline us rather to fuppofe that he ivas an Epicurean.
He divided his Lives into books, and infcribed them to
a learned lady of the Platonic fchool, as he himfelf in¬
timates in his life of Plato. Montaigne was fo fond of
this author, that inllead of one Laertius he wifhes we
had a dozen $ and Vi>flius lay*, that his work is as pre¬
cious as gold. Without doubt we are greatly obli¬
ged to him for what we know of the ancient philofo¬
phers : and if he had been as exadl in the writing part
as he was judicious in the choice of his fubjedl, we had
been more obliged to him /till. Bilhop Burnet, in the
reface to his Life of Sir Matthew Hale, fpeaks of
im in the following proper manner : “ There is no
book the ancients have left us (fays he), which might
have informed us more than Diogenes Laertius’s Lives
. of the Philofophers, if he had had the art of writing
equal to that great fubjedl which he undertook : for if
he had given the world fuch an account of them as
Gaflendus has done of Peirefc, how great a (lock of
knowledge might we have had, which by his unlkilful-
nefs is in a great meafure loft ! (ince we muft now de¬
pend only on him, becaufe we have no other and better
author who has written on that argument.” There
have been feveral editions of his Lives of the Philofo¬
phers j but the beft is that printed in two volumes 410,
at Amfterdam, 1693. This contains the advantages
of all the former, befides fome peculiar to itlelf: the
Vol. VII. Part I.
Greek text and the Latin verfion correaled and amend- Diogenes
ed by Meibomius ; the entire notes of Henry Stephens, j)
both the Cafaubons, and of Menage *, 24 copperplates Dion-
of philofophers elegantly engraved : to which is added
The Hiftory of the Female Philofophers, written by
Menage, and dedicated to Madame Dacier. Befides
this, Laertius wrote a book of Epigrams upon illuftri-
ous Men, called Pammetrus, from its various kinds of
metre ; but this is not extant.
DIQMEDIA, a genus of birds belonging to the
order of anferes. See ORNITHOLOGY Index.
DIOMEDES, fm of Tydeus and Deiphyle, was
king of Aitolia, and one of the braveft of the Grecian
chiefs in the Trojan war. He often engaged He&or
and Aineas, and^obtained much military glory. He
went with Ulyfles to deal the Palladium from the temple
of Minerva in Troy j and aflilted in murdering Rhf fus
king of Thrace, and carrying away his horfes. At his
return from the fiege of Troy, he loft his way in the
darknefs of night, and landed in Attica, where his
companions plundered the country and loft the Trojan
Palladium. During his long abfence, his wife Aigiale
forgot her marriage vows, and proftituted herlelf to
Cometes one of her fervants. This lalcivioufnefs of
the queen was attributed by fome to the refentment
of Venus, whom Diomedes had feverely wounded in
a battle before Troy. The infidelity of Aigiale was
highly difpleafing to Diomedes. He refolved to aban¬
don his native country which was the feat of his dif-
grace ; and the attempts of his wife to take away his
life, according to fome accounts, did not a little con¬
tribute to haften his departure. He came to that part
of Italy, which has been called Magna Grcecia, where
he built a city, which he called jdrgi/rippa, and married
the daughter of Daunus the king of the country. He
died there in extreme old age j or according to a cer¬
tain tradition, he periftied by the hand of his father-
in-law. His death was greatly lamented by his com¬
panions, who in the excf fs of their grief were changed
into birds refembling fwans. Thefe birds took flight
into a neighbouring illand in the Adriatic, and be¬
came remarkable for the tamentfs with which they ap¬
proached the Greeks, and for the horror with which
they (hunned all other nations. They are called the
birds of Diomedes. Altars were railed to Diome¬
des as to a god, one of which Strabo mentions at Ti-
mavus.
DION, a Syracufan, fon of Hipparinus, famous
for his power and abilities. Fie was related to Dio-
nyfius, and often advifed him, together with the philo-
fopher Plato, who at his requeft had come to refide at
the tyrant’s court, to lay afide the fupreme power.
His great popularity rendered him odious in the eyes
of the tyrant, who baniftied him to Greece. Therfe
he colledled a numerous force, and refolved to free his
country from tyranny. This he eafily e fife died on ac¬
count of his uncommon popularity. He entered the
port of Syracufe only in two (hips ; and in three days
reduced under his power an empire which had already
fubfifted foi 50 years, and which was guarded by 500
ftiips of war, and above 100,000 troops. The tyrant
fled to Corinth, and Dion kept the power in his own
•hands, fearful of the afpiring ambition of fome of the
friends of Dionyfius j but he was (haraefully betrayed
H h and
ij'on
jD'0s>yfiaca.
DIO [ 242 ]
murdered by one of his familiar friends called given to plays
D I O
and
Callicrates or Cal/ipus,
354 years before the Chriftian
Dion CaJJtus, a native of Nicaea in Bithynia. His
father’s name was Apronianus. He was raifed to
the greateft offices of date in the Roman empire by
Pertinax, and his three fucceffors. He was naturally
fond of ftudy, and he improved himfelf by unwearied
application. Pie was ten years in coliefling materials
for a hiftory of Rome, which he made public in 80
books, after a laborious employment of 12 years in
compofing it. This valuable hiftory began with the
arrival of iEneas in Italy, down to the reign of the
emperor Alexander Severus. The firft 34 books are
totally loft, the 20 following, that is, from the 35th to
the if4th, remain entire, the fix following are mutilat-
t>d, and fragments is all that we poffefs of the laft 20.
In the compilation of this extenfive hiftory, Dion pro-
pofed to himfelf Thucydides for a model, but he is not
perfectly happy in his imitation. His ftyie is pure and
elegant, and his narrations are judicioufly managed,
ancf his reflections learned : but upon the whole, he is
credulous, and the bigotted Have of partiality, fatire,
and flattery. He inveighs againft the republican prin¬
ciples of Brutus and Cicero, and extols the caufe of
Ctefar. Seneca is the objeft of his fatire, and .he re-
prefents him as debauched and licentious in his mo-
rals.
DIONIS, Peter, a diftinguifhed French furgeon,
was born in Paris. In the time of Louis XIV. he was
appointed anatomical and chirurgical demonftrator in the
royal garden, and he was the firft who held that place.
Pie was furgeon in ordinary to Maria Therefa of Auf-
tria, queen of France, and to two dauphineffes and the
royal children. He was the author of feveral works,
both on anatomical and furgical fubjefls. One of the
firft of his publications, is entitled Anatomie de CHomme,
fuivant la Circulation du Sang, 8vo, which appeared
"in 1690, and has been frequently reprinted, and tranf-
lated into different languages. It was tranflated into
the Tartarian dialed by a Jefuit for the ufe of the em¬
peror of China. This work has been confidered as a
ufeful compendium of anatomy. In another wmrk
which he publilhed in 1698, entitled, Dijfertation
Hiflorique et PJiyJique fur la Generation de l'Homme,
he fupports the ovarian hypothefis. In I7°7 Pub*
lifted a work on furgery, entitled Cours d'Operations
de Chirurgerie, 8vo, which was feveral times reprint¬
ed; and latterly it was edited with notes by La Faye
in 2 vols. This treatife was long received as a ftand-
ard book on the fubjed. It contains many ufeful and
pertinent obfervations detailed in plain, unaffeded
language. Dionis is the author of two other works j
the firft, Sur la Mart fubite, et fur la Catalepfe, pub-
lifted in 1709, and the other Traite generate des Ac-
couchements, in 1718. But the laft is little elfe than
an abridgement of Maur^eau’s work on the fame fub-
jed. Dionis died at Paris in 1718.
DIONALA, Venus’s Fly trap, a genus of plants
belonging to the decandria clafs. See BOTANY Index.
DIONYSI A, in Grecian antiquity, folemnities in
honour of Bacchus, fometimes called by the general
name of Or^ia ; and by the Romans Bacchanalia, and
Liberalia. See BACCHANALIA and Bacchus.
DIONYSI AC A, in antiquity, was a defignation
tine.
. r—j- -nd all manner of fports aded on the Dionjfiaa
ftage } becaufe playhoufes were dedicated to Diony- jj
fius, i. e. Bacchus, and Venus, as being the deities of Dl0PliaH'
fports and pleafure.
DIONYSIAN period. See Chronology, N° 31.
DIONYSIUS I. from a private fecretary became
general and tyrant of Syracufe and all Sicily. He was
like wife a poet ; and having, by bribes, gained the
tragedy prize at Athens, he indulged himfelf fo im¬
moderately at table from excefs of joy, that he died of
the debauch, 386 B. C. ; but fome authors relate that
he was poifoned by his phyfieians.
Dionysius II. (his fon and fucceffor) was a great¬
er tyrant than his father j his fubjeds were obliged to
apply to the Corinthians for fuccour j and Timoleon
their general having conquered the tyrant, he fled to
Athens, where he was obliged to keep a fchool for
fubfiftence. He died 343 B. C.
Dionysius Halicarnnjfenfs, a celebrated hiftori-
an, and one of the moft judicious critics of antiquity,
was born at Halicarnaffus : and went to Rome after
the battle of Adium, where he ftaid 22 years under
the reign of Auguftus. He there compofed in Greek
his Hiftory of the Roman Antiquities, in 20 books,
of which the firft 11 only are now remaining. There
are alfo ftill extant feveral of his critical works. The
beft edition of the works of this author is that of
Oxford, in 1704, in Greek and Latin, by Dr Hud-
fon.
Dionysius, a learned geographer, to whom is at¬
tributed a Periegefis, or Survey of the Earth, in Greek
verfe. Some fuppdfe that he lived in the time of Au¬
guftus ; but Scaliger and Saumafius place him under
the reign of Severus, or Marcus Aurelius. He wrote
many other works, but his Periegefis is the only one
we have remaining j the beft and moft ufeful edition
of which is that improved with notes and illuftrations
by Hill.
Dionysius Areopagita, tvas born at Athens, and
educated there. He went afterwards to Heliopolis in
Egypt •, where, if we may believe fome writers of his
life, he faw that wonderful eclipfe which happened at
our Saviour’s paffion, and was urged by fome extraor¬
dinary impulfe to cry out, Aut Deus patitur, aut cum
patiente dolet; “ either God himfelf fuffers, or condoles
with him who does.” At his return to Athens he
was elefted into the court of Areopagus, from whence
he derived his name of Areopagite. About the year 50
he embraced Chriftianity ; and, as fome fay, was ap¬
pointed firft bifliop of Athens by St Paul. Of his
converfion we have an account in the 17th chapter of
the Afts of the Apoftles.—He is fuppofed to have fuf-
fered martyrdom ; but whether under Domitian, Tra¬
jan, or Adrian, is not certain. We have nothing re¬
maining under his name, but what there is the greateft
reaftn to believe fpurious.
Dionysius the Leffer, a Scythian, became abbot
of a monaftery at Rome •, he was the firft who com¬
puted time from the birth of Dionyfius to Chrift, and
fixed that great event, according to the vulgar era.
He was alfo a learned canon law writer, and died abou
the year 340.
DIOPHANTINE PROBLEMS, in Mathematics, cer¬
tain queftions relating to fquare and cube numbers,
and right-angled triangles, &c, the nature of which
was
DIO [2
iophan- was determined by Diophantus, a mathematician of
tine. Alexandria, who is believed to have lived about the
—v'—' third century. We have his works, which were pub-
liflied with notes at Paris, in 1621, by Bachet' de Me-
ziriac ; and another edition in 1670, with obfervations
on every queftion by M. Fermat.
In thefe queftions it is endeavoured to find commen-
furable numbers to anfwer indeterminate problems;
which bring out an infinite number of incommenfur-
able quantities. For example, it is propofed to find
a right-angled triangle, whofe fides, x, y, %} are ex-
preffed by commenfurable numbers ; it is known that
“«*, 25 being the fuppofed hypothenufe. But
it is poffible to aiTume x and y fo, that 2; will be in-
commenfurable } for if at“I, andy~2,
The art of refolving fuch problems confiils in fo
managing the unknown quantity or quantities in fuch
a manner, that the fquare or higher power may vanilh
out of the equation, and then by means of the unknown
quantity in its firft dimenfion, the equation may be re-
folved without having recourfe to incommenfurables ;
e. g. let it be fuppofed to find x, y, 2;, the fides of a
right-angled triangle, fuch as will give x1-\-y1=:'Z1.
Suppofe z,—x-\-u, then 5 out of
43 1
D I O
y1— u1
which equation x* vanilhes, and x — :
then af«
fuming y and u equal to any numbers at pleafure, the
fides of the triangle will be y,—^- ■, and the hypothe¬
nufe ; if y=3, and «-=l, then^ U —
2 u
2 u
and It is evident that this problem admits
of an infinite number of folutions.
For the refolution of fuch kind of problems, fee
Saunderfon’s Algebra, vol. ii. book 6. <
DIOPHANTUS, a celebrated mathematician of
Alexandria, has been reputed to be the inventor of
algebra •, at lead his is the earlieft work extant on
that fcience. It is not certain when Diophantus lived.
Some have placed him before Chrift, and fome after,
in the reigns of Nero and the Antonines : but all with
equal uncertainty. It feems he is the fame Diophan¬
tus who wrote the Canon Allronomicus, which Suidas
fays was commented on by the celebrated Hypatia,
daughter of Theon of Alexandria. His reputation
mud have been very high among the ancients, fince
they ranked him with Pythagoras and Euclid in ma¬
thematical learning. Bachet, in his notes upon the 5th
book De Arithmeticis, has colle£led, from Diophantus’s
epitaph in the Anthologia, the following circumdances
of his life*, namely, that he was married when he was
33 years old, and had a fon born five years after ; that
this fon died when he was 42 years of age, and that his
father did not furvive him above four years; from which
it appears, that Diophantus was 84 years old when he
died.
DIOPTER, or Dioptra, the fame with the index
or alhidade of an adrolabe, or other fuch indrument.
Dioptra was an indrument invented by Hipparchus,
which ferved for feveral ufes; as, to level water courfes;
to take the height of towers, or places at a didance ; to
determine the places, magnitudes, and didances of the
planets, &.c.
ttiophatt.
tin^
II
Dioptra.
DIOPTRICS,
T^HAT part of Optics which treats of the laws of
refraction, and the effeCts which the refra&ion
of light has in vifion. The rvord is originally Greek,
formed of per, “ through” and an\oy.cti, 1fee.
As this and the other branches of Optics are fully
treated under the collective name, we diall here, 1. Jud
give a fummary of the general principles of the branch,
in a few plain aphorifms, with fome preliminary defi¬
nitions ; and, 2. Prefent our readers with a fet of en¬
tertaining experiments, illudrative of, or dependent up¬
on, thofe principles.
DEFINITIONS.
Plate T* When a ray of light palling out of one medium
1LXXV. into another of a different denfity, is turned from that
draight line in which it would otherwife proceed into
one of a different direction, it is faid to be refraCted.
g. 1. Thus the rays AB, AC, &c. (fig. 1.) by palling out
of air into the glafs BGC, are turned from their na¬
tural courfe into that of BF, CF, &c. and are there¬
fore faid to be refraCted by the lens BGC.
2. Any fpherical tranfparent glafs, that converges
or diverges the rays of light as they pafs through it, is
called a lens.
3. Of lenfes there are five forts: 1. A plane or
Angle convex lens, which is plane on one fide and con¬
vex on the other ; as AZ, fig. 2. 2. A double convex Fig. s.
lens, as B. 3. A plano-concave lens, that is, plane on
one fide and concave on the other, as C. 4. A double
concave, as D. And, 5. A menifeus, which is convex
on one fide and concave on the other, as E.
4. The point C. (fig. 2.) round which the fpherical
furface of a lens, as AZ, is defcribed, is called its cen¬
tre; the line XY, drawn from that centre perpendicu¬
lar to its two furfaces, is the axis ; and the point V, to
which the axis is drawn, is the vertex of that lens.
5. When the rays of light that pafs through a fingle
or double convex lens are brought into their fmalleft
compafs, that point is the focus of the lens.
6. In optical infiruments, that lens which is next
the objeft is called the objeB glafs ; and that next the
eye, the eye glafs.
7. The difiance between the line AB, (fig. 3.) and^'g. g,
the perpendicular EF, is called the angle of incidence ;
and the diftance between the line BD and the perpen¬
dicular EF, is called the angle of refraBion.
APHORISMS.
I. A ray of light palling obliquely out of one me¬
dium into another that is denfer, will be refrafled to¬
ward the perpendicular ; as the ray AB, by palling
out of air into glafs, is refra&ed into BF, inclined
H h 2 t#
\ ■ *
244
Fi5. 4.
DIOPTRICS.
to the perpendicular AF. On the contrary, a ray
palling out of a denfer into a rarer medium, will be
refrafled from the perpendicular ; as the ray EC, paf-
fing out of the glafs GH into air, is refra&ed into
DI.
2. The fines of the angles of incidence and refrac¬
tion, when the lines that contain them are all equal,
will have a determinate proportion to each other, in '
the fame mediums $ which, between air and water,
will be as 4 to 3 ; between air and glafs, as 3 to 2,
nearly $ and in other mediums, in proportion to their
denfities.
3. Any obje£t viewed through a glafs, whofe two fur-
faces are parallel, will appear of its natural lhape and
dimenfions, provided it be only of the fize of the pupil
of the eye, and the light proceeding from it be received
diredtly through the glafs by one eye only. In all other
fituations an alteration will be perceived not only in its
apparent fituation, but its dimenfions alfo. This altera¬
tion will be greater in proportion to the thicknefs of
the glafs, and the obliquity of the rays $ in general, it
is fo fmall as to be overlooked.
4. All the rays of light which fall upon a convex
lens, whether parallel, converging, or diverging to a
certain degree, will be made to meet in a focus on the
other fide but if they diverge excefiively, they will
not do fo. Thus, if rays diverge from a point placed
before the glafs, at the focal diftance from it, they will
become parallel after palling through it and if the
point from which they proceed be nearer the glafs than
its focal diftance, they will ftill continue to diverge,
though in a lefs degree than before.
5. When parallel rays fall upon a concave lens, they
will be made to diverge after palling through it. If
they are diverging already before they fall upon the
glafs, they will diverge more after palling through it j
or even if they are converging to a certain degree, they
will diverge upon palling through a concave lens j but
if the convergence is very great, they will converge af¬
ter palling through the glafs, though to a more diftant
point than that at which they would otherwife have
met.
6. When an objeft is viewed through two convex
lenfes, its apparent diameter ought to be to its real one
as the diftance of the focus of the objedt glafs is to that
of the eye glafs j but by reafon of the aberration of
the rays of light, the magnifying power will be fome-
what greater or lefs in proportion to the diameter of the
objedt.
By thefe aphorifms we are enabled to account for
the various effedts of dioptric machines, as refradting
telefcopes, microfcopes, the camera obfcura, &c. See
Optics.
ENTERTAINING EXPERIMENTS.
I. Optical Illujiotis.
On the bottom of the veflel ABCD, (fig. 4.) place
three pieces of money, as a Hulling, a half crown, and
crown ; the firft at E, the fecond at F, and the laft at
G. Then place a perfon at H, where he can fee no
further into the veffel than I : and tell him, that by
pouring water into the veffel yoa will make him fee
three different pieces of money: bidding him oblerve
carefully whether any money goes in with the water.
Here you muft obferve to pour in the water very
gently, or contrive to fix the pieces, that they may not
move out of their places by its agitation.
When the water comes up to K, the piece at E will
become vifible j when it comes up to L, the pieces at
E and F will appear; and when it rifes to M, all the
three pieces will be vifible.
From what has been faid of the refradlion of light,
the caufeof this phenomenon will be evident: for while
the velfel is empty, the ray HI will naturally proceed
in a ftraight line : but in proportion as it becomes im-
merfed in water, it will be necelfarily refradled into the
feveral diredlions, NE, OF, PG, and coulequently the
feveral pieces muft become vifible.
II. Optical Augmentation.
Take a large drinking glafs of a conical figure, that
is fmatl at bottom and wide at top j in which put a
(hilling, and fill the glafs about half lull with water:
then place a plate on the top of it, and torn it quickly
over, that the water may not get out. You will then
fee on the plate, a piece of the fize of a half crown j
and fomewhat higher up, another piece of the fize of a
Hulling.
This phenomenon arifes from feeing the piece
through the conical furface of the water at the fide of
the giafs, and through the flat furface at the top of the
water, at the fame time : for the conical furface dilates
the rays, and makes the piece appear larger ; but by
the flat furface the rays are only refrafted, by which
the piece is feen higher up in the glafs, but ftill of its
natural fize. That this is the caufe will be further evi¬
dent by filling the glafs with water \ for as the (hilling
cannot be then feen from the top, the large piece only
will be vifible.
III. Optical SubtraBion.
Againft the wainfcot of a room fix three fmall pieces
of paper, as A, B, C, (fig. 5.) at the height of your eye ; Fig. 5*
and placing yourfelf diredlly before them, (hut your
right eye and look at them with the left •, when you will
fee only two of thofe papers, fuppofe A and B : but al¬
tering the pofition of your eye, you will then fee the
third and one of the firft, fuppofe A ; and by altering
your pofition a fecond time, you will fee B and C } but
never all three of them together.
The caufe of this phenomenon is, that one of the
three pencils of ray^ that come from thofe objedts, falls
conftantly on the optic nerve at D : whereas to pro¬
duce diftinft vifion, it is neceffary that the rays of
light fall on fome part of the retina E, F, G, H. We
fee by this experiment, one of the ufes of having two
eyes; for he that has one only, can never fee three
objects placed in this pofition, nor all the parts of one
objedl of the fame extent s without altering the fituation
of his eye.
IV. Alternate lllujion.
With a convex lens of about an inch focus, look
attentively at a filver feal, on which a cipher is en-
245
D I O P T R I C S.
graved. It will at firft appear cut in, as to the naked
eye $ but if you continue to obferve it fome time, with¬
out changing your fituation, it will feem to be in re¬
lief, and the lights and (hades will appear the fame as
they did before. If you regard it with the fame atten¬
tion (till longer, it will again appear to be engraved :
and fo on alternately.
If you look off the feal for a few moments, when
you view it again, inftead of feeing it, as at firft, en¬
graved, it will appear in relief. If, while you are turn¬
ed toward the light, you fuddenly incline the feal,
while you continue to regard it, thofe parts that feem-
ed to be engraved will immediately appear in relief j
and if, when you are regarding thefe feeming promi¬
nent parts, you turn yourfelf fo that the light may fall
on the right hand, you will fee the fhadows on the
fame fide from whence the light comes, which will ap¬
pear not a little extraordinary. In like manner the
fhadows will appear on the left, if the light fall on that
fide. If, inftead of a feal, you look at a piece of money,
thefe alterations will not be vifible, in whatever fitua¬
tion you place yourfelf.
It has been fufpefted that this illufion arifes from
the fituation of the light : and, in fa£l, “ I have ob-
ferved (fays M. Guyot, from whom this article is
taken), that when I have viewed it with a candle on
the right, it has appeared engraved j but by changing
the light to the left fide, it has immediately appeared
in relief.” It ftill, however, remains to be explained,
why we fee it alternately hollow and prominent, with¬
out either changing the fituation or the light. Per-
hap** it is in the fight itfelf that we muft look for the
caufe of this phenomenon •, and this feems the more
probable, as all thefe appearances are not difcernible by
all perfons.
Mr William Jones of Holborn, has remarked to us,
that this illufion is ftill more extraordinary and perma-
nentj when you look at a cavity in a feal or other ob¬
ject through the three ey«> glaffes of a common four
glafs refra£ling telefcope : all cavities viewed through
thefe glalfes appear conftantly reliefs, in almoft all fitu?
tions of the light you fee them with.
V. The Dioptrical Paradox.
A new and curious optical, or what may be called
properly a dioptrical, deception, has been made by Mr
W. Jones. Its effeft is, that a print, or an ornamented
drawing, with any objeff, fuch as an ace of diamonds. &c.
Fig. 5. in the centre F, (fig. 6.) will be feen as the ace of clubs
when it is placed in the machine ABDC, and viewed
through a fingle glafs only contained in the tube E.
The conftruftion of this machine is truly fimple.
The glafs in the tube F, which brings about this fur-
prifing change, is fomewhat on the principle of the
common multiplying glafs, as reprefented at G, which
by the number of its inclined furfaces, and from thfe
refrafHve power of the rays proceeding from the ob-
jedls placed before it, (hows it in a multiplied ftate or
quantity. Its only difference is, that the fides of this,
glafs are flat, and diverge upwards from the bafe to a
point in the axis of the glafs like a cone : the number
of the fides is fix $ and each fide, from its angular po-
fition to the eye, has the property of refrafting from
the border of the print F fuch a portion of it (defign-
edly there placed), as will make a part in the compo-
fition of the figure to be reprefented : for the hexa¬
gonal and conical figure of this glafs prevents any
fight of the ace of diamonds in the centre being feen j
confequently the ace of clubs being previoufly and me¬
chanically drawn in the circle of refraflion in fix dif¬
ferent parts of the* border, at I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and art¬
fully difguifed in the ornamental border by blending
them with it, the glafs in the tube at E will change
the appearance of the ace of diamonds F into the ace
of clubs G. In the fame manner may other prints
undergo fimilar changes, according to the will of an
ingenious draughtfman who may defign them. Ths
figure of the giafs is clearly fhown at H.
VI. Camera Obfcura^ or Dark Chamber.
Make a circular hole in the fhutter of a window,
from whence there is a profpeft of the fields, or any
other obje£f not too near ; and in this hole place a con¬
vex glafs, either double or fingle, whofe focus is at the
diftanee of five or fix feet (a). Take care that no
light enter the room but by this glafs : at a diftance,
from it equal to that of its focus, place a pafteboard,
covered with the whiteft paper; which fhould have a
black border, to prevent any of the fide rays from di-
fturbing the pidfure. Let it be two feet and a half
long, and 18 or 20 inches high : bend the length of it
inwards, to the form of part of a circle, whofe diame¬
ter is equal to double the focal diftanee of the glafs.
Then fix it on a frame of the fame figure, and put it
on a moveable foot, that it may be eafily fixed at that
exa<5t diftance from the glafs where the obje&s paint
themfelves to the greateft perfecjidn. When it is thus
placed, all the objedls that are in the front of the win¬
dow will be painted on the ftaptr, in an inverted pofi-
tion (b), with the greateft regularity and in the moft:
natural colours,
If you place a moveable mirror without the win¬
dow ; by turning it more or lefs, you will have on the
paper ■'
(a) The diftance fhould not be lefs than three feet ; for if it be, the images will be too fmall, and there will
not be fufficient room for the fpe£lators to ftand conveniently. On the other hand, the focus fhould never be
more than 15 or 20 feet, for then the images will be obfcure, and the colouring faint. The beft diftance is from
6 to 12 feet.
(b) This inverted pofition of the images may be deemed an imperfedlion,: but is eafily remedied : for if you
ftand above the board on which they are received, and look down on it, they will appear in their natural pofition
or if vou ftand before, and placing a common mirror againft your breaft in an oblique dire&ion, look down in
it, vou will there fee the images eredl, and they will receive an additional luftre from the refleflion of the glafs;
or place two lenfes, in a tube that draws out ; or, laftly, if you place a large concave mirror at a proper diftanc©
before the pi&ure, it will appear before the mirror, in the air, and in an erett pofition..
246 D I O P T
paper all the objects that are on each fide of the win¬
dow (c).
If inftead of placing the mirror without the window
you place it in the room, and above the hole (which
muft then be made near the top of the (butter), you
may receive the reprefentation on a paper placed ho¬
rizontally on a table; and draw, at your leifure, all the
objects that are there painted.
Nothing can be more pleafing than this experiment,
efpecially when the objects are firongly enlightened by
the fun : and not only land profpefts, but a fea-port,
when the water is fomewhat agitated, or at the letting
of the fun, prefents a very delightful appearance.
This reprefentation affords the moft perfect model
for painters, as well for the tone of colours, as that de¬
gradation of (hades, occafioned by the interpofition of
the air, which has been fo jutlly exprefled by fome mo¬
dern painters.
It is nece(fary that the paper have a circular form ;
for otherwife, when the centre of it was in the focus
of the glafs, the two fides would be beyond it, and con-
fequently the images would be confufed. If the frame
were contrived of a fpherical figure, and the glafs
were in its centre, the reprefentation would be dill
more accurate. If the object without be at the di-
ftance of twice the focal length of the glafs, the
image in the room will be of the fame magnitude with
the object.
The lights, (hades, and colours, in the camera ob-
fcura, appear not only juft, but, by the images being
reduced to a fmaller compafs, much ftronger than in
nature. Add to this, that thefe piflures exceed all
others, by reprefenting the motion of the feveral ob-
je£ts ; thus we. fee the animals walk, run, or fly j the
clouds float in the air*, the leaves quiverj the waves
roll, &c. *, and all in drift conformity to the laws of
nature. The belt fituation for a dark chamber is di-
reftly north, and the belt time of the day is noon.
VII. To Jhow the Spots on the Sun's Di/h, by its image
in the Camera Obfcura.
Put the objeft glafs of a 10 or 12 feet telefcope
into the fcioptric ball, and turn it about till it be di-
reftly oppofite to the fun (d). Then place the pafte-
board, mentioned in the laft experiment, in the focus
of the lens; and you will fee a clear bright image of
the fun, of about an inch in diameter, in which the
fpots on the fun’s furface will be exaftly defcribed.
As this image is too bright to be feen with pleafure
by the naked eye, you may view it through a lens
whofe focus is at fix or eight inches diftance; which at
the fame time that it prevents the light from being of-
fenlive, will, by magnifying both the image and the
fpots, make them appear to greater advantage.
R I C S.
VIII, To magnify finall Objccls by means of the Sun's
Rays let into a Dark Chamber,
Let the rays of light that pafs through the lens in
the (huttcr be thrown on a large concave mirror, pro¬
perly fixed in a frame. Then take a flip or thin plate
of glafs ; and (licking any fmall objeft on it, hold it
in the incident rays, at a little more than the focal di¬
ftance from the mirror ; and you will fee on the oppo¬
fite wall, amidft the reflefted rays, the image of that
objeft, very large, and extremely clear and bright.
This experiment never fails to give the fpeftator the
higheft fatisfaftion.
IX. The Portable Camera Obfcura,
The great pleafure produced by the camera obfcura
in the common form, has excited feveral to render it
more univerfidly ufeful by making it portable, eafily
fixed on any fpot, and adapted to every profpeft. We
(hall not here examine the merits of the various forts
that have been invented ; but content ourfelves with
defcribing of two late improved conftruftions, as made
and fold by the opticians of the prefent time, and that
appear in their conftruftion the mod convenient and
advantageous of any yet contrived.
The pocket or portable camera obfcura, with a draw¬
er to draw out in the front, is reprefented in fig. 7. Fig. 7.
The images of the objefts before the inftrument are re¬
flefted upon a glafs ground rough on its upper fide,
and that is placed at top of the hinder part of the
box, under the moveable cover reprefented in the figure.
The images reprefented thereon will afford a moft beau¬
tiful and perfeft piece of perfpeftive or landfcape of
whatever is before the camera, and more particularly
fo if the fun (bines upon the objefts. The outlines of
them may eaftly be traced on the glafs by a black lead
pencil. There is fometimes a fcale of proportions
placed in the upper furface of the drawer, by which
any particular building or other objeft may be drawn
in a given proportion or magnitude, and according to
the figures inferted on the fcale, which are adapted to
the focus or foci of the lenfes made ufe of in the ca¬
mera. The glaffes that are made ufe of in this camera
are only three, and are reprefented in fig. 8. The con- Fig. 8.
vex glafs A is placed in the front of the drawer of the
camera, and is of a focus agreeable to the length of
the box. The mirror CE reclines, in the box in an
angle of 45 degrees from a perpendicular fituation.
The rays flowing from the objeft F through the con¬
vex glafs A to the plane mirror CE will be reflefted
from it, and meet in points on the glafs placed hori¬
zontally in the direftion CD, and will form thereon
the forementioned images. If on this glafs and oiled ~
paper or any other transparent fubftance be placed the
images
(c) There is another method of making the dark chamber ; which is by a fcioptric ball, that is, a ball of
wood, through which a hole is made, in which hole a lens is fixed: this ball is placed in a wooden frame, in
which it turns freely round. The frame is fixed to the hole in the (butter : and the ball, by turning about,
anfwers, in great part, the ufe of the mirror, on the outfide of the window. If the hole in the window be no
bigger than a pea, the objeft will be reprefented without any lens, though by no means fo diftinftly, or with
fuch vivid colours.
(d) When the fun is direftly oppofite to the hole, the lens will itfelf be fufficient: or by means of the mir¬
ror on the outfide window, as in Experiment VI. the lens will anfwer the purpofe at any time.
DIOPTRICS.
images will be clearly reprefented, and fufficiently fo
to delineate them by a black lead pencil or crayon. In-
ftead of the glafs CD, or fometimes underneath it, is
often placed a double convex lens of a focus fomewbat
fhorter than the length of the box j this alteration con-
fiderably brightens the appearance of the images, and
renders them as vivid as the objedls themfelves, though
not quite fo accurate in their contours or outlines as
bv the preceding method.
* Another kind of portable camera obfcura is, where
the images are formed upon white paper, and the fe-
veral parts of the camera fold up out of a box Ihaped
like a book or cheft. This way of the images being
formed on paper is a much preferable one to the pre¬
ceding method, and admits of their being traced on
the paper with the utmoft readinefs. This inftrument,
as open out of its cafe and ready for ufe, is reprefent¬
ed in fig. 9. The front and fides fold up to the height
of about two feet from the cafe EFG, by means of
hinges placed at PH, &c. The head of ABCD, about
five inches fquare and high, containing the mirror L
and the convex lens beneath it, fits on at CD, and the
inner fquare tube of it is moved up and down by rack-
work and a pinion NM. This motion ferves to adjuft
the convex lens d to its proper focal dlftance from
the white paper placed within fide at the bottom of
the box EFG, fo that the images may be formed with
the greateft poflible diftindlnefs. In tracing thefe ima¬
ges the face is applied clofe to the hole in the front at
K, and the hand in the fleeve in the front at the bot¬
tom of FG. When the fides and front are unhooked
and folded down, they all lie clofe in the box EFG,
and the lid O folds down as a top on them clofe, and
the box remains then the fize of a common folio book ;
and is covered with calf leather and lettered on the
back in perfect imitation of one.
By the diagonal pofition of a plane mirror the cu¬
rious opera glafs is conftrufted, by which any perfon
may be viewed in a theatre or public company, and yet
know nothing of it. It confifls only in placing a con¬
cave glafs near the plane mirror, in the end of a (hort
round tube, and a convex glafs in a hole in the fide of
the tube. Then holding the end of the tube with the
glafs to the eye, all objefts next to the hole in the fide
will be reflefited fo as to appear in a direft line forward,
or in a pofition at right angles to the perfon’s fituation
who is looked at. Plane glaffes inftead of a concave
and convex may be ufed \ but in this cafe there will be
no magnitude of the objedl, but it will appear brighter.
It is called by opticians the diagonal opera glafs.
X. The Magic Lantern.
This very remarkable machine, which is now known
over all the world, caufed great afionifhment at its ori¬
gin. It is {fill beheld with pleafing admiration *, and
the fpeflator very frequently contents himfelf with
wondering at its effefts, without endeavouring to in-
vefiigate their caufe. The invention of this ingenious
illufion is attributed to the celebrated P. Kircher, who
has publifhed on various fciences, works equally learn¬
ed, curious, and entertaining. Its defign is to repre-
fent at large, on a cloth or board, placed in the dark,
the images of fmall obiedls, painted with tranfparent
colours on plates of glafs.,
247
The conftru&ion is asfollows : Let ABCD (fig. 10.) Fig. 10.
be the fide of a tin box, eight inches high, eight inches
long, and ten broad (or any other fimilar dimenfions),
the top of which mud have a funnel, with a cover, as
reprefented in fig. 11. j which at the fame time it gives a Fig. 11.
paffage to the fmoke, prevents the light from coming
out of the box. In the middle of the bottom of the
box mufl be placed a low tin lamp E, which is to be
moveable. It fliould have three or four lights, that mufl
be at the height of the centre of the glaffes in the
tubes N and O. In the largefl of thefe tubes muff be
placed a glafs femiglobular lens N, about four inches
diameter •, and in the fmaller one a double convex lens
o, about 2^ inches diameter, and fix inches focus, the
length of the tubes holding them about 4I- inches each j
the inner tube containing the fmall lens o muft be a
Hiding one, in order to adjufl it at a proper diflance
from the painted Aiders, fo that the objects thereon
may be diftindtly reprefented on the cloth or white .
wall. A Ait or opening between the glafs N and
the front fide BGDH of the box muft be made large
enough to admit the Aiders to be paffed through, (as
in fig. II.). The clearnefs of the light, and the ob¬
jects upon the clofh, will depend much upon the light
of the lamp; it will therefore be proved beft, to place,
inftead of the common lamp E, a kind of the new or
Argand’s patent lamp, which will be found confider-
ably to improve the effedl of the lantern by its fuperior
ftrength of light.
From the conftru&ion of this lantern it is evident
that when the glafs Aiders, with the painted figures,
are placed in the groove or Ait in the lantern for
that purpofe, and the room darkened, a quantity of
light from the lamp at E will be colle&ed by the lens
N, and refradled upon the cloth placed oppofite, and
that by moving the Aiding tube containing the fmall
lens o gradually in or out as occafion may require,
this lens will form images of the figures on the Aiders
in their diftindl colours and proportions, with the ap¬
pearance of life itfelf, and of any fize from fix inches-
to feven feet, according to the diftance of the lantern
from the cloth. The lantern, with one of the Aiders
ready for ufe, is clearly reprefented in fig. I I. By the
aid of the new patent lamp aforementioned, confider-
able ufeful improvements are made to the lantern. . Mr
Jones, optician, of Holborn, has contrived an apparatus
to be applied to it, that converts it into a microfcope
by night, and it {hows all the variety of tranfparent
and many of the opaque objects magnified upon a
cloth or ficreen oppofite, fimiiar to the figures above
mentioned, but not in fo large a degree ; about one or ~
two feet diameter is the utmoft that can at prefent be
obtained.
Method ofpainting the Glaffes for the lantern. Draw -
on a paper the fubjedt you defire to paint, and fix
it at each end to the glafs. Provide a varnifti with
which you have mixed fome black paint; and with a
fine pencil draw on the other fide of the glafs, with
very light touches, the defign drawn on the paper. If
you are defirous of making the painting as perfeft as
poftible, you ftiould draw fome of the outlines in their
proper colours, provided they are the ftrongeft tints of
thefe colours that are ufed. When the outlines are
dry, you colour the figures with their proper tints or
degradations^.-
248 DIO PI
degradations. Tran (parent colours are moft proper for
this purpofe, fuch as carmine, lake, Pruflian blue, ver-
digrife, &c. and thefe may be tempered with a ftrong
white varnifti, to prevent their peeling off". You are
then to ftiade them with black mixed with the fame
varnifti, or with biftre, as you find convenient. You
may alfo leave ftrong lights in fome parts, without any
' colours, in order to produce a more ftriking ef¬
fect. Obferve, in particular, not to ufe more than
four or five colours, fuch as blue, red, green, and
yellow. You (hould employ, however, a great variety
of tints, to give y*ur painting a more natural air j
without which they will reprefent vulgar objedts,
which are by no means the more pleafing becaufe they
•are gawdy.
When the lamp in the lantern is lighted, and, by
drawing out the tube to a proper length, the figures
painted on the glafs appear bright and well defined,
the fpe&ator cannot fail of being highly entertained
by the fucceftion of natural or grotefque figures that
are painted on the glaffes. This piece of optics may
*be rendered much more amufing, and at the fame time
more marvellous, by preparing figures to which differ¬
ent natural motions may be given (e), which every
one may perform according to his own tafle; either by
movement in the figures themfelves, or by painting
the fubjedt on two glaffes, and palling them at the fame
'time through the groove, as will be feen in the next
t experiment.
XI. To reprefent a Tempejl by the Magic Lantern.
Fig* 12. Provide two plates of glafs, whofe frames are fo
thin that they may both pafs freely through the flit
or groove of the common magic lantern at the fame
time.
On one of thefe glaffes you are to paint the ap-
-pearance of the fea from the flighteft agitation to
"the moft violent commotion. Reprefenting from A
to B (fig. 12.) a calm ; from B to C a fmall agita¬
tion, with fome clouds j and fo on to F and G, which
fhould exhibit a furious ftorm. Obferve, that thefe re-
prefentations are not to be diftindf, but run into each
other, that they may form a natural gradation ; remem¬
ber alfo, that great part of the effcdl depends on the
perfedtion of the painting, and the pidturefque appear¬
ance of the defign.
Fig. 13. On the other glafs (fig. 13.) you are to paint veffels
of different forms and dimenfions, and in different di-
rediions, together with the appearance of clouds in the
tempeftuous parts.
You are then to pafs the glafs flowly through the
groove j and when you come to that part where the
ftorm begins, you are to move the glafs gently up and
down, which will give it the appearance of a fea that
begins to be agitated •, and fo increafe the motion till
you come to the height of the ftorm. At the fame
time you are to introduce the other glafs with the {hips,
and moving that in like manner, you will have a natu¬
ral reprefentation of the fea, and of Ihips in a calm
and in a ftorm. As you draw the glaffes flowly back,
R I C S.
the tempeft will feem to fubfide, the. Iky grow clear,
and the Ihips glide gently over the waves.—By means
of two glaffes difpofed in this manner you may likewife
reprefent a battle or fea-fight, and numberlels other
fubjedls, that every one will contrive according to his
own tafte. They may alfo be made to reprefent fome
remarkable or ludicrous adtion between different per-
fons, and many other amufements that a lively imagi¬
nation will eafily fuggeft,
XII. The Nebulous Magic Lantern.
The light of the magic lantern, and the colour of
images, may not only be painted on a cloth, but alfo
refledted by a cloud of fmoke.
Provide a box of wood or pafteboard (fig. 14.) ofpjg
about four feet high, and of feven or eight inches fquare
at bottom, but diminilhing as it alcend-., fothai its aper¬
ture at top is but fix inches long, and half an inch wide.
At the bottom of this box there mult be a door that
Ihuts quite clofe, by which you are to place in the box
a chafing-dilh with hot coals, on which is to be thrown
incenfe, whofe fmoke goes out in a cloud at the top of
the box. It is on this cloud that you are to throw the
light that comes out of the lantern, and which you
bring into a fmalier compafs by drawing out the move¬
able tube. The common figures will here fe* ve. It is
remarkable in this reprefentation, that the motion of
-the fmoke does not at all change the figures ; which
appear fo confpicuous, that the l'pedlator thinks he can
grafp them with his hand.
Note. In this experiment fome of the rays palling
through the fmoke, the reprefentation will be much lefi
vivid than on the cloth 5 and if care be not taken to
reduce the light to its fmalleft focus, it will be ftill
more imperfedt.
XIII, To produce the Appearance of a Phantom upon a
Pedefal placed on the middle of a Table.
Enclofe a common fmall magic lantern in a box
ABCD (fig. 15.) that is large enough to contain alfopjg j^
an inclined mirror M, which muft be moveable, that it
may refledl the cone of light thrown on it by the lan¬
tern, in fuch a manner that it may pafs out at the aper¬
ture made in the top of the box. There Ihould he a
flap with hinges t© cover the opening, that the infide of
the box may not be feen when the experiment is making.
This aperture Ihould likewife be oval, and of a fize
adapted to the cone of light that is to pafs through
it. There muft: be holes made in that part of the box
which is over the lantern, to let out the fmoke : and
over that part muft be placed a chafing-dilh of an ob¬
long figure, and large enough to hold feveral lighted
coals. This ehafing-dilh may be enclofed in a painted
tin box of about a foot high, and with an aperture at
top fomething like fig. 14. It Ihould Hand on four Ihort
feet, to give room for the fmoke of the lamp to pafs
out. There muft alfo be a glafs that will afeend and
defeend at pleafure in a vertical groove a b. To this
glafs let there be fixed a cord, that, going over a pul-
ley c, paffes out of the box at the fide CD, by which
the
(e) There are in the Philofophlcal Effays of M. Mufchenbroek, different method-s of performing all thefe va¬
rious movements, by lome mechanical contrivances that are not difficult to execute.
249
DIOPTRICS.
the glafs may be drawn up, and will defcend by its own
weight. On this glafs may be painted a fpedlre, or
any other more pleafing figure. Obferve, that the fi¬
gures mud be contra&ed in drawing, as the cloud of
iinoke does not cut the cone of light at right angles,
and therefore the figures will appear longer than they
do on the glafs.
After you have lighted the lamp in the lantern, and
put the mirror in a proper direction, you place the box
or pedeftal ABCD on a table 5 and putting the cha¬
fing di(h in it, throw fome incenfe in powder on the
coals. You then open a trap-door, and let down the
glafs flowly ; and, when you perceive the fmoke dimt-
nilh, you draw up the glafs, that the figure may dif-
appear, and fhut the trap-door. This appearance will
occafion no fmall furprife, as the fpeflre will feem to
rife gradually out of the pedeftal, and on drawing up
the glafs will difappear in an inilant. Obferve, that
when you exhibit this experiment, you muft put out
all the lights in the room ; and the box thould be pla¬
ced on a high table, that the fpeftators may not perceive
the aperture by which the light comes out. Though
we have mentioned a fmall magic lantern, yet the
whole apparatus may be fo enlarged, that the phantom
may appear of a formidable fize.
XIV. The Magic Theatre.
By making fome few additions to the magic lantern
with the fquare tube, ufed in Experiment X. various
fcenes, chara&ers, and decorations of a theatre, may be
reprefented in a lively manner. In this experiment it
is quite neceffary to make the lantern much larger than
common, that the objedts painted on the glaffes, being
of a larger fize, may be reprefented with greater pre-
cifion, and confequently their feveral charadters more
ftrongly marked.
*6* Let there be made a wooden box ABCD, fig. 16.
a foot and a half long, 15 inches high, and 10 wide.
Let it be placed on a Hand EF, that muft go round it,
and by which it may be fixed with two fcrews to a table.
Place over it a tin cover, as in the common lantern.
Make an opening in its two narroweft fides ; in one of
which place the tube H, and in the other the tube I :
let each of them be fix inches wide, and five inches
high : in each of thefe tubes place another that is
moveable, in order to bring the glalfes, or concave
mirror, that are contained in them, to a proper di-
ftance. In the middle of the bottom of this box place
a tin lamp M ; which muft be moveable in a groove,
that it may be placed at a proper diflance with regard
to the glaffes and mirror ; this lamp ftiould have five
or fix lights, each of them about an inch long. At
the beginning of the tube H, tow’ard the part N, make
an opening of an inch wide, which muft crofs it late¬
rally : another of three quarters of an inch, that muft
crofs it vertically, and be nearer the box than the firft j
and a third of half an inch, that muft be before the
firft. The opening made laterally muft have three or
Vol. VII. Part I.
four grooves, the fecond two, and the third one : that
different lubjefts of figures and decorations may be
paffed, either fidewife, afcending or defcending, fo
that the fctnes of a theatre may be the more exaftly
imitated (f). Enciofe thefe grooves between two con¬
vex rectangular glaffes, of fix inches long, and five
inches high, and of about 20 inches focus j one of
which muft be placed at O, and the other toward P.
Have another tube £), of about a foot long, which
muft enter that marked H •, and at its outward extre¬
mity place a lens of about 15 inches focus. There
muft alfo be a third tube R, four inches long, into
which that marked I is to enter : to the exterior end
of this adjuft a concave mirror, whofe focus mult be at
feven or eight inches from its refle&ing furface.
I he magic lantern being thus adjufted, nothing more
is neceffary than to provide glaffes, painted with fuch
fubjeCts as you would reprefent, according to the grooves
they are to enter. The lamp is then to be lighted j
and placing a glafs in one of the grooves, you draw out
the moveable tubes till the objeCt paints itfelf on a cloth
to the molt advantage : by which you determine the
diflance of the lantern and the fize of the image. You
then make a hole in the partition of that fize, and fix
in it a plate of clear glafs, over which you pafte a very
thin paper, which muft be varniftied, that it may be as
tranfparent as poflible.
On this paper are to be exhibited the images of
all thofe objeCts, that by palling fucceflively through
the grooves, are to reprefent a theatric entertain¬
ment. The exhibition will be very agreeable ; becaufe
the magic lantern being concealed behind the parti¬
tion, the caufe of the illufion cannot by any means be
difcovered.
In order to fliow more clearly in what manner a fub-
jeCt of this fort ftiould be painted, and the glaffes dif-
pofcd, we will here make choice of the fiege of Troy
for a theatric fubjeCt ; in which will be found all the
incidents neceffary to the exhibition of any other fub-
jeCt whatever.-—In the firft ad the theatre may repre¬
fent, on one fide, the ramparts of Troy j toward the
back part, the Grecian camp ; and at a farther diftance,
the fea, and the ifle of Tenedos. We will fuppofe the
time to be that when the Greeks feigned to raife the
fiege } and embarked, leaving behind them the wooden
horfe, in which were contained the Grecian foldiers.
—On a glafs, therefore, of the fame width with the
aperture made in the fide AC of the box, you are
to paint a deep blue curtain, lightly charged with or¬
naments, quite tranfparent. This glafs is to be pla¬
ced in the firft vertical groove ; fo that by letting it
gently down, its image may appear to rife in the fame
manner as the curtain of a theatre. All the glaffes
that are to afcend or defcend muft be bordered with
thin pieces of wood, and fo exaftly fill the grooves,
that they may not Aide down of themfelves.-—You
muft have feveral glaffes of a proper fize to pafs through
the horizontal grooves, and of different lengths ac¬
cording to the extent of the fubjeft. You may paint
I i on
(f) In the decorations, the clouds and the palaces of the gods ftiould defcend j caves and infernal palaces
ftiould afcend j earthly palaces, gardens, &c. enter at the fides.
250
DIOPTRICS.
on the firft, the walls of Troy. On the fecond, the
Grecian camp. On the third, the fea, the ifle of Te-
nedos, and a ferene Iky. On the fourth, the Grecian
troops by detached figures. On the fifth, other troops,
difpofed in battalions, and placed at a diftance. On
the fixth, divers vefiels, which as the glafs advances in
the groove diminilh in fize. On the feventh, the
wooden horfe and Sinon. On the eighth, Trojan men
and women.
Thefe glaffes being properly painted, you place in
the horizontal groove the firft, fecond, third, and
fourth. Then draw up the curtain, by letting dotvn
the glafs on which it is painted, and draw away gently
the fourth glafs, and after that the fecond $ then ad¬
vance very gently the fifth that reprefents the em-
barkment, and pafs it quite through. Next pafs, the
oppofite way, the fixth, which reprefents the Grecian
fleet. The objects painted on the fourth, fifth, and
fixth, quite difappearing, you are to advance the feventh,
on which is painted the wooden horfe ; and at the fame
time the eighth, where the Trojans will appear to draw
the horfe into the city. The curtain is then to be let
down, that you may withdraw the fcenes of the firft
aft, and place in the grooves thofe that are to compofe
the fecond.—In the fecond aft may be reprefented the
interior part of the city of Troy •, on one fide may be
feen the wooden horfe, and in the back part the temple
of Pallas. The glaffes for this aft may be painted in
the following manner. On the firft may be palaces and
houfes, reprefenting the infide of a city. On the fe¬
cond the temple of Pallas in the centre, with a clear
night and the moon. In the front may be feen the
wooden horfe, that the Trojans have placed near the
temple of Pallas. On the third, a troop of Greeks,
with Sinon at their head, who are going to open the
gates of the city to the Grecians. On the fourth, dif¬
ferent troops of armed Greeks, painted on a long glafs,
to afford variety. On the fifth, feveral troops of Tro¬
jans. On the fixth, various appearances of fire and
fmoke, fo difpofed, that this glafs being drawn up
above the others, the objefls painted on the firft glafs
may appear in a conflagration.
Before you draw up the curtain, you fhould place
the firft and fecond glaffes. You then pafs the whole
third glafs flowly •, a little after, the fourth, on which
are painted the different bodies of armed Greeks 5 and
at the fame time, from the oppofite fide, the fixth glafs,
that reprefents the Trojan troops ; obferving to move
them flowly both in advancing and retreating, to imi¬
tate a combat (g). Then draw up, by degrees, the
fixth, on which are painted the fire, flame, and fmoke,
fo that the palaces and houfes painted on the firft glafs
may appear to take fire gradually, and at laft prefent
a general conflagration. After having reprefented thefe
incidents with the greateft attention, you let fall the
curtain to prepare for the third adl. In this may be
reprefented the infide of Priam’s palace j where is feen
an altar, round which feveral Trojan princeffts appear,
who have fled thither for fafety. On the firft glafs
may be painted the palace. On the fecond, a view of
the back part of the palace, with the altar. On the
third, Priam with feveral Trojan men and women. On
the fourth, Pyrrhus and a troop of Greeks. On the
fifth, the fame aftors, with the palace in flames. On
the fixth, a conflagration.—The two firft glaffes which
are to be drawn up, ftiould be placed before you raife
the curtain. Then pafs the third j next advance the
fourth ; which being drawn up, difcovers on the fifth
the palace in flames ; then drawing up the fixth, let
down the firft, that the palace may appear entirely de-
ftroyed by the conflagration.
The fourth aft may reprefent the environs of Troy,
with a diftant profpeft of the fea. The firft and third
glaffes of the firft aft may be here ufed j to which may
be added a third, reprefenting /Eneas bearing his fa¬
ther Anchifes, followed by his fon lulus and fome
Trojans. With this glafs may be reprefented the flight
of the Trojans j and the embarkment of iEneas with
another glals, on which are painted certain veffels.—
To this aft the following fcenes may be added : The
cave of jEoIus j the back part of the cave j jEolus j
the winds ; Juno in her chariot.
The fifth afl fhould reprefent the open fea, with the
fleet of jEneas failing for Italy. On the firft glafs
muft be painted the fea, as in the eleventh experiment,
or elfe the waves fhould be imitated by another glafs
under the firft. On the fecond, the Trojan fleet. On
the third, Neptune in his car. On the fourth, the pa¬
lace of Jupiter. On the fifth, the infide of the palace j
the gods affembled in council, with Venus obtaining
leave of Jupiter for .Eneas to land in Italy.—After
having placed the firft glaff, that reprefents a calm fea,
the curtain is raifed, and the fecond fcene is advanced,
which contains the Trojan fleet. The firft is then
brought forward, to reprefent a violent tempeft : then
railing the third glafs, Neptune appears, who com¬
mands the waves to be ftil], which is done by making
the tempeft fubfide by degrees. The fleet then ad¬
vances, and paffes over the whole theatre ; prefently
after the fourth and fifth fcenes defcend, that reprefent
Olympus, and finifh the exhibition.
Note, We muft here repeat, that if you would re¬
prefent a fubjedt of this fort to advantage, it is quite
neceffary that the glaffes be well painted ; and thofe
that are to be in front fhould be in ftronger and more
opaque colours, that the images of thofe behind may
not appear mixed with them, which will be the cafe
if they are all equally tranfparent. The glaffes fhould
alfo be of different lengths ; that fome being placed be¬
fore the others and drawn away, their extremities may
not be perceived.
The larger thefe fubjedls are reprefented, the better
effedt they will have : the front of the theatre fhould
appear to be about three feet wide ; and if fome parts
of the figures were moveable, it would ftill add to the
variety of the entertainment.
DIOSCOREA,
(g) He that moves the glaffes, feeing the effedt they produce, is the better able to render the reprefentation
as natural as poflible.
r L A 7 'hi CL AAV.
DIO [2;
)fcorea DIOSCOREA, a genus of plants belonging to the
|| dicecia clafs •, and in the natural method ranking under
Gpolites. tjie nth order, Sarmentacece. See Botany Index.
-v -j'he only remarkable and ufeful fpecies is the bulbb
fera or yam. The roots of it are eaten by the inhabi¬
tants of both the Indies-, and are particularly ferviceable
in the Weft India iflands, where they make the greateft
part of the negroes food. The plant is fuppofed to have
been brought "from the Eaft to the Weft Indies-, for it
has never been obferved to grow wild in any part of A-
merica ; but in the ifland of Ceylon, and on the coaft of
Malabar, it grows in the woods, and there are in thofe
places, a great variety of forts. It is propagated by
cutting the root in pieces, obferving to preferve an eye
in each, as is pra&ifed in planting potatoes. One
plant will produce three or four large roots. The Ikin
of thefe roots is pretty thick, rough, unequal, covered
with many ftringy fibres or filaments, and of a violet
colour approaching to black. The infide is white, and
of the confiftence of red beet. It refembles the pota¬
to in its mealinefs, but is of a clofer texture. When
raw, the yams are vifcous and clammy ; when roafted
or boiled, they afford very nouriftiing food; and are of¬
ten preferred to bread by the inhabitants of the Weft
Indies, on account of their lightnefs and facility of di-
geftion. When firft dug out of the ground, the roots
are placed in the fun to dry; after which they are ei¬
ther put into fand, dry garrets, orcafks; where, if kept
from moifture, they may be preferred whole years,
without being fpoiled or diminiibed in their goodnefs.
The root commonly weighs two or three pounds ;
though fome yams have been found upwards of 20
pounds weight.
DIOSCORIDES, a phyfician of Cilicia, who lived,
as fome fuppofe, in the age of Nero. He was origi¬
nally a foldier ; but afterwards he applied himfelf to
ftudy, and wrote a book upon medicinal herbs.
DIOSCURIA from A<05, Jupiter, and
infants), in antiquity, a feftival in honour of the
Afocrxat^, or Caftor and Pollux, who were reputed to
be the fons of Jupiter. It was obferved by the Cyre-
neans, but more efpecially by the Spartans, whofe
country was honoured by the birth of thefe heroes.
The folemnity was full of mirth, being a time wherein
they (hared plentifully of the gifts of Bacchus, and
diverted themfelves with fports, of which wreftling
matches always made a part.
DIOSMA, African Spir^a, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking with thofe of which the order is doubt¬
ful. See Botany Index.
DIOSPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a city of the
Delta, or Lower Egypt ; to the fouth of the Bufiri-
tic branch, before it divides into two.—Another of
Bithynia, in the territory of Heraclea.—A third
called Magna, denoting Thebae of the Higher Egypt.
—A fourth, Diofpo/is Parva, the metropolis of the
Nomos Diofpolites of the Higher Egypt. A fifth
Diofpolis of Samaria, the fame with Lydda.—A fixth
Diofpolis, the ancient name of Laodicea of Phrygia, on
the Lycus.
DIOSPOLITES NOMOS, (Ptolemy,) a divifion of
Thebais or the Higher Egypt, to diftinguifh it from
another of the Lower Egypt or the Delta ; to the
i ] DIP
fouth of the Nomos Thinites, on the weft fide of the DiofpoKtes
Nile. . il
DIOSPYROS, the Indian Date Plum ; a genus
of plants belonging to the polygamia clafs ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 18th order, Bicor-
nes. See Botany Index.
DIPHTHONG, in Grammar, a double vowel, ot
the mixture of two vowels pronounced together, fo as
to make one fyllable.
The Latins pronounced the two vowels in their diph¬
thongs ae, or se, oe or ce, much as we do; only that
the one was heard much weaker than the other, though
the divifion was made with all the delicacy imaginable.
Diphthongs, with regard to the eyes, are diftinguiftied
from thofe with regard to the ears : in the former ei¬
ther the particular found of each vowel is heard in the
pronunciation ; or the found of one of them is drown¬
ed ; or laftly, a new found, different from either, re-
fults from both : the firft of thefe only are real diph¬
thongs, as being fuch both to the eye and ear. Diph¬
thongs with regard to the ear are either formed of
two vowels meeting in the fame fyllable, or whofe
founds are feverally heard ; or of three vowels in the
fame fyllable, which only afford two founds in the pro¬
nunciation.
Englifti diphthongs, with regard to the eye and ear,
are ai, au, ea, ee, ei, 00, ou. Improper Englifti diph¬
thongs, with regard to the eye only, are aa, ae, eo, eu,
ie, ei, oe, ue, m.
DIPLOE, in Anatomy, the foft meditullium, or
medullary fubftance which lies between the two la¬
minae of the bones of the cranium. See Anatomy
Index.
DIPLOMA. See Diplomatics.
In a peculiar fenfe, it is ufed for an inftrument or
licenfe given by colleges, focieties, &.c. to a clergy¬
man toexercife the minifterial fun&ion, or to a phyfician
to pra&ife the profeflion, &c. after pafling examination,
or admitting him to a degree.
DIPLOMATICS, the feience of diplomas, or oiBielfield's
ancient literary monuments, public documents, &c. \iElctnents%
does not however, nor can it, abfolutely extend its re-
fearches to antiquity ; but is chiefly confined to the
middle age, and the firft centuries of modern times.
For though the ancients were accuftomed to reduce
their contrafts and treaties into writing ; yet they gra¬
ved them on tables, or covered them over with wax, of
brafs, copper, (tone, or wood, &c. And all that in
the firft ages were not traced on brafs or marble, has
periftied by the length of time, and the number of de-
ftrudlive events.
1. The word diploma fignifies properly a letter of
epiftle, that is folded in the middle, and that is not
open. But, in more modern times, the title has been
given to all ancient epiftles, letters, literary monu¬
ments, and public documents, and to all thofe pieces of
writing which the ancients called Syngraphia Chirogra-
pha, Codicilli, &c. In the middle age, and in the di¬
plomas themfelves, thefe writings are called Littera-,
Pracepta, Placita Charter ndiculce, Sagilla, and Bullce;
asalfo Panchar tee, Pantochartce, Tra&orice, Defcriptiones,
&c. The originals of thefe pieces are named Exam-
p/aria, or Autographa, Charter authenticer, Origina/ia, Sec.
and the copies, Apngrapha, Copier, Particulcr, and fo
I i 2 forth.
DIP [ 252 ] DIP
Diploma- forth. The colleftions that have been made of them
rics. are called Chartaria and Chartulia. The place where
-•—y™ ' tjjgfe papers and documents were kept, the ancients
named Scrinia. 'Tahidariutn, or JErariuin, words that
were derived from the tables of brafs, and, according
to the Greek idiom, Archeium or Archivum.
2. In order to underttand the nature of thefe ancient
papers, diplomas, and manuferipts, and to diftinguifh
the authentic from the counterfeit, it is neceifary to
know that the paper of the ancients came from Egypt,
and was formed of thin leaves or membranes, taken
from the branches of a tree named Papyrus, or Biblum
JEgyptiacum, and which were pafted one over the other
with the flime of the Nile, and were preffed and po-
lifhed with a pumice done. This paper was very fcarce ;
and it was of various qualities, forms, and prices, which
they diftinguifhed by the name of charta hieratica, lu~
ria, augujla, arnphitlieatrica, fditica, tanirica, emporetica,
&c. They cut this paper into fquare leaves, which
they palled one to the other, in order to make rolls of
them : from whence an entire book was called volutnen,
from volvendo; and the leaves of which it confided,
pagince. Sometimes, alfo, they palled the leaves all
together by one of their extremities, as is now prac-
tifed in binding •, by this method they formed the back
of a book, and thefe the learned called codices. They
rolled the volume round a flick, which they named
umbilicus ; and the two ends that came out beyond the
paper, cornua. The title, wrote on parchment, in pur¬
ple characters, was joined to the laft Iheet, and ferved
it as a cover. They made ufe of all forts of firings
or ribbands, and even fometimes of locks, to clofe the
book *, and fometimes alfo it was put into a cafe. But
there is not now to be found, in any library or cabi¬
net whatever, any one of thefe volumes. We have been
allured, however, by a traveller, that he had feen feve-
ral of them in the ruins of Herculaneum $ but fo dama¬
ged, the paper fo ftiff and brittle, by the length of time,
that it was impoflible to unrol them, and confequently
to make ufe of any of them j for on the firfl touch they
fell into (hatters.
3. We are ignorant of the precife time when our
modern paper was invented ; and when they began to
make ufe of pens in writing, inftead of the ftalks of
reeds. The ink that the ancients ufed, was not made
of vitriol and galls, like the modern, but of foot. Some¬
times alfo they wrote with red ink made of vermilion 5
or in letters of gold, on purple or violet parchment. It
is not difficult for thofe who apply themfolves to this
ftudy, to diftinguifh the parchment of the ancients
from that of the moderns, as well as their ink and va¬
rious exterior charadters : but that which beft diftin-
guiffies the original from the counterfeit is, the writing
or charadler itfelf; which is fo diftindtly different from
one century to another, th*t we may tell with certain¬
ty, within about 40 or 50 years, when any diploma
was written. There are two works which furnifh the
cleareft lights on thh matter, and which may ferve as
fure guides in the judgments we may have occafion to
make on what are called ancient diplomas. The one
is the celebrated treatife on the Diplomatic, by F.
Mabillon ; and the other, the firfl: volume of the Chro-
nicon Gotvicenfe. We there find fpecimens of all the
charadlers, the flourilhes, and different methods of writ¬
ing, of every age. For thefe matters, therefore, we
2
muft refer our readers to thofe authors j and lhall here
only add, that,
4. Ail the diplomas are written in Latin, and confe¬
quently the letters and charadters have a refemblance
to each other : but there are certain ftrokes of the pen
which diftinguiffi not only the ages, but alfo the different
nations 5 as the writings of the Lombards, French
Saxons, &c. The letters in the diplomas are alfo ufually
longer, and not fo ftrong as thofe of manuferipts.
There has been alfo introduced a kind of court hand,
of a very difproportionate length, and the letters of
which are called Exiles lit ter ce crifpec, ac protraBiores.
The firft line of the diploma, the fignature of the fo-
vercign, that of the chancellor, notary, &c. are ufually
wrote in this charadter.
5. The fignature of a diploma confifts either of the
fign of the crofs, or of a monogram or cipher, com-
pofed of the letters of the names of thofe who fub-
feribed it. The initial letters of the name, and fome¬
times alfo the titles, were placed about this crofs. By
degrees the cuftom changed, and they invented other
marks, as for example, the fign of Charlemagne was
thus :
R
L
They fometimes alfo added the dates and epoch of
the fignature, the feafts of the church, the days of the
kalendar, and other like matters. The fucceffive cor¬
ruption of the Latin language, the ftyle and ortho¬
graphy of each age, as well as their difterent titles and
forms j the abbreviations, accentuation, and pundluation,
and the various methods of writing the diphthongs j
all thefe matters united, form fo many charadfers and
marks by which the authenticity of a diploma is to be
known.
6. The feal annexed to a diploma was anciently of
white wax, and artfully imprinted on the parchment
itfelf. It was afterwards pendant from the paper, and
inclofed in a box or cafe, which they called bulla.
There are fame alfo that are damped on metal, and
even on pure gold. When a diploma bears all the
charadfers that are requifite to the time and place
where it is fuppofed to be written, its authenticity is
not to be doubted : but at the fame time we cannot
examine them too fcrupuloufly, feeing that the monks
and priefts of former ages have been very adroit in
making of counterfeits, and the more as they en¬
joyed the confidence of princes and ftatefmen, and
were even fometimes in poffeffion of their rings or
feals.
7. With regard to manuferipts that were wrote be¬
fore the invention of printing, it is neceffary (1.) to
know their nature, their effential qualities, and matter j
(2.) to be able to read them freely, and without error;
(3.) to judge of their antiquity by thofe charadlers
which we have juft mentioned with regard to the di¬
plomas; and (4.) to render them of ufe in the fciences.
As there are. fcarce any of the ancient codes now re¬
maining (fee par. 2.), wrote on the Egyptian paper,
or on wood, ivory, &c. we have only to confider thofe
that are written on parchment or vellum (membraneos),
and fuch as are wrote on our paper (chartaceos). The
formes
DIP [ 253 ] DIP
, former of tliefe are in moft efteem. With regard to
tics the chara&er, thefe codes are written either in fquare
II and capital letters, or in half fquare, or round and fmall
ippmg. Thofe of the firft kind are the moft ancient.
1 'jqiere are no intervals between the words, no letters
different from the others at the beginning of any word,
no points, nor any other diftin&ion. The codes which
are wrote in letters that are half fquare, referable thofe
we have in Gothic charafters, as well for the age as
the form of the letters. Such as are wrote in round let¬
ters are not fo ancient as the former, and do not go
higher than the ninth or tenth century. Thefe have
fpaces between the words, and fome pun&uation. They
are likewife not fo well wrote as the preceding, and
are frequently disfigured with comments. The codes
are divided, according to the country, into Lombard,
Italian, Gaulic, Franco-Gaulic, Saxon, Anglo-Saxon,
&c.
8. In the ancient Greek books, they frequently ter¬
minated the periods of a difcourfe, inftead of all other
divifion, by lines ; and thefe divifions were called, in
Latin, verfus, from vertendo : for which reafon thefe
lines are (till more properly named verfus than lincce.
At the end of a work, they put down the number of
verfes of which it confided, that the copies might be
more eafily collated : and it is in this fenfe we are to
underftand Trebonius, when he fays, that the Pande£ls
contain 1 50,000 pcene verfuum. Thefe codes were like¬
wife ve!probese vel deletions notee, more or lefs perfect,
not only with regard to the calligraphy or beauty of
the character, but to the correction ot the text alfo.
9. It is likewife neceflary to obferve, in ancient
codes, the abbreviation*, as they have ‘ 3en ufed in dif¬
ferent centuries. Thus, for example, A. C. D. figni-
fies Aulus Caius Decimus •, Ap. Cn. Appius Cneius 5
Aug. Imp. Auguftus Iraperator. The characters that
are called notce, are fuch as are not to be found in the
alphabet ; but which, notwithftanding, fignify certain
words. All thefe matters are explained in a copious
manner by Voflius, and in the Chronicon Gotvicenfe.
Laftly, The learned divide all the ancient codes into
codices minus raros, ranores, editos, et anecdotos. 1 he
critical art is here indifpenfably neceffary : its re-
fearches, moreover, have no bounds j and the more, as
the ufe of it augments every day, by the difeoveries
that are made in languages, and by the increafe of
erudition.
DIPONDIUS, in the feripture language, is ufed
bv St Luke to fignify a certain coin which w7as of very
little value. Our tranflation of the paffage is, “ Are
not two fparrows fold for two farthings ?*’ In St Mat¬
thew, who relates the fame thing, we read, “ Are not
two fparrows fold for a farthing ?” The Greek reads
affarion inftead of as. Now affarion^ as fome fay, was
Worth half an ar, that is to fay, four French demtrs
and -^-th ; and, according to others, two deniers and
Y-yths. Dipondius feems rather to fignify half an as.
Calmet, DiCiion. Bibl. Luke xii. 6. Matt. x. 29.
Dr Arbuthnot differs in opinion from the author laft
quoted. He fays, that this coin was at firft hbralis, or
of a pound weight ; and even when diminiihed, it re¬
tained fhe name of libella. So that dipondius denotes
two 'ffe*.
DIPPING, among miners, fignifies the interrup¬
tion or breaking off the veins of ore 5 an accident that
gives them a great deal of trouble before they can dif- Dipping,
cover the ore again. A great deal of the Ikill of the Dipping
miners confifts in the underltanding this dipping of the e(~( e* ,
veins, and knowing how to manage in it. In Corn¬
wall they have this general rule to guide them in this
refpeCl : moft of their tin-loads, which run from eaft
to weft, conftantly dip towards the north. Sometimes
they underlie; that is, they Hope down towards the
north, three feet in height perpendicular. This muft:
carefully be obferved by the miners, that they may
exaClly know where to make their air-lhafts when occa-
fion requires 5 yet, in the higher mountains of Dart-
maer, there are fome confiderable loads, which run
north andfouth ; thefe always underlie towards the eaft.
Four or five loads may run nearly parallel to each
other in the fame hill 5 and yet, which is rare, they
may meet altogether in one hatch, as it were a knot,
which well tins the place, and fo feparate again, and
keep their former diltances.
DIPPING Needle, an inftrument ufed for obferving
the quantity of inclination towards the earth, affumed
by any needle or other body after it has acquired the
magnetic virtue. This was firft obferved by one Ro¬
bert Norman, an Engliftraian, and maker of compaffes
for mariners, in the end of the 16th century 5 who
finding that he was always obliged to counterbalance
that end which turns to the north by a bit of wax or
fuch other fubftance, though the balance had been
ever fo exaCt before, publiftied an account of his dif-
covery as a matter of importance. The fubjeCt was
inftantly attended to ; and inftruments were not only
contrived for afeertaining the quantity of the dip, but
various fpeculations formed concerning the caufe of
fuch a furprifing phenomenon.
The general phenomena of the dipping needle are :
that about the equatorial parts of the earth it remains
in a horizontal pofition, but depreffes one end as we
recede from thefe *, the north end, if we go towards
the north, and the fouth end, if we proceed towards
the fouth pole. The farther north or fouth that we go,
the inclination becomes the greater •, but there is no
place of the globe hitherto difeovf red where it points
directly downwards, though it is fuppofed that it would
do fo in fome part very near the pole. Its inclination
is likewife found to vary very confiderably at different
times in different places of the earth, and by fome
changes of fituation, in fuch a manner as muft appear
at firft fight very unaccountable. Of all thofe who
have attempted the xnveftigation of this obfeure fub-
je61, none have been more fuccefsful than M. Cavallo,
who in his Treatife on Magnetifm has given particular
attention to all the phenomena, and accounted for them
upon plain and rational principles, in the following
manner :
The dip of the magnetical needle in general may be
underftood from the following eafy experiment :—
Lay an oblong magnent horizontally upon a table, and
over it. fufpend another fmaller magnet (a fewing needle
to which the magnetic virtue has been communicated
will anfwer the purpofe"), in fuch a manner as to re¬
main in a horizontal pofition when not difturbed by
another magnet. Now, if this laft fmall magnet or
fewing needle, fufpended by the middle, be brought
juft over the middle of the large one, it will turn itfelf
in fuch a manner that the fouth pole of the fmall mag¬
net
Dipping
Needle.
D' 1 P t 25+ ] DIP
net will point towards the north pole of the large one j
and if at an equal diftance from both, will remain in
a horizontal pofition. But if we move it nearer to
one of the poles than the other, it wTill readily be un-
derftood that the correfponding end of the needle will
be attracted by the pole to which it approaches, and
of confequence inclined downwards ; the contrary end
being proportionably elevated. It is likewife evident,
that this inclination will be greater or lefs according
to the diftance at which the fmall magnet is placed from
the pole of the large one ; the attraction of the nearefl:
pole having always the greateft effect upon it. And
it is equally plain, that when brought diredtly over one
of the poles of the large magnet, it will turn its own
contrary one directly towards it, and thus lie exaflly
in the axis of the large one.
The application of this experiment to the pheno¬
mena of the dipping needle is obvious, as nothing
more is requifite for folving the whole myftery than to
fuppofe the earth itfelf to be the large magnet, and the
magnetic needle or any other magnetic body the fmall
magnet in the experiment: for admitting that the north
pole of the earth poffeffes a fouth magnetifm, and that
the oppofite pole is poffeffed of a north magnetical
polarity j it appears, and the theory is confirmed by
experiment, that when a magnet is fufpended properly
in the equatorial parts of the world, it muft remain in
a horizontal pofition ; but when removed nearer to
one of the poles, it mufl: decline one of its extremities,
viz. that which is poffeffed of the contrary magnetic
polarity, and that this inclination mufl; increafe in
proportion as the magnet or magnetic needle recedes
from the equator of the earth j and, laftly, when brought
exadtly upon either of the poles of the earth it mufl:
Hand perpendicular to the ground, or in the fame di¬
rection with the axis of the earth.
The only difficulty in this explanation arifes from
the attributing a fouth magnetifm to the north pole
of the earth : but by this our author means only that
its magnetifm is contrary to that end of the magnetic
needle which turns towards it ; and in the fame man¬
ner it muft be underftood, that the fouth pole of the
earth has a north magnetic polarity.
If the extremities of the axis of the earth, or the
poles about which it performs its diurnal revolution,
coincided with its magnetic poles, or even if the mag¬
netic poles were always at a certain diftance from them,
the inclination of the needle would be always the fame
at equal dlftanees from the equator, and might be very
ufeful for determining the latitudes. But it would
feem, that thefe poles are perpetually fhifting their
place, fince both the inclination and horizontal direc¬
tion of the needle are continually varying even in the
fame place, fo that its quantity of inclination cannot
be exaCtly calculated. Two general remarks maybe
made upon this fubjeCt. I. That the inclination of
the needle does not alter regularly in going from north
to fouth, or from fouth to north, in any meridian.—
2. That its alteration in the fame place, and at differ¬
ent times, is but fmall. Thus, 'in London, about the
year 1576, the dip was 710 50' below the horizon, and
in 1775 it flood at 720 3'; the alteration in near 200
years fcarce amounting to three quarters of a degree j
which may be attributed to the errors of the inftru-
ments 5 as thefe were at firft exceedingly erroneous,
and even yet are far from being arrived at perfec- Dipping
tion. Needle
The general method of conftruCting dipping needles II
is, to pafs an axis quite through the needle itfelf, and ,
to let the extremities of the axis reft upon two fupports, J
like the beam of a pair of fcales, that the needle may
move vertically round 5 and hence, when placed in the
magnetic meridian, it will naturally affume that pofi¬
tion which is called the magnetic line, viz. the two ends
nearly north and fouth, and one of them inclined con-
fiderably to the horizon. The degrees of the inclina¬
tion are ftiown upon a graduated circle j and when the
inftrument is made ufe of at land it has a ftand, but
at fea a ring is neceffary to fufpend it. When furnifti-
ed with a ftand, it has alfo a fpirit-level j and the ftand
has three fcrevvs, by which the. whole is adjufled in
fuch a manner as to let the centre of motion in the
needle, and the mark of 90° on the lower part of the
divided circle, be exaCtly in the fame line perpendicu¬
lar to the horizon.
The greateft imperfeCfion& attending this inftrument
are the balancing of the needle itfelf, and the difficul¬
ty of knowing whether, after being made magnetic, it
be properly balanced or not. The inaccuracy here in¬
deed can be but very fmall, as arifing only from dull
or moifture. The method recommended by Mr Ca-
vallo to obviate thefe inconveniences, is firft to obferve
the dip of the needle j then to reverfe its magnetifm
by the application of magnets, fo that the end of it
which before was elevated above the horizon may now
be below it j and, laftly, to obferve its dip again j for
a mean of the two obfervations will be pretty near the
truth, though the needle may not be perfedtly balan¬
ced. See Magnetism and Magnetical Needle.
DIPSACUS, Teazel j a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the tetrandria clafs j and in the natural method
ranking under the 48th order, Aggregate. See Bo-
TAY Index.
DIPSAS, a fort of ferpent, the bite of which pro¬
duces fuch a thirft as proves mortal j whence its name
dipfas, which fignifies thirfty. In Latin it is called
Jitula, “ a pail.” Mofes fpeaks of it in Deut. viii. 15.
DIPTERA (from £, and 5rrt|o», wing'), in Zoologyy
an order of infe£ts, which have only two wings, and
under each wing a ftyle, or oblong body, terminated
by a protuberance or head, and called a balancer. See
Entomology Index.
DIPTOTES, in are fuch nouns as have
only two cafes, as fuppetice,fuppetias, &c.
DIPTYCH A, in antiquity, a public regifter, where¬
in were written the names of the confuls, and other
magiftrates, among the heathens j and of biftiops, and
defunft as well as furviving brethren, among the
Chriftians.
The word is formed from the Greek 'ihTrrvyjm, or
eitTrrwx,*, and that from chxTvZ, a mafculine noun de¬
rived from TTTvriru, 1 fold or plait. From its future
is formed a fold or plait, to which add¬
ing twice, we have in the genitive 'SnrTvws,
whence the nominative neuter q. d. a book
folded in two leaves ; though there were fome in three,
and others in four or five leaves. An ingenious au¬
thor imagines this name to have been firft given them,
to diftinguilh them from the books that were rolled,
called volumina.
3
It
DIR [ 255 ] D I S
, Jt is certain there were profane diptycha in the
'IP || Greek empire, as well as facred ones in the Greek
9irt#ion church. The former were the matricula, or regifters,
wherein the names of the magiftrates were enter¬
ed : in which fenfe diptyeha is a term in the Greek
chancery.
Sacred DlPTTCHA. The word is plural ; diptycha
being a double catalogue, in one whereof were writ¬
ten the names of the living, and in the other thofe of
the dead, which were to be rehearfed during the office.
We meet with fomething not unlike the facred dip¬
tycha of the Greeks, in the canon of the mafs accord¬
ing to the Latin ufage ; where the people are enjoin¬
ed to pray once for the living, and once for the dead ;
feveral faints are invoked in different times, &c. In
thefe diptycha were entered the names of biffiops, who
bad governed their flock aright; and thefe were never
expunged out of the fame, unlefs they were convi&ed
of herefy, or fome other grofs crime. In the diptycha
were likewife entered the names of fuch as had done
any fignal fervice to the church, whether they were
living or dead, and mention was made of them in the
celebration of the liturgy.
Cafaubon, in his obfervations on Athenaeus, lib. vi.
cap. 14. fuppofes the Chriftians to have borrowed the
cuftom of writing names in a book, and rehearfing
them at mafs, from the heathens, who entered the
names of perfons they would do any fignal honour to,
in the verfes of the Salii ; as was done to Germanicus
and Verus, fons of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, and
a long time before, during the age of the republic, to
Mamercus Veturius, and Lucia Volumnia, as we are
told by Tacitus, lib. ii. Spartian, Ovid, Feflus, Plu¬
tarch, &c. But Fa. Rofweyd does not approve this
notion of Cafaubon. The pretended St Dionyfius, a
very ancient author, fays the contrary, and afferts the
firft eftabliffiment of this ufage to have been founded
on Scripture, 2 Tim. ii. 19. Pfal. cxvi. 15. Rofweyd
adds Ecclefiaftic. xliv. 1. and takes thefe to have been
the paffages the ancient church had a view to, rather
than the Salian verfes.
The profane diptycha were frequently fent as pre-
fents to princes, &c. on which occafions they were fine¬
ly gilt, and embelliffied ; as appears from Symmachus,
lib. ii. ep. 81. Thofe prefented were ufually of ivory.
The firft laiv, De Expenf. Ludor. C. I'heod. forbids
all magiftrates below confuls to make prefents of dip¬
tycha of ivory in the public ceremonies.
DIR/E, the general name of the three furies in the
Pagan fyftem of theology. They were fo called, as
being quaji Deorum irce, the minifters of divine ven¬
geance in punithing guilty fouls after death. I bey
were the daughters of Night and Acheron. See Fu¬
ries.
DIRCA, a genus of plants belonging to the oftan-
dria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 31ft order, Veprecu/ce. See Botany Index.
DIRECT, in Arithmetic, is when the proportion of
any terms, or quantities, is in the natural or direcft or¬
der in which they ftand, being the oppofite to inverfe,
which confiders the proportion in the inverted order of
the rerms. So, 3 : 4 :: 6 : 8 directly; or 3 : 4 :: 8 : 6
invrrfely.
DIRECTION, in Mechanics, fignifies the line or
path of a body’s motion, along which it endeavours to
proceed according to the force impreffed upon it. See Dire&ion
Mechanics. II..
Direction, in Ajlronomy, the motion and other Di <'ablllty;
phenomena of a planet when direft.
Direction, in Ajlrology, is a kind of calculus, by
which it is pretended to find the time in which any
notable accident (hall befal the perfon whofe horofcope
is drawn.
DIRECTOR, in commercial polity, a perfon who
has the management of the affairs of a trading com¬
pany : thus we fay, the directors of the India Compa¬
ny, South Sea Company, &c. See Company.
The directors are confiderable proprietors in the
flocks of their refpedtive companies, being cholen by
plurality of votes from among the body of proprietors.
The Dutch Eaft India Company had formerly 60 fuch
direftors ; that of France, 21 : The Britiffi Eaft India
Company has 24,.including the chairman, who may
be re-eleiled for four years fucceffively. The laft have
falaries of 150I. a-year each, and the chairman 200I.
They meet at leaft once a-week, and commonly oftener,
being fummoned as occafion requires. The diredlors
of the Bank of England are 24 in number, including
the governor and deputy-governor.
DIRECTOR, in Surgery, a grooved probe, to direft
the edge of the knife or fciffars in opening finufes or
fiftulse, that by this means the adjacent velfels, nerves,
and tendons, may remain unhurt. See Surgery In¬
dex.
DIRIBITORES, among the Romans, officers ap¬
pointed to diftribute tablets to the people at the comi-
tia. See CoMITIA.
DIRIGENT, or Directrix, a term in geometry,
fignifying the line of motion, along which the defcrib-
ent line or furface is carried in the genefis of any plane
or folid figure.
D1S, an infeparable article prefixed to divert words ;
the effeft whereof is either to give them a fignification
contrary to what the Ample words have, as difoblige,
difobey, &t.c.or to fignify a feparation, detachment,
&c. as difpo/ing, dijlributing.
Dis, a town of Norfolk, feated on the river Wave-
nay, on the fide of a hill. It is a neat flourifhing town,
with one large church, a Prefbyterian and a Quaker
meeting. It has about 600 good houfes ; the ftreels
are well paved, pretty wide, and always clean. At
the weft end of the town is a large meer or lake ; but
fo muddy, that the inhabitants can make no other ufe
of it but in catching of eels. In the town are carried
on manufaftories of failcloth, hofe, and the making of
flays. E. Long. 1. 16. N. Lat. 52. 25.
Dis, a god of the Gauls, the fame as Pluto the god
of hell. The inhabitants of Gaul fuppofed themfelves
defeended from that deity.
DISA, a genus of plants belonging to the gynan-
dria clafi. See Botany Index.
DISABILITY, in Law, is when a man is difabled,
or made incapable to inherit any lands, or take that
benefit which otherwife he might have done : and this
may happen four wavs ; by the n£t of an aneeftor, or
of the party hirnfelf, by the adl of God, or of the
law. 1. Difability bv the aft of the anceftor, L where
the anceftor is attainted of high treafon, &c. which
coirupts the blood of his children, fo that they may
not inherit his eftate, 2. Difability by the aft of the
party.
BIS [ 256 ] BIS
Difability party, is where a man binds himfelf by obligation, that,
|| upon furrender of a leafe, he will grant a new eftate
Difcipline. a ieflfee j anc1 afterwards he grants over the rever-
' " v'^on another) which puts it out of his power to per¬
form it. 3. Difability by the act of God, is where a
man is non fanec incmorice, whereby he is incapable to
make any grant, &c. So that, if he paffeth an eftate ,
out of him, it may after his death be made void ; but
it is a maxim in law, “ That a man of full age ftiall
never be received to difable his own perfon.” 4. Dif¬
ability by the adt of the law, is where a man by the
law, without any thing by him done, is rendered in¬
capable of the benefit of the law ; as an alien born,
&c.
DISANDRIA, a genus of plants, belonging to
the heptandria clafs. See Botany Index.
Islands of DISAPPOINTMENT, a clufter of
fmall iflands, lying in S. Lat. 14. 10. W. Long. 141.
16. They were difeovered by Commodore Byron in
1765, who gave them their name from the (bores af¬
fording no anchorage for his (hips j for which reafon
he was obliged to quit them without landing, or pro¬
curing any refrefhments for his crew, who were then
langufthing with ficknefs. They are inhabited by In¬
dians, who appeared on the beach with fpears in their
hands, that were at lead 16 feet long. They every¬
where difeovered hoftile intentions, and feemed by figns
to threaten the people in the boat with death if they
came alhore. There are cocoa trees in great abund¬
ance, and the (bore abounds with turtle.
DISC, in antiquity, a quoit made of (tone, iron,
or copper, five or fix fingers broad, and more than a
foot long, inclining to an oval figure, which they
hurled in form of a bowl, to a vaft diftance, by the
help of a leathern thong tied round the perfon’s hand
who threw it, and put through a hole in the middle.
Homer has made Ajax and Ulyffes great artifts at this
fport.
Disc, in AJh-onomy, the body and face of the fun
and moon, fuch as they appear to us on the earth *, or
the body and face of the earth, fuch as it appears to a
fpe&ator in the moon.
Disc, in Optics, is the width of the aperture of te-
lefcope glaffes, whatever their form be, whether plane,
convex, concave, &c.
DISCERNING, or Discernment, a faculty of
the mind whereby it diftinguifties between ideas. See
Metaphysics.
DISCIPLE, one who learns any thing from ano¬
ther : thus, the followers of any teacher, philofopher,
&c. are called difeip/es. In the Chriftian fenfe, they
were followers of Jefus Chrift, in general ; but in a
more reftrained fenfe, the difciples denote thofe alone
who were the immediate followers and attendants on his
perfon, of which there were 70 or 72. The names
difciples and apojlles are often fynonymoufly ufed in the
gofpel hiftory j but fometimes the apoftles are diftin-
guiftied from difciples, as perfons felefted out of the
number of difciples, to be the principal minifters of his
religion : of thefe there were only 12. The Latins
kept the feftival of the 70 or 72 difciples on July 15th,
and the Greeks on January 4th.
DISCIPLINE, in a general fenfe, denotes inftruc-
tion and government, as military difcipline, ecclefiafti-
cal difcipline, &c.
Ecclefiaftical difcipline confifts in putting thofe laws DifcrpliV
in execution by which the church is governed, and in- Difcotd,
flidling the penalties enjoined by them againft the fe ‘"■"V-"1
veral forts of offenders that profefs the religion of Je¬
fus. The primitive church never pretended to exercife
difcipline upon any but fuch as were within her pale,
in the largeft fenfe, by fome acl of their own profef-
fion ; and even upon thefe (he never pretended to exer¬
cife her difcipline fo far as to cancel or difannul their
baptifm : all that (he pretended to was to deprive men
of the benefits of external communion, fuch as public
prayer, receiving theeucharift, and other adts of divine
worlhip. The church difcipline was only confined to
the admonition of the party, and to the lelfer and great¬
er excommunication.
As to the objedts of ecclefiaftical difcipline, they
were all fuch delinquents as fell into great and fcanda-
lous crimes after baptifm.
Difcipline, in a more peculiar fenfe, is ufed for the
chaftifements or bodily punifhments inflidted on a reli¬
gious of the Romifti church who has been found a de¬
linquent 5 or even for that which the religious volun¬
tarily undergo or inflidl on themfelves, by way of mor¬
tification.
Book of DISCIPLINE, in the hiftory of the church of
Scotland, is a common order, drawn up by the affem-
bly of minifters in 1650, for the reformation and uni¬
formity to be obferved in the difcipline and policy of
the church. In this book the government of the church
by prelates is fet afide, church fefllons are eftabliftied,
the fuperftitious obfervation of faft days and faints days
is condemned, and other regulations for the govern¬
ment of the church are determined. This book was
approved by the privy council, and is called the Firjl
Book of Difcipline.
DISCORD, in general, fignifies difagreement, or
oppofition between different perfons or things.
Discord, in Mtfic, every found which, joined with
another, forms an aflemblage difagreeable to the ear ; or
rather, every interval whofe extremes do not coalefce.
Now, as there are no other concords or confonances,
except thofe which form amongft themfelves, and with
their fundamental found, perfect chords, it follows, that
every interval muft be a real diffonance or difeord :
even the third and fixth were reckoned fuch among the
ancients, who excluded them from the number of con-
fonant chords.
The term diffonance, which is fynonymous with dii-
cerd, is compounded of two words, the infeparable pre-
pofition dis and the verb fonare ; which, both in a lite¬
ral and metaphorical fenfe, fignifies difagreement or dif
union. In reality, that which renders diffonances grat¬
ing, is, that the founds which form them, far from unit¬
ing in the ear, feem to repel each other, and are heard
each by itfelf, as two diftinft founds, though produced
at the fame time.
This repulfion or violent ofcillation of founds is
heard more or lefs as the vibrations which produce it
are more or lefs frequently coincident. When two vo¬
cal firings are gradually tuned, till they approach a
confonant interval, the pulfations become flower as
the chord grows more juft, till at lad they are fcarcely
heard, if heard at all *, from whence it appears certain,
that the pleafure produced in us by harmony refults
from the more or lefs exaft and frequent coincidence
or
BIS [ 257 ] D I S
DT crd or v'kra^on 5 though the reafi'n why this coincidence
_1 ^ (hould give pleafure, more than aiij other modifica¬
tion or combination of founds, appears to us infcru-
table. The agreeable effe&s of dilfonance in harmony,
are no objeftion to this theory j fince it is allowed
that the fenfations excited by difcord are not in them-
felves immediately and neceffarily pleafing, but only
pleafe by auricular deception. Tho ear is furprifed
with the (hock it receives, without being able to ima¬
gine how it {hould have happened ; and in proportion
as it is harfh and grating, we feel the pleafure of re¬
turning harmony enhanced, and the difappointment
of being artfully and infenfibly extricated more agree¬
able.
The name of dijfonance is given fometimes to the in¬
terval, and fometimes to each of the two founds which
form it. But though two founds equally form a dif-
fonance between themfelves, the name is mod; frequent¬
ly given to that found in particular which is mod ex¬
traneous to the chord.
The number of podible diflbnances is indefinite j
but as in mufic we exclude all intervals which are not
found in the fydem received, the number of diffonances
is reduced to a very few : befides, in practice, we can
only feledl: from thofe few fuch as are agreeable to the
fpecies, and the mode in which we compofe j and from
this lad number we mud exclude fuch as cannot be ufed
confidently with the rules prefcribed. But what are
thefe rules ? Have they any foundation in nature, or
are they merely arbitrary ? This is what Roufleau,
whom in this article we have followed or abandoned as
his obfervations appeared ufeful or frivolous, propofes
to invedigate as its principal objeft.
But where does his fcrutiny terminate ? Not in the
abolition of the rules prefcribed. Thefe have dill fub-
fided, and will dill fubfid, while the frame of man,
and the nature of mufic, remain what they are. If then
the rules be permanent and univerfal, the principle
upon which they are founded may be latent or ambi¬
guous ; but the rules themfelves can never be purely
arbitrary. How elfe could it happen, that Rameau,
D’Alembert, and Roufleau, fhould admit the force and
effeft of thefe rules, whild each of thofe maders exerts
his whole genius to give a different account of their
caufe and origin ? Rouffeau himfelf, as we have feen in
a former article, inculcates the neceffity of diffonances
for the completion of harmony ; (fee Chord). ' Now,
if this be true, the eafied methods of introducing and
difmifiing thefe difcords mud be the mod eligible, and
of confequence the rules for ufing them mud be eda-
blifhed. It is not then upon the fubfidence or demo¬
lition of any particular theory that they depend. Should
■we attend to the particular obje&ions which may be
urged againd any fydem whatever j where is the theory
which will be found proof againd the efforts of fcep-
ticifm ? After all, the objeftions of Rouffeau againd
Rameau’s theory, as applied by D’Alembert to the
origin of confonances, (fee Music, art. 94, 95, 96,
97> 98, 99-)> appear to be much more frivolous than
the analogies from which he pretends this origin to be
deduced. It appears from D’Alembert’s expofition of
tns theory, that, if not for all, it affords a folution
or the mod material and effential phenomena in har-
mony ; which is fufficient for its edablidiment, till an-
ot icr can be found, which gives a rational and confid-
Vol. VII. Part I.
ent account of the whole : a difcovery which has not Difcord
yet been made. But whild we acknowledge the fu- ||
tility of Rouffeau’s objections againd D’Alembert’s Difcretion.
explication of diffonances, we mult at the fame time ¥
admire the ingenuity with which he has deduced them
from principles purely mechanical, without departing
from the fydem of M. Rameau. This mechanical ex¬
plication will be found in his Mufical Dictionary, un¬
der the article Dijfonance.
Discord (the goddefs of), in Pagan theology. She
is reprefented by Aridides with fiery eyes, a pale
countenance, livid lips, and wearing a dagger in her
bofom. It was die who at the marriage of Peleus and
Thetis threw in the golden apple, whereon was written
“ To the faired which occafioned a contention be¬
tween the goddeffes Juno, Minerva, and Venus 5 each
pretending a title to the apple. She was likewife call¬
ed Ate and Eris.
DISCOVERY, in dramatic poetry, a manner of
unravelling a plot or fable in tragedies, comedies, and
romances j wherein, by fome unforefeen accident, a
difcovery is made of the name, fortune, quality, &c.
of a principal perfon, which were before unknown.
See Catastrophe.
DISCOUNT, in commerce, a term among traders,
merchants, and bankers. It is ufed by the two former
on occafion of their buying commodities on the ufual
time of credit, with a condition that the leller (hall al¬
low the buyer a certain difcount at the rate of fo much
per cent, per annum, for the time for which the credit
is generally given, upon condition that the buyer pays
ready money for fuch commodities, indead of taking
the time of credit. Traders and merchants alfo fre¬
quently taking promiffory notes for moneys due payable
to them or order at a certain time, and fometimes ha¬
ving occafion for money before the time is elapfed,
procure thefe notes to be difcounted by bankers before
the time of payment. Bills of exchange are alfo dif¬
counted by bankers ; and in this confids one article of
the profits of banking. See Bank.
DISCRETE, or Disjunct, Proportion, is when
the ratio of two or more pairs of numbers or quantities
is the fame, but there is not the fame proportion be¬
tween all the four numbers. Thus, if the numbers
3 : 6 :: 8 : 16 be confidered, the ratio between 3 = 6
is the fame, as that between 8:16, and therefore the
numbers are proportional : but it is only difcretely or
disjunflly, for 3 is not to 6 as 6 to 8 ; that is, the
proportion is broken off between 8 and 3, and is not
continued as in the following continual proportionals,
3:6:: 12 : 24.
DISCRETE Quantity, is fuch as is not continued and
joined together. Such, for indance, is any number.
DISCRETION ; prudence, or knowledge to go¬
vern one’s felf.
There are many more fliining qualities in the mind
of man, but there is none fo ufeful as difcretion ; it is
this indeed that gives a value to all the red, which fets
them at work in their proper times and places 5 and
turns them to the advantage of the perfon who is pof-
feffed of them. Without it learning is pedantry, and
wit impertinence j virtue itfelf looks like weaknefs 5
the bed parts only qualify a man to be mofe fprightly
in errors, and a£Hve to his own prejudice.
Nor does difcretion only make a man mader of his
K k own
T
X
D I S
[
Difcretion own parts, but of other men’s. The difcreet man finds
li out the talents of thofe he converfes with, and knows
Difdiaclaf- j10W to appiy tiiem to proper ufes. Accordingly, if
ticcryftal. ^ jnto partjcuiar communities and divifions of
men, we may obferve that it is the difcreet man, not the
witty, nor the learned, nor the brave, who guides the
converfation, and gives meafures to the fociety. A man
with great talents, but void of difcretion, is like Poly¬
phemus in the fable, ftrong and blind, endued with an
irrefiftible force, which for want of fight is of no ufe to
him. Though a man has all other perfe&ions, and
wants difcretion, he will be of no great confequence in
the world; but if he has this Angle talent in perre&ion,
and but a common (hare of others, he may do what he
pleafes in his particular flation of life.
It is proper, however, to diftinguilh between difcre¬
tion and cunning, the latter being the accomplilhment
only of little mean, ungenerous minds. Difcretion
points out the nobleft ends to us, and purfues the moft
proper and laudable methods of attaining them ; cun¬
ning has only private felfilh aims, and flicks at nothing
which may make them fucceed. Difcretion has large
and extended views, and, like a well-formed eye, com¬
mands a whole horizon : cunning is a kind of fliort-
fightednefs, that difcovers the minuteft objefts which
are near at hand, but is not able to difcern things at a
diftance. Difcretion, the more it is difcovered, gives
the greater authority to the perfon who poffeffes it :
cunning, when it is once detedted, lofes its force, and
makes a man incapable of bringing about even thofe
events which he might have done, had he paffed only
for a plain man. Difcretion is the perfection of rea-
fon, and a guide to us in all the duties of life ; cun¬
ning is a kind of inftindt, that only looks out after our
immediate intereft and welfare. Difcretion is only
found in men of ftrong fenfe and good underftanding :
cunning is often to be met with in brutes themfelves,
and in perfons who are but the fevveft removes from
them. In (hort, cunning is only the mimic of difcre¬
tion, and may pafs upon weak men, in the fame man¬
ner as vivacity is often miliaken for wit, and gravity
for wifdom.
DISCUS, in antiquity. See Disc.
Discus, in Botany, the middle part of a radiated
compound flower, generally confifling of Imall florets,
with a hollow regular petal. It is commonly fur-
rounded by large, plain, or flat, tongue-fliaped petals,
in the circumference or margin ; as in daify, ground-
fel, and leopard’s-bane ; fometimes the circumference
is naked, as in cotton-weed and feme fpecies of coltf-
foot.
DISCUS Folii, the furface of the leaf.
DISCUSSION, in matters of literature, fignifies
the clear treating or handling of any particular point,
or problem, fo as to fhake iff the difficulties with
which it is embarrafled : thus we fay, fuck a point ’ixms
well difcujfed, when it was well treated of and cleared
up.
DISCUTIENTS, in Medicine, are fuch remedies,
as, by their fubtility, diffolve a ftagnating or coagulat¬
ed fluid, and diflipate the fame without an external fo-
lulion ,
and par, “ equal.”
DISPART, in Gunnery, is the fetting a mark upon
the muzzle ring, or thereabouts, of a piece of ordnance,
fo that a fight line taken upon the top of the bafe ring
againft the touch-hole, by the mark fet on or near the
muzzle, may be parallel to the axis of the concave cy¬
linder. The common way of doing this, is to take the
two diameters of the bafe ring, and of the place where
the difpart is to ftand, and divide the difference be¬
tween them into two equal parts, one of which will be
the length of the difpart which is fet on the gun with
wax or pitch, or faftened there with a piece of twine
or marlin. By means of an inftrument it may be done
with all poffible nicety.
DISPATCH, a letter on fome affair of ftate, or
other bufinefs of importance, fent with care and expe¬
dition, by a courier exprefs. The bufinefs of dif-
K k 2 patche*
D I S f 260 ~\ * D I S
Ditpatch patches lies on the fecretaries of ftate and their clerks.
fl The king gives direftions to his minifters abroad by dif-
Difperfron patches. The word is alfo ufed for the packet or mail
of Mankind contajning fQCh letters. The French, during the reign
of Louis XIV. had a cor/eil ties depeches, “ council of
difpatches,” held in the king’s prefence, at which the
dauphin, the duke of Orleans, the chancellor, and four
fecretaries of ftate, aftifted.
DISPAUPER. A perfon fuiting in forma pauperis
is faid to be difpaupered, if, before the fait is ended he
has any lands or other eftate fallen to him, or if he has
any thing to make him lofe his privilege. See the ar¬
ticle Forma Pauperis.
DISPENSARY, or Dispensatory,denotes a book
containing the method of preparing the various kinds of
medicines ufed in pharmacy. Such are thofe of Bau-
deron, Quercetan, Zwelfer, Charas, Bate, Mefue, Sal¬
mon, Lemery, Quincy, &c.; but the lateft and moft
efteemed, befide the London and Edinburgh Pharma¬
copoeias, is the Edinburgh New Difpenfatory, being an
improvement upon that of Dr Lewis’s.
Dispensary, or Difpenfatory, is likewife a magazine
or office for felling medicines at prime eoft to the poor.
The College of Phyficians maintains three of thefe in
London ; one at the college itfelf in Warwick-Lane j
another in St Peter’s alley, Cornhill 5 and a third in St
Martin’s lane. Difpenfaries have alfo been eftabliftved
in feveral of the principal towns in Scotland and Eng¬
land ; particularly in Edinburgh, Dundee, and Kelfo j
as alfo at Newcaftle upon Tyne.
DISPENSATION, in Law, the granting a licenfe
of doing fome certain aftion that otherwife is not per¬
mitted.
DISPERSION, in general, fignifies the fcattering
or diffipating fomething. Hence
Dispersion, in Optics, is the fame with the diver¬
gency of the rays of light.
Point of Dispersion, in Dioptrics, the point from
which retraced rays begin to diverge, where their re-
fraflion renders them divergent.
Dispersion of Inflammation, in Medicine and Sur¬
gery. is the removing the inflammation, and reftoring
the inflamed part to its natural ftate.
DISPERSION of Mankind, in the hiftory of the world,
was occafioned by the confufion of tongues, and took
place in confequence of the overthrow of Babel at the
birth of Peleg j whence he derived his name : and it
appears bv the account given of his anceftors, Gen.
chap. xi. 10—16. to have happened in the 101ft year
after the flood according to the Hebrew chronology,
and by the Samaritan computation in the 401ft. How¬
ever, various difficulties have been fuggefted by chro-
nologers concerning the true era of this event. Sir
John Marftiam and others, in order to reconcile the
Hebrew and Egyptian chronologies, maintain a dif-
perfion of mankind before the birth of Peleg. Others,
unable to find numbers fufficient lor the plantation of
colonies in the fpace of 101 years, according to the
Hebrew computation, fix the difperfion towards the
end of Pelcg’s life, thus following the computation of
the Jews. Petavius affigns the 153d year after the
flood Cumberland the 180th ; and Ufher, though he
generally refers it to the time of Peleg’s birth, in one
jplace afligns the 131ft after the flood for this event.
3
Mr Schuckford fuppofes the difperfion to have been Difperfion
gradual, and to have commenced with the feparation ofMankind.
of fome companies at the birth of Peleg, and to have
been completed 3 1 years after. According to the cal¬
culation of Petavius, the number of inhabitants on the
earth at the birth of Peleg amounted to 32,768 : Cum¬
berland makes them 30,000 j Mr Mede ftates them at
7000 men, befides women and children : and Mr Whif-
ton, who fuppofes that mankind now double themfelves
in 400 years, and that they doubled themfelves be¬
tween the deluge and the time of David in 60 years at
a medium, when their lives were fix or feven times as
long as they have been finee, by his computation pro¬
duces about 2389 ; a number much too inconfiderable
for the purpofes of feparating and forming diftindt na¬
tions. This difficulty induced Mr Whifton to rejeft
the Hebrew and to adopt the Samaritan chronology,
as many others have done j which, by allowing an in¬
terval of 401 years between the flood and the birth of
Peleg, furnifties, by the laft mentioned mode of com¬
putation, more than 240,000 perfons.
As to the manner of the difperfion of the pofterity
of Noah from the plain of Shinar, it was undoubtedly
conduced with the utmoft regularity and order. The
facred hiftorian informs us, that they were divided in
their lands, every one according to his tongue, ac¬
cording to his family, and according to his nation,
Gen. x. 5, 20, 31. j and thus, as Mr Mede obferves,
they were ranged according to their nations, and every
nation was ranged by their families j fo that each na¬
tion had a feparate lot, and each family in every na¬
tion. The following abftraft will ferve to give a ge¬
neral idea of their refpeflive fettlements: Japhet,
Noah’s eldeft fon, had feven ions •, viz. Gomer, whofe
defcendants inhabited thofe parts of Afia which lie
upon the Aegean fea and Hellefpont northward, con¬
taining Phrygia, Pontus, Bithynia, and a great part
of Galatia. The Galatians, according to Jofephus,
were called Gomercei; and the Cimmerii, according ta
Herodotus, occupied this tradl of country ; and from
thefe Gomerians, Cimmerii, or Celts, Mr Camden de¬
rives our ancient Britons, who ftill retain the name
Cymro or Cymru. Magog, the fecond fon of Japhet,
was probably the father of the Scythians on the eaft
and north-eaft of the Euxine fea. Madai planted
Media, though Mr Mede affigns Macedonia to his
{hare. Javan was the father of the Grecians about
Ionia, whofe country lies along upon the Mediterra¬
nean fea •, the radicles of Javan and Ionia being the
fame, 3V» To Tubal and Meffiech belonged Cappado¬
cia and the country which lies on the borders of the
Euxine fea ; and from them, migrating over Caucafus,
it is fuppofed the Ruffians and Mufcovites are de¬
fended. And Tiras occupied Thrace. The fons of
Shem were five: Elam, whofe country lay between
the Medes and Mefopotamians, and was called by the
Gentile writers Elemais ; and Jofephus calls the Ela¬
mites the founders of the Perfians : Affiur, who was
driven out of Shinar by Nimrod, afterwards fettled in
Affyria, and there built Nineveh, and other cities j
Arphaxad, who gave name to the country which Pto¬
lemy calls Arraphacitis, a province of Aflyria, though
Jofephus makes him the father of the Chaldees ; Lud
who inhabited and gave name to the country of Lydia
about
D I S
r(.on about the river Maeander, remarkable for its windings,
f Mankind in Afia Minor: and Aram, the father of the Syrians.
II Ham, the youngeft fon of Noah, had four fans $ viz.
)ifpondee. cu(]^ whofe pofterity fpread into the feveral parts of A-
^ rabia over the borders of the land of Edom, into Arabia
Felix, up to Midian and Egypt j Mizraim, the father
of them who inhabited Egypt and other parts of A-
fricaj Phut, to whom Bochart afligns the remaining
part of Africa, from the lake of Tritonides to the At¬
lantic ocean, called Libya : and Canaan, to whom be-
♦ longed the land of Canaan, whence the Phenicians de¬
rived their origin.
Dr Bryant has advanced a new hypothefis on this
fubjeft, and fupported it with his ufual aeutenefs and
learning. He maintains, that the difperlion as well
as the confufion of tongues was local, and limited to
the inhabitants of the province of Babel j that the fe-
paration and diftribulion recorded to have taken place
in the days of Peleg, Gen. x. 25, 31, 32, which was the
refult of divine appointment, occalioned a general mi¬
gration : and that all the families among the fons of men
were concerned in it. The houfe of Shem, from which
the Meffiah was to fpring, was particularly regarded in
this diftribution : the portion of his children was near
the place of feparation \ they in general had Afia to
their lot j as Japhet had Europe, and Ham the large
continent of Africa. But the fons of Chus would not
fubmit to the divine difpenfation : they went off under,
the conduct of Nimrod, and feem to have been for a
long time in a roving ftate; However, at laft they ar¬
rived at the plains of Shinar ; and having ejefted Alhur
and his fons, who were placed there by divine appoint¬
ment, feized his dominions, and laid there the foun¬
dation of a great monarchy. But afterwards fearing
left they ftiould be divided and fcattered abroad, they
built the tower of Babel as a land-mark to which they
might repair; and probably to anfwer the purpofes of
an idolatrous temple, or high altar, dedicated to the
hoft of heaven, from which they were never long to
be abfent. They only, viz. the fons of Chus or the
Cuthites, and their aflbciates from other families, who
had been guilty of rebellion againft divine authority,
and of wicked ambition and tyranny, were punifhed
with the judgment of confounded fpeech through a
failure in labial utterance, and of the difperfion record¬
ed in Gen. x. 8, 9 : in confequenee of which they
were fcattered abroad from this city and tower, with¬
out any certain place of deftination. The Cuthites
invaded Egypt or the land of Mizraim in its infant
ftate, feized the whole country, and held it for fome
ages in fubje£Hon : and they extended likewife to the
Indies and Ganges, and Hill farther in China and
Japan. From them the province of Cufhan or Goftien
in Egypt derived its name. Here they obtained the
appellation of royalJhepherds ; and when they were by
force driven out of the country, after having been in pof-
fefli .n of it for 260 or 280 years, the land which they
had been obliged to quit was given to the Ifraelites,
who were alfo denominated Jhepherds, but fhould not
be confounded with the former or the antecedent inha¬
bitants of Goftien.
DISPLAYED, in Heraldry, is underftood of the
. pofition of an eagle, or any other bird, when it is eredf,
with its wings expanded or fpread forth.
DISPONDEE, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a
£> I S
double fpondee or foot, confifting of four long fylla- Difpondee
bles ; as maecenates, concludentes. 1|
DISPOSITION, in Scots Law, is that deed or wri- Diffimula-
ting which contains the fcale or grant of any fubjedt : lon‘ .
when applied to heritable fubjedts, it in fome cafes gets *
the name of charter, which differs from a difpolition in
nothing elfe than a few immaterial forms.
Disposition, in ArchiteElure, the juft placing the
feveral parts of an edifice according to their nature and
office. See Architecture, N° 31, &C.
Disposition, in Oratory. See Oratory, Part I.
Disposition, in Painting. See Painting.
Disposition, in human nature.—In every man there
is fomething original, that ferves to diftinguilh him
from others, that tends to form a charadter, and to
make him meek or fiery, candid or deceitful, refolute
or timorous, cheerful or morofe. This original bent,
termed difpojition be diftinguiftied from a principle :
the latter, fignifying a law of human nature, makes
part of the common nature of man ; the former makes
part of the nature of this or that man. Propenjity is
a name common to both j for it fignifies a principle as
well as a difpofition.
DISQUISITION (from dis, and qucero, “ I in¬
quire”), an inquiry into the nature, kinds, and cir-
cumftances of any problem, queftion, or topic $ in or¬
der to gain a right notion of it, and to difcourfe clearly
about it.
DISSECTION, in Anatomy, the cutting up a
body with a view of examining the ftrudlure and ufe
of the parts. See Anatomy.
Le Gendre obferves, that the diffedtion of a human
body, even dead, was held a facrilege till the time of
Francis I. And the fame author affures us, he has feen
a confultation held by. the divines of Salamanca, at the
requeft of Charles V. to fettle the queftion whether or
no it were lawful in point of confcience to diffedt a hu¬
man body in order to learn the ftrudlure thereof.
DISSEISIN, in Law, an unlawful difpoffeffing a
perfon of his lands or tenements.
DISSEPIMENTUM, in Botany, the name by
which Linnaeus denominates the partitions which in
dry feed-veffels, as capfules and pods (Jiliqua), divide
the fruit internally into cells.
DISSEN 1'EHS, feparatifts from the fervice and
worftiip of any eftabliftied church.
DISSIDENTS, a denomination applied in Poland
to thofe of the Lutheran, Calviniftic, and Greek pro-
feffion. The king of Poland engages by the patta
conventa to tolerate them in the free exercife of their
religion, but they have often had reafon to complain
of the violation of thefe promifes. See (Hijiory of)
Poland.
DISSIMILITUDE, unlikenefs or want of fimili-
tude. See the article Resemblance and Difjbnilitude.
DISSIMULATION, in morals, the adl of diffem-
bling, by fallacious appearances, or falfe pretenfions.
Good princes regard diffimulation as a neceffary
vice ; but tyrants coniider it as a virtue.
It is apparent that fecrecy is often neceffary, to
oppofe thofe who may be willing to circumvent our
lawful intentions. But the neceffity of precaution
would become very rare, were no enterprifes to be
formed, but fuch as could be avowed openly. The
franknefs with which we could then aft, would
engag©
r 261 ]
piffimala*
ticn
n.
l>ifibiution.
D I S
engage people in our interefts.
have faved his life, by dealing ingenuoufly Avith Henry
With refpeft to diffimulation, three things are to be
obferved : I. That the charafters of thofe are not to
be efteemed, who are referved and cautious without
diftin&ion. 2. Not to make fecrets of unimportant
matters. 3. To condudf ourfelves in fuch manner, as
to have as few fecrets as poffible.
DISSIPATION, in ThyJicSy an infenfible lofs or
confumption of the minute parts of the body j or that
flux whereby they fly off, and are loft.
Circle of DISSIPATION, in Optics, is ufed for that
circular fpace upon the retina, which is taken up by
one of the extreme pencils of rays iffuing from an
objefl.
DISSOLVENT, in general, whatever diffolves or
reduces a folid body into fuch minute parts as to be
fuftained in a fluid.
Univerfal DISSOLVENT. See the article ALKAHEST.
DISSOLUTION, in Phyjics, a difeontinuation, or
analyfis, of the ftrudlure of a mixed body •, whereby
what was one, and contiguous, is divided into little
parts, either homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Diffolution, then, is a general name for all redu&ions
of concrete bodies into their fmalleft parts, without any
regard either to folidity or fluidity : though in the ufual
acceptation of the word among authors, it is reftrained
to the redu6Hon of folid bodies into a ftate of fluidity $
which is more properly expreffed by folution, as a branch
of diflblution.
According to the opinion of Fr. Tertius de Lanis,
Boerhaave, and fome other learned men, the power or
faculty of diffolving is lodged in fire alone.
According to this hypothefis, other fluids common¬
ly fuppofed diffolvents, only produce their effedt by
means of the fiery fpicula they abound with : and even
air, which is judged a powerful menftnmm, owes all its
force to the rays of light diffufed therein.
Sir Ifaac Newton accounts for all diffolutions, and
the feveral phenomena thereof, from the great prin¬
ciple of attradlion ; and, in effedl, the phenomena of
diffolution furnilh a great part of the arguments and
confiderations whereby he proves the reality of that
principle. The following is a fpecimen of that great
author’s way of philofophizing on the fubjedt of diffolu¬
tion.
When fait of tartar diffolves by lying in a moift
place, is not this done by an attradlion between the
particles of the fait of tartar and thofe of the water
which float in the air in form of vapours ? and why
does not common fait, or faltpetre, or vitriol, do the
like, but for want of fuch an attradlion ? And when
aquafortis, or fpirit of vitriol, poured on fteel filings,
diffolves the filings with a great heat and ebullition $
is not this heat and ebullition effcdled by a violent mo¬
tion of the parts ; and does not that motion argue, that
the acid parts of the liquor rufti towards the parts of
the metal with violence, and run forcibly into its pores j
till, getting between the utmoft particles and the main
mafs of metal, they loofen them therefrom, andfet them
at liberty to float off into the water ? When a folution
of iron in aquafortis diffolves lapis calaminaris, and lets
go the iron $ or a folution of copper diffolves iron im-
snerfed in it, and lets go the copper} or a folution of
[ 262 ] D I S
Marlhal Biron would mercury in aquafortis poured on iron, copper, tin, or
lead, diffolves the metal, and lets go the mercury j
does not this argue, that the acid particles of the aqua¬
fortis are attradled more ftrongly by the lapis calami¬
naris than by iron ; by iron than by copper; by cop¬
per than by filver j and by iron, tin, copper, and lead,
than by mercury ? And is it not for the fame reafon,
that iron requires more aquafortis to diffolve it than
copper, and copper more than the other metals j and
that of all metals iron is diffolved moft eafily, and is
moft apt to ruft ; and next after iron, copper ? When
aquafortis diffolves filver, and not gold ; and aqua
regia diffolves gold and not filver ; may it not be faid,
that aquafortis is fubtile enough to penetrate the pores
of gold as well as of filver, but wants the attractive*
force to give it entrance ; and the fame of aqua regia
and filver? And when metals are diffolved in acid men-
ftruums, and the acids in conjunction with the metal
aft after a different manner, fo as that the tafte of the
compound is milder than that of the fimples, and feme-
times a fweet one; is it not becaufe the acids adhere to
the metallic particles, and thereby lofe much of their
aftivity ? And if the acid be in too fmall a proportion
to make the compound diffoluble in water, will it not,
by adhering ftrongly to the metal, become inaftive, and
lofe its tafte, and the compound become a taftclefs
earth ? for fuch things as are not diffoluble by the moifc
ture of the tongue are infipid.
Dr Freind gives us a mechanical account of diffolu¬
tion, in the inftance of fait diffolved in water, which is
the moft Ample operation that falls under this head.
This motion he aferibes to that attraftive force, which
is fo very extenfive in natural philofophy, that there is
bo kind of matter but what is under its influence. It
may be obferved, fays he, that the corpufcles of falts,
which are the moft Ample of any, are withal very mi¬
nute, and for their bulk very folid ; and therefore
exert a very ftrong attraftive force, which, cceterispa¬
ribus, is proportional to the quantity of matter. Hence
it comes to pafs, that the particles of water are more
ftrongly attrafted by the faline particles than they are
by one another: the particles of water, therefore,
cohering but loofely, and being eafily moveable, ap¬
proach the corpufcles of falts, and run, as it were, in¬
to their embraces ; and the motion of them is quicker
or flower, according to their lefs or greater diftances ;
the attraftive force in all bodies being ftrongeft at the
point of contaft. Therefore, if fait be thrown into
the middle of a difti full of water, we Ihall find the
aqueous particles which are in the middle of the difti
ftiarp and pungent to the tafte, but the water upon
the fides of the veffel almoft infipid; fo that, when fuch
a motion once arifes, the aqueous particles are carried
with an equal force towards the falts, and the moment
of them is to be eftimated from the ratio of their
weight and celerity conjunftly. By the force of this
impulfe, they open to themfelves a paffage into the
pores of the falts, which are very numerous ; and at
length fo break and divide their texture, that all co-
hefion of their parts is deftroyed : hereupon, being fe-
parated, and removed to a convenient diftance from one
another, they are difperfed, and float here and there
about the water.
The Ample diffolution of faline fubftances of every
kind in water, may indeed be plaufibly enough ex¬
plained
D I S [ 263 ] D I S
Diflblution. plained on the hypothefis of attraftion ; but where the
L, y... . diffolution is attended with heat, the eroiflion of va¬
pour, &c. it feems neceffary to feek for iome other
principle than mere attraction to folve thefe phenome¬
na. When diluted oil of vitriol, for mftance, is pour¬
ed upon iron filings, a great quantity of vapour arifes,
which, if it was attempted to be confined, would cer¬
tainly break the containing veffel. It is impoflible to
imagine any connexion between attraction and theemif-
fion of a vapour ; and what is ftill more unaccount¬
able, this vapour is inflammable, though neither the
oil of vitriol nor the iron are fo by themfelves. Ano¬
ther very ftrong objection againlt the hypothefis of at¬
traction may be derived from the phenomena of me¬
tallic diflolutions in general ; for they do not diffolve
completely in acids, as falts do in water. By diffolu¬
tion they are always decompoled, and cannot be reco¬
vered in their proper form without a good deal of
trouble. One metal, indeed, will very often preci¬
pitate another from an acid in its metalline form 5 but
this is attended with the decompofition of the feeond
metal ; fo that this can by no means be reckoned a
fair experiment. But, whatever other method is ufed,
the diffolved me*al is always recovered in form ot an
earthy powder, that we could fcarcely imagine capable
of ever becoming malleable, and affuming the fplendid
appearance of a metal. Now, if there was a ftrong
attradion between this and the acid, we might very
juftly conjedure, that the diffolution happened by
means of that attraCHon ; but fo tar from this, after a
metal has been diffolved by any acid, and the calx has
been feparated from it, it is alwavs difficult, and very
often impoflible, to procure a diffolution of the calx
in the fame acid. The aCtion of the acid in this cafe
feems not unlike that of fire upon wood or any or her
inflammable fubflance. Dry wood, thrown into the
fire, burns and flames with great violence ; but the
fame wood, reduced to aflies, inftead of burning, extin-
guifhes fire already kindled. In like manner, a piece
of clear metal thrown into an acid, diffolyes with great
violence : but the fame metal, deprived of its phlo-
giftic principle, and reduced to a calx, cannot be aCfed
upon by acids, in whatever manner they are applied :
at leaft, not without the greateft difficulty ; and the
more perfeCf the calx is, i. e. the more completely
it is deprived of its inflammable principle, the greater
the difficulty is of combining it afterwards with an
acid.
Another thing in which the diffolutinn of metals by
an acid refembles the burning of combuftibles by fire,
is, that in both cafes there is a feparation of the prin¬
ciple of inflammability. In the cafe of oil of vitriol
and iron filings, this is exceedingly obvious •, for there
the vapour which arifes from the mixture takes fire, and
explodes with great vehemence. In all other cafes,
it is very eafily proved *, for the calx is always capable
of being revived into metal by the addition of any
fubflance containing phlogifton. The calces prepared
by fire, and by precipitation from acids, alfo refemble
one another fo much, that in many cafes they are Diffolutioa
fcarce to be diftinguilhed. ||
Thefe confiderations feem to favour the hypothefis
of Dr Boerhaave j and much more does the following, ^ *
namely, that almoft all metallic folutions produce fome
degree of fenfible heat. In fome metals this is very
confiderable 5 but the greateft heat producible by an
aqueous folution of any tubftance is by diffolving quick¬
lime in the nitrous acid. The heat here greatly ex¬
ceeds that of boiling water. In fome diffolutions of
inflammable matters by a mixture of the vitriolic and
nitrous acids, the heat is fo great, that the whole mix¬
ture takes fire almoft inftantaneoufly. Hence the Boer-
haavians think they have fufficient grounds to conclude,
that fire alone is the agent by which all diffolutions are
performed.
Thefe appearances have alfo been explained on the
principles ot attraction j and it has been faid that the
heat, &c. were owing to nothing but the violent aCtion
of the particles of the acid and metal upon each o-
ther (a).
DISSONANCE, in Mujic. See Discord.
DISSYLLABLE, among grammirian.s, a word
confifting only of two fyliables : fuch are nature, fcience,
&c.
DISTAFF, an inftrument about which flax is tied
in order to be fpun.
DISTANCE, in general, an interval between two
things, either with regard to time or place. See Me¬
taphysics.
AcceJJible DISTANCES, in Geometry, are fuch as may
be rmafured by the chain. See GEOMETRY.
InacceJJible DISTANCES, are fuch as cannot be mea-
fured by the chain, &c. by reafon of fome river, or the
like, &c. which obftrufts our palling from one objeCt
to another. See Geometry.
Distance, in AJlronomy. The diftance of the fun,
planets, and comets, is found only from their parallax,
as it cannot be found either by eclipfes or their differ¬
ent phafes : for from the theory of the motions of the
earth and planets we know, at any time, the propor¬
tion of the diftances of the fun and planets from us j
and the horizontal parallaxes are in a reciprocal propor¬
tion to thefe diftances. See ASTRONOMY.
DISTASTE properly fignifies an averfion or diflike
to certain foods •, and may be either conftitutional, or
owing to fome diforder of the ftomach.
DISTEMPER, among Physicians, the fame with
Disease.
Distemper, in Painting, a term ufed for the work¬
ing up of colours with f mething befides water or oil.
If the colours are prepared with water, that kind of
painting is called limning ; and if with oil, it is called
painting in oil, and limply painting. If the colours are
mixed with fize, whites of eggs, or any fuch proper
glutinous or undfuous matter, and not with oil, then
they fay it is done in dijlemper.
DISTENSION, in general, fignifies the ftretching
or extending a thing to its full length or breadth.
DISTICH,
(a) We have retained thefe obfervations, as an inftance of the fpeculations and opinions concerning thefe fub-
je&s before the difcovery of the prefent theory of Cbemiftry with regard to the oxidation of metals and the de»
cempolition of water.
D I S [ 264 ] BIS
Diftich DISTICH, a couplet of verfes making a complete
|| fenfe. Thus hexameter and pentameter verfes are dif-
Diftaiation.p°fed jn diftichs. There are excellent morals in Cato’s
y ' diilichs.
DISTICHIASIS, in Surgery, a difeafe of the eye¬
lids, when under the ordinary eyelalhes there grows
another extraordinary row of hairs, which frequently
eradicates the former, and, pricking the membrane of
the eye, excites pain, and brings on a defluxion.— It is
cured by pulling out the fecond row of hairs with nip¬
pers, and cauterizing the pores out of which they
iffued.
DISTILLATION. For the principles of this pro-
cefs, fee Chemistry Index.
The obje&s of diftillation, confidered as a trade di-
ftinft from the other branches of chemiftry, are chiefly
fpirituous liquors, and thofe waters impregnated with
r the eflential oil of plants, commonly called Jimple di-
Difference JHHed waters. The diftilling compound fpirits and wa-
between di-ters is reckoned a different branch of bufinefs, and they
{tillers and wh0 Jeai Jn that way are commonly called re&ifiers.
redlifiers. difference, however, though it exifts among com¬
mercial people, is not at all founded in the nature of
the thing j compound fpirits being made, and Ample
fpirits being reftified, by the very fame operations by
which they are at firft diftilled, or with at leafi: very
trifling alterations.
Spiritfper- 8reat objedt with every diftiller ought to be, to
fedtly fla- procure a fpirit perfectly flavourlefs, or at leaf! as well
vourlefs, freed from any particular flavour as may be ; and in
how ob- this country the procuring of fuch a fpirit is no eafy
.ame . matter. The only materials for diftillation that have
been ufed in large quantity, are malt, and molaffes or
treacle. Both of thefe, efpecially the firft, abound with
an oily matter, which, rifing along with the fpirit, com¬
municates a difagreeable flavour to it, and from which
it can fcarce be freed afterwards by any means what¬
ever.—Some experiments have been made upon carrots,
as a fubjeft for the diftillers ; but thefe are not as yet
fufficiently decifive 5 nor is it probable that a fpirit
drawn from carrots would be at all devoid of flavour,
more than one drawn from malt.—To diffipate the ef-
fential oil which gives the difagreeable flavour to malt
fpirits, it has been propofed to infpiffate the wort into
a rob, or thin extraft like a fyrup j afterwards to thin
it with water, and ferment it in the ufual manner. This
certainly promifes great fuccefs; there is no fubjedft we
know of that is poffeffed of any kind of effential oil, but
what will part with it by diftillation or by long boil¬
ing. The infpiffating of the wort, however, does not
feem to be either neceffary or fafe to be attempted ;
for, in this cafe, there is great danger of its contrafling
an empyreuma, which could never be remedied. The
quantity loft by evaporation, therefore, might be occa-
fionally added, with an equal certainty of diflipating
the obnoxious oil. Whether the yield of fpirit would
be as great in this cafe as in the other, is a queftion
3 that can by no means be difcuffed without further ex-
Effential periments. According to a theory adopted by fome
oilbyfome diftillers, namely, that effential oils are convertible into
thought^ ardent fpirits 5 and that the more oily any fubjefl is,
fntoTpirit.6 ^ie £reater fluaHtity of fpirits is obtainable from it j the
praflice of diffipating the oil before fermentation muft
certainly be a lofs. But we are too little acquainted
with the compofition of vinous fpirits, to have any juft
foundation for adopting fuch theories. Befides, it is Diftillation
certain, that the quantity of ardent fpirit producible y—
from any fubftance, malt for inftance, very greatly ex¬
ceeds the quantity of effential oil which can by any
means be obtained from the fame 5 nor do we find that
thofe fubftances, which abound moft in effential oil,
yield the greateft quantity of fpirits. So far from this,
fine fugar, which contains little or no effential oil,
yields a great deal of ardent fpirit. ^
Previous to the operation of diftilling, thofe ofDire&iom
brewing and fermentation are neceffary j but as thefe concerning
are fully treated of under the article Brewing, we fhall^™enta'
here only obferve, that unlefs the boiling of the wort,
before fermentation, is found to diffipate the effential
oil, fo as to take away the flavour of the malt, there is
no neceffity for being at the trouble of that operation.
The wort may be immediately cooled and fermented.
—The fermentation ought always to be carried on as
flowly as poffible, and performed in veffels clofely flop¬
ped •, only having at the bung a valve preffed down by
a fpring, which will yield with lefs force than is fuffi-
cient to burft the veffel. It ftrould even be fuffered to
remain till it has become perfeftly fine and tranfparent;
as by this means the fpirit will not only be fuperior in
quantity, but alfo in fragrance, pungency, and vinofity,
to that commonly produced. 5
With regard to performing the operation of diftilling, For diftil.
there is only one general rule that can be given, name-lation.
ly, to let the heat, in all cafes, be as gentle as poffible.
Accidents will be effectually prevented by having the
worm of a proper widenefs, and by reftifying the fpi¬
rit in a water bath j which, if fufficiently large, will
perform the operation with all the difpatch requifite
for the moft extenfive bufinefs. The veffel in which
the reflification is performed, ought to be covered with
water up to the neck, and to be loaded with lead at
the bottom, fo that it may fink in the water. Thus
the operation will go on as quickly as if it was on an
open fire, and without the lealt danger of a mifcarriage,
nor will it ever be neceffary to make the water in the
bath come to a boiling heat. 6
As the end of rectification is to make the fpirit £•/«« For rediS-
as well as Jlrong, or to deprive it of the effential oil as cation,
well as the aqueous part, it will be proper to have re¬
gard to this event in the firft diftillation. For this pur-
pofe, the fpirit, as it firft comes over, ftiould be re¬
ceived into a quantity of cold water j as by this means
the connexion betwixt it and the oily matter will be
confiderably leffened. For the fame reafon, after it
has been once reftified in the water bath, it ftiould be
again mixed with an equal quantity of water, and di¬
ftilled a fecond time. Thus the fpirit will be freed from
moft of the oily matter, even though it hath been very
much impregnated with it at firft. It is neceffary to
obferve, however, that by ufing fuch a quantity of wa¬
ter, a confiderable part of the water will be left in the
refiduum of each rectification. All thefe refiduums,
therefore, muft be mixed together, and diftilled on an
open fire, with a brifk heat, that the remainder of the
fpirit may be got out.
After the fpirit has been diftilled once or twice in
this manner from water, it may be diftilled in a water
bath without any addition •, and this laft rectification
will free it from moft of the water it contains. But if
it is required to be highly dephlegmated, a quantity of
pure
>/
BIS [
DifHlIatlor. pure and dry fait of tartar muft be added. The at-
v—-v— tradion between this fait and water is greater than that
betwixt water and the fpirit of wine. The fait there¬
fore imbibes the water contained in the fpirit, and finks
with it to the bottom. The fpirit, by a fingle diftilla-
tion, may then be rendered perfe£tly free from water }
but there is great danger of fome of the alkaline fait
rifing along with it, and impregnating it with what is
called an urinous flavour. When this once happens, it
is impoffible to be remedied \ and the only way to pre¬
vent it is, to make the heat with which the fpirit is
difiilled as gentle as pofiible. It hath been propofed,
indeed, to prevent the rifing of any thing alkaline, by
the admixture of fome calcinated vitriol, fal cathartieus
amarus, or other imperfedl neutral fait; but this can
fcarcely be fuppofed to anfwer any good purpofe, as the
alkali unites itfelf with the oily matter of the fpirit,
and forms a kind of faponaceous compound, which is
Inot fo eafily affefted by the acid of the vitriol or other
fait, efpecially as thefe falts will not dilfolve in the
^ fpirit itfelf.
Bfimita- One very great defideratum among the diftillers of
|:'??fore'8n this country is, a method of imitating the foreign fpi-
pfrits. rits, brandy, rum, gin, &c. to a tolerable degree of
perfection ; and notwithftanding the many attempts
that are daily made for this purpofe, the fuccefs in ge¬
neral hath been very indifferent. On this fubjeCt,
Mr Cooper has the following obfervations, in his
Complete Syflem of Diftillation : which, as they are
S applicable to all other fpirits as well as brandy, Ave
Method of fhaii jiere tranfcribe.—“ The general method of diftil-
Irandles in ^'in& ^ran(^'t’s France need not be formally defcribed,
■ranee. as it differs in nothing from that praCtifed here in
working from malt, wafti, or molaffes ; nor are they in
the leaft more cleanly or exaCt in the operation. They
only obferve more particularly to throw in a little of
the natural ley into the ft ill along with the wine, ns
finding this gives their fpirit the flavour for which it is
generally admired abroad.—But, though brandy is ex-
trafled from wine, experience tells us, that there is a
great difference in the grapes from which the wine is
made. Every foil, every climate, every kind of graces,
varies with regard to the quantity and quality of the
fpirits extracted from them. There are fome grapes
which are only fit for eating; others for drying, as
thofe of Damafcus, Corinth, Provence, and Avignon,
but not fit to make wine.— Some wines are very pro¬
per for diftillation, and others much lefs fo. The
wines of Languedoc and Provence afford a great deal
of brandy by diftillation, when the operation is per¬
formed on them in their full ftrength. The Orleans
wines, and thofe of Blois, afford yet more ; but the
beft are thofe of the territories of Cogniac and An-
daye ; which are, however, in the number of thofe the
leaft drunk in France. Whereas thofe of Burgundy
and Champagne, though of a very fine flavour, are im¬
proper, becaufe they yield but very little in diftilla¬
tion.
“ It muft alfo be farther obferved, that all the wines
for diftillation, as thofe of Spain, the Canaries, of Ali-
cant, of Cyprus, of St Peres, of Toquet, of Grave, of
Hungary, and others of the fame kind, yield very little
brandy by diftillation ; and corvfcquently "would coft:
the diftiller confiderahly more than he could fell it
for. What is drawn from them is indeed very good,
Vol. VII. Part T.
265 ] BIS
always retaining the faccharine quality and rich flavour Diftilktrom
of the wine from whence it is drawn; but as it grows ' '
old, this flavour often becomes aromatic, and is not
agreeable to all palates.
“ Hence we fee that brandies always differ according
as they are extracted from different fpecies of grapes.
Nor would there be fo great a fimilarity as there is be¬
tween the different kinds of French brandies, w7ere the
ftrongeft wines ufed for this purpofe ; but this is rarely
the cafe ; the weakeft and lowed; flavoured wines only
are diftilled for their fpirit, or fuch as prove abfolutely
unfit for any other ufe.
“ A large quantity of brandy is diftilled in France
during the time of the vintage; for all thofe poor
grapes that prove unfit for wine, are ufually firft ga¬
thered, preffed, their juice fermented, and direftly di¬
ftilled. This rids their hands of their poor wines at
once, and leaves their calks empty for the reception of
better. It is a general rule with them not to diftil
wine that will fetch any price as wine} for, in thisftate,
the profits upon them are vaftly greater than when re¬
duced to brandies. This large flock of fmall wines,
with which they are almoft overrun in France, fuffi-
ciently accounts for their making fuch vaft quantities
of brandy in that country, more than in others which
lie in warmer climates, and are much better adapted to
the produ&ion of grapes.—Nor is this the only fund
of their brandies; for all the wine that turns eager, is
alfo condemned to the ftill ; and, in Ihort, all that they
can neither export nor confume at home, which amounts
to a large quantity ; ft nee much of the wine laid in for
their family provifion is fo poor as not to keep during
the time of fpending. ^
“ Hence many of our Englilh fpirits, with proper How bran-
management, are convertible into brandies that fliall dy may be
hardly be diftinguilhed from the foreign in many refpefts, ,™‘tatf‘d i*
provided the operation be neatly performed. |r^5 Coun
“ The common method of rectifying fpirits from
alkaline falts, deflroys their vinofity, and in its Head
introduces an urinous or lixivious tafte. But as it is
abfolutely neceffary to reftore, or at leafl: to fubftitute
in its room, fome degree of vinofity, feveral methods
have been propofed, and a multitude of experiments
performed, in order to difeover this great defideratum.
But none has fucceeded equal to the fpirit of nitre;
and accordingly this fpirit, either flrong or dulcified,
has been ufed by moft diftillers to give an agreeable
vinofity to their fpirits. Several difficulties, however,
occur in the method of ufing it ; the principal of which
is, its being apt to quit the liquor in a fliort time, and
confequently depriving the liquor of that vinofity it
was intended to give. In order to remove this diffi¬
culty, and prevent the vinofity from quitting the goods,
the dulcified fpirit of nitre, which is much better than
the ftrong fpirit, ffiould be prepared by a previous di-
geftion, continued for fome time, with alcohol ; the
longer the digeftion is continued, the more intimately
will they be blended, and the compound rendered the
milder and fofter.
“ After a proper digeftion, the dulcified fpirit ffiould
be mixed with the brandy, by which the vinofity will
be intimately blended with the goods, and not difpofed
to fly off for a very confiderable time.—No general
rule can be given for the quantity of this mineral acid
requifite to be employed ; becaufe different proportions
I* 1 of
D I S [266 1 D I S
Diftiilation. of it are necefTary in different fpirits. It fhould, how-
'ever, be carefully attended to, that though a fmall
quantity of it will undoubtedly give an agreeable vi-
nofity, refembling that naturally found in the fine fub-
tile fpirits drawn from W'ines, yet an over large dofe of
it will not only caufe a difagreeable flavour, but alfo
render the whole defign abortive, by difcovering the
impofition. Thofe, therefore, who endeavour to cover
a foul tafte in goods by large dofes of dulcified fpirit of
nitre, will find themfelves deceived.
“ But the bed, and indeed the only method of imi¬
tating French brandies to perfection, is by an effential
oil of wine ; this being the very thing that gives the
French brandies their flavour. It muft, however, be
remembered, that, in order to ufe even this ingredient
to advantage, a pure taftelefs fpirit mult firfi be pro¬
cured j for it is ridiculous to expedt that this effentiat
oil Ihould be able to give the agreeable flavour of
French brandies to our fulfome malt fpirit, already
loaded with its own naufeous oil, or ftrongly impregna¬
ted with a lixivious tafte from the alkaline falls uftd
in re&ification. How a pure infipid fpirit may be ob¬
tained, has already been confidered ; it only therefore
remains to fhow the method of procuring this effential
oil of wine, which is this :
“ Take feme cakes of dry wine lees, fuch as are
ufed by our hatters •, diffolve them in fix or eight times
their weight of water diftil the liquor with a flow fire,
and feparate the oil with a ffeparating glafs 5 referving
for the nicefl ufes only that which comes over firfi:, the
fucceeding oil being coarfer and more refinous.-'—Hav¬
ing procured this fine oil of wine, it may be mixed into
a quinteffence with pure alcohol •, by which means it
may be preferved a long time fully pofleffed of all its
flavour and virtues j but, without fuch management, it
will foon grow refinous and rancid.
“ When a fine effential oil of wine is thus procured,
and alfo a pure and infipid fpirit, French brandies may
be imitated to perfection, with regard to the flavour.
It mufl, however, be remembered, and carefully ad¬
verted to, that the effential oil be drawn from the fame
kind of lees as the brandy to be imitated was procured
from •, we mean, in order to imitate Cogniac brandy, it
will be neceffary to diftil the effential oil from Cogniac
lees ; and the fame for any other kind of brandy. For,
as different brandies have different flavours, and as
thefe flavours are entirely owing to the effential oil of
the grape, it would be prepofterous to endeavour to
imitate the flavour of Cogniac brandy with an effential
oil procured from the lees of Bonrdeaux wine.——When
the flavour of the brandy is well imitated by a proper
dofe of the effential oil, and the whole reduced into one
Ample and homogeneous fluid, other difficulties are fiill
behind : The flavour, though the effential part, is not,
however, the only one ; the colour, the proof, and the
foftnefs, mufl: alfo be regarded, before a fpirit that per¬
fectly refembles brandy can be procured. With re¬
gard to the proof, it may be eafily hit, by ufing a fpirit
rectified above proof: which, after being intimately
mixed with the effential oil of wine, may be let down
to a proper Itandard with fair water. And the foft¬
nefs may, in a great meafure, be obtained by diftilling
and rectifying the fpirit with a gentle fire j and what
is wanting of this criterion in the liquor when firlt
saade, will be fupplied by time $ for it muft be remem-
4
bered, that it is time alone that gives this property to Diftillation
French brandies 5 they being at firft acrid, foul, and —
fiery. But, with regard to the colour, a particular me¬
thod is required to imitate it to perfection. I0
“ The art of colouring fpirits owes its rife to obfer-Spirits how
vations on foreign brandies. A piece of French brandy calcured.
that has acquired by age a great degree of foftnefs and
ripenefs, is obferved at the fame time to have acquired
a yellowifh brown colour 5 and hence our diftillers have
endeavoured to imitate this colour in fuch fpirits as are
intended to pafs for French brandy. And in order to
this, a great variety of experiments have been made on
different fubftances. Butin order to know a direCl and
fure method of imitating this colour to perfeCHon, it
is neceffary we (hould be informed whence the French
brandies tbemftlves acquire their colour. This difeo-
very is very eafily made. The common experiment of
trying whether brandy will turn blackilh with a folu-
tion of iron, (hows that the colour is owing to fome of
the refinous matter of the oak calk diffolved in the fpi¬
rit. There can be no difficulty, therefore, in imitating
this colour to perfeCHon. A {mall quantity of the ex¬
tract of oak, or the ffiavings of that wood, properly
digefted, will fumilh us with a tinCture capable of gi¬
ving the fpirit any degree of colour required. But it
muft be remembered, that as the tinCture is extracted
from the calk by brandy, that is, alcohol and water,
it is neceffary to ufe both in extracting the tinCture $
for each of thefe diffolves different parts of the wood.
Let, therefore, a fufficient quantity of oak {havings be
digefted in ftrong fpirit of wine, and alfo at the lame
time other oak {havings be digefted in water y and when
the liquors have acquired a ftrong tinCture from the oak,
let both be poured off from the ffiavings into different
veffels, and both placed over a gentle fire till reduced
to the confiftence of treacle. In this condition let the
two extracts be intimately mixed together j which may¬
be effectually done by adding a fmall quantity of loaf-
fugar, in fine powder, and rubbing the whole well to¬
gether. By this means a liquid effential extraCt of oak
will be procured, and always ready to be ufed as occa-
fion ffiali require.
“ There are other methods in ufe for colouring
brandies j but the belt, befides the extraCt of oak
above mentioned, are treacle and burnt fugar. The
treacle gives the fpirit a fine colour, nearly refem¬
bling that of French brandy ; but as its colour is di¬
lute, a large quantity muft be ufed j this is not, how¬
ever, attended with any bad confequences ; for not-
witbftanding the fpirit is really weakened, by this ad¬
dition, yet the bubble proof, the general criterion of
fpirits, is greatly mended by the tenacity imparted to
the liquor by the treacle. The fpirit alfo acquires from
the mixture a fweetiffi or lufeious tafte, and a fulnefs
in the mouth ; both which properties render it very
agreeable to the palates of the common people, who are
in faCt the principal confumers of thefe fpirits. A
much fmaller quantity of burnt fugar than of treacle
will be fufficient for colouring the fame quantity of ipi-
rits : the tafte is alfo very different j for inftead ot the
fwcetnefs imparted by the treacle, the fpirit acquires
from the burnt fugar an agreeable bitternefs, and by
that means recommends itfelf to nicer palates, which
are offended with a lufeious fpirit. The burnt lugar
is prepared by diffolving a proper quantity of fugar in
D I S [267
iiftillation. a little water, and fcorching it over the fire till it ac-
_ quires a black colour. Either treacle or burnt fugar
•will nearly imitate the genuine colour of old French
brandy ; but neither of them will fucceed when put
to the tell of the vitriolic folution.
“ The fpirit diftilled from molaffes or treacle is very
clean or pure. It is made from common treacle dif-
folved in water, and fermented in the fame manner as
the waih for the common malt fpirit. But if fome par¬
ticular art is not ufed in diftiliing this fpirit, it will not
prove fo vinous as malt fpirit, but more flat and lefs
pungent and acid, though otherwife much cleaner
tailed, as its eflential oil is of a much lefs offenfive fla¬
vour. Therefore, if good frclh wine lees, abounding
in tartar, be added and duly fermented with the mo-
lafles, the fpirit will acquire a much greater vinofity
and brilknefs, and approach much nearer to the nature
of foreign fpirits. Where the molaffes fpirit is brought
to the common proof ftrength, if it is found net to have
a fufficient vinofity, it will be very proper to add fome
good dulcified fpirit of nitre; and if the fpirit be clean
worked, it may, by this addition onlv, be made to pafs
on ordinary judges for French brandy. Great quanti¬
ties of this fpirit are ufed in adulterating foreign bran¬
dy, rum, and arrack. Much of it is alfo ufed alone in
making cherry brandy and other drams by infufion ;
in all which many, and perhaps with juftice, prefer it
to foreign brandies. Molafies, like all other fpirits, is
entirely colourlefs when firft extrafled ; but oilfillers
always give it as nearly as pofiible the colour of foreign
fpirits.”
If thefe principles hold good, the imitation of fo¬
reign fpirits of all kinds mufi: be an eafy matter. It
will only coft the procuring of fome of thofe fubftances
from which the fpirit is draw.,; and diftiliing this with
water, the effential oil will always give the flavour de-
fired. Thus, to imitate Jamaica rum, it will only be
neceffary to procure fome of the tops, or other ufelefs
parts, of the fugar-canes ; from which an eflential oil
being drawn, and mixed with clean molafles fpirit, will
give it the true flavour. The principal difficulty mull
lie in procuring a fpirit totally, or nearly free of all
flavour of its own. The fpirit drawn from the refufe
of a fugar-houfe is by our author commended as fupe-
rior to that drawn from molafles : though even this is
not entirely devoid of fome kind of flavour of its own ;
nor indeed is that drawn from the bell refined fugar
entirely flavourlefs. It is very probable, therefore, that
to procure an abfolutely flavourlefs fpirit is impoffible.
The only method, therefore, of imitating foreign fpi-
^ rits is, by choofing fuch materials as will yield a fpirit
Staifins the flavoured as much like them as poffible. The materials
left mate- moft recommended by our author in this cafe, and pro-
ial for pro-bably the beft that can be ufed, are raifins. Concern-
pirit^ ^Ure*nR ^efe he gives the following diredftions : “ In order
to extraft this fpirit, the raifins muft be infufed in a
proper quantity of water, and fermented in the manner
already dire&ed. When the fermentation is completed,
the whole is to be thrown into the ftill, and the fpirit
extracted by a ftrong fire, The reafon why we here
direft a ftrong fire is, becaufe bv that means a greater
quantity of the eflential oil will come over the helm
with the fpirit, which will render it fitter for the di-
Hiller’s purpofe : for this fpirit is commonly ufed to
11
■turn, how
rnitated.
1 D 1 s . .
mix with common malt goods: and it is furprifingDiftillation.
how far it will go in this refpeft, ten gallons of it be-
ing often fufficient to give a determining flavour and
agreeable vinofity to a whole piece of malt fpirits. It
is therefore well worth the diftiller’s while to endea¬
vour at improving the common method of extiafling
fpirits from raifins ; and perhaps the following hint
may merit attention. When the fermentation is com¬
pleted, and the ftill charged with fermented liquor as
above dire fled, let the whole be drawn off with as
brifk a fire as poffible ; but, inftead of the calk or can
generally ufed by diftillers for a receiver, let a large
glafs, called by chemifts a feparating g/afs, be placed
under the nofe of the worm, and a common receiver
applied to the fpout of the feparating glafs : by this
means the effential oil will fwim upon the top of the
fpirit, or rather low wine, in the feparating glafs, and
may be eafily preferved at the end of the operation.-—
The ufe of this limpid effential oil is well known to di¬
ftillers; for in this refides the whole flavour, and con-
fequently maybe ufed to the greateft advantage in giv¬
ing that diftinguilhing tafte and true vinofity to the
common malt fpirits. After the oil is feparated from
the low wine, the liquor may be reftified in balneo
mariae into a pure and almoft taftelefs fpirit, and there¬
fore well adapted to make the fineft compound cor¬
dials, or to imitate or mix with the fineft French bran¬
dies, arracks, &c. In the fame manner a fpirk may
be obtained from cyder. But as its particular flavour
is not fo defirable as that obtained from raifins, it tliould
be diftilled in a more gentle manner, and carefully rec¬
tified according to the direftior.s we have already
Sivren” . . , ... 13
Thefe dire&ions may fuffice for the diftillation ofDireftions
any kind of fimple fpirits. The diftillation of com-for (Milling
pound ones depends on the obfervation of the follow- compoiind
ing general rules, which are very eafy to be learned1^*11
and praflifed.
I. The artift muft always be careful to ufe a ivell
cleanfed fpirit, or one freed from its own effential oil.
For, as a compound water is nothing more than a fpi¬
rit impregnated with the effential oil of the ingredients,
it is neceffary that the fpirit fhould have depofited its
2. Let the time of previous digeftion be proportion¬
ed to the tenacity of the ingredients, or the pondero-
fity of their oil.
3. Let the ftrength of the fire alfo be proportioned
to the ponderofity of the oil intended to be railed with
the fpirit.
4. Let only a due proportion of the fineft parts of
the effential oil be united with the fpirit ; the gruffer
and lefs fragrant parts of the oil not giving the fpirit
fo. agreeable a flavour, and at the fame time rendering
it unfightly. This may in a great meafure be effefted
by leaving out the faints, and making up to proof with
fine foft water in their Head.
A careful obfervation of thefe four rules will render
this part of diftillation much more perfefl than it is at
prefent. Nor will there be any occafion for the ufe of
burnt alum, white of eggs, ifinglafs, &e. to fine down
cordial waters ; for they will prefently be fine, fweet,
and pleafant tailed, without any further trouble. We
lhall now fubjoin particular receipts for making fome
L 1 2 of
D I S [ 268 ] BIS
PiftUiatian.of ihofe compound waters, or fpirits, that are moft
v commonly to be met with, and are in the moft general
eftimation.
Receipts for Strong Cinnamon Water. Take eight pounds of fine
a number of0jJinamon bruifed, 17 gallons of clean redlified fpirit,
:uhJ°an^ and two gallons of water. Put them into your ftill,
and digeft them 24 hours with a gentle heat ; after
which draw off 16 gallons with a pretty ftrong heat.—
A cheaper fpirit, but of an inferior quality, may be
obtained by ufing caflia lignea inftead of cinnamon.
If you would dulcify your cinnamon water, take double
refined fugar in what quantity you pleafe ; the general
proportion is about two pounds to a gallon j and dif-
i'olve it in the fprrit, after you have made it up proof
with clean water. One general caution is here necef-
fary to be added •, namely, that near the end of the
operation, you carefully watch the fpirit as it runs into
the receiver, in order to prevent the faints from mix¬
ing with the goods. This you may difcover by often
catching fome of it as it runs from the worm in a glafs,
and obferving whether it is fine and tranfparent j for
as foon as ever the faints begin to rife, the fpirit will
have an azure or bluilh caft. As foon as this alteration
in colour is perceived, the receiver muft be imme¬
diately changed ; for if the faints are fuffered to mix
themfelves with the reft, the value of the goods will
be greatly leffened. Here we may obferve, that the
diftillers call fuch goods as are made up proof, double
goods ; and thofe below proof, Jingle.
Clove water. Take of cloves bruifed, four pounds j
pimento, or all-fpice, half a pound; proof fpirit, 16
gallons. Digeft the mixture 12 hours in a gentle heat,
and then draw off 15 gallons with a pretty brilk fire.
The water may be coloured red, either by a ftrong
iinfture of cochineal, alkanet, or corn poppy-flowers.
It may be dulcified at pleafure with double-refined fu-
gar.
Lemon water. Take of dried lemon peel, four pounds;
clean proof fpirit, 10 gallons and a half, and one gal¬
lon of water. Draw off ten gallons by a gentle fire,
and dulcify with fine fugar.
Citron water. Take of dry yellow rinds of citrons,
three pounds ; of orange peel, two pounds ; nutmegs,
bruifed, three quarters of a pound ; clean proof fpirit,
ten gallons and a half; water, one gallon. Digeft with
a gentle heat ; then draw off ten gallons in balneo ma-
rise, and dulcify with fine fugar.
Anifeed water. Take anifeed bruifed, two pounds ;
proof fpirit, 12 gallons and a half; water, one gallon.
Draw off ten gallons with a moderate fire.—This wa¬
ter fhr uld never be reduced below proof; becaufe the
large quantity of oil with which it is impregnated,
will render the goods milky and foul when brought
down below proof. But if there is a neceflity for do¬
ing this, their tranfparency may be reftored by filtra¬
tion.
Orange water. Take of the yellow part of frelh
orange peel, five pounds ; clean proof fpirit, ten gal¬
lons and a half ; water, two gallons. Draw off ten gal¬
lons with a gentle fire.
Cedrat water. The cedrat is a fpecxes of citron,
and very highly efteemed in Italy, where it grows na¬
turally. The fruit is difficult to be procured in this
country ; but as the effential oil is often imported from
Italy, it may be made with it according to the fol-
I
lowing receipt.—Take of the fineft loaf fugar reduced Diftillation
to powder, a quarter of a pound ; put it into a glafs ~—y—
mortar, with 120 drops of the effence of cedrat; rub
them together with a glafs peftle ; and put them into
a glafs alembic, with a gallon of fine proof fpirits and
a quart of water. Place the alembic in balneo marise,
and draw oft’ one gallon, or till the faints begin to rife,
and dulcify with fine iugar. This is reckoned the finelt
cordial yet known ; it will therefore be neceffary to be
particularly careful that the fpirit is perfectly clean,
and, as much as poffible, freed from any flavour of its
own.
Orange Cordial water, or Eau de Bigarade. Take
the outer or yellow part of the peels of 14 bigarades
(a kind of orange), half an ounce of nutmegs, a
quarter of an ounce of mace, a gallon of fine proof
fpirit, and two quarts of water. Digeft all thefe to¬
gether two days in a clofe veffel; after which draw off
a gallon with a gentle fire, and dulcify with fine fugar.
This cordial is greatly efteemed abroad, but is not fo
well known in this country.
Ros Solis. Take of the herb called Ros Solis, picked
clean, four pounds ; cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs,
of each three ounces and a half; marigold flowers, one
pound ; caraway feeds, ten ounces ; proof fpirit, ten
gallons ; water, three gallons. Diftil with a pretty
ftrong fire, till the faints begin to rife. Then take of
liquorice root fliced, half a pound ; raifins ftoned, two
pounds ; red launders, half a pound : digeft thefe three
days in two quarts of water ; then ftrain out the clear
liquor, in which diffolve three pounds of fine fugar, and
mix it with the fpirit drawn by diftillation.
Ufquebaugh. Take nutmegs, cloves, and cinnamon,
of each two ounces; the feeds of anile, caraway, and
coriander, of each four ounces ; of liquorice root fliced,
half a pound. Bruife the feeds and fpices; and put
them together with the liquorice, into the ftill with
11 gallons of proof fpirits, and two gallons of water.
Diftil with a pretty brilk fire till the faints begin to
rife. But, as foon as the ftill begins to workj fallen
to the nofe of the worm two ounces of Englilh faffron
tied up in a cloth, that the liquor may run through it,
and extraft all its tin&ure ; and in order to this, you
ffiould frequently prefs the faffron with your fingers;
When the operation is finilhed, dulcify your goods
with fine fugar.
Ratafia—Is a liquor prepared from different kinds
of fruits, and is of different colours according to the
fruits made ufe of. Of red ratafia there are three kinds,
the fine, the dry or ftiarp, and the common. The
fruits moft proper for making red ratafia, are the black
heart cherry, the common red cherry, the black cherry,
the mery or honey cherry, the ftrawberry, the rafpber-
ry, the red goofeberry, and the mulberry. Thefe fruits
Ihould be gathered when in their greateft perfcdlion,
and the large!! and moft beautiful of them chofen for
the purpofe.—The following is a receipt for making
red ratafia, fine and foft. Take of the black heart
cherries, 24 pounds ; black cherries, four pounds ;
rafpberries and ftrawberries, of each three pounds.
Pick the fruits from their ftalks, and bruife them ; in
which ftate let them continue 12 hours : prefs out the
juice ; and to every pint of it add a quarter of a pound
of fugar. When the fugar is diffblved, run the whole
through the filtrating bag, and add to it three quarts
D I S [ 269 ] D I S
.of clean proof fpirits. Then take of cinnamon, four
ounces j of mace, one ounce j and of cloves, two
drachms. Bruife thefe fpices •, put them into an alem¬
bic with a gallon of clean proof fpirits and two quarts
of water, and draw off a gallon with a brilk fire. Add
as much of this fpicy fpirit to your ratafia as will ren¬
der it agreeable to your palate j about one-fourth is the
ufual proportion.
Ratafia made according to the above receipt will be
of a very rich flavour and elegant colour. It may be
rendered more or lefs of a fpicy flavour, by adding or
diminithing the quantity of fpirit diftilled from the'
fpices. Some, in making ratafia, fuffer the expreffed
juices of their fruits to ferment feveral days : by this
means the vinofity of the ratafia is increafed ; but, at
the fame time, the elegant flavour of the fruits is
greatly diminiflred. Therefore, if the ratafia is deli-
red ftronger or more vinous, it may be done by adding
more fpirits to the exprelfed juice ; by which means
the flavour of the fruits may be preferved, as well as
the ratafia rendered ftronger. It is alfo a method with
feme to tie the fpices in a linen bag, and fufpend them
in the ratafia. But if this method is taken, it will be
necetfary to augment the quantity of fpirit firft added
to the exprefled juice. There is no great difference in
the two methods of adding the fpices, except that by
fufpending them in the ratafia the liquor is rendered
lefs tranfparent.
Dry or Jharp Ratafia. Take cherries and goofe-
berries, of each 30 pounds ; mulberries, feven pounds ;
rafpberries, ten pounds. Pick all thefe fruits clean from
their ftalks, &c. bruife them, and let them Hand 12
hours ; but do not fuffer them to ferment. Prefs out
the juice, and to every pint add three ounces of fugar.
When the fugar is diffolved, run it through the filtrat¬
ing bag, and to every five pints of liquor add four pints
of clean proof fpirit; together with the fame proportion
of fpirit drawn from the fpices in the foregoing compo-
fition.
Common Ratafia. Take of nutmegs, eight ounces;
bitter almonds, ten pounds; Lilbon fugar, eight
pounds ; ambergrife, ten grains ; infufe thefe ingredi¬
ents three days in ten gallons of clean proof fpirit, and
filter through a flannel bag for ufe. The nutmegs and
bitter almonds muft be bruifed, and the ambergrile
rubbed with the Lifbon fugar in a marble mortar, be¬
fore they are infufed in the fpirit.
Gold Cordial. Take of the roots of angelica, four
pounds ; raifins ftoned, two pounds ; coriander feeds,
half a pound ; caraway feeds and cinnamon, of each
half a pound ; cloves, two ounces ; figs and liquorice
root, of each one pound; proof fpirit, eleven gallons;
water, two gallons. The angelica, liquorice, and figs,
muft be fliced before they are added. Digeft two
days ; and draw off by a gentle heat till the faints be¬
gin to rife ; hanging in a piece of linen, faftened to
the mouth of the worm, an ounce of Englifti faffron.
Then diffolve eight pounds of fugar in three quarts of
rofe water, and add to it the diftilled liquor.— Ihis li¬
quor derives its name of gold cordial from a quantity
of leaf gold being formerly added to it ; but this is
now generally difufed, as it cannot poffibly add any
virtue.
Cardamum or All-fours. Take of pimento, cara¬
way, and coriander feeds, and lemon peel, each three
pounds; of malt fpirits, eleven gallons; water, threeDiftlllatioa
gallons. Draw off with a gentle fire, dulcify with li .
common fugar, and make up to the ftrength defined Diltonion.
with clear water. This is a dram greatly ufed by the
poorer fort of people in fome countries.
Geneva. There -was formerly fold in the apotheca¬
ries ftiops a diftilled fpirituous water of juniper ; but
the vulgar being fond of it as a dram, the diftillers fup-
planted the apothecaries, and fold it under the name of
Geneva. The common kind, however, is not made
from juniper berries, but from oil of turpentine ; and
indeed it is furprifing that people ftiould accuftom
themfelves to drink fuch liquors for pleafure.—The
receipt for making this kind of fpirit, fold in the gin
{hops at London, is as follows : Take of the ordinary
malt fpirits, ten gallons ; oil of turpentine, two ounces ;
bay fait, three handfuls. Draw off by a gentle fire
till the faints begin to rife ; and make up your goods
to the ftrength required with clear water.
The bell kind is made by the following recipe.—
Take of juniper berries, three pounds; proof fpirit,
ten gallons ; water, four gallons. Draw off by a gen->
tie fire till the faints begin to rife, and make up your
goods to the ftrength required with clean water.
There is a fort of this liquor called Hollands Geneva,
from its being imported from Holland, which is greatly
efteemed. The ingredients ufed by the Dutch are the
fame with thofe given in the laft recipe; only, inftead
of malt fpirits, they ufe French brandy. But from
what has been already obferved concerning the nature
of thefe kinds of fpirits, it is eafy to fee, that by the
help of a well re&ified fpirit, geneva may be made in
this country at leaft nearly equal to the Dutch, pro¬
vided it is kept to a proper age ; for all fpirituous li¬
quors contraft a foftnefs and mellownefs by age, im-
poflible to be imitated any other way.
DISTILLERY, the art of diftilling brandy and
other fpirits. This art was firft brought into Europe
by the Moors of Spain, about the year 1150: they
learned it of the African Moors, who had it from the
Egyptians ; and the Egyptians are faid to have prac-
tifed it in the reign of the emperor Dioclefian, though
it was unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans.
See Distillation and Fermentation.
DISTINCTION, in Logic, is an affemblage of two
or more words, whereby difparate things, or their con¬
ceptions, are denoted.
DISTORTION, in Medicine, is when any part of
the human body remarkably deviates from its natural
fhape or pofition. Diftortions of different parts may
arife either from a convulfion or palfy ; though fome-
times a terrible diftortion in the fhape of the whole
body hath arifen merely from careleffnefs and ill ha¬
bits. Mr Winflow, in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences at Paris, gives a very remarkable account
of a lady of quality*, whom he had known to be per¬
fectly ftraight for feveral years ; but who taking after¬
wards to a fedentary courfe of life, got a cuftom of
drefling herfelf very carelefsly, and of leaning as (he
fat, either forwards or to a fide. It was not many
months before (he found it painful and troublefome to
ftand or fit upright ; and foon afterwards fhe found an
inequality in the lower part of the back bone. Alarm¬
ed at this, (lie confulted the gentleman who gave the
account. To prevent the increafe of the malady, he
orderedi
BIS [ 270 ] BIS
Diftortion, ordered her to wear a particular fort of jumps inftead
Diftrefs. 0f flays, and had a pad of a proper fize applied : but
l"" y this was foon neglected ; and the confequence was, that
in a little time the back bone became more and more
crooked, and at length bent itfelf fidewife in‘two con¬
trary dire&ions, fo as to reprefent the figure of the
Roman S } and the lady, ftill refufing to take the pro¬
per meafures, loft a fourth part of her height j and
continued for the remainder of her life, not only
crooked from right to left, and from left to right, but
fo oddly folded together, that the firft of the falfe ribs
on one fide approached very near the creft of the os
ilium on that fide, and the vifcera of the lower belly
became ftrangely pufhed out of their regular places to
the oppofite fide 5 and the ftomach itfelf was fo ftrong-
ly compreffed, that whatever (he fwallowed feemed to
her to fall into two feparate cavities.
DISTRESS, in its ordinary acceptation, denotes ca¬
lamity, mifery, or painful fuffering.
The Contemplation of DlSTBESS, a fource of pleafure.
On this fubjeft we have a very pleafing and ingenious
eflay by Dr Barnes, in the Memoirs of the Literary
* Vol, 1. ancj Philofophical Society of Manchefter*. It is in-
444> trocJuced with the following motto :
Suave mari mag no, turbantibus cequora vends,
E terra alterius magnum fpeBare periclum.
Non quia vexari quenquam ef jucunda voluptas ;
Sed quibus ipfe mails careas, quia cernere fuave ef.
Lucretius.
“ The pleafure here defcribed by the poet, and of
which he has mentioned fo ftriking and appofite an in-
■flance, may perhaps at firft feem of fo Angular and a-
ftoniftiing a nature, that fome may be difpofed to doubt
of its exiftence. But that it does exift, in the cafe
here referred to, and in many others of a fimilar kind,
is an undoubted fa£t ; and it may not appear an ufe-
lefs or difagreeable entertainment, to trace its fource
in the human breaft, together with the final caufe
for which it was implanted there by our benevolent
Creator.
“ Shall I, it may be faid, feel complacency in be¬
holding a fcene in which many of my fellow-creatures
are agonizing with terror, whilft I can neither dimi-
nilh their danger, nor, by my fympathy, divide their
anguifh ? At the fight of another’s woe, does not my
bofom naturally feel pain ? Do I not fhare in his fenfa-
tions ? And is not this ftrong and exquifite fenfibility
intended by my Maker to urge me on to aftive and
immediate afliftance ! Thefe fenfations are indeed at¬
tended with a noble pleafure, when I can, by friendly
attention, or by benevolent communication, foothe the
forrows of the poor mourner, fnatch him from impend¬
ing danger, or fupply his prefling wants. But in ge¬
neral, where my fympathy is of no avail to the wretch¬
ed fufferer, I fly from the fpe&acle of his mifery, un¬
able or unwilling to endure a pain which is not allayed
by the fweet fatisfa&ion of doing good.”
It will be neceffary, in anfwer to thefe objections, in
the firft place to prove the reality of the feeling, the
caufe of which, in the human conftitution, we here at¬
tempt to explore.
Mr Addifon, in his beautiful papers on the Pleafures
of the Imagination, has obferved, “ that objrCts or
fcenes, which, when real, give difguft or pain, in de-
fcriplion often become beautiful and agreeable. Thus, Diitrefs
even a dunghill may, by the charms of poetic imagery, 1 “ _
excite pleafure and entertainment. Scenes of this na¬
ture, dignified by apt and ftriking defcription, we re¬
gard with fomething of the fame feelings with which
we look upon a dead monfter.
. — Informe cadaver
Protrahitut : nequeunt exp/eri cor da tuendo
Terribiles oculos, vullum, villofaque fetis
Peflora femiferi, at qua extinffos faucibus ignes.
Virgil.
“ This (he obferves) is more particularly the cafe,
where the defcription raifes a ferment in the mind and
works with violence upon the paflions. One would
wonder (adds he) how it comes to pafs, that paflions,
which are very unpleafant at all other times, are very
agreeable when excited by proper defcription ; fuch as
terror, dejeftion, grief, &e. This pleafure arifes from
the reflection we make upon ourfeives, whilft reading
it, that we are not in danger from them. When we
read of wounds, death, &x\ our pleafure does not rife
fo properly from the grief which thefe melancholy de-
fcriptions give us, as from the fecret comparifon we
make of ourfeives with thafe who fuffer. We ihould
not feel the fame kind of pleafure, if we aClually faw
a perfon lying under the tortures that we meet with in
a defcription.”
And yet, upon the principle afligned by this amiable
writer, we might feel the fame, or even higher plea¬
fure, from the aftual view of diftrefs, than from any
defcription *, becaufe the comparifon of ourfeives with
the fufferer would be more vivid, and confequently the
feeling more intenfe. We would only obferve that the
caufe which he afligns for this pleafure is the very fame
with that afligned by Lucretius in our motto. Mr
Addifon applies it to the defcriptinn ; the poet to the
aClual contemplation of affeding fcenes. In both the
pleafure is fuppofed to originate in felfiflinefs. But
wherever the focial paffions are deeply interefted, as
they are here fuppofed to be, from the pathetic de¬
fcription, or the ftill more pathetic furvey, of the fuf-
ferings of another, the fympathetic feelings will of
themfelves, at once, and previoufly to all reflection, be¬
come a fource of agreeable and tender emotions. They
will thus dignify and enhance the fatisfaCtion, if any
fuch be felt, arifing merely from the confideration of
our own perfonal fecurity. And the more entirely we
enter into the fcene, by lofing all ideas of its being either
part or fabulous, the more perfeCtiy we forget ourfeives,
and are abforbed in the feeling,—-the more exquifite is
the fenfation.
But as our fubfequent Speculations will chiefly turn
upon the pleafure derived from real fcenes of calamity,
and not from thofe which are imaginary, it may be ex-
peCled that we produce inftances in proof that fueh
pleafure is felt by perfons very different in their tafte
and mental cultivation.
We (hall not mention the horrid joy with which the
favage feafts his eyes upon the agonies and contortions
of his expiring prifoner—expiring in all the pains which
artificial cruelty can infliCt ! Nor will we recur to the
almoft equally favage fons of ancient Rome, when the
majefty of the Roman people could rufli, with eager-
nefs and tranfport, to behold hundreds of gladiators
contending
)iftrefs.
D I S
contending in fatal conflict, and probably more than
half the number extended, weltering in blood and writh¬
ing in agony, upon the plain. Nor will we mention
the Spanilh bull feafts $ nor the fervent acclamations
of an Englilh mob around their fellow creatures, when
engaged in furious battle, in which it is poflible that
fome of the combatants may receive a mortal blow,
and be hurried in this awful ftate to the bar of his
Judge. Let us furvey the multitudes which in every
part of the kingdom, always attend an execution. It
may perhaps be faid, that in all places the vulgar have
little of the fenfibility and tendernefs of more polilhed
bofoms. Rut, in the laft mentioned inftance, an exe¬
cution, there is no exultation in the fufferings of the
poor criminal. He is regarded by every eye with the
moft melting compaffion. The whole affembly fym-
pathize with him in his unhappy fituation. An awful
dillnefs prevails at the dreadful moment. Many are
wrung with unutterable fenfations : and prayer and li-
lence declare, more loudly than any language could,
the intereft they feel in his diltrefs. Should a reprieve
come to refcue him from death, how great is the general
triumph and congratulation 1 And probably in this
multitude you will find not the mere vulgar herd alone,
but the man of fuperior knowledge and of more refined
feniibility j who, led by fome ftrong principle, which
we vvilh to explain, feels a pleafure greater than all the
pain, great and exquifite as one Ihould imagine it to be,
from fuch a fpeftacle.
The man who condemns many of the fcenes we have
already mentioned as barbarous and (hocking, would
probably run with the greateft eagernefs to fome high
cliff, overhanging the ocean, to fee it fwelled into a
temped, though a poor veflel, or even a fleet of veflels,..
were to appear as one part of the dreadful fcenery,
now lifted to the heavens on the foaming furge, now
plunged deep into the fatbomlefs abyfs, and now daflied
upon the rocks, where they are in a moment (hivered
into fragments, and, with all their mariners, entombed
in the wave. Or, to vary the queftion a little 5 Who
would not be forward to (land fafe, on the top of fome
mountain or tower, adjoining to a field of battle, in which
two armies meet in defperate conffins 5 and that by the fame infpeaion of the
ftars and planets and their different' conilellations.
The cabala fignifies, in like manner, the knowledge of
things that are above the moon, as the celeftial bodies
and their, influences and in this fenfe it is the fame
with judicial aitrology, or makes a part of it.
2.. Horofcopy, which may alfo be confldered as a part
of aftrology, is the art by which they draw a figure,
or celeftial fcheme, containing the 12 houtes, wherein
they mark the difpofition of the heavens at a certain
moment j for example, that at which a man is born, in
order to foretel bis fortune, or the incidents of his life.
In a word, it is the difpofition of the ftars and planets
at the moment of any perfon’s birth. But as there
cannot be any probable or poflible relation between
the conftellations and the human race, all the principles
they lay down, and the prophecies they draw from
them, are chimerical,.falfe, abfurd, ,and a criminal imr
pofition on mankind.
3. The art of augury confifted, among the ancient
Romans,, in obferving the flight, the tinging and eaU
ing of birds,, efpecially fuch as were held faered. See
Augury,
4. The equally deceitful art of harufpicy confifted,
on the contrary, in the infpe&ion of the bowels of am*-
mals, but principally of victims * and from thence pre¬
dicting grand incidents relative to the republic, and
the good or bad events of its enterprifes.
5. deromancy was the art of divining by the air.
This vain fcience has alfo come to us from the Pagans j
but is rejected by reafon as well as Chriftianity, as falls
and abfurd.
6* Pijromancy is a divination made by the infpeCtion
of a flame, either by obferving to which fide it turns,
or by throwing into it fome combultible matter, or a
bladder filled with wine, or any thing elle from which
they imagined they were able to prediCt.
7; Hydromancy is the fuppofed art of divining by
water. The Perfians, according to Varro, invented it,
Pythagoras and Numa Pompilius made ufe of it ^ and
we ftill admire the like wonderful prognofticators..
8. Geomancy was a divination made by obferving of
cracks or clefts in the earth. It was alfo performed
by points made on paper, or any other fubftance, at a
venture 5 and they judged of future events from the
figures that refulted from thence. This was certainly
very ridiculous but it is nothing lefs .fo to pretend
to prediCf future events by the infpeClion of the
grounds of a difii of tea or coffee, or by cards, and
many other like matters.-—Thus have defigning men
made ufe of the four elements to deceive their credu¬
lous brethren,
9. Chiromancy is the art which teaches to know*
by infpeOing the hand, not only the inclinations of
a man, but his future deftiny alfo. The fools or
impoftors who praCfife this art pretend that the diS
ferent parts or the lines of the hand have a relation
to the internal parts of the body, as fome to the heart,
others to the liver, fpleen, &c. On this falfe fup-
pofition, and on many others equally extravagant,
the. principles of chiromancy are founded : and on
which, however, feveral authors, as Robert Flud an
Englilhman, Artemidorus, M. de la Chambre, John
of Indagina, and many others, have written large trea¬
ties.
1 o. Physiognomy or physiognomancy, is a fcience that
pretends , to teach the nature, the temperament, the
underftanding.
D 1 V l 277 J D I V
I y Ration underf.andingj and the inclinations of men, by the in-
j| fpeftion of their countenances, and is therefore very
iving- little lefs frivolous than chiromancy j though Ariflotle,
^ "v— arKi a number of learned men after him, have written
exprefs treatifes concerning it.
DIVINE, fomething relating to God.. The word
is alfo ufed, figuratively, for any thing that is excellent,
extraordinary, and that feems to go beyond the power
of nature and the capacity of mankind. In which
fenfe, the compafs, telefcope, clocks, &c. are faid to
be divine inventions : Plato is called the divine author,
the divine P/ato; and the fame appellation is given to
Seneca : Hippocrates is called, “ the divine old-man,’*
divinus fen ex, &c.
DIVING, the art or a& of defcending under water
to coniiderable depths, and abiding there a competent
time.
The ufes of diving are very confiderable, particu¬
larly in the fiihingfor pearls, corals, fponges, &q. St&
FEARL-Fi/hing, &c.
There have been various methods propofed, and ma¬
chines contrived, to render the bufinefs of diving more
&fe and eafy. The great point is to furnilh the diver
with frelh air ; without which, he muft either make a-
jihort flay or perifh.
Thofe who dive for fponges in the Mediterranean,
help themfelves by carrying down fponges dipt in oil in
their mouths. But oonfidering the fmall quantity of
air that can be contained in the pores of a fponge,
and how much that little will be contracted by the
preffure of the incumbent water, fuch a fupply cannot
long fubfift the diver. For it is found by experiment,
that a gallon of air included* in a bladder, and by a-
pipe reciprocally infpired and'expired by the lungs, be¬
comes unfit for refpiration in little more than one mi¬
nute of time. For though its elafticity be but little
altered in paffing the lungs, yet it lofes its vivifying fpi-
rit, and is rendered effete.
In effeCl, a naked diver, Dr Halley alfures us, with¬
out a fponge, cannot remain above a couple of mi¬
nutes enclofed in water, nor much longer with one,
without fuffocating; nor, without long practice, near
fo long ; ordinary perfons beginning to ftifle in about
half a minute. Befrdes, if the depth be confider¬
able, the prelfure of the water on the veffels makes the
eyes blood-lhotten, and frequently occafions a fpitting
of blood i
Hence, where there has been occafion to continue
long at the bottom, feme have contrived doable flexible
pipes, to circulate air down into a cavity, enclofing
the diver as with armour, both to furnifh air and to
bear olf the preflure of the water, and give leave- to
his bread to dilate upon infpiration j the frefh air be¬
ing forced down one of the pipes with bellows, and re¬
turning by the other of them, not unlike to an artery
and vein.
But this method is impraCIicable when the depth
furoaffes three fathoms 5 the water embracing the bare
limbs fo clofely as to obftruCI the circulation of the
blood in them ; and withal prefling fo ftrongly on all
the jundures where the armour is made tight with lea¬
ther, that, if there be the lead defeCI in any of them,
the water rufhes in, and indantly fills the whole engine,
to the great danger of the diver’s life.
It is certain, however, that people, by being accu-
4
domed to the water from their infancy, will at length Diving,
be enabled, not only to day much longer under water ——y—
than the time above mentioned, but put on a kind of
amphibious nature, fo that they feem to have the ufs
of all their faculties as well when their bodies are im-
merfed in water as when they are on dry land. Mod:
favage nations are remarkable for this. According to
the accounts of our late voyagers, the inhabitants of
the South fea iflands are fuch expert divers, that when
a nail or any piece of iron was thrown overboard, they
would indantly jump into the fea after it, and never
failed to recover it, notwithftanding the quick defcent
of the metal. Even among civilized nations, many per¬
fons have been found capable of continuing an incre¬
dible length of time below water. The mod remark¬
able indance of this kind is the famous Sicilian diver
Nicolo Pefce. The authenticity of the account, in¬
deed, depends entirely on the authority of F. Kircher.
H6 affures us that he had it from the archives of the
kings of Sicily: but, notwithdanding this affertion,
the whole hath fo much of the marvellous in it, that
we believe there are few who will not look upon it to
have been exaggerated. “ In the times of Frederic
king of- Sicily (fays Kircher), there lived a celebrated
diver, wbofe name was Nicholas, and who,, from his
amazing Ikill in iwimming, and his perfeverance under
water, was furnamed the fifl. This man had from his
infancy been ufed to the fea ; and earned his fcanty
fubddence by diving for corals and oyders, which he
fold to the villagers on fhore. His long acquaintance
with the fea, at laft, brought it to be almod his natu¬
ral element. He was frequently known to fpend five
days in the midd of the waves, without any other pro-
vifions than the filh which he caught there and ate
raw. He often fwam over from Sicily into Calabria,
a tempeduous and dangerous paffagc, carrying letters
from the king. He was frequently known to fwim a-
mong the gulfs of the Lipari iflands, noway apprehen*
five of danger.
“ Some mariners out at fea, one day obferved fome¬
thing at fome didance from them, which they regard¬
ed as a fea monder j but upoi* its approach it was
known to be Nicholas, whom they took into their Ihip.
When they alked him whither he was going in fo dor-
my and rough a lea, and at fuch a didance from landi
he (bowed them a. packet of letters, which he was car¬
rying to one of the towns of Italy, exa&ly done up in
a leather bag, in fuch a manner as that they could not
be wetted by the fea. He kept them thus company
for fome time in their voyage, converfing, and alking
quedions ; and after eating a hearty meal with them*
he took his leave, and, jumping into the fea, purfued
his voyage alone.
“ In order to aid thefe powers of enduring in the
deep* nature feemed to have aflided him in a very ex¬
traordinary manner : for the fpaces between his fingers
and toes were webbed,, as in a goofe ; and his died be¬
came fo very capacious, that he could take in, at one
ihfpiration, as much breath as would ferve him for a
whole day.
“The account of fo extraordinary a perfon did not
fail to reach the king himfelf j who commanded Ni¬
cholas to be brought before him. It was no eafy mat¬
ter to find Nicholas, who generally fpent his time in
the folitudes of the deep j but, at lad, after much
fearching,
13 I V [ 278 j D I V
fearching, he was found, and brought before his nia-
jefty. The curiofity of this monarch had been long ex¬
cited by the accounts he had heard of the bottom of
the gulf of Charybdis •, he now therefore conceived,
that it would be a proper opportunity to have more
certain information. He thereiore commanded our
poor diver to examine the bottom of this dreadful
whirlpool *, and as an incitement to his obedience, he
ordered a golden cup to be flung into it. Nicholas was
not infenfible of the danger to which he was expofed j
dangers beft known only to himfelf j and therefore he
prefumed to remonftrale : but the hopes of the reward,
the defire of pleafing the king, and the pleafure of
Ihowing his {kill, at faft prevailed. He inftantly jump¬
ed into°the gulf, and was as inflantly fwallowed up in its
bofom. He continued for three quarters of an hour
below y during which time the king and his attend¬
ants remained on (bore, anxious for his fate 5 but he at
laft appeared, holding the cup in triumph in one hand,
and making his way good among the waves with the
other. It may be fuppofed he was received with ap-
plaufe when he came on ftiore : the cup was made the
reward of his adventure ; the king ordered him to be
taken proper care of j and, as he was fomewhat fa¬
tigued and debilitated by his labour, after a hearty
meal he was put to bed, and permitted to refrefh him¬
felf by deeping.
“ When his fpirits were thus reftored, he was again
brought to fatisfy the king’s curiofity with a narrative
of the wonders he had feen 5 and his account w'as to
the following eflfedt. He would never, he faid, have
obeyed the king’s commands, had he been apprifed of
half the dangers that were before him. There were
four things, he faid, which rendered the gulf dread¬
ful, not only to men, but to filhes themfelves. 1. The
force of the water burfting up from the bottom, which
required great ftrength to refill. 2. The abruptnefs
of the rocks that on every fide threatened deftruc-
tion. 3. The force of the whirlpool dafhing againft
thofe rocks. And, 4. The number and magnitude
of the polypous fifti, fome of which appeared as large
as a man •, and which everywhere flicking againfl:
the rocks, proje&ed their fibrous arms to entangle
him. Being a flee d how he was able fo readily to find
the cup that had been thrown in, he replied, that it
happened to be flung by the waves into the cavity of
a rock againfl; which he himfelf was urged in his de-
feent. This account, however, did not fatisfy the
king’s curiofity. Being requefted to venture once
more into the gulf for further difeoveries, he at firft
refufed : but the king, defirous of having the moft
exadl information poflible of all things to be found
in the gulf, repeated his folicitations 5 and, to give
them ftill greater weight, produced a larger cup than
the former, and added alfo a purfe of gold. Upon
thefe confiderations the unfortunate diver once again
plunged into the whirlpool, and was never heard of
more.”
To obviate the inconveniencies of diving to thofe
who have not the extraordinary powers of the diver
above mentioned, different inftruments have been con¬
trived. The chief of thefe is the diving-bell j which
is moft conveniently made in form of a truncated cone,
the fmaller bafe being clofed, and the larger open.
It is to be poifed with lead j and fo fufpended, that
the veffel may fink full of air, with its open bafis down- Divir-
ward, and as near as may be in a fituation parallel to ——v~—
the horizon, fo as to clofe with the furface of the Water
all at once.
Under this covercle the diver fitting, finks down
with the included air to the depth defired j and if the
cavity of the veflel contain a tun of water, a Angle
man may remain a full hour, without much inconve¬
nience, at five or fix fathoms deep. But the lower
you go, ftill the including air contradls itfelf accord¬
ing to the weight of the water which compreffes it : fo
that at 33 feet deep the bell becomes half full of wa¬
ter, the preffure of the incumbent water being then
equal to that of the atmofphere $ and at all other
depths the fpace occupied by the comprefi’ed air in the
upper part of the bell will be to the under part of its
capacity filled with water, as 33 feet to the furface
of the water in the bell below the common furface
thereof. And this condenfed air being taken in with
the breath foon infinuates itfelf into all the cavities of
the body, and has no ill effedf, provided the bell be
permitted to defeend fo flowly as to allow time for
that purpofe. One inconvenience that attends it, is
found in the ears, within which there are cavities which
open only outwards, and that by pores fo fmall as not
to give admiflion even to the air itfelf, unlefs they be
dilated and diftended by a confiderable force. Hence,
on the firft defeent of the bell, a preflure begins to be
felt on the ear 5 which, by degrees, grows painful,
till the force overcoming the obftacle, what confirin-
ges thefe pores yields to the preflure, and letting fome
condenfed air flip in, prefently eafe enfues. The bell
defeending lower, the pain is renewed, and again eafed
in the fame manner. But the greateft inconvenience
of this engine is, that the water entering it, contrafts
the bulk of air into a fmall compafs, it foon heats and
becomes unfit for refpiration 5 fo that there is a necefli-
ty for its being drawn up and renewed.
“ The invention of this bell, (fays Profeflbr Beck- 0j
mann), is generally affigned to the 16th century j/nwnf.
and I am of opinion that it was little known before
that period. We read, however, that in the time of
Ariftotle divers ufed a kind of kettle, to enable them
to continue longer under the water j but the man¬
ner in which it was employed is not clearly deferi-
bed. The oldeft information which we have of the
ufe of the diving-bell in Europe, is that of John
Taifnier, who was born in Hainault in 1509, and had
a place at court under Charles V. whom he attended
on his voyage to Africa. He relates in what man¬
ner he faw at Toledo, in the prefence of the emperor
and feveral thoufand fpe&ators, two Greeks let them¬
felves down under water, in a large inverted kettle,
with a burning light, and rife up again without being
wet. It appears that this art was then new to the
emperor and the Spaniards, and that the Greeks were
caufed to make the experiment in order to prove the
poflibility of it.”
“ When the Englifh, in 1588, difperfed the Spanifh
fleet, called the Invincible Armada, part of the (hips
went to the bottom, near the Ifle of Mull, on the weft-
ern coaft of Scotland *, and fome of thefe, according to
the account of the Spanifh prifoners, contained great
riches. This information excited, from time to time,
the avarice of (peculators, and gave rife to feveral at¬
tempts
D 1 V [ 279 ] D I V
tempts to procure part of the loft treafure. In the
year 1665, a perfon was fo fortunate as to bring up
forne cannon, which, however, were not fufficient to
defray the expences. Of thefe attempts, and the kind
of diving bell ufed in them, the reader will find an ac¬
count in a work printed at Rotterdam in 1669, an<^
entitled G. Sinclari /Irs nova et magna gravitatis et le-
vitatis. In the year 1680, William Phipps, a native
of America, formed a project for ftarching and unload¬
ing a rich Spanilh (hip funk on the coaft of Hifpaniola ;
and reprefented his plan in fuch a plaufible manner, that
King Charles II. gave him a Ihip, and furniftied him
with every thing neceflary for the undertaking. He
fet fail in the year 1683 •, but being unfuccefsful, re¬
turned again in great poverty, though with a firm con-
viflion of the poftibility of his fcheme. By a fubfcrip-
tion, promoted chiefly by the ,duke of Albemarle, the
fon of the celebrated Monk, Phipps was enabled, in
1687, to try his fortune once more, having previoufly
engaged to divide the profit according to the twenty
ftiares of which the fubfcription confifted. At firft all
his labour proved fruitlefs ; but at laft, when his pa¬
tience was almoft entirely exhaufted, he was fo lucky as
to bring up, from the depth of fix or feven fathoms, fo
much treafure that he returned to England with the
value of two hundred thoufand pounds fterling. Of
this fuin he himfelf got about fixteen, others fay twenty
thoufand, and the duke ninety thoufand pounds. After
he came back, fome perfons endeavoured to perfuade
the king to feize both the Ihip and the cargo, under
a pretence that Phipps, when he folicited for his ma-
jefty’s permiflion, had not given accurate information
refpefting the bufinefs. But the king anfwered, with
much greatnefs of mind, that he knew Phipps to be an
honeft man, and that he and his friends fhould lhare the
whole among them had he returned with double the
value. His majefty even conferred upon him the ho¬
nour of knighthood, to (how how much he was fatisfied
with his conduft. We know not the conftru&ion of
Phipps’s apparatus : but of the old figures of a diving-
machine, that which approaches neareft to the diving-
bell is in a book on fortification by Lorini j who de-
fcribes a fquare box bound round with iron, which is
furniftied with window's, and has a ftool affixed to it for
the diver. This ingenious contrivance appears, hou'-
ever, to be older than that Italian ; at leaft he does not
pretend to be the inventor of it.
“ In the year 1617, Francis Kefsler gave a defcription
of his water-armour, intended alfo for diving, but which
cannot really be ufed for that purpofe. In the year
1671, Witfen taught, in a better manner than any of
his predeceffors, the conftru&ion and ufe of the di¬
ving-bell ; but he is much miftaken when he fays that
it was invented at Amfterdam. In 1679 appeared,
for the firft time, Borelli’s well known work de motu
animalium; in which he not only defcribed the diving-
bell, but alfo propofed another, the impracticability
of which was ffiewn by James Bernoulli. When
Sturm publiftied his Collegium curiofum in 1678, he
propofed fome hints for the improvement of this ma¬
chine, on which remarks w’ere made in the Journal des
Sfavans.'1'1
To obviate the difficulties of the diving-bell, Dr Hal¬
ley contrived fome further apparatus, whereby not on¬
ly to recruit and refrefti the air from time to time, but
3
alfo to keep the water wholly out of it at any depth. Diving;.
The manner in which this was effefted, he relates in—v—
the following words :
“ The bell I made ufe of was of wood, containing
about 60 cubic feet in its concavity ; and was of the
form of a truncated tone, whofe diameter at the top was
three feet, and at the bottom five. This I coated with
lead fo heavy that it would fink empty j and I diftri-
buted the weight fo about its bottom, jhat it would go
down in a perpendicular direction, and no other. In
the top I fixed a ftrong but clear glafs, as a window,
to let in the light from above j and likewife a cock to
let out the hot air that had been breathed : and below,
about a yard under the bell, I placed a ftage which
hung by three ropes, each of which was charged w-ith
about one hundred weight to keep it fteady. This
machine I fufpended from the maft of a ffiip by a fprit,
which was Efficiently fecured by flays to the maft head,
and was direifted by braces to carry it overboard clear
of the (hip’s fide, and to bring it again within board as
occafion required.
“ To fupply air to this bell when under water, I
caufed a couple of barrels of about 36 gallons each to
be cafed with lead, fo as to fink empty ; each of them
having a bung-hole in its lowed parts to let in the wa¬
ter, as the air in them condenfed on their defcent j and
to let it out again when they were drawn up full from
below. And to a hole in the uppermoft part of thefe
barrels, I fixed a leathern trunk or hofe well liquored
with bees wax and oil, and long enough to fall below
the bung-hole, being kept down by a weight append¬
ed : fo that the air in the upper part of the barrels
could not efcape, unlefs the lower ends of thefe hofe
were firft lifted up.
“ The air-barrels being thus prepared, I fitted them
with tackle proper to make them rife and fall alternate¬
ly, after the manner of tw'o buckets in a well j which
was done with fo much eafe, that two men, with lefs
than half their ftrength, could perform all the labour re¬
quired; and in their defcent they were dire£fed by lines
fattened to the under edge of the bell, the which palled
through rings on both fides the leathern hofe in each
barrel; fo that, Aiding down by thefe lines, they came
readily to the hand of a man who flood on the ftage on
purpofe to receive them, and to take up the ends o£
the hofe into the bell. Through thefe hofe, as foon
as their ends came above the furface of the water in
the barrels, all the air that was included in the upper
parts of them was blown with great force into the bell,
whilft the water entered at the bung-holes below, and
filled them ; and as foon as the air of one barrel had
been thus received, upon a fignal given, that was drawn,
up, and at the fame time the other defcended ; and,
by an alternate fucceffion, furnifhed air fo quick, and
in fo great plenty, that I myfelf have been one of five
who have been together at the bottom in nine or ten
fathom water, for above an hour and a half at a time,
without any fort of ill confequence ; and I might have
continued there as long as I pleafed, for any thing that
appeared to the contrary. Befides, the whole cavity
of the bell was kept entirely free from water, fo that I
fat on a bench which was diametrically placed near the
bottom, wholly drefled, with all my clothes on. I
only obferved, that it was neceflary to be let down
gradually at firft, as about 12 feet at a time; and
then
B I V [ 280 ] D I V
then 'to flop and drive out the air that entered, by
receiving three or four barrels of frefh air before I
defcended further. But, being arrived at the depth
defigned, I then let out as much of the hot air that
had been breathed, as each barrel would repleniih
with cool, by means of the cock at the top of the bell j
through whofe aperture, though very {mail, the air
would rufti with fo much violence, as to make the
furface of the fea boil, and to caver it with a white
foam, notwithftanding the weight of the water over
us.
“ Thus I found that I could do any thing that re¬
quired to be done juft under us ; and that, by taking
off the ftage, I could, for a fpace as wide as the cir¬
cuit of the bell lay the bottom of the fea fo far dry,
as not to be overftioes thereon. And, by the glafs
window, fo much light was tranfmitted, that when the
fea was clear, and efpecially when the fun (hone, I
could fee perfectly well to write or read ; much more
to faften or lay hold on any thing under us that was
to be taken up. And, by the return of the air-barrels,
I often fent up orders written with an iron pen, on
fmall plates of lead, directing how to move us from
place to place as occafion required. At other times,
when the water was troubled and thick, it would be
as dark as night below ; but in fuch cafes I have
been able to keep a candle burning in the bell as
long as I pleafed, notwithftanding the great expence
of air neceffary to maintain flame.—By an additional
contrivance, I have found it not impracticable, for a
diver to go out of an engine to a good diftance from
it, the air being conveyed to him with a continued
ftream, by fmall flexible pipes j which pipes may ferve
as a clue, to direCt him back again when he would re¬
turn to the bell.”
Plate CLXXVI. fig. I. (hows Dr Halley’s diving-
bell, with the divers at work. DBLKRIMP repre-
fents the body of the bell. D, the glafs which ferves
as a window. B, the cock for letting out the air
which has been breathed. LM, the feats. C, one of
the air-barrels. P, H, two of the divers. F, another
diver at a diftance from the bell, and breathing through
the flexible tube K.-—This diver is fuppofed to have a
head-piece of lead, made to fit quite clofe about his
thoulders j this head-piece was capable of containing as
much air as would fupply him for a minute or two.
When he had occafion for more air, he turned a cock at
F, by which means a communication was opened with
the air in the bell, and thus he could receive a new fup¬
ply at pleafure.
Since the invention of this diving machine, there
has been one contrived by Mr frtewald, F. R. S. and
military architedl to the king of Sweden, which'fer a
Angle perfon, is in fome r^fpedb thought to be more
eligible than Dr Halley’s, and is conftrufted as fol¬
io vvs : AB is the bell, which is funk by lead weights
DD hung to its bottom. This bell is of copper, and
tinned all over in the infide, which is illuminated by
three ftrong convex lenfes, G, G, G, with copper lids
H, H, H, to defend them. The iron ring or plate E
ferves the diver to ftand on when he is at work ; and is
fufpended at fuch a diftance from the bottom of the
bell by the chains F, F, F, that when the diver ftands
upright, his head is juft above the water in the bell,
where the air is much better than higher up, becaufe
it is colder, and confequently more fit for refpiration.
But as the diver muft always be within the bell, and
his head of courfe in the upper part, the inventor has
contrived, that even there, when he has breathed the
hot air as well as he can, he may, by means of a fpi-
ral copper tube, b c, placed clofe to the infide of the
bell, draw the cooler and freftier air from the lower-
moft parts j for which purpofe, a flexible leather tube,
about two feet long, is fixed to the upper end of the
•copper tube at b ; and to the other end of this tube is
fixed an ivory mouth-piece, by which the diver draws
in the air.
The greateft improvement, however, which the di¬
ving-bell ever received, or probably can receive, was
from the late Mr Spalding of Edinburgh. A fe£lion
of his improved diving bell is reprefented in fig.
This conftruflion is defigned to remedy fome incon¬
veniences of Dr Halley’s, which are very evident, and
of very dangerous tendency. Thefe are, 1. By Dr
Halley’s conftrudlion, the finking or rifing of the bell
depends entirely on the people who are at the furface
of the water), and as the bell even when in the water
has a very confiderable weight, the raifing it not only
requires a great deal of labour, but there is a poflibility
ef the rope breaking by which it is raifed, and thus
every perfon in the bell would inevitably perifh. 2. As
there are, in many places of the fea, rocks which lie
at a confiderable depth, the figure of which cannot
poflibly be perceived from above, there is danger that
fome of their ragged prominences may catch hold
of one of the edges of the bell in its defcent, and
thus overfet it before any fignal can be given to thofe
above, which would infallibly be attended with the
deflru61ion of the people in the bell ) and as it muft
always be unknown, before trial, what kind of a
bottom the fea has in any place, it is plain, that
without fome contrivance to obviate this laft danger,
the defcent in Dr Halley’s diving-bell is not at all
eligible. ^
How thefe inconveniences are remedied by Mr Spal¬
ding’s new conltru&ion will be eafily underftood from
the following defcription.—ABCD reprefents a fec-
tion of the bell, which is made of wood ) •e, e, are iron
hooks, by means of which it is fufpended by ropes
Q B F e, and A £ R e, and S, as exprefiVd in
the figure) c,*t are iron hooks, to which are appended
lead weights, that keep the mouth of the bell always
parallel to the furface of the Water whether the ma¬
chine taken altogether is lighter or heavier than an
equal bulk of water. By thefe weights alone, how¬
ever, the bell would not fink) another is therefore
added, reprefented at L ; and which can be raifed
or lowered at pleafure, by means of a rope pafling over
the pulley a, and faftened to one of the fides of the bell
at M. As the bell defcends, this weight, called by
Mr Spalding the ba/ance-wetght, hangs down a confider¬
able way below the mouth of the bell. In cafe the
edge of the bell is catched by any obftacle, the balance-
weight h immediately lowered down fo that it may reft
upon the bottom. By this means the bell is lightened,
fo that all danger of overfetting is removed ; for being
lighter without the balance-weight, than an equal bulk
of water, it is evident that the bell will rife, as well as
the length of the rope affixed to the balance-weight
will allow it. This weight, therefore, will lerve as a
PLATE CLWU.
Fig. 1. jFig. 2.
HaJlej's / )l vf Xii 13EL. I Trietvrtlds ^ ■
\ -
E. Mllch .-///iu^n ^
Diving.
D I V [ 28t ] D I V
kind of anchor to keep the bell at any particular depth
which the divers may think neceffary j or by pulling it
quite up, the defcent may be continued to the very
bottom.
By another very ingenious contrivance, Mr Spald¬
ing rendered it poflible for the divers to raife the bell,
with all the weights appended to it, even to the fur-
face, or to flop at any particular depth, as they think
proper ; and thus they could ft ill be fafe, even though
the rope defigned for pulling up the bell was broke.
For this purpofe the bell is divided into two cavities,
both of which are made as tight as poflible. Juft
above the fecond bottom EF, are fmall flits in the lides
of the bell ; through which the water entering as the
bell defcends, difplaces the air originally contained in
this cavity, which flies out at the upper orifice of the
cock GH. When this is done, the divers turn the
handle G, which ftops the cock j fo that if any more
air was to get into the cavity AEFD, it could not
longer be difcharged through the orifice H as before.
When this cavity is full of water, the bell finks j but,
when a confiderable quantity of air is admitted, it
rifes. If, therefore, the divers have a mind to raife
therafelves, they turn the fmall cock g, by which a
communication is made between the upper and under
cavities of the bell. The confequence of this is, that a
quantity of air immediately enters the upper cavity,
forces out a quantity of the water contained in it, and
thus renders the bell lighter by the whole weight of
the water which is difplaced. Thus, if a certain quan¬
tity of air is admitted into the upper cavity, the bell
will defcend very flowly •, if a greater quantity, it will
neither afcend nor defcend, but remain ftationary ; and
if a larger quantity of air is ftill admitted, it will arife
to the top. It is to be obferved, however, that the
air which is thus let out into the upper cavity muft be
immediately replaced from the air-barrel •, and the air
is to be let out very flowly, or the bell will rife to the
top with fo great velocity that the divers will be in
danger of being fliaken out of their feats. But, by
following thefe direftions, every poffible accident may
be prevented, and people may defcend to great depths
without the leaft apprehenfion of danger. The bell
alfo becomes fo eafily manageable in the water, that it
may be conduced from one place to another by a fmall
boat with the greateft eafe, and with perfect fafety to
thofe who are in it.
Inftead of wooden feats ufed by Dr Halley, Mr
Spalding made ufe of ropes fufpended by hooks b b b ;
and on thefe ropes the divers may fit without any in¬
convenience. I and K are two windows made of thick
ftrong glafs, for admitting light to the divers. N re-
prefents an air-calk with its tackle, and OCP the flex¬
ible pipe through which the air is admitted to the bell.
In the afcent and defcent of this calk the pipe is kept
down by a fmall weight appended, as in Dr Halley’s
machine. R is a fmall cock by which the hot air is
difcharged as often as it becones troublefome. Fig. 4.
is a reprefentation of the. whole diving apparatus, which
it is hoped will be readily underftood without any fur¬
ther explanation. Twro air-barrels are reprefented in
this figure *, but Mr Spalding was of opinion, that one
capable of containing 30 gallons is fufficient for an or¬
dinary machine.
Vol. VII. Part I.
We are told of another method put in praftice by Diving
a gentleman of Devonlhire. He has contrived a large li
cafe of ftrong leather, perfe&ly water-proof, which
may hold about half a hoglhead of air. This is fo
contrived, that, when he ftiuts himfelf up in this cafe,
he may walk at the bottom of the fea, and go into any
part of a wrecked velfel, and deliver out the goods.—-
This method, we are told, he has pradfifed for many
years and has thus acquired a large fortune. It
would be a confiderable improvement on this machine
to condenfe the air in it as much as puftible before the
diver defcended ; as he would thus be furnilhed with
an atmofphere endued with elafticity fufficient to refill
the weight of the water, which olherwife would fqueeze
his cafe into much lefs room than it originally took up.
The condenfed air alfo would ferve lor refpiration a
much longer time than that which is in its ordinary
ftate.
DlVING-BIadder, a machine invented by Borelli,
and by him preferred, though without any good rea-
fon, to the diving-bell. It is a globular veflel of brafs
or copper, about two feet in diameter, which contains
the diver’s head. It is fixed to a goat’s fldn habit ex-
adtly fitted to his perfon. Within the veflel are pipes;
by means of which a circulation of air is contrived ;
and the perfon carries an air pump by his fide by
which he can make himfelf heavier or lighter, as fifties
do by contrafting or dilating their air-bladder. By
this means he thought all the objedlions to which
other diving machines are liable were entirely obviated,
and particularly that of want of air ; the air which had
been breathed, being, as he imagined, deprived of its
noxious qualities by circulating through the pipes.
Thefe advantages, however, it is evident, are only ima*-
ginary. The diver’s limbs, being defended from the
preflure of the water only by a goat’s Ikin, would in¬
fallibly be crulhed, if he defcended to any confiderable
depth ; and from the difcoveries now made by Dr
Prieftley and others, it is abundantly evident, that air,
which is once rendered foul by breathing, cannot in
any degree be reftored by circulation through pipes.
Concerning the ufe of copper machines in general, Mr
Spalding favoured us with the following curious ob-
fervation, namely, That when a perfon has breathed
in them a few minutes, he feels in his mouth a very
difagreeable brafly tafte, which continues all the time
he remains in the veflel; fo that, on this account,
copper feems by no means an eligible material. This
tafte moft probably arifes from the aftion of the al-
kalefcent effluvia of the body upon the copper ; for
volatile alkali is a ftrong diflolvent of this metal : but
how thefe effluvia volatilize the copper in fuch a man¬
ner as to make the tafte of it fenfible in the mouth, it
is not eafy to fay.
DIVINITY, properly fignifies the nature, quality,
and effence of God.
Divinity is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with theo-
bgy.
DIVISIBILITY, that property by which the par¬
ticles of matter in all bodies are capable of a feparation
or difunion from each other.
The Peripatetics and Cartefians hold divifibility to
be an affe&ion of all matter. The Epicureans, again,
allow it to agree to every phyfical continuum ; but
N n they
D I V f 282 ] D I V
Jhv.ifibility. they deny that this affe&ion agrees to all bodies, for
—v the primary corpufcies or atoms they maintain to be
perfectly infecable and indivifible.
As it is evident that body is extended, fo it is no
lefs evident that it is divifible •, for fince no two par¬
ticles of matter can exift in the fame place, it follows,
that they are really diitiniS from each other 5 which is
all that is meant by being divilible. In this fenfe the
lead conceivable particle muft dill be divifible, fince it
will confid of parts which will be really diltindl. To
iiludrate this by a familiar indance. Let the lead ima¬
ginable piece of matter be conceived lying on a fmooth
plain furface, it is evident the furface will not touch
it everywhere j thofe parts, therefore, which it does not
touch may be fuppofed feparable from the others, and
fo on as far as we pleafe ; and this is all that is meant
when we fay matter is infinitely divifible.
Plate The infinite divifibility of mathematical quantity is
CLXXV. demondrated thus geometrically. Suppofe the line
AG perpendicular to BF ; and another, as GH, at a
fmall didance from it, alfo perpendicular to the fame
line ; with the centres CCC, &c. defcribe circles cut¬
ting the line GH in the points e e e, &c. Now the
greater the radius AC is, the lefs is the part e H.
But the radius may be augmented in infinitum ; fo
long, therefore, the part e FI may be divided into dill
lefs portions ; confequently it may be divided in infini¬
tum.
All that is fuppofed in drift geometry (fays Mr
Maclaurin) concerning the divifibility of magnitude,
amounts to no more than that a given magnitude may
be conceived to be divided into a number of parts equal
to any given or propofed number. It is true that the
number of parts into which a given magnitude may be
conceived to be divided, is not to be fixed or limited,
becaufe no given number is fo great but a greater may
be conceived and affigned ; but there is not, therefore,
any neceffity of fuppofing the number of parts aftually
infinite $ and if fome have drawn very abdrufe confe-
quenc#s from fuch a fuppofition, yet geometry ought
not to be loaded with them.
How far matter may be aftually divided, may in
fome meafure be conceived from hence, that a piece of
wire gilt with fo fmall a quantity as eight grains of
gold, may be drawn out to a length of 13,000 feet,
the whole furface of it ft ill remaining covered with
gold. We have alfo a furprifing inftance of the mi-
nutenefs of fome parts of matter from the nature of
light and vifion. Let a candle be lighted, and placed
in an open plain, it will then be vifible two miles round j
and confequently, was it placed two miles above the
furfaee of the earth, it would fill with luminous par¬
ticles a fphere whofe diameter was four miles, and that
before it had loft any fenfible part of its weight. A
quantity of vitriol being diflblved, and mixed with
cpoo times as much water, will tinge the whole *, con¬
fequently will be divided into- as many parts as there
are vifible portions of matter in that quantity of water.
• There are perfumes, which, without a fenfible dimi¬
nution of their quantity, (hall fill a very large fpace
with their odoriferous particles j which muft therefore
be of an inconceivable fmallnefs, fince there will be a
fufficient number in every part of that fpace fenfibly
to affeft the organ of fmelling. Dr Keill demonftrates,
any particle of matter, how fmall foever, and any
finite fpace, how large foever, being given, it is poflible
for that fmall particle of matter to be divFuft d through Divifion.
all that fpace, and to fill it in fuch a manner, as that —
there (hall be no pore in it whofe diameter fiiall exceed
any given line.
The chief objeftions againft the divifibility of mat¬
ter in infinitum are, That an infinite cannot be con¬
tained by a finite ; and that it follows from a divifibili¬
ty in infinitum, either that all bodies are equal, or that
one infinite is greater than another. But the anfwer
to thefe is eafy *, for the properties of a determined
quantity are not to be attributed to an infinite confider-
ed in a general fenfe 5 and who has ever proved that
there could not be an infinite number of infinitely fmall
parts in a finite quantity, or that all infinites are equal ?
The contrary is demonftrated by mathematicians in in¬
numerable inftances. Bee the article Infinity, and
‘‘S Gravefande E/em. Matkem. 1. i. c. 4.
DIVISION, in general, is the feparating a thing
into two or more parts.
Mechanical DIVISION, fignifies that feparation which
is occafioned in the parts of a body by help of mecha¬
nical inftruments.—The mechanical divifion of bodies
does indeed feparate them into fmaller, homogeneous, .
fimilar parts; but this feparation cannot extend to the
primary integrant molecules of any body ; and confe¬
quently is incapable of breaking what is properly call¬
ed their aggregation ; alfo, no union is formed betwixt
the divided and dividing bodies, in which refpeft di¬
vifion efi’entially differs from difiblution.
Divifion is not properly a chemical operation. It is
only employed preparatorily to facilitate other opera¬
tions, and particularly folution. For this purpofe it
is very ufeful, as it increafes the quantity of furface,
and confequently the points of contaft of any body.-—
Different methods are ufed to divide bodies according
to their nature. Thofe which are tenacious and elaftic,
as horns and gums, require to be cut, rafped, or filed.
Metals, becaufe of their duftility, require the fame
treatment : but as they are alfo fufible, they may be
quickly and conveniently reduced into grains fmall
enough for moft operations, by pouring them, when
melted into water. All brittle bodies may be redu¬
ced conveniently into fine parts by being bruifed in a
mortar with a peftle. Very hard bodies, fuch as glafs,
cryftals, ftones, particularly thofe of the vitrifiable
kind, before they are pounded, ought to be plunged
when red hot into water, by which they are fplit and
cracked, and rendered more eafily pulverable. Bodies
of this kind may alfo be bruifed or ground by means
of a hard and flat ftone, upon which the matter is to
be put, and bruifed by another hard ftone fo fmall as
to be held and moved upon the larger ftone with the
hand. The larger ftone is called a porphyry, from its
being generally of that kind of ftone ; and the opera¬
tion is called porphyrvzation. Inftead of porphyriza-
tion, a mill may be ufed, compofed of a hard grit mill-
ftone, moving round upon another ftone of the fame
kind, which muft be fixed : in the upper ftone is a
groove or channel, through which the matter to be
ground paffes. By this method a fubftance may be
more quickly reduced to a fine powder than by por-
phyrization. But thefe mills can be only employed for
confiderable quantities of matter.
Thefe methods of mechanically dividing bodies are
attended.
D I U . [2
■pIviHon aUVniled with fome practical inconveniences; the mo ft
|| confiderable of which is, that fome parts of the divid-
Dii'in- Jpg inftruments are always (truck off, and mixed with
* v the matter to be divided. This may greatly affedt the
operations. For inftance, inftruments of iron and cop¬
per furnifh metallic colouring particles, and copper is
very prejudicial to health. Porphyry is coloured by a
reddifh brown matter, which injures the colour of
cryftal glafl'es, enamels, and porcelains made with mat¬
ters ground upon this (tone. Thefe matters therefore
muft be cleanfed after their porphyrization, or elfe no
inftruments capable of injuring the intended operations
ought to be employed. Thus, for the preparation of
all medicines to be taken internally, no copper inftru¬
ments, as mortars, peftles, &c. ought to be ufed ; thofe
made of iron are preferable : and, inftead of porphyries,
mortars, grinding (tones and millftones made of hard
and white (tones, ought to be employed tot fubftances
which are to enter into the compofition of enamels,
cryftal glafs, and porcelain, the whitenefs of which is
a moft neceflary quality.
Division, in Algebra. See Algebra.
Division, in Arithmetic. See Arithmetic, N°
ji.
DIVISIONS of an Army, in the military art, the
feveral brigades and fquadrons into which it is can¬
toned.
DIVISIONS of a Battalion, art the feveral platoons in¬
to which it is divided in marching or firing, each of
which is commanded by an officer.
Division, in fea affairs, a feledt number of (hips in
a fleet or fquadron of men of war, diftinguiflied by a
particular flag or pendant, and ufually commanded by
a general officer. A fquadron is commonly ranged
into three divifions, the commanding officer of which
is always ftationed in the centre.
When a fleet confiffs of 60 fail of the line, that is,
of (hips having at lead 60 cannon each, the admiral
divides it into three fquadrons, each of which has its
divifions and commanding ofticers. Each fquadron
has its proper colours, according to the rank of the
admiral who commands it, and every divifion its proper
maft. Thus the white flag denotes the firft divifion of
France ; the white and blue the fecund ; and the third
is characterized by the blue. In Britain, the firft ad¬
miral, or the admiral of the fleet, difplays the union
flag at the main-top maft head ; next follows the white
flag with St George’s crofs ; and afterwards the blue.
The private (hips carry pendants of the fame colour
with their refpeCHve fquadrons at the maft of their
particular divifions ; fo that the laft (hip in the divifion
of the blue fquadron carries a blue pendant at her
mizen-top-maft-head.
DIVISOR, in Arithmetic. See Arithmetic, Nc
ii.
DIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Chalci-
dice in Macedonia, near Mount Athos. Alfo a pro¬
montory of Crete, on the north fide of the ifland.—A
third Dutm, a promontory of Euboea ; or a town of
that name in Euboea, near the promontory Cenaeuro,
on the north-weft fide of the ifland, called alfo Dia.—
A fourtli Dium in Pieria of Macedonia, on the weft:
fide of the Sinus Thermaicus. Strabo and Livy place
it on the borders of Pieria to the fouth, at the foot of
Mount Olympus towards Theffaly. That it was a
§3 ] . B I V
fplendid city, appears from Polybius ; who relates, that B.'vodu-
its gymnatium and wall were overthrown by the Aito-
lians. From which overthrow, however, it again reco- divorce,
vered, Alexander adding new fplendour to it,by the brafs
ftatues caft by Lyfippus, and erefted there in memory
of the (lain at the Granicus: an ornament which was
continued down to the time of the Romans ; who made
it a colony, called Dienfs.*—A fifth Diutn beyond Jor¬
dan, near Pella in the Piraea.
DIVODURUM, in Ancient Gography, a town of
the Mediomatrici, in Gallia Belgica ; fituated on the
Mofelle, on the fpot where now Metz (lands ; now a
city of Lorrain. E. Long. 6. o. N. Lat. 49. 16.
DIVCIRCE, a breach or diflolution of the bond of
marriage. See Marriage, and Law Index.
Divorce is of two kinds : the one a vinculo matri¬
monii, which alone is properly divorce; the other, b
menfa et thoro, “ a feparation from bed and board.”
The woman divorced a vinculo matrimonii receives
all again that (he brought with her : the other has a
fuitable feparate maintenance allowed her out of her
huftband’s effects. The firft: only happens through
fome effential impediment, as confanguinity or affinity
within the degrees forbidden, pre-contradl, impotency,
adultery, &c. of which impediments the canon law
allows 14, comprehended in thefe verfes :
Error, conditio, votum, cogndtio, crimen,
Cultus, difparitas, vis, ordo, ligamen, honefas.
Si fs aj]inis,f forte coire nequibis.
Si parochi et duplicis deft preefentia tef is,
RaptaVe ft mulier, nec parti reddita tuta.
Divorce is a fpiritual judgment, and therefore is paf-
fed in the fpiritual court. Under the old law, the wo¬
man divorced was to have of her hulband a writing,
as St Jerome and Jofephus teftify, to this effeft : Ipro-
mife, that hereafter I will lay no claim to thee; which
was called a bill of divorce.
Divorce was allowed of in great latitude both among
the Pagans and Jews. At Rome, barrennefs, age,
difeafe, madnefs, and baniftiment, were the ordinary
caufes of divorce. Spurius Carvilius, between 500 and
600 years after the building of Rome, under the con-
fulfhip of M. Attilius and P. Valerius, was the firit
who put away his wife becaufe (lie was barren ; though
Plutarch, in his Roman Queftions, maintains, that Do-
mitian was the firft who permitted divorce. Juftinian
afterwards added impotence, a vow of chaftity, and
the profeffion of a monadic life, as valid reafons of di¬
vorce.
The Roman lawyers diftinguifh between repudium
and divortiurn ; making the former to be the breaking
of a contraft or efpoufal, and the latter feparation af¬
ter matrimony. Romulus enadted a fevere law, which
fuffered not a wife to leave her huffiand, but gave the
man the liberty of turning off his wife, either upon
poifoning her children, counterfeiting his private keys,
or for the crime of adultery ; but if the hulband on
any other occafion put her away, he ordered one moiety
of his eftate for the wife., and the other to the goddels
Ceres : befides an atonement to the gods of the earth.
However, in later times, the women as well as the men
might fue a divorce. The common way of divorcing
was by fending a bill to the woman, co ta'ning the rea¬
fons of feparation, and the tender of all her goods which
N n 2 (he
15'vorce,
Paley's Mo¬
ral andPoli-
tical Philo-
f°phy,wi 3,
b i v r 2S4 i i) 1 v
fbe brought rvith her : and this was called repudium
wilt ere ; or elfe it was performed in her prefence, and
before feven witnefies, and accompanied with the for¬
malities of tearing the writings, refunding the portion,
taking away the keys, and turning the woman out of
doors.
The Grecian laws concerning divorces w’ere differ¬
ent: The Cretans allowed divorce to any man that
Avas afraid of having too many children. The Spartans
feldom divorced their wives •, and it was extremely
fcandalous for a woman to depart from her hufband.
The Athenians allowed divorce on very fmall grounds,
by a bill, containing the reafon of the divorce, and ap¬
proved, if the party appealed, by the chief magiftrate ;
and women alfo Avere allowed to leave their hufbands
on juft occafiens. Perfons divorcing their Avives Avere
obliged to return their portions j otherAvife, the Athe¬
nian larvs obliged them to pay nine oboli a month for
alimony. The terms expreffing the feparation of men
and Avomen from each other Avere different $ the men
Avere faid a.va'rip.Ttw or asroAscnf, to difmifs their wives ;
but Avives, utvoXuituv, to leave their hujbands.
“ The law of Mofes (Mr Paley obferves), for rea¬
sons of local expediency, permitted the Jewifti hufband
to put away his wife ; but Avhether for every caufe, or
‘for what caufe, appears to have been controverted a-
mongft the interpreters of thofe times. Chrift, the
precepts of whofe religion were calculated for more
general ufe and obfervation, revokes this permiffion,
as given to the Jews ‘ for their hardnefs of heart,’ and
promulgates a larv which Avas thenceforward to confine
divorces to the Angle caufe of adultery in the wife :
* Whofoever lhall put away his Avife, except it be for
fornication, and (hall marry another, committeth adul¬
tery j and Avhofo marrieth her Avhich is put aAvay, doth
commit adultery,’ Mat. xix. 9.
“ Inferior caufes may juftify the feparation of hufband
and Avife, although they will not authorize fuch a dif-
folution of the marriage contrail as would leave either
at liberty to marry again : for it is that liberty in
which the danger and mifehief of divorces generally
confift. The law of this country, in conformity to our
Saviomr’s injunilion, confines the diffolution of the
marriage contrail to the fingle cafe of adultery in
the Avife 5 and a divorce even in that cafe can only be
brought about by the operation of an ail of parlia¬
ment, founded upon a previous fentence in the fpiritual
court, and a verdiil againft the adulterer at common
laAv: Avhich proceedings taken together compofe as com¬
plete an inveftigation of the complaint as a caufe can
receive. It has lately been propofed to the legiflature to
annex a claufe to thefe ails,, reftraining the offending
party from marrying with the companion of her crime,
who by the courfe of proceeding is always known and
conviiled \ for there is reafon to fear, that adulterous
eonneitions are often formed Avith the profpeit of bring¬
ing them to this conclufion j at leaft, when the ftducer
has once captivated the affeilion of a married woman,
he may avail himfelf of this tempting argument to fub-
due her fcruples, and complete his viilory ; and the le¬
giflature, as the bufinefs is managed at prefent, afiifts
by its interpofition the criminal defign of the offenders,
and confers a privilege where it ought to infliil a pu-
nifhment. The propeffal deferved an experiment •, but
fomething more penal, it is apprehended, Avill be found
neceffary to check the progrefs of this alarming depra- j);vorf#
sdty. Whether a law might not be framed, diredling ||
the fortune of the adultrefs to defeend as in caje of her na- Divus.
tural death ; referving, however, a certain proportion of ’—“v—
the produce of it, by Avay of annuity, for her fubfiftence
(fuch annuity in no cafe to exceed a certain fum) ; and
alfo fo far fufpending the eftate in the hands of the heir,
as to preferve the inheritance to any children fhe might
bear to a fecond marriage, in caie there Avas none to
fucceed in the place of their mother by the firft : Avhe-
ther fuch a law would not render female virtue in higher
life lefs vincible, as Avell as the feducers of that virtue
lefs urgent in their fuit, I would recommend to the de¬
liberation of thofe Avho are willing to attempt the re¬
formation of this important but moft incorrigible clafs
of the community. A paffion for fplendour, for expen-
fiv'e amufements and diftin&ions, is commonly found
in that defeription of womep who Avould become the
fubje£ls of fuch a larv, not lefs inordinate than their
other appetites. A feverity of the kind propofed ap¬
plies immediately to that paffion. And there is no
room for any complaint of injurtice, finee the provifions
above ftated, with others which might be contrived,
confine the punilhment, fo far as it is poffible, to the
perfon of the offender j fuffering the eftate to remain
to the heir, or within the family of the anceftor from
Avhom it came, or to attend the appointments of his
will.
“ Sentences of the ecclefiaftical courts, which relcale
the parties a vinculo matrimonii, by reafon of impuberty,
frigidity, confanguinity Avithin the prohibited degrees,
prior marriage, or want of the requifite confent of pa¬
rents or guardians, are not diffolutions of the marriage
contrail, but judicial declarations that there never was
any marriage ; fuch impediment fubfifting at the time
as rendered the celebration of the marriage rite a mere
nullity. And the rite itfelf contains an exception of
thefe impediments. The man and Avoman to be mar¬
ried are charged, “ if they kmnv any impediment Avhy
they may not be lawfully joined together, to confefs
it and affured, “ that fo many as are coupled to¬
gether, otherwife than God’s Avord doth allow, are not
joined together by God, neither is their matrimony
lawfulall Avhich is intended by way of folemn no¬
tice to the parties, that the vow they are about to make
will bind their confciences, and authorize their cohabi¬
tation only upon the fuppofition that no legal impe¬
diment exift.”
DIURETICS ( from ?<*, by, and urine, medi¬
cines Avhich provoke a difeharge by urine.
Such is water drank plentifully j white Avine drank
in a morning ; alkaline falts of all kinds ; fea fait, fal
gemmae, nitre, borax, alum, tartar, fal ammoniac,
whey, four milk, lemon juice, &c. Aqueous liquors
are generally diuretic, efpecially if mixed Avith fait,
and drank cold. Fermented liquors are the leaft diu¬
retic of all j and the lefs fo, as they are the fatter.
Sharp thin four wines, Rhenifh, &c. as alfo acid fpirits
of vinegar, fait, fulphur, alum, vitriol, &c. afparagus,
bitter almonds, fmallage, eryngium, eupatorium, faffa-
fras, &c. are all diuretics.
DIURNAL, in AJlronomy, fomething relating to
day ; in oppofition to nohlurnal, which regards the
night.
DIVUS, Diva, in antiquity, appellations given to
men
DOB [28
D;vire men and women who had been deified, or placed in the
j) number of the gods. See Deification, &c.
Jobuni. Hence it is, that on medals ftruck for the confecra-
"”v tion of an emperor or emprefs, they give them the
title of divus or diva: for example, DIVUS JULIUS.
DIVO ANTONINO PIO, DIVO PIO. D1VO
CLAUDIO. DIVA FAUSTINA AUG. &c.
DIZZINESS, in Medicine. See Vertigo.
DO, in MuJiCy a note of the Italian fcale, correfpond-
ing to ut of the common gammut. See Music.
DOBSON, William, an eminent Englilh portrait
and hiftory painter, born at London in 1610. He
ferved an apprenticefhip with one Peck, a ftationer
and pi&ure-dealer •, and owed his improvement to the
copying fome piftures of Titian and Van Dyck, whofe
manner he always retained. He had farther obliga¬
tions to the latter of thefe artifts j for it is faid, that a
pifture of his painting being expofed at a {hop on
Snow-hill, Van Dyck palling by was ftruck with it
exceedingly j and inquiring after the author, found him
at work in a poor garret. Van Dyck had the gene-
rofity to equip him in a manner fuitable to his merit.
He prefented him to King Charles I. who took him un¬
der his proteflion, kept him with him at Oxford all
the time his majefty continued in that city, and not
only fat to him feveral times for his pidure, but caufed
the prince of Wales, Prince Rupert, and moft of the
lords of his court to do fo too. Mr Dobfon, however,
being fome what loofe and irregular in his way of life,
wras far from improving the many opportunities he had
of making his fortune ; and died very poor in 1647, at
his houfe in St Martin’s Lane.
DOBUNI, or Boduni ; an ancient people of Bri¬
tain, who poffeffod the territory which now forms the
counties of Oxford and Gloucefler. Both the names
of this Britifh nation feem to have been derived from
the low fituation of a great part of the country which
they inhabited: for both Duvn and Bodun fignify
“ profound” or “ low,” in the ancient language of
Gaul and Britain. The Dobuni are not mentioned
among the Britifh nations who refiifed the Romans
under Julius Ceefar, which was probably owu’ng to the
diftance of their country from the feene of adion 5 and
before the next invafion under Claudius, they had been
fo much opprefled by their ambitious neighbours the
Cattivellauni, that they fubmitted with pleafure to the
Romans, in order to be delivered from that oppreflion.
Cogidunus, who was at that time (as his name im¬
ports) prince of the Dobuni, recommended himfelf fo
effedually to the favour of the emperor Claudius, by
his ready fubmifTion, and other means, that he was not
only continued in the government of his own territo¬
ries, but had fome other Hates put under his authority.
This prince lived fo long, and remained fo Readily a
friend and ally to the Romans, that his fubjeds, be¬
ing habituated to their obedience in his time, never
revolted, nor Rood in need of many forts or forces to
keep them in fubjedion. This is certainly the reafon
that we meet with fo few Roman towns and Rations in
the country anciently inhabited by the Dobuni. The
Durocornovium of Antoninus, and the Corinium of
Ptolemy, are believed by antiquaries to have been the
fame place, the capital of the Dobuni, and fituated at
CirenceRer in Gloucefierfliire, where there are many
warks df a Roman Ration. Clevum or Glevum, in the
5 1 DOC
thirteenth iter of Antoninus, flood where the city of Dobuni
Gloucefler now Rands j and Abone, in the fourteenth II
iter, was probably fituated at Avinton on the Severn. y^js"
The country of the Dobuni was comprehended in the
Roman province Britannia Prima.
DOCETAE, (from to appear), in ecclefiafli-
cal hiftory, the followers of Julius Caflianus, one of the
Valentinian fed, towards the clofe of the fecond cen*
tury, who revived a notion that had been adopted by
a branch of the Gnoftics, againft whom St John, Ig¬
natius, and Polycarp, had afferted the truth of the in¬
carnation. They believed and taught, as their name
imports, that the adions and fufferings of Jefus Chrift
were not in reality, but only in appearance.
DOCIMASIA, in Greek antiquity, a probation of
the magiftrates and perfons employed in public bufi-
nefs at Athens. It was performed publicly in the fo¬
rum, where they were obliged to give account of
themfelves and their part life before certain judges.
Among feveral queftions propofed to them, we find the
following: Whether they had been dutiful to their pa¬
rents, had ferved in the wars, and had a competent
eftate ?
DOCIMASTIC art, a name given to the art of
effaying, by operations in fmall, the nature and quan¬
tity of metallic or other matters which may be obtained
from mineral or other compound bodies. See REFINING
and Metallurgy,
DOCIMENUM marmor, a name given by the
ancients to a fpecies of marble of a bright and clear
white, much ufed in large and fumptuous buildings,
fuch as temples and the like. It had its name from
Docimenos, a city of Phrygia, afterwards called Synaia;
near which it was dug, and from whence it was fent
to Rome. It was accounted little inferior to the Pa¬
rian in colour, but not capable of fo elegant a polifh j
whence it was lefs ufed by the ftatuaries, or in other
fmaller works. The emperor Adrian is faid to have
ufed this marble in building the temple of Jupiter 5
and many of the great works of the Romans are con-
ftru&ed of the fame materials.
DOCK, in Botany. See Rumex, Botany Index.
Dock, in the manege, is ufed for a large cafe of
leather, as long as the dock of a horfe’s tail, which
ferves it for a cover. The French call the dock
troitjjequeue. It is made faft by the ftraps to the crupper,
and has leathern thongs that pafs between his thighs,
and along his flanks to the faddle ftraps, in order to
keep the tail tight, and to hinder it from whifking
about.
Dock, in maritime affairs, a fort of broad and deep
trench formed on the fide of a harbour, or on the
banks of a river; and commodioufly fitted either to
build Ihips or receive them to be repaired and breamed
therein. Thefe forts of docks have generally Rrong
flood-gates to prevent the flux of the tide from enter¬
ing the dock while the fliip is under repair.—There
are likewife docks of another kind, called nuet dockty
where a {hip can only be cleaned during the recef- of
the tide, or in the interval between the time when the
tide left her dry aground, and the period when it a-
gain reaches her by the return of the flood. Docks
of the latter kind are not furniflhed with the ufual flood¬
gates.
DOCK-Tardsy certain magazines containing all forts
of
D O C
r 23(1 ]
DOB
Dofk-yart!?, of naval flnres and timber for lldp building. In Eng'
liuctor. land, the royal dock-yards are at Chatham, Portfraoutb,
_ piymoutl^ Deptford, Woolwich, and Sheernefs. His
majefly’s Grips and veffels of war are generally moored
at thefe ports during the time of peace ; and fuch as
want repairing are taken into the docks, examined, and
refitted for fervice.
The principal dock-yards are governed by a com-
mifiioner, refident at the port : who fuperintends all
the mufters of the officers, artificers, and labourers, em¬
ployed in the dock-yard and ordinary. He alfo con-
trouls their payments therein •, examines their accounts ^
contracts, and draw bills on the navy-office to fupply
the deficiency of flores ; and, finally, regulates what¬
ever belongs to the dock-yard, maintaining due order
in the refpedlive offices.
Thefe yards are generally fupplied from the northern
xmowns with hemp, pitch, tar, rofin, canvas, oak plank,
and feveral other fpecies. With regard to the marts,
particularly thofe of the largeft fize, they are ufually
imported from New England.
DOCTOR, a perfon who has parted all the degrees
of a faculty, and is empowered to teach or pradlife the
fame : thus we fay, dodlor in divinity, dodlor in phyfic,
doftor of laws.
The eftabliffiment of the doclorate, fuch as now in
ufe among us, is ordinarily attributed to Irnerius, who
himfelf drew up the formulary. The firil ceremony
pf this kind was performed at Bologna, in the perfon
of Bulgarus, who began to profefs the Roman aw,
and on that occafion was folemnly promoted to the doc¬
tor ax, i. e. in Hailed juris utriufque doElor. But the cu-
ilom was foon transferred from the faculty of law to
that of theology j the firft inrtance whereof was given
in the univerfity of Paris, where Peter Lombard and
Gilbert de la Portree, the two chief divines of thofe
days, were created dodtors in theology, faerce theologize
.do&orcs,
Spelman takes the title of dodlor not to have com¬
menced till after the publication of Lombard’s Sen¬
tences, about the year 1140; and affirms, that Rich
as explained that work to their fcholars were the firft
that had the appellation of dodtors. Others go much
higher, and hold Bede to have been the firft dodlor at
Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, which
latter died in the year 721. But Spelman will not al¬
low dodlor to have been the name of any title or de-
,gree in England till the reign of King John, about the
.year 1207.
To pafs dodlor in divinity at Oxford, it is neceflary
the candidate have been four years bachelor of divinity.
For dodlor of laws, he muff have been feven years in
the univerfity to commence bachelor of law; five years
after which he may be admitted dodlor of laws. O-
therwife, in three years after taking the degree of
mafter of arts, he may take the degree of bachelor in
law ; and in four years more, that of LL.D. which
fame method and time are likewife required to pafs the
degree of dodlor in phyfic.
At Cambridge, to take the degree of dodlor in di¬
vinity, it is required the candidate have been feven
years bachelor of divinily. Though in feveral of the
colleges the taking of the bachelor of divinity’s degree
is difpenfed with, and they may go out per falium. To
commence dodlor in laws, the candidate muft have
been five years bachelor of law, or feven years mafter
of arts. To pafs dodlor in phyfic, he muft have been
bachelor in phyfic five years, or feven years mafter of
arts. A dodlor of the civil law may exercife ecelefi-
aftical jurifdidlioiv, though a layman, ilat. 37 Hen. VII,
cap. 17. Itdl. 4.
DOCTOR of the Law, a title of honour among the
Jews. The inveftiture, if we may fo fay, of this mder,
was performed by putting a key and table book, in
their hands ; which is what lome authors imagine our
Saviour had in view, Luke xi. 52. when, fpeaking of
the dodlors of the law, he fays, “ Wo unto you, doc¬
tors of the law, for you have taken away the key of
knowledge; you entered not in yourfelves, and them
that were entering you hindered.”
DOCTOR of the Church, a title given to certain of the
fathers whole dodtrines and opinions have been the moft
generally followed and authorized. We ufually reckon
four dodlors of the Greek church, and three of the La¬
tin. The firft are, St Athanafius, St Bafil, St Gregory
Nazianzen, and St Chryfoftom. The latter are St
Jerome, St Auguftine, and Gregory the Great. In the
Roman breviary there is a particular office for the doc¬
tors. It only differs from that of the confeflbrs, by the
anthem of the Magnificat, and the leffons.
Doctor is alfo an appellation adjoined to feveral
fpecific epithets, expreffing the merit of fome of the
fchoolmen : thus, Alexander Hales is called the irre¬
fragable dodlor ; Thomas Aquinas, the angelic dodlor ;
St Bonaventure, the feraphic dodlor ; John Duns Sco-
tus, the fubtile dodlor ; Raimond Lully, the illuminated
dodlor ; Roger Bacon, the admirable dodlor, &c.
Doctor, (A^c^asAas), in the Greek church, is a par¬
ticular officer, appointed to interpret part of the ferip-
tures. He who interprets the gofpels, is called do&or
of the Gofpel; he who interprets St Paul’s Epiftles.,
doBor of the Apofles; he who interprets the Pfalms,
doBor of the Pfaher.
DOCTORS Commons. See COLLEGE of Civilians.
DOCUMENT, in Law, fome written monument
produced in any thing afferted.
DODARTIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, Perfonatee. See Botany
Index.
DODD, Dr William, an unfortunate Englilh di¬
vine, eldeft fon of the Rev. William Dodd, many years
vicar of Bourne in Lincolnftiire, was born May 29.
1729. He was fent, at the age of 16, to the uni¬
verfity of Cambridge; and admitted in the year 1745
a fizer of Clare-Hall. In 1749-50 he took the degree
of B. A. with great honour, being upon that occafion
in the lift of wranglers. Leaving the univerfity, he
imprudently married a Mifs Mary Perkins in 1751,
was ordained a deacon the fame year, prieft in 1753,
and foon became a celebrated and popular preacher.
His firft preferment was the le£lure{hip of Weft-Ham.
In 1754, he alfo was chofen le£lurer of St Olave’s,
Hart-ftreet ; and in 1757 ^ie degree of M. A.
at Cambridge. On the foundation of the Magdalen
Hofpital in 1758, he was a ftrenuous fupporter of that
charity, and foon after became preacher at the chapel
of it. By the patronage of Bilhop Squire, he in 1763
obtained a prebend of Brecon, and by the intereft of
fome city friends procured himfelf to be appointed one
of
Doclor
II
Dodd,
;
vsmm
D O D [ 287 ] BOD
Doding of Affyria. But Scaliger will have him pofterior
to our Saviour’s time : And in effe o u
t)ovev centre of the town, whofe incidcncies form a fpaeious
)ouglas parade, on the eaft fide of which is an elegant itate-
—V—^houfe of brick. The tf>wn has a lively appearance,
and drives on a confiderable trade with Philadelphia.
Wheat is the principal article of export. The landing
is five or fix miles from the town of D ;ver.
DOUGLAS, Lord. See (thjlory of) Scot¬
land.
Douglas, Gavin, biflrop of Dunkeld in Scotland,
was the third fon of Archibald earl of Angus, and
born in the year 1474. Where he was educated, is
not known 5 but it is certain that he ftudied theology :
a ftudy, however, which did not eftrange him from the
mufes; for he employed himfelf at intervals in tranf-
latin^ into beautiful verfe the poem of Ovid de Remedio
Atnoris. The advantages of foreign travel, and the
converfation of the molt learned men in France and
Germany, to whom his merit produced the readieft ac-
cefs, completed his education. With his fuperior re¬
commendations and worth, it was impofiible he could
remain unnoticed. His firft preferment wa" to be pro
volt of the collegiate church of Si Giles in Edinburgh ;
a place at that time of great dignity and revenue. In
the year 1514, the queen mother, then regent of Scot¬
land, appointed Douglas abbot of Aberbrothock, and
foon after archbilhop of St Andrew’s ; but the queen’s
power not being fufficient to eltablilh him in the pof-
feflion of that dignity, he relinquilhed his claim in fa¬
vour of his competitor Foreman, who was fupporte'd
by the pope. In 1515, he was by the queen appoint¬
ed bifhop of Dunkeld and that appointment was foon
after confirmed by his holinefs Leo X. Neverthelefs
it was fume time before he could obtain peaceable pof-
feffion of his fee. The duke of Albany, who in this
year was declared regent, oppofed him becaufe he was
fupported by the queen ; and, in order to deprive him
of his bilhopric, accufed him of afting contrary to law
in receiving bulls from Rome. On this accufation
he was committed to the caftle of Edinburgh, where
he continued in confinement above a year j but the re¬
gent and the queen being at lalt reconciled, he obtain¬
ed his liberty, and was confecrated bilhop of Dunkeld.
In 1517, he attended the duke of Albany to France ;
but returned foon after to Scotland. In 1521, the
difputes between the earls of Arran and Angus having
thrown the kingdom into violent commotion, our pre¬
late retired to England, where he became intimately
acquainted with Polydore Virgil the hiftorian. He
died in London of the plague in 1522; and was bu¬
ried in the Savoy. He wrote, I. The Palace of Ho¬
nour : a moft ingenious poem under the fimilitude of a
vifion ; in which he paints the vanity and inconfiancy
of all worldly glory. It abounds with incidents, and
a very rich vein of poetry. The palace of happinefs,
in the pi&ure of Cebes, feems to be the groundwork
of it. 2. Aurece Narrationes: a performance now loft ;
in which, it is faid, he explained, in a moft agreeable
manner, the mythology of the poetical fidtions of the
ancients. 7,. Comadne aliquot facrce: None of which
are now to be found. 4. Thirteen Bukes of Eneades,
of the famofe poet Virgil, tranflatet out of Latin verfes
into Scottifh metre, every buke having its particular
prologe. Imprinted at London 1554, in 4to ; and
reprinted at Edinburgh 1710, in iolio. The laft is
the moft efteemed of all his works. He undertook it
at the defire of Lord Henry Sinclair, a munifieent pa- Douglas,
Iron of arts in thofe times : and he completed it in 18 Douw.
months j a circumftance which his admirers are too v~^’
fond of repeating to his advantage. David Hume of
Godfcroft, an author of uncommon merit, and an ad¬
mirable judge of poetry, gives the following teftimony
in his favour. “ Fie wrote (lays he) in his native
tongue divers things *, but his chiefeft wroik is his
tranflation of Virgil, yet extant, in verfe j in which he
ties himfelf fo ftridtly as is pofliblc ; and yet it is fb
well exprefied, that whofoever will effay to do the like
will find it a hard piece of work to go through with
it. In his prologues before every book, where he hath
his liberty, he fhowetb a natural and ample vein of poe¬
try, fo pure, pleafant, and judicious, that I believe there
is none that hath written belore or fince but cometh
fhort of him.” L has been faid, that he compiled an
hiftorical treatife De Rebus Scoticis ; but no remain of
it hath defcended to the prefent times.
Douglas, the principal town of the ifle of Man,
and which has lately increafed both in trade and build¬
ings. The harbour, for fliips of a tolerable burden, is
the fafeft in the ifland, and is much improved by a fine
mole that has been built. It is feated on the. eaftern
fide. W. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat. 54. 7.
DOUW, Gerhard, a celebrated painter, was born
at Leyden in 1613 ; and received his firft inftrudlions
in drawing and defign from Bartholomew Dolendo an
engraver, and alfo from Peter Kouwhoorn a painter
on glafs ; but at the age of fifteen he became a difciple
of Rembrandt. In that famous fchool he continued
for three years j and then found himfelf qualified to
ftudy nature, the muft unerring direftor.
From Rembrandt he learned the true principles of
colouring, and obtained a complete knowledge of the
chiaro-fcuro ; but to that knowledge he added a deli¬
cacy of pencil, and a patience in working up his co¬
lours to the higheft degree of neatnefs, fuperior to any
other mafter. He therefore was more pleafed with
thofe piftures of Rembrandt which were painted ift
his youth, than thofe by which he was diftinguifhed in
his more advanced age j becaufe the firft feemed finifti-
ed with more care and attention, the latter with more
boldnefs, freedom, and negligence, which was quite
oppofite to the tafte of Douw. But although his man¬
ner appears fo different from that of his mafter, yet it
was to Rembrandt alone that he owed all that excel¬
lence in colouring by which he triumphed over all the
artifts of his own country.
His piftures are ufually of a fmall fize, with figures
fo exquifitely touched, fo tranfparent, fo wonderfully
delicate, as to excite aftonilhment as well as pleafure.
He defigned every object after nature, and with an ex-
a6tnefs fo fingular, that each objeft appears as perfect:
as nature itfelf, in refpedt to colour, frelhnefs, and
force. His general manner of painting portraits, was
by the aid of a concave mirror, and fometimes by
looking at the objedt through a frame with many exadt
fquares of fine filk. But the latter cuftom is difufed,
as the eye of a good artift feems a more competent
rule, though the ufe of the former is (till pradtifed by
painters in miniature.
It is almoft incredible what vaft fums have been given
and are given at this day for the pidtures of Douw,
even in his own country ; as alfo in Italy and every
£) q 2 polite
D O W [ 3
Douw polite part of Europe : for he was exceedingly curious
II in finithing them, and patiently affiduous beyond ex-
jicnsager. aR1p]e Qf that patience Sandrart gives a ftrong proof
in a circumftance which he mentions relative to this
artift. He fays, that having once, in company with
Bamboccio, vifited Gerhard Douw, they could not
forbear to admire the prodigious neatnefs of a picture
which he was then painting, in which they took par¬
ticular notice of a broom and exprefling their fur-
prife at the exceflive neatnefs of the finifhing that mi¬
nute object, Douw told them he (hould fpend three
days more in working on that broom before he (hould
account it entirely complete. In a family pifture of
Mrs Spiering, the fame author obferves, that the lady,
fat five days for the finifhing one of her hands that
leaned on an arm chair. For that reafon not many
would fit to him for their portraits ; and he therefore
indulged himfelf moftly in works of fancy, in which he
could introduce objefts of dill life, and employ as much
time on them as fuited his own inclination. Hou-
braken teflifies, that his great patron Mr Spiering al¬
lowed him a thoufand guilders a-year, and paid befide
whatever he demanded for his pictures, and purchafed
fome of them for their weight in filver j but Sandrart,
with more probability, affures us, that the thoufand
guilders a-year were paid to Gerhard, on no other con-
iideration than that the artift fhould give his benefac¬
tor the option of every picture he painted, for which he
was immediately to receive the utmoft of his demand.
This great mafter died in 1674, aged 61.
Douw appears inconteftably to be the moft wonder¬
ful in his finifhing of all the Flemifli mafters. Every
thing that came from his pencil is precious, and his
colouring hath exaftly the true and the lovely tints of
nature ; nor do bis colours appear tortured, nor is their
vigour leffened by his patient pencil j for whatever pains
he may have taken, there is no look of labour or ftiff-
nefs j and his piftures are remarkable, not only for re¬
taining their original luftre, but for having the fame
beautiful effeft at a proper diftance as they have when
brought to the neareft view.
At Turin are feveral pi&ures by Gerhard Douw,
wonderfully beautiful ; efpecially one, of a do£lor at¬
tending a fick woman, and furveying an urinal. The
execution of that painting is allonifhingly fine, and
although the (hadows appear a little too dark, the
whole has an inexpreflible effeft. In the gallery at
Florence there is a night-piece by candle light, which
is exquifitely finiftied •, and in the fame apartment, a
mountebank attended by a number of figures, which it
feems impoflible either fufficiently to commend or to
defcribe.
DOULFJ A, (AovXux), among the Athenians, a kind
of punifhment by which the. criminal was reduced
into the condition of a (lave. It was never inffift-
ed upon any but the ctnpitt, fojourners and freed fer-
vants.
To DOUSE, in fea language, is to lower fuddenly,
or (lacken \ and it is applied to a fail in a fquall of
wind, an extended hawfer, &c.
DOWAGER, Dotifca (q. d. a widow endowed, or
that has a jointure), a title, or addition, applied to the
widows of princes, dukes, earls, and perfons of high
rank only*
08 ] DOW
^ueen Do WAGER, is the widow of the king, and as Dowag«
fuch enjoys moil of the privileges belonging to her as U
queen confort : but it is not high treafon to violate her Down'
chaftity or confpire her death, becaufe the fuccefiion
is not endangered thereby 5 but no man can marry her
without fpecial licenfe from the king, on pain of for¬
feiting his lands and goods. See Qjljeen.
DOWER, (Dotarium, Doarium, or Dosf a portion
of lands or tenements which a widow enjoys fur term
of life from her hufband, in cafe (he furvives him ; and
which, at her death, defcends to their children. But
(he muft have been the wife of the party at the time
of his deceafe j or not divorced d i>ineulo matrimonii:
nor, if (lie has eloped from her hufband, and lives with
an adulterer, (hall (he be entitled to dower, urdefs her
hufband be voluntarily reconciled to her. The widows
of traitors are alfo barred of their dower by 5 and 6
Edw. VI. cap. 11. but not the widows of felons. An
alien cannot be endowed, unlefs (he be queen confort.
And if a woman levies a fine with her hufband, or if
a common recovery be had with the hufband and wifa
of the hufbandrs lands, fhe is barred of her dower.
A widow, clear of thefe impediments, is by law entitled
to be endowed of all lands and tenements, of which
her hufband was feifed in fee-fimple or fee-tail at
any time during the coverture j and of which any iffuo
(lie might have had might by poffibility have been heir.
See Jointure.
DOWN, a county of Ireland in the province of
Ulfter ; bounded on the eaft and fouth by S.t George’s
channel $ on the weft by the county of Armagh ; and
on the north by the county of Antrim. It lies oppo-
fite to the ifle of Man, Cumberland, and Weftmore-
land } and the north part of it fronts the Mull of Gal¬
loway in Scotland, and is about 44 miles from it.—•-
It is about 44 miles in length and 30 in breadth. The
county of Down contains 60 parifties, and'in 1792, the
population amounted to 220,000 fouls. It fent 14
members to the Irifti parliament, two for the county,
and 12 for the boroughs.
This county is rough and full of hills ; but the
air is temperate and healthy. The foil naturally pro¬
duces wood, unlefs conftantly kept open and ploughed j
and the low grounds degenerate into bogs and mofs
•where the drains are negle&ed. But by the induftry
of the inhabitants it produces good crops of corn,
particularly oats ; and, where marl is found, barley..
This laft is exported from Killogh to Dublin. The
ftaple commodity of this county is the linen manufac¬
ture.
Down, or TEovon Patrick, a town of Ireland, in the
county of Down, is one of the moft ancient in that
kingdom. It is a market town and a biftiopric, faid
to be erefled in the fifth century by St Patrick, but
is now united' to the fee of Connor. Within 200 paces
of the town, on the afcent of a hill, are the ruins of
an old cathedral, remarkable for the tomb of St Pa¬
trick the founder, in which they fay the bodies of St
Bridget and St Columb are alfo laid. The town*
which is feated on the fouth corner of Lough Coin*
now called the lake of Strangford, is adorned with fe-
veral handfome public buildings. Among the hills*
and in many iflands, are flights of fwans and other
water fowl j and the lough abounds with falmon, mul¬
ls ts,
BOX [ 309 ] BRA
,0 vn lets, 2nd other Tea fifh. About a mile from this town
|| is St Patrick’s well, which many people frequent to
jxology. dnnk at fome feafons of the year, and others to per-
-V forrn a penance enjoined them by the Popifh priefts.—
The linen manufafture is carried on here, as it is in
feveral places in this county. W. Long. 5. 5c. N. Lat.
54- 23-
Down, the fine feathers from the breads of feveral
birds, particularly of the duck kind.—That of the
eider duck is the molt valuable. Thefe birds pluck it
from their breads and line their neds with it. We
are told that the quantity of down found in one ned
more than filled the crown of a hat, yet weighed no
more than three quarters of an ounce. Br. Zool.
—Three pounds of this down may be comprefled into
a fpace fcarce bigger than one’s lift *, yet it is after¬
wards fo dilatable as to fill a quilt five feet fquare.
Salem. Orn. p. 416. — That found in the neds is
mod valued, and termed live down ; it is infinitely
more eladic than that plucked from the dead bird,
which is little edeemed in Iceland. The bed fort is
fold at 35 fidi per pound when cleanfed, and at 16
when not cleanfed. There are generally exported
every year, on the company’s account, fifteen hundred
or two thoufand pounds of both forts, exclufively of
what is privately exported by foreigners. In 1750 'he
Iceland company fold as much in quantity of this ar¬
ticle as amounted to three thoufand feven hundred and
forty-five banco dollars, befides what was fent dire&ly
to Gluckdadt.—Voji Troi/, p. 146.
Down, or hair of plants. See Hair.
DOWNETON, or Dunkton, a borough town of
Wiltlhire, five miles fouth of Salifbury. It fends two
members to parliament.
DOWNHAM, a market town of Norfolk, 10
miles fouth of Lynn, famous for its good butter; there
being 1000, and fometimes 2000, firkins bought here
every Monday, and fent up the river Oufe to Cam¬
bridge, from whence it is conveyed to London in the
Cambridge waggons.
DOWNS, a bank or elevation of fand, which the
fea gathers and forms along its Ihores; and which
ferves it as a barrier. The word is formed from the
French dune, of the Celtic dum. a “ mountain.”
Charles de Vifcb, in his Compend. Chrortolog. Exord,
et Progrejf. Abbot. Clariff. B. Marice, de Dunis, fays,
Vnllem reperit arenarum callibus Qquos incolee Duynen
vacant') undique cinEiam.
Downs is particulurly ufed for a famous road for
fhins, along the eaftern coaft of the county of Kent,
from Dover to the North Foreland ; where both the
outward and homeward bound (hips frequently make
fome flay j and fquadrons of men of war rendezvous in
time of war.
It affords excellent anchorage ; and is defended by
the caflles of Deal, Dover, and Sandwich.
DOWRY, the money or fortune which the wife
brings her hufband in marriage j it is otherwife called
tnaritagium, marriage goods, and differs from dower.
See Dower.
DOXOLOGY, a hymn ufed in praife of the Al-
mighty, diflinguifhed by the title greater and lajfer.
1 he leffer doxology was anciently only a fingle fen-
lence, without refponfe, running in thefe words, Glory
be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghojf,
world without end, Amen. Part of the latter claufe, /Is
it was in the beginning, is now, and ever Jhall he, was
inferted fome time after the firft compofition. Some
read this ancient hymn, Glory be to the Father, and to
the Son with the Holy Ghojl. Others, Glory be to the Fa¬
ther in or by the Son, and by the Holy Ghojl. I his dif¬
ference of expreffion occafioned no dilpute in the
church, till the rife of the Arian herefy j but when
the followers of Arius began to make ufe of the lat¬
ter as a diftingui(hing chara&er of their party, it was
entirely laid afide by the Catholics, and the ufe of it
was enough to bring any. one under fufpicion of hetero¬
doxy.
The doxology was ufed at the clofe of every folemn
office. The weftern church repeated it at the end of
every pfalm, and the eaftern church at the end of the>
la It pfalm. Many of their prayers were alfo concluded
with it, particularly the folemn tbankfgiving or cor.fe-
cration prayer at the eucharift. It was alfo the ordL
nary conclufion of their fermons.
The greater doxology, or angelic hymn, was like-
wife of great note in the ancient church. It began
with thefe, words, which the angels fung at our Savi¬
our’s birth, Glory be to God on high, &zc. It was chiefly
ufed in communion fervice, and in men’s private devo¬
tions. Both the doxologies have a place in the church
of England, the former being repeated after every
pfalm, and the latter ufed in the communion fervice.
DR ABA, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
tradynamia clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the 39th order, Sihquojie. See Botany Index.
DRABLER, in the fea language, a fmall fail in a
(hip, which is the fame to a bonnet that a bonnet is
to a courfe, and is only ufed when the courfe and bon-r
net are too ftioal to clothe the maft. See Bonnet and
Course.
DRABLING, in Angling, is a method of catching
barbels. Take a ftrong line of fix yards 5 which, be¬
fore you fallen it to your rod, mult be put through a
piece of lead, that if the fifti bite, it may flip to and
fro, and that the water may fomething move it on the
ground ; bait with a lob worm well fecured, and fo
by its motion the barbel will be enticed into the danger
without fufpicion. The beft places are in running wa^
ter near piles, or under wooden bridges, fupported with
oaks floated and flimy.
DRABS, in the fait works, a kind of wooden boxes
for holding the fait when taken out of the boiling pan*-
the bottoms of which are made Ihelving or inclining
forwards, that the briny moifture of the fait may drain
off.
DRAG, an imaginary being, much dreaded by the
country people in many parts of France. The dracs
are fuppofed to be malicious or at leaft trickfome de¬
mons j but, which is very rare, if one of them happens
to take a fancy to a man or woman, they are fure to be
the better for it. ' They are ftill faid to lay gold cups
and rings on the furface over pits and rivers, as baits to
draw women and children in ", though their ufual dwel¬
ling is fome old empty houfe, whence they makeexcur-
fions in human form, vifible or invifible as beft fuits
their purpofe. The country folks (hudder at the very
name of the drae. Some are pofitive that they have
D R A
j)ra6 feen him j for happy indeed is that village in which
|] there is not a houl'e execrated as the lurking place of
Pracona- this tremendous drac.
rm?. DRACAENA, Dragon-tree •, a genus of plants
t() iiexanciria clafs. See Botany Index.
DRACHM, a Grecian coin, of the value of feven-
pence three farthings. Drachm is alfo a weight uftd
by our phyficians *, containing juft fixty grains, or three
fc'ruples, or the eighth j)art of an ounce.
DRACO, a celebrated lawgiver of Athens. When
he exercifed the office (if archon, he made a code of
laws for the ufe of his citizens, which, on account of
their feverity, were faid to be written in letters of
blood. By them idlenefs was puniftied with as much
feverity as murder, and death was denounced againft
the one as well as the other. Such a code of rigorous
laws gave occafion to a certain Athenian to afk of the
legiflator, why he was fo fevere in his punilhments ? and
Draco gave for anfwer, that as the fmallert tranfgref-
fion had appeared td him deferving death, he could not
find any puniftiment more rigorous for more atrocious
crimes. Thefe laws were at firft enforced, but they
were often negle&ed on account of their extreme feve¬
rity ; and Solon totally abolilhed them, except that
one which puniftied a murderer with death. The po¬
pularity of Draco was uncommon, but the gratitude
of his admirers proved fatal to him. Wffien once he
appeared on the theatre, he was received with repeated
applaufe j and the people, according to the euftom of
the Athenians, (bowed their refpe& to their lawgiver
by throwing garments upon him. This was done in
fuch profufion, that Draco was foon hid under them,
and fmothered by the too great veneration of his citi¬
zens. He lived about 624 years before the Chriftian
era.
Draco, the Dragon, a genus of reptiles belonging
to the clafs of amphibia. See Erpetology -Index.
Draco Volans, in Meteorology, a fiery exhalation,
frequent in marfliy and cold countries.
It is mod common in fummer ; and though princi¬
pally feen playing near the banks of rivers, or in boggy
places, yet fometimes mounts up to a confiderable
height in the air, to the no fmall terror of the amazed
beholders : its appearance being that of an oblong,
fometimes roundifti, fiery body, with a long tail. It is
entirely harmlefi, frequently flicking to the hands and
clothes of people without injuring them in the lead.
Draco, in AJlronomy, a conftellation of the northern
hemifphere *, whole ftars, according to Ptolemy, are
81 : according to Tycho, 32 ; according to Hevelius,
40 ; according to Bayer, 33 ; and according to Mr
Flamftead, 80. See Astronomy, N° 406.
DRACOCEPHALUM, Dragon’s Head ; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the didynamia clafs. See
Botany Index.
DRAGONARIUS, in antiquity. Dragon-bearer.
Several nations, as the Perfians, Parthians, Scythians,
&c. bore dragons on their ftandards p whence the ftand-
ards themfelves were called dracones, “ dragons.” The
Romans borrowed the fame cuftom from the Parthians;
or, as Cafaubon has it, from the Daci; or, as Codin,
from the Aflyrians.
The Roman draeones were figures of dragons paint¬
ed in red on the flags, as appears from Ammianus
D R A
Marcellinus : but among the Perfians and Parthians Draconarim
they were, like the Roman eagle, figures in full relievo; ||
fo that the Romans were frequently deceived, and took Dragon,
them for real dragons. » 1J
The fuldier who bore the dragon or ftandard was
called by the Romans draconarius ; and by the Greeks
$£ct>to)ix£K>s and $f>eiK.ovTiiop6i!es ; for the emperors earned
the cuftom with them to Conftantinople.
DRACONTIC month, the time of the revolution
of the moon from her afeending node, called ca/>ut dra*
conis, to her return thither.
DRACONTIUM, Dragons; a genus of plants
belonging to the gynandria clafs ; ana in the natural
method ranking under the firft order, Palmer. See
Botany Index.
DRACUNCULI, in Medicine, a peculiar eruption,
which was fuppoied to be worms in the mufcular parts
of the arms and legs, called Guinea worms. 'I hefe worms
•were removed by the point of a needle ; and to pre¬
vent their forming again, the ufual cuftom is to wafli
the parts with wine and vinegar, wuth alum, nitre, or
common fait, or with a ftrong lixivium of oak afties,
and afterwards anoint them with an ointment of the
common kind ufed for fcorbutic eruptions, with a fraall
mixture of quitkfilver.
DRACUNCULUS. See Arum, Botany Index.
DRAFF, a name given in fome places to the wafli
given to hogs, and the grain given to cows.
DRAG, in building. A door is faid to drag when
in opening or (hutting it hangs or grates upon the
floor.
Drag, in fea language, is a machine confiding of
a (harp, fquare, iron ring, encircled with a net, and
commonly ufed to take the wheel off from the plat¬
form or bottom of the decks.
DRAGOMAN, or Drogman a term of general
ufe through the eaft for an interpreter, whofe office is
to facilitate commerce between the orientals and occi¬
dentals. Thefe are kept by the ambafladors of Chri¬
ftian nations refiding at the Porte for this purpofe.
The word is formed from the Arabic targeman or
targiman, of the verb taragem, “ he has interpreted.’^
From dragoman the Italians formed dragomano and,
with a nearer relation to its Arabic etymology, turci-
manno ; whence the French and our trucheman, as well
as dragoman and drogman.
DRAGON, in /IJlronomy. See Draco.
DRAGON"1 S Head and Tail (coput et cauda draconis),
are the nodes of the planets ; or the two points where¬
in the ecliptic is interfered by the orbits of the planets,
and particularly that of the moon ; making with it
angles of five degrees and eighteen minutes. One of
thefe points looks northward ; the moon beginning
then to have north latitude, and the other fouthward,
where (he commences fimth. Thus her deviation from
the ecliptic feems (according to the fancy of fome)
to make a figure like that of a dragon, whofe belly
is where (he has the greateft latitude; the interfeiffion
reprefenting the head and tail, from which refemblance
the denomination arifes.
But note, that thefe points abide not always in one
place, but have a motion of their own in the zodiac,
and retrograde-wife, 3 minutes 11 feconds per day ;
completing their circle in 18 years 225 days; fo that
the
f sto ]
• ragon
D R A [31
the moon can be but twice in the ecliptic during her
monthly period, but at all other times ihe will have a
I gonnee.|3t;itucJe 0r declination from the ecliptic.
It is about thefe points of interfedlion that all eclip-
fes happen. They are ufually denoted by thefe cha¬
racters, & dragon’s head, and TS dragon’s tail.
Dragon, in Zoology. See Draco.
Dragon'S-Blood,a gummi-refinous fubftance brought
from the Eaft Indies, either in oval drops wrapped up
in flag-leaves, or in large maffes compofed of fmaller
tears. It is laid to be obtained from the palmijuncus
draco, the calamus rotang, the dracaena draco, the ptero-
carpus draco, and feveral other vegetables.
The writers on the materia medica in general give
the preference to the former, though the others are
not unfrequently of equal goodnefs. The fine dragon’s
blood of either fort breaks fmooth, free from any vifible
impurities, of a dark red colour, which changes upon
being powdered into an elegant bright crimfon. Seve¬
ral artificial compofitions, coloured with the true dra¬
gon’s blood, or Brazil wood, are fometimes fold in the
room of this commodity. Some of thefe difiolve like
gums in water 5 others crackle in the fire without prov¬
ing inflammable ; while the genuine fanguis draconis
readily melts and catches flame, and? is not afted on by
watery liquors. It totally diffolves in pure fpirit, and
tinges a large quantity of the menftruum of a deep red
colour. It is likewife foluble in expreffed oils, and
gives them a red hue, lefs beautiful than that commu¬
nicated by anchufa. This drug in fubftance has no
fen fable fmell or tafte •, when diffolved, it difcovers
fome degree of warmth and pungency. It is ufually,
but without foundation, looked upon as a gentle aftrin-
gent 5 and fometimes dire&ed as fuch in extempora¬
neous prefcription againft feminal gleets, the fluor albus,
and other fluxes. In thefe cafes, it is fuppofed to pro¬
duce the general effefts of refinous bodies, lightly in-
craffating the fluids, and fomewhat ftrengthening the
folids. But in the prefent praClice it is very little ufed
either externally or internally.
A folution of dragon’s blood in fpirit of wine is ufed
for ftaining marble, to which it gives a red tinge, which
penetrates more or lefs deeply according to the heat of
the marble during the time of application. But as it
fpreads at the fame time that it finks deep, for fine de-
figns the marble fhould be cold. M. Dufay fays, that
by adding pitch to this folution the colour may be ren¬
dered deeper.
Dragon Fijh, or Dragonet. See Callionymus,
Ichthyology Index.
Dragon Fly. See Lieellula, Entomology
Index.
DRAGON-She/l, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by
fome to a fpecies of concamerated patella or limpet.
This has a top very much bent} and is of an afh
colour on the outfide, but of an elegant and bright
flefh colour within. This has been found flicking on
the back of a tortcife, as the common limpets do on
the fades of rocks ; and fome have been found affixed
to large {hells of the pinna marina brought from the
Eaft Indies at different times.
Dragons. See Draconttum. Botany Index.
DRAGONET, or Dragon Fijh. See Callio¬
nymus, Ichthyology Index.
DRAGONNE'E, in Heraldry. A lion dragonnee
2
i ] BRA
is where the upper half refembles a lion, the other half orag0nn^e
going off like the hinder part of a dragon. The fame 1)
may be faid of any other beaft as well as a lion. Dragoon-
DRAGOON, in military affairs, a mufqueteer
mounted on horfeback, who fometimes fights or marches *
on foot, as occafion requires.
Menage derives the word dragoon from the Latin
draconariuSy which in Vegetius is ufed to fignify foldier.
But it is more probably derived from the German tra-
gen or dragen, which fignifies to carry ; as being infan¬
try carried on horfeback.
Da-agoons are divided into brigades as the cavalry ;
and each regiment into troops } each troop having a
captain, lieutenant, cornet, quarter-mafter, two fer-
jeants, three corporals, and two drums. Some regi¬
ments have hautboys. They are very ufeful on any
expedition that requires defpatch 5 for they can keep
pace with the cavalry, and do the duty of infantry j
they encamp generally on the wings of the army, or at
the paffes leading to the camp 5 and fometimes they are
brought to cover the general’s quarters : they march in
the front and rear of the army.
The fir ft regiment of dragoons raifed in England was
in 1681, and called the regiment of dragoons of North
Britain. In battle or attacks they generally fight
fword in hand after the firft fire. Their arms are, a
fword, firelock, and bayonet. In the French fervice,
when the dragoons march on foot, their officers bear
the pike and the ferjeants the halbert, neither of which
are ufed in the Englifh fervice.
DRAGOONING, one of the methods aafed by Pa-
pifts for converting refraftory heretics, and bringing
them within the pale of the true church.
The following method of dragooning the French
Proteftants, after the revocation of the edi£t of Nantz,
under Louis XIV. is taken from a French work tran-
flated in 1686.
“ The troopers, foldiers, and dragoons, went into
the Proteftants houfes, where they marred and defaced
their houfehold fluff, broke their looking glaffes, and
other utenfils and ornaments, let their wine run about
their cellars, and threw about their corn and fpoiled
it. And as to thofe things which they could not de-
ftroy in this manner, fuch as furniture ot beds, linen,
wearing apparel, plate, &c. they carried them to the
market place, aaad fold them to the Jefuits and other
Roman Catholics. By thefe means the Proteftanls in
Montaubon alone were, in four or five days, dripped
of above a million of money. But this was not the
worft.
“ They turned the dining rooms of gentlemen into
ftables for their horfes j and treated the owners of the
houfes where they quartered with the higheft indigni¬
ty and cruelty, laflaing them about from one to ano-
tlaer, day and night, without intermiflion, not fiaffering
them to eat or drink ; and when they began to fink
under the fatigue and pains they had undergone, they
laid them on a bed, and when they thought them
fomewhat recovered, made them rife, and repeated the
fame tortures. When they faw the blood and fweat
run down their faces and other parts of their bodies,
they fluiced them with water, and putting over their
heads kettle drums, turned upfide down, they made
a continual din upon them till thefe unhappy crea¬
tures loft their fenfes. When one party of thefe tor¬
mentors
©ragoon-
1114.
D R A . [3'
mentors were weary, they were relieved by another,
who pra£lifed the fame cruelties with frefli vigour.
“ At Negroplifle, a town near Montaubon, they
hung up Ifaac Favin, a Proteftant citizen of that
place, by his armpits, and tormented him a whole
night by pinching and tearing off his flefh with pincers.
They made a great fire round a boy of about 12 years
old, who with his hands and eyes lifted up to heaven
cried out “ My God, help me 1” And when they found
the youth refolved to die rather than renounce his reli¬
gion, they fnatched him from the fire juft as he was on
the point of being burnt.
,l In feveral places the foldiers applied red-hot irons
to the hands and4 feet of men and breafts of women.
At Nantz they hung up feveral women and maids by
their feet, and others by their armpits, and thus ex-
pofed them to public view ftark naked. They bound
to polls mothers that gave fuck, and let their fuck¬
ing infants lie languiftiing in their fight for feveral
days and nights, crying, mourning, and gafping for
life. Some they bound before a great fire, and being
half roafted, let them go : a puniftiment worfe than
death. Amidft a thoufand hideous cries and a thou-
fand blafphemies, they hung up men and women by
the hair, and fome by their feet, on hooks in chim¬
neys, and fmoked them with wifps of wet hay till
they were fuffocated. T. hey tied fome under the arms
•with ropes, and plunged them again and again into
wells; they bound others like criminals, put them
to the torture, and with a funnel filled them with
wine till the fumes of it took away their reafon, when
they made them fay, they confented to be Catholics.
They dripped them naked, and after a thoufand indig¬
nities, ftuck them with pins and needles from head to
foot. They cut and fiaftied them with knives; 'and
fometimes with red-hot pincers took hold of them by
the nofe and other parts of the body, and dragged them
about the rooms till they made them promife to be Ca¬
tholics, or till the cries of thefe miferable wretches,
calling upon God for help, forced them to let them go.
They beat them with ftaves, and thus bruifed, and
with broken bones, dragged them to church, where their
forced prefence was taken for an abjuration. In fome
places they tied fathers and hulhands to their bed-pofts,
and before, their eyes ravifhed their wives and daugh¬
ters with impunity. They blew up men and women
with bellows till they burft them. If any to efcape
thefe barbarities endeavoured to fave themfelves by
flight, they purfued them into the fields and woods,
where they (hot at them like wild beads, and prohibit¬
ed them from departing the kingdom (a cruelty never
praftifed by Nero or Dioclefian^ upon pain of confif-
cation of effeas, the galleys, the lafh, and perpetual
imprifonment ; infomuch that the prifons of the fea-
port towns were crammed with.men, women, and chib
dren, who endeavoured to fave themfelves by flight
from their dreadful perfecution With thefe fcenes
of defolation and horror, the P >pHh clergy feafted their
eyes, and made them only a matter of laughter and
fport.
“ Though my heart ache« (favs the writer of the piece
from which we are tranfcribing) whilft I am relating
thefe barbarities, yet for a perpetual memorial of the
infernal crueUy pra&ifed bv tbefe monfters, I beg the
reader’s patience to lay before him two other in-
2 ] BRA
fiances, which, if he hath a heart like mine, he will Dragoon,
not be able to read without watering thefe ftieets with ing,
his tears. > . Dra^V
“ The firft is of a young woman, who being brought ,
before the council, upon refufing to abjure her re¬
ligion, was ordered to prifon. There they fliaved
her head, finged off the hair from other parts of her
body ; and having ftripped her ftark naked, led her
through the ftreets of the city, where many a blow
was given her, and ftones flung at her ; then they fet
her up to the neck in a tub full of water, where, after
(he had been for a while, they took her out, and put
on her a fhift dipt in wine, which, as it dried and
ftuck to her fore and bruifed body, they fnatched off
again, and then had another ready dipt in wine to
clap on her. This they repeated fix times, thereby
making her body exceeding raw and fore. When all
thefe cruelties could not (hake her conftancy, they
faftened her by her feet in a kind of gibbet, and let her
hang in that pofture, with her head downward, till the
expired.
“ The other is of a man in vhofe houfe were quar¬
tered fome of thefe rniflionary dragoons. One day,
having drank plentifully of his wine, and broken their
glaffes at every health, they filled the floor with the
fragments, and by often walking over them reduced
them to very fmall pieces. This done, in the infolence
of their mirth, they refolved on a dance, and told
their Proteftant hoft that he muft be one of their com¬
pany ; but as he would not be one of their religion, he
muft dance quite barefoot 5 and thus barefoot they
drove him about the room, treading on the fharp points
of the broken glaffes. When he was no longer able
to ftand, they laid him on a bed, and, in a fhort time,
ftripped him ftark naked, and rolled him from one
ond of the room to the other, till every part of his
body was full of the fragments of glafs. Alter this
they dragged him to his bed, and having fent for a
furgeon, obliged him to cut out the pieces of glafs
with his inftruments, thereby putting him to the moft
exquifite and horrible pains that can poflibly be con¬
ceived.
“ Thefe, fellow Proteftants, were the methods ufed
by the moft Chriftian king’s apoftolic dragoons to con¬
vert his heretical fubje&s to the Roman Catholic faith !
Thefe, and many other of the like nature, were the
torments to which Louis XIV. delivered them over to
bring them to his own church ! and as Popery is un¬
changeably the fame, thefe are the tortures prepared
for you, if ever that religion ftiould be permitted to
become fettled amongft you ; the confidera'tion of
which made Luther fay of it, what every man that
knows any thing of Chriftianity muft agree with him
in, ‘ If you had no other reafon to go out of the Ro¬
man church, this alone would fuffice, that you fee and
hear, how contrary to the law of God, they ftied inno¬
cent blood. This Angle circumftance ftiall, God will¬
ing, ever feparate me from the Papacy. And if I was
now fubjeft to it, and could blame nothing in any of
their doftrines ; yet for this crime of cruelty, I would
fly from her communion, as from a den of thieves and
murderers.”
DRAGS, in the fea language, are whatever hangs
over the lliip in the fea, as Hurts, coats, or the like j
and boats, when towed, or whatever elfe that after
this
D R A [ 313 ] D R A
Drag
H
Drake.
tills manner may hinder the (hip’s way when (he fails,
are called drags.
DRAIN, a cut or ditch for carrying off water from
the foil, to improve it for the purpofes of agriculture.
In the fen countries of England drains are 20, 30,
and fometimes 40 feet wide, carried through the
marfhy ground to fome river or other place capable of
difcharging the water which they carry out of the fen
lands.
DRAINING. For the different methods, fee A-
GRICULTURE Index.
DRAKE, the male of the duck kind. See Anas,
Ornithology Index.
Drake, Sir Francis, a celebrated Englifh admi¬
ral, was the fon of Edmund Drake, a failor, and born
near Taviftock in Devonlhire, in the year 1545. He
was brought up at the expence, and under the care of,
Sir John Hawkins, who was his kinfman ; and, at the
age of 18, was purfer of a (hip trading to Bifcay. At
20, he made a voyage to Guinea j and, at 22, had the
honour to be made captain of the Judith. In that ca¬
pacity he was in the harbour of St John de Ulloa, in
the gulf of Mexico, where he behaved mod gallantly
in the glorious actions under Sir John Hawkins, and
returned with him to England with great reputation,
though not w#rth a groat. Upon this he projected
a defign again!! the Spaniards in the Weft Indies 5
which he no fooner publiftied, than he had volunteers
enough ready to accompany him. In 1570, he made
his firft expedition with two (hips ; and the next year
with only one, in which he returned fafe, if not with
fuch advantages as he expected. He made another
expedition in 1,572, wherein he did the Spaniards
fome mifchief, and gained confiderable booties. In
thefe expeditions he was much affifted by a nation of
Indians, who then were, and have been ever fince, en¬
gaged in perpetual wars _with the Spaniards. The
prince of thefe people was named Pedro; to whom
Drake prefented a fine cUtlafs from his fide, which he
faw the Indian greatly admired. Pedro, in return,
gave him four large wedges of gold ; which Drake
threw into the common dock, faying, That he thought
it but juft that fuch as bore the charge of fo uncertain
a voyage on his credit, (hould (hare the utmoft advan¬
tage that voyage produced. Then, embarking his
men with all the wealth he had obtained, which was
very confiderable, he bore away for England, where
he arrived in Auguft 1573.
His fuccefs in this expedition, joined to his honour¬
able behaviour towards his owners, gained him high
reputation : and the ufe he made of his riches, a (till
greater. For, fitting out three (lout frigates at his
own expence, he failed with them to Ireland ; where,
under Walter earl of Effex, the father of the famous
unfortunate earl, he ferved as a volunteer, and did many
glorious aftions. After the death of his noble patron,
he returned into England 5 where Sir Chriftopher Hat¬
ton introduced him to her majefty, and procured him
countenance and prote&ion at court. By this means
he acquired a capacity of undertaking that grand ex¬
pedition which will render his name immortal. The
firft thing he propofed was a voyage into the South
feas through the ftraits of Magellan j which was what
hitherto no Engliftiman had ever attempted. This pro-
jedt was well received at court: the queen furnilhed
VOL. VII. Parti.
him with means j and his own fame quickly drew to¬
gether a fufficient force. The fleet with which he
failed on this extraordinary undertaking, confifted only
of five veffels, fmall when compared with modern (hips,
and no more than 164 able men. He failed on the
13.t'h of December 1577 ; on the 25th fell in with the
coaft of Barbary, and on the 29th with Cape Verd. On
the 13th of March he paffed the equinodtial, made the
coaft of Brazil on the 5th of April, and entered the
river de la Plata, where he loft the company of two
of his (hips 5 but meeting them again, and taking out
their provifions, he turned them adrift. On the 29th
of May he entered the port of St Julian’s, where he
continued two months for the fake of laying in provi¬
fions : on the 20th of Auguft he entered the ftraits of
Magellan, and on the 25th of September paffed them,
having then only his own (hip. On the 25th of No¬
vember he came to Macao, which he had appointed
for a place of rendezvous in cafe his (hips feparated ;
but Captain Winter, his vice admiral, having repaffed
the ftraits, was returned to England. Thence he con¬
tinued his voyage along the coaft of Chili and Peru,
taking all opportunities of feizing Spanilh (hips, and
attacking them on (hore, till his men were fated with
plunder j and then, coafting America to the height of
48 degrees, he endeavoured to find a paffage that way
back into our feas, but could not. However, he land¬
ed, and called the country New Albion, taking poffef-
fion of it in the name and for the ufe of Queen Eliza¬
beth 5 and, having careened his (hip, fetfail from thence
on the 29th September 1579, for the Moluccas.
He is fuppofed to have chofen this paffage round,
partly to avoid being attacked by the Spaniards at a
difadvantage, and partly from the latenefs of the fea-
fon, whence dangerous ftorms and hurricanes were ap¬
prehended. On the 13th of O&ober he fell in with
certain iflands inhabited by the moft barbarous people
he had met with in all his Voyage : on the 4th of No¬
vember he had fight of the Moluccas 5 and, coming to
Ternate, was extremely well received by the king
thereof, who appears from the moft authentic relations
of this voyage to have been a wife and politic prince.
On the icth of December he made Celebes 5 where
his (hip unfortunately ran upon a rock, the 9th of Janu¬
ary following 5 from which, beyond all expectation, and
in a manner miraculoufly, they got off, and continued
their courfe. On the 16th of March he arrived at Java
Major 5 and from thence he intended to have direCted
his courfe to Malacca $ but found himfelf obliged to
alter his purpofe, and to think of returning home. On
the 25th of March 1580, he put this defign in execu¬
tion ; and on the 15th of June he doubled the Cape of
Good Hope, having then on board 57 men, and but
three calks of water. On the 12th of July he paffed
the line, reached the coaft of Guinea on the 16th, and
there watered. On the llth of September he made,
the idand of Tercera ; and on the 3d of November
entered the harbour of Plymouth. This voyage round
the world was performed in two years and about ten
months. Shortly after his arrival, the queen going to
Deptford went on board his (hip; where, after dinner,
(he conferred on him the order of knighthood, and de¬
clared her abfolute approbation of all he had done. She
likewife gave directions for the prefervation of his (hip,
that it might remain a monument of his own and his
R r country’s
Drake.
BRA [ 3H
ake. country’s glory. This celebrated fiiip,'wliich bad been
*—v'—— contemplated many years at Deptford, at length de¬
caying, it was broke up, and a chair, made out of the
planks, was prefented to the univerfity of Oxford *, up¬
on which the famous Abraham Cowley made the fol¬
lowing verfes :
To this great (hip, which round the world has run.
And match’d in race the chariot of the fun :
This Pythagorean fhip (for it may claim
Without prefumption, fo deferv’d a name,
By knowledge once, and transformation now)
In her new fhape this facred port allow.
Drake and his {hip could not have wilhed, from fate,
A happier flation, or more bleft eftate :
For lo ! a feat of endlefs reft is given,
To her in Oxford, and to him in heaven.
IVoris, vol. ii.
]
BRA
J^uas pater evertit jubeo te condere cel/as ;
Re/igio Papce fac rejlituantur ad ungucm.
Thefe to you are our commands,
Send no help to th’ Netherlands :
Of the treafure took by Drake,
Reftitution you muft make :
And thofe abbeys build anew.
Which your father overthrew :
If for any peace you hope,
In all points reftore the pope.
Drakf,
Draken,
borch.
In the year 1585, he failed with a fleet to the Weft
Indies, and took the cities of St Jago, St Domingo,
Carthagena, and St Auguftine. In 1587, he went to
Lift) ?n with a fleet of 30 fail *, and having intelligence
of a great fleet aflembled. in the bay of Cadiz, which
was to have made part of the armada, he with great
courage entered that port, and burnt there upwards of
10,000 tons of (hipping : which he afterwards merrily
called burning the king of Spain's beard. In 1588,
when the armada from Spain was approaching ourcoafts.
Sir Francis Drake was appointed vice-admiral under
Charles Lord Howard of Effingham, high admiral of
England, where fortune favoured him as remarkably
as ever: for he made prize of a very large galleon,
commanded by Don Pedro de Valdez, who was reputed
the projeftor of this invafion. This affair happened
in the following manner: On the 22d of July, Sir
Francis obferving a great Spanifh (hip floating at a di-
ftance from both fleets, fent his pinnace to fummon
the commander to yield. Valdez replied, with much
Spanifh folemnity, that they were 450 ftrong; that he
himfelf was Don Pedro, and flood much upon his ho¬
nour j and thereupon propounded feveral conditions,
upon which he was willing to yield. But the vice-ad¬
miral replied, that he had no leifure to parley ; but
if he thought fit inftantly to yield, he might; if not,
he (hould foon find that Drake was no coward. Pedro,
hearing the name of Drake, immediately yielded, and
with 46 of his attendants came on board Drake’s (hip.
This Don Pedro remained about two years Sir Francis
Drake’s prifoner in England ; and when he was re¬
leafed, paid him for his own and his captain’s liberties
a ranfom of 3500I. Drake’s foldiers were well recom-
penfed with the plunder of this (hip; for they found
in it 5 ?,ooo ducats of gold, which were divided among
them.
A little before this formidable Spanifh armament
put to fea, the ambaffador of his Catholic majefty had
the confidence to propound.to Queen Elizabeth, in La¬
tin verfe, the terms upon which (be might hope for
peace ; which, with an Englifh tranflation by Dr Ful¬
ler, we will infert in this place, becaufe Drake’s expe¬
dition to the Weft Indies makes a part of this meffage.
The verfes are thefe :
Te veto ne per gas hello defend ere Be/gas ;
^ucs Dracus eripuit nunc rejlituaritur oportet:
The queen’s extempore return :
j4d Grcccas, bone rex, font mandat a kalendas.
Worthy king, know this your will
At Latter Lammas we’ll fulfil.
In the year 1559, Sir Francis Drake commanded as
admiral of the fleet fent to reftore Dun Antonio king of
Portugal, the command of the land forces being given
to Sir John Norris ; but they were hardly got to fea,
before the commanders differed, and fo the attempt
proved abortive. The war with Spain continuing, a
more effectual expedition was undertaken by Sir John
Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, againft their fettle-
ments in the Weft Indies, than had hitherto been made
during the whole courfe of it : but the commanders
here again not agreeing about the plan, this alfo did
not turn out fo fuccefsfully as was expetted. All dif¬
ficulties, before thefe two laft expeditions, had given
way to the fkill and fortune of Sir Francis Drake ;
which probably was the reafon why he did not bear
thefe difappointments fo well as he otherwife would
have done. A ftrong fenfe of them is fuppofed to
have thrown him into a melancholy, which occafioned
a bloody flux; and of this be died on board his own
(hip, near the town of Nombre de Dios in the Weft
Indies, on the 28th of January 1595-6. His death
was lamented by the whole nation, and particularly by
his countrymen ; who had great reafon to love him
from the circumftance of his private life, as well as to
efteem him in his public chara&er. He was elefted
burgefs for the town of Bofliny, alias Tintagal, in the
county of Cornwall, in the 27th parliament of Queen
Elizabeth ; and for Plymouth in Devonfhire, in the
35th of the fame reign. This town had very particular
obligations to him : for, in the year 1587, he under¬
took to bring water into it, through the w ant of which,,
till then, it had been grievoufly diftreffed ; and he per¬
formed it by conducing thither a dream from fprings
at eight miles diftance, that is to fay, in a ftraight line
for in the manner he brought it, the courfe of it runs
upwards of 20 miles.
DRAKENBORCH, Arnold, do£t or of laws. This
celebrated literary c ha rafter wa« a native of Utrecht,,
and was born on the iff of January 1684, and in which
city he was afterwards proftffor of rhetoric and hi-
ftory. Graevius and Burmann taught him the belles
lettres, and Cornelius Van Eck was bis preceptor
while he devoted his attention to the law. He fuc-
ceeded Profeffor Burmann in the year 1716, and ter¬
minated his mortal career in 1748, in the 64th year
of his age. He was an author of very confiderable
eminence, as the following publications fufficiently e-
vince. His differtation entitled, Difputatio Philology
riif
D It A [ -
)r»ken- Prafe^s urbis, in 4to, proves him to have
borth been an able philologift, and gave flattering indica-
j| tions of future eminence. Its intrinfic merit caufed
D™11, it to be reprinted at Frankfort-on-the Oder, in 1750,
by Profeflor Uhl, accompanied with a life of its learn¬
ed author. His next work, entitled Difputatio de qffi.
cio pruefeciorum prcctorio, was publilhed in the year
1707 ; and ten years after his C. Si/iiItaliciPunicorum,
in 17 books, to render which perfect and complete,
nothing was omitted by this great man •, many hiftori-
cal fubje£ts being engraved for the purpofe of elucida¬
ting the text, to which his own copious and learned
annotations moft powerfully contributed. His fplendid
edition of Livy, with a life of that eminent biflorian,
will render his name immortal. It is entitled T. Livii
Patavini hijloriarum ab urbe condita libri, qaifuperfunt,
omnes. Lugd. Batav. 1738 and 1746; 7 tom. The
preface to this work is very long, and replete with
erudition, giving a particular account of all the liter¬
ary charafters who have at different periods comment¬
ed on the works of Livy. He took the edition of
Gronovius for his model, as being in his eftimation
the moft corred j but he made many important alter¬
ations on the authority of manufcripts which it is pro¬
bable Gronovius had either never feen, or not taken
the pains to confult. Upon the whole, this edition of
Livy is at once the moft elaborate, interefting, and in-
ftru&ive, ever given to the world, fince into it he has
introduced the criticifms of Duchier, Gronovius, Pe-
rizonius, and Sigonius j in addition to his own, which
are certainly fraught with much literature and deep
difcernment.
DRAMA, a poem containing fome certain a£Hon,
and reprefenting a true pi&ure of human life, for the
delight and improvement of mankind.
The principal fpecies of the drama are two, comedy
and tragedy. Some others there are of lefs note, as
paftoral, fatire, tragi-comedy, opera, &c. See the ar¬
ticle Poetry.
DRAMATIC, an epithet given to pieces written
for the ftage. See POETRY.
DRAN, Henry Francis Le, a French furgeon
of diftinguifiled eminence, was born in the year 1685.
His father followed the fame profeflion at Paris, and
was highly celebrated for his treatment of cancers.
Dran had much experience as well as abilities, although
his anatomical knowledge was rather circumfcribed,
and his acquaintance with books was far from being
extenfive. In 1730, he publifhed in 8vo a valuable
work, entitled Par allele des differentes Manteres de
tirer la Pierre hors de la Vejjie. In this work he takes
a comparative view of the different modes of perform¬
ing the hazardous operation of lithotomy, preferring
the lateral method which was pradtifed by Chefelden.
In the year I73x» publiflied his Obfervations de
Chirurgie} avec des Rejleciions, in 2 vols l2mo, which
is juftly confidered as a valuable performance for men
who are employed in the practice of forgery. In
x757» appeared his Traits ou ReJleBions tire'es de la
ratique fur les Playes d’Armes d Feu ; in which he
gives the refults of his own practice while in the army,
with efficacious methods for the cure of gun-fhot
wounds. Gataker tranflated into Englifh his Traitd des
opet ations de Clrirurgie, to which many interefting ob-
15 ] B ft A
fervations were added by Chefelden. In 1765, were Dfaa
publifhea his Confuhations fur la plupart des Maladies |j
qui font du Rejfort de la Clnrurgie ; the plan of which I)rauAt.
is admirably calculated for the inftrudlion of young * 1
praftitioners. As at leaft one evidence of the merit
of Draw’s works, tranflations of them have been made
into various languages. If his judgment was pene¬
trating, he was equally famed for his fuccefsful opera¬
tions. He died at Paris in the year 1770, in the 83th
year of his age.
DRANK, among farmers, a term ufed to denote
wild oats, which never fail to infeft worn-out lands j fo
that, when ploughed lands run to thefe weeds and
thiftles, the farmer knows it is high time to fallow
them, or elfe to low them with hay feed, and make
pafture of them.
DRAPERY, in Sculpture and Painting, fignifies the
reprefentation of the clothing of human figures, and
alfo hangings, tapeftry, curtains, and moft other things
that are not carnations or landfcapes. See Painting,
Crayon, Drawing, and Miniature.
DRASTIC, in Phyfic, an epithet beftowed on fuch
medicines as are of prefent efficacy, and potent in ope¬
ration $ and is commonly applied to emetics and ca¬
thartics.
DRAVE, a larg« navigable river, which, taking
its rife in the archbifht pric of Saltzburgh, in Germany,
runs fouth-eaft through Stiria j and continuing its
courfe, divides Hungary from Sclavonia, and falls into
the Danube at Effeck.
DRAUGHT, in Medicine. See Potion.
Draught, in trade, called alfo doff or clouch, is a
fmall allowance on weigbable goods, made by the king
to the importer, or by the feller to the buyer, that the
weight may hold out when the goods are weighed
again.
The king allows lib draught for goods weighing
no lefs than 1 cwt. 2lb for goods weighing between
I and 2 cwt. 31b for goods weighing between 2 and
3 cwt. 41b from 3 to 10 cwt. 7ib from 10 to 18 cwt.
pftj from 18 to 30 or upwards.
Draught is alfo ufed fometimes for a bill of ex¬
change. and commonly for an order for the payment
of any fum of money due, &c. Then the perfon who
gives the order, is faid to draw upon the other.
Draught, or, as it is pronounced, Draft, in Ar-
chitedure, the figure of an intended building defcribed
on paper ; wherein are laid down, by fcale and com-
pafs, the feveral divifions and partitions of the apart¬
ments, rooms, doors, paffages, conveniences, &c. in
their due proportion.
It is ufual, and exceedingly convenient, before a
building is begun to be raifed, to have draughts of the
ichnography, or ground-plot of each floor or ftory : as
alfo of the form and fainion of each front, with the
windows, doors, ornaments, &c. in an orthography, or
upright. Sometimes the feveral fronts, &c. are taken,
and reprefented in the fame draught, to ftiovv the effeft
of the whole building : this is called a fcenography, or
perfpeBive.
Draught, the depth of a body of water neceffary
to float a ftiip : hence a (hip is faid to draw fo many
feet of water, when (lie is borne up by a column of wa¬
ter of that particular depth. Thus, if it requires a
R r 2 body
Draught,
Drawback.
D It A [31
body of water whofe depth is equal to 12 feet, to float
or buoy up a (hip on its furface, (he is faid to draw 12
feet water ; and that this draught may be more readily
known, the feet ate marked on the demand flern pod,
regularly from the keel upwards.
"DRAUGHT Hooks, are large hooks of iron, fixed on
the cheeks of a cannon carriage, two on each fide, one
near the trunnion-hole, and the other at the train, di-
dinguiflted by the name of fore and hind draught-hooks.
Large guns have draught hooks near the middle tran-
fom, to' which are fixed the chains that ferve to keep
the drafts of the limbers on a march. The fore and
hind hooks are ufed for drawing a gun backwards or
forwards, by men with drong ropes, called draught-
ropes, fixed to thefe hooks.
DR AUGHT-Horfe, in farming, a fort of coarfe-made
horfe, dedined for the fervice of a cart or plough. .
DRAWBACK, in commerce, certain duties, either
of the cudoms or of the excife, allowed upon the ex¬
portation of fome of our own manufaftures; or upon
certain foreign merchandifes, that have paid duty on
importation.
The oaths of the merchants importing and export¬
ing are required to obtain the drawback on foreign
goods, affirming the truth of the officers certificate on
the entry, and the due payment of the duties : and
thefe may be made by the agent or hufljand of any cor¬
poration or company ; or by the known fervant of any
merchant ufually employed in making his entries, and
paying his cudoms. In regard to foreign goods entered
outward, if lefs quantity or value be fraudulently (hip¬
ped out than what is expreffed in the exporter’s certi¬
ficate, the goods therein mentioned, or their value, are
forfeited, and no drawback to be allowed for the fame.
Foreign goods exported by certificate in order to ob¬
tain the. drawback, not (hipped or exported, or reland¬
ed in Great Britain, unlefs in cafe of didrefs to fave
them from perifliing, are to loft? the benefit of the
drawback, and are forfeited, or their value, with the
veffel, horfes, carriages, &c. employed in the reland¬
ing thereof ■, and the perfons employed in the reland¬
ing them, or by whofe privity they are relanded, or
into whofe hands they (hall knowingly come, are to for¬
feit dpuble the amount of the drawback. Officers of
the cudoms conniving at, or affiding in any fraud re¬
lating, to certificate goods, befides other penalties, are
6 ] D R A
to forfeit their office, and differ fix months imprifon- Drawback
ment without bail or mainprife ; as are alfo matters, |]
or perfons belonging to the (hips employed therein. Drawing,
Bonds given for the exportation of certificate goods to v "*J
Ireland mud not be delivered up, nor drawback allow¬
ed for any goods, till a certificate under the hands and
feats of the colle&or or comptroller, &c. ot the cu¬
doms be produced, tedifying the landing.
DRAW-Bridge, a bridge made after the manner of a
float, to draw up or let down, as occafions ferve, be¬
fore the gate of a town or cadle. See Bridge.
A draw-bridge may be made after feveral different
ways’, but the mod common are made with plyers, twice
the length of the gate, and a foot in diameter. The
inner fquare is traverfed with a crofs, which ferves for
a counterpoife $ and the chains which hang from the
extremities of the plyers to lift up or let down the
bridge are of iron or brafs.
In navigable rivers it is fometimes neceffary to make
the middle arch of bridges with two moveable plat¬
forms, to be raifed occafionally, in order to let the
mads and rigging of (hips pafs through. This kind
of draw-bridge is reprefen ted in Plate CLXVIII. where
AB is the width of the middle arch ; AL and BL,
the two piers that fupport the draw bridge NO, one
of the platforms of which is raifed, and the other let
down, having the beam PQ for its plyer. To NO
are fufpended two moveable braces EH, EH j which
reding on the fupport E, prefs againd the bracket M,
and thereby drengthen the draw-bridge. Thefe braces
are conduced to the red by means of the weight S,
pulling the chain SLF.
DRAW-Net, a kind of net for taking the larger fort
of wildfowl, which ought to be made of the bed fort
of packthread, with wide mefhes; they (hwuld be
about two fathoms deep and fix long, verged on each
fide with a very drong cord, and dretched at each end
on long poles. It (hould be fpread fmooth and flat
upon the ground ; and drewed over with grafs, fedge,
or the like, to hide it from the fowl j and the fportf-
man is to place himfelf in fome (helter of grafs, fern,
or fome fuch thing.
DRAWING, in general, denotes the aftion of pul?
ling out, or hauling along j thus we read of tooth?
drawing, wire-drawing, &c.
DRAWING,
THE art of reprefenting the appearances of objects
upon a plane furface, by means of lines, (hades,
and fliadows, formed with certain materials adapted to
the purpofe.
§ l. Of the proper Materials for Drawing, and the
manner of ufing them.
The fird thing neceffary for a beginner is to furniffi
himfelf with proper materials, fuch as black lead pen¬
cils, crayons of black, white, or red chalk, crow
3
quill pens, a rule and compafles, camels hair pencils^,
.and Indian ink. He mud accuflom himfelf to hold
the pencil farther from the point than one does a pen
in writing s which will give him a better command
of it, and contribute to render the drokes more free
and bold. The ufe of the pencil is to draw the fird
(ketches or outlines of the piece, as any droke or line
that is amifs may in this be more eafily rubbed out
than in any other thing; and when he has made the
(ketch as correct as he can with the pencil, he may
then draw carefully the bed outline he has got, with
his
A
DRAWING.
his crow-quill pen and ink (a') j after winch he may
difcbarge the pencil lines, by rubbing the piece gently
with the crumb of ftale bread or Indian rubber. Ha¬
ving thus got the outline clear, his next work is to
(hade the piece properly, either by drawing fine llrokes
with his pen where it requires to be (haded, or by
waftiing it with his pencil and the Indian ink. As to
his rule and compaffes, they are never, or very rarely to
be ufed, except in meafuring the proportions of figures
after he has drawn them, to prove whether they are
right or not : or in houfes, fortifications, and other pieces
of architefture.
$ 2. Of Drawing Lines^ Squares^ Circles, and other re¬
gular and irregular Figures.
Having got all thefe implements in readinefs, the
firft practice mull be to draw ftraight and curve lines,
with eafe and freedom, upwards and downwards, fide-
wife to the right or left, or in any direftion whatfo-
ever. He mull alfo learn to draw, by command of
hand, fquares, circles, ovals, and other geometrical
figures: for, as the alphabet, or a knowledge of the
letters, is an introduction to grammar j fo is geometry
to drawing. The praClice of drawing thefe (hnple
figures till he is mailer of them, will enable him to
imitate, with greater eafe and accuracy, many things
both in nature and art. And here it is proper to adi-
monifh him, never to be in a hurry : but to make him-
felf perfeflly mailer of one figure before he proceeds
to another : the advantage, and even neceflity, of this,
will appear as he proceeds. Two obfervations more
may be added: i. That he accultom himfelf to draw
all his figures very large, which is the only way of ac¬
quiring a free bold manner of defigning. 2. That he
praftife drawing till he has gained a tolerable maltery
of his pencil, before he attempts to (hadow any figure
or objeCt of any kind whatever.
$ 3. Of Drawing Eyes, Ears, Legs, Arms, Hands,
Feet, ilfc.
As to the drawing of eyes and ears, legs and arms,
the learner will have very little more to do than to
copy carefully the examples given in Plate CLXXVII.
and CLXXVIII. taken from Sebaftian le Clerc’s draw¬
ing book. But the aCtions and poftures of the hands
are fo many and various, that no certain rules can be
given for drawing them, that will univerfally hold
good. Yet as the bands and feet are difficult mem-'
hers to draw, it is very neceflary, and well worth while,
to bellow fome time and pains about them, carefully
imitating their various poltures and aCtions, fo as not
only to avoid all lamenefs and imperfeCtion, but alfo to
give them life and fpirit. To arrive at this, great care,
(tudy, and praCtice, are requifite •, particularly in imi¬
tating the bell prints or drawings that can be got of
hands and feet (fime good examples of which are
given in Plate CLXXVIIL) j for, as to the mechani¬
cal rules of drawing them by lines and meafures, they
are not only perplexed and difficult, but alfo contrary
to the praClice of the bed mailers. One general rule,
however, may be given (which is univerfally to be ob-
ierved in all fubjeCls), and that is, Not to finifti perfect¬
ly at firft any fingle part, but to Iketch out faintly, and
with light llrokes of the pencil, the ffiape and propor¬
tion of the whole hand, with the aCtion and turn of it ;
and after confidering carefully whether this firft Iketch
be perfeCt, and altering it wherever itisamifs, you may
then proceed to the bending of the joints, the knuckles,
the veins, and other fmall particulars, which, when the
learner has got the whole ffiape and proportion of the
hand or foot, will not only be more eafily but alfo more
perfectly deiigned.
§ 4. Of Drawing Faces.
The head is ufually divided into four equal parts,
(1.) From the crown of the head to the top of the
forehead. (2.) From the top of the forehead to the
eyebrows. (3O From the eyebrows to the bottom
of the nofe. (4.) From thence to the bottom of the
chin. But this proportion is not conftant j thole
features in different men being often very different as
to length and ffiape. In a well-proportioned face, how¬
ever, they are nearly right. To direCl the learner
therefore in forming a perfeCt face, his firft bufinefs is
to draw an oval, or rather the form of an egg j in the
middle of which, from the top to the bottom, draw a
perpendicular line. Through the centre or middle of
this line draw a diameter line, direClly acrofs from one
fide to the other of your oval. On thefe two lines all
the features of your face are to be placed as follows:
Divide your perpendicular line into four equal parts 5
the firft mull be allotted to the hair of the head j the
fecond is from the top of the forehead to the top of
the nofe between the eyebrows; the third is from
thence to the bottom of the nofe ; and the fourth in¬
cludes the lips and chin. Your diameter line, or the
breadth of the face, is always fuppofed to be the length
of five eyes j you mull therefore divide it into five equal
parts, and place the eyes upon it fo as to leave exaCtly
the length of one eye betwixt them. This is to be un-
derftood only of a full front face, Plate CLXXVII. fig.
a; for if it turn to either fide, then the diftances are
to be leffened on that fide which turns from you, lefs
or more in proportion to its turning (fig. b b b'). 1 he
top of the ear is to rife parallel to the eyebrows, at the
end of the diameter line ; and the bottom of it mull be
equal to the bottom of the nofe. The noftrils ought
not to come out farther than the corner of the eye in
any face; and the middle of the mouth mull always b©c
placed upon the perpendicular line.
§ 5. Of Drawing Human Figures.
When the learner is tolerably perfeCl in drawing
faces, heads, hands, and feet, he may next attempt to
draw the human figure at length. In order to which,
let him firft Iketch the head j then draw a perpendicu¬
lar
317
(a) The ink made ufe of for this purpofe mull not be common, but Indian ink j which is much fofter than
the other, and does not run : by mixing it with water, it may be made to any degree of ftrength, and ufed in a
pen like common ink.
3*8
DRAWING
lar line from the bottom of the head feven times its
length (for the length of the head is about one-eighth
part of the length of the figure).
The beft proportioned figures of the ancients are 7-J
heads in height. If, therefore, the figure Hands up¬
right, (as fig. <7, Plate CLXXIX.) draw a perpendicu¬
lar line from the top of the head to the heel, which muft
be divided into two equal parts. The bottom of the
belly is exactly the centre. Divide the lower part into
two equal parts again, the middle of which is the mid¬
dle of the knee. For the upper part of the figure, the
matter mull be varied. Take off with your com-
paffes the length of the face (which is three parts in
four of the length of the head) ; from the throat pit to
the pit of the ftomach is one face, from thence to the
navel is another, and from thence to the lower rim of
the belly is a third. The line muft be divided into
feven equal parts. Againft the end of the firft divi-
lion, place the breafts; the fecond comes down to the
navel j the third to the privities j the fourth to the
middle of the thigh ; the fifth to the lower part of the
knee j the fixth to the lower part of the calf j and the
feventh to the bottom of the heel, the heel of the bear-
ing leg being always exa£Uy under the pit of the throat.
But as the effence of all drawing confifts in making at
firft a good Iketch, the learner muft in this particular
be very careful and accurate ; he ought to draw no
one part perfedl or exaft till he fee whether the whole
draught be good ; and when he has altered that to his
mind, he may then finifti one part after another as per-
feftly as he can.
There are fome who, having a ftatue to copy, begin
with the head, which they finilh, and then proceed in
the fame manner to the other parts of the body, finifti-
ing as they go : but this method generally fucceeds ill;
for if the head be made in the leaft too big or too
little, the confequence is a difproportion between all
the parts, occafioned by their not having Iketched the
whole proportion ably at firft. i.et the learner remem¬
ber, therefore, in whatever he intends to draw, firft to
iketch its feveral parts, meafuring the diftances and
proportions between each with his finger or pencil,
without ufing the compafies ; and then judge of them
by the eye, which by degrees will be able to judge of
truth and proportion, and will become his beft and
principal guide. And let him obferve, as a general
rule, always to begin with the right fide of the piece
he is copying : for by that means he will always have
what he has done before his eyes ; and the reft will
follow more naturally, and with greater eafe j whereas
if he begin with the left fide, his hand and arm will
cover what he does firft, and deprive him of the fight
of it 5 by which means he will not be able to proceed
with fo much eafe, pleafure, or certainty.
As to the order and manner of proceeding in draw¬
ing the human body, he muft firft Iketch the head ;
then the (boulders in the exaft breadth ; then draw the
trunk of the body, beginning with the armpits (leav¬
ing the arms till afterwards), and fo draw down to the
hips on both fides j and be fure he obferve the exact
breadth of the waift. When he has done this, let him
then draw that leg which the body Hands upon ; and
afterwards the other which Hands loofe j then the arms}
and laft of all the hands.
He muft take notice alfo of the bowings and bend¬
ings that are in the body 5 making the part which is
oppofite to that which bends correfpond to it in bend¬
ing with it. For inftance : If one fide of the body
bend in, the other mull ftand out anfwerable to it ; if
the back bend in, the belly muft Hick out; if the knee
bend out, the ham muft fall in } and fo of any other
joint of the body. Finally, he muft endeavour to form
all parts of the figure with truth, and in juft propor¬
tion } not one arm or one leg bigger or lefs than the
other ; not broad Herculean ftioulders, with a thin and
{lender waift j nor raw and bony arms, with thick and
gouty legs : but let there be a kind of harmonious
agreement amongft the members, and a beautiful fym-
metry throughout the whole figure.
Proportions and Meafures of the Human Body. The
centre or middle part, between the two extremes of the
head and feet of a new born child, is in the navel, but
that of an adult is in the os pubis ; and the praftice of
dividing the meafures of children into four, five, or fix
parts, whereof the head is one, is made ufe of by paint¬
ers and fculptors.
A child of two years old has about five heads in its
whole length, but one of four or five years old has near
fix ; about the fifteenth or fixteenth year, feven heads
are the proportion or meafure, and the centre inclines
to the upper part of the pubis. Hence it appears, as
the growth of the body advances, there is a gradual
approach to the proportion of an adult of near eight
heads in the whole length, of which, as mentioned
above, the head makes one.
Agreeable to thefe principles, the following Table
is conftru£led, exhibiting the proportions of the parts
of a man and of a woman, as they were fixed by the
ancients, and meafured by M. Audran from the A-
pollo Pythius (Plate CLXXX.) in the garden of the
Vatican at Rome, and the Venus Aphrodites (Plate
CLXXXI.) belonging to the family of the Medicis.
Suppofing the figures to ftand upright and duly poifed
on both legs, the whole height of the former is divided
into 31^ parts, being 7 heads 3 parts and 6 minutes;
and that of the latter into 31 parts, being 7 heads and
3 parts.
Length of the Head and Trunk of the Bolt.
From the top of the head to the bottom of the chin 4 parts, or
the bottom of the chin to the top of the fternum or breaft-bone
the top of the fternum to the pit of the ftomach
the pit of the ftomacb to the navel . „ _
the navel to the pubis - - „
Length of the head and trunk of the body
Apollo
Hds. Pt?. Min.
I O O
017
O 3 10
O 2 IO
036
Venus.
Hies. Pts. Min.
IOO
Ol8
036
027
039
3 3 9
3 3 6
Length
DRAWING.
Length of the Lower Extremities.
From the pubis to the fmall of the thigh above the patella or knee-pan
the fmall of the thigh to the joint or middle of the knee
the joint of the knee to the fmall of the leg above the ankle
the top to the bottom of the ankle - - .
the bottom of the ankle to the bottom of the heel
Length of the lower extremities - . -
Length of the head and trunk, as above
/[polio.
Hds. Pts. Min
12 6
O I
I I
O I
o o
Total length of the figures - r - 7 3
Length of the Fore Arm or Upper Extremities.
From the top of the (boulder to the elbow ...
the elbow to the hand -
the joint of the hand to the root of the middle finger
the root to the tip of the middle finger - - _
Length of the upper extremities - - .
Breadth between the outward angles of the eyes ...
of the face at the temples • - . -
of the upper part of the neck - - - -
over the (houlders - . -
of the body below the armpits - - - -
between the nipples - - - •
from the bottom of the chin to the horizontal line of the nipples
of the body at the fmall of the waift - - -
over the loins or os ilium - - . _
over the haunches or tops of the thigh-bones . - .
of the thigh at the top - • - .
of the thigh below the middle ...
of the thigh above the knee - « - - .
of the leg below the knee - - . .
at the calf of the leg ....
below the calf * . • . «
above the ankle - - • -
of the ankle
below the ankle - . . . .
middle of the foot n - . - .
at the roots of the toes • . * .
of the arm over the biceps mufcle - - - -
of the arm over the elbow - - .
of the arm below the elbow over the long fupinator
at the wrift _
of the hand over the firft joint of the thumb - - •
of the hand over the roots of the fingers » • »
over the heads of the fcapulae or (houlder-blades
Length of both arms and hands, each of the Apollo’s being 3b. 2p. Itm. and the!
Venus 3h. ip. 5m. J
Breadth between the tips of the middle fingers of each hand when the arms are 7
nretched out horizontally . . . - . j
Side View.
length from the top of the head to the (boulder
from the top of the (boulder to the loins above the hip
from the loins to the lower part of the hip « - .
from the hip to the fide of the knee, oppofite to the top of the patella
from the fide of the knee to the bottom of the heel - •
Length of the figures s s *• s
8
z
2
2
o
2
Q
O
I
I
1
3
2
1
1
2
1
x
1
X
X
1
I
I
I
X
I
1
2
6 7
1 2 3
1 1 2
018
o 1 10
11
6
2
o
o
5
7
7
o
3
J
o
81
8
6
4
7
2
4
i4
4
7
8
6
10
1
9
7
o
10
10
Venus.
Hds. Pts. Min.
3
6
o
o
9
8 j
3 3
3 3
1
2
1
3
1
3
o
o
X
2
3
2
2
1
2
X
X
I
X
X
X
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
12 2
I06
Ol6
OI7
10
7
2
11
8
8
8
1
8
6
3
1
7
o
io£
3
I It
2
3
1
3
7
9
5
7
o
8
6
4
2 10
1 6
1 7
2 1
O XI
0 IX
736730
Side
SIP
1
320
DRAWING.
Side View.
Thicknefs from the fore to the back part of the Ikull
from the wing of the nofe to the tip of the ear
of the upper part of the neck
from the breaft to the back over the nipples
from the belly to the fmall of the back
from the belly above the navel to the back of the loins.
from the bottom of the belly to the round of the hip
from the fore part of the thigh to the bottom of the hip
of the thigh at middle -
of the thigh above the knee - - -
at the middle of the knee below the patella
of the leg below the knee - - 4
of the leg at the calf - * “
of the leg at the ankle
of the foot at the thickeft part
length of the foot - - "
from the fore part of the bend of the foot to the lower and back part
of the heel - - * *
of the arm over the biceps ... - -
i over the elbow - -
below the elbow - *
at the wrift -
below the joint of the wrift
of the hand at the roots of the fingers - *
at the roots of the nails - -
yjpollo
Hds. Pts.
}
Min.
6
8
o
6
6
9
o
2
3
i
i
9
54
o
6
o
6
5
i
o
54
34
Venus.
Hd*. Pts.
° 3
o
o
I
o*
I
I
o
o
Min,
4
6
ii
6
7
2
5
7
64
3
2
II
9
4
3'
44
9
6
7
ii
10
5
3
The other moft admired antique ftatues differ a lit¬
tle from thefe proportions, the Laocoon meafuring
7h. 2p. 310. the Hercules 7h. 3 p. 7 m. the Py-
ramus 7 b. 2 p. the Antinous 7 h. 2 p. the Grecian
jfhepherdefs 7 h. 3 p. 6 m. and the Mirmillo 8 h. But
all their other proportions are allowed to be harmonious
and agreeable to the chara&ers of the figures they re-
prefent.
The moft remarkable differences of the fymmetry
or proportions of a man and of a woman to be obfer-
ved from the Table are : Firft, The fhoulders of a
man are broader, meafuring two heads, and the haun¬
ches narrower, meafuring 1 h. 1 p. 5 m. whereas the
fhoulders of a woman meafure only I h. 3 p. 8 m.
and the haunches meafure 1 h. 2 p. 3 m. The fter-
nura or breaft-bone of a man is longer, meafuring 3 p.
8 m. and the fternum of the woman only 3 p. 3 m.
On the contrary, the pelvis of a man is lefs, meafuring
from the top to bottom only 4 p. whereas the pelvis
of a woman meafures from the top to the bottom 4 p.
3 m*
It is a leading principle, in which every perfon eon-
verfant in defigning has agreed, that without a perfedt
knowledge of the proportions, nothing can be produced
but monftrous and extravagant figures *, and it is alfo
univerfally admitted, that the ancient Greek and Ro¬
man fculptors attained the higheft fuccefs in produ¬
cing the moft perfeft models.
The greateft of the modern artifts who have ex¬
amined their figures with attention admit, that feveral
of the ancient fculptors in fome degree have excelled
nature, they never having found any man fo perfeft in
all his parts as fome of their figures are. Their op¬
portunities indeed were great j Greece abounded with
beauties 5 and Rome being miftrefs of the world, every
thing that was curious and beautiful was brought to
it from all parts. Their motives were alfo powerful; re¬
ligion, glory, and intereft. They confidered it as a kind
of religious worfhip to give the figures of their gods fo
much noblenefs and beauty as to be able to attract
the love and veneration of the people. Their own
glory was alfo concerned, particular honours being be¬
llowed on thofe who fucceeded ; and for their fortune
they had no further care to take when they once ar¬
rived at a certain degree of merit.
Attitudes and AElion of the Mufcles. If a ftrong per¬
fon is to be reprefented in a vigorous a£lion, fuch as
Hercules, &c. after a fuitable proportion to fuch a figure
and the adtion is defigned, the parts or limbs employ
ed in the chiefeft force of the adlion ought to be con¬
fidered. If the figure is Handing, the foot mull be
placed in a right line, or perpendicular to the trunk
or bulk of the body, where the centre of gravity may
be placed in eequilibno. This centre is determined
by the heel: or, if the figure is upon tiptoe, then the
ball of the great toe is in the centre. Ihe mufcles of
the leg which fupports the body ought to be fwell-
ed, and their tendons drawn more to extenfion than
thofe of the other leg, which is only placed fo as to
receive the weight of the body towards that way to
which the adtion inclines it. For example, fuppofe
Hercules with a club ftriking at any thing before him
towards the left fide : Then let his right leg be placed
fo as to receive the whole weight of the body, and the
left loofely touching the ground with his toes. Here the
external mufcles of the right leg ought to be expreffed
very flrong ; but thofe of the left fcarcely appearing
more than if it were in fome fedentary pofture, except
in the prefent cafe. The foot being extended, the
mufcles which compofe the calf of the leg are in adlion
and appear very ftrong ; though it is not meant that all
the mufcles of the right leg, which fupports the weight
of
321
DRAWING.
*f the body, ought to be exprefled very ftrong or equally
fwelled, but thol'e molt tumefied which are chietty con¬
cerned in the adtion or poflure that the leg is then in.
For example, it the leg or tibia is extended, then the
extending mulcles placed on the thigh are moft fwell¬
ed : if it is bended, then the bending mufcles and their
tendons appear moft. The like may be obferved of
the whole body in general when it is put in*o vigorous
aftion. The Laocoon formerly in the Vatican garden
at Home, now in the Louvre at Paris, furmihes an ex¬
ample of this mufcuiar appearance through the whole ;
but in the Antinous, Apollo, alio in the Louvre, and
other figures of the ancients, in pollutes where no con-
fiderable actions are defigned, we fee their mufcles ex-
preffed but faintly, or fcarcely appearing.
The clavicles or collar-bones, and mufcles in general,
do not appear in women as in men ; nor will any action
in which a woman ufes her mmoit llrength occafion
fuch fwellings or rifings of tile mufcles to appear as
they do in men, fince the great quantity of fat placed
under the ikin of women lo clothes their mufcles, &c.
as to prevent any fuch appearance.
Ejfefls of the Exertion of the Mufcles. The follow¬
ing are the moft obvious efFtdts of the exertion or fe-
veral of the mufcles j of thofe, to wit, which chiefly
demand the attention of an artift.
If either of the maftoid mufcles (Plate CLXXXII.
I. I.) aft, the head is turned to the contrary fide, and
the mufcle which performs that aftion appears very
plain under the Ikin.
If the arms are lifted up, the deltoid mufcles placed
on the (boulders, which perform that aftion, fwell, and
make the extremities of the fpinesof the flioulder-blades
(Plate CLXXXIII. 3. 3.), called the tops of the
ftioulders, appear indented or hollow.
The Ihoulder-blades following the elevation of the
arms, their bafes (Plate CLXXXIII. 4. 4.) incline at
that time obliquely downward.
if the arms are drawn down, put forwards, or pulled
backwards, the (boulder-blades neceffarily vary their
pofitions accordingly. All thefe particulars are to be
learned by confulting the life only ; when being well
acquainted with what then appears in every aftion, the
artift will be able to form an adequate idea how it ought
to be exprefled. Thefe circuniftances are little known j
hence feldom attended to in defigning.
When the cubit or fore arm is bended, the biceps
(Plate CLXXXII. 5.5.) has its belly very much raifed,
as appears in the left arm. The like may be obferved
of the triceps (Plate CLXXXIII. 6. 6.) when the arm
is extended as obferved in the right arm.
The ftraight mufcles of the abdomen (Plate
CLXXXII. 7. 7.) appear very ftrong when rifing from
a decumbent pofture.
The parts of the great ferratus mufcle (ib. 8. 8.)
which are received in the teeth or beginnings of the
oblique defcending mufcle immediately below, are very
much fwelled when the fhoulder on the fame fide is
brought forwards7 that fcrratus mufcle then being in
aftion in drawing the fcapular forwards.
The long extending mufcles of the trunk (Plate
CLXXXIII. 9. q.) aft alternately in walking, after this
manner : If the right leg bears the weight of the bo¬
dy, and the left is in tranflation as on tiptoe, the laft-
mentioned mufcles of the back on the left fide may be
Vol. VII. Part I.
obfcrved to be tumefied on the other fide about the re¬
gion of the loins, and fo on the other fide.
I he trochanters, or outward and uppermoft heads
of the thigh-bones (Plate CLXXXIII. 10. IO.),
vary in their pofitions in fuch a manner as no precife
obfervation can explain their feveral appearances j but
the ftudy after the life ought to be carefully attended
to.
If the thigh is extended, as when the whole weight
of the body refts on that fide, the gluteus or buttock
mufcle (Plate CLXXXIII. 11. 11.) makes a very dif¬
ferent appearance from what offers at another time 5
but if the thigh is drawn backwards, that mufcle ap¬
pears ftill more and more tumefied
When the whole leg is drawn upwards forwards, and
at the lame time the foot is inclined inwards, the up¬
per part of the fartorius mufcle (Plate CLXXXII.
12. 12.) appears rifing very ftrong ; in other pofitions
of the thigh, that mufcle makes a furrowing appear¬
ance in its whole progrefs.
If a man is upon tiptoe, the extending mufcles of
the leg placed on the fore part of the thigh (Plate
CLXXXII. 13. 13. 13.), and thofe of the foot that
compofe the calf of the leg (Plate CLXXXIII. 14. 14.)
appear very ftrong, and the long peronseus (Plate
CLXXXII. 15.) makes a confiderable indentation or
furrowing at that time in its progrefs on the outfide of
the leg.
Many other remarks might here be offered : but a
due attention to nature will foon difcover them.
§ 6. Of Light and Shade.
After the learner has made himfelf in fome mea-
fure perfeft in drawing outlines, his next endeavour
muft be to (hade them properly. It is this which gives
an appearance of fubftance, ftiape, diftance, and di-
ftinftion, to whatever body he endeavours to repre-
fcnt, whether animate or inanimate. The beft rule for
doing this is, to confider from what point, and in what
direftion, the light falls upon the objefts which he is
delineating, and to let all his lights and (hades be pla¬
ced according to that direftion throughout the whole
work. That part of the objeft muft be llghteft which
hath the light moft direftly oppofite to it j if the light
falls fideways on the pifture, he muft make that tide
which is oppofite to it lighteft, and that fide which is
fartheft from it darkeft. If he is drawing the figure
of a man, and the light be placed above the head, then
the top of the head muft be made lighteft, the ftioul¬
ders next lighteft, and the lower parts darker by de¬
grees. That part of the objeft, whether in naked
figures or drapery, or buildings, that ftands fartheft
out, muft be made the lighteft, becaufe it comes neareft
to the light 5 and the light lofeth fo much of its bright-
nefs, by how much any part of the body bends in¬
ward, becaufe thofe parts that flick out hinder the luftre
and full brightnefs of the light from ftriking on thofe
parts that fall in. Titian ufed to fay, that he knew
no better rule for the diftributions of lights and Ihadows
than his obfervations drawn from a bunch of grapes.
Satins and filks, and all other Alining fluffs, Have cer¬
tain glancing refleftions, exceeding bright where the
light falls ftrongeft. The bke is feen in armour, brafs
pots, or any other glittering metal, vihere vou fee a
fudden brightnefs in the middle or centre of the light,
S f which
$22
DRAWING.
which difcovers the fhining nature of fuch things. Ob-
ferve alfo, that a ftrong light requires a Itrong fhade,
a fainter light a fainter (hade ; and that an equal balance
be preferved throughout the piece between the lights
and (hades. Thofe parts which muft appear round
require but one ftroke in (hading, and that fometimes
but very faint *, fuch parts as (hould appear deep or hol¬
low, require two ftrokes acrofs each other, or fome¬
times three, which is fufficient for the deeped (hade.
Care mud be alfo taken to make the outlines faint and
fmall in fuch parts as receive the light ; but where the
(hades fall, the outline mud be drong and bold. The
learner mud begin his diadings from the top, and pro¬
ceed downward, and ufe his utmod endeavours both
by praftice and oblervation to learn how to vary the
(tradings properly j for in this confids a great deal of
the beauty and elegance of drawing. Another thing
to be obferved is, that as the human fight is weakened
by didances, fo objefts mud feem more or lefs confuf-
ed or clear according to the places they hold in the
piece : Thofe that are very didant,—weak, faint, and
confufed $ thofe that are near and on the foremod
ground,—clear, drong, and accurately finilhed.
§ y. Of Drapery.
In the art of clothing the figures, or cading the
drapery properly and elegantly upon them, many things
are to be obferved. I. The eye mud never be in doubt
of its objeft •, but the (hape and proportion of the part
or limb, w'hich the drapery is fuppofed to cover, mud
appear 5 at lead fo far as art and probability will per¬
mit : and this is fo material a confideration, that many
artids draw fird the naked figure, and afterwards put
the draperies upon it. 2. The drapery mud not fit
too clofe to the parts of the body j but let it feem to
flow round, and as it were to embrace them j yet fo
as that the figure may be eafy, and have a free motion.
3. The draperies which cover thofe parts that are ex-
pofed to great light mud not be fo deeply (haded as to
feem to pierce them ; nor (hould thofe members be
crofled by folds that are too drong, led by the too
great darknefs of the (hades the members look as if
they were broken. 4. The great folds mud be drawn
fird, and then droked into lelfer ones : and great care
mud be taken that they do not crofs one another im¬
properly. 5. Folds in general (hould be large, and as
few as poflible. However, they mud be greater or lefs
according to the quantity and quality of the duffs of
which the drapery is fuppofed to be made. The quality
of the perfon is alfo to be confidered in the drapery.
If they are magidrates, their draperies ought to be
large and ample : if country clowns or (laves, they
ought to be coarfe and (hort 5 if ladies or nymphs,
light and foft. 6. Suit the garments to the body, and
make them bend with it, according as it dands in or
out, draight or crooked •, or as it bends one way or
another *, and the clofer the garment fits to the body,
the narrower and fmaller mud be the folds, y. Folds
well imagined give much fpirit to any kind of adlion *,
becaufe their motion implies a motion in the a£ling
member, which feems to draw them forcibly, and
makes them more or lefs dirring as the a61ion is more
or lefs violent. 8. An artful complication of folds in
a circular manner greatly helps the effeft of forefliort-
enings. 9. All folds confift of two (hades, and no
2
more } which you may turn with the garment at plea-
fure, (hadowing the inner fide deeper, and the outer
more faintly. 10. The (hades in filk and fine linen
are very thick and fmall, requiring little folds and a
light (hadow. 11. Obferve the motion of the air or
wind, in order to draw the loofe apparel all flying one
way *, and draw that part of the garment that adheres
clofeft to the body before you draw the loofer part
that flies off from it ; led, by drawing the loofe part
of the garment fird, you (hould miflake the pofition of
the figure, and place it awry. 12. Rich ornaments,
when judicioufly and fparingly ufcd, may fometimes
contribute to the beauty of draperies. But fuch orna¬
ments are far below the dignity of angels or heavenly
figures *, the grandeur of whofe draperies ought rather
to confid in the boldnefs and noblenefs of the folds,
than in the quality of the duff or the glitter of orna¬
ments. 13. Light and flying draperies are proper on¬
ly to figures in great motion, or in the wind : but
when in a calm place, and free from violent aftion,
their draperies (hould be large and flowing j that by
their contrad and the fall of the folds, they may ap¬
pear with grace and dignity. Thus much for drape¬
ries ; an example or two of which are given in Plate
CLXXIX. But fee farther the articles Crayon and
Painting.
§ 8. On the Paffions.
The paffions, fays M. le Brun, are motions of the
foul, either upon her purfuing what die judges to be
for her good, or (hunning what (he thinks hurtful to
her j and commonly, whatever caufes emotion or paf-
fion in the foul, creates alfo fome aftion in the body.
It is therefore neceffary for a painter to know which
are the different actions in the body that exprefs the
feveral paffions of the foul, and how to delineate them.
M. le Brun has been extremely happy in expreffing
many of the paffions, and the learner cannot dudy any
thing better than the examples which he has left us of
them. However, as M. de Piles juflly obferves, it is
abfurd as well as impoffible to pretend to give fuck
particular demondrations of them as to fix their ex-
preffion to certain drokes, which the painter (hould be
obliged to make ufe of as effential and invariable rules.
This (fays he) would be depriving the art of that ex¬
cellent variety of expreffion which has no other princi¬
ple than diverfity of imagination, the number of which
is infinite. The fame paffion may be finely expreffed
feveral ways, each yielding more or lefs pleafure in
proportion to the painter’s underdanding and the fpec-
tator’s difcernment.
Though every part of the face contributes towards
expreffing the fentiments of the heart, yet the eye¬
brow, according to M. le Brun, is the principal feat
of expreffion, and where the paffions bed make them-
felves known. It is certain, fays he, that the pupil of
the eye, by its fire and motion, very well fliows the a-
gitation of the foul, but then it does not exprefs the
kind or nature of (uch an agitation ; whereas the mo¬
tion of the eyebrow differs according as the paffions
change their nature. To exprefs a fimple paffion, the
motion is fimple ; to exprefs a mixed paffion, the mo¬
tion is compound : if the paffion be gentle, the mo¬
tion is gentle j and if it be violent, the motion is fo
too. We may obferve farther, fays he, that there are
two
DRAWING,
tvVo kindi of elevation in the eyebrows. One, in
which the eyebrows rife up in the middle •, this eleva¬
tion exprefles agreeable fenfation-, and it is to be ob-
ferved that then the mouth riles at the corners : Ano¬
ther, in which the eyebrows rife up at the ends, and
fall in the middle j this motion denotes bodily pain,
and then the mouth falls at the corners. In laughter,
all the parts agree j for the eyebrows, which fall to¬
ward the middle cf the forehead, make the nofe, the
mouth, and the eyes, follow the lame motion. In weep¬
ing, the motions are compound and contrary ; for the
eyebrows fall toward the nole and over the eyes, and
the mouth rifes that way. It is to -be oblerved alfo,
that the mouth is the part of the face which more par¬
ticularly expreffes the emotions of the heart : for when
the heart complains, the mouth falls at the coiners ;
when it is at eafe, the corners of the mouth are elevat¬
ed ; and when it has an averfion, the mouth Ihoots for¬
ward, and rifes in the middle.
“ The head (fays M. de Piles) contributes more to
the exprelfion of the paffions than all the other parts
of the body put together. Thofe feparately can only
fhow fome few palfions, but the head expreffes them
all. Some, however, are more peculiarly exprelfed by
it than others: as humility, by hanging it down ; ar¬
rogance, by lifting it up: languifhment, by inclining
it to one fide j and obftinacy, when with a lliff and re-
folute air it Hands upright, fixed, and ftiff between the
two (boulders. The head alfo beft (hows our fupplica-
tions, threats, mildnefs, pride, love, hatred, joy, and
grief. The whole face, and every feature, contributes
fomething $ efpecially the eyes ; which, as Cicero fays,
are the windows of the foul. The paflions they more
particularly difcover are, pleafure, languifhing, fcorn,
feverity, mildnefs, admiration, and anger ; to which
one might add joy and grief, if they did not proceed
more particularly from the eyebrows and mouth ; but
when thofe two paflions fall in alfo with the language
of the eyes, the harmony will be wonderful. But
though the paffions of the foul are mod vifible in the
lines and features of the face, they often require the
affiftance alfo of the other parts of the body. Without
the hands, for inftance, all action is weak and imper-
fedf; their motions, which are altnoft infinite, create
numberlefs expreffions : it is by them that we dejire,
hope, promife, call, fend bach ; they are the inftruments
of threatening, prayer, horror, and praife: by them
we approve, condemn, refufe, admit, fear, ajk ; exprefs
our joy and grief our doubts, regrets, pain, and admi¬
ration. In a word, it may be faid, as they are the
language of the dumb, that they contribute not a lit¬
tle to fpeak a language common to all nations, which
is the language of painting. But to fay how thefe
parts mult be difpofed for expreffing the various paf¬
fions, is impoffible ; nor can any exa6t rules be given
for it, both becaufe the talk would be infinite, and be-
eaufe every one muft be guided in this by his own ge¬
nius and the particular turn of his own ftudies.” See
the article Passions, and the Plate there referred to.
§ 9- 0/drawing Flowers, Fruits, Birds, Beq/ls, &c.
The learner may proceed now to make fome at¬
tempts at drawing flowers, fruits, birds, beafts, and
the like ; not only as it will be a more pleafing em¬
ployment, but as it is an eafier talk, than the draw¬
ing of hands and feet, and other parts of the human
body, which require not only more care, but greater
exadlnefs and nicer judgment. Very few rules or in-
ftrudtions are requifite upon this head : the belt thing
the learner can do is, to furnilh himfelf with good
prints or drawings by way of examples, and with great
care and exadnefs to copy them. If it is the figuro
of a bead, begin with the forehead, and draw the
nofe, the upper and under jaw, and flop at the throat*
I hen go to the top of the head, and form the ears,
neck, back, and continue the line till you have given
the full (hape of the buttock. Then form the bread,
and mark out the legs and feet, and all the fmallet
parts. And, lalt of all, finifh if with the proper flia-
dows. It is not amif, by way of ornament, to give &
fmall (ketch of landfcape ; and let it be fuitable and
natural to the place or country of the bead you draw.
Much the fame may be faid with regard to birds. Of
thefe, as well as beads and other objeds, the learner will
find many examples among the plates given in this
work.
§ 10. Of drawing Landfcapes, Buildings, &c*
Of all the parts of drawing, this is the mod ufeful
and nece(fary, as it is what every man may have occa-
fion for at one time or another. To be able, on the
fpot, to take the (ketch of a fine building, or a beau¬
tiful profped; of any curious produdion of art, or
uncommon appearance in nature $ is not only a very
defirable accomplidiment, but a very agreeable amufe-
ment. Rocks, mountains, fields, woods, rivers, catarads,
cities, towns, caflles, houfes, fortifications, ruins, or
whatfoever elfe may prefent itfelf to view on our jour¬
neys or travels in our own or foreign countries, may be
thus brought home, and preferved for our future ufe
either in bufinefs or converfation. On this part, there¬
fore, more than ordinary pains fliould be beflowed.
All drawing confids in nicely meafuring the didan¬
ces of each part of the piece by the eye. In order to
facilitate this, let the learner imagine in his own mind,
that the piece he copies is divided into fquares. For
example : Suppofe or imagine a perpendicular and a
horizontal line eroding each other in the centre of the
pidure you are drawing from *, then fuppofe alfo two
fuch lines eroding your own copy. Obferve in the
original what parts of the defign thofe lines interfeed,
and let them fall on the fame parts of the fuppofed
lines in the copy : We fay, the fuppofed lines ; becaufe
though engravers, and others who copy with great
exadnefs, divide both the copy and original into many
fquares, as below $ yet this is a method not to be re¬
commended, as it will be apt to deceive the learner,
who will fancy himfelf a tolerable proficient, till he
comes to draw after nature, where thefe helps are not
to be had, when he will find himfelf miferably defec¬
tive and utterly at a lofs.
If he is to draw a landfcape from nature, let him
S f 2 take
323
S«4
DRAWING
take his ftation on a rifing ground, where he will have
a large horizon j and mark his tablet into three divi-
lions, downwards from the top to the bottom ; and
divide in his own mind the landfcape he is to take, in¬
to three divifions alfo. Then let him turn his face di-
re£Hy oppofite to the midit of the horizon, keeping
his body fixed, and draw what is direflly before his
eyes upon the middle divifion of the tablet j then turn
his head, but not his body, to the left hand, and de¬
lineate what he views there, joining it properly to
what he had done before ; and, laftly, do the fame by
what is to be feen upon his right hand, laying down
every thing exactly both with refpeft to diftance and
proportion. One example is givenon Plate CLXXIX.
The beft art ills, in drawing their landfcapes, make
them {hoot away one part lower than another.
Thofe who make, their landfcapes mount up higher and
higher, as if they llood at the bottom of a hill to take
the pro!pi 61, commit a great error : the beft way is to
get upon a riling ground, make the neareft obje6ts in
the piece the higheft, and thofe that are farther off to
flioot away lower and lower till they come almofr level
with the line of the horizon, leflening every thing pro-
portionably to its diftance, and obferving alfo to make
the objefls fainter and lefs diftinfl the farther they are
removed from the eye. He mull make all his lights
and (hades fall one way, and let every thing have its
proper motion : as trees fliaken by the wind, the fmall
boughs bending more, and the large ones lefs : water
agitated by the wind, and dafhing againft (hips or
boats, or falling from a precipice upon rocks and
ftones, and fpirting up again into the air, and fprink-
ling all about : clouds alfo in the air, now gathered
with the winds j now violently condenfed into hail,
rain, and the like : Always remembering, that what¬
ever motions are caufed by the wind muft be made all
to move the fame way, becaufe the wind can blow but
one way at once.
Finally, It muft be obferved, that in order to attain
any confiderable proficiency in drawing, a knowledge
of Perspective is abfolutely neceffary : fee that ar¬
ticle.
Bray,
Bray ion.
D R A
DRAY, a kind of cart ufed by brewers for carry¬
ing barrels of beer or ale j alfo a fledge drawn without
wheels.
Dray, among fportfmen, denotes fquirrel nefts built
in the tops of trees.
DRAYTON, Michael, an eminent Engliftv poet,
was born in 1563, of an ancient family in Warwickfhire.
His propenfity to poetry was extremely ftrong, even
from his infancy ; and we find the molt of his principal
poems publilhed, and himfelf highly diftinguiftied as a
poet, by the time he was about 30 years of age.—It
appears from his poem of Mofes’s Birth and Miracles,
that he was a fpe6tator at Dover of the famous Spanilh
armada, and it is not improbable that he was engaged
in fome military employment there. It is certain, that
not only for his merit as a writer, but his valuable qua¬
lities as a man, he was held in high eftimation, and
ftrongly patronized by feveral perfonages of confe-
quence ; particularly by Sir Henry Goodere, Sir Wal¬
ter Afton, and the countefs of Bedford •, to the firft
of whom he owns himfelf indebted for great part of
his education, and by the fecond he was for many years
fupported.
His poems are very numerous j and fo elegant, that
his manner has been copied by many modern writers
of eminence fince. Among thefe the moft celebrated
one is the Poly-Albion, a chorographical defer!ption of
England, with its commodities, antiquities, and cu-
riofities, in metre of li fvllables; which he dedicated
to Prince Henry, by whofe encouragement it was writ¬
ten : and whatever may be thought of the poetry, his
deferiptions are allowed to be exa6I. He was ftyled
port/auret \r\ his time; which, as Ben Johnfon was
then in that office, is to be underftood in a loofe fenfe
of approbation as an excellent poet ; and was bellowed
on other- as well a* Drayton, without being confined
ftri611y to the office known by that appellation. He
died in 163!; and was buried in Weftmimier abbey
4
>
D R E
among the poets, where his bull is to be feen, with an Efityto#
epitaph penned by Ben Johnfon. Dre1
DRAWING.
PLATE CLXXXTI.
i
D RE. [ 325 ] D R E
■yearns witnefling or bearing a part of a fictitious fcene : we
^ L feera not to be in a fimilar fituation with the aCtors in
a dramatic performance, or the fpeCtators before whom
they exhibit, but engaged in the bufinefs of real life.
AH the varieties of thought that pafs through our minds
when awake may alfo occur in dreams 5 all the images
which imagination prefent in the former ftate, fhe is
alfo able to call up in the latter j all the fame emotions
may be excited, and we are often aftuated by equal
violence of paflion ; none of the tranfaClions in which
we are capable of engaging while awake is impeffible
in dreams : in fhort, our range of aClion and obferva-
tion is equally wide in the one ftate as in the other $
and while dreaming, we are not fenfible of any diltinc-
tion between our dreams and the events and tranlaflions
in which we are aftually concerned in our intercourfe
with the world.
3. It is faid that all men are not liable to dream.
Dr Beattie, in a very pleafing effay on this fubjeCl,
relates, that he knew a gentleman who never dreamed
except when his health was in a difordered ftate .; and
Locke mentions that a certain perfon of his acquaint¬
ance wa^ almoft a ftranger to dreaming till the 26th
year of his age 5 and then began to dream in confe-
quence of having a fever. Thefe inftances, however,
are too few, and we have not been able to obtain
more j and, befides, it does not appear that thofe per-
fons had always attended, with the care of a philofopher
making an experiment, to the circumftances of their
fleep. They might dream, but not recoiled their dreams
on waking •, and they might both dream and recoiled
their dreams immediately upon waking, yet afterwards
fuffer the remembrance of them to flip out of their me¬
mory. We do not advance this, therefore, as a certain
faCt concerning dreaming ; we are rather inclined to
think it a miftake.
But though it appears to be by no means certain
that any of the human race are through the whole of
life abfolute llrangers td dreaming ■, yet it is well
known that all men are not equally liable to dream.
The fame perfon dreams more or lets at different times j
and as one perfon may be more expofed than another
to thofe circumllances which promote this exercife of
fancy, one perfon may therefore dream more than ano¬
ther. The lame diverfity will naturally take place in
this as in other accidents to which mankind are in ge¬
neral liable.
4. Though in dreams imagination appears to be free
from all reftraint, and indulges in the moft wanton
freaks ; yet it is generally agreed, that the imaginary
tranfadions of the dreamer bear always fome relation
to his particular Caarader in the world, his habits of
adion, and the circumftances of his life. The lover,
We are told, dreams of his miftrefs ; the mifer of his
money •, the philufopheT renews his refearches in fleep
often with the fame pain and fatigue as when awake j
and even the merchant, at times, returns to balance
his books, and compute the profits of an adventure,
when .flumbering on his pillow. And not only do the
more general circumftances of a perfon’s life influence
hi- dreams ; his paflions and habits are nearly the fame
when afleep as when awake. A perfon whofe habits
of life are virtuous, does not in hi- dreams plunge into
a feries of crimes j nor are the vicious reformed when
they pafs into this imaginary world. The choleric Dreams.*
man finds himfelf offended by flight provocations as 1 -/—»
well in his dreams as in his ordinary intercourfe with
the world, and a mild temper continues pacific in
fleep.
5. The charader of a perfon’s dreams is influenced'
by his circumftances when awake in a ftill more unac¬
countable manner. Certain dreams ufually arife in the
mind after a perfon has been in certain fituations. Dr
Beattie relates, that he once, after riding 30 miles-in a
high wind, paffed a part of the fucceeding night in dreams
beyond delcription terrible. The ftate of a perfon’s
health, and the manner in which the vital fundions
are carried on, have a confiderable influence in deter¬
mining the charader of dreams. After too full a meal,
or after eating of an unufual fort of food, a perfon is very
apt to be haralfed with dreams.
6. In dreaming, the mind for the moft part carries
on no intercourfe through the fenfes with furrounding-
objeds. Touch a perfon gently who is afleep, he feels
not the impreffion. You may awake him by a fmart
blow j but when the ftroke is not fuffieiently violent
to awake him, he remains infenfible of it. We fpeak
foftly be tide a perfon afleep. without fearing that he
ovevhear us. His eyelids are fhut j and even though
light fhould fall upon the eyeball, yet ftill his powers
of vition are not wakened to adive exertion, uniefs
the light be fa ftrong as to roufe him from fleep. He
is infenfible both to fweet and to difagreeable fmells.
It is not eafy to try whether his organs of tafle retain
their adivity, without wakening him ; yet from ana*
logy it may be prefumed that thefe too are inadive.
With refped to the circumftances here enumerated,
it is indifferent whether a perion be dreaming or buried
in deep fleep.
, Yet there is one remarkable fad concerning dream¬
ing, which may feem to contradid what has been here
aflk-rted. In dreams we are liable not only to fpeak
aloud in confequence of the fuggeftions of imagination,
but even to get up, and walk about and engage in little
enterprifes, without awaking. Now, as we are in this
inftance fo adive, it feems, that we cannot be then in*
fenfible of the prefence of furrounding objeds. 1 he
fleepvvalker is really fenfible in a certain degree of the *
prefence of the objeds around him ; but he does not
attend to them with all their circumftances, nor do 7
they excite in him the fame emotions as if he were
awake. He feels no terror on the brink of a precipice j
and in confequence of being free from fear, he is alfo
without danger in fuch a fituation uniefs fuddenly awak¬
ed. This is one of the moft inexplicable phenomena
of dreaming. .
There is alfo another fad not quite confonant with
what has been above mentioned. It is faid, that in fleep
a perfon will continue to hear the noife of a catarad in
the neighbourhood, or regular ftrokes with a ham¬
mer, or any fimilar found fufficiently loud, and con¬
tinued uninterruptedly from before the time of his fall¬
ing afleep. We know not whether he awakes on the
fudden ceflation of the noife. The fad is afferted on
fufficient evidence : it is curious. Even when awake, ,
if very deeply intent on anv piece of ftudy, or clofely
occupied in bufinefs, the found of a clock ftriking in
the neighbourhood, or the. beating of a drum, will
efcape
D R E [ 326 ] D R E
Breams, efcape us unnoticed; and it is therefore the more fur-
“"“■'V—— prifing that we (hould thus continue fenfible to founds
when afleep.
7. Not only do a perfon’s general character, habits
of life, and date of health, influence his dreams j but
thofe concerns in which he has been moft deeply inte-
refted during the preceding day, and the views which
have arifen moft frequently to his imagination, very
often afford the fubjefts of his dreams. When I look
forward with anxious expe&ation towards any future
event, I am likely to dream either of the difappuint-
ment or the gratification of my wifhes. Have I been
engaged through the day, either in bufinefs or amufe-
ments which I have found exceedingly agreeable, or in
a way in which I have been extremely unhappy j either
my happinefs or my mifery is likely to be renewed in
my dreams.
8. Though dreams have been regarded among almoft
all nations through the world, at leaft in fome periods
of their hiftory, as prophetic of future events *, yet it
does not appear that this popular opinion has been efta-
blifhed on good grounds. Chriftianity, indeed, teaches
us to believe, that the Supreme Being may, and adfu-
allly does, operate on our minds, and influence at times
the determinations of our will, without making us fen¬
fible of the reftraint to which we are thus fubj* ifted.
And, in the fame manner, no doubt, the fuggeftions
which arife to us in dreams, may be produced. The
imaginary tranfa&ions in which tve are then engaged,
may be fueh as are a&ually to occupy us in life; the
ftrange and feemingly incoherent appearances which
are then prefented to the mind’s eye, may allude to
fome events which are to befal ourfelves or others. It
is, therefore, by no means irhpoffible, or inconfiftent
with the general analogy of nature, that dreams ftiould
have a refpeft to futurity. We have no reafon to re¬
gard the dreams which are related in the Holy Scrip¬
tures to have been prophetic of future events, as not
infpired by Heaven, or to laugh at the idea of a pro¬
phetic dream as abfurd or ridiculous.
Yet it would be too much to allow to dreams all that
importance which has been afcribed to them by the
priefthood among heathen nations, or by the vulgar
among ourfelves. We know how eafily ignorance im-
pofes on itfelf, and what arts impofcure adopts to imnofe
upon others. We cannot trace any certain connexion
between our dreams and thofe events to which the fim-
plicity of the vulgar pretends that they refer. And we
cannot, therefore, if difpnfed to confine our belief to
certain or probable truths, join with the vulgar in be-
lievingr them really referable to futurity.
9. It appears that the brutes are alfo capable of
dreaming. The dog is often obferved to ftart fudden-
ly up in his lleep, in a manner which cannot be ac¬
counted for in any other way than by fuppofing that
he is roufed by fume impulfe received in a dream.
The fame thing is obfervable of others of the inferior
animals. That they (hould dream, is not an idea incon¬
fiftent with what we know of their economy and man¬
ners in general. We may, therefore, confider it as
a pretty certain truth, that many, if not all, of the Dreams
lower fpecies are liable to dream as well as human
beings.
It appears, then, that in dreaming we are not con-
fc’n >us of being afleep ; that to a perfon dreaming, his
dreams feem realities ; that though it be uncertain
whether mankind are all liable to dreams, yet it is well
known that they are not all liable to dream:
that the nature of a perfon’s dreams depends in fome
meafure on his habits of a6tion, and on the circum-
ftances of his life : that the ftate of the health too, and
the manner in which the vital funftions are carried on,
have a powerful influence in determining the charadfer
of a perfon’s dreams : that in fleep and in dreaming,
the ferifes are either abfolutely inadlive, or nearly fo ;
that Inch concerns as we have been very deeply inte*
refted in during the preceding dav, are very likelv to
return upon our minds in dreams in the hours of reft :
that dreams may be rendered prophetic of future events 5
and therefore, wherever we have fueh e vidence of their
having been prophetic as we w< uld accept on any
other occafion, we cannot reafonably rejedl the fad! on
account of its abfurdity ; but that they do not appear
to have been adlually fuch, in thofe inftances in which
the fuperftition of nations, ignorant of true religion, has
reprefented them as referring to futurity, nor in thofe
inftances in which they are viewed in the fame light
by the vulgar among ourfelves; and, laftly, that dream¬
ing is not a phenomenon peculiar to human nature, but
common to mankind with the brutes.
We know of no other fadls that have been fully af-
certained concerning dreaming. But we are by no
means fufficiently acquainted with this important phe¬
nomenon in the hiftory of mind. We cannot tell by
what laws of our eonftitution we are thus liable to be
fo frequently engaged in imaginary tranfadlions, nor
what are the particular means by which the delufion
is accomplilhed. The delufion is indeed remarkably
ftrong. One will fometimes have a book prefented to
him in a dream, and fancy that he reads; and adlually
enter into the nature of the imaginary compofition be¬
fore, him, and even remember, after he awakes, what he
knows that he only fancied himfelf reading (a). Can
this be delufion ? If delufion, how or for what purpofes
is it produced ? The mind, it would appear, does not,
in fleep, become inadlive like the body ; or at leaft is
not always inadlive while we are afleep. When we do
not dream, the mind muft either be inadlive, or the
connexion between the mind and the body muft be
confidered as in fome manner fufpended : and, when
we dream, the mind, though it probably adls in con¬
cert with the body, yet does not adl in the fame man¬
ner as when we are awake. It feems to be clouded or
bewildered, in confequence of being deprived for a time
of the fervice of the fenfes. Imagination becomes more
adlive and more capricious : and all the other powers,
efpecially judgment and memory, become difordered
and irregular in their operation.
Various theories have been propofed to explain what
appears here moll inexplicable. The ingenious Mr
Baxter,
(a) The writer of this article has been told by a refpedlable old gentleman of his acquaintance, fince dead, that
be had frequently dreams of this nature. The fadt may therefore be confidered as unqueftionable.
DUE £ 327
Dreams. Baxter, in his Treatife on the Immateriality of the Hu-
—man Soul, endeavours to prove that dreams are produ¬
ced by the agency of fome fpiritual beings, who ei¬
ther amufe or employ themfelves ferioufly in engaging
mankind in all thofe imaginary tranfa&ions with which
they are employed in dreaming. This theory, how¬
ever, is far from being plaufible. It leads us entirely
beyond the limits of our knowledge. It requires us
to believe without evidence. It is unfupported by any
analogy. It creates difficulties ftill more inexplicable
than thofe which it has been propofed to remove. Till
it appear that our dreams cannot poffibly be produced
without the interference of other fpiritual agents, pof-
feffing fuch influence over our minds as to deceive us
with fancied joys, and involve us in imaginary afflic¬
tions, we cannot reafonably refer them to fuch a caufe.
Befides, from the fa6is which have been ftated as well
known concerning dreams, it appears that their nature
depends both on the Hate of the human body and on
that of the mind. But were they owing to the agen¬
cy of other fpiritual beings, how could they be influ¬
enced by the itate of the body ? Thofe mull be a cu¬
rious fet of fpiritual beings who depend in fuch a man¬
ner on the date of our corporeal frame. Better not
to allow them exiilence at all, than to place them in
fuch a dependence.
Wolfius, and after him M. Formey, have fuppofed,
1
DUE
that dreams never arife in the mind, except in confe-
quence of fome of the organs of fenfation having been
previoufly excited. Either the ear or the eye, or the
organs of touching, tailing, or fmt lling, communicate
information, fomehow, in a tacit, fecret manner ; and
thus partly roufe its faculties from the lethargy in
which they are buried in fleep, and engage them in
a feries of confufed and imperfeft exertions. But
what paffes in dreams is fo very different from all that
we do when awake, that it is impoffible for the
dreamer himfelf to diifinguilh, whether his powers of
fenfation perform any part on the occafion. It is not
neceffary that imagination be always excited by fen¬
fation. Fancy, even when we are awake, often wan¬
ders from the prefent fcene. Abfence of mind is inci¬
dent to the Audious : the poet and the mathematician
many times forget where they are. We cannot difco-
ver from any thing that a perfon in dreaming difplays
to the obfervation of others, that his organs of lenfa-
tion take a part in the imaginary tranfadfions in which
he is employed. In thofe inftances, indeed, in which
perfons afleep are faid to hear founds ; the founds
which they hear are faid alio to influence, in fome
manner, the nature of their dreams. But fuch in-
ftancts are lingular. Since then it appears that the
perfon who dreams is himfelf incapable of diflinguilh-
ing either during his dreams, or by recoljedfion when
awake, whether any new impreffions are communicated
to him in that Rate by his organs of feniation j that
even by watching over him, and comparing our obfer-
vations of his circumftances and emotions, in his
dreams, with what he recohedls of them after awak-
mg, we cannot, except in one or two lingular inftan¬
ces, afcertain this fadt ; and that the mind is not in¬
capable of adfing while the organs of fenfation are
at reft, and on many occafions refufes to liften to
the information which they convey ; we may, with¬
out helitation, conclude, that the theory of Wolfius
and Formey has been too haftily and incautioufly ad¬
vanced. 1
Other phyliologifts tell us, that the mind, when we
dream, is in a Rate of delirium. Sleep, they fay, is at¬
tended with what is called a collapfe of the brain j
during which either the whole or a part of the nerves
of which it confifts, are in a ftate in which they can¬
not carry on the ufual intercourfe between the mind
and the organs of lenfation. When the whole of the
brain is in this ftate, we become entirely unconfcious
of exiftence, and the mind finks into inadlivity : when
only a part of the brain is collapfedy as they term it,
we are then neither afleep nor awake, but in a fort of
delirium between the two. This theory, like the lalt
mentioned, fuppofes the mind incapable of adfing
without the help of fenfation : it fuppofes that we
know the nature of a ftate of which we cannot afcer¬
tain the phenomena : it alfo contradidls a known fadl,
in representing dreams as confufed images of things
around us, not fanciful combinations of things not ex-
ifting together in nature or in human life. We muft
treat it likewife, therefore, as a bafelefs fabric.
In the laft edition of this work, a theory fomewhai
different from any of the foregoing was advanced in
this fubjedt. It was obferved, that the nervous fluid,
which is allowed to be fecreted from the blood by the
brain, appears to be likewife abforbed from the blood
by the extremities of the nerves. It was farther ad¬
vanced, that as this fluid was to be confidered as the
principle of fenfibility ; therefore, in all cafes in which
a fufficient fupply of it was not abforbed from the
blood by the extremities of the nerves, the parts of the
body to which thofe nerves belonged, muff be, in fome
degree, deprived of fenfation. From thefe pofitions
it was inferred, that as long as imprefflons of external
objedls continue to communicate a certain motion
from the fentient extremities of the nerves to the
brain,—fo long we continue awake ; and that, when
there is a deficiency of this vital fluid in the extremi¬
ties of the nerves, or when from any other caufe it
ceafes to communicate to the brain the peculiar motion
alluded to, we muft naturally fall afleep, and become
infenlible of our exiftence. It followed of confequcnce,
that, in fleep, the nervous fluid between the extreme
parts of the nerves and the brain muft either be at reft,
or be deficient, or be prevented by fome means from
pafling into the brain: and it was concluded, that
whenever irregular motions of this fluid were occafion-
ed by an internal caufe, dreaming was produced. In
this manner it appeared that we might be deceived
with regard to the operation of any of the fenfes ;—.
fo as to fancy that we law objects not adlually before
us,—to hear imaginary founds,—to tafte,—to feel, and
to fmell in imagination. The inftances of vifions
which will fometimes arife, and as it were fwim be¬
fore us when awake, though our eyes be fhut, tinnitus
aurium, which is often a fymptom in nervous difeafes,
and the ftrange feelings in the cafe of the amputated
limb, were produced in proof of this theory, and
applied fo as to confirm it.
We are ftill of opinion, that this theory is more
plaufible, and goes farther toward explaining the na¬
ture of dreaming, and the manner in which dreams are
produced, than any other with which we are acquaint¬
ed. But it muft be confeffed, upon a review, that even
in
Bream*
T) R E [ 328 ] D R E
breams, in it tljere is too much fuppofition. The nature of the
• Drelin- nervous fluid is but imperfectly known, and even its
coult- exiftence not very fully afcertained. 1 he nature of
•the connexion by which the foul and body are united,
feems to be almoft beyond our comprehenfion. And
•till we can apply experiment and obfervation in a bet¬
ter manner to this branch of phyfiology, it muft un¬
doubtedly remain unknown. To fomething myflerious
in the nature of that connexion, the delufion produced
in dreams is in all probability owing.
Amid this uncertainty with refpedl to the manner
in which the powers of mind and body perform their
funaions in dreaming, it is pleafing to find that we
can, however, apply to ufeful purpofes the imperfeft
knowledge which we have been able to acquire con¬
cerning this feries of phenomena. Our dreams are
affeaed by the ftate of our health, by the manner in
which we have paffed the preceding day, by our gene¬
ral habits of life, by the hopes which we moft fondly
indulge, and the fears which prevail moft over our
fortitude when we are awake. From recolledting our
dreams, therefore, we may learn to correft many im¬
proprieties in our conduft ; to refrain from bodily ex-
ercifes, or from meats and drinks that have unfavour¬
able effects on our conftitution j to reiift, in due time,
evil habits that are ftealing upon us; and to guard
againft hopes and fears which detach us from our pro¬
per concerns, and unfit us for the duties of life. In-
ftead of thinking what our dreams may forebode, we
may with much better reafon refleft by what they
have been occafioned, and look back to thofe circum-
ftances in our part life to which they are owing. The
deep of innocence and health is found and refreftiing j
their dreams delightful and pleafing. A diftemper-
ed body, and a polluted or perturbed mind, are haunt¬
ed in fleep with frightful, impure, and unpleafing
dreams.
Some very beautiful fables have been written both
by ancients and moderns in the form of dreams. The
Somnium Scipionis is one of the fineft of Cicero’s com-
pofitions. He who (hall carefully perufe this piece,
with Macrobius’s commentary upon it, will acquire
from them a confiderable knowledge of ancient philofo-
phy. In the periodical publications, which have dif¬
fused fo much elegant and uftful knowledge through
Britain, the Tatlers, Spectators, Guardians, &c. we
find a number of excellent dreams. Addifon excelled
in this way of writing. The public are now Ws par¬
tial to this fpecies of compofition than they formerly
were.
Dr Beattie, in his valuable effay on the fubjeft of
dreaming, quotes a very fine one from the Taller, and
gives it due praife.
The reader who is difpofed to fpeculate farther on
this fubjeft, may confult Beattie’s Effays, Hartley on
Man. and the principal writers on phyfiology.
DRELINCOURT, Charles, minifter of the re¬
formed church at Paris, was born at Sedan in 1593,
where his father enjoyed a confiderable poft. He had
all the qualifications that compofe a refpe&able clergy¬
man \ and though he defended the Proteftant caufe
againft the Romifh religion, was much efteemed even
among the Catholics. He is beft known in England
by h is Confolations againft the Fears of Death, which
work, was tranflated, and is often printed. He mar¬
ried the daughter of a rich merchant at Paris, by whom j)rej;„ ;
he had 16 children. His third fon, profeffor of phyfic lourt"
at Leyden, was phyfician to the prince and princefs of ||
Orange before their acceffion to the crown of England. ||
Bay le has given him a high charadler. Mi Drelincourt 'r““s
died in 1660.
DRENCH, among farriers, a phyfical potion for
horfes. The ingredients for this purpofe are to be beat
coarfely, and either mingled with a docoffion or with
wine. Then let all infufe about a quarter of an hour,
and give it to the horfe with a horn after he has been
tied up two hours to the rack.
DREPANE, the ancient name of Corcyra, from
the curvity of its figure, refembling a fickle.
Drepane, (Drepanurti) \n Ancient Geography, a town
of Bithynia, fituated between the Sinus Aftacenus and
the Bofphorus Thraems; called Helenopolis by Con-
ftantine, in honour of his mother. (Nicephorus CalliL
tus).
DREPANUM, in Ancient Geography, the promon¬
tory Rhium in Achaia j fo called becaufe bent in the
manner of a fickle. Another Drepanum on the Ara¬
bic gulf, on the fide of Egypt. A third on the
north fide of Crete, fituated between Cydonia and the
Sinus Amphimallus. A fourth on the weft fide of
Cyprus. A fifth, a promontory of Cyrenaica, on the
Mediterranean.
Drepanum, -i; or Drepana, -orum; a town and port
on the weft fide of Sicily, and to the weft of Mount
Eryx j Drcpanitani the people. Now Trepano, a city
and port town on the weftmoft point of Sicily. E. Long.
12. 8. N. Lat. 38. o.
DRESDEN, the capital city of the deflorate of
Saxony in Germany. It is feated on the river Elbe,
which divides it into two parts. One part is called Old
Brefden, and the other the New Town, in the German
language New Stadt. They are joined together by a
ilone bridge, fupported by 19 piers, and 630 paces in
length. As this bridge was too narrow for the crowds
of people that were continually palling and repaffing,
King Auguftus in 1730, caufed two walks for foot
paffengers to be built, one on each fide, in a very won-
deful manner ; the one for thofe that go into the city,
and the other for thofe that return back. Thefe are
bordered with iron pallifadoes of curipus workmanlhip.
Drefden is furrounded by ftrong and handfome fortifi¬
cations; and contains, according to the lateft accounts,
110,000 inhabitants.
All the buildings of this city are conftrufled with
fquare freeftone, and are almoft all of the fame height.
They have Hone from the neighbourhood of Pirna,
about ten miles from this city, which is readily brought
down the Elbe. In general the houfes are high and
ftrong j the ftreets wide, ftraight, well paved, clean,
and well illuminated in the night } and there are large
fquares, difpofed in fuch a manner, that Drefden may
pafs for one of the handfomell cities in the world. The
eleflor’s palace is a magnificent flrudlure, and abound*
in many valuable curiofities both of nature and art.
The colleflion of piflures is reckoned one of the fineft
that exifts, and is valued at 500,000!.
Above 700 men are here eonftantly employed in
the porcelain manufaflure, the annual expence of which
is eftimated at no more than 80,000 crowns; and the
manufacture yields to the king 200,000 crowns yearly,
befides
I ■
D R E [ 329 ] D R I
jreiHen, befides the magnificent prefents wliich be occafionally
makes, and the large quantity referved for the ufe of
his houfehold.
The other moft confiderable article of trade is filver,
of wh ich the mines near Fridburg produce every 15
days near ti.^ value of 20,000 dollars. The metal is
brought into the city in ingots, where it is immediately
coined and delivered to the proprietors.
The court of Drefden is one of the moft remarkable
in Europe for fplendour and profuuon. Six thoufand
five hundred ducats are yearly allowed for qomfits and
fimilar articles, which is near twice as much as the
king of Pruflia allows for the whole expence of his
table. The revenues of the eleflor are eftimated at
about 1,576,000!.; which arife from the taxes on
lands, and a capitation of fix dollars on all males as
foon as they commence an apprenticeftiip or begin to
work. People of a higher rank are taxed according
to their clafs, and are liable to be called to account if
they affurne not an exterior appearance correfpondent
to the extent of their fortune. Every foreigner pays
capitation after refiding fix months in the country.
The Jews are taxed at 50, their wives at 30, and their
children at 20 dollars. There is alfo an excife on all
eatables and liquors j and 10 per cent, is levied out of
the incomes of the people.
Though this city lies in a low fituation, yet it hath
agreeable profpe *ol!r days old eggs, and maggots in them. I
then recovered the queen and all her bees, and put in
the fame hive again, which had not an egg in her now,
and waited other twenty days, and faw her in fine days
Avorking very well j a fare indication the was breeding
again. I then turned her up, and cut out one of her
brood combs, and faw in it new laid eggs, four days
old eggs, and maggots and fome young almoft fit for
emerging out of their cells,
“ The very fame day I made a further experiment:
I had a h ive which I faw had fome brood combs in
her, but the had not had a large drone fur four weeks
before in her ; (he had not above 500 bees in her,,
which favoured me, becaufe few in number. I took
the hive into a clofe place in my houfe, in order
that not a fingle bee ftiould efcape me; I then took
all the bees out of her, and immerfed them in tva-
ter ; and Avhen recovering, I prefft d every one of
them, and each bee had a fling, as in the former ex¬
periment.
“ I think the above experiments may fatisfy any
judicious ptrfon, that there is no fuch thing in being
as little drones, unlefs in Mr DebraAv’s brain. And
if Mr Debraw, Avho can find 57 in a fmall fwarm
of bees, will fend me the odd feven, I will fend him
one of my beft hives for them, and he will fcarcely
think he is ill paid. I add, I never faw a hive in
fpring, however few bees in her, but (he bred fome, if
{he had a queen, though to be fure few in proportion
to her bees.
“ By this time the reader Avill be very ready, no
doubt, to a Ik me the ufe of the drones. I beg to be
excufed on that head, as I have not the leaft idea of
their ufe in a hive ; they do not fecundate the queen,
for Ihe can lay and breed too though {he never fee
them. Their heat does not appear to me to be ne-
ceffary for hatching the young, as they are moft-
ly hatched before any are bred in a hive ; and Avhen
drones are in the hive, the weather is fo warm, and
fo many common bees in it, that they appear to have
rather too much heat, by their lying out of the hives
often.
“ I have many times had good hives with few or no«
drones in them all the year $ and Keys is quite wrong
when he fays a top fwarm will not do without drones
in her $ for I am pofitive to the contrary, as in the
fummer 1785 I took off four fwarms of mine own in
one day Avith not a fingle drone in any of them, and
they all throve well, and bred drones in themfelves
about four weeks after.
“ Although I cannot fay what ufe. the drones are
of to a hive (unlefs it be to help away with a great
deal of her honey, Avhich they are very good at), yet
the beft hives have them fooneft in the year, they ge¬
nerally appearing in fuch about the latter end of May,,
and the bees put a period to their lives about Lammas,
at which time I give them all the affiftanqe I can. The'
way
D R O
)irme, way they kill tkera is thus : They pull and bite them
)rops. their teeth, and fting them alio. I have feen
great havock made of them in one day, as appeared by
their lying dead before the door of the hive. But their
mod effedual way of killing them is their banifhing
them from the honeycombs; upon which the drones
betake themfelves to the under edges of the hives in
great numbers, and to the board the hive ftands on ;
and fometimes, though rare, I have even feen them
come to the outfide of the hive, and clufter there about
the bulk of a man’s hand. When they are banifhed
thus, they are very dull and lifelefs : and I have lifted
up a hive from the board, and there they would have
been fitting clofe on it, with fcarcely three or four
common bees among them ; and I have trode to death
40 or more at a time.
“ We may now take a view of the difadvantages at¬
tending the old, and alfo Mr Debraw’s principles on
bees, were they true ; and next fee how a hive of bees
may be preferved from coming to ruin, according to
my fentiments on them.
“ 1. The old principles on bees fay, that without a
queen or royal cell be in a hive, it will come to ruin.
“ 2. Mr Debraw’s principles fay, that without little
drones be in a hive it will come to ruin.
“ 3. I fay, if a hive have only new laid eggs in her
(which may eafily be got the greateft part of the year,
in cafe {he have none of her own) and common bees,
{he will find herfelf a queen, and fo thrive.
“ According to the old principles, it is eafily feen
that, in cafe a hive lofe her queen, when there is no
royal cell in her, and no queen can be got to put to her
(neither of which can be expe&ed but in June and
July), (he is entirely ruined.
“ According to the Frenchman’s fcheme, there muft
be drones in a hive at all times of the year to fecun¬
date the eggs, otherwife the hive is ufelefs. Suppofing
his fentiments to be true (which, however, can by no
means be admitted, feeing there is no fuch thing as
little drones), how perplexed would the owner be to
know when there were little drones in the hive ! When
he wanted to make an artificial fwarm, he might bring
off a queen and common bees with her ; but how fbould
he come to know whether there were any, or a fuffi-
cient quantity, of little drones among them, as they
cannot be diftinguifhed from the commons but by im-
merfion and preflure, which would be intolerably
troublefome, and next to killing the bees, and not at
all prafticable ? All that could be done would be to
hope the bell, that there were little drones in her at
any time of the year.
“ I fay, if a queen die in a hive, and that hive have
fome new-laid eggs in her, or fome put to her, in cafe
ihe have none of her own, fhe will nourifli up fome
of thefe eggs to be a queen to herfelf: and alfo by
taking out a queen and fome commons out of a hive
(without a fingle drone, large or finally), and put¬
ting them in an empty hive, will make a fwarm, and
the old hive will breed herfelf a queen again, if ftie
have eggs in her.”
DRONE Fly, a two-winged infeff, extremely like the
common drone bee, whence alfo the name.
DROPS, in Meteorology, fmall fpherical bodies
"diich the particles of fluids fpontaneoufly form them¬
felves into when let fall from any height. The fphe-
C 333 ]
D R O
rical figure, the Newtonian philofophers demonftrate Drop*
to be the effect of corpufcular attraction ; for confi- |1
dering that the attractive force of one fingle particle prow,1ing*
of a fluid is equally exerted to an equal diftance, it
muft follow that other fluid particles are on every fide
drawn to it, and will therefore take their places at an
equal diftance from it, and confequently form a round,
fuperfices. See the articles Attraction, Fluid, and
Rain.
Drops, in Medicine, a liquid remedy, the dofe of
which is eftimated by a certain number of drops.
Englijh DROPS, {Guttce Anglicance,^ a name given to
a chemical preparation efteemed of great virtue againft
vapours and lethargic affeCtions, and purchafed afe^
5000I. by King Charles II. from the inventor Dr God¬
dard. The medicine appeared to be only a fpirit drawn
by the retort from raw filk, and afterwards reCHfied
with oil of cinnamon, or any other effential oil; and
was in reality no better than the common fal volatile
oleofum, or any of the volatile fpirits impregnated with
an eflential oil, except that it was lefs difagreeable than
any of them to the tafle.
DROPSY, in Medicine, an unnatural colleftion of
water in any part of the body. See Medicine Index,
DROPWORT. See Filipendula, Botany Index,
Water DeOPWORT. See OENANTHE, BoTANY/Wc,*.
DROSERA, Ros Solis, or Sun-Dew. See Bota¬
ny Index.
DROWNING, fignifies the extinction of life by a
total immerfion in water.
In fome refpeCts, there feems to be a great fimila-
rity between the death occafioned by immerfion in wa¬
ter, and that by ftrangulation, fuffoeation by fixed
air, apoplexies, epilepfies, fudden faintings, violent
fliocks of eleCtricity, or even violent falls and bruifes.
Phyficians, however, are not agreed with regard to the
nature of the injury done to the animal fyftem in any
or all of thefe accidents. It is indeed certain, that in
all the cafes above mentioned, particularly in drown¬
ing, there is very often fuch a fufpenfion of the vital
powers as to us hath the appearance of a total extinc¬
tion of them ; while yet they may be again fet in mo¬
tion, and the perfon reftored to life, after a much longer
fubmerfion than hath been generally thought capable
of producing abfolute death. It were to be wiflied,
however, that, as it is now univerfally allowed, that
drowning is only a fufpenfion of the aftion of the vi¬
tal powers, phyficians could as unanimoufly determine
tha means by which thefe powers are fufpended ; be-
caufe on a knowledge of thtfe means, the methods to-
be ufed for recovering drowned perfons mult certainly
depend.
Dr de Haen, who has written a treatife on this',
fubjeft, aferibes this diverfity of opinion among the
pbyficians to their being fo reauy to draw general con-
clufions from a few experiments. Some, having never
found water in the lungs, have thought that it never
was there ; and others, from its prefence, have drawn
a contrary conclufion. Some have aferibed the death
which happens in cafes of drowning to that fpeciee
of apoplexy which arifes from a great fulnefs of the
llomach. But this opinion our author reie&s, becaufe •
in 13 dogs which he had drowned and afterwards dif-
fefted, no figns of fuch a fulnefs appeared. Another
reafon is drawn frem the want of the common marks
oli
D R O [ 334 3 D R O
of apoplexy on the diffe&ion of the brain, and from
the affual prefence of water in the lung?. He is of
opinion, that the death of drowned perfons happens
in confequence of water getting into the lung?, and
• flopping the blood in the arteries. He then difcuffes
the queftion how far the blowing of air into the lungs
is ufeful in recovering drowned people. If their death
is to be afcribed to the water entering their lungs, this
pra&ice, he obferves, muft be hurtful, as it will in-
creafe the preflure on the blood-veffels, or may even
force the water into them ; which, on the authority
of Lewis’s experiments, he alleges is poflible. But, in
fpite of this reafoning, he afferts, that from experience
it has been found ufeful. He allows, that the prac¬
tice of fufpending drowned people by the feet muft be
hurtful, by determining the blood too much to the
head j but he obferves, that remedies in feme refpe6ts
hurtful may be ufed when the advantages derived from
them preponderate; and is of opinion, that the prac¬
tice above mentioned may be ufed by agitating the
vifcera againft each other, and thus renewing their mo¬
tions. Cutting the larynx in order to admit air more
freely to the lungs, he reckons to be of little or no
ufe ; but acknowledges, however, that it may fome-
times prove beneficial on account of the irritation occa-
fioned by the operation.
Dr Cullen, in his letter to Lord Cathcart concern¬
ing the recovery of perfons drowned and feemingly
dead, tells us, that “ From the diffe&ion of drowned
men, and other animals, it is known, that very often
the water does not enter into the cavity of the lungs,
nor even into the ftomach, in any quantity to do hurt
to the fyftem ; and, in general, it is known, that, in
moft cafes, no hurt is done to the organization of the
vital parts. It is therefore probable, that the death
which enfues, or feems to enfue, in drowned perfons,
is owing to the flopping of refpiration, and to the
ceafing, in confequence, of the circulation of the blood,
whereby the body lofes its heat, and, with that, the ac¬
tivity of the vital principle.”
In the Phil, Tranf. vol. Ixvi. Mr Hunter gives the
following theory. The lofs of motion in drowning
feems to arife from the lofs of refpiration •, and the im¬
mediate effect this has upon the other vital motions of
the animal, at leaft this privation of breathing, ap¬
pears to be the firft caufe of the heart’s motion ceafing.
It is moft: probable, therefore, Mr Hunter obferves,
that the reftoration of breathing is all that is necelfary
to reftore the heart’s motion ; for if a fufficiency of
life ftill remains to produce that effe£l, we may fup-
pofe every part equally ready to move the very inftant
in which the a&ion of the heart takes place, their ac¬
tions depending fo much upon it. What makes it very
probable, that the principal effect depends upon throw¬
ing air into the lungs, is, that children in the birth,
when too much time has been fpent after the lofs of
that life which is peculiar to the foetus, lofe altogether
the difpofition for the new life. In fuch cafes there is
a total fufpenfion of the aflions of life ; the child re¬
mains to all appearance dead j and would die, if air
was not thrown into its lungs, and the firft principle
of aftion by that means reftored. To put this in a
clearer light, Mr Hunter gives the refult of fome ex¬
periments made on a dog in 1755.—A pair of double
bellows were provided, which were fo conftru&ed, that
by one a£lion air was thrown into the lungs, and by Drowni
the other the air was fucked out which had been'—-v-
thrown in by the former, without mixing them toge¬
ther. The muzzle of thefe bellows was fixed into the
trachea of. a dog, and by working them he was kept
perfectly alive. While this artificial oreathing was
going on, the fternum was taken off, fo that the heart
and lungs were expofed to view. The heart then con¬
tinued to a£t as before, only the frequency of its ac¬
tion was greatly increafed. Mr Hunter then flopped
the motion of the bellows; and obferved that the con-
tradlion of the heart became gradually weaker and lefs
frequent, till it left off moving altogether j but by re¬
newing the operation, the motion of the heart alfo re¬
vived, and foon became as ftrong and frequent as be¬
fore. This procefs was repeated upon the fame dog
ten times 5 fometimes flopping for five, eight, or ten
minutes. Mr Hunter obferved, that every time he
left off working the bellows, the heart became ex¬
tremely turgid with blood, and the blood in the left
fide became as dark as that in the right, which was
not the cafe when the bellows were working. Thefe
fituations of the animal, he obferves, feem to be ex-
aftly fimilar to drowning.
Dr Edmund Goodwyn, in a treatife lately publifhed
on this fubjf £t, has endeavoured to afcertain the effefls
of fubmerfion upon living animals in a more accurate
manner than had hitherto been done. His firft care
was to determine the fymptoms which took place be¬
fore death 5 and to obferve thefe, he procured a large
glafs bell in which the animals were to be immerfed.
Having inverted, and filled this with water, he put in¬
to it feveral cats, dogs, rabbits, and fmaller animals,
confining them among the water till they were appa¬
rently dead. In thefe experiments he obferved, that
immediately after fubmerfion the pulfe became weak
and frequent; there was an apparent anxiety about
the breaft, and ftruggling to relieve it. In thefe ftrug-
gles the animal rofe to the top of the water, throwing
out a quantity of air from the lungs. After this the
anxiety increafes, the pulfe becomes weaker, and the
ftruggles more violent ; he rifes again to the furface,
throws out more air from the lungs, and in his efforts
to infpire, a quantity of water commonly paffes into
the mouth. The fkin about the face and lips then
becomes blue, the pulfe ceafes, the fphimflers are re¬
laxed, and the animal falls down without fenfe or mo¬
tion. On differing the bodies of drowned animals, our
author met with the following appearances : 1. The
external furface of the brain was darker, but the veffels
of it were not more turgid than ufual, nor was there
any appearance of extravafation. 2. The pulmonary
arteries and veins were filled with black blood, and the
lungs themfelves contained fome frothy liquor. 3. Not-
withftanding thefe fymptoms, the right auricle and
ventricle were ftill contrafting and dilating ; the left
finus venofus and auricle moving feebly, but the left
ventricle at reft. 4. The right and left auricles of the
heart, the right ventricle, and the left finus venofus,
were filled with black blood ; but the laft ventricle
only half filled with the fame, and a quantity of the
fame black blood was alfo contained in the fmaller.
branches of the arteries proceeding from the left ven¬
tricle.
This inveftigation was followed by a moft careful
and
^ R o [ 335 ] D R O
and ingenious inquiry concerning the caufes of the
fymptoms already related. To find out whether or
not the entrance of water into the lungs was the caufe,
or whether water really entered the lungs in thefe cafes
or not, he drowned feveral animals among ink j and
by infpe&ing their bodies, found, that though water
really did enter, it was in fuch fmall quantity that it
could not be fuppofed capable of producing fuch vio¬
lent effefts. To afcertain this, however, more exaft-
ly than could be done by the ink, he drowned other
animals in quickfilver ; which, by reafon of its not be¬
ing mifoible with the animal fluids, couid be more ac¬
curately collefted. By thefe it appeared that no more
than five drachms of the fluid in which a cat was im-
merfed entered her lungs in the time of drowning j
and to determine whether or not this could be the oc-
cafion of the animal’s death, he made the following
experiment: Having confined a cat in an ere£t pofture,
he made a fmall opening in the trachea, by cutting
one of the cartilaginous rings 3 and through this open¬
ing he introduced two ounces of water into the lungs.
The only confequences were a difficulty of breathing
and weak pulfe j but thefe foon abated, and it lived fe¬
veral hours afterwards without any apparent inconve¬
nience. On ftrangling it he found two ounces and a
half of water in the lungs. On repeating the experi¬
ment with other fluids, he found the difficulty of
breathing and alteration in the pulfe fomewhat great¬
er; but in thefe inftances alfo they abated in a few
hours; and when the animals were ftrangled, the lungs
were found to contain four ounces of fluid.
From all thefe experiments Dr Goodwyn draws the
following conclufions: i. “ A fmall quantity of fluid
ufually pafles into the lungs in drowning. 2. This
water enters the lungs during the efforts to infpire ;
and mixing with the pulmonary mucus, occafions the
frothy appearance mentioned bv authors. 3. The
whole of this fluid in the lungs is not fufficient to pro¬
duce the changes that take place in drowning. And
hence it follows, that the water produces all the chan¬
ges that take place in drowning indireflly, by exclud¬
ing the atmofpheric air from the lungs.” This natu¬
rally leads to an inveftigation of the ufes of refpirathm,
and the effefts of the air upon the blood and lungs in
that aftion, which our author traces with great accu¬
racy and very convincing experiments. He begins
with attempting to determine the quantity of air drawn
in at each infpiration, with the proportional quantity
left after expiration. The experiments by which he
endeavoured to afcertain theft quantities feem to be
more uncertain than the others, as indeed there are not
data fufficient for them. From fuch as he had an op¬
portunity of making, however, the following conclu¬
fions were deduced: 1. “ The lungs contain 109 cubic
inches of air after a complete expiration ; and this
quantity receives an additional quantity of 14 cubic
inches during each infpiration. 2. The dilatation of
the lungs after expiration is to their dilatation after
infpiration as 109 to 123. 3. The blood circulates
through the pulmonary veifels in all the degrees of na¬
tural refpiration. 4. The circulation through them,
after expiration, is fufficiently free to keep up the health
®f the fyftem.”
The laft part of our author’s inquiry, viz. concern-
the chemical changes produced in the air by refpi-
3
ration, and the effects of the air upon the blood itfelf
falls naturally to be confidered under the article Re¬
spiration : fo that here we ffiall only obferve in ge¬
neral, that his experiments evidently ffiow that the
difeafe produced by drowning arifes entirely from the
exclufion of the atmofpheric air or its dephlogifticated
part; for which reafon he recommends inflating the
lungs with that kind of air in preference to any
other.
From thefe different views of this matter, phyficians
have differed confiderably in their account of the me-
thods to be followed in attempting the recovery of
drowned perfons. De Haen recommends agitation of
all kinds ; every kind of ftimulus applied to the mouth,
nofe, and redfum; bleeding; heat, both by warm clothes
and warm water ; blowing air into the trachea; ftimu-
lants, fuch as blifters, warm affies, &c. applied to the
head, ankles, thighs, pit of the Itomach, and other
parts.
Dodtor Cullen’s obfervations on this fubjedt are as
follow.—“ With refpedt to the particular means to be
employed for the recovery of drowned perfons, it is to
be obferved, in the firfl: place, That fuch as were re¬
commended and pradtifed, upon a fuppofition that the
fuffocation was occafioned by the quantity of water
taken into the body, and therefore to be evacuated
again, were very unhappily advifed. The hanging up
of perfons by the heels, or fetting them upon the crown
of the head, or rolling the body upon a calk, were ge¬
nerally pradtifed, upon a fuppofition altogether falfe ;
or upon the fuppofition of a cafej which, if real, is ap¬
prehended to be irrecoverable. At the fame time,
thefe pradtices were always attended with the danger
of burfting fome veffels in the brain or lungs, and of
rendering thereby fome cafes incurable that were not
fo from the drowning alone. All fuch pradtices,
therefore, are now very properly difapproved of and
forbidden.
“ In thofe cafes in which the body has not been long
in the water, and in which therefore the natural heat
is not entirely extinguiflied, nor the irritability of the
moving fibres very greatly impared, it is poffible that
a good deal of agitation of the body may be the only
means neceffary to reftore the adtion of the vital or¬
gans ; but in other cafes, where the heat and irritabi¬
lity have ceafed to a greater degree, it is to me very
doubtful if much agitation can be fafe, and if any de¬
gree of it can be ufeful, till the heat and irritability
are in fome meafure reftored. In all cafes, any violent
concuffion cannot be fafe, and, I believe, is never ne¬
ceffary. It may be proper here to obferve alfo, that
in tranfporting the body from the place where it is
taken out of the water, to the place where it may be
neceffary for applying the proper means of its recove¬
ry, all poftures expofing to any improper compreffion,
as that of the body’s being carried over a man’s flioul-
der, are to be avoided. The body is to be kept
ftretched out, with the head and upper parts a little
raifed; and care is to be taken to avoid the neck’s be¬
ing bent much forward. In this manner, laid upon
one fide, and upon fome ftraw in a cart, it may be moft
properly conveyed ; and the agitation which a pretty
brilk motion of the cart may occafion, will, in moft
cafes, do no harm.
“ From the account I have given above of the cau-
fes?
D R O [ 336 ] D R O
fes, or of the appearances, of death In drowned per-
fons, it is evident, that the firft ftep to be taken for
their recovery is to reftore the heat of the body, which
is abfolutely neceffary to the activity of the moving fi¬
bres. For this purpofe, the body, as foon as poflible,
is to be ftripped of its wet clothes, to be well dried,
and to be wrapped up in dry, and (if poflible) warm,
coverings : and it is to be wiflied, in all cales, as foon
as the report of a perfon’s being drowned is heard, that
blankets fhould be immediately carried to the water
fide; fo that as foon as the body is got out of the wa¬
ter, the change of covering juft now mentioned may
be inftantly made j or, if the body has been naked
when drowned, that it may be immediately dried and
defended againft the cold of the air. Befides covering
the body with blankets, it will be further of advantage,
if it can be done without lofs of time, to cover the
drowned body with a warm fhirt or waiftcoat immedi¬
ately taken from a living perfon.
“ When, at the time of a perfon’s being drowned,
it happens that the fun fhines out very hot, I think
there can be no better means of recovering the heat,
than by expofing the naked body, in every part, to
the heat of the fun j while, at the fame time, all other
means neceffary or ufeful for the recovery of life are
alfo employed.
“ When the heat of the fun cannot be employed, the
body (hould be immediately tranfported to the neareft
houfe that can be got convenient for the purpofe : the
fitteft will be one that has got a tolerably large chamber,
in which a fire is ready, or can be made 5 and, if pofli¬
ble, the houfe ftiould afford another chamber, in which
alfo a fire can be provided.
“ When the drowned body is brought into fuch
houfe, and care is at the fame time taken that no more
people are admitted than are abfolutely neceffary to the
fervice of the drowned perfon, every endeavour muft be
immediately employed for recovering the heat of the
body, and that by different meafures, as circumftances
fhall direft.
“ If, in the neighbourhood of the place, there be
any brewery, diftillery, dyery, or fabric which gives
an opportunity of immediately obtaining a quantity of
warm water and a convenient veffel, there is nothing
more proper than immerfing the body in a w'arm bath.
£ven where a fufficient quantity of warm water can¬
not be had at once, the bath may be ftill practifed, if
the accident has happened in or very near a town or
village, where a great many fires may be at once em¬
ployed in heating fmall quantities of water : for in
this way the neceffary quantity may be foon obtained.
To encourage this pradtice, it is to be obferved, that
one part of boiling water is more than fufficient to
give the neceffary heat to two parts of fpring or fea
water, as it is not proper to apply the bath at firft ve¬
ry warm, nor even of the ordinary heat of the human
body* but fomewhat under it •, and, by the addition of
warm’water, to bring it gradually to a heat very little
above it.
“ If the drowned body be of no great bulk, it may
he conveniently warmed by a perfon’s lying down in
bed with it, and taking it near to their naked body,
changing the pofition of it frequently, and at the
fame time chafing and rubbing with warm cloths the
parts which are not immediately applied to their warm
body.
“ If none of thefe meafures can be conveni-ntly
pradtifed, the body is to be laid upon a bed bef .re a
moderate fire, and frequently turned, to expofi the
different parts of it $ and thus, by the heat of the fire
gradually employed, and by rubbing the body well with
coarfe towels, or other cloths well warmed, pains are
to be taken for reftoring its heat. This will be pro¬
moted by warm cloths applied and frequently renewed
under the hams and armpits $ and by hot bricks, or
bottles of warm water, laid to the feet.
“ In the practice of rubbing, it has been propofed
to moiften the cloths applied with camphorated fpirits,
or other fuch ftimulating fubffances; but I think this
muft prove an impediment to the rubbing j and I would
not recommend any practice of this kind, except, per¬
haps, the application of the vinous fpirits of fal ammo¬
niac to the wrifts and ankles only.
“ For recovering the heat of the body, it has been
propofed to cover it all over with warm grains, afhes,
fand, or fait ; and where thefe, fufficiently warm, are
ready at hand, they may be employed ; but it is very
feldom they can be obtained, and the application might
often interfere with other meafures that may be necef¬
fary. All therefore that I can propofe with refpeft
to the ufe of thefe, is to obferve, that bags of wa"tn
and dry fait may be amongft the moft convenient ap¬
plications to the feet and hands of drowned perfons j
and the quantity neceffary for this purpofe may be got
pretty quickly by heating the fait in a frying pan oyer
a common fire.
“ While thefe meafures are taking for recovering the
heat, means are at the fame time to be employed for
reftoring the adtion of the moving fibres. It is well
known, that the inteftines are the parts of the body
which, both from their internal fituation and peculiar
conftitution, retain the longeft their irritability ; and
therefore, that, in drowned perfons, ftimulants applied
may have more effect upon the inteftines than upon
other parts. The aftion, therefore, of the inteftines
is to be fupported or received as foon as poflible ; as
the reftoring and fupporting the action of fuch a con-
fiderable portion of moving fibres as thofe of the intef¬
tines, muft contribute greatly to reftore the activity of
the whole fyftem.
“ For exciting the aflion of the inteftines, the moft
proper mean is, the application of their ordinary ftimu-
lus of dilatation ; and this is moft effeftually applied.,
by forcing a quantity of the air into them by the fun¬
dament. Even the throwing in cold air has been found
ufeful ; but it will certainly be better if heated air can
be employed : and further, if that air can be impreg¬
nated with fomething which, by its acrimony alfo may
be powerful in ftimulating the inteftines.
“ From all thefe confiderations, the fmoke of burning
tobacco has been moft commonly applied, and has up¬
on many occafions proved very effectual. This will be
moft properly thrown in by a particular apparatus,
which, for other purpofes as well as this, ftiould be in
the hands of every furgeon ; or at leaft ftiould, at the
public expence, be at hand in every part of the coun¬
try where drownings are likely to happen. With re¬
gard to the ufe of it, I have to obferve, that till
D R O [ 337 ] D R O
own mg.
the tobacco is kindled in a confiderable quantity, a
great deal of cold air is blown through the box and
tube •, and as that, as hinted above, is not fo proper,
care Ihould be taken to have the tobacco very well
kindled, and to blow through it very gently, till the
heated fmoke only paffes through. If upon certain
occafions, the apparatus referred to fhould not be at
hand, the meafure however may be executed by a com¬
mon tobacco pipe, in the following manner : A com¬
mon glyfter pipe, that has a bag mounted upon it, is
to be introduced into the fundament, and the mouth of
the bag is to be applied round the fmall end of a to¬
bacco pipe. In the bowl of this, tobacco is to be kind¬
led ; and, either by a playing card made into a tube
and applied round the mouth of the bowl, or by apply¬
ing upon this the bowl of another pipe that is empty,
and blowing through it, the fmoke may be thus forced
into the inteftines, and, in a little time, in a confider-
•able quantity.
“ If none of thefe means for throwing in the fmoke
lean be employed, it may be ufeful to injedl warm water
to the quantity of three or four Englitb pints. This
may be done by a common glyder bag and pipe, but
better by a large fyringe ; and it may be ufeful to dif-
folve in the water fome common fait, in the proportion
of half an ounce to an Englilh pint j and alfo to add to
it fome wine or brandy.
“ While thefe meafures for recovering the heat of
the body and a&ivity of the moving fibres are em¬
ployed, and efpecially after they have been employed
for fome time, pains are to be taken to complete and
finilh the bufinefs, by reftoring the aflion of the lungs
and heart.
“ On this fubjeff, I am obliged to my learned and
ingenious colleague, Dr Monro, who has made fome
experiments for afeertaining the beft manner of in¬
flating the lungs of drowned perfons. By thefe expe¬
riments he finds it may be more conveniently done by
blowing into one of the noftrils, than by blowing into
the mouth. For blowing into the noftril, St is necef-
fary to be provided with a wooden pipe, fitted at one
extremity for filling the noftril, and at the other for
being blown into a perfon’s mouth, or for receiving the
pipe of a pair of bellows, to be employed for the fame
purpofe. Doflor Monro finds, that a perfon of ordi¬
nary ftrength can blow into fuch a pipe, with a fuffi-
cient force to inflate the lungs to a confiderable degree ;
and thinks the warm air from the lungs of a living per¬
fon will be moft conveniently employed at firft ; but
when it is not foon effe&ual in reftoring the refpiration
of the drowned perfon, and that a longer continuance
of the inflation is neceflary, it may be proper to em¬
ploy a pair of bellows, large enough at once to contain
the quantity of air neceffary to inflate the lungs to a
due degree.
“ Whether the blowing in is done by a perfon’s
mouth, or by bellows, Dr Monro obferves, that the
air is ready to pafs by the gullet into the ftomach ; but
that this may be prevented, by prefling the lower part
of the larynx backwards upon the gullet. To perfons
of a little knowledge in anatomy, it is to be obfer-
Ved, that the preflhre fliould be onlv upon the cri¬
coid cartilage, by which the gullet may be ftraiten-
cd. while the paffage through the larynx is not inter-
fupted.
Vol. VII. Part I.
“ When, by blowing thus into the noftrils, it can be
perceived, by the raifing of the cheft or belly, that the
lungs are filled with air, the blowing in fliould ceafe ;
and by prefling the breaft and belly, the air received
into the lungs fhould be again expelled ; then the blow¬
ing and expulfion fliould be again repeated j and thus
the pra&ice is to be continued, fo as to imitate, as ex-
adfly as poflible, the alternate motions of natural refpi¬
ration.
“ It is hardly neceflary to obferve, that when the
blowing into the noftril is praftifed, the other noftril and
the mouth ftiould be accurately elofed.
“ If it fhould happen, that in this praflice the air
does not feem to pafs readily into the lungs, Dr Monro
informs me it is very praflicable to introduce directly
into the glottis and trachea a crooked tube, fuch as the
catheter ufed for a male adult. For this he offers the
following dire&ions : The. furgeon ffiould place himfelf
on the right fide of the patient •, and, introducing the
fore finger of his left hand at the right corner of the
patient’s mouth, he ftiould pufti the point of it behind
the epiglottis $ and ufing this as a dire&ory, he may
enter the catheter, which he holds in his right hand,
at the left corner of the patient’s mouth, till the end of
it is paffed beyond the point of his fore finger ; and it
is then to be let fall, rather than puftied into the glot¬
tis ; and through this tube, by a proper fyringe applied
to it, air may be with certainty blown into the lungs.
I obferve, that fome fuch meafure had been propofed by
Monf. le Cat in France; but I have not learned that
it has ever been put in practice, and I am afraid it may
be attended with feveral difficulties, and muft be left
to the diferetion of furgeons who may be properly pro¬
vided and inflrufted for this purpofe.
“ For throwing air with more certainty into the
lungs, it has been propofed to open the windpipe, in
the fame manner as is done in the operation which the
furgeons call bronchototm/, and by this opening to blow
into the lungs 5 and when the blowing into the noftril
does not feem to fucceed, and a Ikilful operator is
at hand, I allow that the meafure may be tried j
but I can hardly fuppofe that it will be of any ad¬
vantage when the blowing in by the noftril has entirely
failed.
“ It is to be hoped, that by blowing into the lungs
one way or other, even a quantity of water which had
been taken into the lungs may be again walked out ;
and the fame feems to be the only effeflual means of
walking out that frothy matter which is found to fill
the lungs of drowned perfons, and which proves, if I
miftake not, the moft common caufe of their mortal
fuffocation. This practice, therefore, is to be imme¬
diately entered upon, and very affiduoufly continued
for an hour or two together.
“ I have now mentioned the meafures chiefly to be
purfued and depended upon for the recovery of dnnvn-
ed perfons-, but muft ftill mention fome others that may
prove confid^rable helps to it.
“ One of thefe is, the opening the jugular veins, to
relieve the congeftion which almoft conftantly occurs
in the veins of the head, and is probably a frequent
caufe of the death of drowned perfons. For relieving
this congeftion, the drawing fome blood from the ju¬
gulars, very early, mav certainly be of fervice ; and it
will be particularly indicated by the livid and purple
U u colour
Drowning.
DRO r 338 ] D R O
Drowning, colour of the face. It may even be repeated, accord-
ing to the effecf it feems to have in taking oft that luf-
fufton *, but when the drowned perfon is in (onie mea-
fure recovered, and fume motion of the blood is re-
ftored, it will be proper to be very cautious in making
this evacuation, and at leaf! to take care not to puftr it
fo as to weaken too much the recovering, but ftill weak,
porvers of life.
“ Another meafure for recovering the activity of the
vital principle, is the application of certain ftimulants
to the more fenfible parts of the body, fuch as holding
the quicklime fpirit of fal ammoniac to the. nofe, or
putting a little of it upon a rag into the noftrils. It
has been ufual to pour fome liquids into the mouth j
but it is dangerous to pour in any quantity of liquid
till it appear that the power of fwallowing is in fome
meafure reftored.
“ When a furgeon is at hand, and is provided with
proper apparatus, a crooked pipe may be introduced
into the gullet ; and by this a gill or two of warm wine
may be poured down into the ftomach, and probably
with advantage. But when no fueh apparatus is at
hand or furgeon to employ it, and the power of fwal¬
lowing is ft ill doubtful, the trial of pouring liquids in¬
to the mouth ftiould be made by a fmall quantity of
warm water alone ; and when, from luch trial, the
power of fwallowing ihall appear to be recovered, it
mav then be allowable to favour the further recovery
of the perfon, by pouring in fome wine or brandy.—
In fhort, till fome marks of the recovery of fwallow¬
ing and refpiration appear, it will not be fafe to apply
any ftimulants to the mouth 5 excepting that of a few
drops of fome acrid fubftance to the tongue, and
which are not of bulk enough to Hide back upon the
glottis : I can think of no ftimulant more convenient¬
ly and fafely to be applied to the mouth and noftrils
than a moderate quantity of tobacco fmoke blown into
them.
“ Though I do not imagine that drowned perfons
are ever hurt by the quantity of wTater taken into their
ftomach, yet, as a ftimulus applied to the ftomach,
and particularly as the a61ion of vomiting proves a
ftimulus to the whole fyftem, I can have no objedlion
to the French praftice of throwing in an emetic as
foon as any fwallowing is reftored. For this pur-
pofe, I would fucceflively throw in fome tea-fpoonfuls
of the ipecacuanha wine j and when it does not in¬
terfere with other neceflary meafures, the fauces may
be gently irritated by an oiled feather thruft into
them.
“ With regard to the ftimulants, I muft conclude
with obferving, That when a body has lain but for a
fhort time in the water, and that therefore its heat
and irritability are but little impaired, the application
of ftimulants alone has been often found effeiftual for
the recovery : but, on the contrary, when the body has
lain long in the water, and the heat of it is very much
extinguifhed, the application of any other ftimulants
than that of tobacco fmoke to the inteftines can be of
very little fervice j and the application of others ought
never to interfere with the meafures for recovering heat
and the motion of refpiration.
“ With refpeft to the whole of thefe praftices, I
expeft, from the principles upon which they are in
general recommended, it will be underftood that they Diovtniti
are not to be foon difuontinued, though their eftVfts do -“Y"*"
not immediately appear. It is obvious, that, in many
cafes, it may be long before the heat of the body, and
the activity of the vital principle, can be reftored, al¬
though in a longer time it may very poflibly be ac«
complilhed. In fadt, it has often happened, that though
means employed for one hour have not fucceeded, the
fame continued for two or more hours, have at length
had the witbed-for eff'ecls. It fhould therefore be a con-
ftant rule, in this bulinels, that the proper means (hould
be employed for feveral hours together j unlefs it hap¬
pen that, while no fymptoms of returning life appear,
the fymptoms of death ihall, at the fame time, go on
conftantly increafing.
“ In the whole of the above I have kept in view
chiefly the cafe of drowned perfons ; but it will be ob¬
vious, that many of the meafures propofed will be
equally proper and applicable in other cafes of fuffoca-
tion } as thofe from iirangling, the damps of mines, the
fumes of charcoal, &c. ; and a little attention to the
difference of circumftances will lead to the meafures molt
proper to be employed.”
Mr Hunter, in the before-mentioned paper, differs
pretty confiderably from De Haen and Dr Cullen.
He obferves, that when afiiftance is foon called after
immerfion, blowing air into the lungs will in fome
cafes effedt a recovery 5 but when any confiderable
time has been loft, he advifes ftimulant medicines,
fuch as the vapour of volatile alkali, to be mixed with
the air ; which may ealily be done, by holding fpirits
of hartfhorn in a cup under the receiver of the bellows.
And, as applications of this kind to the olfadlory nerves
tend greatly to roufe the living principle, and put the
mufcles of refpiration into adfion, it may probably,
therefore, be moft proper to have air impregnated in
that manner thrown in by the nofe. To prevent the
ftomach and inteftines from being too much diflended
by the air fo injedfe.d, the larynx is diredled to be gent¬
ly preffed again ft the oelophagus and fpine.
While this bufinefs is going on, an afliftant fliould
prepare bed clothes, carefully brought to a proper de¬
gree of heat. Heat our author confiders as congenial
with the living principle •, increafing the neceflity of
adfion, it increafes adfion : cold, on the other hand, lef-
fens the neceffity, and of eourfe the adfion is diminifti-
ed : to a due degree of heat, therefore, the living prin¬
ciple, he thinks, owes its vigour. From experiments,
he fays, it appears to be a law in animal bodies, that the
degree of heat ihould bear a proportion to the quantity
of life ; a' life is weakened, this proportion requires
great accuracy, while greater powers of life allow it
greater latitudes.
After thele and ftveral other obfervations on the fame
fubjedt, our author proceeds to more particular direc¬
tions for the management of drowned people.
If bed clothes are put over the perfon, fo as fcarce
to touch him, fleams of volatile alkali, or of warm
balfams, may be thrown in, fo as to come in contadl
with many parts of the body. And it might probably
be advantageous, Mr Hunter obferves, to have fleams
of the fame kind conveyed into the ftomach. This, we
are told, may be done by a hollow bougie and a fy-
ringe : but the operation fhould be very fpeedily per¬
formed,
D R O
[ 339 1
D R O
mming.
fbrtried, as the inftrument, by continuing long in the
, mouth, might produce ficknefs, which our author fays
he would always with to avoid.
Some of the warm ftimulating fubtlances, fuch as
juice of horferadUh, peppermint water, and fpirits of
hartihorn, are dire&ed to be thrown into the ttomacll
in a fluid ftate, as alfo to be injected by the anus.
Motion poflibly may be of fervice *, it may at leaft be
tried : but as it hath lefs effe£l than any other of the
ufually prefcribed ftimuli, it is diredled to be the laft
part of the procefs.
The fame care in the operator, in regulating the
proportion of every one of thefe means, is here directed,
as was formerly given for the application of heat.
For every one of them, our author obferves, may pof-
fibly have the fame property of deftroying entirely the
feeble action which they have excited if adminiflered
in too great a quantity ; inttead, therefore, of increafing
and haltening the operations on the firfl: figns of
returning life being obferved, as is ufually done, he de¬
fires they may be leffened •, and advifes their increafe to
be afterwards proportioned, as nearly as poffible, to the
quantity of powers as they arife.
When the heart begins to move, the application of
air to the lungs fliould be leffened, that, when the mufcles
of refpiration begin to aft, a good deal may be left for
them to do.
Mr Hunter abfolutely forbids bloodletting in all fuch
cafes •, for as it not only weakens the animal princi¬
ple, but leffens life itfelf, it muft confequently, he ob¬
ferves, leffen both the powers and difpofitions to aftion.
For the fame reafon, he is againft introducing any thing
into the ftomach that might produce ficknefs or
vomiting; and, on the fame principle, he fays, we
fliould avoid thrownng tobacco fumes, or any other fuch
articles, up by the anus, as might tend to an evacuation
that way.
The following is a defcription of inflruments recom¬
mended for fuch operations by our author.
Firft, A pair of bellows, fo contrived, with two fe-
parate cavities, that, by opening them when applied to
the noftrils or mouth of a patient, one cavity will be
filled with common air, and the other w'ith ail- fuck¬
ed out from the lungs, and by (hutting them again, the
common air will be thrown into the lungs, and that
fucked out of the lungs difcbarged into the room. I he
pipe of thefe fhould be flexible; in length a foot, or a
foot and a half: and, at leaft, three eighths of an inch
in width. By this the artificial breathing may be con¬
tinued, while the other operations, the application of the
ftimuli to the ftomach excepted, are going on, which
could not be conveniently done if the muzzle of the
bellows were introduced into the nofe. i he end next
the nofe (hould be double, and applied to both noftrils.
Secondly, A fvringe, with a hollow bougie, or flexible
catheter, of fufficient length to go into the flomach,
and convey any ftimulating matter into it, without
affefling the lungs. Thirdly, A pair of fmali bellows,
fuch as are commonly ufed in throwing fumes of tobacco
Up by the anus.
Notwithftanding the differences in theory, hou'ever,
betw’een the phyficians above mentioned, it is certain,
that within thefe few years great numbers of drowned
people have been reftored to life by a proper ufe of the
remedies we have enumerated, and focieties for the re¬
covery of drowned perfons have been inftituied in dif- Drowning,
ferent places. The firft fociety of this kind was infti- -y-"-—'
tuted in Holland, where from the great abundance of
canals and inland feas, the inhabitants are particularly
expofed to accidents by water. In a very few years
150 perfons were faved from death by this fociety ; and
many of thefe had continued upwards of an hour with¬
out any figns of life, after they had been taken out of
the water. The fociety was inftituted at Amfterdam
in 1767 : and, by an advertifement, informed the inha¬
bitants of the United Provinces of the methods proper
to be ufed on fuch occafions ; offering rewards at the
fame time to thofe who fliould, with or without fuccefs,
ufe thofe methods for recovering perfons drowned and
feemingly dead. The laudable and humane example of
the Dutch was followed in the year 1768 by the magif-
tratesof health in Milan and Venice ; afterwards by the
niagiftrates of Hamburg in the year 1771, by thofe of
Paris in the year 1772, and by the magiftrates of Lon¬
don in 1774.
The following diredfions are given for the recovery of
drowned perfons by the fociety at London.
I. As foon as the patient is taken out of the water,
the wet clothes, if the perfon is not naked at the time
of the accident, (hould be taken off with all poflible ex¬
pedition on the fpot (unlefs fome convenient houfe be
very near), and a great coat or two, or fome blankets if
convenient, fliould be wrapped round the body.
II. The patient is to be thus carefully conveyed in
the arms of three or four men, or on a bier, to the
neareft public or other houfe, where a good fire, if in
the winter feafon, and a warm bed, can be made ready
for its reception. As the body is conveying to this place,
a great attention is to be paid to the pofition of the head t
it muft be kept fupported in a natural and eafy pofture,
not fuffered to hang down.
III. In cold or moift weather, the patient is to be
laid on a mattrefs or bed before the fire, but not too
near, or in a moderately heated room ; in warm and
fultry weather, on a bed only. The body is then to ,
be wrapped as expeditioufly as poflible with a blanket,
and thoroughly dried with warm coarfe cloths or flan¬
nels.
IV. In fummer or fultry weather too much air can¬
not be admitted. For this reafon it will be neceflary to
fet open the windows and doors, as cool refrelhing air
is of the greateft importance in the procefs of refufci-
tation.
V. Not more than fix perfons are to be prefent to
apply the proper means ; a greater number will be ufe-
lefs, and may retard, or totally prevent, the reftoration
of life, by rendering the air of the apartment unwhole*
fome. It will be neceffary, therefore, to requeft the ab-
fence of thofe who attend merely from motives of curio-
fity.
VI. It will be proper for one of the afliftants, with
a pair of bellows of the common fize, applying the pipe
a little way above one noftril, to blow with fome force,
in order to introduce air into the lungs; at the fame
time the other noftril and the mouth are to be clofed by
another afliftant, whilfta third perfon gently preffes the
cheft with his hands, after the lungs are obferved to be
inflated. By purfuing this procefs, the noxious and
ftagnant vapours will be expelled, and natural breath¬
ing imitated. If the pipe of the bellows be too large,
U u 2 the
1
Drowning,
D R O [ 34° ] D R U
the air may be blown in at the mouth, the noftrils at
the fame time being clofed, fo that it may not efcape
that way j but the lungs are more eafily filled, and na¬
tural breathing better imitated, by blowing up the
noftril.
VII. Let the body be gently rubbed with common
fait, or with flannels, fprinkled with fpirits, as rum or
geneva (a). A warming pan heated (the body being
furrounded with flannel) may be lightly moved up and
down the back. Fomentations of hot brandy are to be
applied to the pit of the ftomach, loins, &c. and often
renewed. Bottles filled with hot water, heated tiles
covered with flannel, or hot bricks, may be efficacioufly
applied to the foies of the feet, palms of the hands, and
other parts of the body. The temples may be rubbed
with fpirits of hartlhorn, and the noftrils now and then
tickled with a feather j and fnuff, or eau de luce, ftiould
be occafionally applied.
VIII. Tobacco fumes fliould be thrown up the funda¬
ment : if a fumigator be not at hand, the common
pipe may anfwer the purpofe. The operation ftiould be
frequently performed, as it is of importance $ for the
good effe&s of this procefs have been experienced in a
variety of inftances of fufpended animation. But Ihould
the application of tobacco fmoke in this way not be im¬
mediately convenient, or other impediments arife, clyfters
of this herb, or other acrid infufions with fait, &c. may
be thrown up with advantage.
XI. When thefe means have been employed a con-
fiderable time without fuccefs, and any brewhoufe or
warm bath can be readily obtained, the body fhould be
carefully conveyed to fuch a place, and remain in the
bath, or furrounded with warm grains, for three or four
hours.
If a child has been drowned, its body ftiould be
wiped perfedlly dry, and immediately placed in bed
between two healthy perfons. The falutary effefts of
the natural vital warmth, conveyed in this manner, have
been proved in a variety of fuccefsful cafes.
X. While the various methods of treatment are em¬
ployed, the body is to be well fttaken every ten minutes,
in order to render the procefs of animation more cer¬
tainly fuccefiful and children in particular are to be
much agitated, by taking hold of their legs and arms,
frequently and for a continuance of time. In various
inftances agitation has forwarded the recovery of boys
who have been drowned, and continued for a confider-
able time apparently dead.
XI. If there be any figns of returning life, fuch as
fighing, gafping, or convulfive motions, a fpoonful of
any warm liquid may be adminiftered $ and if the a£I of
fwallowing is returned, then a cordial of warm brandy
or wine may be given in fmall quantities, and frequently
repeated.
XII. F.ledlricity may be tried by the judicious and
Jkilful, as its application neither prevents nor retards
the various modes of recovery already recommended 5
but, on the other hand, will moft probably tend to ren¬
der the other means employed more certainly and more
expeditioufly efficacious. This ftimulus bids fair to
prove an important auxiliary in cafes of fufpended ani¬
mation } and therefore deferves the ferious regard and
attention of the faculty.
The methods which have been fully defcribed, are to
be employed with vigour for three hours, or upwards,
although no favourable circumftances (hould arife ; for
it is a vulgar and dangerous opinion to fuppofe that
perfons are irrecoverable, becaufe life does not foon
make its appearance ; an opinion that has configned to
the grave an immenfe number of the feemingly dead,
who might have been reftored to life by refolution and
perfeverance.
Bleeding is never to be employed in fuch cafes, un-
lefs by the direftion of one of the medical affiftants, or
fome other gentleman of the faculty who has paid at¬
tention to the refufcitating art.
DRUG, a general term for goods of the druggift
and grocery kinds, efpecially thofe ufed in medicine
and dyeing. See Materia Medica, Pharmacy,
and Dyeing.
DRUGGET, in commerce, a fluff fometimes all
wool, and fometimes half wool half thread, fometimes
corded, but ufually plain. Thofe that have the woof
of wool, and the warp of thread, are called threaded
druggets ; and thofe wrought with the (buttle on a loom
of four marches, as the ferges of Moui, Beauvois, and
other like (luffs corded, are called corded druggets. As
to the plain, they are wrought on a loom of two marches,
with the (buttle, in the fame manner as cloth, camblets,
and other like (luffs not corded.
DRUID/E, or Droium, in Ancient Geography,
a very ancient town, the principal place of the Druides
or Druidae in Gaul, as they are called (Caefar, Cicero).
Now Dreux in the Orleannois. Here they met every
year in a confecrated grove, according to Caefar. The
town was alfo called Durocafes. W. Long. 1. 21. N»
Lat. 48. 45.
Drownln®
It
Druids,
DRUIDS, Druides, or Druid^e, the prieftsor mi*
nifters of religion among the ancient Celtse or Gauls,
Britons, and Germans.
Some authors derive the word from the Hebrew
O'anvj* derujjim, or drujjim, which they tranflate con-
tempiatores. Picard, Celtopaed. lib.Ji. p. 58. believes
the druids to have been thus called from Druis, or
Dryius, their leader, the fourth or fifth king of the
Gauls, and father of Saron or Naumes. Pliny, Sal-
mafius, Vigenere, &c. derive the name from oai ;
on account of their inhabiting, or at lead frequenting,
and teaching in forefts j or perhaps becaufe, as Pliny
fays, they never faerificed but under the oak. But it
is hard to imagine how the druids (bould come to fpeak
Greek. Menage derived the word from the old Bri-
ti(b drus, “ daemon, magician.” Borel, from the Saxon
dry, “ magician or rather from the old Britifti dru,
or derw, “ oak,” whence he takes to be derived;
which is the mod probable fuj pofition. Gorop. Be-
canus, lib. i. takes druis to be an old Celtic and Ger¬
man word, formed from trowis or truwis, “ a do£for of
the
(a) Dr Fotbergill of Bath, in a letter to the Regifter, advifes as a potent and a£live ftimulqsthe patent muftard
moiftened with fpirits.
D 11 U [ 34i ] B R U
lids, the truth and the faith j” which etymology Voffius
V 1 aequiefces in.
1 The druids were the firfl: and mod diftinguiflhed order
aC’among the Gauls and Britons j they were chofen out of
jruids. the belt families; and the honours of their birth, joined
with thofe of their function, procured them the highelt
veneration among the people. They were verfed in
aflrology, geometry, natural philofophy,. politics, and
geography ; they were the interpreters of religion, and
the judges of all affairs indifferently. Whoever refufed
obedience to them was declared impious and accurfed.
We know but little as to their peculiar doftrines ; only
that they believed the immortality of the foul, and, as
is generally alfo fuppofed, the metempfychofis ; though
a late author makes it appear highly probable they did
not believe this lad, at lead not in the fenfe of the
Pythagoreans..
The chief fettlement of the druids in Britain was
in the ifle of Anglefey, the ancient Mona, which they
might choofe for this purpofe, as it is well dored with
fpacious groves of their favourite oak. They were di¬
vided into feveral claffes or branches, viz. the vacerri,
bardi, cubages, fymnothii or femnothei, and faronidce.
The vacerri are held to have been the prieds; the
bardi, the poets ; the cubages, the augurs ; and the
faronidce, the civil judges and indruttors of youth.
As to the femnothei, who are faid to have been im¬
mediately devoted to the fervice of religion, it is pro¬
bable they were the fame with the vacerri. Strabo,,
however, (lib. iv. p. 147.) and Picard after him in his
Celtopaedia, do not comprehend all thefe different or¬
ders under the denomination of druids, as fpecies un¬
der their genus, or parts under the whole ; but make
then quite different conditions or orders. Strabo, in
effeiff, only didinguilhes three kinds ; bardi, vates,
and druids. The bardi were the poets ; the vates,
vxtus (apparently the fame with the vacerri), were
the prieds and naturalids ; and the druids, befide the
dudy of nature, applied themfelves like wife to morality.
Diogenes Laertius affures as, in his prologue, that
the druids were the fame among the ancient Britons
with the fophi or philofophers among the Greeks;
the magi among the Perfians; the gymnofophids
among the Indians; and the Chaldeans among the
Affyrians.
Their garments were remarkably long; and, when
employed in religious ceremonies, they always wore a
white furplice. They generally carried a wand in their
hands; and wore a kind of ornament enchafed in gold
about their necks,, called the druid's egg. Their necks
were likewife decorated with gold chains, and their
hands and arms with bracelets : they wore their hair
very fhort, and their beards remarkably long.
The druids had one chief, or arch-druid, in every
nation, who added as high prieft, or pontifex maximus.
He had abfblute authority over the reft ; and command¬
ed, decreed, punilhed, &c. at pleafure. At his death
he was fucceeded by the moft confiderable among his
furvivors; and, if there were feveral pretenders, the
matter was ended by an ele&ion, or elfe put to the de-
cifion of arms.
The druids, we have obferved, were in the higheft
efteem. They prefided at facrifiees, and other cere¬
monies ; and had the dire&ion of every thing relating
to religion. The Britifh and Gaulilh youth flocked to Dntuls.
them in crowds to be inftrufted by them. The children
of the nobility, Mela tells us, they retired with into
caves, or the moft defolate parts of forefts, and kept
them there fometimes for twenty years under their
difcipline. Befides the immortality and metempfychofis,
they were here inftrudted in the motion of the heavens,
and the courfe of the ftars;, the magnitude of the heavens
and the earth ; the nature of things ; the power and
wifdom of the gods, &c. They preferved the memory
and adtions of great men in their verfes, which they
never allowed to be wrote down,..but made their pupils
get them by heart. In their common courfe of learning,
they are faid to have taught them twenty-four thoufand
fuch verfes. By this means their doftrines appeared
more myfterious by beingunknown to all but tBemfelves;
and having no books to recur to, they were the more
careful to fix them in their memory.
They worfhipped the Supreme Being under the
name of Efus, or Hefus, and the fymbol of the oak ;
and had no other temple than a wood or a grove, where
all their religious rites were performed. Nor was any
perfon admitted to enter that facred recefs, unlefs he
carried with him a chain, in token of his abfolute
dependence on the Deity. Indeed, their whole reli¬
gion originally confifted in acknowledging, that the
Supreme Being, who made his abode in thife facred
groves, governed the univerfe ; and that every crea¬
ture ought to obey his laws, and pay him divine ho¬
mage.
They confidered the oak as the emblem, or rather
the peculiar refidence of the Almighty ; and accord¬
ingly chaplets of it were worn both by the druids and
people in their religious ceremonies, the altars were
ftrewed with its leaves, and encircled with its branches.
The fruit ot it, efpecially the mifletoe, was thought to
contain a divine virtue, and to be the peculiar gift of
heaven. It was therefore fought for on the fixth day of
the moon with the greateft earneftnefs and anxiety ;
and when found was hailed with fuch raptures of joy,
as almoft exceeds imagination to conceive. As foon as
the druids were informed of this fortunate difcovery,
they prepared every thing ready for the facrifice under
the oak, to which they faftened two white bulls by
the horns ; then the arch-druid, attended by a pro¬
digious number of people,, afcended the tree, dreffed
in white ; and with a confecrated golden knife, or
pruning-hook, cropped the mifletoe, which he received
in his fagum or robe, amidff the rapturous exclamations
of the people. Having fecured this facred plant, he
defcended the tree ; the bulls were facrificed . and the
Deity invoked to blefs his own gift, and render it
efficacious in thofe diftempers in which it ffiould be
adminiftered.
The confecrated groves, in which they performed
their religious rites, were fenced round with (tones, to
prevent any perfon’s entering between the trees, ex¬
cept through the paffagos left open for that purpofe,
and which were guarded by fome inferior druids, to
prevent any ftranger from intruding ir to their myfte-
ries. Thefe groves were of different forms; fome
quite circular, others oblong, and more or lefs ca¬
pacious as the votaries in the diftrifts to which they
belonged were more or lefs numerous. The area >n
the
4
D H U
Druids, tlie centre of the grove was encompafled with feveral
rows of large oaks fet very ciofe together. Within
this large circle were feveral fmaller ones furrounded
with large {tones j and near the centre of thefe {mailer
circles were {tones of a prodigious fize and convenient
height, on which the victims were {lain and offered.
Each of thefe being a kind of altar, was furrounded
with another row of {tones, the ufe of which cannot
now be known, unlefs they were intended as cinftures
to keep the people at a convenient diftance from the
officiating prielt.
Suetonius, in his life of Claudius, affures us the
druids facrificed men ; and Mercury is faid to be the
god to whom they offered thefe viftims. Diod. Siculus,
lib. vi. obferves it was only upon extraordinary occa-
fions they made fuch offerings •, as, to confult what mea-
fures to take, to learn what ffiould befal them, &.c. by
the fall of the viftim, the tearing of his members, and
the manner of his blood guffiing out. Auguftus con¬
demned the cuftom, and Tiberius and Claudius puniffied
and aboliffied it.
We learn from Caefar, that the druids were the
judges and arbiters of all differences and difputes, both
public and private : they took cognizance of murders,
inheritances, boundaries, and limits $ and decreed re¬
wards and puniffiments. Such as difobeyed their de-
cifions they excommunicated, which was their principal
punifhment ; the criminal being hereby excluded from
all public affemblies, and avoided by all the world ; fo
that nobody durfl fpeak to him for fear of being polluted.
Strabo obferves, they had fometimes intereft and autho¬
rity enough to flop armies upon the point of engaging,
and accommodate their differences.
Their opi- ^ ^een difputed whether the druids were
nions and themfelves the inventors of their opinions and fyftems
philofophy 0f religion and philofophy, or received them from
whence Some have imagined, that the colony of Pho-
cians which left Greece and built Marfeilles in Gaul
about the 5‘7th Olympiad, imported the firfl. principles
of learning and philofophy, and communicated them
to the Gauls and other nations in the we,ll of Europe.
It appears, indeed, that this famous colony contribut¬
ed not a little to the Improvement of that part of
Gaul where it fettled, and to the civilization of its in¬
habitants. “ The Greek colony of Marfeilles (fays
Juftin) civilized the Gauls, and taught them to live
under laws j to build cities and inclofe them with walls;
to raife corn to cultivate the vine and olive ; and, in
a word, made fo great a change both in the face of the
country and the manners of its inhabitants, that Gaul
feemed to be tranflated into Greece, rather than a few
Greeks tranfplanted into Gaul.” But though we may
allow that the druids of Gaul and Britain borrowed
fome hints and embdliffiments of their philofophy from
this Greek colony, and perhaps from other quarters,
we have reafon to believe that the fubftance of it was
their own. Others have fuggefted, that the druids
derived their philofophy from Pythagoras, who pub-
lifhed his doftrines at Crotona in Italy j where he lived
in the higheft reputation for his virtue, wifdom, and
learning, above 20 years. This conjeflure is very
much confirmed by this remarkable expreffion of Am-
mianus Marcellinus, “ That the druids were formed
into fraternities, as the authority of Pythagoras de¬
creed.” It hath been alfo obferved, that the philofo-
D R U
phy of the druids bore a much greater refemblance to Druids,
that of Pythagoras than to that of any other of the v—w
fages of antiquity. But it feems probable, that Am-
mianus meant no more by the above expreffion than to
illuftrate the nature of the druidical fraternities, by
comparing them to thofe of the Pythagoreans, which
were well known to the Romans; and the refemblance
between the Pythagorean and druidical philofophy
may perhaps be beft accounted for, by fuppofing, that
Pythagoras learned and adopted fome of the opinions
of the druids, as well as imparted to them fome of his
difcoveries. It is well known, that this philofopher,
animated by the moll ardent love of knowledge, travel¬
led into many countries in purfuit of it, and got himielf
admitted into every fociety that was famous for its learn¬
ing. It is therefore highly probable in itfelf, as well
as direflly afferted by feveral authors, that Pythagoras
heard the druids of Gaul, and was initiated into their
philofophy. ,
From the concurring teftimonies of feveral au-More par. |
thors, it appears that phyfiology, or natural philo-ticubr ac- I
fophy, was the favourite ftudy of the druids of Gaul I
and Britain. Cicero tells us, that he was perfonally the 1
acquainted with one of the Gaulilh druids, Divitia-
cus the iEduan, a man of quality in his country,
who profeffed to have a thorough knowledge of the
laws of nature, or that fcience which the Greeks 4
call physics of physiology. According to Diodorus or |
Siculus, Strabo, Caefar, Mela, Ammianus Marcel-1
linus, and others, they entered into many difqui-
fitions and deputations in their fchools, concerning
the form and magnitude of the univerfe in general, and
of this earth in particular, and even concerning the
moft fublime and hidden fecrets of nature. On thefe
and the like fubjefts they formed a variety of fyftetns
and hypothefes ; which they delivered to their difciples
in verfe, that they might the more eafily retain them
in their memories, fince they were not allowed to com¬
mit them to writing. Strabo hath preferved one of
the phyfiological opinions of the druids concerning the
univerfe ; viz. that it was never to be entirely deflroyed
or annihilated ; but was to undergo a fucceffion of great
changes and revolutions, which were to be produced
fometimes by the power and predominancy of water,
and fometimes by that of fire. This opinion, he inti¬
mates, was not peculiar to them, but was entertained
alfo by the philofophers of other nations; and Cicero
fpeaks of it as a truth univerfally acknowledged and un¬
deniable. “ It is impoffible for us (fays he) to attains
glory that is eternal, or even of very long duration, on
account of thefe deluges and conflagrations of the
earth which mult neceffarily happen at certain periods.”
This opinion, which was entertained by the mod an¬
cient philofophers of many different and Very diflant
nations, was probably neither the refult of rational in¬
quiry in all thefe nations, nor communicated from one
of them to others ; but defcended to them all from
their common anceflors of the family of Noah by tra¬
dition, but corrupted and mifunderftood through length
of time. The agreement of the druids with the phi¬
lofophers of fo many other nations in this opinion
about the alternate diffolution and renovation of the
world, gives us reafon to believe, that they agreed with
them alfo in their opinion of its origin from two dif-
tinft principles j the one intelligent and omnipotent,
which
[ 1
K R u [ 343 ] D R U
Iruids. which was God 5 the other inanimate and inactive,
-y—■ which was matter. We are told, by Caefar, that they
had many difquifitions about the power of God j and,
no doubt, amongft other particulars, about his creating
power. But whether they believed with fome that mat¬
ter was eternal, or with others that it was created and
in what manner they endeavoured to account for the
difpofition of it into the prefent form of the univerfe,
we are entirely ignorant, though they certainly had
their fpeculations on thefe fubjefts. We are only in¬
formed, that they did not exprefs their fentiments on
thefe and like heads in a plain and natural, but in
a dark, figurative, and enigmatical manner. This might
incline us to fufpeft, that Pythagoras had borrowed
from them his doflrine about numbers, to whofe myfiti-
cal energy he afcribes the formation of all things j for
nothing can be more dark and enigmatical than that
do£lrine. The druids difputed likewife about the mag¬
nitude and form of the world in general, and of the
earth in particular, of which things they pretended to
have a perfedt knowledge. We know not what their
opinions were about the dimenfions of the univerfe or
of the earth, but we have feveral reafons to make us
imagine that they believed both to be of a fpherieal
form. This is vifibly the (hape and form of the fun,
moon, and liars, the mod confpicuous parts of the uni¬
verfe •, from whence it was natural and eafy to infer,
that this was the form of the world and of the earth.
Accordingly this feems to have been the opinion of the
philofophers of all nations ; and the circle was the fa¬
vourite figure of the druids, as appears from the form
both of their houfes and places of worlhip. Befides
thefe general fpeculations about the origin, diflblution,
magnitude, and form of the world and of the earth, the
druids engaged in particular inquiries into the natures
and properties of the different kind of fubftances. But
all their difcoveries in this moll ufeful and extenlive
branch of natural philofophy, whatever they were, are
S entirely loll.
ronomy. Allronomy alfo appears to have been one of the
chief lludies of the druids of Gaul and Britain.
“ The druids (fays Caffar) have many difquifitions
concerning the heavenly bodies and their motions, in
which they inllru^l their difciples.” Mela, fpeaking
of the fame philofophers, obftrves, “ That they
profefs to have great knowledge of the motions of
the heavens and of the liars.” Some knowledge of
this fcience indeed was not only neceffary for meafu-
ring time in general, marking the duration of the dif¬
ferent feafons, regulating the operations of the huf-
bandman, diredling the courfe of the mariner, and for
many other perfons in civil life j but it was efpecially
neceffarv for fixing the times and regular returns of
their religious folemnities, of which the druids had the
foie direftion. Some of thefe folemnities were month¬
ly, and others annual. It was therefore neceffary for
them to know, with fome tolerable degree of exa£lnefs,
the number of days in which the fun and moon per¬
formed their revolutions, that thefe folemnities might
be obferved at their proper feafons. This was the more
neceffary, as fome of thefe folemnities were attended
by perfons from different and very diliant countries,
who were all to meet at one place on one day ; who
mull have had fome rule to difcover the annual return
of that day.
I he moll perceptible divifion of time by the two Druids,
great luminaries is into day and night ; the former oc- v
cafioned by the prefence of the lun above the horizon, , .6
the latter by his abfence, which B in fome meafure fuP" thodot016"'
plied by the moon and liars. The druids computed computing
their time by nights, and not by days; a cutlom which time,
they had received from their molt remote ancellors by
tradition, and in which they were confirmed by their
meafuring their time very much by the moon, the mi-
llrefs and queen of night. As the changes in the
afpefl of that luminary are moll confpicuous, they en¬
gaged the attention of the moll ancient aflronomers of
all countries, and particularly of the druids, who regu¬
lated all their great folemnities, both facred and civil,
by the age and afpefl of the moon. “ When no un¬
expected accident prevents it, they affemble upon Ha¬
ted days, either at the time of the new or full moon
for they believe thefe to be the moll aufpicious times
for tranfaCling all affairs of importance.” Their moll
augull ceremony of cutting the milletoe from the oak
by the arch-druid, was always performed on the fixth
day of the moon. Nay, they even regulated their mi¬
litary operations very much by this luminary, and
avoided, as much as poflible, to engage in battle while
the moon was on the wane. As the attention of the
druids was fo much fixed on this planet, it could not
be very long before they difcovered that Ihe paffed
through all her various afpefts in about thirty days ;
and by degrees, and more accurate oblervations, they
would find, that the real time of her performing an
entire revolution was very nearly 294- days. This fur-
nilhed them with the divifion of their time into months,
or revolutions of the moon ; of which we know with
certainly they were poffeffed. But this period, though
of great ufe, was evidently too fhort for many pur-
pofes, and particularly for meafuring the feafons; which
they could not fail to perceive depended on the influ¬
ences of the lun. By continued obfervation they dif¬
covered, that about 12 revolutions of the moon inclu¬
ded all the variety of feafons, which begun again, and
revolved every 12 months. This fuggelted to them
that larger divifion of time called a year, confining of
12 lunations, or 354 days, which was the moll ancient
meaiure of the year inalmoft all nations. That this was
for fome time at leail the form of the druidical year,
is both probable in itfelf, and from the following ex-
preffion of Pliny : “ That they began both their
months and years, not from the change, but from the
fixth day of the moon.” This is even a demonftration
that their years confided of a certain number of lunar
revolutions, as they always commenced on the fame day
of the moon. But as this year of 12 lunar months
falls 11 days and nearly one-fourth of a day fiiort of a
real revolution of the fun, this error would foon be per¬
ceived, and call for reformation ; though we are not
informed of the particular manner in which it was rec¬
tified. Various arguments might be eollecled to make
it very probable that the Britons were acquainted with
a year exa£t enough for every purpofe of life, when
they were firil invaded by the Romans ; but it will be
futlicient to mention one, which is taken from the time
and circumilances of that invafion. The learned Dr
Halley hath demonllrated that Caefar arrived in Britain,
in his firil year’s expedition, on the 26th day of Au-
2>
D R U [ 344 ] D R U
. ''Braids, guft : and Cadar himfelf informs us, that at his arrival
v the harveft was finitlied, except in one field, which by
fome means or other was more backward than the rell
of the country. This is a proof that the Britith huf-
bandmen knew and ufed the molt proper feafons for
ploughing, fowing, and reaping, The druids, as We
are told by Pliny, had alfo a cycle or period of 30 years,
which they called an age, and which commenced like-
wife on the fixth day of the moon : but that author
hath not acquainted us on what principle this cycle
was formed, nor to what purpofe it was applied. We
can hardly fuppofe that this was the cycle of the fun,
which confifts of 28 years, and regulates the dominical
letters. It is more probable, that while the druids
made ufe of the year of 12 lunar months, and had not
invented a method of adjufting it to the real revolution
of the fun, they obferved that the beginning of this
year had palled through all the feafons, and returned
to the point from whence it fet out, in a courfe of
about 33 years ; which they might therefore call an
age. Others may perhaps be of opinion, that this 30
years cycle of the druids is the fame with the great year
of the Pythagoreans, or a revolution of Saturn. Some
have imagined that the druids were alfo acquainted
with the cycle of 19 years, which is commonly called
the cycle of the moon. But the evidence of this de¬
pends entirely on the truth of that fuppofition, that
the Hyperborean ifland, which is deferibed by Diodo¬
rus Siculus, was Britain, or fome of the Britith ifies.
Among many other furprifing things, that author fays,
concerning the Hyperborean itland, “ That its inhabi¬
tants believed that Apollo defeended into their illand at
the end of every 19 years ; in which period of time the
fun and moon, having performed their various revolu¬
tions, return to the fame point, and begin to repeat the
fame revolutions. This is called by the Greeks the
great year, or the cycle of Meton.”
Their We are told both by Csefar and Mela, that the
knowledge druids ftudied the liars as well as the fun and moon j
of the ftars.ancl that they profeffed to know, and taught their
difciples, many things concerning the motions of thefe
heavenly bodies. From thefe teftimonies we may con¬
clude that the druids were acquainted with the pla¬
nets, diftinguifhed them from the fixed liars, and care¬
fully obferved their motions and revolutions. If this
difeovery was the refult of their own obfervations, it
would be gradual, and it would be a long time before
they found out all the planets. They might perhaps
have received fome aflillance and information from Py¬
thagoras, or from fome other quarter. But whether
this difeovery of the planets was their own, or com¬
municated to them by others, it is highly probable that
they were acquainted with the precife number of thefe
wandering liars. Dio Cafiius fays, that the cullom of
giving the name of one of the planets to each of the
leven days of the week was an invention of the Egyp¬
tians, and from them was gradually communicated to
all the other nations of the world ; and that in his
time this cultom was fo firmly eltablilhed, not only
among the Romans, but among all the reft of man¬
kind, that in every country it appeared to be a native
inftitution. The knowledge of the planets, and per¬
haps the cuftom of giving their names to the days of
the week, was brought out of Egypt into Italy by
Pythagoras, more than 500 years before the beginning
of the Chriftiaii era *, and from thence it could not be
very long before it reached Gaul and Britain. Butv~-v-«
though we have little or no reafon to doubt that the
druids knew the number and obferved the motion of
the planets, yet it may be queftioned whether they had
difeovered the times in which they performed their fe-
veral revolutions. Some of thefe liars, as Jupiter and
Saturn, take fo great a number of years in revolving,
that it required a very extraordinary degree of patience
and attention to difeover the precife periods of their
revolutions. If we could be certain that the ifland in
which the ancients imagined Saturn lay afleep, was one
of the Britilh ifles, as Plutarch intimates it was, we
might be inclined to think that the Britilh druids were
not ignorant of the length of the period in which the
planet Saturn performs a revolution. For that fame au¬
thor, in another treatife, tells us, “ That the inhabi¬
tants of that illand kept every thirtieth year a folemn
feftival in honour of Saturn, when his ftar entered into
the fign oi Taurus.”
If we could depend upon the above teftimony of
Plutarch, we Ihould have one pofitive proof that the
druids of the Britith ifles w’ere acquainted with the
conftellations, and even with the ligns of the zodiac ;
and that they meafured the revolutions of the fun and
planets, by obfervmg the length of time betweeti
their departure from and return to one of thefe figns*
But we have no dirett evidence of this remaining in
hiftory.
The druids of Gaul and Britain, as Well as the an¬
cient philofophers of other countries, had a general
plan or fyftem of the univerfe, and of the difpofitioh
and arrangement of its various parts, in which they in-
ftrufted their difciples. This is both probable in itfelf,
and is plainly intimated by feveral authors of the great-
eft authority. But we cannot be certain whether this
druidical fyftem of the world was of their own inven¬
tion, or was borrowed from others. If it was borrowed,
it was molt probably from the Pythagoreans, to whoiti
they Were the neareft neighbours j and with whom they
had the greateft intercourfe.
It hath been imagined, that the druidshad inftruments
of fome kind or other, Which anfwered the fame pur-
pofes with our telefcopes, in making obfervations on the
heavenly bodies. The only foundation of this very im¬
probable conjeflure is an expreffion of Diodorus SicU-
lus, in his defeription of the famous Hyperborean ifland.
“ They fay further, that the moon is feen from that
ifland, as if flie was but at a little diftance from the
earth, and having hills or mountains like ours on her
fur face.” But no fuch inference can be reafonahly
drawn from this expreflion, which in reality merits little
more regard than what Strabo reports was faid of fome
of the inhabitants of Spain : “ That they heard the
biffing noife of the fun every evening when he fell into
the weftern ocean.”
The application of the druids to the ftudy of phild-
fophy and aftronomy amounts almnft to a demonflration
that they applied alfo to the ftudy of arithmetic and geo¬
metry. For fome knowledge of both thefe fciences ts
indifpenfably neceflary to the phyfiologift and aftrono-
mer, as well as of great and daily ufe in the common af¬
fairs of life.
If we were certain that Abaris, the famous Hy¬
perborean philofopher, the friend and fcholar of Py-
thagoras}
D R U [ 345 1 ' D R U
niicls. tbagoras, was really a Britifh druid, as fome have ima-
wl-y—■ gined, we ftiould be able to produce direfl hitlorical
evidence of their arithmetical knowledge. For 1am-
blicus, in the life of Pythagoras, fays, “ that he taught
Abaris to find out all truth by the fcience of arithme¬
tic.'” It may be thought improbable that the druids
had made any confiderable progrefs in arithmetic, as
this may feem to be impoffible by the mere 11 length
of memory without the alTilfance of figures and of
written rules. But it is very difficult to afcertain
what may be done by memory alone, when it hath
been long exercifed in this way. We have had an
i e* Bux- example in our own age, of a perfon * who could per-
t (Je- form fome of the mod tedious and difficult operations
•' ah). jn arithmetic by the mere llrength of his memory.
The want of written rules could be no great difad-
yantage to the druids, as the precepts of this, as well
as of the other fciences, were couched in verfe, whic h
would be eafily got by heart and long remembered.
Though the druids were unacquainted with the Ara¬
bic cbaraflers, which are now in ule, we have no rea-
fon to fuppofe that they were delfitute of marks or
characters of fome other kind, which, in fome mea-
fure, anfwered the fame purpofes, both in making and
recording their calculations. In particular, we have
reafon to think, that they made ufe of the letters of
the Greek alphabet for both thefe purpofes. This
feems to be plainly intimated by Crefar in the follow¬
ing expreffion concerning the druids of Gaul: “ In
almolt all other public tranfaflions and private ac¬
counts or computations, they mske ule of the Greek
letters.” This is further confirmed by w bst the fame
Author fays of the Helvetii ; a people of the fame ori¬
gin, language, and manners, with the Gauls and Bri¬
tons. “ Tables were found in the camp of the Hel¬
vetii written in Greek letters, containing an account of
all the men capable of bearing arras, who bad left their
native country, and alfo feparate accounts of the boys,
old men, and women.” There i-s hiftorical evidence
of the druids being alfo well acquainted with geome¬
try. “ When any difputes arife (fays Ccefiir) about
their inheritances, or any controverfies about the -li¬
mits of their fields, they are entirely referred to the
dec.ifion of their druids.” But befides the knowledge
of uienfuration which this implies, both Cuefar and
Mela plainly intimate that the druids were converiant
in the mofi fublime (peculations of geometry 5 “ in
meafuring the magnitude of the earth, and even of the
9 world.”
11 in me- There are ftill many monuments remaining in
uues. Britain and the adjacent ifies, which can-not fo rca-
fonably be afcribed to any as to the ancient Britons,
and which give us caufe to think, that they had made
great progrefs in this ufeful part of learning, and could
apply the mechanical powers fo as to produce very
aftonifhing effefls. As thefe monuments appear to
have been defigned for religious purpofes, we may be
certain that they were-erefled under the diredlion of
the drurds. How many obelifks or pillars, of one
rough "unpoliffied fione each, are {fill to be feen in
Britain and its ifles! Some of thefe. pillars are both
very thick and lofty, erefled on the iummits of bar-
rows and of mountains', and fome of them (as at Stone¬
henge^ have ponderous blocks of {lone raifed aloft,
and refting on the tops of the upright pillars. We can
Voi. VII. Part I.
hardly fuppofe that it was poffible to cut thefe prodt- Druid*,
gious mafl’es of (lone (lome of them above 40 tons 1 1 —f
in weight) without wedges, or to raife them out of
the quarry without levers. But it certainly required
ft ill greater knowledge of the mechanical powers, and
of the method of applying them, to tranfport thofe
huge ftones from the quarry to the places of their
deftination 5 to ereft the perpendicular pillars, and to
elevate the impofts to the tops of thefe pillars. If
that prodigious ftone in the parifti of Conftantine,
Cornwall, was really removed by art from its original
place, and fixed where it now (lands (as one of our
mod learned and diligent antiquaries thinks it was*),* Dr jj0^,
it is a demonftration, that the druids could perform
the moft aftoniffiing feats by their flcill in mechanics,
That the Britilh druids were acquainted with the'1 ‘74
principles and ufe of the balance, we have good reafon
to believe, not only from the great antiquity of that
difcovery in other parts of the world, but alfo from
fome druidical monuments which are (till remaining
in this ifland, Thefe monuments are called Logan
Stones, or rocking ftones j and each of them confifts of
one prodigious block of ftone, refting upon an upright
ftone or rock, and fo equally balanced, that a very
fmall force, fometimes even that of a child, can move it
up and down, though hardly any force is fufficient to
remove it from its ftation. Some of thefe ftones may
have fallen into this pofition by accident, but others of
them evidently appear to have been placed in it by
art. That the ancient Britons underftood the conftruc-
tion and ule of wheels, the great number of their war-
chariots and other wheel-carriages is a fufficient proof j
and that they knew how to combine them together
and with the other mechanical powers, fo as to form
machines capable of raifing and tranfporting very heavy
weights, we have good reafon to believe. In a word,
if the Britifti druids Were wholly ignorant of the prin¬
ciples and ufe of any of the mechanical powers, it was
moft probably of the fcrew., though even of this we
cannot be certain, jq
In Germany and in the northern nations of Europe Medicinet.
the healing art was chiefly committed to the old W’o-
men of-every date.} but in Gaul and Britain it was en-
truffed to the druids, who were the phyficians as well
as the priefts of thefe countries. Pliny fays exprefi-ly.
That Tiberius Caefar deftroyed the druids ef the
Gauls, who were the poets and phyficians of that na¬
tion and he might have added of the Britons. The
people of Gaul and Britain were probably induced to
devolve the care of their health on the druids, and to
apply to thefe priefts for the cure of their difeafes,
not only by the high efteem they had of their wifdom
and learning, but alfo by the opinion which they en¬
tertained, that a very intimate connexion fubfifted be¬
tween the arts of healing and the rites of religion, and
that the former were moft effe&ual when they were ac¬
companied by the latter. It appears indeed to have
been the prevailing opinion of all the nations of anti¬
quity, that all internal dileafes proceeded immediately
from the anger of the gods j and that the only way of
obtaining relief from thefe difeafes was by applying to
their priefts to appeafe their anger by religious rites and
facrifices. This was evidently the opinion and praffice
of the Gauls and Britons, who in fome dangerous cafes
facrificed one man as the moft efFe£loal means of curing
X x another.
Druids
ii
Botany.
D R U r 34^ 1 D R U
another. “ They are much addicted (lays Caefar) to
fuperftition ; and for this caufe, thofe who are afflidled
with a dangerous difeafe facritice a man, or promife
that they will facrifice one, for their recovery. For
this purpofe they make ufe of the miniftry of the
druids ; becaufe they have declared, that the anger of
the immortal gods cannot be appeafed, fo as to fpare
the life of one man, but by tire life of another.” I his
way of thinking gave rife alfo to that great number of
magical rites and incantations with which the medical
practices of the druids, and indeed of all the phyficians
of antiquity, were attended. “ Nobody doubts (fays
Pliny) that magic derived its origin from medicine, and
that, by its flattering but delufive promifes, it came to
be efteemed the muft fublime and facred part of the art
of healing.”
That the druids made great ufe of herbs for medi¬
cinal purpofes, we' have fufficient evidence. They not
only had a moft fuperftitious veneration for the mifle-
toe of the oak, on a religious account, but they alfo
entertained a very high opinion of its medical virtues,
and efteemed it a kind of panacea or remedy for all
difeafes. “ They call it (fays Pliny) by a name which
in their language fignifies All-heal, becaufe they have an
opinion that it cureth all difeafes.” They believed it
to be in particular a fpecifie againft barrennefs, and a
fovereign antidote againft the fatal effefts of poifons
of all kinds. It was efteemed alfo an excellent emol¬
lient and difcutient for foftening and difcufling hard
tumours *, good for drying up fcrophulous fores ; for
curing ulcers and wounds j and (provided it was not
fuffered to touch the earth after it was cut) it was
thought to be a very efticacious medicine in the epi-
lepfy or falling ficknefs. It hath been thought ufeful
in this laft calamitous difeafe by feme modern phyfi¬
cians. The pompous ceremonies with which the mifle-
toe was gathered by the druids have been already de-
feribed. ^ The felago, a kind of hedge hyflop refem-
bling favin, was another plant much admired by the
druids of Gaul and Britain for its fuppofed medicinal
virtues, particularly in all difeafes of the eyes. But its
efficacy, according to them, depended very much upon
its being gathered exactly in the following manner:
The perfon who gathered it was to be clothed in a
white robe 5 to have his feet bare, and waffied in pure
water \ to offer a facrifice of bread and wine before he
proceeded to cut it j which he was to do with his right
hand covered with the Ikirt of his garment, and with
a hook of feme more precious metal than iron. When
it was cut, it was to be received into, and kept in a new
and very clean cloth. When it was gathered exactly
according to this whimfical ritual, they affirmed that
it was not only an excellent medicine, but alfo a
powerful charm and prefervative from misfortunes and
unhappy accidents of all kinds. They entertained a
high opinion alfo of the herb famolus or marffivvort,
for its fanative qualities ; and gave many diredlions for
the gathering it, no lefs fanciful than thofe above men¬
tioned. The perfon who was to perform that office was
to do it falling, and with his left hand } he was on no
account to look behind him, nor to turn his face from
the herbs he was gathering. It would be tedious to
relate the extravagant notions they entertained of the
rnany virtues of the vervain, and to recount the ridi¬
culous raummertes which they pra&ifed in gathering
3
and preparing it, both for the purpofes of divination
and phyfic. Thefe things may be feen in P!in. Hift. < ■
Nat. 1. 25. c. 9. from whence we have received all thefe
anecdotes of the botany of the druids. It is eafy to
fee that his information was very imperfect 5 and that,
like many of the other Greek and Homan writers, he
defignedly reprpfents the philofophers of Gaul and Bri¬
tain in an unfavourable light. The herb which was
called Britannica by the ancients, which lome think was
the great water-dock, and others the cochlearia or feur-
vey-grafs, was probably much ufed in this ifland for me¬
dicinal purpofes ; as it derived its name from hence, and
was from hence exported to Rome and other parts.
Though thefe few imperfeCt hints are all that we can
now colledl of the botany of the Britifti druids, yet
we have fume reafon to think that they were not con¬
temptible botanifts. Their circumitances were pecu¬
liarly favourable for the acquisition of this kind of know¬
ledge. For as they fpent moft of their time in the
receffes of mountains, groves, and woods, the fponta-
neous vegetable productions of the earth conliantly
prefented themlclves to their view, and courted their
attention.
The opinions which, it is faid, the druids of Gaul
and Britain entertained of their anguinum or ferpents
egg, both as a charm and as a medicine, are romantic
and extravagant in a very high degree. This extraor¬
dinary egg was formed, as they pretended, by a great
number of ferpents, interwoven and twined together j
and when it was formed, it was raifed up in the air
by the biffing of thefe ferpents, and was to be catched
in a clean white cloth before it fell to the ground.
The perfon who catched it was obliged to mount a
fwift horfc, and to ride away at full fpeed to efcape
from the ferpents, who purfued him with great rage,
until they were flopped by fome river. The way of
making trial of the genuinenels of the egg was no lefs
extraordinary. It was to be enchafed in gold, and
thrown into a river, and if it was genuine it would
fwim againft the ftream. “ I have feen (fays Pliny)
that egg ; it is about the bignefs of a moderate apple,
its {hell is a cartilaginous incruftation, full of little ca¬
vities, fuch as are on the legs of the polypus ; it is the
infignia or badge of diftinClion of the druids.” The
virtues which they aferibed to this egg were many
and wonderful. It was particularly efficacious to ren¬
der thofe who carried it about with them fuperior to
their adverfaries in all difputes, and to procure them
the favour and friendfhip of great men. Some have
thought that this whole affair of the ferpents egg was
a mere fraud, contrived by the druids, to excite the
admiration and pick the pockets of credulous people, •
who purchafed thefe wonder-working eggs from them
at a high price. Others have imagined that this ftory
of the anguinum (of which there is an ancient monu¬
ment in the cathedral at Paris) was an emblematical
reprefentation of the do&rine of the druids concerning
the creation of the world. The ferpents, fay they, re-
prefent the Divine wifdom forming the univerfe, and
the egg is the emblem of the world formed by that
wifdom. It may be added, that the virtue aferibed to
the anguinum, of giving thofe who poffeffed it a fu-
periority over others, and endearing them to great men,
may perhaps be intended to reprefent the natural ef-
fefts of learning and philofophy. But in fo doubtful
%
4
)ru!Js.
storia.
D R U [ 347 ] D R U
a matter every one is at full liberty to form what
judgment he thinks proper.
As the influence and authority of the druids in their
country, depended very much upon the reputation of
their fuperior wifdom and learning, they wifely applied
to the fludy of thofe fciences which moft direftly con¬
tributed to the fupport and advancement of that repu¬
tation. In this number, befides thofe already mention¬
ed, we may juftly reckon rhetoric, which was diligent¬
ly ftudied and taught by the druids of Gaul and Bri¬
tain ; who to the charms of their eloquence were in¬
debted for much of the admiration and authority which
they enjoyed. They had indeed many calls and oppor¬
tunities to difplay their eloquence, and to difcover its
great power and efficacy *, as when they were teach¬
ing their pupils in their fchools ; when they difcourfed
in public to the people on religious and moral fubje&s ;
when they pleaded caufes in the courts of juttice ; and
when they harangued in the great councils of the na¬
tion, and at the heads of armies ready to engage in
battle, fometimes with a view to inflame their cou¬
rage, and at other times with a defign to allay their
fury, and difpofe them to make peace. Though this
laft was certainly a very difficult talk among fierce and
warlike nations, yet fuch was the authority and elo¬
quence of the druids, that they frequently fucceeded
in it. “ They pay a great regard (fays Diodorus Si¬
culus) to their exhortations, not only in the affairs of
peace, but even of war, and thefe are refpedfed both
by their friends and enemies. They fometimes flep in
between two hoflile armies, who are Handing with their
fvvords drawn and their fpears extended, ready to en¬
gage ; and by their eloquence, as by an irrefiftible en¬
chantment, they prevent the eft'ufinn of blood, and
prevail upon them to fheatb their fwords. So great
are the charm« of eloquence and the power of wifdom
even amongft the moft fierce barbarians.” The Britifh
kings and chieftains, who were educated by the druids,
were famous for their eloquence. This is evident from
the many noble fpeeches which are afcribed to them
by the Greek and Roman writers. For though thefe
fpeeches may not be genuine, yet they are a proof that
it was a well known faft, that thefe princes were ac-
cuftomed to make harangues on thefe and the like oc-
cafions. This we are exprefsly told by Tacitus :—
“ The Britilh chieftains, before a battle, fly from rank
to rank, and addrefs their men with animating fpeeches,
tending to inflame their courage, increafe their hopes,
and difpel their fears.” Thefe harangues were call¬
ed, in the ancient language of Britain, Brofmchty
Kah, which is literally tranflated by Tacitus, Incita-
menta Belli, “ incentives to Avar.” The genuine po-
fterity of the ancient Britons long retained their tafte
for eloquence, and their high efteem for thofe who ex¬
celled in that art. “ Orators (fays Mr Martin) were
in high efieem, both in thefe illands (the ^Ebudae) and
the continent, until within thefe forty years. I hey
fat always among the nobles or chiefs of families in
the ftreah or circle. Their houfes and little villages
were fanftuaries, as well as churches, and they took
place before doctors of phyfie. The orators, after the
druids were extinft, were brought in to preferve the
genealogy of families, and to repeat the fame at every
lueceflion of a chief; and upon the occafion of mar¬
riages and births, they made epithalamiums and pane¬
gyrics, which the poet or bard pronounced. The ora- Druids,
tors, by the force of their eloquence, had a poAverful \i
afcendant over the greateft men in their time. For if
any orator did but afk the habit, arms, horfe, or any
other thing belonging to the greateft man in thefe
iHands, it Avas readily granted him •, fometimes out of
re I peel, and fometimea for fear of being exclaimed a-
gainft by a fatire, which in thofe days Avas reckoned a
great diffionour.” ^
If the Britiffi druids, confidering the times in which jyjagjc^an^
they lived, had made no contemptible proficiency in divination,
feveral parts of real and ufeful learning, it cannot be
denied that they Avere alfo great pretenders to fupe¬
rior knowledge in certain vain fallacious fciences, by
Avhich they excited the admiration, and took advan¬
tage of the ignorance and credulity of mankind. Thefe
were the fciences (if they may be fo called) of magic
and divination ; by Avhich they pretended to work a
kind of miracles, and exhibit aftonilhing appearances
in nature ; to penetrate into the counfels of heaven \
to foretel future events, and to difcover the fuccefs or
mifcarriage of public or private undertakings. Their
own countrymen not only believed that the druids of
Gaul and Britain were poffeffed of thefe poAvers, but
they Avere celebrated on this account by the philo-
fophers of Greece and Rome. “ In Britain (fays
Pliny) the magic arts are cultivated with fuch aftoniffi-
ing fuccefs, and fo many ceremonies, at this day, that
the Britons feem to be capable of inftrufting even the
Perfians themfelves in thefe arts. They prefeend to
difcover the defigns and purpofes of the gods. The
Eubates or Vates in particular inveftigate and difplay
the moft fublime fecrets of nature j and, by aufpices
and facrifices, they foretel future events.” 1 hey Avere
fo famous for the iuppofed veracity of their predic¬
tions, that they Avere not only confulted on all import¬
ant occafions by their own princes and great men,
but even fometimes by the Roman emperors. Nor is
it very difficult to account for all this. The druids
finding that the reputation of their magical and pro¬
phetical poAvers contributed not a little to the ad¬
vancement of their Avealth and influence, they endea¬
voured, no doubt, to ftrengthen and eftabliffi it by all
their art and cunning. Their knoAvledge of natural
philofophy and mechanics enabled them to execute
fuch Avorks, and to exhibit fuch appearances, or to
make the world believe that they did exhibit them, as
were fufficient to gain them the chara&er of great
magicians. The truth is, that nothing is more eafy
than to acquire this charadler in a dark age, and a-
mong an unenlightened people. When the minds of
men are haunted Avith dreams of charms and enchant¬
ments, they are apt to fancy that the moft common oc¬
currences in nature are the effects of magical arts. The
following ftrange ftory, which avc meet AAnth in Plu¬
tarch’s Treatife of the Ceffation of Oracles, Avas pro¬
bably occafioned by fomething of this kind. “ There «
are many illands which lie fcattered about the ifle of
Britain after the manner of our Sporades. They are
generally unpeopled, and fome of them are called the
IJlands of the Heroes. One Demetrius Avas fent by the
emperor (perhaps Claudius) to difcover thofe parts.
He arrived at one of thefe iflands (fuppofed by fome to
be Anglefey, but more probably one of the iEbudae)
next adjoining to the ifle of Britain before mentioned,
X x 2 which
D R U [ 343 ] B R U
Druids, which was inhabited by a few Britons, who were
Drum, efteeraed facred and inviolable by their countrymen.
*" y ~ Immediately after his arrival the air grew black and
troubled, and ftrange apparitions were feen ; the winds
rofe to a temped, and fiery fpouts and whirlwinds ap¬
peared dancing towards the earth.” This was pro¬
bably no more than a dorm of wind, accompanied
with rain and lightning $ a thing neither unnatural
nor uncommon : but Demetrius and his companions
having heard that the Britidr druids, by whom this
ifle was chiefly inhabited, were great magicians, they
imagined that it was raifed by them j and fancied that
they fa>v many drange and unnatural fights. The druids
did not think proper to undeceive them •, for when
they inquired at them about the caufe of this dorm,
they told them it was occafioned by the death of one
of thofe invifible beings or genii who frequented their
ifle. A wonderful and. artful tale, very well calcula¬
ted to increafe the fuperditious terrors of Demetrius
and his crew j and to determine them to abandon this
enchanted ifle, with a refolution never to return.
Stonehenge, and feveral other works of the druids,
were believed to have been executed by the arts of ma¬
gic and enchantment, for many ages after the deftruc-
tion of their whole order’,; nor is it improbable that
they perfuaded the vulgar m their own times to enter¬
tain the fame opinion of thefe works, by concealing
from them the real arts by which they are performed.
The natural and acquired fagacity of the druids,
their long experience, and great concern in the con-
dmSt of affairs, enabled them to form very probable
conjedlures about the event of enterprifes. Thefe
conjectures they pronounced as oracles, when they were
eoniulted j and they pretended to derive them from the
infpeftion of the entrails of victims, the obfervation
of the flight and feeding of certain birds, and many
othe.r mummeries., By thefe, and the like arts, they
obtained and preferved the reputation of prophetic
forefight among an ignorant and credulous people.
But thefe pretenfions of the druids to magic and
divination, which contributed fo much to the advance¬
ment of their fame and fortune in their own times,
have brought very heavy reproaches upon their memo¬
ry, and have made feme learned moderns declare that
they ought to be expunged out of the catalogue of
philofophers, and efleemed no better than mere cheats
and jugglers. This cenfure is evidently too fevere,
and might have been pronounced with equal juftice
upon all- the ancient philofuphers of Egypt, Afiyria,
Perfia, Greece, and Rome 5 who were great pretend¬
ers to magic and divination, as well as our druids. “ I
know of no nation in the world (fays Cicero) either fo
polite and learned, or fo favage and barbarous, as not
to believe that future events are prefignified to us,, and
may by fome men be difeovered and foretold.” The
only conclufion therefore that can be fairly drawn, from
the fuccefsful pretenfions of the Britifli druids to the
arts of magic and divination, is this—-That they bad
more knowledge than their countrymen and contem¬
poraries ; but had not fo much virtue as to refill the temp¬
tation of impofing upon their ignorance to their own ad¬
vantage.
DRUM, is a martial mufical inftrument in form of
a cylinder, hollow within, and covered at the two ends
with vellum, which is ftretched or flackened at pleafure
by the means of fmall cords or Aiding knots. It is beat Drain,
upon with flicks. Drums are fometimes made of brafs, Drum,
but ntoft commonly they are of wood.—The drum is by Rl0ml-
Le Clerc faid to have been an, oriental invention, and- ¥'""
to have been brought by the Arabians, or perhaps ra¬
ther the Moors, into Spain.
K£ltie-Drums, are two forts of large bafons of cop,
per or brafs, rounded in the bottom, and covered with
vellum or goat Ikin, which is kept fall by a circle of
iron round the body of the drum, with a number of
ferews to ferevv up and down. They are much ufed
among the horfc j as alfo in operas, oratorios, concerts,
&c.
Drum, or Drummer, he that beats the drum ; of
whom each company of foot has one,, and fometimes
two. Every regiment has a drum major, who has the
command over the other drums. They are diftin-
guiflved from the foldiers by clothes of a different fa-
fliion : their poll, when a battalion is drawn up, is
on the flanks, and on a march it is betwixt the divU
lions.
DRUM of the Ear, the fame with the tympanum. Ses
Anatomy Index.
DRUMMOND, William, a Scotilh poet, was
born in 1585, and was the fon of Sir John Drummond,
who for ten or twelve years was ulher and afterwards
knight of the black rod to James VI. His family be¬
came firlt diftmguiflied by the marriage of Robert III.
whofe queen was filler to William Drummond of Car-
nock their anoeftor j as appears by the patent of that
king and James I. the one calling him “ our brother,”
the other “ our uncle.”
Drummond was educated at Edinburgh, where he
took the degree of A. M. In 1606 he was fent by
his father to Andy civil law at Bourges in France : but
having no tafle for the profelfion of a lawyer, he re¬
turned to Scotland, and retired to his agreeable feat
at Hawthornden ; where he applied himfelf with great
afliduity to claflical learning and poetry,, and prefented
to the world feveral fine produ&ions. Here he wrote,
after a dangerous fit of ficknefs, his Cyprefs Grove,
a piece of excellent profe j and about the fame time
his Flowers of Sion in verfe. But an accident befel
him, which obliged him to quit his retirement y and
that was the death of an amiable lady to whom he was
juft going to be married. This affefled him fo deeply.,
that he went to Pari* and Rome, between which two
places he refided eight years. He travelled alfo through
Germany, France, and Italy j.where he vifited univer-
fities ; converfed with learned men,; and made a choice
colle R u
importance to you, it may be of the utmoft to fome one Drunb
or other whom your fociety corrupts. « Repeated or nets,
long-continued excefles, which hurt not your health, -Y-
may be fatal to your companion. Although you have
neither wife nor child, nor parent, to lament your ab-
fence from home, or expert your return to it with ter¬
ror ; other families, whofe hufbands and fathers have
been invited to (bare in your ebriety, or encouraged to
imitate it, may juftly lay their mifery or ruin at your
door. This will hold good, whether the perfon feduced
be feduced immediately by you, or the vice be propa¬
gated from you to him through feveral intermediate
examples.”
The ancient Lacedsemonians ufed to make their flaves
frequently drunk, to give their children an averfion and
horror for the fame. The Indians hold drunkennefs
a fpecies of madnefs ; and in their language the fame
term Cramgam'), that fignifies “ drunkard,” fignifies
alfo “ a phrenetick.”
Drunkennefs is repeatedly forbidden by St Paul:
“ Be not drunk with wine, wherein isexcefs.” “ Let
us walk honeftiy as in the day, not in rioting and drunk¬
ennefs “ Be not deceived : neither fornicators, nor
drunkards, nor revilers, nor extortioners, (hall inherit
the kingdom of God.” Eph. vi. 18. Rom. xiii. 13.
I Cor. vi. 9, 10. The fame apoftle likevvife condemns
drunkennefs, as peculiarly ineonfiftent with the Chriftian
profeffion : “ They that be drunken, are drunken in
the night ; but let us, who are of the day, be fober.”
1 Theff. v. 7, 8.
Drunkennefs, by our laws, is looked upon as an ag¬
gravation rather than an excufe for any criminal beha¬
viour. A drunkard, fays Sir Edward Coke, who is
Voluntaritis deemon, hath no privilege, thereby : but what
hurt or ill foever he doth, his drunkennefs doth aggra¬
vate it : nam omne crimen ebrietas et incendit et detergit.
It hath been obferved that the real ufe of ftrong li¬
quors, and the abufe of them by drinking to excefs,
depend much upon the temperature of the climate in
which we live. The fame indulgence which may be
neceffary to make the blood move in Norway, would
make an Italian mad. A German, therefore, fays the
prefident Montefquieu, drinks through cuftom founded
upon conftitutional neceflity ; a Spaniard drinks through
choice, or out of the mere wantonnefs of luxury \ and
drunkennefs, he adds, ought to be more feverely pu-
niflred where it makes men mifehievous and mad, as
in Spain and Italy, than where it only renders them
ftupid and heavy, as in Germany and more northern
countries. And accordingly, in the warmer climate of
Greece, a law of Pittacus enafted, “ that he who
committed a crime when drunk (hould receive a double
puniftiment; one for the crime itfelf, and the other
for the ebriety which prompted him to commit it.
The Roman law indeed made great allowances for this
vice : per vinum delopjis capitalis poena remittitur. But
the law of England, confidering how eafy it is to coun¬
terfeit this excufe, and how weak an excufe it is (though
real), will not fuffer any man thus to privilege one
crime by another.
For the offence of drunkennefs a man may be pu-
niftied in the ecclefiaftical court, as well as by juftices
of peace by ftatute. And by 4 Jac* I* c* 5* an{^
21 Jac. I. c. 7. if any perfon (hall be convi&ed of
drunkennefs by the view of a juftice, oath of one wit-
nclsj
B R U f 3
|ik£n_ nefs, &c. lie {hall forfeit 5s. for the firft offence, to
cfl be levied by diftrefs and fale of his goods ; and for
' ,Tant of a diftrefs, (hall lit in the flocks fix hours : and
for the fecond offence, he is to be bound with two fure-
ties in icl. each, to be of good behaviour, or to be
committed. And he who is guilty of any crime
through his own voluntary drunkennefs, fhall be punifh-
ed for it. as if he had been fober. It has been held that
drunkennefs is a fufficient caufe to remove a magi-
ftrate ; and the profecution for this offence by the lla-
tute of 4 Jac. I. c. 5. was to be, and ftili may be, be--
fore juftices. of peace in their feflions by way of in-
di&ment, &c. Equity will not relieve againft a bond,
&c. given by a man when drunk, unlefs the drunken¬
nefs is occafioned through the management or contri¬
vance of him to whom the bond is given.
The appetite for intoxicating liquors appears to be
almoft always acquired. One proof of which is, that
it is apt to return only at particular times and places $
as after dinner, in the evening, on the market day, at
the market town, in fueh a company, at i’uch a tavern.
And this may be the reafon, that if a habit of drunk¬
ennefs be ever overcome, it is upon fume change of
place, fituation, company, or profeflion. A man funk
deep in a habit of drunkennefs, will upon fuch occa-
fions as thefe, when he finds himfelf loofened from the
affociations which held him fall, foraetimes make a
plunge, and get out. In a matter of fuch great im¬
portance, it is well worth while, where it is tolerably
convenient, to change our habitation and fociety, for
the fake of the experiment.
Habits of drunkennefs commonly take their rife
either from a fondnefs for, or connexion w’ith, fome
company, or fome companion, already addi£fed to this
pra&ice; which affords an almoft irrefiftible invi¬
tation to take a ftiare in the indulgencies which thofe
about us are enjoying with fo much apparent relifh
and delight; or from want of regular employment,
which is fure to let in many fuperfluous cravings and
cuftoms, and often this amongft the reft ; or, laftly,
from grief or fatigue, both which ftrongly folicit that
relief which inebriating liquors adminifter for the pre-
fent, and furnifti a fpecious excufe for complying with
the inclination. But the habit, when once fet in, is
continued by different motives from thofe to which
it owes its origin. Perfons addidled to exceffive drink¬
ing fulfer, in the intervals of fobriety, and near the re¬
turn of their accuftomed indulgence, a faintnefs and
oppreffion about the preecordia which it exceeds the
ordinary patience of human nature to endure. This
is ufually relieved for a (liort time by a repetition of
the fame excefs: and to this relief, as to the removal of
every long-continued pain, they who have once expe¬
rienced it are urged almoft beyond the power of refift-
ance. This is not all : as the liquor lofes its ftimulus,
the dofe muft be increafed, to reach the fame pitch of
elevation or eafe ; which increafe proportionably acce¬
lerates the progrefs of all the maladies that drunken¬
nefs brings on. Whoever reflects, therefore, upon the
violence of the craving in advanced ftages of the habit,
and the fatal termination to which the gratification of
it leads, will, the moment he perceives the leaft ten¬
dency in himfelf of a growing inclination to intempe¬
rance, colleft his refolution to this point ; or (what
perhaps he will find his beft fecurity) arm himfelf with
51 ] - b-r u
fome peremptory rule, as to the times and quantity of Drunken-
his indulgertcies. nets
DRUPA, or Druppa, in Botany, a fpecies of pe- II
ricarpium or feed-veffel, which is fucculent or pulpy, , ^ru^e5,
has no valve or external opening like the eapfule and
pod, and contains within its fubftance a ftone or nut.
The cherry, plum, peach, apricot, and all other ftone
fruits are of this kind.
The term, which is of great antiquity, is fynony-
mousJ;o Tournefort’s fruBus mollis ojjiculo, “ foft fruit
with a ftone $” and to t\\e prunus of other botanifts.
The ftone or nut, which in this fpecies of fruit is
furrounded by the foft pulpy flefh, is a kind of ligneous
or woody cup, which contains a fingle kernel or feed.
Phis definition, however, will not apply to every
feed veflel denominated drupain the Genera B hint arum.
The almond is a drupa, fo is the feed-veffel of the elm
tree and the genus rumphia, though far from being
pulpy or fucculent; the firft and third are of a fubftance
like leather, the fecond like parchment. The fame may
be faid of the walnut, piftachia nut, gueltarda, quifqua-
lis, jack-in-a-box, and fome others.
Again, the feeds of the elm, fchrebera, Jhigellaria,
and the mango tree, are not contained in a ftone. The
feed-veflel of burr reed is dry, fliaped like a top, and
contains two angular ftones.
This fpecies of fruit, or more properly feed-veffel,
is commonly roundifh, and when Rated below the ca¬
lyx or receptacle of the flower, is furnifhed, like the
apple, at the end oppofite to the footflalk, with a
fmall umbilicus or cavity, which is produced by the
fwelling of the fruit before the falling off of the flower-
cup.
DRUSES, or Druzes, a remarkable nation in
Paleftine, inhabiting the environs of Mount Lebanon,
of whofe origin and hiftory we have the following de¬
tail by M. Volney.
Twenty-three years after the death of Pvfahoraet, the
difputes between Ali his fon-in-law and Moaouia go¬
vernor of Syria, occafioned the firft fchifm in the em¬
pire of the Arabs, and the two lefts fubfift to this day :
but in reality, this difference related only to power j
and the Mahometans, however divided in opinion re-
fpefting the. rightful fucceffor of the prophet, were
agreed with refpeft to their dogmas. It was not un¬
til the following century that the perufal of Greek
books introduced among the Arabs a fpirit of difeuf-
fion and controverfy, to which till then they were ut¬
ter ftrangers. The confequence was, as might be ex-
pefled, by reafoning on matters not fufceptible of de-
monflration, and guided by the abftrafl principles of
an unintelligible logic, they divided into a multitude
of fefls and opinions. At this period, too, the civil
power loft its authority j and religion, which from that
derives the means of preferving its unity, {hared the
fame fate, and the Mahometans now experienced what
had before befallen the Chriftians. The nations which
had received the religion of Mahomet, mixed with it
their former abfurd notions j and the errors which had
anciently prevailed over Afia again made their appear¬
ance, though altered in their forms. The me.tempfy-
chofis, the dodlrine of a good and evil principle, and
the renovation alter fix thoufand years, as it had been
taught by Zoroafter, were again revived among the
Mahometans. In this political and religious confufion
every
D R tJ t 35
Umfes. evffry entliufiaft became an apoftle, and every apoftle
the head of a fe&. No lefi than fixty of thefe were
reckoned, remarkable for the numbers of their follow¬
ers, all differing in fome points of faith, and all dif-
avowing herefy and error. Such was the date of thefe
countries when at the commencement of the nth cen¬
tury Egypt became the theatre of one of the mod ex¬
travagant fcenes of enthufiafm and abfurdity ever re¬
corded in hidory. Ihe following account is extracted
from the eadern writers.
In the year of the Hegira 386 (A. D. 996), the
third caliph of the race of the Fatimites, called Hakem-
Vamr-ellah, fucceeded to the throne of Egypt at the
age of 1 x years. He was one of the mod extraordinary
princes of whom hidory has preferved the memory. He
taufed the fird caliphs, the companions of Mahomet, t6
be curfed in the mofques, and afterwards revoked the
anathema : He compelled the Jews and Chndians to
abjure their religion, and then permitted them to refume
It. He prohibited the making dippers for women, to
prevent them from coming out of their homes. He
burnt one half of the city of Cairo for his diverfion,
-while his foldiers plundered the other. Not contented
with thefe extravaganta&ions, he forbade the pilgrimage
to Mecca, fading, and the five prayers j and at length
carried his madnefs fo far as to defire to pafs for God
himfelf. He ordered a regider of thofe who acknow¬
ledged him to be fo, and the number amounted to fix-
teen thoufand. This impious pfetenfion was fupported
by a falfe prophet, who came from Perfia into Egypt ;
which impodor, named Mohammed ben-Ifmael, taught
that it was not neceflary to fad or pray, to pra&ife cir-
cumcifion, to make the pilgrimage to Mecca, or obferve
fedivals •, that the prohibition of pork and wine was ab-
furd •, and that marriage between brothers and fiders,
fathers and children, was lawful. To ingratiate hirrfelf
with Hakem, he maintained that this caliph was God
himfelf incarnate-, and indead of his nameHa^w-^awr-
ellah, which dignifies governing by the order of God, he
called him Hakem b'alar-eh, governing btf hts own order.
Unluckily for the prophet, his new god had pot the
power to protefl him from the fury of his enemies, who
flew him in a tumult almofl in the arms of the caliph,
■who was himfelf maffacred foon after on Mount Mo-
kattam, where he, as he faid, had held converfation with
angels.
The death of thefe two chiefs did not 'flop the pro-
grefs of their opinions 5 a difciple of Mohammed-ben-
Ifmael, named Hamzu-beh-Ahmud, propagated them
with an indefatigable zeal in Egypt, in Palefline, and
along the coad of Syria, as far as Sidon and Berytus.
His profelytes being perfecuted by the feft in power,
they took refuge in the mountains of Lebanon, where
they were better able to defend themfelves ; at lead it
js certain, that, diortly after this era, We find them
edabliflied there, and forming an independent fociety.
The difference of their opinions difpofes them to be
enemies; but the urgent interefl of their common fafety
forces them to allow mutual toleration, and they have
always appeared "united, and have jointly oppofed, at
different times, the Crufaders, the fultans of Aleppo,
the Mamelukes, and the Ottomans. The conqued of
Syria by the latter made no change in their fituation.
Selim I. on his return from Egypt, meditating no lefs
],han the eonepreft of Europe, difdained to wafte his
2 ] D R U
time before the rocks of Lebanon. Soliman II. his Draffs,
fucceffor, inceffantly engaged in important wars, either W"Y--
with the knights of Rhodes, the Perfians, the kingdom
of Yemen, the Hungarians, the Germans, or the em¬
peror Charles V. had no time to think of the Drufes,
Emboldened by this inattention, and not content with
their independence, they frequently defeended from
their mountains to pillage the Turks. The pachas in
vain attempted to repel their inroads j their troops were
invariably routed or repiilled. And it was not till the
year 1588 that Amuralh III. wearied with the com.
plaints made to him, refolved, at all events, to reduce
thefe rebels, and had the good fortune to fueceed.
His general Ibrahim Pacha marched from Cairo, and
attacked the Drufes and Maronites with fo much ad-
drefs and vigour as to force them into their flrong holds,
the mountains. Diffenfion took place among their
chiefs, of which he availed himfelf to exa£l a contri¬
bution of upward of one million of piaflres, and to
impofe a tribute which has continued to the prefent
time.
It appears that this expedition was the epoch of a
confiderable change in the conditution of the Drufes.
Till then they had lived in a fort of anarchy, under
the command of different flieiks or lords. The na*
tion was likewife divided into two fa&ions, fuch as
is to be found in all the Arab tribes, and which are
diftinguifhed into the party Kaifi and the party Ya-
taani. To Amplify the adminiflration, Ibrahim per¬
mitted them only one chief, who fhould be refponfible
for the tribute, and execute the office of civil magis¬
trate ; and this governor, from the nature of his fitua¬
tion, acquiring great authority, became almofl the king
of the republic ; but as he was always chofen from
among the Drufes, a confequence followed which the
Turks had not forefeen, and which was nearly fatal
to their power. For the chief thus chofen, having at
his difpofal the whole ftrength of the nation, was able
to give it unanimity and energy, and it naturally turn¬
ed againfl the Turks -, fince the Drufes, by becoming
their fubje&s, had not ceafed to be their enemies. They
took care, however, that their attacks ffiould be in-
direft, fo as to fave appearances, and only engaged in
Tecret hodilities, more dangerous, perhaps, than open
war.
AboUt this time, that is, the beginning of the 17th
century, the power of the Drufes attained its greateft
height ; which it owed to the talents and ambition of
the celebrated Faker-el-din, commoly-called Fakardin.
No footier w-as this prince advanced to be the chief of
that people than he turned his whole attention to hum¬
ble the Ottoman power, and aggrandife himfelf at its
expence. In this enterprife he difplayed an addrefs
"feldom Teen among the Lurks. He fird gained the
confidence of the Porte, by every demondration of loy¬
alty and fidelity ) and as the Arabs at that time infefted
the plain of Balbec and the countries of Sour and Acre,
he made war upon them, freed the inhabitants from their
depredations, and thus rendered them defirous of living
-under his government.
The city of Bairout was fituated advantageoufly
for his defigns, as it opened a communication with
foreign countries, and among others, with the Vene¬
tians, the natural enemies of the Turks. Faker-el-dirt
availed himfelf of the mifeonduft of the aga, expelk
ed
B R U t 353 1 D R U
ed him, feized on the city, and even had the art to
make a merit of this ad of hoftility with the Divan, by
paying a more confiderable tribute. He proceeded in
the fame manner at Saide, Balbec, and Sour ; and at
length about the year 1613, favv bimfelf mailer of all
the country as far as Adjaloun and Safad. The pachas
of Tripoli and Damafcus could not fee thefe encroach¬
ments with indifference; fometimes they oppofed him
with open force, though ineffectually, and fometimes
endeavoured to ruin him at the Porte by fecret infinua-
tions $ but the emir, who maintained there his fpies and
defenders, defeated every attempt.
At length, however, the Divan began to be alarmed
R u c 355 T . 1) R U
)ru/e£ 9r,(^ ^P°^e ^le Sclavonian as his mother tongue, as the
■ Ragufan captains, with whom he converfed in prefer¬
ence to thofe of every other nation, affert. It is faid,
that flying from his country at the age of 16, tb efcape
the confequence of an attempt to violate his fifter-in-
]aw, he repaired to Conftantinople, where, deftitute of
the means of procuring fubfiftence, he fold himl'elf to
the Have merchants to be conveyed to Egypt j and, on
his arrival at Cairo, was purchafed by Ali Bey, who
placed him among his Mamelukes.
Ahmad was not long in diftinguilhing himfelf by
his courage and addrefs. His patron employed him
on feveral occafions in dangerous coups de main, fuch
as the affaflination of fuch beys and cachefs as he
fufpefled ; of which commiffions he acquitted him¬
felf fo well as to acquire the name of Dje^ar, which
fignifies Cut-throat. With this claim to his friendflhip,
he enjoyed the favour of Ali until it was difturbed by
an accident.
This jealous bey having profcribed one of his bene¬
factors called Saleh Bey, commanded Djezzar to cut
off his head. Either from humanity or fome fecret
friendlhip for the devoted victim, Djezzar hefitated,
and even remonftrated againfl: the order. But learning
the next day that Mohammed Bey had executed the
commiflion, and that Ali had fpoken of him not very
favourably, h% thought himfelf a loft man, and, to
avoid the fate of Saleh Bey, efcaped unobferved, and
reached Conftantinople. He there folicited employ¬
ment fuitable to his former rank *, but meeting, as is
ufual in capitals, with a great number of rivals, he pur-
fued another plan, and went to feek his fortune in Sy¬
ria as a private foldier. Chance conduced him among
the Drufes, where he was hofpitably entertained, even
in the houfe of the kiaya of the emir Youfef. From
thence he repaired to Damafcus, where he foon ob¬
tained the title of A'ga, with a command of five pair of
colours, that is to fay, of 50 men 5 and he was thus
fituated when fortune deftined him to the government
of Bairout.
Djezzar was no fooner eftabliftied there than he took
pofleflion of it for the Turks. Youfef was confounded
at this proceeding. He demanded juftice at Damafcus j
but finding his complaints treated with contempt, enter¬
ed into a treaty Avith Daher, and concluded an offenfive
and defenfive alliance with him at Ras-el-aen, near to
Sour. No fooner was Daher united with the Drufes
than he laid fiege to Bairout by land, whilft two
Ruffian frigates, _whofe fervice was purchafed by 600
purfes, cannonaded it by fea. Djezzar was compelled
to fubmit to force, and, after a vigorous refiftance, gave
up the city, and furrendered himfelf prifoner. Shaik
Daher, charmed with his courage, and flattered with
the preference he had given him in the furrender, con¬
duced him to Acre, and thowed him every mark of
kindnefs. He even ventured to truft him with a fmall
expedition into Paleftine ; but Djezzar, on approaching
.Terufalem, went over to the Turks, and returned to
Damafcus.
The war of Mohammed Bey breaking out, Djezzar
offered his fervice to the captain pacha, and gained his
confidence. He accompanied him to the fiege of Acre*,
and that admiral having deftroyed Daher, and finding
iio perfon more proper than Djezzar to accomplith the
defigns of the Porte in that country, named him pacha Dndes,
of Saide. <
Being now, in confequence of this revolution, fuperior
lord to the emir Youfef, Djezzar is mindful of injuries
in proportion as he has reafon to accufe himfelf of
ingratitude. By a conduct truly Turkifh, feigning
alternately gratitude and refentment, he is alternately
on terms of difpute and reconciliation with him, con¬
tinually exadfting money as the price of peace, or an
indemnity for war. His artifices have fucceeded fo
well, that within the fpace of five years he has extorted
from the emir four millions of French money (above
160,000!.) j a fum the more aftoniftiing, as the farm
of the country of the Drufes did not then amount to
100,000 livres (4000I.).
In 1784, he made war on him, depofed him, and
bellowed the government on the emir of the country
of Hafbeya, named Ifmael. Youfef, having once more
purchafed his favour, returned towards the end of the
fame year to Dair-el-Kamar, and even courted his con¬
fidence fo far as to wait on him at Acre, from whence
nobody expelled him to return ; but Djezzar is too
cunning to fhed blood while there are any hopes of get¬
ting money : he releafed the prince, and fent him back
with every mark of friendlhip. Since that period the
Porte has named him pacha of Damafcus, while he alfo
retained the fovereignty of the pachalic of Acre, and of
the country of the Drufes.
As to the religion of the Drufes : What has been
already faid of the opinions of Mohammed-ben-Ifmael
may be regarded as the fubftance of it. They pradtife
neither circumcifion, nor prayers, nor fading; they
obferve neither feftivals nor prohibitions. They drink
wine, eat pork, and allow marriage between brothers
and fifters, though not between fathers and children.
From this we may conclude, with reafon, that the
Drufes have no religion ; yet one clafs of them muft
be excepted, whofe religious cuftoms are very peculiar.
Thofe who compofe it are to the reft of the nation
what the initiated were to the profane ; they affume
the name of Ohkals, which means fpiritualifts, and bellow
on the vulgar the epithet of Djahel, or ignorant : th^y
have various degrees of initiation, the higheft orders of
which require celibacy. Thefe are diftinguiftiable by
the white turban they affedl to wear, as a fymbol of their
purity ; and fo proud are they of this fuppofed purity,
that they think themfelves fullied by even touching a
profane perfon. If you eat out of their plate, or drink
out of their cup, they break them; and hence the cuf-
tom, fo general in this country, of ufing vafes with a
fort of cock, which may be drank out of without touch¬
ing them with the lips. All their pradlices are envelop¬
ed in myfteries : their oratories always ftand alone, and
are conftantly fituated on eminences : in thefe they hold
their fecret alfembiies, to which women are admitted.
It is pretended they perform ceremonies there in prefence
of a fmall ftatue refembling an ox or a calf; whence
fome have pretended to prove that they are defcended
from the Samaritans. But befides that the fa£t is not
well afcertained, the Avorlhip of the ox may be deduced
from other fources.
They have one or two books which they conceal
with the greateft care; but chance has deceived their
jealoufyj for in a civil war which happened fome
Y y 2 years
D R U [ 356 ] D R U
Dmfes. years ag°> emir Youfef, who is Djahel or igno-
—v—— rant, found one among the pillage of one of their ora¬
tories. M. Volney was affured, by perfons who had
read it, that it contains only a myftic jargon, the ob-
fcurity of which doubtlefs renders it valuable to adepts.
Hakem B’amr-ellab, is there fpoken of, by whom they
mean God incarnated in the perfon of the caliph. It
likewife treats of another life, of a place of punilh-
ment, and a place of happinefs where the Okkals (hall
of courfe be molt diftinguilhed. Several degrees of
perfection are mentioned, to which they arrive by fuc-
ceffive trials. In other refpeds, thefe fedaries have
all the infolence and all the fears of fuperllition : they
are not communicative, becaufe they are weak 5 but it
is probable that, were they powerful, they would be
promulgators and intolerant.
The reft of the Drufes, ftrangers to this fpirit, are
wholly indifferent about religious matters. The Chri-
llians who live in their country pretend that feveral of
them believe in the metempfychofis j that others wor-
fhip the fun, moon, and ftars: all which is poffible ;
for, as among the Anfaria, every one, left to his own
fancy, follows the opinion that pleafes him moft •, and
thefe opinions are thofe which prefent tbemfelves molt
naturally to unenlightened minds. When among the
Turks, they affeCt the exterior of Mahometans, fre¬
quent the mofques, and perform their ablutions and
prayers. Among the Maronites, they accompany them
to church, and, like them, make ufe of holy water.
Many of them, importuned by the miflionaries, fuffer
themfelves to be baptized; and if folicited by the
Turks, receive circumcifion, and conclude by dying
neither Chriftians nor Mahometans ; but they are not
fo indifferent in matters of civil policy.
The Drufes may be divided into two claffes; the com¬
mon people ; and the people of eminence and property,
diffinguilhed by the title of (haiks and emirs, or defcend-
anls of princes. The greater part are cultivators, either
. as farmers or proprietors^ every man lives on his inheri¬
tance, improving his mulberry trees and vineyards: in
fome diftridls they grow tobacco, cotton, and fome grain $
hut the quantity of thefe is inconfiderable. It appears
that at firft all the lands were, as formerly in Europe,
in the hands of a fmall number of families. But to
render them produdive, the great proprietors were for¬
ced to fell part of them, and let leafes *, which fubdivi-
fion is become the chief fource of the power of the
flate, by multiplying the number of perfons interefted
in the public weal: there Hill exill, however, fome
traces of the original inequality, which even at this
day produces pernicious effedls. The great property
poffeffed by fome families gives them too much in¬
fluence in all the meafures of the nation ; and their
private interefts have too great weight in every pub¬
lic tranfadlion. Their hiflory, for fome years back,
affords fufficient proofs of this ; fince all the civil or
foreign wars in which they have been engaged have
originated in the ambition and perfonal views of fome
of the principal families, fucb as the Lefbeks, the
Djambtlats, the Ifmaels of Solyma, &c. The lhaiks
of thefe houfes, who alone poflefs one tenth-part of
the country, procured creatures by their money, and
at lad involved all the Drufes in their diffenfions.
It mull be owned, however, that poflibly to this con¬
flict between contending parties the whole nation owes
4
the good fortune of never having been enflaved by its T) f,
chief. i . es^
This chief, called Hakem or governor, alfo Emir
or prince, is a fort of king or genera], who unites in
his own perfon the civil and military powers. His
dignity is fometimes tranfmitted from father to fon,
fometimes from one brother to another j and the fuc-
ceflion is determined rather by force than any certain
laws. Females can in no cafe pretend to this inheri¬
tance. They are already excluded from fucceffion in
civil affairs, and confequently can ftill lefs expeCl it
in political : in general, the Afiatic governments are
too turbulent, and their adminiftration renders milita¬
ry talents too neceffary, to admit of the fovereignty of
women. Among the Drufes the male line of any fa¬
mily being extinguilhed, the government devolves to
him who is in poffeflion of the greatefl number of fuf-
frages and refources. But the firll flep is to obtain
the approbation of the Turks, of whom he becomes the
vaffal and tributary. It even happens, that, not un-
frequently to affert their fupremacy, they name the
Hakem, contrary to the wifties of the nation, as in the
cafe of Ifmael Hafbeya, raifed to that dignity by
Djezzar j but this eonltraint iafts no longer than it is
maintained by that violence which gave it birth. The
office of the governor is to watch over the good order
of the ftate, and to prevent the emirs, lhaiks, and
villages, from making war on each other : in cafe of
dilobedience, he may employ force. He is alfo at
the head of the civil power, and names the cadis,
only always referving to himfelf the power of life and
death. He collefts the tribute, from which he an¬
nually pays to the pacha a ftated fum. This tribute
varies in proportion as the nation renders itfelf more
or lefs formidable: at the beginning of this cen¬
tury, it amounted to 160 purfes, 8330!.*, but Mel-
hem forced the Turks to reduce it to 60. In 1784
Emir Youfef paid 80 and promifed 90. This tribute,
which is called Miri, is impofed on the mulberry trees,
vineyards, cotton, and grain. All town land pays in.
proportion to its extent j every foot of mulberries is
taxed at three medins, or three fols nine deniers (nob
quite twopence.) A hundred feet of vineyard pays
a piaftre or 40 medins j and frelb meafurements are
often made to preferve a juft proportion The lhaiks
and emirs have no exemption in this refpeft ; and it
may be truly faid they contribute to the public flock
in proportion to their fortune. The colleftion is made
almoli without expence. Each man pays his contin¬
gent at Dair-el-Kamar, if he pleafes, or to the collec¬
tors of the prince, who make a circuit round the coun¬
try after the crop of filks. The furplus of this tribute
is for the prince ; fo that it is his intereft to reduce the
demands of the Turks, as it would be likewife to aug¬
ment the impoft : but this meafure requires the fawftion
of the lhaiks, who have the privilege of oppofing it.
Their eonfent is neceffary, likewife, for peace and war.
In thefe cafes, the emir muft convoke, general affem-
blies, and lay before them the ftate of his affairs. There
every Ihaik, and every peafant who has any reputation
for courage or underftanding, is entitled to give his
fuffrage ; fo that this government may be confidered as
a well-pmportioned mixture of monarchy, ariftrocracy,.
and democracy. Every thing depends on circumftan-
ces: if the governor be a man of ability, he is abfolute;
D R U
if weak, a cipher. This proceeds from the want of
fixed laws •, a want common to all Afia, and the radi¬
cal caufe of all the diforders in the governments of the
Afia tic nations.
Neither the chief nor the individual emirs maintain
troops; they have only perfons attached to the domeftic
fervicte of their houfes, and a few black (laves. When the
nation makes war, every man, whether fhaik or peafant,
able to bear arms, is called upon to march. He takes
with him a little bag of flour, a muflcet, fome bullets,
a fmall quantity of powder, made in his village, and re¬
pairs to the rendezvous appointed by the governor. If.
it be a civil war, as fometimes happens, the fervants,
the farmers, and their friends, take up arms for their
patron, or the chief of their family, and repair to his
ftandard. In fuch cafes, the parties irritated frequently
feem on the point of proceeding to the laft extremities j
but they feldom have recourfe to a£ls of violence, or at-
temot the death of each other ; mediators always inter-
ppfe, and the quarrel is appeafed the more readily, as
each patron is obliged to provide his followers with
provi(ions and ammunition. This fyftem, which produ¬
ces happy * flfc&s in civil troubles, is attended with great
inconvenience in foreign wars, as fufficiently appeared
in that of 1784. Djezzar, who knew that the whole
army lived at the expence of the emir Youfef, aimed at
nothing but delay, and the Drufes, who were not dif-
pleafed at being fed for doing nothing, prolonged the
operations; but the emir, wearied of paying, concluded
a treatv, the terms of which were not a little rigorous
for him, and eventually for the whole nation, finee no¬
thing is more certain than that the interefts of a prince
and his fubjedfs are always infeparable.
“ The ceremonies to which I have been a witnels on
thefe occafions (fays M. Volney), bear a ftriking refem-
blance to the cuftoms of ancient times. W^hen the emir
and the (haiks had determined on war at Hair-el Ka-
mar, cryers in the evening afcended the fummits of the
mountain •, and there began to cry with a loud voice :
4 To war, to war ; take your guns, take your piftols:
noble (haiks,. mount your horfes ; arm yourfelves with
the lance and fabre ; rendezvous to morrow at Dair-el-
Kamar. Zeal of God ! zeal of combats !’ L his fum-
mons, heard from the neighbouring villages, was re¬
peated there ; and as the whole country is nothing but
a chain of lofty mountains and deep valleys, the pro¬
clamation paffed in a few hours to the frontiers.
Thefe voices, from the ftillnefs of the night, the long
refounding echoes, and the nature of the fubje£t, had
fomething awful and terrible in their eflfeft. Three
davs after 1 5,000 armed men rendezvouzed at Dair-el-
Kamar, and operations might have been immediately
commenced.
“ We may eafily imagine that troops of this kind no
"way re(emble our European (oldiers ; they have neither
uniforms, nor difcipline, nor order. They are a crowd
of peasants with flmrt coats, naked legs, and mu fleets
in their hands • differing from the Turks and Mame¬
lukes in that thev are all foot j the (haiks and emirs
alone having horfes, which are of little ufe from the
rugaed nature of the country. War there can only
be a war of pofts. The Brufes never rifk. them-
felves in the plain ; and with reafon : for they would
be unable *0 (land the (hock of cavalry, having no
bayonets to their mufkets. The whole art confifts in
D R U
climbing rocks, creeping among the buflies and blocks Drufes.
of (tone j from whence their fire is the .more dangerous,^ '
as they are covered, fire at their eafe, and by hunting
and military fports have acquired the habit of hitting
a mark with great dexterity. They are accuftomed
to fudden inroads, attacks by night, ambufeades, and
all thofe coups domain which require to fall fuddenly
on, and come to clofe fight with the enemy. Ardent
in improving their fuccefs, eafily difpirited, and prompt
to refume their courage j daring even to temerity, and
fometimes ferocious, they poflefs above all two quali¬
ties effential to the excellency of any troops j they
flridfly obey their leaders, and are endowed with a
temperance and vigour of health at this day unknown
to mod civilized nations. In the campaign of 1784,
they paffed three months in the open air without tents
or any other covering than a (heep (kin j yet were
there not more deaths or maladies than if they had re¬
mained in their houfes. Their provifions confided, as
at other times, of fmall loaves baked on the afties or
on a brick, raw onions, cheefe, olives, fruits, and a
little wine. The table of the chiefs was almoft as fru¬
gal; and we may affirm, that they fublifted 100 days
on what the fame number of Engliftimen or Frenchmen
would not have lived ten. They have no knowledge of '
the fcience of fortification, the management of artillery,
or encampments, nor, in a word, any thing which con-
ftitutes the art of war* But had they among them a
few perfons verfed in military fcience, they would rea¬
dily acquire its principles, and become a formidable
foldiery. This would be the more eafily effedled, as
their mulberry plantations and vineyards do not occupy
them all the year, and they could afford much time for
military exercifes.”
By the laft eftimates, according to M. Volney’s '
information, the number of men able to bear arms
was 40,000, which fuppofes a total population of
120,000 ; no addition is to be made to this cal¬
culation, fince there are no Brufes in the cities or,
on the coaft. As the whole country contains only
100 fquare leagues, there refults for every league .
1090 perfons *, which is equal to the population of our
richeft provinces. To render this more remarkable,
it mud be obferved, that the foil is not fertile, that a
great many eminences remain uncultivated, that they
do not grow corn enough to fupport themfelves three
months in the year, that they have no manufadfures,
and that all their exportations are confined to filks and
cottons, the balance of which exceeds very little the
importation of corn from the Hauran, the oils of Pale-
ftine, and the rice and coffee they procure from Bairout.
Whence arifes then fuch a number of inhabitants with¬
in fo fmall a fpace ? “ I can difcover no other caufe (fays
our author), than that ray of liberty which glimmers in
this country. Unlike the Turks, every man lives in a .
perfedt fecurity of his life and property. The peafant is
not richer than in other countries; but he is free. ‘ He
fears not,’ as I have often heard them fay, ‘ that the
Aga, the Kaimmakam, or the Pacha, (hould fend their *
Bjendis to pillage his houfe, carry off his family, or .
give him the baflinado.’ Such oppreflions are un- ,
known among . thefe mountains. Securitytherefi-re,
has been the original caufe of population, from that in¬
herent defire which all men have to multiply themfelves *
where vex they find an eafy fubfiftence. T he frugality of
f 357 ]
D R U [ 358 1 D R U
Drufes. ^lie nation, which is content with little, has been a fe-
»—v—i...- condary, and not lefs powerful reafon ; and a third is the
emigration of a number of Chriflian families, who daily
defert the Turkith provinces to fettle in Mount Leba¬
non, where they are received with open arms by the
Maronites from fimilarity of religion, and by the Drufes
from principles of toleration, and a conviction how
much it is the intereft of every country to multiply the
number of its cultivators, confumers, and allies.
“ The comparifon which the Drufes often have an
opportunity of making between their fituation and
that of other fubjeCts of the Turkilh government, has
given them an advantageous opinion of their fuperio-
rity, which, by a natural efredt, has an influence on
their perfonal character. Exempt from the violence
and infults of defpotifm, they confider themfelves as
more perfect than their neighbours, becaufe they have
the good fortune not to be equally debafed. Hence
they acquire a character more elevated, energetic, and
aCtive $ in fliort, a genuine republican fpirit. They
are confidered throughout the Levant as reftlefs* en-
terprifing, hardy, and brave even to temerity. Only
300 of them have been fcen to enter Damafcus in open
day, and fpread around them terror and carnage.
No people are more nice than they with refpeCt to the
point of honour: any offence of that kind, or open
infult, is inftantly puniflied by blows of the kanjur
or the mulket j while among the inhabitants of the
towns it only excites injurious retorts. This delicacy
has occafioned in their manners and difcourfe a re-
ferve, or, if you will, a politenefs, which one is afto-
nifhed to difcover among peafants. It is carried even
to diflimulation and falfehood, efpecially among the
chiefs, whofe greater interefts demand greater atten¬
tions. CircumfpeCtion is neceflary to all, from the
formidable confequences of that retaliation of which
I have fpoken. Thefe cuftoms may appear barbarous
to us j but they have the merit of fupplying the defi¬
ciency of regular juft ice, which is neceflarily tedious and
uncertain in thefe diforderly and altnoft anarchical go¬
vernments.
“ The Drufes have another point of honour, that of
hofpitality. Whoever prefents himfelf at their door
in the quality of a fuppliant or paffenger, is fure of be¬
ing entertained with lodging and food in the moft
generous and unaffeCted manner. M. Volney often faw
the loweft peafants give the laft morfel of bread they
had in their houfes to the hungry traveller 5 and when
it was obferved to them that they wanted prudence,
their anfvver was, ‘ God is liberal and great, and all
men are brethren.’ There are, therefore, no inns in
their country any more than in the reft of Turkey.
When they have once contracted with their gueft the
facred engagement of bread and fait, no fubfequent
event can make them violate it. Various inflances of
this are related, which do honour to their character.
A few years ago, an aga of the janiflaries having
been engaged in a rebellion, fled from Damafcus and
retired among the Drufes. The pacha was informed
of this, and demanded him of the emir, threatening to
make war on him in cafe of refufaL The emir demand¬
ed him of the fhafk Talhouk, who had received him £
but the indignant fliaik replied, ‘ When have you known
the Drufes deliver Up their guefts ? Tell the emir,
that as long as Talhouk (hall preferve his beard, net
a hair of the head of his fuppliant fhall fall !’ The n
emir threatened him with force j Talhouk armed his1
family. The emir, dreading a revolt, adopted a me¬
thod praCtifed as juridical in that country. He de¬
clared to the (haik, that he would cut down 50 mul¬
berry trees a-day until he ftiould give up the aga. He
proceeded as far as a thoufand, and Talhouk ftill re¬
mained inflexible. At length the other (haiks, enraged,
took up the quarrel ; and the commotion was about to
become general, when the aga, reproaching himfelf with
being the caufe of fo much mifehief, made his efcape
without the knowledge even of Talhouk.
“ The Druids have alfo the prejudices of the Be¬
douins refpe&ing birth j like them, they pay great
refpeCt to the antiquity of families j but this produces
no effential inconveniences. The nobility of the emirs
and {haiks does not exempt them from paying tribute
in proportion to their revenues. It confers on them
no prerogatives, either in the attainment of landed
property or public employments. In this country,
no more than in all Turkey, are they acquainted with
game laws, or glebes, or fignorial or ecclefiaftical
tithes, franc fiefs or alienation fines : every thing is
held in freehold 3 Every man, after paying his miri
and his rent, is mafter of his property. In ftiort, by
a particular privilege, the Drufes pay no fine for
their fucceflion $ nor does the emir, like the fultan,
arrogate to himfelf original and univerfal property :
there exirts, neverthelefs, in the law of inheritance,
an imperfeClion which produces difsgreeable effedls*
Fathers have, as in the Roman law, the power of pre¬
ferring fuch of their children as they think proper $
hence it has happened in feveral families of the {haiks,
that the whole property has centered in the fame per-
lon, who has perverted it to the purpofe of intriguing
and caballing, while bis relations remain, as they will
exprefs it, princes of olives und cheefe ; that is to fay,
poor as peafants.
“ In confequence of their prejudices, the Drufes do
not choofe to make alliances out of their own families.
They invariably prefer their relation, though poor, to
a rich ftranger ; and poor peafants have been known
to refufe their daughters to merchants of Saide and
Bairout, who pofftfled from twelve to fifteen thoufand
piaftres. They obferve alfo, to a certain degree, th®
cuftom of the Hebrews, which directed that a brother
Ihould efpoufe his brother’s widow j but this is not
peculiar to them, for they retain that, as well as feve¬
ral other cuftoms of that ancient people, in common
with other inhabitants of Syria and all the Arab
tribes.
“ In {hort, the proper and diflinflive charafler of
the Drufes is a fort of republican fpirit, which give*
them more energy than any other fubjedls of the
Turkilh government •, and an indifference for religion
which forms a ftriking contraft with the zeal of the
Mahortfetans and Chriftians. In other refpedls, their
private life, their cufloms and prejudices, are the
fame with other orientals. They may marry feveral
wives, and repudiate them when they choofe j but,
except by the emir and a few men of eminence, that
is rarely pra&ifed. Occupied with their rural labours,
they experience neither artificial wants, nor thofe in¬
ordinate paflions which are produced by the idlenefs
of the inhabitants of cities and towns. The veil, worn
by
D R U [ 3
irufes by their women, is of kfelf a prefervative againlt thofe
rufius! defires which are the occafion of fo many evils in fo-
ciety. No man knows the face of any other woman than
his wife, his mother, his filler, and fitlers-in-law. Every
man lives in the bofom of his own family, and goes
little abroad. The women, thofe even of the lhaiks,
make the bread, roaft the coffee, wafii the linen,
cook the victuals, and perform all domefiic offices.
The men cultivate their lands and vineyards, and
dig canals for watering them. In the evening they
fometimes affemble in the court, the area, or houfe
of the chief of the village or family. There, feated
in a circle, with legs croffed, pipes in their mouths,
and poniards at their belts, they difcourfe of their va¬
rious labours, the fcarcity or plenty of their harvelts,
peace or war, the conduft of the emir, or the amount
of the taxes $ they relate paft tranfa&ions, difcufs
prefent interefts, and form conjedlures on the future.
Their children, tired with play, come frequently to
liften ; and a ftranger is fuprifed to hear them, at ten
or twelve years old, recounting, with a ferious air,
why Djezzar declared war againft the emir Youfef,
how many purfes it coft that prince, what augmenta¬
tion there will be of the miri, how many mulkets there
were in the camp, and who had the belt mare. This
is their only education. They are neither taught to
read the pfalms as among the Maronites, nor the Koran
like the Mahometans \ hardly do the ffiaiks know how
to wrrite a letter. But if their minds be deftitute of
ufeful or agreeable information, at leaft it is not pre¬
occupied by falfe and hurtful ideas ; and, without
doubt, fuch natural ignorance is well worth all our ar¬
tificial folly. This advantage refults from it, that their
underftandings being nearly on a level, the inequality
of conditions is lefs perceptible. For, in fadt, we
do not perceive among the Drufes that great diftance
which, in moll other focieties, degrades the inferior,
without contributing to the advantage of the great.
All, whether ffiaiks or peafants, treat each other with
that rational familiarity, which is equally remote from
rudenefs and fervility. The grand emir himfelf is
not a different man from the reft : he is a good coun¬
try gentleman, who does not difdain admitting to his
table the meaneft farmer. In a word, their manners
are thofe of ancient times, and of that ruffic life which
marks the origin of every nation ; and prove, that the
people among whom they are ftill found are as yet only
in the infancy of the focial fiate.”
DRUSIUS, John, a Proteftant writer of great
learning, born at Oudenarde in Flanders in 1555. He
was defigned for the ftudy of divinity; but his father
being outlawed, and deprived of his eftate, they both
retired to England, where the fon became profeffor of
the oriental languages at Oxford : but upon the paci¬
fication of Ghent, they returned to their own country,
W'here Drufius was alfo appointed profeffor of the ori¬
ental languages. From thence he returned to Frief-
land, where he was admitted Hebrew profeffor in the
univerfity of Franeker 5 the funfHons of which he dif-
charged with great honour till his death in 1616. His
works (how him to have been well fluffed in Hebrew ;
and the ftates-general employed him in 1600 to write
notes on the moft difficult paffages in the Old Tefta-
tnent, with a penfion of 400 florins a-year : but being
59 ] DRY
frequently diflurbed in this undertaking, it was not xtrufius
publifhed tiff alter his death. He held a vaft corre- ||
fpondence with the learned $ for befides letters in He- Drycien.
brew, Greek, and other languages, there were found
2300 Latin letters among his papers. He had a fon
John, who died in England at 21, and was a prodigy
for his early acquifition of learning ; he wrote Notes
on the Proverbs of Solomon, with many letters and verfes
in Hebrew.
DRYADES, in the heathen theology, a fort of dei¬
ties, or nymphs, which the ancients thought inhabited
groves and woods. They differed from the Hamadry-
ades; thefe latter being attached to fome particular tree,
with which they were born, and with which they died ;
whereas the Dryades were goddeffes of trees and woods
in general. See Hamadryades.
DRY AS, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to
the icofandria clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 35th order, Senticofec. See Botany
Index.
DRYDEN, John, one of the moft eminent Eng-
lilh poets of the 17th century, defeended of a genteel
family in Huntingdonfhire, was born in that county
at Oldwincle 1631, and educated at Weftminlter fehool
under Dr Buftiby. From thence he was removed to
Cambridge in 1650, being elefted fcholar of Trinity-
college, of which he appears, by his Epithalamia Can-
tabrigienf. 4to, 1662, to have been afterwards a fellow.
Yet in his earlier days he gave no extraordinary indica¬
tion of genius 5 for even the year before he quitted the
univerfity, he wrote a poem on the death of Lord Ha-
ftings, which was by no means a prefage of that amaz¬
ing perfection in poetical powers which he afterwards
poffeffed.
On the death of Oliver Cromwell he wrote fome he¬
roic flanzas to his memory 5 but on the Reftoration,
being defirous of ingratiating himfelf with the new
court, he wrote firft a poem entitled AJircea Redux, and
afterwards a panegyric to the king on his coronation..
In 1662, he addrtffed a poem to the lord chancellor
Hyde, prefented on New Year’s day ; and in the fame
year a fatire on the Dutch. In 1668 appeared his
Annus Mivabilis, which was a hiftorical poem in cele¬
bration of the duke of York’s viClory over the Dutch.
Thefe pieces at length obtained him the favour of the
crown j and Sir William Davenant dying the fame
year, Mr Dryden was appointed to fucceed him as
poet laureat. About this time alfo his inclination to
write for the ftage feems firft to have ftiown itfelf. For
befides his concern with Sir William Davenant in the
alteration of Shakefpeare’s Tempeft, in 1669 he pro¬
duced his Wild Gallants, a comedy. This met with
very indifferent fuccefs j yet the author, not being dif-
couraged by its failure, foon publiftied his Indian Em¬
peror. This finding a more favourable reception, en¬
couraged him to proceed ; and that with fuch rapidity,
that in the key to the duke of Buckingham’s Rehear-
fal he is recorded to have engaged himfelf by contrail
for the writing of four plays per year ; and, indeed, in
the years 1679 and 1680 he appears to have fulfilled
that contract. To this unhappy neceflity that our au¬
thor lay under, are to be attributed all thofe irregulari¬
ties, thofe bombaftic flights, and fometimes even pue¬
rile exuberances, for which he has been fo feverely cri-
tieifed $
B R Y [ 360 ] B 11 Y
ticiTed j a-nd wdiich, in the unavoidable hurry in which
he wrote, it was impoflible he (hould find time either
for lopping away or correcting.
In 1675, the earl of Roehefter, whofe envious and
malevolent difpofition would not permit him to fee
growing merit meet with its due reward, and was
therefore fincerely chagrined at the very juft applaufe
with which Mr Dryden’s dramatic pieces had been re¬
ceived, wTas determined if poffible to fhake his in-
tereft at court; and fucceeded fo far as to recommend
iMr Crowne, an author by no means of equal merit,
and at that time of an obfcure reputation, to write a
malk for the court, which certainly belonged to Mr
Dryden’s office as poet laureat.—Nor was this the only
attack, nor indeed the moft potent one, that Mr Dry¬
den’s juftly acquired fame drew on him. For, fome
years before, the duke of Buckingham, a man of not
tnuCh better character than Lord Rochefter, had moft
feverely ridiculed feveral of our author’s plays in his
admired piece called the Rehearfal. But though the
intrinfic wit which runs through that performance can¬
not even to this hour fail of exciting our laughter, yet
at the fame time it ought not to be the ftandard on
which we ffiould fix Mr Dryden’s poetical reputation,
if we confider, that the pieces there ridiculed are not
any of thofe looked on as the chef iVceuvres of this au¬
thor ; that the very paffages burlefqued are frequently,
in their original places, much lefs ridiculous than when
thus detached, like a rotten limb, from the body of
the work ; and expofed to view with additional diftor-
tions, and divefted of that connexion with the other
parts, which, while preferved, gave it not only fymme-
try but beauty ; and, laftly, that the various inimitable
beauties, which the critic has funk in oblivion, are in¬
finitely more numerous than the deformities which he
has thus induftrioufly brought forth to our more im¬
mediate infpeCtion,
Mr Dryden, however, did not fuffer thefe attacks
to pafs with impunity; for in 1679 there came out
an Effay on Satire, faid to be written jointly by that
gentleman and the earl of Mulgrave, containing fome
very fevere refleftions on the earl of Rochefter and the
duchefs of Portfmouth, who, it is not improbable,
might be a joint inftrument in the above-mentioned
kffront (hown to Mr Dryden; and in 1681 he publiffied
his Abfalom and Achitophel, in which the well-known
charadfer of Zimri, drawn for the duke of Bucking¬
ham, is certainly fevere enough to repay all the ridi¬
cule thrown on him by that nobleman in the charadter
of Bayes.—The refentment fhown by the different peers
was very different. Lord Rochefter, who was a coward
as well as a man of the moft depraved morals, bafely
hired three ruffians to cudgel Dryden in a coffeehoufe:
but the duke of Buckingham, as we are told, in a more
open manner, took the talk upon himfelf: and at the
fame time prefented him with a purfe containing no
very trifling fum of money : telling him, that he gave
him the beating as a punifhment for his impudence, but
bellowed the gold on him as a reward for his wit.
In 1680 was publiffied a tranflation of Ovid’s Epiftles
in Engliffi verfe by feveral hands, two of which, to¬
gether with the preface, were by Mr Dryden : and in
1682 came out his Religio Laid, defigned as a defence
of revealed religion, againft Deifts, Papifts, &c. Soon
after the acceflion of King James II. our author chan¬
ged his religion for that of the church of Rome, and
wrote two pieces in vindication of the Romiffi tenets;
viz. A Defence of the Papers written by the late king,
found in his ftrong box ; and the celebrated poem, af¬
terwards anfwered by Lord Halifax, entitled, The Hind
and the Panthers—By this extraordinary ftep he not
only engaged himfelf in controverfy, and incurred
much cenfure and ridicule from his contemporary wits;
but on the completion of the Revolution, being, on
account of his newiy-chofen religion, difqualified from
bearing any office under the government, he was drip¬
ped ot the laurel, which, to his ftill greater mortifica¬
tion, was bellowed on Richard Flecknoe, a man to
whom he had a moft fettled averfion. This circum-
ftance occafioned his writing the very fevere poem
called Mac Flechnae.
Mr Dryden’s circumftances had never been affluent;
but now being deprived of this little fupport, he found
himfelf reduced to the neceffity of writing for mere
bread. We confequently find him from this period
engaged in works of labour as well as genius, viz. in
tranflating the -works of others, and to this neceffity
perhaps our nation Rands indebted for fome of the Cell
tranflations extant. In the year he loft the laurel, he
publiffied the life of St Francis Xavier from the French.
In 1693 came out a tranflation of Juvenal and Per-
fius ; in the firft of which he had a confiderable hand,
and of the latter the entire execution. In 1695 was
publiffied his profe verfion of Frefnoy’s Art of Painting;
and the year 1697 gave tiie world that tranflation of
Virgil’s works entire, which ftill does, and perhaps ever
will, ftand foremoft among the attempts made on that
author. The petite pieces of this eminent writer, fuch
as prologues, epilogues, epitaphs, elegies, fongs, &c.
are too numerous to loecify here, and too much dtiperf-
ed to direft the reader to. The greateft part of them,
however, are to be found in a collection of mifcellanies
in 6 vols i2mo. His lafl work is what is called his
'Fables, which confitls of many of the moft interefting
flories in Homer, Ovid, Boccace, and Chaucer, tranl-
lated or modernized in the moft elegant and poetical
manner ; together with fome original pieces, among
which is that amazing ode on St Cecilia’s day, which,
though written in the very decline of the author’s life,
and at a period when old age and ditlreis conlpired as
it were to damp his poetic ardour, and clip the wings
of fancy, yet poffeffes fo much of both, as would be
fufficient to have rendered him immortal had he never
written a fingle line befides.
Dryden married the lady Elizabeth Howard, fifter
to the earl of Berkfhire, who furvived him eight years;
though for the lafl: four of them ffie was a lunatic, hav¬
ing been deprived of her fenfes by a nervous fever.-—
By this lady he had three fons ; Charles, John, and
Henry. Of the eldeft of thefe there is a circumftance
related by Charles Wilfon, Efq. in his life of Con¬
greve, which feems fo well attefted, and is itfelf of fo
very extraordinary a nature, that we cannot avoid giv¬
ing it a place here. Dryden, with all his underftand-
ing, was weak enough to be fond of judicial aftrology,
and ufed to calculate the nativity of his children.
When his lady was in labour with his fon Charles, he
being told it was decent to withdraw, laid his watch
on the table, begging one of the ladies then prefent,
in a moft folemn manner, to take exaft notice of the
very
DRY
'iryden. very minute that the child was born ; which (he did,
and acquainted him with it. About a week after, when
his lady was pretty well recovered, Mr Dryden took
occafion to tell her that he had been calculating the
child’s nativity ; and obferved, with grief, that he was
born in an evil hour; for Jupiter, Venus, and the Sun,
were all under the earth, and the lord of his afcendant
affli&ed with a hateful fquare of Mars and Saturn.
“ If he lives to arrive at the 8th year,” fays he, “ he
will go near to die a violent death on his very birth¬
day ; but if he Ihould efcape, as I fee but fmall hopes,
he will in the 23d year be under the very fame evil di¬
rection ; and if he fhould efcape that alfo, the 33d or
.34th year is, I fear”—. Here he was interrupted by
the immoderate grief of his lady, who could no longer
bear calamity prophefied to befal her fon. The time
-at lad came, and Augutt was the inaufpicious month
in which young Dryden was to enter into the eighth
year of his age. The court being in progrefs, andi Mr
Dryden at leifure, he was invited to the country feat
of the earl of Berkfhire, his brother-in-law, to keep
the long vacation with him at Charlton in Wilts ; his
lady was invited to her uncle Mordaunt’s to pafs the
remainder of the fummer. When they came to divide
the children, Lady Elizabeth would have him take
John, and fuller her to take Charles : but Mr Dryden
was too abfolute, and they parted in anger ; he took
Charles with him, and (lie was obliged to be content
with John. When the fatal day came, the anxiety of
the lady’s fpirits occafioned fuch an agitation, as
threw her into a violent fever, and her life was de-
fpaired of, till a letter came from Mr Dryden, repro¬
ving her for her womanilh credulity, and affuring her
that her child was well ; which recovered her fpirits,
and in fix weeks after fire received an ecclaircilfement
of the whole affair. Mr Dryden, either through fear
of being reckoned fuperftitious, or thinking it a fcience
beneath his ftudy, was extremely cautious of letting
any one know that he was a dealer in aftrology ; there¬
fore could not excufe his abfence, on his fun’s anniver-
fary, from a general hunting match which Lord Berk-
Ihire had made, to which all the adjacent gentlemen
were invited. When he went out, he took care to fet
the boy a double exercife in the Latin tongue, which
he taught his children himfelf, with a ftiift charge not
to ftir out of the room till his return ; well knowing
the talk he had fet him would take up longer time.
Charles was performing his duty, in obedience to his
father ; but, as ill fate would have it, the flag made
towards the houfe ; and the noife alarming the fervanN,
they haftened out to fee the fport. One of them took
young Dryden by the hand, and led him out to fee it
aiio ; when, juft as they came to the gate, the flag
being at bay with the dogs, made a bold pu(h, and
leaped over the court wall, which was very low and
very old ; and the dogs following, threw down a pait
of the wall 10 yards in length, under which Charles
Dryden lay buried. He was immediately dug out ;
and after fix weeks languifhing in a dangerous way,
«e recovered. So far Drvden’s prediction was fulfil¬
led. In the 23d year of his age, Charles fell from the
top of an old tower belonging to the Vatican at Rome,
oecafioned by a fwimming in his head with which he
was feized, the heat of the day being exceffive. He
^gain recovered, but w’as ever after in a languilhing
Vol. VII. Part I.
DRY
fickly ftate. In the 33d year of his age, being returned Drytlew,
to England, he was unhappily drowned at Windfor. y-~*“
He had with another gentleman fwam twice over the
Ihames ; but returning a third time, it was fuppofed he
■was taken with the cramp, becaufe he called out for
help, though too late. Thus the father’s calculation
proved but too prophetical.
At laft, after a long life, haraifed with the mo ft:
laborious of all fatigues, viz. that of the mind, and
continually made anxious by diftrefs and difficulty, our
author departed this life on the firft of May 1701.-—
J he day after Mr Dryden’s death, the dean of Weft-
minfter fent word to Mr Dryden’s widow, that he
would make a prefent of the ground and all other
abbey fees for the funeral : the lord Halifax likewife
lent to the lady Elizabeth, and to Mr Charles Dryden,
offering to defray the expences of our poet’s funeral,
and afterwards to beftow 500I. on a monument in the
abbey : which generous offer was accepted. Accord-
ingly, °n Sunday following, the company being affem-
bled, the corpfe was put into a velvet herfe, attended
by 18 mourning coaches. When they were juft ready
to move, Lord Jeffreys, fon of Lord Chancellor Jef¬
freys, a name dedicated to infamy, with fome of his
rakilh companions, riding by, alked whofe funeral it
was ; and being told it wfas Mr Dryden’s, he protefted
he ffiould not be buried in that private manner ; that
he would himfelf, with the lady Elizabeth’s leave, have
the honour of his interment, and would beftow 1000I.
on a monument in the abbey for him. This put a ftop
to their proceffion : and the lord Jeffreys, with feveral
of the gentlemen who had alighted from their coaches,
went up flairs to the lady, who was lick in bed. His
lordlhip repeated the purport of what he had faid be¬
low ; but the lady Elizabeth refufing her confent, ha
fell on his knees, vowing never to rife till his requeft:
was granted. The lady under a fudden furprife faint¬
ed away : and Lord Jeffreys pretending to have ob¬
tained her confent, ordered the body to be carried to
Mr Ruffel’s an undertaker in Cheapfide, and to be left
there till further orders. In the mean time the abbey
was lighted up, the ground opened, the choir attend¬
ing, and the biftiop waiting fome hours to no purpofe
for the corpfe. The next day Mr Charles Dryden
waited on the lord Halifax and the bilhop ; and en¬
deavoured to excufe his mother, by relating the truth.
Three days after, the undertaker, having received no
orders, waited on the lord Jeffrey* ; who pretended
that it was a drunken frolic, that he remembered no¬
thing of the matter, and he might do what he pleafed
with the body. Upon this the undertaker waited
upon the lady Elizabeth, who defined a day’s refpite,
which was granted. Mr Charles Dryden immediately
wrote to the lord Jeffreys, who returned for anfwer,
that he knew nothing of the matter, and would be
troubled no more about it. Mr Dryden hereupon
applied again to Lord Halifax and the biftiop of Ro-
chefter, who abfolutely refufed to do any thing in the
affair.
In this diftrefs. Dr Garth, who had been Mr Dry¬
den’s intimate friend, fent for the corpfe to the college
of phyficians, and propofed a fubfcription ; which fuc-
ceeding, about three weeks after Mr Dryden’s deceafe,
Dr Ga^th pronounced a fine Latin oration over the
body, which was conveyed from the college, attended
Z z by
r 35* ]
D R Y [ 362 ]
Dryden. by a numerous train of coaches, to Weftminfter abbey,
u " but in very great diforder. At laft the corpfe arrived
at the abbey, which was all unlighted. No organ play¬
ed, no anthem fung : only two of the finging boys
preceded the corpfe, who fung an ode of Horace,
with each a fmall candle in their hand. When the fu¬
neral was over, Mr Charles Dryden fent a challenge to
Lord Jeffreys: who refufing to anfwer it, he fent feveral
others, and went often himfelf 5 but could neither get a
letter delivered, nor admittance tofpeak to him : which
fo incenfed him, that finding his lordfhip refufed to an¬
fwer him like a gentleman, he refolved to watch an
opportunity, and brave him to fight, though with all the
rules of honour } which his lordihip hearing, quitted the
town, and Mr Charles never had an opportunity to
meet him, though he fought it to his death with the
utmoft application.
Mr Dryden had no monument erefted to him for
feveral years ; to which Mr Pope alludes in his epitaph
intended for Mr Row, in this line,
Beneath a rude and namelefs (lone he lies.
In a note upon which we are informed that the tomb
of Mr Dryden was ere&ed upon this hint by Sheffield
duke of Buckingham, to which was originally intended
this epitaph :
This Sheffield rais’d—The facred duft below
Was Dryden once } the reft, who does not know ?
Which was fince changed into the plain infcription
now upon it, viz.
J. DRYDEN,
Natus Aug. 9. 1631.
Mortuus Maii 1. 1701.
Johannes Sheffield, dux Buckinghamienjis, fecit.
Mr Dryden’s chara&er has been very differently
' drawn by different hands, fome of which have exalted
it to the higheft degree of commendation, and others
debafed it by the fevereft cenfure.—The latter, how¬
ever, we muft charge to that ftrong fpirit of party
which prevailed during great part of Dryden’s time,
and ought therefore to be taken with great allowances.
Were we indeed to form a judgment of the author
from fome of his dramatic writings, we ffiould perhaps
be apt to conclude him a man of the moft licentious
morals *, many of his comedies containing a great ffiare
of loofenefs, even extending to obfcenity: But if we
confider, that, as the poet tells us,
Thofe who live to pleafe, muft pleafe to live j
if we then look back to the fcandalous licenfe of the
age he lived in, the indigence which at times he under¬
went, and the neceffity he confequently lay under of
complying with the public tafte, however depraved ;
we ffiall furely not refufe our pardon to the compelled
writer, nor our credit to thofe of his contemporaries
who were intimately acquainted with him, and who
have affured us there was nothing remarkably vicious in
his perfonal charafter.
From fome parts of his hiftory he appears unfteady,
and to have too readily temporized with the feveral re¬
volutions in church and ftate. This however might in
fome meafure have been owing to that natural timi¬
dity and diffidence in his djfpofition, which almoft all
the writers feem to agree in his poffeffing. Congreve, Dryden
whofe authority cannot be fufpeded, has given us fuch ||
an account of him, as makes him appear no lefs amiable DuWin*
in his private charafter as a man, than he was illuftri- v '
ous in his public one as a poet. In the former light,
according to that gentleman, he was humane, com-
paffionate, forgiving, and fincerely friendly : of an
extenfive reading, a tenacious memory, and a ready
communication : gentle in the correftion of the writ-
tings of others, and patient under the reprehenfion of
his own deficiencies : eafy of accefs himfelf, but flow
and diffident in his advances to others ; and of all men
the moft modelt and the moft eafy to be difeountenan-
ced in his approaches either to his fuperiors or his
equals. As to his writings, he is perhaps the happieft
in the harmony of his numbers, of any poet who ever
lived either before or fince his time, not even Mr
Pope himfelf excepted. His imagination is ever warm,
his images noble, his defcriptions beautiful, and his
fentiments juft and becoming. In his profe he is poe¬
tical without bombaft, concife without pedantry, and
clear without prolixity. His dramatic have, perhaps,
the lead merit of all his writings. Yet there are many
of them which are truly excellent ; though he himfelf
tells us that he never wrote any thing in that way to
pleafe himfelf but his All for Love. This laft, indeed,
and his Spanifh Friar, may be reckoned two of the beft
plays in our language.
DRYP1S, a genus of plants belonging to the pentan*
dria clafs j and in the natural method ranking under the
22d order, Caryophyllei. See Botany Index.
DUBLIN, the metropolis of Ireland, the fecond
city in his majefty’s dominions, and efteemed the fifth
for magnitude in Europe, is fituated in the province
of Leinfter, in the county of Dublin, at the bottom of
a large bay. The river Liffey, which here falls into
the ocean, divides the town into two nearly equal parts.
Formerly the city of Dublin was confined to the fouth
fide of the river. It was a place of great antiquity.
Ptolemy, who flouriffied in the reign of Antoninus Pius,
about the year 140, fays, it was anciently called Afch-
cled. In 155, Alpinus, whofe daughter Auliana was
drowned in the Liffey, changed the name from
to Auliana. It was afterwards named Dublana, and
Ptolemy calls it Eblana. Dublana, whence comes Dub-
linum and Dublin, is evidently derived from Dub-leana,
“ the place of the black harbour or lake,” or rather
“ the lake of the fea,” the bay of Dublin being fre¬
quently fo called. This city has had a variety of names.
The Iriffi call it Drotn-choll-coil, “ the brow of a hazel
wood and in 181, Eogan king of Munfter being on
a royal tour, paid a vifit to this place, which was then
called Atha Cliath Dubh-Line, “ the paffage of the ford
of hurdles over the black pool the harbour of Dub¬
lin was likewife known by the name of Lean-Cliath,
or Leam-Cliath, from Lean or Leant, “ a harbour j”
and from Claith or Cliabb, which literally fignifits “ a
hurdle or any thing made of wicker work j” it alfo fig-
nified certain wears formed with hurdles, and placed in
rivers and bays by the ancient Iriffi for the purpofe of ta¬
king fiffi: whence any river, or bay, wherein thefe wears
were fixed had the name of Cliath or Cliab, annexed
to it, to fignify the eftabliffiment of a fiffiery. Dublin,
therefore, being originally built on or near one of thefe
harbours,
3
BUB [ 363 ] BUB
.. harbours, was anciently called Baly-lean-C/iath, that
'u ‘ is> “ the town on the filhing harbour.” It is defcribed at
the prefent day in the Irifti language by the appella¬
tions of Ath-Cliath, “ the ford of hurdles,” and Bally-
ath-Cliath, “ the town of the ford of hurdles,” the in¬
habitants having formerly had accefs to the river by
hurdles laid on the low marlhy grounds adjoining the
water : and this name was alfo extended to the north
fide of the river, from a temporary bridge of hurdles
thrown over the Anna LifFey, a corruption of Auin
Louiffa, or “ the fwift river,” fo termed from the ra¬
pidity of the mountain floods. This fide was enlarged
by Mac Turkill the Danifli prince, who notwithftand-
ing, fixed his habitation on the fouth fide, and aban¬
doned the northern town j which, from the original
country of the invaders, was called EaJImantown, fince
corrupted to Oxmantown. King Edgar, in the pre¬
face to his charter dated 964, mentions Ireland with
its moft noble city (nobilijfwia civitas) of Dublin. By
the Fingalians it is called Divelin, and by the Welch
Dinas Dulin or the city of Duhn.
In 448, Alpin Mac Eachard, king of Dublin, and
all his fubjedls, were converted to Chriftianity by St
Patrick.
In the year 498, the Oilmen or Danes having en¬
tered the LifFey with a fleet of 60 fail, made themfelves
mailers of Dublin and the adjacent country, and foon
after environed the city with walls. About 1170
Dermot Mac Murrough, king of Leinlter, having
quarrelled with the other princes of the kingdom, a
confederacy was formed again ft him by Roderick
O’Conor, monarch of Ireland. Dermot applied to
Henry II. king of England, who fent over a number
of Englilh adventurers, by whofe afliftance he was re-
inftated in his dominions j and in the year the
defcendants of the Danes Hill continuing to hold pof-
feflion of Dublin, it was befieged and taken by a power¬
ful party of the Englilh under Raymond le Gros.
Mac Turkill the Danilh king efcaped to his Ihipping :
he returned, however, foon after with a ftrong fleet to
recover the city, but was killed in the attempt, and in
him ended the race of eafterling princes in Ireland.
In 1172, Henry II. landed at Waterford, and ob¬
tained from Richard Earl Strongbow (who married
the daughter of Dermot Mac Murrough, and by com-
padl was his fucceflbr) a furrender of the city of Dub¬
lin, where he built a pavilion of wicker work near
St Andrew’s church, then fituated where Caftlemarket
lately Hood, and there entertained feveral Irilh princes,
who voluntarily fubmitted to him on condition of be-
ing governed by the fame laws as the people of Eng¬
land. Henry alfo held a parliament here. In 1173
he granted his firft charter to Dublin, and by divers
privileges encouraged a colony from Briftol to fettle
here.
In 1210, upwards of 20 Irilh princes fwore alle¬
giance to King John at Dublin j engaging to eftablifti
the Englifh laws and cuftoms in the kingdom 5 and in
the fame year courts of judicature were inftituted. In
1216, magna charta was granted to the Irilh by Hen¬
ry III. an entry of which was made in the red book of
the exchequer at Dublin. In 1217, the city was
granted to the citizens in fee-farm at 200 marks per
annum*, and in 1227 the above monarch ordained that
the charter granted by King John Ihould be kept in¬
violably. In 1404, the ftatutes of Kilkenny and Dub- Dublin,
lin were confirmed in a parliament held at this city ——v—-
under the earl of Ormond, The charter of the city of
Dublin was renewed in 1609 by James I.
The civil government of the city was anciently un¬
der the management of a provoft and bailiff's $ in 1308,
John le Decer was appointed the firft provoft, and
Richard de St Olave and John Stakebold bailiffs. In
1409, the title of the chief magiftrate was changed to
that of mayor, when Thomas Cufack was appointed
to the office, Richard Bove and Thomas Shortall be¬
ing bailiffs : the office of bailiffs was changed to ffie-
riffs in 1547. In 1660, Charles II. gave a collar of
SS. and a company of foot guards to the mayor j
and in 1665, this monarch conferred the title of lord
mayor on the chief magiftrate, to whom he alfo
granted 500I. per annum in lieu of the foot company.
Sir Daniel Bellingham was the firft lord mayor of
Dublin *, Charles Lovet and John Quelfli were ffieriffs
the fame year. In 1672, Arthur earl of Effex intro¬
duced new rules for the better government of the city ;
and in 1683 the Tholfel was built for the purpofe of
the magiftrates meeting to hold their courts, affem-
blies, &c.
In the 10th century, after the fortifications of Dub¬
lin were repaired by the Oftmen, the walls of the city,
including thofe of the caftle, did not occupy more than
an Irilh mile ; they extended from Winetavern gate to
Audeon’s arch, and were continued from thence to
where Newgate formerly flood ; and from a plan pub-
liffied by John Speed in 1610, it appears that they
were continued to Ormond’s gate, or, as it has been fince
called, Wormwood gate; from thence to the old bridge,
and along the banks of the river to a very large portal
called AVuw2tf«’.r /owr, nearly in the prefent file of the
fouth entrance of Effex bridge ; and from Newman’s
tower in an angular direction to Dame’s gate, at the
weft end of Dame’s ftreet. From the gate at the fouth-
weft angle of the caftle the wall ran to Nicholas gate,
and was continued from thence to Newgate. The
principal ftreets without the walls were, on the weft.
New row, Francis ftreet, Thomas ftreet, and James’s
ftreet ; on the fouth were Patrick llreet, Bride ftreet,
and Ship ftreet; and on the call, Dame ftreet, George’s
lane, and Stephen ftreet. That fpace of ground now
occupied by Crane lane, Temple bar, Fleet ftreet, La¬
zar’s hill, or, as it is now called, Seut/i Townfend flreet,
Crampton, Afton’s, George’s, and Sir John Roger-
fon’s quays, &c. was then overflowed by the Liffey.
On the north fide of the river there were only Church
ftreet, Mary’s lane, Hammond lane, and Pill lane, then
built but on one fide as far as Mary’s abbey, which
terminated the extent of that part of the town to the
eaftward; Grange Gorman, Stoney-batter, now called
Manor freet, and Glaffmanogue, were then villages at
fome diftance from the city; and at the latter the (he-
riffs have held their courts in times of the plague, as
being remote from the ftage of infedlion. In 1664
the inhabitants being numbered amounted to 2565
men and 2986 women, Proteftants ; and 1202 men
and 1406 women, Roman Catholics; making in the
whole 8159.
By comparing this account of the ancient ftate and
boundaries of the metropolis Avith the following de-
cription of its prefent extent, population, and rcag-
Z z 2 nificence.
DUB f 364 ] DUB
Dublin, nificence, an idea will be readily formed of the ama-
——v’' zing increafe and improvement it has experienced with¬
in the courfe of a century.
Dublin is feated in view of the fea on the eaft*
v and a fine country which fwells into gently-rifing emi¬
nences on the north and weft, while it towers boldly
up in lofty mountains that bound the horizon on the
fouth. The city itfelf cannot be feen to full advan¬
tage on entering the harbour: but the approach toil
from thence exhibits a fine profpeift of the country for
improvement and cultivation, interfptrfrd with nume¬
rous villas, that have a m^ ft agreeable eff to enliven
this delightful fcene, which, beginning at the water’s
edge, is continued all over the coalt to the northward
of the bay as far as the eye can reach, and is finely
eontrafted by a diftant view of the Wicklow moun¬
tains to 'he f.mth, where the conical hills, called the
Sugar Loaves, contribute not a little, by the Angularity
of their appearance, to embellifti the landfcape, fo ex-
tenfive and pifrurefque as not to be equalled by any
natural fcenery in Europe, but the entrance of the
bay of Naples, to which it bears a very ftriking refem-
blance.
The form of Dublin is nearly fquare, a figure that
includes the largefl: area proportioned to its circum¬
ference. From the royal hofpital at Kilmainham, at
the weftern extremity of the town, to the eaft end of
Townfend ftreet, the length is two miles and a half,
and its greateft breadth is computed to be of the fame
extent: hence the city is about 10 miles in circum¬
ference. Its increafe within the laft twenty years has
been amazing : it now contains about 22,000 houfes,
whofe inhabitants are eftimated at 156,000.
Dublin, with refpeft to its ftreets, bears a near re-
femblance to London. Some of the old ftreets were
formerly narrow : but this defeft is now in a great
meafure remedied by an aft of parliament, paffed in
1774, for opening the public avenues, taking down
fign polls, palifades, penthoufes, &c. new paving the
ftreets, and flagging the foot paffages : and, in 1785,
another aft palled for the better paving, cleanfing,
and lighting the city ; in confequence of which an ad¬
ditional number of globes with double burners were
put up at the diftance of 36 feet from each other.
Thefe neceffary improvements contribute exceedingly
to the beauty and convenience of the metropolis : the
new ftreets are wide and commodious, the houfes lofty,
uniform, and elegant j nor are feveral of the old ftreets
totally deficient in thefe refpefts j Sackville ftreet, or
the Mall, which, though built, upwards of 40 years
ago, has been included in the number of our new ftreets
by all the late geographers (a felf-evident proof that
thefe writers had not even feen the city), is a noble
avenue, with a gravel walk in the centre, enclofed by
a wall of about three feet high ; this walk is 36 feet
and a half broad, and the diftance between it and the
palifades fronting the houfes, on either fide, is 42 feet
and a half: when the new cuftomhoufe is completed,
this flreet will be then a moft defirable fituation for
wholefale merchants, not only on account of its proxi¬
mity to that building, but its great depth in the rear.
Some years ago, it was efteemed one of the fineft pub¬
lic avenues in Europe : many of the new ftreets, how¬
ever, in this city are now much fuperior to it in the
magnificence and uniformity of the houfes. Among
3
thefe, on the north fide of the river, in the fame quar-
ter with Sackville ftreet, are Gardiner’s row, North ^
Great George’s ftreet, Granby row, Cavendifti row,
and Palace row : the laft; three form a fuperb fquare,
having the garden of the lying-in hofpital in the
centre: the old wall that encotnpaffed the garden ha*
been lately taken down : there is now a full view of
this delightful (pot furroundtd with iron palifades, and
upwards of 100 globes with double burners difpofed
at equal diftances, which added to the globes from
the furrounding houfes, have a moft brilliant effeft.
This Iquare, which for its fize, is not perhaps to be
equalled, has lately received the name of Rutland
fquare, in compliment to his grace the prefent duke of
Rutland, who contributed munificently towards the
improvements in the enclofure of the new garden, and
the erefting an elegant edifice for a ball and fupper
rooms, now nearly finifhed, fituated to the eaft of the
hofpital.
Among the new ftreets and buildings on the fouth
fide of the river, thofe wherein ptrfons of diftinftioa
refide, lie chiefly to the eaflward of the college and
Stephen’s green ; which laft, though it does not rank,
with the new buildings, pofleffes much grandeur and
elegance, being one of the largeft fquares in Europe:
it is an Englifh mile in circumference, lurrounded by a
gravel walk planted on each fide with trees ; within
this walk is a fmooth level meadow, having in the
centre an equeftrian ftatue of the late king : there are
feveral fine edifices, though all almoft differing in the
ftile of their architefture j this variety, however, is
efteemed by many rather a beauty than a defe of three arches, with flagged foot
paffages, ftone baluftrades and ornamental decora¬
tions, in a handfome light ftyle, which has been much
admired.
This city has 2 cathedrals, 18 parifh churches,
2 chapels of eafe, 1 5 Roman Catholic ch 'pels, 6 meet¬
ing houfes for Prefbyterians, t for Anabaptifts, 4 for
Methodifts, 2 for Quakers, a church for French Calvi-
nifts, a Danifh and a Dutch church, and a Jewiftr fyna-
gogue._
Chrift church, or the Holy Trinity, built in 1038
by Donat bilhop of Dublin, to whom Sitricus the
fon of Amlave king of the Oflmen of Dublin granted
the fite for that purpofe, ftand« on the fummit of tire
rifing ground at the head of W'netavern ftreet. It is
a venerable Gothic pile •, and its prefent appearance
evinces its antiquity, St Patrick’s cathedral^ firft
built by Archbifhop Comvn in 1190; and decorated
by Archbifhop Minot in 1370 with a fteeple, on which
a lofty fpire was erected in 1750, i« alfu a fine Go¬
thic ftru&ure *, it ftands on the eaft fide of Patru k’s
ftreet ; the monuments here are more numerous than
in Chrift church ; and the fteeple is the bigheft in the
city.
St Werburgh’s church was originally built in a
very early age. In 1301, when a great part of the
city was confirmed by an accidental fire, this church
fuffered in the conflagration : it was burnt a fecond
time in 17^4 and repaired in its prefent beautiful
form in 1759. The front and fteeple are admired for
their elegance, lightnef-, and fymmetry : the fpwe is a
fine oft agon fupported by eight pillars 5 and a gilt hall
terminates the whole, beinp 160 feet from the ground.
Catherine’s church, firft built in uo^. and re edifiid
in its prefent form in 1769, is fituated on the fouth
fide of Thomas’s ftreet. St Thomas’s church is the Dublin,
lateft foundation of the kind in this city, having been ■ —y*“"
begun in the year 1758, and finithed and eoniecrated
in 1762. It is fituated on the weft fide of Marlborough
flreet, oppofite Gloucefter ftreet, to which it forms an
elegant termination. The other churches in this city
are 5 on the north fide of the river, Mary’s, Michan’s,
and Paul’s 5 on the fouth fide, James’s, Luke’s, Ke¬
vin’s, Peter’s, Bride’s, Nicholas within, Audeon’s,
Michael’s, Mark’s, Anne’s, John’s, and Andrew’s:
this laft is called alfo the Round church, from its form
being exaftly circular : moft, if not all the others were
built in an early age : many, however, have been fince
re-edified, and affumed a more modern form j fome of
thefe are not totally devoid of elegance, particularly
Anne’s. St John’s in Filhamble ftreet was rebuilt in
1773, and has now a handfome front of hewn ftone de¬
corated with columns fupporting a pediment. Befides
thefe churches, Dublin is adorned with feveral other
public buildings j the moft remarkable of which are the
following : The caftle, the refidence of the chief gover¬
nor, built in 1213 by Henry de Londres, was formerly
moated and flanked with towers $ but the ditch has been
long fince filled up, and the old buildings razed, the
chapel and wardrobe tower excepted, which ftill remain :
Birmingham tower was rebuilt in 1 777, and L now call¬
ed Harcourt tower. The caftle at prelent confifts of two
courts, the principal of which is an oblong fquare form¬
ed by four ranges of building : within a few years, in
the middle of the fouth range, a handfome edifice call¬
ed Bedford tower has been erefted ; the front is deco¬
rated with a fmall arcade of three arches, over which
is a colonnade fupporting a pediment, from whence
rifes an oftagon fteeple crowned with a fmall cupola and
gilt ball in a light pltafing ftyle. This tower, which
fronts the entrance to the viceroy’s apartments, is con-
nefted with the buildings on each fide by two fine
gates 5 over that on the right hand is a ftatue of Forti¬
tude ; and over the left gate, which is the grand portal
to the upper court, is the ftatue of Juftice. In ihe low¬
er court are the treafury and other offices, with military
(lores, an arfenal and armory for 40,000 men, and a
barrack in which a captain’s detachment of infantry are
ffafioned. Between this barrack and the arfenal is the
caftle garden ; oppofite to which, at the rear of the
lord lieutenant’s apartments, is a range of building
called the Garden front, ertfted about the year 1740,
finifhed in mountain ftone, ornamented by femicolumns
of the Ionic order, and the windows embellifhed with
cornices and architraves, in a fine tafte. The hall room
is now titled St Patrick's Hall. The viceroy’s body
guard confifts of a captain, two fubalterns, and fixty pri¬
vate men, with a fubaltern’s guard of horfe. The parlia¬
ment houfe, a moft fuperb ftrufture, is fituated on the
north fide of College green \ it was begun in 1729, fi¬
nifhed in 10 years, and coil 40,000!. It is built with
Portland ftone, and the front formed by a grand por¬
tico of Ionic columns in the moil finiihed ftyle of ar-
chiteclural elegance : the internal parts correfpond
with its outward magnificence ; and the manner
in which the infide is lighted is univerfaliy admired.
The houfe of commons is an oftagnn, covered with a
dome fupported by columns, of the Ionic order, that
rife from an amphithearrical gallery baluftraded with
iron fcroll-work 5 this room is admirably well adapted
to
DUB [ 366
to its purpofe. The houfe of lords is an oblong room,
fpacious and lofty, and ornamented in a fuperb manner $
it is alfo judicioufly adapted for the reception of the au-
guft affembly which meet there : among other decora-
tions are two very fine pieces of tapeftry, reprefenting
the battle of the Boyne and fiege of Derry. By order
of both houfes of parliament, a grand new front has been
erefted on the eaft fide of this magnificent pile ; and
preparations are making (179°) to ^ront t'ie nort^
weft fides in a fimilar manner, from a defign of Mr
Gandon’s : thus infulated, the whole will form a fuite
of fenatorial apartments matchlefs in elegance and con¬
venience (a).
The college founded by Queen Elizabeth an 1591
is fituated at the eaft end of College green. It is a moft
beautiful ftrufture, confifting of two fpacious fquares,
the firft of which contains the refeaory, the old hall
and chapel, and the new theatre for kaures and exa¬
minations j the front of this laft building is finely deco¬
rated with Corinthian columns fupporting a pediment ",
and over the front of the old hall, on the eaft fide of
this fquare, a handfome fteeple rifes crowned with a cu¬
pola. In the other fquare, which confifts partly of
brick buildings for the ftudents, there is a fuperb li¬
brary, extending through its whole length on the fouth
fide: behind this fquare there is a fine park. The
weft fide of the firft fquare, which is built with Portland
ftone, forms the grand front, upwards of 30O feet in
length, ornamented with Corinthian pillars and other
decorations in a very fine tafte. At a fmall diftance. to
the fouth fide of this front is an elegant edifice in which
the provoft refides. The printing office is a neat hand¬
fome ftru&ure on the north fide of the park ; and oppo-
fite to it is the anatomy houfe, in which are to be feen
the celebrated wax models of the human figure, execut¬
ed at Paris by M. Douane, purchafed by the right ho¬
nourable the earl of Shelburne, and prefented to this
univerfity. The college of Dublin is an univerfity in
itfelf, confifting of a provoft, vice provoft, 7 fenior and
15 junior fellows, and 17 fcholars of the houfe ; the
number of ftudents is generally about 400: it has alfo
profelfors in divinity, common and civil law, phyfic,
Greek, modern languages, mathematics, oriental tongues,
hiftory and oratory, modern hiftory, natural philo-
fophy, anatomy and furgery, chemiftry and botany.
His royal highnefs the duke of Gloucefter is chan¬
cellor, and his grace the lord primate of Ireland vice
chancellor ; the vifitors are the chancellor (or, in his
abfence, the vice chancellor) and the archbiftiop of
Dublin.
The Royal Exchange, fituated on Cork hill, was
begun in 1769, and opened for bufinefs in 1779 » t^ie
expence, amounting to 40,000!. being defrayed by
lottery fchemes, conduced by the merchants of Dublin
with an integrity that did them honour. The build¬
ing is nearly a fquare, having three fronts of Portland
ftone in the Corinthian order, and crowned in the
midft with a fine dome, which is fupported on the in-
fide by 12 Compofite fluted pillars that form a circular
] DUB
walk in the centre of the ambulatory : above thefe pil¬
lars are 12 circular windows, and the ceiling of the
dome, which is ornamented with ftucco, in the mofaic
ftyle, has alfo a large window in the middle that illu¬
minates moft of the building. Oppofite the north en¬
trance, in the circular walk, is a itatue of his prefent
majefty George III. in a Roman military habit; it is
executed in bronze by Van Noft, and elevated on a-
white marble pedeftal. In a niche on the ftaircafe lead-
inw to the coffee room is a white marble ftatue of the
late Dr Charles Lucas, executed by Smith. The north
front, which commands a fine view of Parliament ftreet
and Effex bridge, is embellifhed by a range of fix co¬
lumns and their correfpondent pilafters, fupporting a
grand pediment with a baluftrade on each fide: a flight
of ftone fteps leads from the ftreet to the entrance,
which is by three fine iron-railed gates : the weft front
varies but little from the north, except in the want of a
pediment, and having only three fteps afcending to the
entrance, the ground on that fide being nearly on a
level j this front is oppofite the eaft end of Caftle ftreet,
near the principal entrance to the caftle.
The hofpital for lying-in women, founded by Dr
Bartholomew Moffe,and opened in 1757, ftandson the
north fide of Great-Britain ftreet.. The building is ex¬
tremely light and elegant; a beautiful fteeple rifes in the
centre, and the wings are formed by femicircular colon¬
nades on each fide. Adjoining the eaft colonnade is
the Rotunda, where balls and affemblies are held, and
concerts performed, for the benefit of the charity . dole
to it are now ere&ing the grand fuit of apartments be¬
fore mentioned. The garden at the rear of the hofpital
is laid out in a good tafte.
The Blue-coat hofpital was founded on the weft fide
of Queen ftreet by Charles II. in 1670, for educating the
children of reduced freemen of the city : but the origi¬
nal building being greatly decayed, was taken down,
and the new Blue-coat hofpital, fituated in. Oxman-
town green, was begun in 1773’ ^ie fron^ \s enricb"
ed by four Ionic columns, fupporting a pediment in
the centre, over which the fteeple rifes, embelliftied with
Corinthian and Compofite columns in an admired tafte.
Conne&ed with the front by circular walls ornamented
with baluftrades and niches, are the fchool on one fide
and the church on the other : thefe form two well
proportioned wings ; they are of a fimilar conftruftion;
and each is crowned with a fmall fteeple or turret,
correfponding with the reft in uniform harmony and
beauty. . .
The Barracks, the foundation of which was laid in
1704, are efteemed the largeft and moft commodious
in Europe. They confift of four fquares, fituated at
the weft end of the town, on the north fide of the
The royal fquare in the centre,, with the Tiorfe
river. j—^ -- *
barrack and the little fquare on each fide, form a jpa-
cious and extenfive front to the fouth : the palatine,
now called the new fquare, is oppofite to Oxmantown
green it has been lately rebuilt with hewn ftone in
a very elegant manner.
(a) Since the union of Ireland with Great Britain, this building being no longer neceffary as a. place of meet
ing for the Irifti legiflative body, now incorporated in the imperial parliament, has been converted in 0 apar
for the national bank.
DUB [ <
The royal hofpital at Kilmainham for the fupport of
1 ^ ‘ i Invalids of the Irilh army was founded by King Charles
II. on a plan fimilar to that of Chelfea in England.
The building was completed in 1683, and coft upwards
of 23,500!. It is fituated at the weft end of the town,
on a rifing ground near the fouth fide of the river, from
whence there is an eafy afcent to it through feveral rows
of tall trees. This edifice is of a quadrangular form,
enclofing a fpacious area handfomely laid out in grafs
plots and gravelled walks: an arcade is carried along
the lower ftory in each fquare to the entrance of the
hall and chapel, which are both curioufly decorated j in
the former are feveral whole length portraits of royal
perfonages and other diftinguiflied chara&ers.
Dr Stevens’s Hofpital, the foundation of which was
laid in 1720, is a neat quadrangular building, pleafant-
ly fituated on the banks of the river near the weft end
of James’s ftreet, from whence a gravelled walk leads
by a gentle defcent to the entrance of the hofpital, and
is continued from thence to the water’s edge.
The Linen Hall, at the north end of Linen Hall
ftreet which was opened at the public expence in 1728,
for the reception of linen cloths brought to the Dublin
market, is a handfome building, lately enlarged with
treble its number of former rooms, which furnilh a new
proof of commercial profperity.
The New Prifon in Green fireet, the firft ftone of
which was laid in 1773, is a large quadrangular ftruc-
ture, defigned and executed under tins dire&ion of the
late Mr Cooley. The eaft front confifts of a centre
break of mountain ftone rufticated and crowned by a
pediment, with a plain facade of black limeftone on
each fide j and at the external angles of the building
are four round towers.
There are many other public edifices in this city and
its environs which merit particular notice. The Hof¬
pital for Lunatics in Weft Bow lane, founded by Dean
Swift, and opened in 1757 j the Hibernian fchool in
the Phoenix Park, and the Marine School on Sir John
Rogerfon’s Quay, the firft for educating the poor chil¬
dren of foldiers, and the other for bringing up to the
fea fervice the fons of deceafed or difabled feamen j the
Hofpital for Incurables in South Townfend ftreet j
Mercer’s Hofpital in Stephen ftreet; the Meath Hofpi¬
tal on the Coombe 5 and Simpfon’s Hofpital in Great
Britain ftreet, the laft of which was eftablilhed for the
reception of blind and gouty men j are all handfome
edifices conftrutRed of hewn ftone in the modern
ftyle.
To thefe public buildings may be added St Nicho¬
las’s Hofpital in Francis ftreet *, the Infirmary for fick
and wounded foldiers of the army, and the Foundling
Hofpital in James’s ftreet 5 the Magdalen Afylum in
Leefon ftreet; and the Houfe of Induftry in Channel
row ; the halls for corporations (particularly the Wea¬
vers Hall on the Coombe, over the entrance of which
is a ftatue of his late majefty George II.) ; the Thol-
fel, the old Four Courts j the old Cuftomhoufe ; and
feveral others. The Charitable Infirmary, which was
firft opened in 1728 and rebuilt in I74I» ft°0d on the
Inn’s Quay, but has been lately pulled down, together
with moft of the houfes on that quay, where the
new courts of juftice are to be erefted $ and the bene¬
fits of this humane inftitution are now difpenfed to the
public at a houfe taken for that purpofe in Jervis ftreet,
67 1 DUB
The new courts of juftice, on the north fide of the ri¬
ver, form a principal ornament to the metropolis, and
are from a defign of Mr Gandon’s, as well as the new
cuftomhoufe on the north wall. The front of the lat¬
ter extends 375 feet, enriched with arcades and columns
of the Doric order, crowned with an entablature : the
centre has a portico finiftied with a pediment, in which
is a bas relief of emblematical figures alluding to com¬
merce : over the pediment is an attic ftory ; and a
magnificent dome finiflies the centre, whereon is a pede-
ftal fupporting a ftatue of Commerce j the key ftones
over the entrances, and in the centre of the pavilions,
are decorated with emblematical heads reprefenting the
produce of the principal rivers of Ireland: the fouth
or front to the river, with tne arms of Ireland over
each pavilion, is'of Portland ftone : the whole, being
formed of large and ftriking parts, adds much to the
pi61urefque fcene of the river, and will remain a lafting
monument of reputation to the feveral artifts employed
in this fuperb building.
The playhoufes, confidered as public buildings, have
nothing to recommend them to notice. One only,
viz. the old houfe, now the theatre-royal, in Smock-
alley, is kept open by Mr Daly ; who, in confequence
of a bill paffed in the Irifh parliament for the regula¬
tion of the ftage, enjoys the exclufive privilege of ma-
naging and direfting the theatrical exhibitions in this
metropolis. The playhoufe in Crow ftreet, which for¬
merly poflefled the diftindlion of theatre-royal, has been
fhut up thefe feveral years paft.
But a minute defcription of every public edifice
would occupy more room than this publication admits,
not to mention the feveral private houfes juftly admired
for their elegance. Among thefe are,
Leinfter Houfe, the town refidence of his grace the
duke of Leinfter. The entrance to this princely man-
fion is from Kildare ftreet, through a grand gateway
of ruftic ftone work, into a fpacious court which forms
a fegment of a circle before the principal front. I he
infide of this magnificent ftruflure is equal to its exte¬
rior appearance j the hall is lofty and noble j and the
apartments, which are decorated and furniftied in a fplen-
did tafte, are enriched with feveral very valuable paint¬
ings. The garden front, plain yet bold, poffeffes a
pleafing fimplicity 5 the garden is fpacious and elegant,
with a beautiful lawn in the centre. The whole of th.s
building is inferior to few private edifices in the Britifti
dominions.
The earl of Charlemont’s houfe is finely fituated
in the middle of Palace row, on an eminence exadlly
fronting the centre of the garden at the rear of the
lying-in hofpital. The front is built with hewn ftone
brought from Arklow, fuperior to that of Portland.
The infide of this houfe is fuperb and convenient : the
hall ceiling is fupported by columns ; fomeof the apart¬
ments are decorated with a felefl but choice collec¬
tion of paintings of the beft mafters 5 among which are
one of Rembrandt’s fineft pi&ures, reprefenting Judas
repenting and calling the filver pieces on the ground;
a portrait of Caefar Borgia, by Titian ; and the Lady’s
Laft Stake by Hogarth, &c. &c. The library is
efteemed one of the fineft apartments in Dublin, and
contains a very valuable colle6tion of the beft authors.
At one end of it is an antichamber, with a fine ftatue
in white marble of the Venus de Medicis, by Wilton ;
Dublin*
-—J
BUB t3S8] BUB
Dublin, and at the other end are two fmall rooms, one a cabinet
— 1 of pictures and antiquities, the other of medals : it is
fituated at the rear of the houfe, and conne&ed with it
by a corridore, in which are fome handfume ftatues and
Egyptian curiofities.
Dublin, which is the feat of government and of the
chief courts of juftice, has received many charters and
ataple privileges from the kings of England fince the
ieign of Henry II. who introduced the Engliih laws
into this kingdom. Richard II. ere&ed it into a mar-
quifate in favour of Robert de Vere earl of Oxford,
whom he alfo created duke of Ireland. It is an
archiepifcopal fee, and returns with the univerfity and
the county fix members to parliament. The civil go¬
vernment of Dublin is executed by a lord mayor, re¬
corder, two (lisriffs, twenty-four aldermen, and a com¬
mon council formed of reprefentatives from the twenty-
five corporations. Every third year the lord mayor,
in conformity with an old charter, perambulates the
bounds of the city and its liberties j and formerly the
freemen of the feveral corporations, armed and mount¬
ed on horfeback, were accuftoraed to attend the chief
magiftrate on this occafion, which was titled riding the
franchifes : but as this cuftom was produdtive of idle-
iiefs, intoxication, and riots, among the lower orders
of the people, it has been of late years very properly
laid afide. Befides the filk, woollen, and worfted ma-
nufadtures carried on in that quarter of the fuburbs
tailed the Earl of Meath’s Liberty, and which have
been confiderably improved wdthin thefefew years, other
branches of ufeful manufadlures are eftablilhing in differ¬
ent parts of the metropolis j and though the trade of
Dublin has heretofore confifted chiefly in the importa¬
tion of foreign commodities, yet, now that the reftric-
tions on their woollens and moft of their other goods
are removed, it is hoped the daily enlargement of their
export trade will caufe a proportionable increafe of na¬
tional opulence.
Dublin would have had a commodious ftation for
fnipping, were it not that the harbour is choked up
with two banks of fand, called the Nort/i and South
Bulls, which prevent veffels of large burden from
coming over the bar. This, however, is in fome mea-
fure remedied by a prodigious work of (tone, and piles
of wood extending fome miles into the bay on the fouth
fide, at the end of which there is a lighthoufe beauti¬
fully conftrufled, after a defign of the late Mr Smith’s.
But the port of Dublin is capable of much greater
improvement •, particularly by turning the courfe of
the river Dodder, building a mole from the north wall
to Ringfend, and clearing the harbour fo as to form a
grand bafon on the fouth fide for the reception of vef¬
fels of all burdens. This u’ork is to be immediately
carried into execution, and will no doubt meet every pof-
fible encouragement, from that fpirit for promoting the
national welfare which now’prevails throughout this king¬
dom, and is remarkably corifpicuous in the capital, where,
among others, are the following public inftitutions.
The board of Truflees-for promoting the linen and
hempen manufaflures, eftabliihed by aft of parliament.
The Dublin Society, incorporated by charter in the
year 1749, for improving hrftnndry and other ufeful
arts. The Royal College of Phyficians, eftablifhed in
the year 1679 promoting medical knowledge. The
Royal College of Surgeons, inftituted in the year 1785. Duyin
The Royal Irifh Academy, for the advancement of —y'-i
fcience, polite literature, and antiquities, incorporated
by letters patent the 28th of January 1786: 'His ma-
jefty is patron, and the chief governor for the time
being his vifitor. The Hibernian Society, for main¬
taining, educating, and apprenticing, the orphans and
children of foldiers in Ireland. The Hibernian Marine
Society, for maintaining, educating, and apprenticing,
the orphans and children of decayed feamen in his ma-
jefty’s navy and the merchants fervice j alfo incorporat¬
ed by royal charter.
But among thefe public inftitutidns, that of the Bank
of Ireland muft not be omitted : It was ellablilhed by
aft of parliament in 1783 j and by facilitating the cir¬
culation of fpecie, gives life and vigour to manufaftures
and commerce. It is condufted under the management
of a governor, deputy-governor, and fifteen direftors,
chofen annually from among the fubfcribers j with this
reftriftion, that five new direftors at leaf! muft be cbofen
every year. This bank is kept in the late parliament
houfe of Ireland. There are four other banks in the city
under the following firms, viz. Right Honourable Da¬
vid La Touche and Co. and Sir William Glendowe
Newcomen, Bart, and Co. both in Cattle {iree;t ; John
Dawfon Coats, Efq. Thomas ftreet 5 and John Finlay
and Co. Upper Ormond quay. The houfes in which
the firft three are kept art ttruftures worthy of notice,
particularly that of Sir William Glendowe Newcomen’s,
which has been rebuilt with hewn ftone, in a good tafte,
after a defign of the late Mr Ivory’s.
To thefe public inftitutions may be added the Gene¬
ral Port Office of Ireland, eftabliftied by aft of parlia¬
ment in 1784, previous to which time the poll: office of
this kingdom was only confidered a branch of the Eng-
liffi one. The building erefted for this purpofe is on
the fouth fide of College green : it is a fine lofty exten-
five ftrufture, and the offices of clerks, &c. are extreme¬
ly well adapted. There are two poftmafters-general, a
fecretary, treafurer, accountant-general, refident furvey-
or, and comptroller. 1 here is alfo a penny-poll under
the direftion of the fame officers, eftabliffied for the
conveyance of letters to all parts throughout the city
and its environs.
Dublin is remarkably well fupplied with fklh, fowl,
and fiffi, the latter in much greater perfeftion than any
other capital in Europe. It is fupplied with coals
chiefly from Cumberland and Scotland ; and water is
conveyed to the city on the north fide from the river
Lilfey, by machines curioully conftrufted for the pur¬
pofe, at an outlet called IJland bridge : the fouth fide
is 1'upplied with that neceffary article from a fine re-
fervoir or bafon, furroundtd with a wall and a hand-
fome grafs walk enclofed on each fide by a tbick-fet
hedge and trees planted at equal diftances. From one
end of it there is a view of the canal for the conve¬
nience of inland water carriage, now completed as far
as Monaftereven, between which and the canal harbour
in James’s ftreet, paflage boats ply daily ; they are
well appointed and accommodated with all neceffary
refreftiments. At a fmall difiance from the baion
there is a bridge of a Angle arch thrown over the ca¬
nal. the elegance and architefture of which are m ch
admired : the fides of the canal for fome miles into
th«
D U C [ 369 ] DUG
[Viljlin tile country are planted with elm trees, which renders
|j its banks in fair weather a delightful place of exercife for
Ducal. the citizens •, who alfo refort for recreation to his ma-
jelly’s Phoenix park, a fine extenfive inclofure at the weft
end of the town, and on the fide of the river oppofite
to the canal, diverfified with woodland, champaign,
and rifing ground, and well flocked with deer. It is
feven miles in circuit; and befides the Hibernian fchool,
is adorned with the viceroy’s beautiful villa and fome
handfome lodges belonging to the rangers : in this park
are alfo a magazine for powder and a battery that com¬
mands the city. In 174% a fluted pillar 30 feet high,
with a phoenix on the top, was erefled in the centre of
a ring in this park by the celebrated earl of Chefterfield
when lord lieutenant of Ireland.
The circular road which furrounds the city, begin¬
ning on one fide of the river, at the eaft end of the
town, and terminating on the oppofite Ihore, is carried
through the park. This road forms a very agreeable
ride, and is much frequented. It is the boundary of
the jurifdidtion of the new police, inftituted for the
better prefervation of the peace and good order of the
city and the perfonal fecurity of its inhabitants. This
inflitution, lately eftablifhed by a£l of parliament, is
under the direction of a chief commiflioner, three af-
fiflant commiflioners, and four divifional jultices, who
are all aldermen of the city ; which is therefore pro¬
perly termed the di/lritl of the metropolis, and divided
into four wards. The police guard confifts of 40
horfemen and 400 foot, well armed, and in regular
uniform : they are taught military difcipline, and fta-
tioned at night time in the feveral watchhoufes; from
whence parties are conftantly patrolling the ftreets,
and centinels are placed at different ftands. This in-
ftitmion is found by experience to be a much more
effe6tual prevention of robberies, riots, and nofhirnal
outrages, than the parilh watches; and to this fecuri¬
ty which the well-difpofed working manufa&urers' en¬
joy, may in a great meafure be attributed that increafing
fpirit of induftry and peaceable behaviour now fo pre¬
valent among this ufeful clafs of the community, which
cannot fail to be produftive of the moft falutary confe-
quences to the future welfare of the metropolis and the
kingdom in general.
DUBOS, John Baptist, a learned and ingenious
Trench author, born at Beauvais in 1670. He finiflied
his ftudies at Paris, and at length was entrufted with the
management of feveral important affairs in Italy, Eng¬
land, and Holland. At his return to Paris, he had a
prebendary given him ; afterwards he had a penfion of
two thoufand livres, and the abbey of Notre Dame at
Reffons, near Beauvais. He died at Paris, when per¬
petual fecretary of the French academy, on the 23d of
March 1742. His principal works are, 1. Critical Re¬
flexions on Poetry and Painting, in three volumes duo¬
decimo. 2. A Critical Hiftory of the French Monarchy
tm Gaul, two volumes 410.
DUBRIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Britain ;
now Dover, fi-om Dovoria of the lower age. A port
town in Kent, oppofite to Calais.
DUCAL, in general, fomething belonging to a duke.
Bee Duke.
The letters patent granted by the fenate of Venice
■are called ducal 1 fo alfo are the letters wrote, in the
name of the lenate, to foreign princes. The denomi-
Vol. VII. Part I.
nation of ducal is derived hence ; that, at the begin¬
ning of fuch patents, the name of the duke or doge is
wrote in capitals, thu*. A7— Dei Gratia Dux Vene-
tiorum, &c. The date of ducals is ufually in Latin,
but the body is in Italian. A courier was defpatched
with a ducal to the emperor, returning him thanks for
renewing the treaty of alliance in 1716, againft the
Turks, with the republic of Venice.
DUG AS, a learned Greek, who wrote a hiftory of
what paffed under the laft emperors of Conftantinople,
till the ruin of that city. This work, which is efieem-
ed, was printed at the Louvre in 1649, with the Latin
tranflation and notes of Boillaud.
DUCAT, a foreign coin, either of gold or filvtT,
ftruck in the dominions of a duke ; being about the
fame value with a Spanith piece of eight, or a French
crown ; or four (hillings and fixpence llerling when of
filver, and twice as much when of gold. See
Coin.
The origin of ducats is referred to one Longinus, go¬
vernor of Italy ; who revolting againlt the emperor
Juftin the Younger, made himfelr duke ol Ravenna, and
called himfelf Ex arc ha, i. e. without lord or ruler ; and,
to (how his independence, ftruck pieces of money of very
pure gold in his own name, and with his own (lamp,
which were called ducati, ducats ; as Procopius relates
the ftory.
After him, the firft who ftruck ducats were the Ve¬
netians, who called them Zecchim or fequins, from
Zecca, the place where they firft were ftruck. This
was about the year 1280 in the time of John Dan-
duli; but we have pretty good evidence, that Roger
king of Sicily had coined ducats as early as 1240.
And Du Cange fcruples not to affirm, that the firft
ducats were ftruck in the duchy of Apulia in Cala¬
bria. The chief gold ducats now current are, the
fingle and double ducats of Venice, Florence, Ge¬
noa, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Sweden, Den¬
mark, Flanders, Holland, and Zurich. The heavieft
of them weigh 5 pennyweights 17 grains, and the
lighted 5 pennyweights IO grains; which is to beun-
derftood of the double ducats, and of the fingle in pro¬
portion.
The Spaniards have no ducats of gold; but, in
lieu thereof, they make ufe of the filver one ; which,
with them, is no real fpecies, but only a money of ac¬
count like our pound. It is equivalent to 11 rials. See
Rial. The filver ducats of Florence ferve there for
crowns.
DUCATOON, a filver coin, ftruck chiefly in Italy ;
particularly at Milan, Venice, Florence, Genoa, Lucca,
Mantua, and Parma ; though there are alfo Dutch and
Flemifh ducatoons. They are all nearly on the fame
footing ; and being a little both finer and heavier than
the piece of eight, are valued at twopence or threepence
more ; viz. at about four (hillings and eightpence fter-
ling.
There is alfo a gold ducatoon ftruck and current
chiefly in Holland : it is equivalent to twenty florins,
on the footing of one (hilling arid elevenpence half¬
penny the florin.
DUCENARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in the Ro¬
man army, who had the command of 20,000 men.
The emperors had alfo ducenarii among their procu¬
rators or intendants, called procuratores ducenarii. Some
3 A fay,
Bucal
Duck.
DUC [ 37° .3
Ducena- fay, that thefe were fuch whofe falary was two bun- admiffion of the air
rins dred fefterces ; as in the games of the circus, horfes
hired for two hundred feflerces were called ducenarii.
„ Others hold, that ducenarii were thofe who levied the
two hundredth penny, the officers appointed to infpe£t
the railing of that tribute. In the inferiptions at Pal¬
myra, the word ducenarius, in Greek JaKsvasgtas, occurs
very often.
DUCEN FESIMA, in antiquity, a tax of the two
hundredth penny, exafted by the Romans.
DUCHAL, James, D. D. a late pious and learned
diflenting minifter, was born in Ireland, and finilhed
his ftudies at the univerlity of Glafgow ; which after¬
wards, from a regard to his merit, conferred on him the
degree of dodlor of divinity. He refided 10 or n
years at Cambridge, as the pallor of a fmall congre¬
gation »tht re •, where he enjoyed his beloved retirement,
the advantage of books and of learned converfation,
which he improved with the greateft diligence. On
Mr Abernathy’s removal from Antrim, he fucceeded
him there *, and on that gentleman’s death, he fucceeded
him as minifter of a diffenting meeting-houfe in Wood-
iireet, Dublin. In this lituation he continued till his
death, which happened on the 4th of May 1761, when
he had completed his 64th year. Pie publiffied a vo¬
lume of excellent difeourfes on the prefumptive argu¬
ments in favour of the Chriltian religion, and many
occalional tradls; and after his death was publiffied
a number of his fermons, in three volumes 8vo.
DUCHY, in Geography., an appellation given to the
dominions of a duke.
DUCHT Court, a court where all matters belonging to
the duchy or county palatine of Lancaller are decided
by decree of the chancellor of that court.
The origin of this court was in Henry IV’s time,
who obtained the crown by the depolition of Richard
II. and having the duchy of Lancafler by defeent, in
right of his mother, became feized thereof as king, not
as duke : So that all the liberties, franchifes, and ju-
rifdiftions of the faid county paffed from the king by
his great feal, and not by livery or attornment, as the
earldom of March, and other poffeffions, which de¬
fended to him by other anceftors than the king’s did.
Henry IV. by authority of parliament fevered the
poffeffions, liberties, &c. of the faid duchy from the
crown j but Edward IV. rellored them to their former
nature.
1 he officers belonging to this court are, a chancellor,
attorney general, receiver-general, clerk of the court,
and meffenger ; befides the affiftants, as an attorney
in the exchequer, another in chancery, and four coun¬
fellers.
DUCK. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
1 his fowl is furniffied w'ith a peculiar ftructure of
veffels about the heart, which enables it to live a con-
fiderable time under water, as is neceffary for it in div¬
ing. This made Mr Boyle think it a more proper
fubjeft for experiments with the air-pump, than any
other bird. A full grown duck, being put into the
receiver of an air-pump, of which ffie filled one-third
part, and the air exhaufted, the creature feemed to bear
it better for the firft moments than a hen or other fuch
fowl : but, after about a minute, fhe ffiowed great figns
of uneafinefs, and in lefs than two minutes her head
fell down, and ffie appeared dying, till revived by the
DUG
Ihus, whatever facility of diving
this and other water fowl may have, it does not ap¬
pear that they can fubfitt, without air for refpiration,
any longer than other animals. A young callow duck
was afterwards tried in the fame manner, and with the
fame fuccefs, being reduced very near death in lefs than
two minutes. But it is obfervable, that both birds-
fwelled very much in pumping out the air, fo that they
appeared greatly larger to the fpe&ators, efpecially
about the crop. It not being intended that any w'ater-
fowl ffiould live in an exceeding rarefied air, but only
be able to continue occafionally feme time under water
Nature, though ffie has provided them with the means
of this, hath done nothing for them in regard to thar
other.
The ftrongeft inftance of thefe creatures being cal¬
culated to live almoft in any fituation, we have in the
accounts of the blind ducks in the Zirchnitzer lake in
Carniola. It is fuppofed that this lake Communicates
with another lake under ground in the mountain Sa-
vornic, and fills or empties itfelf according to the ful-
nefs or emptinefs of that lake ; the water of the uppes
lake running off, and that in vaft quantities, by holes in
the bottom. T-he ducks which are here always in
great numbers, are often carried down along with the
water, and forced into the fubterraneous lake to which
it retires. In this unnatural habitation many of thefe
creatures undoubtedly periffi, but feme remain alive.
Thefe become blind, and lofe all their feathers; and in
the* next filling of the lake, both they and vaft numbers
of fifti are thrown up with the water. At this time
they are fat, but make a ftrange appearance in their
naked Hate, and are eafily caught, by reafen of their
want of fight. In about a fortnight they recover their
fight and feathers ; and are then of the fize of a com¬
mon wild duck, but of a black colour, with a white fpot
on their forehead. When opened, on being taken at
their firft coming up in their blind ftate, their ftomachs
are found full of fmall fifties, and fomewhat refembling
weeds. From this it feems that they cannot be abfo-
lutely blind : but that the degree of light to which they
have been accuftomed in their fubterraneous habitation,
is fufficient to enable them to procure food for them-
felves ; and their blindnefs, on coming again to open day
light, is no other than that of a man who has been long
in the dark, on having in an inftant a large blaze of
candles fet under his eyes.
Duck, Stephen, originally a thraffier in a barn, was
born about the beginning of the 18th century. By
his poetical talents, he firft attradled the notice of
feme gentlemen at Oxford ; and being recommended
to Qpeen Caroline, he, under her patronage, took or¬
ders, and was preferred to the living of Byfleet in Surry,
rlis abilities were, however, much more confpicuous in
his primitive ftation than in his advancement; though,
it is faid, he was not dilliked as a preacher. Falling at
length into a low-fpirited melancholy way, probably
owing to his change of life and ceflation from his ufuai
labour, he in a fit of lunacy flung himfelf into the
Thames, in 1756.
DUCKING plunging in water, a diverfion an-'
ciently pra£h among the Goths by way of exercife ;
but among the Celtae, Franks, and ancient Germans,
it was a fort of puniffiment for perfons of fcandalous
lives.—At Marfeilles and Bourbon their men and wo-
naers'
buck’(
Dutkino
Ducking
II
Duifhlity-
DUG [ s7
men of fcandalous life are condemned to the cale, as
they call it $ that is, to be lhut up naked to the fhift in
an iron cage faflened to the yard of a (hallop, and duck¬
ed feveral times in the river. The fame has been done
at Thouloufe to blafphemers.
Ducking, a fort of marine punilhment, inflifled by
the French, on thofe who have been convi&ed of defer-
tion, blafphemy, or exciting fedition. It is performed
as follows: The criminal is placed aftride of a Ihort
thick batten, faftened at the end of a rope, which paffes
through a block hanging at one of the yard-arms. Thus
fixed, he is hoifted fuddenly up to the yard, and the
rope being fiackened at once, he is plunged into the fea.
This chaftifement is repeated feveral times conformable
to the purport of the fentence pronounced againft the
culprit, who has at that time feveral cannon (hot faften¬
ed to his feet during the punifhmentwhich is render¬
ed public by the firing of a gun, to advertife the other
ftiips of the fleet thereof, that their crews may become
fpe£tators.
Ducking is alfo a penalty which veteran Tailors pre¬
tend to inflift on thofe who, for the firft time, pafs the
tropic of Cancer, the equator, or the ftraits of Gibral¬
tar, in confequence of their refufal or incapacity to pay
the ufual fine levied on this occafion.
DuCKlNG-Stool. See Castigatory.
DUCKUP, at fea, is a term ufed by the fteerfman,
when the main-fail, fore-fail, or fprit-fail, hinders his
feeing to fleer by a land-mark ; upon which he calls
out, Duckup the clew-lines of thefe fads ; that is, haul
the fails out of the way. Alfo when a (hot is made by
a chafe piece, if the clew of the fprit-fail hinders the
fight they call out, Duckup, &c.
DUCT, in general, denotes any tube or canal. It
is a terra much ufed by anatomifts.
DUCTILITY, in Phii(icss a property pofleffed by
certain folid bodies, which confifts in their yielding to
percuffion or preflure, and in receiving different forms
•without breaking.
Some bodies are duftile both when they are hot and
when they are cold, and in all circumftances. Such
are metals, particularly gold and filver. Other bodies
are duttile only when heated to a fu'fficient degree ;
fuel) as wax and other fubftances of that kind, and
glafs. Other bodies, particularly fome kinds of iron,
called by the workmen redfhort, brafs, and fome other
metallic mixtures, are ductile only when cold, and brit¬
tle when hot. The degrees of heat requifite to produce
duftility in bodies of the firft kind, vary according to
their different natures. In general, the heat of the
body muft be fuch as is fufficient to reduce it to a
middle ftate betwixt folidity and perfea fufioa. As
wax, for inftance, is fufible with a very Imall heat, it
may be rendered ductile by a ftill fmaller one ; and
glafs, which requires a moft violent beat for its perfect
fufion, cannot acquire its greateft duftility until it is
made perfeftly red hot, and almoft ready to fufe. . Laft-
ly, Some bodies are made du£tile by the abforption of
a fluid. Such are certain earths, particularly clay.
When thefe earths have abforbed a fufficient quantity
of water to bring them into a middle ftate betwixt fo¬
lidity and fluidity, that is, to the confiftence of a con-
fiderable firm pafte, they have then acquired their
greateft du£fility. Water has precifely the fame effect
i ] DUD
upon them in this refpect that fire has upon the bodies Docility,
above mentioned. Dudley.
DUDLEY, Edmund, an eminent lawyer and able ^
ftatefman in the reign of Henry VII. ; who with Sir
Richard Empfon, another lawyer of the fame com¬
plexion, affiited in filling that rapacious monarch’s cof¬
fers by arbitrary profecutions of the people on old pe¬
nal ftatutes. They were beheaded on the acctfiion of
Henry VIII. to pacify the clamours of the people for
juftice.
Dudley, John, duke of Northumberland, fon of the
above, a ftatefman ; memorable in the Englilh hittory
for his unfuccefsful attempt to place the crown on the
head of his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, who fell
a vi£tim to his ambition ; was born in l$02, and be¬
headed in 1553. (Hfory of) England. Am-
brofe his eldeft fon was a brave general and able ftatef¬
man under Queen Elizabeth j and received the appella¬
tion of/Z’? jpjor/q/'HariurcL Henry, the duke’s
fecond fon, was killed at the fiege of St Quintin. Ro¬
bert, the third fon, a man of bad character, was created
earl of Leicefter j and was one of Queen Elizabeth’s
favourites. His fourth fon was the unfortunate Lord
Guildford Dudley, whofe only crime was his being the
hufband of Lady Jane Grey, for which he was behead¬
ed in 1554.
Dudley, Sir Robert, as he was called in England,
and, as he was ftyled abroad, earl of Warwick and
duke of Northumberland, was the fon of Robert above
mentioned, by the lady Douglas Sheffield \ and was
born at Sheen in Surry in 1573, where he was care¬
fully concealed to prevent the queen’s knowledge df
the earl’s engagements with his mother. He ftudied
at Oxford j when his father dying, left him the bulk
of his eftate. He was at this time one of the finett
gentlemen in England ; and having a particular turn
to navigation, fitted out a fmall fquadron at his own
expence, with which he failed to the river Oroonoque,
and took and deftroyed nine fail of Spanifh ftiips. In
I 595, he attended the earl of Effex, and the lord high
admiral of England, in their expedition againft the
Spaniards ; when, for his gallant behaviour at the tak¬
ing of Cadiz, he received the honour of knighthood.
He now endeavoured to prove the legitimacy of his
birth, in order to be entitled to his hereditary honours.
But being overpowered by the intereft of the countefs
dowager of Leicefter, he applied for a licenfe to tra¬
vel ; and being well received at the court of Florence,
refolved to continue there, notwithftanding his receiv¬
ing a letter of recal j on which his whole eftate was
feized by King James I. and veiled in the crown. He
difeovered at the court of Cofmo II. great duke ot
Tufcany, thofe great abilities for which he had been
admired in England, and was at length made cham¬
berlain to bis ferene highnefs’s confort. Fie there
contrived feveral methods of improving (hipping ; in¬
troduced »ew manufactures *, and by other fervices ob¬
tained fo high a reputation, that at the defire of the
archduchefs, the emperor Ferdinand, in 1620, created
him a duke of the holy Roman empire. He after¬
wards drained a vaft trafl of morafs between Pifa and
the fea ; and raifed Leghorn, which was then a mean,
pitiful place, into a large and beautiful town, improv-
ine the haven by a mole, which rendered it both fafe
6 3 A 2 and
DUE [3
and commodious j and having engaged his highnefs to
declare it a free port, he, by his influence and corre-
fpondence, drew many Engliflh merchants to fettle and
fet up houfes there, which was of very great fervice to
his native country, as well as to the Spaniards. He
was alfo the patron of learned men, and held a high
place himfelf in the republic of letters. His moft cele¬
brated work is his Del Arcana del Maret in two volumes
folio.
DUEL, a Angle combat, at a time and place ap¬
pointed, in confequence of a challenge. This cuftom
came originally from the northern nations, among whom
it was ufual to decide all their controverfies by arms.
Both the accufer and accufed gave pledges to the
judges on their refpeftive behalf; and the cuftom pre¬
vailed fo far amongft the German1*, Danes, and Franks,
that none were excufed from it but women, fiek peo¬
ple, cripples, and fuch as were under 2i years of age
or above 60. Even ecclefiaftics, priefts, and monks,
were obliged to find champions to fight in their ftead.
The punifhment of the vanquilhed was either death,
by hanging or beheading j or mutilation of members,
according to the circumftances of the cafe. Duels
were at firft admitted not only on criminal occafions,
but on fome civil ones for the maintenance of rights
to eftates, and the like : in latter times, however, be¬
fore they were entirely aboliftied, they were reftrained
to thefe four cafes. 1. That the crime ftiould be capi¬
tal. 2. That it ftiould be certain the crime was perpe¬
trated. 3. The accufed muft by common fame be fup-
pofed guilty. And, 4. The matter not capable of proof
by witnetTes.
Duel, at prefent, is ufed for fingle combat on fome
private quarrel j and muft be premeditated, otherwife
it is called a rencounter. If a perfon is killed in a duel,
both the principals and feconds are guilty, whether the
feconds engage or not. (See the article Murder). It
is alfo a very high offence to challenge a perfon either
by word or letter, or to be the meffenger of a challenge.
(See Law Indexl)
The general practice of duelling, in this laft fenfe,
took its rife in the year 1527, at the breaking up of a
treaty between the emperor Charles V. and Francis L.
The former defired Francis’s herald to acquaint his fo-
vereign, that he would henceforth confider him not
only as a bafe violator of public faith, but as a ftranger
to the honour and integrity becoming a gentleman.
Francis, too high-fpirited to bear fuch an imputation,
had recourfe to an uncommon expedient to vindicate
his character. He inftantly fent back the herald with
a cartel of defiance, in which he gave the emperor the
lie in form, challenged him to fingle combat, requiring
him to name the time and place of the encounter, and
the weapons with which he chofe to fight. Charles, as
he was not inferior to his rival in fpirit or bravery, rea¬
dily accepted the challenge ; but after feveral meflages
concerning the arrangement of all the cimimftances re¬
lative to the combat, accompanied with mutual re¬
proaches bordering on the moft indecent fcurrility, all
thoughts of this duel, more becoming the heroes of ro¬
mance than the two greateft monarchs of their age,
were entirely laid afide.
The example of two perfonages fo illuftrious, drew
fuch general attention, and carried with it fo much
authority, that it had confiderable influence in intro-
4
Duel.
72 ] DUE
ducing an important change in manners all over Eu¬
rope. Duels, as has already been obferved, bad been
long permitted by the laws of all the European na¬
tions j and, forming a part of their jurisprudence
were authorized by the magiftrate on many occafion^
as the moft proper method of terminating queftions
with regard to property, or of deciding in thole which
regarded crimes. But fingle combats being conlider-
ed as folemn appeals to the omnifcience and juftice of
the Supreme Being, they were allowed only in pub¬
lic caufes, according to the prefcription of law, and
carried on in a judicial form f. Men accuftomed to 1 See ,
this manner of dec^fion in courts of juftice, were na-article 8
turally led to apply it to perfonal and private quarrels. Battel.
Duels, which at firft could be appointed by the civil
judge alone, were fought without the interpofition of
his authority, and in cafes to which the laws did not
extend. The tranfaftions between Charles and Fran¬
cis ftrongly countenanced this practice. Upon every
affront or injury which feemed to touch his honour, a
gentleman thought himfelf entitled to draw his fword,
and to call on his adverfary to make reparation. Such
an opinion, introduced among men of fierce couragej
of high fpirit, and of rude manners, where offence
was often given, and revenge was always prompt, prc*
duced moft fatal confequences. Much of the beft
blood in Chriftendom was (hed ; many ufeful lives were
loft } and, at fome periods, war rtfelf had hardly been
more deftruflive than thefe contefts of honour. So
powerful, however, is the dominion of falhion, that
neither the terror of penal laws, nor reverence for reli¬
gion, have been able entirely to abolilh a practice un¬
known among the ancients, and notjuftifiable by any
principle of reafon : though at the fame time we muft
afcribe to it, in fome degree, that extraordinary gentle-
nefs and complaifance of modern manners, and that re-
fpedlful attention of one man to another, which at pre¬
fent render the focial intercourfes of life far more
agreeable and decent than among the moft civilized na¬
tions of antiquity.
Public opinion is not eafily controlled by civil infti-
tutions ; for which reafon it may be queftioned whe¬
ther any regulations can be contrived of fufficient force
to fupprefs or change the rule of honour which ftigma-
tizes all fcruplss about duelling with the reproach of
cowardice.
The inadequate redrefs which the law of the land
affords for thofe injuries which chiefly affett a man in
his fenfibility and reputation, tempts many to redrefs
themfelves. Profecutions for fuch offtnees, by the
trifling damages that are recovered, ferve only to make
the fufferer more ridiculous.—This ought to be reme¬
died.
For the army, where the point of honour is culti¬
vated with exquifite attention and refinement, there
might be eftablilhed a court of honour, with a power
of awarding thofe fubraiflions and acknowledgments
which it is generally the objeft of a challenge to ob¬
tain ; and it might grow into a falhion with perfons of
rank of all profeffions to refer their quarrels to the fame
tribunal..
Duelling, as the law now ftands, can feldom be over¬
taken by legal punilhment. The challenge, appoint¬
ment, and other previous circumftances, which indicate
the intention with which the combatants meet, being-
fuppreffed.
D U K
L 373 ]
B U K
Drel fupprfefied, nothing appears to a court of juftice but the
|| aftual rencounter ; and if a perfon be flain when a&u-
Duke. a}]y fighting, with his adverfary, the law deems his-death
--v nothing more than manilaughter.
DUERO, or Douro, a large river, which, rifmg in
Old Cailile in Spain, runs from eaft to weft, croffes the
province of Leon, and after dividing Portugal from
Spain by a foutherly courfe, turns weft ward, croffes
Portugal, and falls into the Atlantic ocean near Q-
porto.
DUGDALE, Sir William, an eminent Englifh
hiftorian, antiquarian, and herald, born in Warvviek-
ftiire in 1605. lie was introduced into the herald’s
office by Sir Chriftopher Hatton ; and afcended gra-
’ dually through all the degrees, until he became Garter
principal king at arms. His chief work is the Mona-
Jlicon Anglicantttn, in three vols. folio •, containing the
charters and defcriptions of all the Englifh monafleries,
adorned with engravings : in the former part of which
work he was aflifted by Mr Roger Dodfworth. Nor are
his antiquities of WTarwick(hire lefs efteemed. He wrote
likewife, among other things of lefs note, the Hiftory
of St Paul’s Cathedral •, a Hiftory of Embanking and
Draining; a Baronage of England ; and completed the
fecond volume of Sir Henry Spelman’s Councils, with a
fecond part of his Gloffary. He died in 1686. His
fon, Sir John, was Norroy king at arms, and publifhed
a Catalogue of Englifti Nobility. His daughter Eli¬
zabeth married the famous Elias Affimole.
DUILLIA LEX, was ena&edby M. Duillius, a tri¬
bune, in the year of Rome 304. It made it a capital
crime to leave the Roman people without its tribunes,
or to create any new magiftrate without a fufficient
eaufe. Another in 392, to regulate what intereft ought
to be paid for money lent.
DUILLIUS nepos, C. a Roman conful, the firft
who obtained a victory over the naval power of Car¬
thage in the year of Rome 492. He took fifty of the
enemy’s (hips, and was honoured with a naval triumph,
the firft that ever appeared at Rome. The fenate re¬
warded his valour by permitting him to have mufic
playing and torches-lighted at the public expence every
day while he was at fupper. There were fame me¬
dals ftruck in commemoration of his viftory ; and there
exifts a column at Rome which was eredled on the oc-
cafion.
DUKE, (D«^, a fovereign prince, without the title
or quality of king. Such are the. dukes of Lorrain,
of Holftein, of Savoy, of Parma, &c. The word is bor¬
rowed from the modern Greeks, who call doucas what
the Latins call dux.
There are alf» two fovereigns who bear the title of
grand duhe: as the grand duke of Tufcany, and the
grand duke of Mufcovy, now called the c%ar or em¬
peror of Ruffia. The title great duke belongs to the
apparent heir of Ruflia ; and the title of archduke is
given to all the fons of the houfe of Auftria, as that of
archduchefs to all the daughters.
Duke, (Dux), is aifo a title of honour or nobility,
the next below princes.
The dukedom or dignity of duke is a Roman dig¬
nity, denominated ducendo, “ leading” or “ com¬
manding.” Accordingly, the firft dukes, duces, were
the duBores exercituum, ** commanders of armies.” Un¬
der the later emperors, the governors of provinces in
war time were entitled duces. In after times the lame
denomination was alfo given to the governors of pro- •«.
vinces in time of peace. The firft governor under
the n ame.©f duke was a duke of the Marchia Rhaetica,
or Gnlons, whereof mention is made in Caffiodorus ;
and there were afterwards thirteen dukes in the eaftern
empire, and twelve in the weftern. The Goths and
Vandals, upon their overrunning the provinces of tbs'
weftern empire, abolHhed the Roman dignities vvhere-
ever they fettled. But the Franks, &c. to pleafe the
Gauls, who had long been uftd to that form of go¬
vernment, made it a point of politics not to change
any thing therein : and accordingly they divided all
Gaul into duchies and counties ; and gave the names
fometimes of dukes, and fometimes of counts, .comites,
to the governors thereof.
In England, during the Saxon times, Camden ob-
ferves, the officers and commanders of armies were
called dukes, duces, after the ancient Roman manner,
without any addition. After the Conqueror came in,
the title lay dormant till the reign of Edward III. who
created his fon Edward, called the Black Prince, firft
duke of Cornwall y which hath ever fince been the pe¬
culiar inheritance of the king’s eldeft fon during the life
of his father; fo that he is dux natus non creatus. After
whom there were more made, in fuch a manner as that
their titles defcended to their pofterity. They were
created with much folemniiy,/>rr cinBuramgludii, cap-
peeque, et circuit aurei in capite impojitionem. However,
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, AT). 1572, the whole
order became utterly extindl ; but it was revived about
50 years afterwards by her fucceffor, in the perlon of
George Villiers duke of Buckingham.
Though the French retained the names and forms of
the ducal government, yet under their fecond race 01
kings there were fcarce any fuch thing as dukes : but
all the great lords were called counts, peers, or barons ;
excepting, however, the dukes of Burgundy and Aqui-
tain ; and the duke ot France, which was a dignity
Hugh Capet himfelf held, comffpondingfto the modern
dignity of maire de palais, or the king’s lieutenant.
By the weaknefs of the kings, the dukes or governors
fometimes made themfelves fovereigns of the provinces
trufted to their adminiftration. l ifts change happened
chiefly about the time of Hugh Capet; when the great
lords began to difmember the kingdom, fo that that
prince fownd more competitors among them than lub-
jedts. It was even with a great deal of difficulty they
could be brought to own* him their fuptrior, or to hold
of him by faith and homage. By degrees, what with
force, and what by marriages, thefe provinces, both
duchies and counties, which had been rent from the
crown, were again united to it. But the. title duke was
no longer given to the governors of provinces. From
that time duke became a mere title of dignity, annexed
to a perfon and his heirs male, without giving him any
domain, territory, or jurifdiftion over the place where¬
of he was duke.. All the advantages thereof now con-
fill in the name, and the precedence it gives.
The dukes of our days retain nothing of their an¬
cient fplendour but the coronet on their efeuteheon,
which is the only mark of their departed fovereignty.
They are created by patent, cinflure of the hv^rd,
mantle of ftate, impofition of a cap and coronet of gold
on the head, and a verge or rod of gold in their band.
The
Dukp.
Btike The elcleft Tons of dukes are by the courtefy of Eng-
land ftyled marqujes, though they are ufually diftin-
.' Ullt ne ^ guiflied by their father’s fecond title, whether it be
that of marquis or earl : and the younger fons lords,
with the addition of their Chriltian name, as Lord
James, Lord Thomas, &c. and they take place of vif-
"counts, though not fo privileged by the laws of the
land.
A duke has the title otgracei and being writ to, he
is ftyled, in the herald’slanguage, wo/?and
noble prince. Dukes of the blood royal are ftyled mojl
high, mojl mighty, and illujlrious princes.
iDuKE, among Hebrew grammarians, is an appella¬
tion given to a fpecies of accents anfwering to our
comma. See Accent.
DUKE-Duke, a quality given in Spain to a grandee
of the houfe of Sylva, on account of his having feveral
duchies from the uniting of two confiderable houfes in
his perfon. Don Roderigo de Sylva, eldeft fon of Don
Ruy Gomez de Sylva, and heir of his duchies and
.-principalities, married the eldeft daughter of the duke
de I’Infantado ; in virtue of which marriage, the pre-
fent duke de Paftrana, who is defcended therefrom,
and is grandfon of Don Roderigo de Sylva, has added
to his other great titles that of duke-duke, to diftin-
guifh himfelf from the other dukes $ fome whereof
may enjoy feveral duchies, but none fo confiderable ones,
nor the titles of fueh eminent families.
DULCIFYING, in Chemiftry, is the fweetening
any matter impregnated with falts, by frequently wafh-
ing it in pure water.
DULL, in the manege. The marks of a dull horfe,
called by the French marques de ladrc, are white fpots
round the eye and on the tip of the nofe, upon any
general colour whatfoever. Though the vulgar take
thefe fpots for figns of ftupidity, it is certain they are
great marks of the goodnefs of a horfe $ and the horfes
that have them are very fenfible and quick upon the
fpur.
DULLART, Heiman, a Dutch painter and poet,
fie was a pupil to Rembrandt, for whofe works the
.few he left are often miftaken. He died in 1684.
DUMBARTON. See Dunbarton.
DUMBNESS, the privation of the faculty of fpeech.
The moft general, or rather the foie caufe of dumbnefs,
is the want of the fenfe of hearing. The ufe of lan¬
guage is originally acquired by imitating articulate
founds. From this fiource of intelligence, deaf people
are entirely excluded : they cannot acquire articulate
founds by the ear : unlefs, therefore, articulation be
communicated to them by fome other medium, thefe
unhappy people muft for ever be deprived of the ufe of
language; and as language is the principal fource of
knowledge, whoever has the misfortune to want the
fenfe of hearing, muft remain in a ftate little fuperior
to that of the brute creation. Deafnefs has in all
ages been confidered as fuch a total obftru&ion to
fpeech or written language, that an attempt to teach
the deaf to fpeak or read has been uniformly regarded
as impra&ieable, till Dr Wallis and fome others have
©f late fhown, that although deaf people cannot learn
to fpeak or read by the diredlion of the ear, there are
other fources of imitation, by which the fame effett
may be produced. The organs of hearing and of
f|(eeeh have little or no connexion. Perfors deprived
I
of the former generally poffefs the latter in fuch per¬
fection, that nothing further is neceffary, in order to
make them articulate, than to teach them how to ufe
thefe organs. This indeed is no eafy talk ; but expe¬
rience (hows that it is practicable. Mr Thomas
Braidwood, late of Edinburgh, was perhaps the firft
who ever brought this furprifing art to any degree of
perfection. He began with a fingle pupil in 1764;
and fince that period has taught great numbers of
people born deaf to fpeak diftinCtly ; to read, to write,
to underftand figures, the principles of religion and
morality, &c. At the time we firft converfed with
him, being a few years after the commencement of his
practice, he had a confiderable number of deaf pupils,
fome of them above 20 years of age, all making a ra¬
pid and amazing progrefs in thofe ufeful branches of
education. .
Mr Braidwood’s principal difficulty, after he had
difcovered this art, was to make people believe in the
praflicability of it. He advertifed in the public pa¬
pers ; he exhibited his pupils to many noblemen and
gentlemen $ ft ill he found the generality of mankind
unwilling to believe him. A remarkable inftance of
this incredulity appeared fome years ago. A gentle¬
man in England fent a deaf girl of his to Mr Braid-
wood’s care. A year or two afterwards, Mr Braid-
wood wrote to the father, that his daughter could
fpeak, read, and write diftindtly. The father returned
an anfwer, begging Mr Braidwood’s excufe, as he could
not believe it : however, he defired a friend of his,
who was occafionally going to Edinburgh, to call at
Mr Braidwood, and inquire into the truth of what he
had wrote him : he did fo ; converfed with Mr Braid¬
wood, faw the young lady, heard her read, (peak, and
anfwer any queftion he put to her. On his return, he
told the father the furprifing progrefs his child had
made ; but ftill the father thought the whole an im-
pofition 7 the girl herfelf wrote to her father, but he
looked upon the letter as a forgery. About this time
the father died j and the mother fent an uncle and
coufin of the deaf lady’s from Shrewfbury, in order to
be fatisfied of the truth. When they arrived, Mr Braid¬
wood told the girl her uncle and coufin were in the
parlour j and defired her to go and alk them how they
did, and how her mother and other friends did. The
friends were aftonifhed, and could hardly credit their
own ears and eyes.
When we converfed with Mr Braidwood concerning
the nature and method of teaching this wonderful art,
he feemed to be very defirous of communicating and
tranfmitting his difcovery to pofterity ; but obferved,
and from the nature of the thing we believe it to be true,
that he could not communicate it fo fully in writing as
to enable any other perfon to teach it. The firft thing
in the method is, to teach the pupil to pronounce the
fimple founds of the vowels and confonants. We have
even feen him performing this operation $ but are un¬
able to give a clear idea of it. He pronounces the
found of a {lowly, pointing out the figure of the let¬
ter at the fame time 5 makes his pupil obferve the mo¬
tion of his mouth and throat; he then puts his finger
into the pupil’s mouth, depreffes or elevates the tongue,
and makes him keep the parts in that pofition ; then
he lays hold of the outfide of the windpipe, and gives
it fome kind of fqueeze, which it is impoffible to de.-
fcribe;
imbnefs,
Nouv.
'em. de
Icadtmie
>yale, Sac
Berlin,
Ion. Rev,
!■ kxi.
6S1)'
BUM [ 375
fcribe : all the while he is pronouncing a, the pupil is
anxioufly imitating him, but at firft feems not to un-
derftand what he would have him to do. In this man¬
ner he proceeds, till the pupil has learned to pronounce
the founds of the letters. He goes on in the fame
manner to join a vowel and a confonant, till at length
the pupil is enabled both to fpeak and read.
That his pupils were taught not only the mere pro¬
nunciation, but alfo to underftand the meaning of what
they read, was eafily afeertained by a converfation with
any of them. Of this Mr Pennant gives a remarkable
inftance in a young lady of about 13 years of age, who
had been fome time under the care of Mr Braidwood.
“ She readily apprehended (fays he) all I faid, and re¬
turned me anfwers with the utmoft facility. She read ;
(he wrote well. Her reading was not by rote. She
could clothe the fame thoughts in a new fet of words,
and never vary from the original fenfe. I have forgot
the book (he took up, or the fentences (he made a new
verfion of: but the effect was as follows.
“ Original parage. Lord Bacon has divided the
whole of human knowledge into hiftory, poetry, and
philofophy ; which are referred to the three powers of
the mind,—memory, imagination, and reafon.
“ Verjion. A nobleman has parted the total or all
of man’s ftudy or underftanding into, An account of
the life, manners, religion or cuftoms of any people or
country ; verfe or metre ; moral or natural knowledge :
which are pointed to the three faculties of the foul or
fpirit; the faculty of remembering what is part, thought
or conception, and right judgment.”
Mr Braidwood’s fuccefs fince he went to fettle in
London is univerfally known. Several other perfons
have fince attempted the fame art with various degrees
of ability. But a new and different method, equally
laborious and fuccefiful we underfland, is pradlifed by
the abbe de I’Epee of Berlin. We are informed *
that he begins his inftru&ions not by endeavouring to
form the organs of fpeech to articulate founds, but by
communicating ideas to the mind by means of figns
and chara&ers: to effeft this, he wrote the names of
things j and, by a regular fyftem of figns, eftablifhes a
connection between thefe words and the ideas to be
excited by them. After he has thus furnilhed his
pupils with ideas, and a medium of communication,
he teaches them to articulate and pronounce, and ren¬
ders them not only grammarians but logicians. In
this manner he has enabled one of his pupils to deliver
a Latin oration in public, and another to defend a thefis
againft the objections of one of his fellow pupils in a
fcholaltic deputation ; in which the arguments of each
were communicated to each other, but whether by figns
or in writing is not faid y for it does not appear that the
abbe teaches his pupils to difeern what is fpoken, by
obferving the motion of the organs of fpeech, which
thofe inftructed by Meflfrs Braidwoods are able to do
with aflonifhing readinefs.
There is perhaps no word, fays the abbe, more dif¬
ficult to explain by figns than the verb croire, “ to be¬
lieve.” To do this, he writes the verb with its fignifi-
eations in the following manner :
' Je dis oui par /’ efprit, Je penfe qui out.
Je dis oui par le coeur, J^aitnc d penfer que oui.
Je dis oui par la bouche.
„/ ne vois pas des yeu-x.
1
n u m
Je crois -
After teaching thefe four fignifications, which he does Dumbnefs.
by as many figns, he conneCls them with the verb, and
adds other figns, to exprefs the number, perfon, tenfe,
and mood, in ■which it is ufed. If to the four figns,
correfponding with the lines above mentioned, be added
that of a fubllantive, the pupil will write the word for,
“ faith j” but, if a fign, indicating a participle ufed
fubfiantively, be adjoined, he will exprefs la croyance,
“ belief j” to make him write croyable, “ credible,”
the four figns of the verb muft be accompanied with
one that indicates an adjective terminating in able ;
all thefe figns are rapidly made, and immediately com.
prehended.
M. Linguet, a member of the Royal Academy,
having afferted that perfons thus inftrudted could be
confidered as little more than automata, the abbe in-
vked him to be prefent at his leffons, and expreffed his
aftonifiiment that M. Linguet (hould be fo prejudiced
in favour of the medium by which he had received the
firft rudiments of knowledge, as to conclude that they
could not be imparted by any other; dtfiring him, at
the fame time to refleft, that the connexion between
ideas, and the articulate founds by which they are ex¬
cited in the mind, is not lefs arbitrary than that be¬
tween thefe ideas and the written charadters which are
made to reprefent them to the eye. M. Linguet
complied with the invitation ; and the abb6 having
defired him to fix on fome abftradl term which he
would by figns communicate to his pupils, he chofe
the word unintelligibility; which, to his aftonilhment,,
was almoft inftantly wrote by one of them. The
abbe informed him, that to communicate this word
he had ufed five figns, which, though fcarcely per¬
ceivable to him, were immediately and diftindtly ap¬
prehended by his fcholars : the firft of thefe figns in¬
dicated an internal adtion ; the fecond reprefented the
adt of a mind that reads internally, or, in other words,
comprehends what is propofed to it; a third fignified
that fuch a difpofition is poflible ; thofe, taken toge¬
ther, form the word intelligible : a fourth fign tranf-
forms the adjedlive into the fubftantive ; and a fifth,
exprefting negation, completes the word required. M.
Linguet afterwards propofed this queftion, What do
you underjland by metaphyficalideas ? which being com¬
mitted to writing, a young lady immediately anfvvered
on paper in the following terms : “ I underftand the
ideas of things which are independent of our fenfes,
■which are beyond the reach of our fenfes, which make
no impreflion on our fenfes, which cannot be perceived
by our fenfes.” On reading this, we cannot help ex¬
claiming with the poet, iMbor omnia mincit irnproius l
a maxim by none more forcibly illuftrated than by the
abbe de I’Epee.
Periodical DUMBNESS. In the Ephemerides of the
Curious, we have an account of a periodical dumbnefs,
which had continued for more than 15 years, and had
not gone off at the time the account was wrote. The
perfon was fon to an innkeeper at Jefing in the duchy
of Wirtemberg in Germany. He was one night taken
f>, in after fupper, that he could neither (land nor fit.
He continued, for about an hour, opprefied with fick-
nefs to fuch a degree as to be in danger of fuffocation.
At the expiration of this time he grew better ; but,
during three months, he was much dejefted, melan¬
choly, and, at times, fearful. He was then fuddenly
ft ruck
TDiunfries.
D U M [ 376
Dumbncfs flruck dumb, and became unable to pronounce the lealt
word, or form the lead found, though he could fpeak
very articulately before. The lofs of fpeech was at
firft inftantaneous, and continued only a few minutes j
but the duration of it began to lengthen every day j fo
that it foon amounted to half an hour, two hours, three
hours, and at lad to 23 hours, yet without any order.
At laid the return of fpeech kept fo conftant and regu¬
lar an order, that, for 14 years together, he could not
fpeak except from noon, during the fpace of one entire
hour, to the precife moment of one o’clock. Every
time he loft his fpeech, he felt fomething rife from his
ftomach to his throat. Excepting this lofs of fpeech,
he was afBi&ed with no other diforder of any animal
function. Both his internal and external fenfes conti¬
nued found : he heard always perfectly well, and an-
fwered the queftions propofed to him by geftures or
writing. All fufpicion of deceit was removed by his
keeping exadlly the fame hour, though he had no ac-
cefs to any inftruments by which time can be mea-
fured.
DUMFERMLINE, a royal borough of Scotland,
fituated in the county of Fife, 15 miles north-weft of
Edinburgh. W. Long. 30. 20. N. Lat. 56. 15. Here
Avas formerly a magnificent abbey and palace of the
kings of Scotland, in which the princefs Elizabeth,
daughter of King James VI. and mother of the prin¬
cefs Sophia, from whom the prefent royal family are
defcended, was born. In the inn of this town, it is faid,
is the marriage-bed of James VI. and his queen : it is
ilill entire, and ufed by ftrangers who lodge here. This
place is noted for a manufadtory of figured linen cloth
called diaper. The town gave title of earl to a baro¬
net of the Seton family, which was forfeited in the year
1690.
DUMFRIES, a county in the fouth ef Scotland,
comprehending the (hire of Nithfdale, the ftewarty of
Annandale, and the lordlhip of Elkdale, extends in
length from north-weft to fouth-eaft about 60 miles,
and is about 30 miles in breadth where broadeft. It
is bounded on the fouth-weft by Galloway and part of
Kyle j on the north-eaft by the counties of Roxburgh,
Selkirk, and Peebles; on the north- weft by Clydef-
dale} and on the fouth-eaft by Solway frith and the
inarches between Scotland and England. A great
part of the country is mountainous and overfpread with
heath, well ftocked with game ef all kinds: but the
valleys, through which the Elk, the Annan, the Nith,
and other fmaller rivers run, are extremely pleafant;
and fome of them well cultivated, and very-fertile, and
-produce oats, barley, and wheat in abundance, both
For maintaining the inhabitants and for exportation j
while the “mountainous parts afford pafture for innu¬
merable flocks of fheep and herds of black cattle, many
thoufands of which are annually exported to England.
In the valleys are fev-eral natural woods, and fome ex-
tenfive plantations of different kinds of timber. In
the divifion called Nithfdale, are the rich lead mines of
Wanlockhead, the coal mines of Sanquhar and Cairn-
burn, the inexhauftible lime quarries of Clofeburn and
Barjag, and freeftone in almoft every parilh. Annan¬
dale has the rich lime quarries of Kellhead and Com-
loogan, Avith plenty of freeftone near the towns of An¬
nan and Leehmaben: and in the lotver part of Efkdale
are limeftone and fome coal.
] B U M
The following is a view of the population of this
county, with the number of fouls in each parifti, taken
at two different periods, and extra&ed from the Statif-
tical Hiftory of Scotland.
30
*5
Parijhes.
I Annan
Applegirth
Caerlaverock
Cannobie
5 Clofeburn
Cummertrees
Dalton
Dornock
Dryfdale
Dumfries
Dunicore
Durrifdeer
Efkdalemuir
Ewes
Glencairn
Gratney
Hoddam
Holy wood
Hutton
20 Johnfton
Keir
Kirkconnell
Kirkmahoe
Kirkmichael
Kirkpatrick Fleming
Kirkpatrick Juxta
I.angholm
Lochmaben
Middlebie
Moffat
Morton
Moufewald
Penpont
Ruth well
St Mungo
Sanquhar
Tinvvald
Torthorwald
Tundergarth
Tynron
Wamphray
Wefterkirk
•25
30
35
40
42
Population
in 1755-
I49S
897
784
1733
999
631
451
716
1097
4517
65*
1019
675
392
1794
1051
1393
596
993
494
495
899
1098
894
1147
794
1 ^33
J39S
991
1612
435
553
838
599
481
3998
795
5^4
62?
464
458
544
4I»9I3
Population in
179$.
2500
741
955
2725
3490
3036
615
738
1600
5600
I033
1031
6x9
320
1700
1810
1198
736
583
565
520
1000
1200
950
J542
617
2582
3000
14°4
1600
908
628
800
io6r
640
2600
850
660
510
cob
487
655
52,329
41-9I3
Increafe, 10,416
Dumfries, the capital of the above mentioned
county, a handfome town fituated on a ridge or rifing
ground on the north-eaft fide of the river Nith, about
10 miles above where it falls into Solway frith, in N.
Lat. 55. 8. 30. Long. W. of GreenAvich Obfervatory,
3. 56. Its ancient name, it is faid by fome of the
Scotch hiftorians, was Cottac; but on what authority
we cannot tell. Its preftnt name appears to have been
derived partly from its fituation, and partly from the
monaftery of Gray Friars that formerly flood near the
head
BUM [ 377 ] BUN
•jffl'VH head of llie ftreet called the Friar vennat, the kitchen
-v——' of which is all that now remains ; being only a corrup¬
tion of Drum friars, or “ the eminence of the friary
and accordingly, till within thefe 40 or 50 years, it
was always fpelt Drumfries, and not Dumfries, as it is
now for the fake of greater foftnefs. Befides the plea-
fantnefs of its fituation on the fide of a beautiful wind¬
ing river, it is furrounded on all fides with one of the
fined and bed cultivated (beets of dale country that
one can anywhere meet with, and the profpeft from it
terminated, at the diftance of a few miles, by a conti¬
nued chain of hills, forming altogether one of the
grandeit natural amphitheatres perhaps in Britain.
There was anciently a ilrong cattle at the fouth end of
the town belonging to the Cummings, lords of Bade-
noch, of which there are now no remains. Another
cattle was afterwards built at the north-weft end, which
was taken down about 76 years ago. On the north-
eaft fide of it, at ft me little diftance, are the ruins of a
chapel built by King Robert Bruce, and endowed for
a number of priefts to fay mafs for the repofe of the foul
of Sir Chriftopher Seaton his brother-in-law, who was
taken prifoner by Edward I. at Loch Urr, and hang¬
ed at this place. It is now only employed as a bury¬
ing place for fuicides. It is not certain at what pe¬
riod Dumfries was ere&ed into a royal borough j but
it muft have been before the middle of the eleventh
century, as a grave-ftone was difcovered fome time ago
bearing the date of 1079, and mentioning the perfon
buried under it to have been a merchant and burgefs
of the town ; and that it was a place of confequence in
the beginning of the fourteenth century, is evident
from this circumftance, that Edward II. called the
eftates of Scotland to meet there in the year 1307. In
the above mentioned monaftery too, King Robert Bruce
killed his rival Gumming lord of Badenoch, with the
afliftance of James Lindfay and Roger Kirkpatrick, on
the 4th of February 1305. As to the prefent (late of
the town, the houfes are well built and commodious,
the ftreets fpacious, open, and neatly paved. It has
two very elegant churches, an Epifcopal chapel with a
fine little organ, befides three meeting houfes belong¬
ing to different defcriptions of fe£taries ; a tolbooth ;
a council chamber ; a trades hall ■, a meal market; a
ftrong prifon ; a correction houfe $ a large hofpital $
an infirmary, with apartments for infane patients j a
narrow bridge of nine arches over the river, faid to have
been built by one of the three daughters and co-
heireffes of Alan Lord Galloway. A large village,
called the Bridge-end, (lands on the oppofite fide, and
is within the ftewarty of Kircudbright. The aflizes for
the county, and for the (hire of Galloway and ftewar¬
ty of Kircudbright, are held in the town twice a-
year. It is alfo the place for holding the (heriff and
commiffary courts, the quarter-feffions of the peace,
and the courts of the commiftioners of fupply. It is
governed by a provoft, three bailies, a dean of guild,
and a town council, compofed of merchants and the
convener and deacons of the incorporated trades, of
which there are feven, viz. fquare-men, fmiths, wea¬
vers, tailors, (hoemakers, (kinners, and butchers 5 all
of whom are chofen into their refpeclive offices at Mi¬
chaelmas annually. The trades got from King James
VI. in one of his journeys to England, a fmall filver
tube, like a piftol barrel, called the fiver gun, with
Vol. VII. Part I.
his royal licenfe to (hoot for it every year. At that Dumfries
feftival they all appear in arms, and march out of the 11
town under their refpeflive colours, to fome conveni- RU(1*
ent place, where they (hoot at a mark ; and the per- ' ' v
fon that hits or (hoots neared to it, returns to town,
marching at the convener’s right hand, with the filver
gun tied to his hat with ribbons j after which they
conclude the day with a focial entertainment. The
town has a weekly market on Wednefday, with two
annual fairs, the firft on the Wednefday on or next af¬
ter the 13th of February, and the other on the Wed¬
nefday on or next after the 25th of September. At
thefe fairs vaft numbers of horfes and black cattle arc
fold •, and no town in Scotland is better provided with
all forts of butcher meat in their feafon. But though
well fituated for fuel at a cheap rate, it has only two
manufa&ures, one for (lockings and the other for cot¬
tons j but the latter only in its infancy. Its foreign
trade for many years has only confided in timber, iron,
and other articles for home confumption. It gives the
title of earl to the chief of the family of Crichton ', and
is the feat of a prefbytery and provincial fynod. It con¬
tains about 6000 inhabitants.
DUMON f, Francis, a Frenchman, compiler of a
general colledlion of treaties of commerce, alliance, and
peace, between the powers of Europe. This colle£liony
with Barbeyrac’s, containing the treaties B. C. makes
16 vols. folio, very ufeful for hiftorical writers. Du¬
mont retired to Holland in 1720. The time of his
death is uncertain.
DUMOSAt, (from dumus, “ a bufh”), an order of
plants in the Fragmenta methodi naluralis of Linnmus,
containing the following genera, viz. Viburnum, Tinus,
Opulus, Sambucus, Ronde/etia, Bellonia, CaJJine, Ilex,
Tomax, &c.
DUN, or Burgh, the name of an ancient fpecieS
of buildings, of a circular form, common in the Ork¬
ney and Shetland iflands, the Hebrides, and northern
parts of Scotland. The latter term points out the
founders, who at the fame time bellowed on them their
natal name of borg, “ a defence or caftle,” a Sueo-Go-
thic word -, and the Highlanders univerfally apply to
thefe places the Celtic name dun, fignifying a hill de¬
fended by a tower, which plainly points out their ufe.
They are confined to the countries once fubjefl to the
crown of Norway. With few exceptions, they arc
built within fight of the fea, and one or more within
fight of the other •, fo that on a fignal by fire, by flag,
or by trumpet, they could give notice of approaching
danger, and yield a mutual fuccour. In the Shetland
and Orkney iflands, they are moft frequently called
voart or ward hills, which (bows that they were gar-
rifoned. They had their wardmadher, or watchman,
a fort of centinel, who flood on the top, and chal¬
lenged all who came in fight. The gaekman was an
officer of the fame kind, who not only was on the
watch againft furprife, but was to give notice if he
faw any (hips in diftrefs. He was allowed a large horn
of generous liquor, which he had always by him, to
keep up his fpirits. Along the Orkney and Shetland
(bores, they almoft form a chain ; and by that mean#
not only kept the natives in fubjedlion, but were fi¬
tuated commodioufly for covering the landing of their
countrymen, who were perpetually roving on piratical
expeditions. Thefe towers were even made ufe of as
r 3 B (late
BUN [ 378 ] D U N
Dun flate prifons •, for we learn from Torfaeus, that after
II Sueno had furprifed Paul, count of Caithnefs, he car-
Dunbarton. rjecj jnj-0 Sutherland, and confined him there in a
Norwegian tower. Out of our own kingdom, no build¬
ings fimilar to thefe are to be found, except in Scandi¬
navia. On the mountain Swalberg in Norway is one ;
the Stir-bilkop, at Upfal in Sweden, is another; and
Umfeborg, in the fame kingdom, is a third.
Thefe towers vary in their inner ftrufture; but ex¬
ternally are univerfally the fame ; yet feme have an
addition of ftrength on the outfide. The burgh of
Culfwick in Shetland, notwithftanding it is built on
the top of a hill, is furrounded with a dry ditch 13
feet broad ; that of Snaburgh in Unft, has both a wet
and a dry ditch ; the firft cut, with great labour,
through the live rock. The burgh of Moura is fur-
rounded by a wall, now reduced to a heap of ftones,
and the infide is cylindrical, not taper, as is ufual with
others. The burgh of Hogsfter, upon an ifle in a
loch of the fame name, has alfo its addition of a Avail ;
a peculiarity in a caufeway, to join it to the main land,
and a lingular internal ftrufture. Numbers of little
burghs, with Angle cells, are fcattered about thefe
iflands, in the neighbourhood of the greater ; and'
Avhich probably were built by the poorer fort of people,
in order to enjoy their proteflion. A multitude of
places in thefe illands have the addition of burgh to
their names, notwithftanding there is not a veftige of a
tower near them ; the materials having long finee been
carried away, and applied to various ufes.
DUNBAR, a royal burgh of Scotland, in the
ihire of Eaft Lothian, once remarkable for a ftrong
caltle, the key of Scotland from the eaft, and which
gave {belter to Edward II. of England in his flight
from Bannockburn, but of which fcarce a veflige now
remains. Here are flill preferved fome of the Scottifh
pikes, fix ells long, and formed both for offence and
defence. This town has now a tolerable trade in the
filheries, and is remarkable for making good malt.
Dunbar has given titles of honour to different families,
who are all noAv extinff.
DUNBAR I ON, the county town of Lennox or
Dunbartonfhire, in Scotland, fituated in W. Long.
4. 32. N. Lat. 56. 30. is a royal borough, and one of
the moft ancient toAvns of Scotland. It is faid to have
been once the capital of a kingdom of the Britons,
eftablilhed in the vale of the Clyde, and to have been
one of the feats of Fircgal, called in the poems of Of-
fian, the tower of Balclutha. Alcluid was indeed the
name of this ancient capital of the Strathclydenfes ; but
whether it Avas fituated on the fite of the prefent toAvn,
or confined Avithin the precinfls of the caftle, cannot
be exactly afcertained. Dunbarton is built upon the
eaftern bank of the Leven, which almoft encircles it.
The greater part of the buildings are old, and the
principal ffreet has an air of decayed grandeur. It
Avas ere&ed into a royal borough by Alexander II. in
the year 1221, and declared to be free of all impofts
and borough taxes ; but notwithflanding this material
advantage, and the excellent harbour it poffeffes, it is
by no means in a flourilhing ftate. There is here a
confiderable glafs houfe, Avhich employs about 130
hands ; and fome idea may be conceived of the extent
of this manufafture, from the amount of the duties to
government, which are on an average 3800I. fterling
per annum. This place is exceedingly Avell adapted n K
for manufa&ures, both on account of its fituation onDu.-bSo
the Clyde, and from its being Avell fupplied Avith fuel fliire.
at a cheap rate. Dunbarton anciently gave title
earl to a branch of the family of Douglas. It contains
about 1900 inhabitants. The parilh is nearly circular,
having a diameter of about two miles and a half: the
furface is flat, and the foil fertile, but (hallow, inclin¬
ing to gravel. The Clyde waflies it on the fouth, and
the Leven on the Aveft, both of which contain ex¬
cellent trout and falmon. The caftle of Dunbarton
lies at a fmall diftance from the toAvn, on the point of
land formed by the jun&ion of the Clyde and Leven;
it is fituated on the top of a rock, which prefents a
pi&urefque objedt: the rock divides about the middle,
and forms two fummits : the fides are craggy, and the
buildings upon it, though not of themfelves beautiful,
have a good effeft, and, as Mr Gilpin obferves, “ ferve
to give it an air of confequence.” The fortrefs is en¬
tered by a gate at the bottom ; and within the rampart,
which defends the entrance, is the guard-houfe, and
lodgings for the officers ; from hence the afcent is by
a long flight of ftone fteps to the part where the rock
divides : here is a ftrong battery, barracks for the gar-
rifon, and a refervoir always filled with water ; above
thefe, on the loAver fummit, are feveral batteries, Avhich
command a moft extenfive range. According to Pen¬
nant, the Britons, in very early times, made this rock
a fortrefs, it being ufual for them, after the departure
of the Romans, to retire to the tops of craggy inao
ceflible mountains, to forefts, and to rocks on the fides
of rivers, or the fliores of the fea. Boethius, hoAvever,
afferts, that it Avas poffeffed by the Caledonians long
before the Britons, and that it refilled all the efforts
of Agricola to reduce it. The venerable Bede informs
us, that it was the ftrongeft fortification in the king¬
dom in his time, and deemed almoft impenetrable ; it
Avas reduced by famine in the year 736, by Egbert
king of Northumberland, and taken by efcalade in the
year 1551. The rock feems to have been anciently
a volcano : the fides are compofed of rude bafaltic co¬
lumns, of Avbich huge maffes have been broken off,
and fallen to the bottom, by the injuries of time. Ma¬
ny parts of the rock are ftrongly magnetic, caufing
the compafs to vary at a confiderable diftance : this
circumftance was long fince noticed by Buchanan,
(Scot. Hill. lib. xx. left. 28.). As the caftle of Dun¬
barton commands the navigation of the Clyde, and is
the key of the weftern Highlands, the fortifications
are generally kept in repair. It is garrifoned by a go¬
vernor, lieutenant governor, a fort-major, fubaltern of¬
ficers, and a company of invalids. The government
is faid to be Avorth 700I. per annum.
DUNBARTONSHIRE, or, as it was anciently
called, the (hire of Lennox, extends in length about
40 miles, and in breadth about 23. It is bounded on
the north by ArgyLlhire ; on the eaft by the counties
of Perth and Stirling; on the fouth by the river Clyde,
and part of Lanarkfhire ; and on the weft by an arm
of the fea, called Loch Long. The greater part of the •
county is covered Avith heathv hills which are noAV
affuming a more luxuriant appearance, fince the intro-
duftion of ftieep. Many of the mountains are elevated
to a great height, Benlomond meafuring 3158 feet
above- the level of the fea. The ridge of which Bcn-
lomond
j barton
[hire
II
j combe.
DUN [3
.lomond is a part, is the beginning of that extenfive
ridge which croffes the country from this place to the
call coaft at Aberdeen, called the Grampians. The
lower grounds, which lie on the banks of Loch Lo¬
mond, the river Clyde and the Leven, are not fo fer¬
tile as the correfponding parts of fome of the neigh¬
bouring counties j notvvithrtanding which, it is agree¬
ably diverfified, and well inhabited. The banks of the
Leven, in particular, are covered with numerous bleach-
fields, printfields, and cotton-works, giving employ¬
ment to thoufands ; while the villages ere&ed for the
accommodation of the workmen, the hamlets, and ele¬
gant feats, cannot fail to imprefs the mind with high
ideas of the wealth, the induflry, the public fpirit, and
the happinefs of the inhabitants. Agriculture in this
county has been rather negledfed, and little attention
has been paid to it till within thefe few years ; but the
public fpirit has of late been roufed to this molt ufeful
and important occupation j and the county of Dunbar¬
ton, which is capable of much improvement, is fait ad¬
vancing in agricultural progrefs. The farmers here,
indeed, pofiefs numerous advantages : being near a fea-
port town, where every article bears the higheft price,
they find a ready market for their corn j and the nu¬
merous inhabitants in the immediate neighbourhood re¬
quire fupplies of other neceflaries from the farmer. Up¬
wards of 12,000 acres are covered with natural wood,
and there are many fine lakes or lochs, of which Loch
Lomond is the chief. Dunbartonlhire contains one
royal borough, Dunbarton, feveral thriving manufac¬
turing villages; and is divided into 12 parilhes, con¬
taining in all 18,408 inhabitants.
Population of this County at two different periods, from
Statijl. Hi/l. of Scotland.
Parifhes.
1 Arroquhar
Bonhill
Cardrofs
Cumbernauld
5 Dunbarton
Kilmaronock
Kilpatrick, New
Kilpatrick, Old
Kirkintilloch
10 Lufs
Rofeneath
12 Row
Population
in 1755*
466
90I
795
23°3
1480
II93
I39°
1281
1696
978
521
835
Population in
1790—1798.
379
2310
2194
1600
2002
820
1700
2452
2639
9il
394
1000
18,408
i3»857
Increafe 4651
DUNGANNON, a fort in the county of Wexford,
and province of Leinfler, in Ireland, feated on the ri¬
ver Rofs. It commands the river, infomuch that no
Ihip can pafs to Waterford or Rofs without its permif-
fion. Here are barracks for three companies of foot.
W. Long. 6. 30. N. Lat. 52. 10.
DUNG ARDS, Dunkers, or Tunkers. See Tuc¬
kers.
BUNCOMBE, William, younger, fon of John
Dundee.
79 J DUN
Duncombe, Efq. of Stocks in Hertfordlhire, in 1722, DunromHe
publilhed a tranllation of Racine’s Athaliah ; which
was tvell received by the public, and has gone through
three editions. In 1724, he was editor of the works
of Mr Needier ; in 1735, of the poems of his deceafed
brother-in-law Mr Hughes, 2 vols i2mo; in 1737,
of the mifcellanies of his younger brother Mr Jabez
Hughes, for the benefit of his widow, in one volume
8vo ; and in 1745, of the works of the Rev. Mr Sa¬
muel Say, in one volume 410. In 1726 he married the
only filter of John Hughes, Efq. whom he long fur-
vived. In 1734 his tragedy of Lucius Junius Brutus
was adted at Drury Lane theatre. It was publilhed in
1735, and again in 1747. The works of Horace, in
Englilh verfe, by feveral hands, were publilhed by him
in two vols 8vo, with notes, &c. in 1757. A fecond
edition, in 4 vols 12mo, with many imitations, was
publilhed in 1762. In 1763 he colledted and republilh-
ed “ Seven fermons by Archbilhop Herring, on public
occafions, with a biographical preface.” He died Feb.
26. 1769, aged 80.
DUNDALK, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Louth, about 40 miles from Dublin. It is a large,
ancient, and thriving town, with a wide ftreet, near a
mile long, and a very fine market houfe, near the en¬
trance from Dublin. In the reign of Edward II. it
was a royal city, and the laft we read of where a mo¬
narch of all Ireland was adlually crowned and refided.
It was formerly very ftrong, and had many towers and
fmall caftles in it. It is very advantageoufly fituated
for a moft extenfive inland trade, and the port is very
fafe for Ihipping. The bay has good moorings at all
times, in four to upwards of eight fathoms w'ater, with
very good land-marks, either for bringing up to, or
making the harbour; and in crofling the bar at high
water, or ordinary neap tides, there is from 15 to 18
feet water. The only cambric manufafture in Ireland
is carried on in this town.
DUNDEE, a borough town of Scotland, in the
Ihire of Forfar or Angus, is feated on the north fide
of the river Tay, about 12 meafured miles from its
mouth, 40 meafured miles north of Edinburgh, and
22 eaft from Perth, in W. Long. 2. 48. L. Lat. 56.
26. Its fituation for commerce is very advantageous.
Trading veflels of the largell burden can get into the
harbour j and on the quay there are three very conve¬
nient and handfome warehoufes built in 1756, as well
as good room for Ihipbuilding, which is carried on to
a large extent. The houfes are built of Hone, gene¬
rally three or four Rories high. The market-place or
high flreet in the middle of the town is a very fpacious
oblong fquare, 360 feet long and ioo feet broad ;
from whence branch out the four principal fireets,
which with a number of leffer ones are all paved in the
bed manner. On the fouth fide of the market-place
Rands the townhoufe, an elegant flruclure, with a very
handfome front, piazzas below, and a neat fpire over it
140 feet high. This building wras finifhed in the year
1734, and contains the guildhall, the court-room, a
very neat mafon lodge, the bank, vaulted repofitories
for the records, and the common prifon, which is in
the upper Rory, and does honour to the tafie and hu¬
manity of the magiRrates, under whole aufpices it was
conflrudled, being well aired commodious rooms, at
the fame time very Rrong and fecure. Each prifon is
3 B 2 20
DUN [ 3^o ] DUN
fundee. 20 feet by 12, and 7!- feet high, Well arched above
v and below.
The meal market and Ihambles, whibh were former¬
ly on the high ftreet, and elieemed a nuifance, were
removed feme years ago-, and in the place of the (lia ra¬
bies there is now erefted by the incorporated trades,
on the eaft end of the above large fquare, a grand build¬
ing, with a large and elegant cupola : in the ground
flat of which is a very neat coffee room, and feveral
merchant fhops; and in the upper dories public rooms
for each trade, and a common hall occafionally ufcd
as a theatre. This hall is 50 feet long, 30 feet broad,
and 25 feet high ; having its front to the fquare deco¬
rated with Ionic columns.
The opulence of the corporations, nine in number,
may be inferred from this, that they had, along with
the kirk feffion, but very lately finished a mod elegant
church when they fet about building the hall. This
church, which is called St /Andrew's Church, dands on
a riling ground a little north from the Cowgate dreet $
and has an elegant fpire 130 feet high, with a peal of
bells much admired. There i^ a neat entry to the
church by a broad gravel walk, with grafs plots on each
fide ; and the whole policies around it are laid out with
excellent tade, and in a fuperb dyle, as complete and
well executed as any in Scotland.
Dundee, befide St Andrew’s church, has four o-
ther churches, and five miniders on the legal edablifh-
ment. The old church, in which were originally four
places of worfhip, when entire, had been a very mag¬
nificent building, with a large fquare Gothic tower or
fteeple 186 feethigh,on the wed end of the church. This
building was in the form of a crofs, ererded by David
carl of Huntingdon, brother to William I. of Scot¬
land (furnamed the Lion), and was dedicated to the
virgin Mary. This he did on his return from the third
crufade (in which with 500 of his countrymen he had
accompanied Richard I. of England) anno 1189, in gra¬
titude for his deliverance from feveral imminent dan¬
gers, and particularly from drip wreck, by which he
had nearly perifhed when in fight of this town. At the
fame time he changed the name of the town from Al-
le&um toDeiDonum, whence its prefent name is thought
by many to be derived ; while others maintain that its
name was Duntay, or “ the hill of Tay.” The word
AlleElum in the Gaelic fignifies “ beautiful,” and har¬
monizes very well with the Scripture fenfe of the hill
of God. The word Duntay has the very fame fignifi-
cation, “ the Hill of God 5” and both agree with the
delightful fituation of Dundee, and unite in giving it
with propriety the name of Bonny Dundee. The hill
rifes on the north of the town to a great height, and is
called The Law of Dundee i /am being a Saxon word
for a round hill fuch as it is. On its top there are evi¬
dently tlie remains of a camp, faid to have been fird
ere&ed by Edward I. of England, and ladly repaired
by General Monk. Where the meal market dood is
now eredled an elegant Epifcopal meeting houfe ; with
bandfome diops below.
Dundee had an old cadle which was demo]idied by
the famous Scots governor Sir William Wallace, who
was educated in this town. The cadle had proved
very ufeful to Edward I. when he put a garrifon into
it to awe the inhabitants *, but Wallace getting pof-
fefiion, ordered it to be dedroyed, left it ftiould again
2
fall into the hands of the Englidi. This treatment fo n
exafperated Edward, that, taking the town by dorm
he fet fire to the churches •, and a number of the inha- r*''
bitants having taken fanftuary there with their mod
valuable effects, were all burnt along with them. At
that time he burnt alfo a great part of the town. The
delolation he brought on the church has continued ever
fince, till the year 1787, when a noble edifice began
to be built on the file of the one that was burnt down
and is now finiftiing ; in which the ancient Gothic of
the outfide is excellently united with internal modern
archite£lure, making one of the larged and neateft
churches in the kingdom, and again completing the
fuperb fuperftru&ure as ere&ed at fiid by the earl of
Huntingdon.
I his town differed greatly lad century during the
troubles of Charles I. and the ufurpation of Oliver
Cromwell ; being fometimes under the command of
one party, and at others in the mercy of another. In
1645 lhe marquis of Montrofe took it by dorm; and
in 1651, under the command of its proved Major-Ge¬
neral Lumlden, it vigoroully oppofed General Monk,
who carried it by dorm the id of September, and put
all in arms to the Iword. And fo great were the riches
of Dundee, all the neighbouring gentlemen having re¬
tired to it with their bed effeds as a place of fafety,
that every private foldier in General Monk’s army had
near 60I. derling to his fliare of the plunder; there
being above 60 merchant veffels in the harbour at that
time, and the like number of veffels failed for England
loaded with the fpoils of the unfortunate inhabitants.
.By thefe and other invafions, the whole ancient records
of the town were dedroyed, except a deed of (£ueea
Mary, figned by herfelf, conferring the prefent bury¬
ing ground ; and fome charters of the Charles’s, con¬
firming the ancient rights and privileges as difponed
by the Alexanders and other kings of Scotland.
This burying-ground is the only place in Scotland
we know of called 1 he Hoff, a Dutch word bearing all
the fenfes of the Englidi word court, having been for¬
merly the burying-ground of one of the many religious
houfes that were in this town previous to the Reforma¬
tion.
Dundee at prefent has 113 vtffels belonging to the
port, of above 8200 tons burden, and near loco fea-
men. Of thefe veffels four went lad feafon to Green¬
land, a trade of long Handing here. And befide the
three public warehouses on the Ihore, there are above
twenty large private warehoufes belonging to the mer¬
chants. 1 he magidrates have been lately aud dill are
at great expence in enlarging and fitting up the harbour,
fo as to render it of eaiy acct fs, fafe, and commodious;
and have now made the paffage over the Tay, where
there is a great refort, fo convenient, that travellers
with their horfes can get over at any time of tide, and
a fufficient number of good boats properly manned are
always ready, i he river Tay oppofite Dundee is about,
three miles broad ; and being dieltered by high lands
on both fides, is a fafe road for (hips of the greated,
burden : the piers are extenfive, broad, and well adapt¬
ed for the purpofes of loading and dilcharging vtffels ^
and when the harbour is completed on the plan they
are prefently engaged in, there will not be one fuperior
to it in Scotland.
To enable the town to repair the damage done by
Cromwell’^
BUN [ 381 ] BUN
Cromwell’s army, and alfo their harbour and other
public works, Charles II. granted them a fmall import
of one fixth of a penny fterling, for 25 years, on the
pint of ale brewed or brought into the town for fale 5
which grant has been frequently renewed by fubfequent
parliaments j and the fund ariling therefrom is moil
properly beftowed by the magiftrates in improving the
town, and making it more convenient and healthy. For
thefe purpofes, feveral new ftreets have been made, the
old ones have been widened, and a large convenient one
at a confid^-rable expence, carried down from the mar¬
ket place to join a fine walk, (haded very neatly with
trees, that leads to the ihore. This new ftreet makes
the accefs eafy and commodious, which was formerly
much confined and fteep.
Till the year 1745 the town had only draw wells j
but fince that period it is moft amply fupplied from a
large fine fountain of excellent water, conveyed through
the town in lead pipes, and difcharged by good wells
at proper diftance. Thefe, with a fine well in the
town’s meadows, and a ftream of water that runs through
the ward and the meadows (two large beautiful greens
on the north of the town), make it as well watered as
any town in Scotland ; and thefe greens, juft at hand,
ferve all the inhabitants moft commodioufly for the ne-
ceffary labours of wafhing and bleaching.
The number of inhabitants in Dundee has increafed
above 4000 fince 1780. There was then an accurate
lift of them taken, when they amounted to near 16,000 j
and lately they were reckoned and found within a few
of 20,000; and fince the year 1760 they are fully
doubled. Befide the ertablithed churches, there are
three Epifcopal meeting-houfes, two of Seceders, one
of Methodifts, two of Independents, one Berean, and
two Anabaptifts. One of the Independents is of the
Glaflite denomination. Mr John Glafs, from whom
they take that name, refided here j and his principles,
though fpread far and wide, have always had the moft
extenfive influence in Dundee.
The trade in the town has increafed amazingly
of late. Its ftaple is undoubtedly the linen manu->
failure: for which in fummer 1788, they imported
from the Baltic 32 cargoes of flax, hrmp, (near
3000 tons), befides feveral quantities from London,
Leith, and other places; and on an average the brown
linen ftamped for the two preceding feafons at the
ftamp office here amounted to abovo four millions of
yards, in value about 115,000!. fterling. The flax
is wrought up into coarfe linens, chiefly ofnaburgs,
fheetings, foldiers ftfirtings. &c. which is fold partly
bleached (ieveral fine large bleachfields being well
employed in the neighbourhood) and partly brown.
Thefe linens are fent principally to London, Glafgow,
and Liverpool, and from thence exported. Seven or
eight veflels are conftantly employed in the trade be¬
tween Dundee and London, one of which fails every
ten or twelve days. The making failcloth has been
long eftabliflied here, and is carried on to a good ex¬
tent. Two rope-works have fucceeded well, and a
buckram-work has alfo been eftabliibed (or feve'al years.
The Dundee coloured threads have been long juftly
efteemed, and give bread to a great number of people ;
indeed it was here that coloured threads firft made a
figure among the articles of trade in Scotland. Their
fugar-houfe, a large undertaking,, and tan works, are
of eftabliftied reputation. There has been lately ere£led Dundee
a large glafs-work at a great expence, and a plumbery ||
and foundery are alfo now carried on to advantage.
No doubt the trade of the place has been greatly pro¬
moted by the Bank ; which is carried forward on the
furert and moft Heady footing, and has always mana¬
ged the bufinefs of the town and neighoourhood in
fuch a way as to keep any other eftabiilhment of that
kind from taking place. Of late the cotton manu-
fadlory has been introduced ; a number of jennies be¬
ing employed in fpinning, and feveral looms in weaving
it. A large machine for fpinning ftiorts or backens in¬
to eandlewick, the firft of the kind in Scotland, is
alfo begun to work here, and promifes to do well. A
fpirit for literature and education has greatly prevailed
of late years in Dundee : for befide the public grammar
fchool, which has an able re6tor and two good mailers;
the public Englitb and writing fchool, where are three
very proper mailers ; there is alfo lately eftabliftied,
and much encouraged, an academy for mathematics,
French, Italian, and the polite arts, with mailers fuitable
for the different branches, and a large apparatus for
natural philofophy.
The falmon hiking in Tay is of much confequeuce ;
and the town is generally well fupplied with filh of va¬
rious kinds, though like every other article of living
much raifed in price of late years. Their other mar¬
kets are alfo well fupplied. An excellent nurfery at
the weft end of the town has been much encouraged j
and its neighbourhood is now adorned with many neat
and elegant villas, (bowing the wealth and tafte of the
inhabitants.
Dundee is the birthplace of the celebrated and learn¬
ed Heiftor Boethius, whofe Hiftory of Scotland has
been long in much reputation with many. Dundee, with
Perth, Foifar, St Andrew’s, and Cupar, returns one
member to the Britilh parliament.
DUNFERMLINE. See Dumfermline.
DUNG in Hujbandrif. See AGRICULTURE Index.
Dung-Bird. See Upupa, Ornithology Index.
DUNG-Meers, in Hufbandry. places where foils and
dungs are mixed and digefted together. Thefe confift
of pits, prepared at the bottom with (lone and clay,
that they may hold water, or the moifture'of the dung :
and ought to be fo fituated, that the finks and drips o£
the houl'es and barns may run into them. Into thefe pits
thev call refufe, fodder, litter, dung, weeds, &x\ where
they lie and rot together, till the farmer have occafion
for them.
DUNG-IVorms, a fpecies of fly-worms, of a (hort and
fomewhat flat body, found in great plenty among cow-
dung in the months of September and Oftober.
DUNGANNON, the chief town of the county of
Tyrone, in the province of Ulfter in Ireland. It is
feated on a hill, and is a place of fome ftrength.
DUNGARVON, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Waterford. It (lands on a bay of the fame name,
has a commodious harbour for (hips, and is a wall¬
ed town, with a caftle. W. Long. 7. 55. N, LaL
ci. r-
DUNIPACE. See Carr on.
DUNKELD, a town of Scotland, in the (hire
of Perth, feated on the north fide of the river Tay,
in a fituation truly romantic, among vei7 ^gh
and almoft inacceffible crags, part naked and part
ytQQGiQ&z
'Dun!:t.!il
n
Dunkirk.
D u n r 5
wooded. It is the chief market town of the Highlands,
and has been greatly improved with buildings by the
dukes of Athol.
The place is of great antiquity. It was the capital
of ancient Caledonia. About the dawn of Chriftianity,
a Pidfilh king made it the feat of religion, by eredling
a monaftery of Culdees there ; which King David I.
in 1130 converted into a cathedral, and it ranked as
the firlt in Scotland. The entire (hell of the cathedral
ftill remains, the eaft end ferving for a kirk, on the
north iide of which is the burial place of the dukes of
Athol. The flyle of archiie&ure is fimple and elegant,
the pillars round. The monument of one of its bifhops
remains on the fouth aide of the nave, as alfo that of
Alexander Stuart earl of Buchan, third fon of Robert
II. called for his cruelty The Wolf of Badeiioch, who
died in 1394. The tower at the weft end, with a lin¬
gular crack down one of its fides, adds to the pidlurefque
appearance which the whole makes among the venerable
pines at the end of the duke’s garden. His Grace’s
feat is a modern building, and not large, with pleafant
walks and plantations, and a fine cafcade on the water
of Bran, which in its way from the weftern hills forms
an aftonifiling fall of 150 feet, called the Rumbling
Brig, from a narrow bridge made by the fall of two
rocks acrofs the fiream. The pencil of Rofa never
formed a more horrid feene. The ftream has a fecond
fall, which, without feeing the other, would be deemed
capital. Sir James Galloway, mafter of requefts to
James VI. and Charles I. was created Lord Dunkeld
1645, wh°fe grandfon James was attainted at the Revo¬
lution, and dying at the beginning of this century, the
title became extindf.
DUNKERS, Duncards, or Tunkers. See Tun-
rers.
DUNKIRK, a maritime town of the French Nether¬
lands, fituated in E. Long. 2. 28. N. Lat. 51. 10. and
is the moft eafterly harbour on the fide of France which
is next to Great Britain.—It was originally a mean
hamlet, confifting only of a few fiftiermen’s huts : but
a church being built there, it was from that, and
from its fituation, which is a fandy eminence, call¬
ed Dunkirk ; dun fignifying, in the old Gallic language,
a hill j and kirk being the old Flemilh name for
church.
About the year 960, Baldwin earl of Flanders,
thinking the fituation convenient, enlarged it into a
kind of town, and furrounded it with a wall. In the
year 1322, Robert of Flanders, who held it as an ap¬
pendage, built a caftle for its defence ; which was after¬
wards demoliftied by the revolters of Flanders. Robert
of Bar ere&ed a fortification round it, the remains of
which are vifible on the fide next the harbour. The
emperor Charles V. who held it as part of Flanders,
built another caftle to defend the harbour j but this was
alfo demoliftied foon afterwards. In 1558, the French
under Marfhal de Thermes, took Dunkirk by ftorm,
and almoft ruined the place j the Spaniards recovered
it again in about a fortnight, and put all the French to
the fword.
During a peace procured for the Dunkirkers by
Philip II. of Spain, they rebuilt their town with
greater fplendour than before, and the inhabitants for
a long time fubfifted by privateers fitted out againft
82 ]
DUN
the Dutch ; and at length growing rich by thefe
hoftilities, they fortified their town and harbour, and’
fitted out no lefs than 13 thips of war at their own
charge.
In 1634, the Dunkirkers agreed with the inhabi¬
tants of Bergues to dig a canal, at their joint expence,
for a communication between the two towns 5 which
ivas fome time afterwards effe£ted. By this time
Dunkirk was become the beft harbour the Spaniards
poffeffed in Flanders, which induced many foreigners to
fettle there $ and it being neceflary to enlarge the town
for their accommodation, a new fortified wall was built
at a confiderable diftance from the former. In 1646,
it was befieged and taken by the prince of Conde. In
1652 it was retaken by the archduke Leopold, then
governor of the Netherlands. France entering into a
treaty with England in 1655, t^ie Dunkirkers, with
views of pecuniary advantage, fitted out privateers
againft both thefe powers : the confequence of which
wras, that the French, affifted by Cromwell, attacked
and took it 5 and it was put into the hands of the Eng-
lifii, in confequence of a treaty between them and the
French. To the Englifti it was even then of very great
importance ; for during the war in which it was taken,
the Dunkirkers had made prizes of no lefs than 230 of
their ftrips, many of which were of great value. They
therefore improved the fortifications, and built a cita¬
del j yet they kept it only four years j for in 1662,
two years after the Reftoration, Charles II. fold this
valuable acquifition to France, for the paltry fum ef
500,000!. In confequence of this fale, the town was
taken poffeflion of for the French king Louis XIV. by
the Count d’Eftrades, on the 29th of November 1662.
Louis having acquainted the celebrated engineer Mon-
fieur Vauban, that he intended to make Dunkirk one
of the ftrongeft places in Europe, Vauban drew up a
plan with that view, which was gradually executed.
An arfenal was erefted, large enough to contain all the
ftores necefiary for fitting out and maintaining a large
fleet of men of war j the fortifications on the land fide
were conftrufted in a manner that was thought to ren¬
der them impregnable ; and, towards the fea, the en¬
trance of the harbour being properly formed, it w'as
fortified by the jetties, and the two forts called Green
Fort and the Fort of Good Hope at their extremities j the
famous rifbank was alfo erected on the fide of the jet¬
ties, and Fort Galliard on the other, to fecure the town.
Thefe works were all completed in 1683 ; and in 1683,
the whole circumference of the bafon was faced with
mafonry, and the keys completely formed : at the fame
time care was taken to build at the entrance of this
bafon a fluice, almoft 45 feet Avide, that the fliips within
might be conftantly afloat. In 1689, the fort called
the Cornichon, and fome other works, were completed.
But though 30 years had been now employed in im¬
proving the fortifications of Dunkirk, it was not yet in
the ftate in which Louis intended to put it ; and there¬
fore, in 1701, he caufed a new riflbank to be built,
called Fort Blanc.
At the treaty of Utrecht, it having been made ap¬
pear, that the privateers of Dunkirk had, during the
war then doling, taken from the Englifh no lefs than
1614 prizes valued at i»334,375L fterling, it was
ftipulated, that the fortifications of the city and
port
Dunkirq
DUN [ 383 ] DU N
nkirk Port Dunkirk fhould be entirely demolifhed, and
j| the harbour filled up, lo never to be a harbour
Duns, again.
■V” The treaty of which this demolition of Dunkirk was
an article, was figned on the 28ch of April 1713 ; but
the demolition did not take place till the September fol¬
lowing, when the queen deputed Colonel Armllrong
and Colonel Clayton to overfee the execution of the
treaty as far as concerned the works and harbour of
Dunkirk.
Under the infpeflion of thefe gentlemen, the places
of arms were broken down, the ditches filled up, and
the demi-lunes, baftions, and covered way, totally de-
firoyed *, the citadel was razed, and the harbour and
bafon filled up j the jetties were alfo levelled with the
llrand, and all the forts which defended the entrance
into the harbour were demolifhed. A large dam, or
bar, was alfo built acrofs the mouth of the harbour be¬
tween the jetties and the town, by which all communi¬
cation between the harbour and the canal, which form¬
ed its entrance^was entirely cut off. The fluices were
alfo broken up, and the materials of them broken to
pieces.
But this was no fooner done, than Louis XIV. or¬
dered 30,000 men to work incefiantly upon a new ca¬
nal, the canal of Mardick, which in adliort time they
accomplilhed ; by which the harbour was rendered al-
moft as commodious as ever ; but in 1717 this likewife
was rendered unferviceable.
In the year 1720, during a great florm, the fea
broke up the bar or dam, and reftored to the Dun-
kirkers the ufe of the harbour in a very confiderable
degree.
In the year 1740, when Great Britain was engaged
in a war with Spain, Louis XV. fet about improving
the advantage which Dunkirk had derived from the
ftorm in 1720, by reftoring the works, and repairing
the harbour. He rebuilt the jetties, and erefted new
forts in the place of thofe which had been deftroyed j
and foon afterwards he efpoufed the caufe of Spain, and
became a principal in the war againfl us.
But at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, it was
ftipulated, that all the works towards the fea Ihould be
deftroyed a fecond time j yet, before the declaration
of the laft war, the place was in as good a ftate of
defence towards the fea as it was at any time during the
war which was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Cha¬
pelle.
DUNSE, a market town of Scotland, in the (hire of
Mers, fituated in W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 55. 42. It
is fituated on a rifing ground in the middle of the fhire,
and has a weekly market for cattle. It is by fome re¬
puted the birthplace of the famous John Duns Scotus.
A mile fouth of the town is a well of mineral water, of
great ufe as a deobftruent and antifcorbutic, firft dif-
covered in 1747 by Dr Thomas Simpfon who pra6tifed
there.
DUNS Scotus, John, a Francifcan friar, common¬
ly called DoBor Subtilis, was born in the year 1274*,
but whether in England, Scotland, or Ireland, hath
long been a matter of difputf among the learned of
each nation. Dempfter, Mackenzie, and other Scot-
tifti writers, affert pofitively that he was born at Dunfe,
a town in Scotland, about 15 miles from Berwick j
and, to fecure him more effeflually, Mackenzie makes
him defcended from the Dunfes in the Mers. Mac- Duns,
caghwell, an Irilh author, who wrote the life of this Dunftable.
Scotus, proves him to have been born at Down in the —
province of Ulfter in Ireland : but Leland, Bale, Cam¬
den, and Pits, afiure us, that he was born at Dunftone
in the parifti of Emildune, near Alnwick in Northum¬
berland •, and this opinion is rendered probable by the
following conclufion of his manufcript works in the
library of Merton college in Oxford.—“ Here end the
writings of that fubtile doftor of the univerfity of
Paris, John Duns, who was born in a certain village,
in the parifti of Emildune, called Dunjlon, in the coun¬
ty of Northumberland.” We are told, that when a
boy, he became accidentally known to two Francifcan
friars j who, finding him to be a youth of very extra¬
ordinary capacity, took him to their convent at New-
caftle, and afterwards perfuaded him to become one of
their fraternity. From thence he was fent to Oxford,
where he ivas made fellow of Merton college and pro-
feflbr of divinity ; and Mackenzie fays, that not lefs
than 30,000 ftudents came to Oxford to hear his lec¬
tures. His fame was now become fo univerfal, that
the general of his order commanded him to go to Pa¬
ris, that the ftudents of that univerfity might alfo pro¬
fit from his leftures. He went to Paris in the year
1304, where he was honoured firft with the degree of
bachelor, then of doffor of divinity, and in 1307 was
appointed regent of the divinity fchools : during his
refidence here, the famous controverfy about the Im¬
maculate conception of the virgin Mary arofe. Albertus
Magnus maintained that ftie was born in original fin,
Scotus advanced 200 arguments in fupport of the con¬
trary opinion, and convinced the univerfity of Paris
that ftie was really conceived immaculate. This im¬
portant nonfenfe, however, continued to be difputed till
the year 1496, after the council of Bafil, when the
univerfity oi Paris made a decree, that no ftudent, who
did not believe the immaculate conception, ftiould be ad¬
mitted to a degree. Our author had not been above
a year at Paris, when the fame general of the Francif-
cans ordered him to remove to Cologne 5 where he was
received with great pomp and ceremony by the magi-
ftrates and nobles of that city, and where he died of
an apoplexy foon after his arrival, in the year 1308,
in the 34th year of his age. Some writers have report¬
ed, that Scotus was buried in an epileptic fit $ and that,
upon removing his bones, he appeared to have turned
bimfelf in his coffin. This DoBor Subtihs was doubt-
lefs one of the firft wranglers of his time, admirably
well verfed in fcholaftic divinity, and a moft indefati¬
gable fcribbler 5 but the misfortune is, that ail his huge
volumes do not contain a fingle page worth the perufal
of a rational being. He was the author of a new fe£t
of fchoolmen called Scoti/ls; who oppofed the opinions
of the Thotnifts, fo called from St Thomas Aquinas.
The reader will find a more particular account of Scotus
in the Francifcan Martyrology, publiftied at Paris in
1638. He was a moft voluminous writer j his works
making 1 2 vols. folio, as publiffied at Lyons by Luke
Wadding, 1639.
DUNSTABLE, a town in Bedfordftiire, with a
market on Wednefdays. It is feated on a chalky hillj
and has ponds in the ftreets, which are never dry, though
only fupplied with rain-water. It is remarkable for
feveral good inns, it being a great thoroughfare on the
northern
BUN [ 384. ] BUN
Omida'ole northern road. It confifts of four Greets, interfering
|| each other at right angles : and in the centre flood one
, Pun flan. 0f tl10fe beautiful erodes of Queen Eleanor which was
deftroyed by the enthufiafls in the time of the civil wars.
W. Long. o. 29. N. Lat. 51. 50.
DUNSTAFFNAGE. ' See Lorke.
DUNSTAN, a famous faint, and archbifhop of
Canterbury : of whom the monkifli hiftorians give us
the following account. He was defeended from a noble
family in Weffex, and educated in the abbey of Gla-
ftonbury. Here he ftudied fo hard, that it threw him
into a violent fever which brought him to the very
point of death. When the whole family were Hand¬
ing about his bed, diffolved in tears, and expelling
every moment to fee him expire, an angel came from
heaven in a dreadful ftorm, and gave him a medicine
which reftored him to perfect health in a moment.
Hunftan immediately ftarted from his bed, and ran with
all his fpeed towards the church to return thanks for
his recovery ; but the devil met him by the way, fur-
rounded by a great multitude of black dogs, and en¬
deavoured to obflrudl his paffage. This would have
frightened fome boys 5 but it had no fuch effeef upon
Hunftan ; who pronouncing a facred name, and bran-
diftiing his flick, put the devil and all his dogs to flight.
The church doors being (hut, an angel took him in
his arms, conveyed him through an opening in the
roof, and fet him foftly down on the floor, where he
performed his devotions. After his recovery, he pur-
iiied his ftudies with the greateft ardour, and foon be¬
came a perfeft matter in philofophy, divinity, mufic,
painting, writing, fculpture, working in gold, filver,
brafs, and iron, &c. When he was ftill very young
he entered into holy orders, and was introduced by his
uncle Athelm archbilhop of Canterbury to King Athel-
ftan j who, charmed with his perfon and accomplifti-
ments, retained him in his court, and employed him
in many great affairs. At leifure hours he ufed to en¬
tertain the king and his courtiers with playing on his
harp, or fome other mufical inftrument; and now and
then he wrought a miracle, which gained him great
admiration. His old enemy the devil was much of¬
fended at this, and prompted fome envious courtiers to
perfuade the king that his favourite was a magician,
which that prince too readily believed. Hunftan dif-
covering by the king’s countenance that he had loft
his favour, and refolving to refign rather than be turn¬
ed out, retired from court to another uncle, who was
biftiop of Winchefter. This good prelate prevailed
upon his nephew to forfake the world and become a
monk ; after which he retired to a little cell, built
again ft the church wall of Glaftonbury. Here he flept,
ftudied, prayed, meditated, and fometirnes amufed him-
lelf with forging feveral ufeful things in brafs and iron.
One evening, as he was working very bufily at his
forge, the devil, putting on the appearance of a man,
thruft his head in at the window of his cell, and alked
him to make fomething or other for him. Hunftan
was fo intent upon his work that he made no anfwer j
on which the devil began to fwear and talk obfcenelv,
which betrayed the lurking fiend. The holy black-
fmkh, putting up a fecret ejaculation, pulled his tongs,
which were red hot, out of the fire, feized the devil
with them by the nofe, and fqueezed him with all his
ftrength j which made his infernal majefty roar and
fcold at fuch a rate, that he awakened and terrified all j)unj
the people for many miles around. Thus far the le- L ^
gend.
Ridiculous as were thefe fictions, they ferved, in
thofe times of ignorance, to procure Hunftan a repu¬
tation which has been confirmed by the authority of
feveral fucceeding hiftorians* It appears that this
extraordinary perfon was called to court by King Ed^
mund, A. H. 941 5 who beftowed upon him the rich
abbey of Glaftonbury, which for his fake he ho¬
noured with many peculiar privileges. He enjoyed a
very high degree of the favour of this prince during
his ftiort reign of fix years j but he flood much higher
in the favour of his brother and fucceflbr King Edredj
to whom he was confeffor$ chief confidant, and prime
minifttr. He employed all his influence during this
period of court favour in promoting the intereft of the
monks of the Benedi&ine order, to which he belong¬
ed, and of which he was a moft a&ive and zealous pa¬
tron. Having the treafures of thefe two princes, efpe-
cially of the laft, very much at his command, he la-
vilhed them away in building and endowing mona-
fteries for thefe monks, becaufe almoft all the old mo-
nafteries were in the pofieflion of fecular canons. Not
contented with this, he perfuaded Edred (who was a
bigotted valetudinary) to beflow fuch immenfe treafures
on the churches and monafteries by his laft will, that
the crown was ftripped of its moft valuable poflef-
fions, and left in a ilate of indigence. This condutt
of Hunftan, while he was in power, rendered him
very odious to Edwi, who fucceeded his uncle Edred
A. H. 955 *, and his rude behaviour to himfelf* and
his beloved queen Elgiva, raifed the refentment of
that prince fo high, that he deprived him of all his
preferments, and drove him into exile *f-. The ba-|See£»^
niftiment of Hunftan, the great patron, or (as Malnif-/a«i,N05
bury calls him) the prince of monks, was a fevere blow
to that order, who were expelled from feveral monafte¬
ries ; which were made the impure ftables (according
to *he fame author) of the married clergy. But their
fufferings were not of long continuance. For Edgar
the younger brother of Edwi, having raifed a fuccefs-
ful rebellion againft his unhappy brother, and ufurped
all his dominions on the north fide of the river Thames,
recalled Hunftan, and gave him the bifliopric of Wor-
cefter* A. H. 957. From this moment he was the chief
confidant and prime minifter of King Edgar, who be¬
came foie monarch of England A. H. 959, by the
death of his elder brother Edwi. In the following
year Hunftan was raifed to be arehbifhop of Canter¬
bury 5 and being thus-poffeffed of the primacy, and af-
fured of the royal fupport and affiftance, he prepared
to execute the grand tlefign which he had long medi¬
tated, of compelling the fecular canons to put away
their wives and become monks j or of driving them
out, and introducing Benedi&ine monks in their room.
With this view he procured the promotion of Ofwald
to the fee of Worcefter, and of Ethelwald to that of
Winchefter ; two prelates who were monks themfelves,
and animated with the moft ardent zeal for the ad¬
vancement of their order. And thefe three great cham¬
pions of the order found means, by their arts and in¬
trigues, in the courfe of a few years, to fill no fewer
than 48 monafteries with Benedi&ines. But on the
deathof Edgar in 975 tlxey received a check. The
fufferings
DUN [ 385 j D U P
unftan, fufferings of the perfecuted canons had excited much
)unura. compathon ; and many of the nobility who had been
"V-'' overawed by the power and zeal of the late king, now
efpoufed their caufe and promoted their refloration.
Elferc duke of Mercia drove the monks by force out
of all the monafleries in that extenfive province, and
brought back the canons, with their wives and chil¬
dren j while Elfwin duke of Eaft Anglia, and Brith-
not duke of Eflex, raifed their troops to proteft the
monks in thefe countries. To allay thefe commotions,
feveral councils were held : in which Dundan was fo
hard pufhed by the fecular canons and their friends,
that he was obliged to praftife fome of his holy Itra-
tagems j and finally, by dint of miracles, overcame all
See E«£-oppofition*.
,4N°64- St Dunftan died A. I). 988, in the 64th year of
his age, having held the bifhopric of London, toge¬
ther with the archbifhopric of Canterbury, about 27
years. As this prelate was the great feftorer and pro¬
moter of the monadic inditutions, the grateful monks,
who were almod the only hidorians of thofe dark ages,
have loaded him with the mod extravagant praifes, and
reprefented him as the greated wonder worker and
highed favourite of heaven that ever lived. To fay
nothing of his many condi&s with the devil, in which
he often belaboured that enemy of mankind mod fevere-
ly, the following fhort dory, which is told with great
exultation by his biographer Ofhern, will give the read¬
er fome idea of the adonifhing impiety and impudence
of thefe monks, and of the no lefs adonifhing blindnefs
and credulity of thofe unhappy times. “ The mod ad¬
mirable, the mod inedimable Father Dundan (fays
that author), whofe perfections exceeded all human
imagination, was admitted to behold the mother of
God and his own mother in eternal glory; for before
his death he was carried up into heaven, to be prefent
at the nuptials of his own mother with the Eternal
King, which were celebrated by the angels with the
mod fweet and joyous fongs. When the angels re¬
proached him with his filence on this great occafion, fo
honourable to his mother, he excufed himfelf on ac¬
count of his being unacquainted with thofe fweet and
heavenly drains j but being a little indruded by the
angels, he broke out into this melodious fong, O King
and Ruler of nations,” &c. It is unneceffary to make
any comment on this mod (hocking dory.
The violent and too fuccefsful zeal of Dundan and
his aflbciates, in promoting the building and endowing
fo great a number of houfes for the entertainment of
ufelefs monks and nuns, was very fatal to their coun¬
try j for by this means a fpirit of irrational unmanly
fuperdition was diffufed amongd the people, which
debafed their minds, and diverted them from nobler
purfuits; and a very great proportion of the lands of
England being put into hands who contributed no¬
thing to its defence, rendered it an eafy prey, fird to
the infulting Danes, and afterwards to the victorious
Normans.
DUNUM, a Celtic term, denoting a hill or emi¬
nence, and which often concurs to form the names of
towns, to fignify their high fituation, places of drength
or citadels $ hills or eminences being adapted to luch
druChires. See Dun.
Dunum (Ptolemy), a town of Ireland 5 now thought
Vol. VII. Part I.
to be Down or Down-Patrick, in the county of Down. Dunum
W. Long.. 5. 57. N. Lat. 54. 23.. .
DUO, in Mujic, a fong or compofition, to be perform- 11
ed on two parts only ; one fung, the other played on
an indrument, or by two voices.
Duo is alfo when two voices fing different parts, as
accompanied with a third, which is a thorough bafs.
It is feldom that unifons and oClaves are ufed in duos,
except at the beginning and end.
DUODECIMA, in Mujic, is the twelfth or the fifth
doubled.
DUODENUM. See Anatomy Index.
DUPIN, Lewis Ellis, a learned doClor of the
Sorbonne, and one of the greated critics of his time,
efpecially in eeelefiadical matters, was born at Paris in
1657. When he publidied the fird volume of his Bz-
bliothequc Vniverfelle des Auteurs Kcclefwjhques, in
1686, the liberty with which he treated fome eccle-
fiadical writers gave fuch offence, that M. de Harlay,
archbidiop of Paris, obliged Dupin to retraCl many
propofitions, and fuppreffed the work. He was never-
thelefs differed to continue it, by altering the title
from Bibiiotheque Univerfel/e to Bibhotheque Houvellc,
This great undertaking, continued in feveral fuccedive
volumes, though fudicient to occupy the life of an or¬
dinary man, did not hinder M. Dupin from obliging
the world with feveral other works. He was a man
of prodigious reading ■, and had an eafy happy wray of
writing, with an uncommon talent at analyzing the
works of an author; which makes his Ecclefiadical
Bibiiotheque fo valuable. M. Dupin was prod (Tor of
philofophy in the royal college : but was banidied fome
time from the chair to Chatelherault, on account of the
famous Cas de Confcience; but was redored, and died
in 1719.
DUPLE, among mathematicians, denotes the ratio
of 2 to 1. Thus the ratio of 8 to 4 is duple, or as 2
to I.
Sub-DUPLE Ratio, is jud the reverfe of the former,
or as I to 2. Such is 4 to 8, or 6 to I 2.
DUPLICATE, amopg lawyers, denotes a copy of
any deed, writing, or account. It is alfo uled for the
fecond letters-patent, granted by the lord chancellor
in a cafe wherein he had before done the fame. Alfo
a fecond letter written and fent to the fame party and
purpofe as a former, for fear of the fird’s mifcarrying,
is called a Duplicate.
DUPLICATE Proportion or Ratio. See Ratio.
DUPLICATION, in general, fignifies the doub¬
ling of any thing, or multiplying of it by 2 : alfo the
folding of any thing back again on itfelf.
DUPLICATURE, among anatomids, a term ufed
to denote the folds of any membrane or veffel : thus
avc fay, the duplicatures of the intefines, pcritonan/m,
&c.
DUPONDIUS, in antiquity, a Aveight of tAvo
pounds, or money of the value of two affes. See As.
As the as at fird Aveighed jud a pondo or libra, the
dupondius then Aveighed two ; and hence the name.
And though the weight of the as Avas afterwards
diminifhed, and of confequence that of the dupondius
alfo, yet they dill retained the denomination. See
Pound and Libra.
DUPPA, Brian, a learned Englifh bHhop, born in
3 C 1589
I> U R l ] D U R
Duppa 15%9 at Lewifham !r Kent, of whioli place father
I! was then vicar. In 1634, he was inftituted chancellor
Durer' of the church at Sarum, and foon after made chaplain
to Charles I. He was appointed tutor to Charles
prince of Wales, and his brother James duke of York j
was made hi (hop of Chichelfer •, and in 1641 tranilated
to Salifbury, though the cdnlufions that tollovved de¬
prived him of all benefit from his promotion. Charles I.
held him in high efteem, and he is fa id to have affilled
tlie king in compofing the Eikon Baji/ike. On the Re-
ftoration he was made bkliop of VV niche tier, and lord
high almoner; but died in 1662. He bequeathed large
furns to charitable purpofes ; and publiflied a few ler-
ttions, with other religious pieces.
DURAND US, William, born at PuimoifTion in
Provence, in the 13th century, was one of the moll
knowing lawyers of his time. Pope Marlin made him
one of his nuncios, and then biftiop of Mende and Lan¬
guedoc. His Speculum Juris gave him the name of
Speculator; his fecond piece was Rationale dhi norum
offiaoru/n, containing eight books. He wrote feveral
others.
DURANT A, in Botany, a genus of plants, be¬
longing to the didynamia cLfs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 4th order, Perfonatcc, See
Botany Index.
DURATION, an idea we get by attending to the
fleeting and perpetual neriflsing parts of fucceffion. iSee
Metaphysics.
Duration, as marked by certaiq periods and mea-
fure.s, is what we moil properly call time. See Time.
DURATION of Adhon, according to Ariftotle, is con¬
fined to a natural day in tragedy ; but the epopea, ac¬
cording to the fame critic, has- no fixed time. See
Poetry.
DURER, Albert, defeended of an Hungarian
family, and born at Nuremberg in 14.71, was one of
the bell engravers and painters of his age. He was at
the fame time a man of letters and a philofopher ; and
he was an intimate friend of Erafmus, who revifed fome
of the pieces which he publiftied. He was a man of
bufinefs alfo, and for many years the leading magiflrate
of Nuremberg. Though not the inventor, he was one
of the firft improvers of the art of engraving ; and he
bethought himfelf of working alfo in wood, for expe¬
dition, having an inexhauflible fund of defigns. In
many of thofe prints which he executed on copper, the
engraving is elegant to a great degree. His He/i-Scene
particularly, which was engraved in the year 1513,
is as highly finiflied a print as ever was engraved, and
as happily executed. In his wooden prints too we are
furprifed to fee fo much meaning in fo early a mailer;
the heads (o well marked, and every part fo well exe¬
cuted.— Phis artift feems to have underftood the prin¬
ciples of defign.. His compofition, too, is often pleaf-
ing ; and his drawing generally good. But he knows
very little of the management of light ; and Hill }e(s of
grace : and yet his ideas are purer and more elegant
than we could have fuppofed from the awkward arche¬
types which his country and education afforded. In a
word, he was certainly a man of a very extenfive geni^
us ; and, as Vafari remarks, would have been an ex¬
traordinary artift, if he had had an Italian inftead of
a German education. His prints are very numerous,
x
They were much admired in his own lifetime, and Durer
eagerly bought up ; which put bis wife, who was a teaf- II
ing woman, upon urging him to fpend more time upon
engraving than he was inclined to do. He was rich ; 'r""
and choie rather to pradliie his art as an amufement
than as a bufinefs. He died in the year I ^27.
DURESSE, Hardship, in Law, is where a perfon
is kept in prifon or retirained of his liberty, contrary
to order of law ; or is threatened to be killed, maimed,,
or beaten. In which cafe, if a perfon fo in prifon,
or in fear of fuch threats, make any fpecialty or ob.
ligation, by realon of fuch imprifonment or threats,
fuch deed is void in law ; and in an aefion brought on
£ueh fpecialty, the party may plead, that it was brought
by dureffe.
D’URFEY, Thomas, an eminent Englifh fatirift
and fongfter, whofe name, though as well known as
that of any writer extant, yet there are very few parti-
culars of his life to be collefted. He was born in
Devonftiire ; but when, where, or of what family, are
all uncertain. He was bred to the law, which he for-
fook for the more agreeable employment of writing
plays and fongs ; and the latter he had fo happy a ta¬
lent both of writing and finging, that he received many
favours from perfons of quality on that account. Even
crowned heads did not difdain his company,. The
writer of the Guardian, N° 67. tells us, he remem¬
bered to have feen Charles II. leaning on Tom D’Ur-
fey’s (boulder more than once, humming over a fong
with him. This indeed was not extraordinary in fo
merry a monarch; but even the phlegmatic King Wil¬
liam could relax his mufcles on hearing him ling. He
was certainly by all accounts a cheerful, honeft, good-
natured man ; but as this chara&er does not include
prudence, D’Urfey grew poor as he grew old : and
prevailing on the managers of the playhoufe to a£! his
comedy of the Plotting Sijlers for his benefit, Mr Ad-
difon wrote the above mentioned paper in the Guardian,
with another, N° 82. reprefenting him in a good-hu¬
moured light, to procure him a full houfe. He died
very old, in 1723.
DURHAM, Bishopric of, one of the counties of
England. Before the arrival of the Romans it was
included in the Britiftr principality of the Brigantes,
and after their arrival made part of the province of
Maxima Csefarienfis. During the Heptarchy it made
part of the kingdom of Northumberland, the 5th efta-
bliftied, which began in 547, and ended in 827, having
been governed by 31 kings. It was not mentioned
by Alfred in his divifion of counties, being at that
time confidered as a part of Yorkfhire. At prefent it
is included in the northern circuit, in the province of
York ; and is a diocefe and principality under the go¬
vernment of its own biftiop, being a county palatine,
the fecond in rank, and the rieheft in England. It is
bounded on the north by Northumberland, on the fouth
by Yorkfhire, on the eaft by the North fea, and on the
weft by Cumberland. It is 39 miles long, 35 broad,
and 107 in circumference ; containing 410,000 fquare
acres, or 758 fquare miles; with 97,000 inhabitants,
80 parifties, 21 vicarages, one city (Durham), and 9
market towns, viz. Stockton, Sunderland, Barnard-
Caftle, Darlington, Stanhope, Hartlepool, Aukland,
Stain crop, and Mar wood ; befides 2:23 villages. It is
divided
BUR
divided into 4 wards, fends 4 members to parliament,
pays three portions of the land tax, and provides 400
of the national militia. It has 21 parks, 4 caftles, and
20 bridges, with the rivers Tees, Tine, Were, Tame,
Lune, Darwent, Gauntlefs, Skern, &c. and the Lune
and Teefdale foreils. Its principal prodinfls are lead,
coals, iron, corn, mufiard, fait, glafs, fine ale, with
excellent butter and falmon. The foil is various;
the fouth is rich, but the weftern parts rocky and
moorifh.
Durham, as already obferved, is a county pala¬
tine, governed by the bifiiop, who had formerly great
prerogratives. He had power to create barons, ap¬
point judges, convoke parliaments, raife taxes, and
coin money. The courts of juftice were kept in his
name;'and he granted, pardons for trefpaffes, aliena¬
tions, rapes, murders, and felonies of every denomi¬
nation. He eredled corporations, granted markets
and fairs, created officers by patent, was lord admiral
of the feas and waters within the county palatine :
great part of the lands were held of the fee in capite.
In a word, he exercifed all the power and jurifdi£tion
of a fovereign prince. How and at what period
thefe prerogatives were obtained, it is not eafy to
determine. Malm (bury fays, the lands were granted
by King Alfred, wholikewife made the church a fanc-
tuary for criminals. This fee was anciently called
flie patrimony of St Cuthbcrt, who had been biffiop of
Lindisfarne or Holy Illand near Berwick. His bones
being transferred to Durham, were long efleemed as
precious relics ; and the people of the county confi-
dored themfelves as Halwerk men, exempted from all
other but holy work, that is, the defence of St Cuth-
bert’s body. Certain it is, they pretended to hold
their lands by this tenure ; and refufed to ferve out
of the county either for the king or bifliop : But King
Edward I. broke through thefe privileges, and cur¬
tailed the prerogatives of the biffiops, which were Hill
further abridged by Henry VIII. Neverthelefs, the
bifiiop is fiill earl of Sadberg, a place in this county
which he holds by barony. He is fheriff paramount,
and appoints his own deputy, who makes up his audit
to him, inftead of accounting to the exchequer. He
has all the forfeitures upon outlawries: and he and
his temporal chancellor a£t as jufiices of the peace
for the county palatine, which comprehends Creke in
Yorkfliire, Bedlington, Northatn, and Holy Ifland,
in Northumberland ; the inhabitants of thefe places
having the benefit of the courts at Durham. I he
fudges of affize, and all the officers of the court, have
ft ill their ancient falaries from the bifliop; and he con-
fiitutes the ftanding officers by his letters patent. He
lias the power of prefiding in perfon in any of the
courts of judicature. Even when judgment of blood
is given, this prelate may fit in court in his purple
robes, though the canons forbid any clergyman to be
prefent in fuch cafes : hence the old faying, Solum
Dunelmenfefola jus dtcet et enfe. It was not till the
reign of Charles II. that the bifliopric fent reprefenta-
tives to parliament.
Durham, the capital of the above-mentioned county,
is fituated in W. Long. 1. 14. N. Lat. 54. 50. It
Hands-on a hill almoft furrounded by the river Were ;
and is confiderable for its extent and the numbef of its
inhabitants, as well as for being the fee or feat of
BUR
the bifhop, who is lord paramount. It Hands about Durham.
280 miles north from London ; being remarkable for
the falubrity of its air, and the abundance and cheap-
nefs of its provifions. Thefe circumftances have indu¬
ced a great deal of good company to take up their re-
fidence at Durham, which is ftill further animated by
the prefence and court of the bifiiop and his clergy.
The town is faid to have been built about 70 years
before the Roman conqueft, on occafion of bringing
hither the body of St Cuthbert. It was firtt incorpo¬
rated by King Richard I. but Queen Elizabeth ex¬
tended its privileges. At length, in the year 1684, it
obtained a charter ; in confiquence of which, it is now
governed by a mayor, 12 aldermen, 12 common coun¬
cil men, with a recorder and inferior officers. Thefe
can hold a court leet and’court baron within the city ;
but under the flyle of the bifiiop, who, as count pala¬
tine, appoints a judge, fteward, flieriffs, and other in¬
ferior magifirates. The mayor and aldermen alio keep
a pie pouldres court at their fairs, and pay a yearly toll
to the bifliop. They have a weekly market on Saturday,
and three annual fairs. Durham is about half a mile
in length, and has been by fome compared to the fi¬
gure of a crab, the market place exhibiting the body,
and the claws being reprefented by the ftreets, which
bend according to the courfe of the river, which almoft
furrounds one part of the city. They are, moreover,
dark and narrow ; and fome of them lying on the ac¬
clivity of a fteep hill, are very difficult and dangerous
to wheel carriages. The houfes are in general flrong
built, but neither light nor elegant. The moft remark¬
able edifices are the cathedral, with fix other churches,
three Handing in the city, and as many in the fuburbs;
the college; the caftle, or bifliop’’s palace; the tolbooth
near St Nicholas’s church ; the erofs and conduit in the
market place} with two bridges over the Were. The
cathedral was begun by BHhop Carilepho in the nth
century. It is a large, magnificent, Gothic ftruc-
ture, 411 feet long, and 80 in breadth, having a crofs
aifle in the middle 170 feet in length, and two fmaller
aides at each end. On the fouth fide is a fine cloifter;
«n the eaft, the old library, the chapter houfe and
part of the deanery ; on the weft, the dormitory, under
which is the treafury and chantry ; and on the weft
fide is the new library, an elegant building begun by
Dean Sudbury about 70 years ago, on the fpot where
Hood the old refe&ory of the convent. The middle
tower of the cathedral is 212 feet high. The whole
building is arched and fupported by huge pillars. Se¬
veral of the windows are curioufty painted ; and there
is a handfome fereen at the entrance into the choir.
Sixteen biffiops are interred in the chapter-houfe, which
is 75 feet long, and 33 broad, arched overhead, with a
magnificent feat at the upper end for the inftalment of
the bithops. The confiftory is kept in the chapel of
the weft aifle called Galilee, which was built by Bifiiop
Pabfey, and had formerly 16 altars for women, as they
were not allowed to advance farther than the line of
marble by the fide of the font; here likewife are dz-
pofited the bones of the venerable Bede, whofe eulogium
is written on an old parchment feroll that hangs over
his tomb. The long crofs aifle at the extremity of tire
church was formerly diftinguiffied by nine altars, four
to the north, and four to the fouth, and the moft mag¬
nificent in the middle dedicated to the patron St Cuth-
3 C 2 bert,
f 387 1
D U R [3
bext, whofe rich fhrine was in this quarter, formerly
much frequented by pilgrims. The church is poffelTed
of fome old records relating to the affairs of Scotland,
the kings of which were great benefaftors to this ca¬
thedral. The ornaments here ufed for adminiftering
the divine offices, are faid to be richer than thofe of any
other cathedral in England. Before the Reformation,
it was ditfinguiffied by the name Kcclef.a fanBce Metrics
et fancii Cuthberti; but it obtained the appellation of
Ecclejia cathedralis Chrijli et beatce Maries, in the reign
of Henry VIII. who endowed the deanery with 12
prebendaries, 12 minor canons, a deacon, fubdeacon,
16 lay finging men, a fchoolmafter and ulher, a maf-
ter of the choir, a divinity reader, eight almfmen, 18
fcholars, 10 chorifters, two vergers, two porters, two
cooks, two butlers, and two facriftans. On the fouth
fide of the cathedral is the college 5 a fpacious court
formed by the houfes of the prebendaries, who are
richly endowed and extremely well lodged. Above
the college gate, at the eaft end, is the exchequer j
and at the weft, a large hall for entertaining ftrangers,
with the granary and other offices of the convent. The
college fchool, with the matter’s houfe, ftands on the
north fide of the cathedral. Between the churchyard
and caftle is an open area called the palace green; at
the weft end of which ftands the Ihire hall, where the
affixes and feffions are held for the county. Clofe by
is the library built by Biffiop Cofin j together with the
exchequer raifed by Biftiop Nevil, in which are kept
the offices belonging to the county palatine court.
There is an hofpital on the eaft, endowed by Biffiop
Cofin, and at each end of it are two fchools founded
by Biffiop Langley. On the north, is the caftle built
by William the Conqueror, and afterwards converted
into the biffiop’s palace, the outward gate of which is
at prefent the county gaol..
The city confifts of three manors j the biffiop’s ma¬
nor, containing the city liberties and the bailey, held
of him by the fervice of caftle guard j the manor of the
dean and chapter, confifting of the Elvet’s crofs-gate,
South-gate ftreet j and the manor of Gilligate, former¬
ly belonging to the diffolved hofpital of Kepyar in this
neighbourhood, but granted by Edward VI. to John
Cockburn, lord of Ormiftoun, and late in the poffeffion
of John Tempeft, Efq.
The biffiopric of Durham is deemed the richeft bi-
ffioprie in the kingdom ’> and the prebends are fre¬
quently ftyled the Golden Prebends of Durham. The
diocefe contains the whole counties of Durham and
Northumberland, except the jurifdidlion of Hexham in
the latter. It hath alfo one pariffi in the county of Cum¬
berland : making in the whole 135 parifties, whereof
87 are impropriate. The fee is valued in the king’s
books at 2821I. is. j-^d. but is faid to be worth about
ten times that fum annually. The clergy’s tenths a-
mount to 385I. 5s. 6|d. It has two archdeacons, viz.
of Durham and Northumberland. This fee hath given
to the church of Rome eight faints and one cardinal j
and to the Engliffi nation one lord chief juftice, five
lord chancellors, three lord treafurers, one principal fe-
cretary of ftate, one chancellor to the univerfity of Ox¬
ford, and two matters of the rolls.
In the neighbourhood of this city is Nevil’s crofs,
famous fox the battle fought in the year 1346, againft
88 ] D U R
David II. king of Scotland, who was defeated and
taken priioner.
DURIO, a genus of plants belonging to the poly-
adelphia clafs. See Botany Index.
DURNIUM, or Durnovaria, a town of the Du-
rotriges in Britain ; now Dorchejler, the capital of
Dorfetllrire, on the Frome.
DUROBRIVyE, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Catyeuchlani in Britain. Now in ruins, which lie
on the Nen, between Carter and Dornford, in North?
amptonfture, on the borders of Huntingdon.
Durobriv^:, or Durocobrivcs, a town of the Trine,
bantes, in Britain $ whole ruins are fituated between
Flamitead and Redburn, in Hertfordffiire.
DUROBRIVES, 25 miles to the weft of Durover-
num, or Canterbury ; from which it appears to bs
Rochetter town : confirmed by the charter of founda¬
tion of the church, in which it is called Durobrevis.
DUROCASES, Durocassium, Durocass^, and
Durocasses, a town of the Carnutes in Gallia Celtica j
now Dreux. See Druidte.
DUROCORNOVIUM, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Britain $ now Circenjler in Gloucetterlhire
(Camden), called Corinium by Ptolemy.
DUROCORTORUM, or Duricortora, a town
of the Rheni in Belgica $ now Rheims in Champagne.
E. Long. 4. 8. N. Lat. 49. 20.
DUROIA, in Botany, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the hexandria clafs of plants. See Botany
Index.
DUROLENUM, a town of the Cantii in Britain ^
now Lenham, in Kent (Camden) $ Charing (Talbot).
DUROLITUM, a town of the Trinobantes j now
Leiton, on the Ley, in Effex (Camden).
DUROTRIGES, an ancient Britiffi nation, feated
in that part of the country which is now called Dor-
fetjhire. Their name is derived from the two Britiffi
words Dur, “ water,” and Trigo, “ to dwell j” and it is.
no lefs evident that they got their name from the fi-
tuation of their country, which lies along the fea coaft.
It is not very certain whether the Durotriges formed
an independent ftate, under a prince of their own, or
were united with their neighbours the Danmonii j as
they were reduced by Velpafian under the dominion
of the Romans, at the fame time, and with the fame
cafe, and never revolted. The peaceable difpofition of
the inhabitants was probably the reafon that the Ro¬
mans had ffi few towns, forts, and garrifons, in this
pleafant country. Dorchefter, its prefent capital, feems
to have been a Roman city of fome confideration,
though our antiquaries are not agreed about its Roman
name. It is moft probable, that it was the Durno¬
varia in the 12th Iter of Antoninus. Many Roman
coins have been found at Dorchefter j the military
way, called Jeemng-Jlreet, parted through it j and fome
veftiges of the ancient ftone wall with which it was
furrounded, and of the amphitheatre with which it was
adorned, are ftill vifible. The country of the Duro¬
triges was included in the Roman province called Fla¬
vin Ccsfarienjis, and governed by the prefident of that
province, as long as the Romans kept any footing in
thefe parts.
DURY, John, a Scots divine, who travelled much,
and laboured with great zeal to reunite the Lutherans
with?
D U U [ 389 J D W A
0ru with the Calvin!fts. His difcourageraents in this
ri|| fcherne ftarted another dill more impracticable; and
uumvl* dds was to reunite all Chriliians by means of a new ex-
plication of the Apocalypfe, which he publifhed at
Hancfort in 1677. He enjoyed then a comfortable re¬
treat in the country of Htffe ; but the time of his death
is unknown : his letter to Peter du Moulin concerning
the llate of the churches of England, Scotland, and
Ireland, was printed at London in 1658, by the care
of du Moulin, and is efteemed to be curious.
DUSKY BAY, a bay of the iiland of New Zealand
in the Southern Pacific ocean. The country around is
mountainous, and the hills near the fea fide are cover¬
ed with thick foretls. It is in S. Lat. 45. 47. and ia
E. Long. 166. 18.
DUSSELDOFIF, a city of Weftphalia in Germa¬
ny, and capital of the duchy of Berg. It is fituated at
the conflux of the river Duffel with the Rhine, in E.
Long. 6. 52. N. Lat. 51. 12. It was formerly the
refidence of the eleCtor palatine, contiguous to whofe
palace is a celebrated gallery of paintings. Carlffadt,
a new town, is nearly completed. It is divided into fix,
regular quarters which open into an extenfive fquare ;
and from the uniformity of the buildings, exclufive of
the new palace and the academy of painting, forms a
beautiful addition to the old city. Duffeldorf was taken
by the French in 1795. It contains, including the
garrifon, 18,000 inhabitants.
DUTCHY. See Duchy.
DUTY, in general, denotes any thing that one is
obliged to perform.
Duty, in a moral fenfe. See MORAL Fhilofophy.
Duty, in polity and commerce, fignifies the impoft
laid on merchandifes, at importation or exportation,
commonly called the duties of cuftoms ; alfo the taxes
of excife, ftamp duties, &c. See Customs, Excise,
&c.
The principles on which all duties and cuffoms fliould
be laid on foreign merchandifes which are imported
into thefe kingdoms, are fuch as tend to cement a mu¬
tual friendfliip and traffic between one nation and an¬
other ; and therefore due care ftiould be taken in the
laying of them, that they may anfwer fo good an end,
and be reciprocal in both countries; they ftiould be fo
laid as to make the exports of this nation at leaft equal
to our imports from thofe nations wherewith we trade,
fo that a balance in money ffiould not be iffued out of
Great Britain, to pay for the goods and merehandifes
of other countries: to the end that no greater number
of our landholders and manufacturers ftiould be deprived
of their revenues arifing from the produCt of the lands,
and the labour of the people, by foreign importations,
than are maintained by exportations to fuch coun¬
tries. Thefe are the national principles on which all
our treaties of commerce with other countries ought to
be grounded.
Duty, in the military art, is the exercife of thofe
funftions that belong to a foldier : with this diftinClion,
that mounting guard and the like, where there is no
enemy direCtly to be engaged, is called duty ; but their
inarching to meet and fight an enemy is called going
on fervice.
DUUMVIRATE, the office or dignity of the duum¬
viri. See the next article.
4
1 he duumvirate lafted till the year of Rome 388, DuunivN
when it was changed into a dccemvirate. Iate
DUUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, a general ap-
pellation given to magillrates, commiffioners, and offi- ^
cers, where two were joined together in the fame func¬
tions.
Duumviri Cupitales were the judges in criminal,
caufes : from their fentence it was lawful to appeal to.
the people, who only had the power of condemning a
citizen to death. Tbefe judges were taken from the
body of the decuriones ; they had great power and au¬
thority, were members of the public council, and had
two liCtors to walk before them.
DuUMVIRlMunicif)n!ej,\\ere twTo magiftrates in Tome
cities of the empire, anfwering to w?hat the confuls were
at Rome : they were chofen out of the body of the
decuriones; their office lafted commonly five years,. .
upon which account they were frequently termed
quinquinales magifiratus. Their jurifdiCHon was of
great extent: they had officers who walked before
them, carrying a fmall fwitch in their hands ; and
fome of them affumed the privilege of having liCIors,
carrying axes, and the fafees or bundles of rods, before
them.
DUUMVIRI Nava/es, were the commiffaries of the
fleet, fir ft created at the requeft of M. Decius, tribune,
of the people, in the time of war with the Samnites,
The duty of their office confided in giving orders for
the fitting of ffiips, and giving their commiffions to the.
marine officers, &c.
DUUMVIRI Sacrorum, were magiftrates created by
Tarquinius Superbus, for the performance of the fa-
crifices, and keeping of the fibyls books. They were
chofen from among the patricians, and held their office
for life ; they were exempted from ferving in the wars,
and from the offices impofed on the other citizens,
and without them the oracles of the tibyls could not be
confulted.
DUYVELAND, or Diveland, one of the iflands
of Zealand, in the United Provinces, lying eaitward of
Schonen, from which it is only feparated by a narrow
channel.
DWAL, in Heraldry, the herb nightftiade, ufed by
fuch as blazon with flowers and herbs, inftead of metals,
and colours, for fable or black..
DWARF, in general, an appellation given to things
greatly inferior in fize to that which is ufual in their
feveral kinds : thus there are dwarfs of the human fpe-
cies, dwarf dogs, dwarf trees, &c.
The Romans were paffionately found of dwarfs, whom
they called nani or nance, infomuch that they often
ufed artificial methods to prevent the growth of boys
defigned for dwarfs, by enclofing them in boxes, or by
the ufe of tight bandages. Auguftus’s niece, Julia,
was extremely fond of a dwarf called Sonopas, who was
only two feet and a handbreadth high. We have many
other accounts of human dwarfs, but moft of them de¬
formed in fome way or other befides the fmallnefs of
their fize. Many relations alfo concerning dwarfs we
muft neceffarily look upon to be fabulous, as well as
thofe concerning giants. The following hiftory, how¬
ever, which we have reafon to look upon as authentic,
is too remarkable not to be acceptable to the generali¬
ty of our readers.
Jeffery
D W A [ 390 ] D W I
Jeffery Hudfon, the famous Engluli dwarf, was born
at Oakham, in Rutlandihire, in 1619and about the
age of feven or eight, being then but 18 inches high,
was retained in the ferviee of the duke of Buckingham,
who rcfided at Burleigh on the'Hill. Soon after the
marriage of Charles I. the king and queen being en¬
tertained at Burleigh, little Jeffery was ffrved up to
table in a cold pye, and prefented by the duchefs to the
queen, who kept him as her dwarf. From 7 years of
age till 30, he never grew taller ; but alter 30, he (hot
up to three feet nine inches, and there fixed. Jeffery
became a confiderable part of the entertainment of the
court. Sir William Davenant wrote a poem called
Jejfreidos, on a battle between him and a turkey cock j
and in 1638, Avas publifhed a very fmall book, called
the New Year's Gift, prefented at court by the lady
Parvula to the lord Minimus (commonly called Little
Jeffery') her majefly’s fervant, &c. written by Micro*
philus, with a little print of Jeffery prefixed. Before
this period, Jeffery was employed on a negotiation of
great importance : he was fent to France to fetch a
midAvife for the queen ; and on his return Avith this
gentleAvoman, and her majefty’s dancing mafter, arid
many rich prefents to the queen from her mother Mary
de Medicis, he Avas taken by the Dunkirkers. Jeffery,
thus made of confequence, greAV to think himftlf really
fo. He had borne Avith little temper the leafing of the
courtiers and domeftics, andshad many fquabbles Avith
the king’s gigantic porter. At laft, being provoked by
Mr Crofts, a young gentleman of family, a challenge
enfued j and Mr Crofts coming to the rendezvous arm¬
ed only Avith a fquirt, the little creature Avas fo enraged,
that a real duel enfued ; and the appointment being on
horfeback Avith piftols, to put them more on a level,
Jeffery, Avith the firft fire, (hot his antagonift dead.
This happened in France, Avhither he had attended his
miftrefs in the troubles. He Avas again taken prifoner
by a Turk!Hi rover, and fold into Barbary. He pro¬
bably did not remain long in flavery j for at the be¬
ginning of the civil Avar, he was made a captain in the
royal army 5 and in 1644 attended the queen to France,
where he remained till the Refloration. At laft, upon
fufpicion of his being privy to the Popifti plot, he was
taken up in 1682, and confined in the Gatehoufe,
Weftminfter, where he ended his life, in the 63d year
©f his age.
In the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sci¬
ences, a relation is given by the count de Treffau,
of a dwarf called Bebe kept by the late Staniflaus,
king of Poland, and Avho died in 1764, at the age of
23, Avhen he meafured only 32 inches. At the time
of his birth, he meafure-d only between eight and nine
inches. Diminutive as were’ his dimenfions, bis rea-
foning faculties Avere not lefs fcanty j appearing indeed
not to have been fuperior to thofe of a well-taught
pointer : but that the fize and ftrength of the intel-
leftual poAvers are not affe&ed by the diminutivenefs
or tenuity of the corporeal organs, is evident from a
ftill more ftriking inftance of littlenefs, given us by the
fame nobleman, in the perfon of Monfieur Borulawfki,
a Polifli gentleman, Avhom be faAV at Luneville, Avho
has fince been at Paris, and who at the age of 22
meafured only 28 inches. This miniature of a man,
confidering him only as to his bodily dimenfions, appears
a giant with regard to his mental powers and attain^
ments. He is deferibed by the count as poflefimg all D .
the graces of wit, united with a found judgment and Dwa,a
an excellent memory j fo that we may with juftice fay ~
of M. Borulawlki, in the words of Seneca, and neatly
in the order in which he has ufed them, “ Poffe in^e-
nium fortiffunum ac beatijjunum fub quolibet corpufcuU
latere." Epift. 66.
Count Borulawlki was the fun of a Polifli noble¬
man attached to the fortunes of King Staniflaus, who
loft his property in confequence of that attachment,
and Avho had fix children, three dwarfs, and three Aveil
grown. What is lingular enough, they Avere born al¬
ternately, a big one and a little one, though both pa¬
rents Avere of the common fize. The little count’s
youngeft filler Avas much lefs than him, but died at
the age of 23. The count continued to groAv till he
was about 30, and has at prefent attained his 51ft
year, and the height of three feet two inches. Ke
never experienced any ficknels, but lived in a polite
and affluent manner under the patronage of a ladv, a
friend of the family, till love at the age of 41 intruded
into his little,peaceful bofom, and involved him in ma¬
trimony, care, and perplexity. The lady he chofe
Avas of bis own country, but of French extra&ion, and
the middle fize. They have three children, all girls,
and none of them likely to be dwarfs. To provide
for a family now became an objeiff big with difficulty,
requiring all the exertion of his poAvers (which could
promife but little) and his talents, of Avhich mufic
alone afforded any view of profit. He plays extremely
Aveil upon the guitar; and by having concerts in fe-
veral of the principal cities in Germany, he raifed tem¬
porary fupplies. At Vienna he was perfuaded to
turn his thoughts to England, where it was believed
the public curiofity might in a little time benefit him
fuffieiently to enable him to live independent in fo
cheap a country as Poland. He Avas furniftied by very
refpeftable friends Avith recommendations to feveral of
the moft diftinguilhed chara£ters in this kingdom, as
the duchels of Devonftiire, Rutland, &c. &c. Avhofe
kind patronage he is not backAvard to acknowledge.
He Avas advifed to let himfelf be feen as a curiofity,
and the price of admiffion Avas fixed at a guinea.
The number of his vifitors, of courfe, Avas not very
great. After a pretty long flay in London he went
to Bath and Briftol ; vifited Dublin and fome other
parts of Ireland ; Avhenee he returned by Avay of Li¬
verpool, Manchefter, and Birmingham, to London.
He alio vifited Edinburgh and fome other towns of
Scotland. In every place he acquired a number of
friends. In reality, the eafe and politenefs of his man¬
ners and addrefs pleafe no lefs than the diminutive, yet
elegant, proportions of his figure aftonifh thofe Avho
vifit him. His perfon is pleafing and graceful, and his
looks manly and noble. He fpeaks French fluently,
and Englifti tolerably. He is remarkably lively and
cheerful, though fitted for the moft ferious and rational
converfation. Such is this Avonderful little man—an
obje£l of curiofity really Avorthy the attention of the
philofopher, the man of tafte, and the anatomift. His
life has been publiffled, Avritten by himfelf.
DWINA, the name of two large rivers ; one of
which rifts in Lithuania, and, dividing Livonia from
Courland, falls into the Baltic fea a little below Riga ;
the other gives name to the province of Dwina in Ruffia.
It
DYE [ 39l i BYE
D„.;na It r«ns from faith to north, and difcbarges itfelf into
|| the White fea a little below Archangel.
Dyer. DYCK. See VaNDYCK.
-v * DYE, in ArchtteRure, any fqmre body, as the trunk
or notched part of a pedeftal : or it is the middle of the
pedeftal, or that part included between the bafe and the
corniche j fo called becaufe it is often made in the form
of a cube or dye. See ARCHITECTURE, N0 6l.
DYER, a perfon who profeffes the art of dyeing all
manner of colours. See DYEING.
Dyer, Sir James, an eminent Englifh lawyer, chief
judge of the court of common pleas in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth. He died in I jSi r and about 20
years after was publiihed his large collet!ion of Reports,
which have been highly efteemed for their fuccinflnefs
and folidity. He alfo left other writings behind him
relative to his pfofeflion.
DYER, John, the fon of Robert Dyer, Efq. a Welfh
folicitor of great capacity, was born in 1700. He
paffed through Weftminfter fchool under the care of
Dr Freind, and was then called home to be inftru6fed
in his father’s profeffion. His genius, however, led
him a different way ; for befides his early tafie for
poetry, having a paflion no lefs ftrong for the arts of
defign, he determined to make painting his profeffion.
With this view, having fludied a while under his mafter,
he became, as he tells his friend, an itinerant painter,
and wandered about South Wales, and the parts adja¬
cent ; and about 1727 printed Grongar Hill. Being
probably unfatisfied with his own proficiency, he made
the tour of Italy j where, befides the ufual ftudy of
the remains of antiquity, and the works of the great
mafters, he frequently fpent whole days in the country
about Rome and Florence, fketching thofe pidlurefque
profpeffs with facility and fpirit. Images from hence
naturally transferred themfelves into his poetical com-
pofitions : The principal beauties of The Ruins of Rome
are perhaps of this kind ; and the various landfcapes in
The Fleece have been particularly admired. On his re¬
turn to England, he publifht d The Ruins of Rome,
1740 ; but foon found that he could not relifh a town
life, nor fubmit to the affiduity required in his pro¬
feffion. As his turn of mind was' rather ferious, and
his conduiR and behaviour always irreproachable, he
was advifed by his friends to enter into holy orders 5
and it is prefumed, though his education had not been
regular, that he found no difficulty in obtaining them.-
He was ordained by the hifhop of Lincoln, and had a
larv degree conferred on him.
About the fame time he married a lady of Colefhill
named Enfor •, “ whofe grandmother (fays he) was a
Shakefpeare, defcended from a brother of every body’s
Shakefpeare.” His ecclefiaftical provifion was a long
time but (lender. His firfl patron, Mr Harper, gave
him, in 1741, Calthorp in Leicefferfhire, of 80I. a-
year, on which he lived ten years ; and in April 1751
exchanged it for Belchford in Lincolnfhire, of 75I.
which was given him by Lord-chancellor Hardwicke,
on the recommendation of a friend to virtue and the
mufes. His condition now began to mend. In 1752,^
Sir John Heathcote gave him Coningfby, of 140I. a-
year •, and in 1756, when he was LL. B. without any
felicitation of his own, obtained for him from the
chancellor Kirby-on Bane, of iiol. In 1757, he pub-
lifhed the Fleece, his greateft poetical work *, of which
Dr Johnfon relates this ludicrous flory. Dodfley the
bookfeller was one day mentioning it to a critical vifi-
tor, with more expectation of fuccefs than the other
could eafily admit. In the converfation the author’s
age was afked : and being reprefented as advanced in
life, “ He will (faid the critic) be buried in woollen.”
He did not indeed long outlive that publication, nor
long enjoy the increafe of his preferments 5 for a con-
fumptive diforder, with which he had long ftruggled,
carried him off at length in 1758.
Mr Dyer’s character as a writer has been fixed by
three poems, Grongar Hill, The Ruins of Rome, and
The Fleece j wherein a poetical imagination perfectly
original, a natural fimplicity eonneCled with and often
productive of the true fublime, and the warmeft fenti-
ments of benevolence and virtue, have been univerfally
obferved and admired. Thefe pieces were put out fe-
parately in his lifetime : but after his death they were
colleCled and publifhed in one volume 8vo, 1761 j with
a fliort account of himfelf prefixed.
Dtee's Weed. See Reseda, Botany and Dyeing
Index.
DYEING.
efinition. I. "TVYEING is the art of communicating a perma-
nent colour to any fubftance ; but it is generally
employed in a more limited fenfe, and is applied to
the art of giving colours to wool, filk, cotton or flax, or
to thread or cloth fabricated of thefe fubftances. To
this more limited fenfe we propofe to confine it in the
following treatife \ and for the dyeing or ttaining of
other fubltanees, as paper, wood, bone, leather, marble,
the reader is referred to thefe articles,
riginof 2. Among the arts of life there are fome which are
t8' etfential to man even in the earliet! period of his hi-
ftory ; while others derive their origin from chance,
and owe their improvement and perfection to the pro-
grefs of refinement and luxury. Thofe arts which
are connected with the means of providing food or
fhelter are neceffary even in the rudeft ftate of man,
and are praCtifed with more or lefs dexterity and fuc¬
cefs according to the abundance or fcantinefs of the
fupply with which he is furnithed, and the varieties of
climate which he inhabits. But thofe arts which have
been diftinguithed by the name of fine arts can only
flouritil and arrive at a high degree of perfection in
the more luxurious ages of refined fociety. To this
account of the origin and progrefs of the arts among
mankind, the art of dyeing forms a remarkable excep¬
tion. Totally unconnected with the means of provid¬
ing food to fatisfy the urgent calls of hunger, of pre¬
paring raiment to fecure the body from cold, or of pro¬
curing thelter from the ftorm, this art might at firit
fight be confidered as one of thofe which exelufiveljr
belong 4
392
DYEING.
Origin.
-JOf dyeing.
Hiftory
and pro-
grefs j
belong to an age of luxufy. But the hiftory of man-
' kind aftigns to its origin a very different period. The
art of dyeing fee ms to be almoft co-Bval with man.
In the rudeft flate of his exiftence, his fimple and
feanty clothing is frequently coloured j and even the
naked favage, while he is yet a houfelefs wanderer in
the woods, has difcovered the means of ftaining his
body with different colours. And yet the art of dye¬
ing in no refpefl contributes to relieve the real and
primary wants of man. It renders not his raiment
xvarmer, and it ferves not to make his lodging more
comfortable.
3. Whence then is the origin of this art ? It de¬
pends not like others on the neceflities of man, and it
exifts long before he is acquainted with refinement and
luxury. It muft therefore be traced to a different
fource.
We fee that the defire of diftin£!ion is one of the moft
ti£live principles in the human mind. This principle
operates equally in the breaft of the favage in the midfl
of his naked companions, and in that of thefage and the
foldier in polifhed fociety. Man rarely refts fatisfied
with the folid, but frequently lefs obvious pre-eminence,
which fuperior ftrength, genius, or learning, confers.
The proofs of this fuperiority can be but feldom ex¬
hibited j they are often not generally underftood or
acknowledged, and therefore cannot always be fairly
eflimated. He who poffeffes any of thofe talents which
give him a fuperiority to others, naturally wifties to be
diftinguifhed by certain marks by which he may more
uniformly and more dire£lly excite admiration and com¬
mand refpefi. He feeks, therefore, for fome adventi¬
tious circumftances which may be regarded as a kind
of fymbolical reprefentation of power and greatnefs j
and as they are conftantly prefent to the fenfes,
they make a deep impreffion, and keep alive thofe feel¬
ings of admiration which are fo gratifying to the vain
and ambitious. Drefs and its ornaments have been
ufually employed as external marks of diftindlion.
Hence it is, that the chief or the warrior among rude
nations is clothed with a finer and more beautiful Ikin 5
his head is decorated with flowers or feathers ; or the
leaves of the oaks, or the laurel, Amply adorn his brow.
And in the progrefs of civilization and refinement, the
diadem of gold, and the robe of purple or of fcarlet,
fupplant thefe Ampler decorations as chara&eriftics Of
dignity and power. To increafe Hill more the beauty
and variety of thofe fubftances which are employed as
clothing or as the ornaments of drefs, the aid of co¬
lours has been called in j and accordingly w-e find that
coloured clothing has been held in high efiimation in
all ages. This principle, therefore, the defire of di-
ftinftion, feems to be the natural origin of the art of dve-
ing. Nature, however, furnilhes the model, and may'be
regarded as the antetype of the art. in the gav plumage
with which fhe has clothed the feathered tribes, and in
the fplendid colours and infinite variety of fhades which
are exhibited in her vegetable productions.
4. But without indulging farther in thefe fpecula-
tions, which are to be confidered as fubjeCts of curious
inveftigation, rather than as topics of practical utility,
let us now take a Ihort view of the htftory and progrefs
of this art.
We have endeavoured to (hew that the beauty of
brilliant colours is one of the means of attracting at¬
tention, and of acquiring diftindiion, which mankind in Hiftor
every period of fociety have employed. Even before'-—-y—
the ufe of clothing has been introduced, the rude in¬
habitants of favage nations applied them firft to their
Ikins. This praCtice exifted among the Britons in the
time of Caefar j and the women of Gaul about the
fame period llained themfelves of a brown olive colour.
At this day, it is Itill the praCtice of many of the fa¬
vage tribes of America, as well as of the natives of the
South fea iflands. But when mankind had made fome
progrefs in arts and civilization, and had begun
to wear clothing, the colours which they admired
were afterwards communicated to their garments.
The art of dyeing, therefore, though in a rude and im-
perfeCt ftate, is indifputably of great antiquity j and in¬
deed confidering its nature and origin, this might have
been expefted.
5. India, the nurfery of the arts and fciences, which in India;
were afterwards improved and brought to perfedion
among other nations, feems to have given birth to the
art of dyeing j and it would appear that the know¬
ledge of dyeing cotton had advanced as far in the time
of Alexander the Great as at the prefent time, fo
ftationary have the arts become in that country. The
beautiful colours of the Indian linens would naturally
lead to the fuppofition that the art had reached a very
high degree of perfection ; but it is known that the In¬
dian proceffes are fo tedious, complicated and imper-
feCl, that they would be totally impracticable in any
other country.
6. It was not till the time of Alexander the Great'•mongtli
that the art of dyeing cotton and linen, which hadGree^s>
gradually fpread from the eaft to the weft, was known
in Europe. The Greeks, however, as appears from many
paffages in the Iliad and Odyffey, were acquainted with
the art of dyeing purple in the time of Homer. And
it is fuppofed that they derived their knowledge of it
from the Phenicians, a people who were very early ce¬
lebrated for the art of dyeing. But their art feems to
have been confined to wool 5 filk, indeed, was at that
time unknown, and linen was ufually worn white.
7. Dyeing and coloured fluffs are frequently men-theJews;
tioned in the facred writings. It would appear that
the art had made cohfiderable progrefs in the time of
the patriarchs, from what is mentioned in the book of
Genefis. The dyed fluffs which are defcribed in the
book of Exodus were purchafed by the Jews from the
Phenicians.
8. The Egyptians, according to Pliny, praClifed athe^glP
kind of topical dyeing or calico-printing, which fromtians*
his general defcription feems to have been fimilat to
that which was found many ages after to exiit in differ¬
ent parts of India, and was from thence introduced in¬
to the different countries of Europe. He fays, the
Egyptians began by painting on white cloths, which
were no doubt of linen or cotton, with certain drugs
which were themfelves colourlefs, but poffeffed the
property of abforbing coloured fubftances. Thefe
cloths were afterwards iminerfed in a heated dyeing
liquor which was of one uniform colour, and although
they were formerly colourlefs, yet when they were
taken out, they were found to be dyed of different
colours, according to the different qualities of the fub-
ftances which had been applied to their different parts j
and thefe- colours could not afterwards be difcharged
by
: Iiftory.
'■tin. l>b-
DYE
by Warning *. Tins art Was probably borrowed from
the natives of India.
9. The Tyrian purple, fo celebrated among the an¬
cients, was probably from the name difcovered at
e Tynan'j,yr^, an(j perjiapS contributed not a little to the opu-
P ’ lence of that city. The liquor which was employed
in dyeing the purple was extra&ed from two kinds of
Ihell-filh, one of which, the larger, was called the pur¬
ple, and the other was a fpecies of whelk. Each of
thefe fpecies was fubdivided into different varieties, and
were otherwife diftinguiihed, according to the places
where they were found, and as they yielded more or
lefs of a beautiful colour. It is in a veffel in the throat
of the fidi that the colouring liquor is found. Each
eparation only afforded a tingle drop. When a certain
the li- qUantity of the liquor had been obtained, it Was mix¬
ed with a proportion of common fait, macerated to¬
gether for three days, and five times the quantity of
water was added. The mixture being kept in a mo¬
derate heat, the animal parts which happened to be
mixed with it, feparated and rofe to the furface. At
the end of ten days, when thefe operations Were finifh-
ed, a piece of white wool wras immerfed, by which
means they afcertained whether the liquor had acquir¬
ed the proper (hade.
f the fluff. Various proceffes wTere followed to prepare the fluff
to receive the dye. By fome it was immerfed in lime
water, and by others it was prepared with a kind of
fucus, which a6ted as a mordant to give it a more
fixed colour. Alkanet was ufed by fome for the fame
purpofe.
The liquor of the whelk did not alone yield a du¬
rable colour. The liquor from the other fhell-fifb
ffctved to increafe its brightnefs ; and thus twro opera¬
tions were in ufe to communicate this colour. A firft
dye was given by the liquor of the purple, and a fecond
by that of the whelk ; from which it was called by
Pliny purpura dibapha, or purple twice dipped.
10. Some kinds of purple have been found to poffefs
great durability. Plutarch in his life of Alexander
the Great, mentions that the Greeks difcovered in the
treafury of the king of Peffia a great quantity of pur¬
ple which was 190 years old, and ftill retained all its
beauty.
ligh price. II- The fmall quantity of liquor which could be ob¬
tained from each (hell-fifh, amd the tedious procefs in
its preparation and application to the fluffs, raifed the
price of purple fo high, that in the time, of Auguflus
a pound of wool of the Tyrian purple dye, could not
be purchafed for one thoufand denarii, equal to about
36I. flerling.
12. The purple, which has been almofl everywhere
a mark of diflindlion attached to high birth and digni¬
ty, was worn by thofe who held the firfl offices in
Home. The emperors at lafl referved to themfelves
the right of wearing it, and prohibited all others from
ufing it on pain of death.
13. The fubflances which have been difcovered and
ufed in dyeing by the moderns, and the fuperiority
which they have obtained in many colours, have fu-
perfeded the ufe of the purple of the ancients. 1 he
fhell-fifh from which the liquor is extrnfled, is fuppof-
ed to be now as abundant as ever. Similar fhell-fifh
^dyeing, have been found near Nicoya, a fmall Spanifh town in
South America, and they are at prefent ufed for dye-
Vol. VII. Part I.
I N G.
393
ing cotton on the coafls of Guaiaquil and Guati- Hiflory.
mala.
'erma.
ency.
Vorn by
he Ro¬
sass.
Still ufed
14. In the year 1683, Mr Cole of Briflol difeover- The Shell¬
ed, on the coafl of England, the fhell-fifh which ^1t|^UI,<*
yields the purple liquor. The liquor was contained in roafts 0f
a white vein, lying tranfverfely in a little furrow or England,
cleft, next to the head of the filh. He found by ex¬
periment, that letters or marks, made with this white
liquor, appeared when firft expofed to the air of a
green colour. When expofed to the fun, it became
of a deeper green, afterwards of a purplifh red, and
by the continued adlion of the fun’s rays, of a deep
purple red. Mr Cole fent fome of the firll limn
marked with this liquor to Dr Plot, one of the fecreta-
ries of the Royal Society, in the year 1684. It was
foon after ffiown to King Charles II. who greatly ad¬
mired it, and defired that fome of the {hell-fiffi might
be colle£ted and brought to town, that he might have
an opportunity of feeing the liquid applied, and the fuc-
ceffive changes of colour through which it paffed.
A fpecies of this (hell-fiffi was alfo found by Plumier
at the Antilles $ and Reaumur made a number of expe¬
riments on Avhelks, which were collefted on the coafl
of Poitou. Duhamel found the fame ffiell-fiffi in great and of
abundance on the coafl of Provence. The experiments France,
of thefe philofophers on this liquor afforded the fame
refult as thofe of Mr Cole. They obferved that,
although at firft white, it becomes by the aclion of
light, of a yellowiffi green, then deepens to a kind of
blue, which is afterwards changed to a red. In lefs
than five minutes, the latter is converted into a fine
deep purple, having all the characters of the purple of
the ancients.
Eudocia Macrembolitiffa, daughter of the emperor
Conftantine VIII. who lived in the tith century, while
the knowledge and pradlice of dyeing that colour for
the ufe and at the expence of the Greek emperors ftill
fubfifted, has given a minute account of the mode of
catching the ffiell-fifh which produced the purple. Of
this operation ffie herfelf, it would appear, was an eye-
witnefs. As it was applied at that time, it did not ac¬
quire its full luftre and perfection of colour, till it had
been expofed to the aCiion of the fun’s rays.
15. A liquor which yields the fame colour, and has purpie
otherwife fimilar properties, is found in different parts quor found
of the world. Abundance of purple (nails, it is faid, in (hails,
are found in the iflands oppofite to Batavia. They
are boiled and eaten by the Chinefe, who poliffi
the (hells, and pick out of the middle of the fnail a
purple-coloured fubftance, which they ufe in colouring
and making red ink. Dr Peyfonnel deferibes what he
calls the naked fnail, which is found in the feas of the
Antilles, and affords a liquor of a beautiful purple
colour. This liquor is thrown out by the. animal when
it is difturbed, in the fame way as the cuttle fiffi dif-
charges the ink* The liquor of the fnail is naturally
of a purple colour, without the application of light *. * Phil.
Two (liell-fifiies, which yield a limilar colouring \\-Tranf.
quor, are deferibed by Dr Brown in his hiftory of Ja-vol‘
maica. The one, he fays, is frequent in the Ameri¬
can feas, and emits on being touched a confiderable
quantity of vifeid purple liquor, which thickens and
colours water. The other is called the purple ocean
Jhell, and yields a beautiful purple liq>. or, which feems
to referable the former. But inveftigations concern-
3 O ing
DYEING.
The arts
loft.
Are revi¬
ved in
Italy.
Dyeing re¬
vived in
Italy.
ing the nature and application of the purple dye from
(hell-filh are now to be confidered merely as fubjefts of
curiofity j becaufe the colours which are obtained by
the procefles of the moderns are more beautiful, and
far lefs expenfive.
16. In the 5th century, during the irruption of the
northern barbarians, the arts, which had been encou¬
raged and protected by the Romans, were loft amidft
the devaftations of the weflern empire. A few, indeed,
were preferved in Italy, but they were in a ftate of de¬
cay ; and otberwife no traces remained of knowledge,
induftry, or humanity. A manufcript of the 8th cen¬
tury is quoted by Muratori, which contains a defcrip-
tion of fome dyes, principally for {kins, as well as fome
procefies connefled with other arts ; but from the bar¬
barous Latin in which it is written, no diftinft notion
can be formed of the nature of thefe proceffes. The
arts met with a better fate In the Eaft, where they were
protefted and encouraged. So late as the 12th centu¬
ry, articles of luxury were procured by fome of the great
from eaftern countries.
17. During the time of the crufades, Venice and
other cities of Italy became rich and powerful, firft by
fupplying with provifions the Europeans who engaged
in thefe frantic and deilru&ive expeditions, and after¬
wards by eftabliftiing an intercourfe with the Grecian
empire. By thefe means the arts, which had been prefer¬
ved among the Greeks, were eftabliftied in Italy. In the
year 1338, the city of Florence contained 200 manu-
faflurers, who are faid to have produced from 70 000
to 80,COO pieces of cloth. In the year 1300, archil
was accidentally difcovered by a Florentine merchant.
Obferving that urine produced a fine colour on certain
fpecies of mofs, he made experiments, and from thefe
learned the mode of preparing this fubftance. The
difcovery was long kept fecret. His pofterity, a branch
of which it is faid ftill exifts, have retained the appel¬
lation of Rucel/ai, from the Spanifti word which fignifies
that kind of mofs.
18. The arts, after being revived in Italy, continued
for a long time to be cultivated and improved with in-
creafing fuccefs. Along with thefe, the art of dyeing
made confiderable prngrefs. The firft colleftion of
the proeeffes employed in this art appeared at Venice
in the year 1429. It was entitled Mariegola del'' arte
de 1 teuton. To render this defcription more ufeful
and extenfive, a perfon of the name of Giovanni Ven¬
tura Rofetti, travelled through different parts of Italy,
and the neighbouring, countries, where the arts had
begun to flourifh, that he might acquire a knowledge
of the proceffes which were employed by different
dyers. Thefe were collefted and publifhed in I 548,
under the title of PliBho. This treatife has been by
fome confidered as the leading ftep towards the perfec¬
tion which the art of dyeing has attained •, for it is the
firft in which the different proceffes are collt&ed. No
mention is made either of cochineal or of indigo; fo
that it would appear, thefe dyes were either not known,
or not employed in Italy previous to the time in which
it was written.
19. Italy, but efpecially Venice, for a long time
almoft exclufively poffeffod the art of dyeing, and this
feems to have contributed greatlv to the profperity of
the manufaftures and commerce which the Italian ftates
long enjoyed. By degrees it was introduced into
France, Holland, and Britain. The procefs for dyeing HiiV
the true fcarlet had been communicated to a perfon of ——v-i.
the name of Gobelin, who eftabliftied a manufaiftoryIs *ntr«lii
near Paris, which ftill bears his name. At the time, pedlnto
this was confidered forafti an enterprife, that it received
the name of Gobelin's folly ; but fuch was his fuccefs,
and fuch was the ignorance of the times, that it was
fuppofed he derived his knowledge of the proceffes he
employed, from the devil !
20. The difcovery of America brought the know¬
ledge of the cochineal infe£t into Europe. The Spa¬
niards obferving that the Mexicans employed it in
painting their houfes, and in dyeing cotton, tranfmit-
ted an account of the beauty of that colour to their
government, whofe attention was afterwards direded to
encourage and promote the increafe of this valuable in-
fed: from which it is obtained. The difcovery of co¬
chineal was foon followed by that of the procefs for dye¬
ing fcarlet, by means of a folution of tin. For this
difcovery we are indebted to a German chemift of the
name of Kufter, or Kufler, who carried the fecret to
London in the year 1643. Gluck or Kloeck, a Fle-
mifh painter, having obtained poffeflion of this fecret,
communicated it to Gobelin, and afterwards the know¬
ledge of it fpread throughout all Europe. The ufe of Indigo firl
indigo, which was a great acquifition to the art. ofdye-ufed.
ing, was more llowly eftabliftied than that of cochi¬
neal. In the reign of Oueen Elizabeth, the ufe of this
fubftance, as well as of logwood, was ftridly prohibited
in England, and, if found in any manufadory, was or¬
dered to be burned. This, as muft appear at the pre-
fent time, very ftrange prohibition, was not withdrawn
till the reign of Charles II. It met with the fame fate
in Saxony. In the edid in which the ufe of it is for¬
bidden, it is faid to be a corrofive colour, and called
food for the devil! !
21. In France alfo, fome prejudice was entertained
againft it, and although it was not entirely prohibited,
the ufe of it was limited to a certain proportion. The
reafon on which this prejudice was founded, on a nar¬
row view of the principles of political economy, might
even in the prefent day be admitted as fpecious, if
not fatisfadory. It was held out by thofe who dyed
blue, and were accuftomed to nfe paftil and vvoad,
that the introdudion of indigo would fuperfede the
ufe of thefe fubftances ; and it was reprefented that
their confumption would be deflroyed, and the. en¬
couragement for the produdions of the country dimi-
nifhed.
22. Previous to the adminiflration of the celebra-Dyeing«
ted Colbert, the induftry and arts of France long re-rou^a^
mained in a ftate of languor and decay. By the wife”1
meafures which were adopted by this minifter, (he
foon rofe to diftindion among the nations of Europe,
and in a ftiort time faw her commerce and manu-
fadures greatly extended. He invited the moft Ikil-
ful artifts, encouraged and rewarded their talents, and
thus eftabliftied many arts and manufadures. Among
thefe, the art of dyeing received its ftiare of’attention.
In the year 1672, he publiftied a table of inftrudions
for dyeing, which, although it contains many ufelefs
and improper reftridions, is on many accounts worthy
of attention, and particularly the reafons which he has
given for confidering it as an objed of confequence.
As a proof of this, we may refer to the following ex-
trad
DYEING.
Hiftory.
.eftric-
ons.
traft from the inftruftions : “ If, it is faid, the manu¬
factories of filk, wool, and thread, are to be reckoned
among thofe which moft contribute to the fupport of
commerce ; dyeing, which gives them that ftriking va¬
riety of colour, by which they referable what is moft
beautiful in nature, may be confidered as the foul of
them, without which a body could fcarcely exift.
“ Wool and filk, the natural colour of which ra¬
ther indicates the rudenefs of former ages, than the
genius and improvement of the prefent, would be in
no great requeft, if the art of dyeing did not furnifti
attractions which recommend them, even to the moft
barbarous nations. All vifible objeCts are diftinguilhed
and recommended by colours •, but for the purpofes of
commerce, it is not only neceffary that they ftiould be
beautiful, but that they (hould be good, and that their
duration {hould equal that of the materials which they
adorn.”
23. But notwithftanding thefe juft and liberal views,
and many ufeful regulations, which were publiftied for
inftruClion in the art of dyeing, the reftridions impo-
fed upon it, as we have already obferved, were from
miftaken views improper and injurious, becaufe in this,
as in every other art, thefe reftraints infallibly operate
as checks on induftry and improvement. The effeCts
of thefe prohibitions, however, were moderated by
the facility with which they might be eluded, and by
the rewards beftowed on thofe whofe experiments pro¬
moted the progrefs of the art, and whofe difcoveries
being afterwards publiftied, ferved to modify the exift*
ing regulations. The effeCls of thefe prohibitions,
too, were in a great meafure obviated, by the ju¬
dicious appointment of men of fcience, to whom the
fuperintendence of arts and manufaClures was en-
trufted. By their prudent exertions, and by the ftill
more efficacious means of the diffufion of knowledge,
this art, as well as others, has been encouraged and
improved.
24. The French government continued to direCf its
attention to promote the plan which was thus begun by
Colbert, and many eminent chemifts have been em¬
ployed to fuperintend and improve the procefles of the
art of dyeing. Dufay, Hellot, Macquer, and Berthol-
let, have been fucceflively charged with the care of
this department •, and to their labours and exertions
we are indebted for many valuable acquifitions which
have been made in the art of dyeing, during the 18th
century. Dufay was the firft who entertained juft views
of the nature of colouring matters, and the powers by
which they adhere. In the examination of certain pro¬
cefles he difcovered great fagacity, and eftabliftied the
fureft means which the ftate of knowledge at the
time afforded, to afcertain the durability of a colour.
Under his direction a new table of inftrudfions, which
fuperfeded that of Colbert, was publiftied in 1737*
Hellot, who fucceeded him, publiftied in 1740 a me¬
thodical defcription of the proceffes for dyeing wool;
and this treatife may be confidered, even at the pre¬
fent day, as one of the beft fyftems on the fubjett.
Macquer in 1763 publiftied a treatife on dyeing filk,
in which he has given an accurate defcription of the
procelTes, has difcovered the combinations of the co¬
louring principle of Pruflian blue, and has endeavour¬
ed to make an application of it to the art of dyeing.
Macquer died in 1784, and was fucceeded in that de-
395
Hiftorv.
partment by the celebrated Eerthollet, to Vvhom Was
intruded the fuperintendence of the arts connedled
with chemiftry, and particularly that of dyeing. To
his being placed in this department, we are probably
indebted for the excellent work which he has publifti¬
ed on this fubject, and for different memoirs which
have appeared in different periodical works. To thefe
we muff acknowledge ourfelves greatly indebted for
much of the information, both of the theory and prac¬
tice of this art, which we propofe to lay before our
readers in the following treatife. He has endeavour¬
ed, he obferves, to bring into one point of view the
proceffes of induftry, and the operations of nature ; to
take his fituation between the philofopher and the ar-
tift. To the firft he has ftiown, where it is that the
phenomena of the art of dyeing and thofe of nature
meet, and what are the principles which their difco¬
veries have eftabliftied. When thefe comprehenfive
views, we may add, are completed, the art of dyeing
may be confidered as perfedl.
25. The art of dyeing has been long fuccefsfully state of, m
pra
an ounce of alum and two drams of tartar ; but no
precipitation followed. A fmall portion of the tartar,
and fome irregular cryftals of alum, were obtained by
cryftallization: the remainder refufed to cryftallize;
but being diluted with water, precipitated by potafn,
and evaporated, it yielded a fait which burned like tar¬
tar. The wool which was boiled with the alum had
a harfti feel ; but the other retained all its foftnefs.
The firft, after being fubjefted to the procefs of mad-
dering, had a duller and lighter tint; but the colour
of the latter was fuller and brighter.
78. In the firft of thefe experiments the wool had
effefted a decompofition of the alum, had united with
part of the alumina ; and even part of the alum which
retained its alumina had diffolved fome portion of the
animal matter. In the fecond experiment it appears^
that the tartar and alum, between which there feems tor
exift a balance of affinities, can only aft on each other
by the intermediate aftion of the wool. The principal
ufe of the tartar feems to be to moderate the aftion
of the alum on the wool, by which it is injured. In
the aluming of filk and thread, whofe aftion on alum is
lefs powerful than that of wool, tartar is pot found
requifite.
79. Whatever be the mode adopted in aluming, or
whatever be the chemical changes which are produced^
its final effeft is the union of the alumina with the
fluff. At firft this combination has probably been in¬
complete, and a partial feparation only of the acids^
has taken place ; but it is perfefted after the cloth has
been boiled with the madder, as appeared in the cafe*^7”'
of printed Huffs*. .
80. The principal fubftances which are employed Subftam
for the purpofes of mordants in the proceffes of dyeing, ufed as
are earths, metallic oxides, and fome aftringent ^lat-mor^an,
ters. Alumina, which is now one of the moft import¬
ant, and in moft general ufe, was very early employed
as a mordant. This earth, as has been proved by di-
reft experiment, and which is ftill farther confirmed
by daily praftice and obfervation, is ufeful in the art
of dyeing, in confequence of the affinity which exifts
between it, the fluffs to be dyed, and the colouring
matter. The affinity of alumina for animal matters,
as wool and filk, is much ftronger than that for vege¬
table produftions, as cotton and linen ; and hence the
difference in the facility of fixing the colours on thefe
different fubftances, and in their durability.
81. When alumina is employed as a mordant, it is al-Aluoh
ways in a ftate of combination, either in that of alum,
which is the fulphate of alumina and potafh, or united
with the acetous acid, forming the acetate of alumina.
Alum was employed at a very early period as a mor¬
dant. It was ufed by the ancients as it was found na¬
tive, and therefore far from being in a ftate of purity.
But as the nature of the conftituent parts of alum
was long unknown, its ufe in dyeing, as well as that
of mordants in general, can only be ranked among the
difeoveries of modern chemiftry. Alumina is alfo em¬
ployed for a fimilar purpofe, in combination with the
acetous aeid. This combination of alumina feems to
have been firft introduced about the beginning of the
18th century, and its introduction, like other valuable
improve meats,
;liap.
)f Mor¬
dants.
II.
tims.
Metallic
oxides.
improvements, was owing to accident. It was fir ft em¬
ployed by the callico-printers j bat at what time, or
by whom it was firft ufed, is not exa6lly known. In
one of the earlieft recipes for preparing the mixtures
employed as mordants in callico-printing, which Dr
Bancroft, in his inveltigation of this fubjeft, informs us
he examined, the fubilances ditttted to be ufed are.
alum, fai ammoniac, faltpetre, red orpiment, and
kelp and thefe were to be mixed with water. In
another, which he obferves probably followed this,
thefe ingredients were to be diffolved in vinegar.
Sugar-of-lead was afterwards added in {mall quantity,
and among a great variety of other fubftances whiclx
were employed at different times, litharge and white-
lead came into ufe. In cafes where vinegar was em¬
ployed as the folvent, after different decompofitions
had taken place, a portion of acetate of alumina was
formed, and the ufe of it was found to be followed
with good effects. The quantity of fugar-of-lead, from
obferving the advantages derived from it, was gradual¬
ly increafed, and the employment of many of the
other fubftances which were found by experience to
be ufelefs, was omitted. As the introdudlion of acetate
of alumina was at firft owing to chance, and as the
changes and decompofitions which took place in its
formation were entirely unknown, it is not to be
wondered at that the difcovery or invention of this
fubftance as a mordant, fhould not be diftin&ly afcer-
tained.
82. The ufual method of preparing the acetate of
alumina is by pouring acetate of lead into a folution of
alum. Both the falls are decomposed, by an exchange
of their conftituent parts. The fulphuric acid and the
lead having a ftronger affinity than the fulphuric acid
and the alumina, combine together, and fall to the bot¬
tom in the form of an infoluble powder. The alumina
at the fame time enters into combination with the ace¬
tous acid, and remains diffolved in the liquid. But
the application and effeds of this fubftance in dyeing
have been fully illuftrated in treating of mordants in
general.
83. Lime is the only earth, befides alumina, which
is employed in dyeing. The affinity of lime for cloth
is fufficiently ftrong ”, it is, however, found to anfvver
the purpofe of a mordant lefs perfectly than alumina,
on account of the colour, which is not fo good. It is
employed, either in the ftate of lime water, or in that
of fulphate of lime diffolved in water.
84. Metallic oxides have a ftrong affinity for animal
fubftances. They have alfo fo great an attraflion for
many colouring matters, that they feparate from the
acids with which they are combined, and are precipi¬
tated in combination with the colouring matters. . In
confequence of thefe different affinities, metallic oxides
are of great importance in dyeing, and hence they
were early applied ia that art, and are now extenfiver
ly ufed. But befides the affinity of thefe oxides for
the colouring particles, and for animal fubftances, their
folutions in acids poffefs properties by which they are
more or lefs fit to be employed as mordants. I hus,
thofe oxides which eafily part with their acids, fuch as
that of tin, are capable of entering into combination
■with animal fubftances, without the aid of colouring
particles. All that is neceffary is to impregnate the
Wool or the filk with a folution of tin. Some metallic
DYEING.
fubftances yield only In combination, a white and co
405
Of Mor¬
dants.
lourlfcfs bafis j but there are others which, by means of
their own colour, produce modifications on the peculiar 'v "
colour of the colouring particles. But the effedls of
many metallic oxides are extremely different, accord¬
ing to the proportion of oxygen with which they are
combined 5 and this proportion is variable.
85. The affinity of metallic oxides for vegetable
matters is confiderably weaker than that which they
have for animal fubftances. Metallic folutions, there¬
fore, are found not to anfvver fo well as mordants for
colours in dyeing cotton or linen. Iron, indeed, is an
exception, the oxide of which, it is well known, has *
ftrong affinity for vegetable fubftances. Iron moulds
on cotton or linen are owing to a combination of the
oxide of iron with the vegetable matter.
86. Although almoft all metallic oxides have an
affinity for animal and vegetable matters, and might
therefore be employed as mordants, yet two only,
either becaufe they are found to anfwer the purpofe
better, or becaufe they are cheaper, are ufed to any
extent. Thefe are the oxides of tin and of iron.
87. The ufe of the oxide of tin feems to have been Oxide of
firft difcovered by a German chemift of the name of1*0,
Kufter or Kuffler. Obferving the effects of a foiution
of tin in nitric acid, in giving a more vivid colour to
fluffs dyed with cochineal, he was led to the difcovery
of the method of producing what has fince been deno¬
minated cochineal fcarlet. This difcovery has been
afcribed by others to Drebel, a Dutch chemift : and
Macquer, who is of this opinion, fuppofes that the firft
folutions of tin were made with nitro-muriatic acid $ but
Dr Bancroft thinks that there is good reafon to be¬
lieve, that nitric acid only was ufed for fome years for
this purpofe. According to Mr Delaval, the uie of tin
in dyeing was known to the ancients j and fie fuppofes
tfiat the tin which the Phoenicians carried from Bri¬
tain, was employed in this way, becaufe he thinks that
it is neceffary to the produ&ion of red colours, whe¬
ther from animal or vegetable matter. Dr Bancroft,
however, has proved, that this opinion is founded in
miftake.
88. About the year 1543, Kufter brought his fecret
to London, and it appears that it was firft employed
for this purpofe at Bow. Hence the fcarlet colour
thus produced was denominated in this country the
Bovo dye. It feems too, that this mode of dyeing fcar¬
let was very early introduced into Holland. A
Frenchman of the name of Gobelins, received an ac¬
count of the procefs from a Flemiih painter called
Kioeck, to whom it had been communicated by Kuf¬
ter himfelf, and eftabliftied it in France. Hence the
Bow dye of Fmgland was known in other parts of Eu¬
rope under the names of Dutch fcarlet, fcarlet of the
Gobelins.
89. We have mentioned above, that the effefls of
metallic oxides as mordants in dyeing, depend on the
different proportions of oxygen with which they may
be combined. Thus, there are two oxides of tin con¬
taining different proportions of oxygen ; the one con¬
tains 30 parts of oxvgen in the IOO, and the other con¬
tains 40. The oxide having the fmaller proportion of
oxygen, being expofed to the air combines with a new
portion of oxygen, and is foon converted into the oxide
with the greater proportion, or the white oxide. It ia
this
D Y E I N G.
Prepara-
ftlOB.
this ]a(l which is ths mordant, for if the other were ap¬
plied to the (tuft, it would foon be converted into the
white oxide, by combining with an additional portion
of oxygen.
po. Tin was firif ufed as a mordant diflolved in ni¬
tric acid j but this preparation was found not to an-
fwer well, becaufe the nitric acid readily converted the
tin to the date of white oxide, in which date it is in¬
capable of diiTblving it. A precipitation of the tin
took place, to prevent which, different fubftances were
added, as common fait, or fal ammoniac 5 and thus a
nitro-muriatic acid was produced, by which means the
white oxide of tin was held in folution. It appears,
however, that it was a confiderable time before this
method came into general ufe. Hellot, in an account
of the procefs employed in his time for dyeing fcarlet
at Carcaffbnne, mentions that the tin was diffolved
only in diluted nitric acid, adding that a Mr Baron
was the firft in that city who employed nitro-muriatic
acid for the folution of tin, to prevent the precipitation
of the oxide.
91. The ordinary folution of tin is made with that
fpecies of nitric acid called fingle aquafortis, and as it
is ufually prepared, it is found capable of diffolving a-
bout part of its weight of granulated tin. To each
pound of aquafortis from one to two ounces of fea fait,
or, what is deemed preferable by fume, of fal ammoniac,
are added. The acid is commonly diluted with a little
water. The folutions which are made moft flowly,
and with the leaf! feparation of •vapours, are found to
fucceed beft. Two ounces of granulated tin are ufu¬
ally allowed for each pound of aquafortis; and the
-metal ftiould be added at different times to moderate
the rapidity of the folution. The water added to
the acid (hould be weighed or meafured, that a folu¬
tion of the fame ftrength may be always obtained.
Eighteen or 20 pounds of this folution (b) are required
to give a full cochineal fcarlet to 100 pounds of wool¬
len cloth.
92. But in the dyeing of fcarlet, according to the
ordinary procefs, a quantity of tartar is diffolved in the
water, along with the nitromuriate of tin ; and if the
tartar be employed in fufficient quantity, the mordant
is not to be confidered as a nitromuriate of,tin, but a
tartrate or combination of tin with tartaric acid, in
confequence of the decompofition which takes place,
when thefe fubftances are brought to adl on each other j
for the nitromuriatic acid enters into combination with
the potafti or the tartar, while the acid of the tartar
forms a compound with the oxide of tin.
93. It has been propofed by Hauffman to employ the
acetate of tin as a mordant for cotton and linen, in-
ftead ef the nitromuriate. The acetate of tin is pre¬
pared by mixing together acetate of lead and nitro-
nauriate of tin ; and as the affinity between metallic
oxides and vegetable fubftances is lefs powerful than
the affinity between thefe oxides and animal matters,
this mordant has been found preferable for cotton and
linen fluffs ; for the affinity of the oxide of tin for the
acetous acid being weaker than for the nitromuriatic
acid, it is more eafily decompofed.
Part
94. Dr Bancroft * tried the folution of tin in fulphu- ofM
ric acid, but found that it would not anfwer, on ac- dano
count of its deftru&ive aftion on the cochineal colour; -—v—.
but he found afterward^, that, by the ufe of muriatic * Phil°/’
acid combined with its weight of fulphuric acid,
good effects were obtained. The proportions which °* 9‘
he employed were about 14 ounces of tin in a mix¬
ture of two pounds of fulphuric acid of the ordinary
ftrength, with about 3 pounds of muriatic acid. This
preparation may be made in the cold ; but the folu¬
tion is very rapidly promoted with a fand heat. The
folution of tin made in thefe proportions, Dr Bancroft
obferves, is perfectly tranfparent and colourlefs ; and in
the fpace of three years, during which time he kept a
felution of it, no precipitation had taken place. It pro¬
duces, he adds, full twice as much effep. III. DYE
of .Vior. °f E‘Jr°pe» is “ften ufed and prepared in the fame way
aunts as the nut galls.
—-v——' 98. Mordants have a very confiderable effedl: on the
;ffe^sot colour ; and, by varying the mordant, very different
nTiieco- coh urs, and a great variety of (hades, may be obtained
iur> from the fame colouring matter. Some mordants
themfelves may be confidered as communicating a co¬
lour without the addition of any colouring fubltance ;
and although, when the latter is added, a new fet of
affinities is brought into a£fion, yet there is little
doubt that the mordant alfo has a confiderable fhare in
fixing the (hades of colour. Let us take an example
in dyeing with cochineal. When the aluminous mor¬
dant is employed, the colour produced is crimfon ; but
when the oxide of iron is fubftituted for the alumina,
the colour obtained is black. The effect is obviouf-
ly produced by a change in the action of the affinities
between the colouring matter and the mordant, and
the colouring matter and light. In the ufe of mor¬
dants, therefore, it is neeelfary to attend to their com¬
bined effects with the colouring matter employed, and
to be able to communicate particular colours to (luffs
with any degree of certainty, to know the amount of
that effect.
99. Even in the mode of applying mordants, the
variety of llrades may be greatly multiplied. Different
effe&s, for inftance, are produced by previoufly im¬
pregnating the fluff with the mordant, or by mixing it
with the bath. Different effefls alfo arife from ufing
heat, or, as the fluff is more or lefs rapidly dried j and
this muff appear to be the cafe, if we confider the dif¬
ferent affinities which are in adlion, and the change on
the adlion of thefe affinities in thefe different circum-
llances, as well as in others which can fcarcely be ap¬
preciated. The combination of thefe fubflances which
have an affinity for the Huff, and the decompofitions
which are the refult of that combination^ are greatly
facilitated by the evaporation of the water or other li¬
quid which held thefe fubftances in fulution •, becaufe
by its affinity, which is oppofed to the aflion of the affi¬
nity between thefe fublfances and the fluff, the affinity
of the latter produces a more limited effefl. But in
dyeing, the procefs fhould proceed (lowly, that the fub¬
ftances may not be feparated before their mutual affi¬
nities have begun to operate.
100. Confiderable differences mud be obferved in the
mode of employing the mordant, as the force of affinity
between the (luff and the colouring matter is greater
or lefs. When this affinity is ftrong, the mordant and
the colouring fubftance may be mixed together ; the
compound thus formed, immediately enters into combi¬
nation with the (luff. But if the affinity between the
fluff and the colouring particles be weak, the compound
formed of the latter and the mordant may feparate,
and a precipitation take place, before it can be attach¬
ed to the fluff; and hence it is in thefe cafes, that the
mordant which is to ferve as the medium of union be¬
tween the fluff and the colouring matter, mufl be
combined with the former, before the application of
the latter. It is from thefe differences that different
proceffes muff be followed in fixing colouring mat¬
ters on animal and vegetable produilions ; as for
inftance, in dyeing wool or filk black, or with co¬
chineal,
I N G. 4.0'
101. In eftimating the e fie els of mordants, and in Of Sub-
judging of the moll advantageous manner of applying ft-uices to
them, it is neceffary to attend to the combinations which be colour-
may be formed, either by the action of the ingredients
of which they are compofed, or, by that of the colour¬
ing matter and the fluff. It is neceffary alfo, to take
into confideration the circumflances which may tend to
bring about thefe combinations with more or lefs rapi¬
dity, or that may render them more or lefs perfefb
J he affion which the liquor in which the fluff is im'.
merfed may have, either on its colour or texture, mull
alfo be confidered ; and to be able accurately to judge
of the extent of this adlion, we muft know the propor¬
tions of the principles of which the mordant is com-
poftd ; which of thefe principles remains in an uncom¬
bined date in the liquor, and the proportion or quanti¬
ty which is thus feparated.
Chap. III. Of the Nature and Properties of the Sub-
fiances to which Colours are communicated in the
Procefes of Dyeing.
102. In the more limited fenfe to which we have here
reftrifted the art of dyeing, the fubftances to which
colours are ufually communicated by means of this
art, are wool, filk, cotton, flax, and hemp. Of thefe,
the two firlt are animal fubftances, and the three lat¬
ter are derived from the vegetable kingdom. Thefe
two claffes of bodies prefent (triking differences, not
only in ftm£Vure, but alfo in their eompofition and
chemical properties..
103. Animal fubftances are diflinguifhed from thofe Dlfferenc«
which have a vegetable origin, by the nature of their btHWe®n ^
conftituent parts. The former contain a large pi'oportion-vegetabie “
of azote, which exifts fparingly in the latter. Hydrogen,-matters
or the bafe of hydrogen gas or inflammable air, is
found in greater abundance in animal matters, than in
vegetable productions. In the diftillation of animal
and vegetable fubflances, the difference of their con¬
ftituent parts is not lefs remarkable. The former af¬
ford a large proportion of ammonia, or volatile alkali j
the latter yield very little, and fometimes give out an
acid fubftance. Animal matters afford much oil, while
vegetable fubftances fometimes do not afford it in any
perceptible quantity. From the nature of their com¬
ponent parts, animal fubftances produce a bright flame"
in burning ; and their combuftion is accompanied with
a penetrating odour, which is owing to the formation"
and emiffion of ammonia and oil. Animal matters run
rapidly into the putrefaClive procefs, while vegetable-
fubftances more (lowly undergo the changes which are
induced by the vinous or acetous fermentation.
104. The conftituent principles of animal fubftances
have a ftronger tendency than tbofe which enter into the-
compofition of vegetable matters, to affu-me the elaftic
form. On this account the cohefive force exifting be¬
tween the particles of the former is inferior to that of
the particles of the latter. Hence animal matters are
more difpofed to combine with other fubftances, more
liable to be deftrnyed by different agents, and to en¬
ter into combination with colouring particles. Thus,
animal fubftances are deftroyed by the cauftic fixed al--
kalies, and they are decompofed by the nitric and ful--
phurxe,^
4o8 DYE
Of Sub- phuric acids. The aftion of acids and alkalies on filk
ftances to is lefs powerful than upon wool, and it is lefs difpofed
^ edl°Ur" t0 comb'ne witb tbe particles of colouring matter. In
■ this refpe£t it bears fome refemblance to vegetable fub-
ftances j but on vegetable matters, the aflion of alka¬
lies and acids is lefs powerful than on animal fub-
flances; and the aftion of acids is more feeble on
cotton than on flax or hemp. It is even decompo-
fed with confiderable difficulty by means of nitric
acid.
In the four following feflions, we (ball confider
the peculiarities of thefe fubftances at greater length.
Sect. I. Of Wool.
Stru&ure. 105. Wool, which is well known as the covering of
ffieep, derives its value from the length and finenefs of
its filaments. The filaments of wool are confiderably
elaftic, for they may be drawn out beyond their ufual
length, and when the force is removed, they recover
it again. The furface of the filaments of wool or hair
is not perfe&ly fmooth ; for although no roughnefs or
inequality can be difcovered by the microfcope, yet
they feem to be formed of fmall laminae placed over
each other in a flanting direftion, from the root of the
filament towards its point, refembling the arrangement
of the fcales of a fifh, which cover each other from the
head of the animal to its tail \ or perhaps they confift
of zones placed over each other, as is obferved in the
horns of animals. This peculiarity of ftru&ure of the
filaments of hair and wool is proved by a fimple expe¬
riment. If a hair be laid hold of by the root in one
hand, and drawn between the fingers of the other hand,
from the root towards the point, fcarcely any fri£lion
Or refiftance is perceived, and no noife is heard ; but
if it be grafped by the point, and pafl'ed in the fame
manner between the fingers from the point towards the
root, a refiftance is felt, and a tremulous motion is
perceptible to the touch, while the ear is fenfible to a
ffight noife. Thus it appears, that the texture of the
furface of hair or wool is not the fame from the root
towards the. point, as it is from the point towards the
root. This is farther confirmed by another experi¬
ment. If a hair be held between the thumb and fore¬
finger, and they are rubbed againfi each other in the
longitudinal direction of the hair, it acquires a progref-
five motion towards the root. This effeft depends not
on the nature of the Ikin of the finger, or on its texture,
for if the hair be turned, and the point placed where
the root formerly was, the motion is reverfed, that is,
it will ftill be towards the root.
Felting. .106. On this peculiarity of ftruffure, which was ob¬
ferved by M. Monge, depend the proceffes of felting and
fulling, to which hair and wool are fubjefted, for differ¬
ent purpofes. In the procefs of felting, the flocculi of
wool are ftruck with the firing of the bow, by which
the filaments are feparately detached, and difperfed in
the air. Thefe filaments fall back on each other in all
directions on the table, and when a layer of a certain
thicknefs is formed, they are covered with a cloth, on
which the workman preffes with his hands in all parts.
By this preffure the filaments of wool are brought
nearer to each other $ the points of contact are multi
plied $ the progreffive motion towards the root is pro-
I N G. ■ Part
duced by the agitation y the filaments entangle each of Sub
other } and the lamina.* of each filament, taking hold of ftances t
thofe of the other filaments, which are in an oppofite be col°u
direClion, the whole is retained in the ftate of clofe
contexture.
107. ConneCled with this operation is that of fulling. Fulling,
The roughnefs on the furface of the filaments of wool,
and their tendency to acquire a progreffive motion to¬
wards the root, produce confiderable inconvenience in
the operations of fpinning and weaving. Thefe incon¬
veniences are obviated by covering the filaments with
a coat of oil, which fills up the cavities, and renders
the afperities lefs fenfible. When thefe operations are
finiffied, the fluff muft be freed from the oil, which
would prevent it from taking the colour with which it
is to be dyed. For this purpofe it is taken to the ful¬
ling-mill, where it is beaten with large beetles, in a
trough of water, through which clay has been diffufed.
The clay unites with the oil, which being thus ren¬
dered foluble in the water, is carried off by frelh por¬
tions of water, conveyed to it by proper apparatus.
In this way the fluff is fcoured j but this is not the foie
objeCr of the operation. By the alternate preffure of
the beetles, an effeCt fimilar to that of the hands in the
operation of felting, is produced. The filaments com-
pofing a thread of warp or woof, acquire a progreffive
motion, are entangled with the filaments of the ad¬
joining threads *, thofe of the latter into the next, and
fo on, till the whole threads are felted together. The
fluff is now contracted in all its dimenfions, and parti¬
cipating both of the nature of cloth and of felt, may
be cut without being fubjeCted to ravel 5 and when
employed to make a garment, requires no hemming.
In a common woollen flocking web, after this opera¬
tion, the flitches, when one happens to flip, are novf
no longer fubjeCt to run, and the threrds of the warp
and woof being lefs diftinCt from each other, the
whole fluff is thickened, and forms a warmer cloth-
ing.
108. The various manufactures of which wool con-Importa
flitutes the bafis, are juftly regarded among the moft im-of wool,
portant to man in civilized fociety. Accordingly, the
production of fine wool, and the caufes which retard
or improve the breed of (beep from which it is obtain¬
ed, have greatly occupied the attention of economifls
and philofophers in our own, as well as in other coun¬
tries. The wool of different breeds of (heep, in differ¬
ent countries, it is well known, poffeffes very different
qualities, both with regard to the finenefs of the fila¬
ment, and the colour. Some is of a white, or yellow,
and fome of a reddilh, and black colour. Excepting
the wool of the breed of ffieep in Andalufia, the Spa-
niffi wool was formerly all of a brownifli black colour.
This was preferred by the native Spaniards y and even
at this day, the drefs of fome religious orders in Roman
Catholic countries, confifts of cloth manufactured from
this wool, and retaining its natural colour. But for
the purpofes of dyeing, white wool is now always pre¬
ferred, becaufe it is found fufceptible of receiving bet¬
ter and more durable colours.
109. Wool is naturally covered with a kind of greafeScounn;
or oil, which is found to preferve it from infeCts or moths,
and on this account this greafy matter is not remov¬
ed, or the wool is not fcoured, till it is to be dyed
or
lap. HI. ~ . DYE
Of Sub- or fpun (c). The procefs for fcounng \v6t>l is the fol-
aaices to lowing. It is put for about a quarter of an hour into a
ie colour- Settle, with a fufficient quantity of water, to which a
ed* | fourth part of putrid urine has been added. It is then
_ 1 heated to fueh a degree as the hand can bear, occa-
fionally ftirred, and after being taken out, is allowed
to drain. It is then put into a balket, and expofed to
a ftream of running water, and moved about till the
greafe is fo completely feparated, that it no longer ren¬
ders the water turbid. After being drained, it is fome-
times found to lofe by this operation above one-fifth of
its weight. It is almoft unneceflary to obferve, that
the more carefully and completely this procefs is per¬
formed, the better the wool is fitted to receive the co¬
louring matter. Our chemical readers will readily
perceive the nature of the changes which are effe£ted
in this procefs of fcouring. The ammonia, or volatile
alkali, which exifis in the urine, combines with the oil
of the wool, and forms a foap, which being foluble in
water, is diffolved, and carried off.
lyeing. no. Wool is either dyed in the fleece, or after it is
fpun into threads, or when it has been manufaftured into
cloth. For the purpofe of forming cloths of mixed
colours, it is dyed before it is fpun *, for the purpofes
of tapeftry, it is dyed in the ftate of thread ; but mofl:
commonly it is fubjefled to this procefs after it has
been manufa&ured into cloth. In thefe different ftates,
the quantity of colouring matter which is taken up is
very different. The proportion is largeft when it is
dyed in the fleece, becaufe then the filaments being
more feparated, a greater furface is expofed to the ac¬
tion of the colouring particles. For a fimilar reafon
the quantity of colouring matter taken up is greater
when in the ftate of thread or yarn, than when it is
formed into cloth. But cloths themfelves muft vary
greatly in this refpefl, according to their different
qualities. Their different degrees of finenefs, or clofe-
nefs of texture, will produce confiderable variations;
and befides, the difference in the quantity and dimen-
fions of the fubftances to be dyed, the different quali¬
ties of the ingredients employed in the procefs, and
the different circumftances in which it is performed,
fliould be a caution againft trufting to precife quanti¬
ties, regulated by weight or meafure, which are re¬
commended according to general rules. According to
the finenefs of the texture of the wool, and the nature
of the colouring matter employed, it is found to be
more or lefs penetrated with this matter. The coarfe
wool from the thighs and tails of fome fheep, receives
Colours with difficulty, and the fineft cloth is never
completely penetrated with the fcarlet dye. The in¬
terior of the cloth appears always when cut, of a light¬
er fhade, and fometimes even white.
Sect. II. O/StVk.
Origin.
til. Silk, which forms the bafis of one of the richeft:
and moft fplendid parts of drefs, among the wealthy
and luxurious, in civilized fociety, is the produdlion
of different fpecies of infe£ls. The phalcena bornhyx, or
filk-worm, which is a native of China, attra&ed the
VOL. VII. Part II.
I N G. ’ 409
attention of mankind in that country, from the earlieft of Sub¬
ages. 1 he honour of having firfl collefted and pre- fiances to
pared filk from the cocoons or balls in which it is l,e colour-
wound up by the infett, during its metamorphofis, is >
afcribed by the Chinefe hiftorians, to the wife of an
emperor. I he phalaena atlas, Lin. which is alfo a na¬
tive of China, is find to form larger cocoons, and to
yield a ftronger filk. The filk-worm was firft carried
from China to Hindoftan, and afterwards to Perfia.
Silk feems not to have been known to the Greeks or
Romans till the time of Auguftus. Its nature and ori¬
gin were little underltood, and for many ages it was
fo fcarce, that it could only be purchafed at a price
which was equal to its weight in gold. The emperor
Aurelian, it is faid, from a principle of economy, re¬
fitted the urgent folieitations of his emprefs, who wifti-
ed to have a filken robe, alleging the extravagance of
the expence. About the middle of the fixth century,
two monks returned from India to Conftantinople, and
brought with them a confiderable number of filk-
worms, with inftruffions for managing and breeding
them, as well as for colleffing, preparing, and manu¬
facturing the filk. Eftablifhments were thus formed
at Corinth, Athens, and other parts of Greece. The
crufades, which greatly contributed to the diffiufion of
different kinds of knowledge, by the intercourfe which
took place between different countries, proved ufeful
in diffeminating the knowledge of rearing the filk-
worm, and preparing and manufacturing its valuable
productions. Roger, king of Sicily, about the year
1130, returning from one of thefe frantic expeditions,
brought with him from Athens and Corinth, feveral
prifoners, who were acquainted with the management
of filk-worms, and the manufacturing of filk. Under
their fuperintendance, manufactories were tftablifhed
at Palermo and Cagliari in Sicily. This example was
toon adopted, and followed in different parts of Italy
and Spain. In the time of James I. an attempt was
made to eftablifh the filk-worm in England. For this
purpofe the culture of the mulberry-tree, on which the
infeCts feed, was ftrongly recommended by that prince
to his fubjeCts; but the attempts which were made
have been hitherto unfuccefsful.
112. The fibres of filk are covered with a coating or Scourisgi
natural varnifh of a gummy nature. To this are afcrib¬
ed its ftiffnefs and elafticity. Befides this varnifti, the
filk which is ufually met with in Europe is impregna¬
ted with a fubftance of a yellow colour, and for moft
of the purpofes to which filk is applied, it is neceffary
that it fhould be deprived, both of the varnifh and of
the colouring matter. On this account it muft be fub-
jeCIed to the operation of fcouring; but for filks which
are to be dyed, this procefs fliould not be carried fo
far as for thofe which are merely to be whitened ; and
different colours, it is obferved, require different de¬
grees of this operation. The quantity of foap confti-
tutes the chief difference. A hundred pounds of filk
boiled in a folution of 20 lbs. of foap for three or four
hours, adding new portions of water during the evapo¬
ration, are fufficiently prepared for receiving common
3 F colours.
(c1! According to an obfervation of Reaumur, nibbing any fluff with greafy wool, is fufficient to preferve it
from moths.
4TC
Procefs,
when em¬
ployed
white.
Mode of ex-
trailing its
colouring
matter.
DYE
colours. For blue colours, the proportion of foap mufl:
be increafed $ and fcarlet, cherry-colour, &c. require
(fill a greater proportion, for the ground mufl be
whiter for thefe colours.
113. Silk which is to be employed white, mufl undergo
three operations. In the firft the hanks are immerfed
in a hot but not boiling folution of 3olbs. of foap to IOO
of filk. When the immerfed part is freed from its
gum, which is known by its whitenefs, the hanks are
fhaken over, as the workmen term it, fo that the part
which was not previoufly immerfed may undergo the
fame operation. They are then wrung out as the pro¬
cefs is completed. In the fecond operation the filk is
put into bags of coarfe cloth, each bag containing 20
or 3c lbs. Thefe bags are boiled for an hour and a
half, in a folution of foap prepared as before, but with
a fmaller proportion of foap j and that they may not
receive too much heat, by touching the bottom of the
kettle, they mufl be conilantly flirred during the ope¬
ration. The objefl of the third operation is to com¬
municate to the filk different (hades, to render the
white more agreeable. Thefe are known by different
names, as China-white, fUver-white, azure-white, or
thread-white. For this purpofe a folution of foap is
alfo prepared, of which the proper degree of flrength
is afcertained by its manner of frothing by agitation.
For the China-white, which is required to have a flight
tinge of red, a fmall quantity of anatto is added, and
the filk is fhaken over in it till it has acquired the
{hade which is wanted. In other whites, a blue tinge
is given by adding a little blue to the folution of foap.
The azure-white is communicated by means of indigo.
To prepare the azure, fine indigo is well wafhed two or
three times in moderately warm water, ground fine in a
mortar, and boiling water poured upon it. It is then
left to fettle, and the liquid part only, which contains
the finer and more foluble parts, is employed.
114. Some ufe no foap in the third operation j but when
the fecond is completed, they wafti the filks, fumigate
with fulphur, and azure them with river water, which
fhould be very pure. But all thefe operations are not
fufficient to give filk that degree of brightnefs which
is neceffary, when it is to be employed in the manu¬
facture of white fluffs. For this purpofe it muft un¬
dergo the procefs of fulphuration, in which the filk is
expofed to the vapour of fulphur, for an account of
which fee Bleaching. But before the filk which has
been treated in this way is fit for receiving colours,
and retaining them in their full luflre, the fulphur
which adheres to it mufl be feparated by immerfion and
agitation for fome time in warm water, otherwife the
colours are tarnifhed and greatly injured.
115. It has long been an objeCl of confiderable im¬
portance, to deprive filk of its colouring matter, with¬
out deflroying the gum, on which itsfliffnefs and elafli-
city depend. A procefs for this purpofe was difcovered
by Beaume, but as it was not made public, others have
been led to it by conjecture and experiment. The
following account, given by Berthollet, is all that has
tranfpired concerning this procefs. A mixture is made
with a fmall quantity of muriatic acid and alcohol.
The muriatic acid fhould be in a Hate of purity, and
particularly (hould be entirely free from nitric acid,
which would give the filk a yellow colour. In the
mixture thus prepared, the filk is to be immerfed.
3
ING. Part,
One of the mofl difficult parts of the procefs, efpecial- ofSu
ly when large quantities are operated upon, is to pro- ftancesj
duce a uniform whitenefs. In dyeing the whitened 136 colc ■
filk, there is alfo confiderable difficulty to prevent its, ^
curling, fo that it is recommended to keep it conflantly
flretched during the drying. The muriatic acid feems
to be uftful in this procefs, by foftening the gum, and
affifling the alcohol to diffolve the colouring particles
which are combined with it. The alcohol which has
been impregnated with the colouring matter may be
again feparated from it and purified, that it may ferve
for future operations, and thus render the proctfs
more economical. This may be done by means of
diftiilation with a moderate heat, in glafs or (lone-ware
veffels.
116. The preparation with alum is a very important Alurair
preliminary operation in the dyeing of filk. Without
this procefs, few colours would have either beauty or
durability. Forty or fifty pounds of alum, previoufly
diffolved in warm water, are mixed in a vat, with
forty or fifty pailfuls of water ; and to prevent the cry-
flallization of the fait, the folution mufl be carefully
ftirred during the mixture. The filk being previoufly
wafhed and beetled, to feparate any remains of foap,
is immerfed in this alum liquor, and at the end of
eight or nine hours is wrung out, and wafhed in a
flreara of water. A hundred and fifty pounds of filk
may be prepared in the above quantity of liquor *, but
when it begins to grow weak, which may be known
by the tafle, 20 or 25 lbs. of diffolved alum are to be
added, and the addition repeated till the liquor acquires
a difagreeable fmell. It may then be employed in the
preparation of filk intended for darker colours, till its
whole flrength is diffipated. This preparation of filk
with alum mufl be made in the cold ; for when the
liquor is employed hot, the luflre is apt to be im¬
paired.
Sect. III. Of Cotton.
117. Cotton is the down or wool contained in the Origin/
pods of a fhrubby plant, which is a native of warm cli¬
mates. Of this genus of plants (Gojfypium Lin.) there
are four fpecies, one of which only is perennial j the
other three are annual plants j but of thefe there are
many varieties, occafioned by the difference of foil or
temperature in which they are produced. The princi¬
pal differences among cottons eonfifl in the length and
finenefs of the filaments, and in their llrength and co¬
lour.
11 8. The peculiar flru£lure of the fibres of cotton isStruib ■ •
not well known. According to the microfcopic obferva-
tions of Leeuwenhoeck, they have two {harp fides, to
which are afcribed the irritation and inflammation of
wounds and ulcers, when they are dreffed with cotton
inflead of lint. This peculiarity of ftru&ure, if is alfo
fuppofed, may occafion fome difference in the confor¬
mation, and number of the pores, on which alone the
difpofition of cotton to admit and retain colours better
than linen, feems to depend. In this refpe£i, however,
it is inferior to wool and filk, becaufe on account of its
vegetable nature, its affinity for colouring matter is lefs
powerful. _ Has a 5
119. It is well known that filk, cotton, and linen have affinit3»*n
a weaker affinity for colouring matter than wool. Lew0ol fc0'
Pileur d’Apligny attempts to explain this by fuppofmglourinj
}liap.
Oi Sub.
* Philof oj
Vtrmancnt
"olwnrfi.
Prepara¬
tions Foe
dyeing.
Aluming.
III.
that the pores of thefe fubftances are fmaller than thofe
of wool, and that the colouring particles enter them
lefs eafilv and freely. But according to the obferva-
tion of Dr Bancroft, the reverfe of this feems to be the
faft ; for there is little difficulty in making filk, cot¬
ton, and linen, imbibe colouring matter, even when it is
applied cold without any artificial dilatation of the
pores, which is always necefl'ary in the dyeing of wool.
The only real difficulty is to make them retain the
colours after the matter has been imbibed; becaufe
being admitted fo readily into their undilated pores,
the particles cannot be afterwards compitffed and re¬
tained by the contraftion of thefe pores, as is the cafe
with wool. It requires double the quantity of cochi¬
neal which is neceffary for wool to communicate a crim-
fon colour to filk j a certain proof that it can take up
a greater quantity, and confequently tha!t the pores are
fufficiently large and acceffible. Unbleached cotton
is always preferred for dyeing Turkey red *, fcecaufe in
this ftate the colour is found to be moft permanent 5
and this is aferibed to the pores or interftices being lefs
open than after it has undergone the procefs of bleach¬
ing. The fame thing is obferved of raw or unfeoured
filk. It is found to combine more eafily wdth the co¬
louring matter, and to receive a more permanent co¬
lour in this date than after it has been fcoured and
whitened. “ The opennefs of cotton and linen (lays
Dr Bancroft), and their confequent readinefs to imbibe,
both colouring particles, and the earthy or metallic
bafes employed to fix moft of them, are circumftances
upon which the art of dyeing and callico-printing is in
ra great degree founded But is not this too me¬
chanical an explanation of the phenomenon ? Might
it not rather be alleged that it is owing to a difference
of affinities which exifts betw'een the particles of colour¬
ing matter and the fubftance which is feparated from
the filk or cotton by the proceffes of bleaching or fcour-
ing ? This fubftance probably a£ts the part of a mor¬
dant ; and having a ftronger affinity for the fluff and
for the colouring matter than the fluff has for the lat¬
ter, the colour communicated is more durable when
filk or cotton is dyed in the unbleached or unfeoured
ftate.
120. To prepare cotton Huffs for receiving the dye,
feveral operations are neceffary. It muft firft undergo
the procefs of fcouring. By fome it is boiled in four wa¬
ter, or in alkaline ley. It fhould be kept boiling for
two hours, then wrung out, and rinfed in a ftream of
water till the water comes off clear. The fluffs to be
prepared fhould be foaked for fome time in water, mix¬
ed with not more than Par^ fulphuric acid, and
then carefully waffied in a ftream of water, and dried.
In this operation the acid combines with a portion of
calcareous earth and iron, which would have interrupt¬
ed the full effeft of the colouring matter in the procefs
of dyeing.
121. Aluming is another preliminary procefs in the
dyeing of cotton. The alum is to be diffolved in the
manner already deferibed, in preparing filk. Each pound
of cotton fluff requires four ounces of alum. By fome
a folution of foda, about r^th part of the alum, and
by others a fmall quantity of tartar and arfenic are add¬
ed. The thread is to be impregnated by working it
in fmall quantities with this folution. The whole is
then put into a veffel, and the remaining part of the
41 I
liquor is poured upon it. In this ftate it is left for 24 of Sub-
hours, after which it is removed to a ftream of water, fiances to
and allowed to remain for an hour and a half, or two be colour-
hours, to extract part of the alum. It is then to be 1
waffied. By this operation, cotton is found to gain an
addition of about part of its weight.
122. The operation of galling is another preparatory Galling,
procefs in the dyeing of cotton fluffs. The quantity of
aftringent matter employed muft be proportioned to its
quality, and the amount of the effidl required. Pow¬
dered galls are boiled for two hours in a proportion of
water, regulated by the quantity of thread to be galled.
This folution being reduced to fuch a temperature as
the hand can bear, is divided into a number of equal
parts, that the thread may be wrought pound bv pound.
The whole ftuft is then put into a veffel, and the re¬
maining liquor poured upon it, as in the former pro¬
cefs. It is then left for 24 hours, if it is to be dyed
black, but for other colours, 12 or 15 hours are found
fufficient. It is then wrung out and dried.
In the galling of cotton fluffs, which have already
received a colour, the precaution fhould be obferved of
performing this operation in the cold, otherwife the co¬
lour is fubjtfl to injury.
123. Berthollet informs u«, that cotton which had
been alumed acquired more weight in the galling than
that which had not previoufly undergone that procefsj
for although alum adheres but in fmall quantities to
cotton, it communicates to it a greater power of com¬
bining, both with the aftringent principle, and with the
colouring particles. This, we may add, may be con-
fidered as a good inftance of the aftion of intermediate
affinities, and of the advantage to be derived to the art
of dyeing, from inveftigating and obferving this ac¬
tion.
Sect. IV. Of F/ax.
124. Flax and hemp nearly referable each other in Origin,
their general properties; and fo far as relates to the pro¬
ceffes of dyeing, what is faid of the one may be ap¬
plied to the other. Flax or lint is obtained from the
bark of Linum ufitatijfimum, and hemp from that of
Cannabis fativa.
125. Before flax is properly prepared to receive the'watering>
dye, it muft be fubje&ed to feveral proceffes. One of the
moft important is that of watering, by which the fi¬
brous parts of the plant are feparated, and brought to
that ftate in which they can be fpun into threads. As
the quantity and quality of the product depend much
on this preliminary operation, it becomes of the great-
eft confequence that it be properly conduced. During
this procefs, carbonic acid and hydrogen gas are given
out. The extrication of thefe gafes is owing to a glutin¬
ous juice which holds the green colouring part of the
plant in folution, and which is the medium of union,
between its cortical and ligneous parts, undergoing a
certain degree of putrefaction. This fubftance feems
to referable the glutinous part which is held diffolved
in the juice obtained from plants by preffure j is fe¬
parated from the colouring particles by means of heat j
readily becomes putrid, and by diftillation affords am¬
monia. But although it is held in folution with the
expreffed juice, it would appear that it cannot be fe¬
parated from the cortical parts completely, by means
of water j and hence it happens, that hemp or flax
2 F 2 watered
DYEING
412 D Y E
Operations watered in too drong a current, has not the requifite
of Dyeing, foftnefs and flexibility. But on the other hand, if the
iii. y—n..‘ water employed in this operation be ftagnant and in a
putrid ftate, the hemp or flax becomes of a brown co¬
lour, and lofes its firmnefs. In the one cafe, the pu-
trefaflive procefs is interrupted $ in the other it is con¬
tinued too long, and carried too far. This procefs,
therefore, is performed with the greateft advantage in
places near the banks of rivers, where the water may
be changed fo frequently as to prevent fuch a degree
of putrefadlion as would be injurious to the flax, as
well as prejudicial to the workmen, from noxious
exhalations ; and, at the fame time, not fo frequently
as to retard or interrupt thofe changes which are ne-
ceflary for rendering the glutinous fubftance foluble in
water.
126. By tire procefs of watering flax, and by drying
before and after that procefs, the green coloured par¬
ticles undergo a fimilar change to that which is obfer-
ved in the green fubftance of the plants expofed to the
aftion of air and light. The next part of the procefs,
therefore, after watering, is to fpread it out upon the
grafs, and thus expofe it for fome time to the air and
fun. By this means the colour of the lint is im¬
proved, and the ligneous part becomes fo brittle, that
it is eaiily feparated from the fibrous part. This ope¬
ration, as is well known, is ufually performed by ma¬
chinery.
Strudlure. I27- fibres of lint poflefs no perceptible degree
of elafticity, and they appear to be perfectly fmooth.
No roughnefs or inequality can be detefted by the
feel, and no afperities can be perceived, even with the
afliftance of the microfcope. Experience (hows, that
it produces no irritation on wounds or fores which are
dreffed with it, as is known to happen from a fimilar
application of cotton fluffs.
Prepara- I28. Flax which is intended for dyeing muft be fub-
tions for jefled to a fimilar feries of operations with cotton in
dyeing. ^jie different procefles of fcouring, aluming and galling.
A repetition of the mode of performing thefe opera¬
tions- is therefore unneceffary.
Chap. IV. Of the Operations of Dyeing.
129. Before we proceed to the detail of the proceffes
of dyeing, we fhall throw out a few hints on the opera¬
tions in general, feme of which may perhaps be ufeful
to the pradtical dyer.
Advantages 13°* ^ie works which are carried on in extenfive ma-
ef large. nufadtories, it haa been obferved, are followed with ad-
manufadto- vantages which are unknown to thofe which are con-
nes. dudted on a limited fcale or in a detached manner.
By the fubdivifion of labour, each workman diredting
his attention to one or a few objedls, acquires a great
facility and perfedtion of execution, by which means
the faving of time and labour becomes confiderable.
This principle is particularly applicable to the art of
dyeing, becaufe the preparation which remains after one
operation may often be advantageoufly employed in
another. . A bath from which the colouring matter
has been in a great meafure extradted in the firft ope¬
ration, may be ufeful as a ground for other fluffs, or
with the addition of a frefh portion of ingredients may
form a new bath. The galls which have been applied
to the galling of fi]k may anfvver a fimilar purpofe for
.3
I Part
cotton or wool. From this it muff appear that the Operatic
limitations and reftridlions under which the art of dye-.of Dyei,
ing labours in fome countries muft tend to obftrudt its''■“"'V—
progrefs and improvement. An extenfive plan of ope¬
rations, by which, the different branches of the art are
connedted together, would effediually prevent the lofs
of ingredients, time, fuel, and labour.
'131. A dye-houfe, which fhculd be fetdown as nearDye-hou
as poflible to a. ftream of water, fliould be fpacious and
well lighted. It fliould be floored with lime and pla-
fler} and proper means fliould be adopted to carry off
water or fpent, baths by forming channels or gutters,
fo that every operation may be condudted with the ut-
moft attention to cleanlinefs.
132. The fize and pofition of the caldrons are to be Caldron:
regulated by the nature and extent of the operations
for which they are defigned. Excepting for fcarlet
and other delicate colours, in which the tin is ufed as a
mordant, in which cafe tin veffels are preferable, the
caldrons fhould be of brafs or copper. Brafs, being lefs
apt than copper to be a£ted on by means of chemical
agents, and to communicate fpots to the fluffs, is fitter
for the purpofe of a dyeing veffel. It is fcarcely ne-
ceffary to fay that it is of the greateft confequence that
the coppers or caldrons be well cleaned for every ope¬
ration •, and that veffels of a large fize fhould be fur-
niftied at the bottom with a pipe and flop-cock for the
greater conveniency of emptying them : and there muft
be a hole in the wall or chimney above each copper to
admit poles for the purpofe of draining the fluffs which
are immerfed, fo that the liquor may fall back into the
veffel, and no part may be loft.
133. Dy es for fiik where a boiling heat is not found^PP3^* ‘
neceflary, are prepared in troughs or backs, which are Jl 1
long copper or' wooden veffels. The colours which
are uftd for filk are extremely delicate. They mull
therefore be dried quickly, that they may not be long
expofed to the adtion of the air, and there may be no
rifk of change. For this purpofe, it is neceffary to have
a drying room heated with a flove. The filk is flretch-
ed on a moveable pole, which by the dyers is called
a fhaker. This is hung up in the heated chamber,
and kept in conflant motion to promote the evapora¬
tion.
134. For pieces of fluffs, a winch or reel mull bef°r^u*
Gonflrudled j the ends of which are fupported by tvvoofcloth
iron forks which may be put up at pleafure in holes
made in the curb on which the edges of the copper
reft. The manipulations in dyeing are neither diffi¬
cult nor complicated. Their objedl is to impregnate
the fluff to be dyed with the colouring particles, w hich
are dilfolved in the bath. For this purpofe, the adtion
of the air is neceffary, not only in fixing the colouring
particles, but alfo in rendering them more vivid ; while
thofe which have not been fixed in the fluff are to be
carefully removed. In dyeing whole pieces of fluff, or a
number of pieces at once, the winch or reel mentioned
above muft be employed. One end of the fluff is firft
laid acrofs it, and by turning it quick.’y round, the
whole paffes fucceflively over it. By turning it after¬
wards the contrary way, that part of the fluff which was
firft immerfed, will be the laft in the fecund immerfion,
and thus the colouring matter will be communicated
as equally as poffible.
^ dyeing wool in the fleece,, a kind of broad ^orw0(
ladder
derations
f Dyeing
fringing
lUt.
Raking.
Giving a
jround.
Dipping.
Terms for
different
fliades..
;hap- IV. DYE
ladder with very clofe rounds, called by the dyers of
this country, a fcraw, or fcray, is ufed. This is pla¬
ced over the copper, and the wool is put upon it, for
the purpofe of draining and expolure to the air, or
when the bath is to be changed. If wool is dyed in
the date of thread, or in Ikains, rods are to be palled
through them, and the hanks turned upon the Ikain
flicks in the liquor. This is called Jhahing over.
When filk or thread is in the fame ftate, it undergoes
a fimilar operation.
136. To feparate the fuperabundant colouring par¬
ticles, or thofe which have not been fixed in the fluff,
filk or thread, after being dyed, it muft be wrung out.
This operation is performed with a cylindrical piece of
wood, one end of which is fixed in the wall, or in a
poll. This operation is often repeated a number of
times fucceflively, for the purpofe of drying the fluffs
more rapidly, and communicating a brighter luftre.
I37- When, after a certain quantity of frelh ingre¬
dients is added to a liquor, and it is ftirred about, it is
faid to be raked, becaufe it is mixed with the rake.
138. In dyeing, one colour is frequently communi¬
cated to fluffs, with the intention of applying another
upon it, and thus a compound colour is produced.
The firft of thefe operations is called giving a ground.
139. When it is found neceffary to pafs fluffs feveral
times through the fame liquor, each particular operation
is called a dip.
140. A colour is faid to be rofed, when a red co¬
lour having a yellow tinge, is changed to a fhade in¬
clining to a crimfon or ruby colour ; and the conver-
fion of ar yellow red to a more complete red, is called
heightening the colour.
141. In addition to thefe general remarks, we might
give more minute details of the different operations
which are employed in dyeing j but as we cannot pre¬
fume that they would be of much advantage to the
praftical dyer, we (hall not indulge ourfelves in ufe-
lefs defcription. “ Although the manipulations of dye¬
ing,” fays Berthollet, “ are not very various, and ap¬
pear extremely Ample, they require very particular at¬
tention, and an experienced eye, in order to judge
of the qualities of the bath, to produce and fuftain the
degree of heat fuited to each operation } to avoid all
circutnftances that might occafion inequalities of co-
Elm.of l°uri 1° jud?e accurately whether the fhade of what
comes out of the bath fuits the pattern, and to eftablifh
the proper gradations in a feries of (hades
142. We (hall conclude this chapter with a few ob-
fervations on the qualities and effects of different kinds
of water, which may be confidered as one of the moft
effential agents in the art of dyeing. It is almoft un-
neceffarv to fay, that water which is muddy, or con¬
tains putrid fubftances, fhould not be employed ; and
indeed no kind of water which poffeffes qualities dif-
tinguiihed by the tafte, ought to be ufed. Water
which holds in folution earthy falts, has a very confi-
derable a£Hon on colouring matters, and it is chiefly
by means of thefe falts. Such, for inftance, are the
nitrates of lime and magnefia, muriate of lime and
magnefia, fulphate of lime, and carbonate of lime and
of magnefia.
143. Thefe falts which have earthy bafes, oppofe the
folution of the colouring particles, and by entering in¬
to combination with many of them, caufe a precipita¬
nt
Dyeing,
i. 162.
Water im¬
portant.
I N G. 413
tion, by which means the colour is at one time deeper, operations
and at other times duller and more faint than would of Dyeing.
otherwife be the cafe. Waters impregnated with the ,_JI —n *
carbonates of lime and magnefia, yield a precipitate
when they are boiled j for the excefs of carbonic acid
which held them in folution is driven off by the heat j
the earths are thus precipitated, and adhering to tho
fluffs to be dyed, render them dirty, and prevent the
colouring matter from combining with them.
144. It is of much confequence to be able to dif-
tinguifh the different kinds of water which come under
the denomination of hard zvater, that they may be a»
voided in the effential operations of dyeing j but to de¬
left different principles contained in fuch waters, and to
afcertain their quantity with precifion, require great
Ikill, and very delicate management of chemical ope¬
rations, which the experienced chemift only can be fup-
pofed to poffefs. For the methods to be followed when
fuch accuracy is required, we muft refer to the analyfis
of mineral waters, of which a full view is given in
the tteatife on chemiftry, and content ourfelves with
mentioning fome Ample lefts which are of eafy applica¬
tion.
145. One of thefe teft$ is the folution of foap, by
which it may be difcovered whether water contain fo
large a portion of any of thefe faline matters as may be
injurious to the proceffes. Salts which have earthy
bafes, have the property of decompofing foap by the
aflion of double affinity. The acid of the fait combines
with the alkali of the foap, and remains in folution,
while the earth of the fait and the oil of the foap enter
into combination, and form an earthy foap which is
infoluble in water, and produces the curdling appear¬
ance which is the confequence of this new combina¬
tion. Water, then, which is limpid and not ftagnant,
which has no perceptible tafte or fmell, and has the
property of diffolving foap without decompofition,
may be confidered as fufficiently pure for the pre¬
cedes of dyeing. All waters which poffefs thefe
qualities will be found equally proper for thefe pur-
pofes.
146. But, as it is not always in the power of the Method 6i?
dyer to choofe pure water, means of corre&ing.the water PunfJ]ng*
which would be injurious to his proceffes, and particu¬
larly for the dyeing of delicate colours, have been pro-
pofed. Water in which bran has been allowed to be¬
come four, is moft commonly employed for this pur¬
pofe. This is known by the name of /ours, or four
water. The method of preparing four water is the fol¬
lowing. Twenty-four buftiels of bran are put into a
veffel that will contain about 10 hoglheads. A large
boiler is filled with water, and when it is juft ready to
boil, it is poured into the veffel. Soon after the acid
fermentation commences, and in about 24. hours the li¬
quor is fit to be applied to ufe. Water which is im¬
pregnated with earthy falts, after being treated in this
way, forms no precipitate by boiling. It is probable
that the four water decompofes the carbonate of lime
and magnefia, becaufe the vegetable acid which is
formed during the fermentation, combines with the
earthy bafis, and fets the carbonic acid at liberty.
147. Some of the fubftances, with which waters are
impregnated, or thofe which are merely diffufed in
them in a ftate of very minute divifion, may be fepara-
ted by means of mucilaginous matters. I be mucilage
coagulates
4H
DYE
Pratflice of coagulatfis by means of heat, and carrying with it the
Dyeing, earths feparated by boiling, as well as thole fubftances
4 ^ ' which are limply mixed with the water, and render it
turbid, rifes to the furfaee, and forming a fcum, may be
eafily removed.
148. Saline matters having earthy bafes, which in
general are injurious in dyeing, may in fome cafes be
uieful, becaufe by their a£lion, modifications of different
colours may be produced. A water of this kind, for
inftance, would have the effedt of communicating to the
colour of cochineal a crimfon lhade.
149. River water, which is apt to be impregnated
I N G.
Part ]
with earthy falts, may, at different times, contain veryP
different proportions of thefe falts j and although the iL'n!'
dyer. may follow exactly the fame procefs, he may be '
lurprifed to find confiderable variations in the {hades
of his colours. This arifes from the different degrees
of impregnation with thefe faline matters which the wa¬
ter undergoes, as the bed of the river is of greater or
lefs extent, or the waters flow over thofe places from
which they derive thefe earthy falts. To obtain the
fame refult in the procefs, therefore, it would be necef-
fary to make certain variations according to the ftate of
impregnation of the water.
PART II. OF THE PRACTICE OF DYEING.
150. IN the preceding part, we have endeavoured
to give a general view of the principles on which the
art of dyeing depends. We have confidered the phy-
lical and chemical properties of colours and colouring
matters ; the nature of the fubftances to which colours
are communicated, and the agents or means by which
this is effedted $ and from the experiments and obfer-
Vations of philofophers, whofe inveftigations have been
directed to this fubjedf, it appears that thefe changes
are entirely owing to chemical affinities, by which de-
compofitions are effedled, and new combinations form¬
ed, among the eonftituent parts of the fubftances em¬
ployed. A precife and full knowledge of the effedls
of thefe chemical agents would render the theory of
dyeing complete j and although much has been already
done by the chemical philofophers whom we have had
occafion frequently to quote, yet experiments and ob-
fervations are ftill wanting to form a theory of this art
on fixed and rational principles. This, it is obvious,
Importance can only t>e done by chemical inveftigations. To the
of chemifU pradlical dyer, therefore, the ftudy of chemical fcience
»y in dye- muft be effentially requifite, as this only can be his
,n£* true guide in eftimating and managing the complicated
changes in the different proceffes of his art. It is on¬
ly by the application of the principles of chemiftry
that this art can be improved and perfe&ed. But the
application of thefe principles muft be made by the
praftical dyer himfelf, not by the chemift in his labo¬
ratory, or during an occafional vifit to the manufa&ory.
For in the complicated proceffes of dyeing conduced
on an extenfive fcale, a thoufand circumftances will be
overlooked by the moft acute and difcerning chemift,
which will not efcape the habitual obfervation of the
philofophical artift. Convinced ourfelves of the incal¬
culable advantages which the art of dyeing may derive
from chemical fcience, and the innumerable refources
which ingenuity and addrefs may difcover in the proper
application of its principles towards the improvement
of the different proceffes of this art, we (hall not be
thought, we hope, too fanguine in looking forward to a
degree of perfeftion which is little to be expe&ed from
its prefent ftate.
The proceffes of the art of dyeing form the fubjeft of
the fecond part of this treatife, the confideration of
which we are now to enter upon.
Dirifionof I5I* Colours have been ufually diftributed by dyers
colours, into two claffes. Thefe have been denominated Jimple
and compound colours. Simple colours, which are com¬
monly reckoned four in number, are fuch as cannot be
produced by the mixing together different colours.
Colours denominated compound may be produced by
the mixture of any two of the fimple colours in differ¬
ent proportions. Thus red, yellow, and blue are inca¬
pable of being produced by any combination of others,
and are therefore confidered as fimple colours. Blue
and red, which compofe a purple, blue and yellow, a
green, and red and yellow, an orange, are compound
colours} but none of thefe, by any compofition what¬
ever, will afford a red, yellow, or blue.
152. Dr Bancroft, in his elaborate treatife on the Dr Ban.
philofophy of permanent colours, divides colouring croft's,
matters into two claffes. The firft includes thofe co¬
louring fubftances which, being in a ftate of folution,
may be permanently fixed on any fluff without any
mordant, or the intermediate adtion of earthy or me¬
tallic bafes. In the fecond clafs are comprehended
thofe matters which cannot be fixed without the adtion
of mordants. The firft he has denominated fubjiantive
colours ; becaufe the colour is fixed without the aid of
any other body $ and the fecond adjeBive; becaufe
they become permanent only with the addition of a
mordant. The celebrated purple produced by the
liquor obtained from ffiell-filh and indigo, are examples
of fubftantive colours. Pruffian blue and cochineal are
adjedlive colours.
The ufual divifion of colours into fimple and com¬
pound feems to form an arrangement equally conveni¬
ent and perfpicuous. We ffiall therefore adopt it in
the following chapters. In the firft we ffiall treat of
Jimple colours ; in the fecond of compound colours; and
to thefe we ffiall add a third chapter on topical dyeing,
or callico printing.
Chap. I. Of Simple Colours.
153. SIMPLE colours, we have already obferved,simple ct-
are fuch as cannot be produced by the mixture of other lours,
colours. They are the foundation of all other colours,
and therefore come naturally to be firft treated of.
The fimple colours are four, viz. 1. Red. 2. Yellow.
3. Blue. 4. Black. To thefe a fifth is added by fome j
namely, brown, or fawn colour j although it may be
produced by the combination of other colours. The
nature of the colouring fubftunces which are employed
to
I. DYE
to produce ibefe colours, and the precedes by which
they are fixed on the feveral ftuffs, will form the fub-
je£t of the fnur following feftions.
Sect. 1. Of Red.
154. Red colours, from different degrees of intenfi-
ty, have received different names, as crimfon, fcarlet,
befides a great variety of fhades which are lefs linking,
and come under no particular denomination. In this
fe&ion we fliall treat of the nature and properties of the
fubflances which are employed in dyeing red, and then
give an account of the different proceffes which are fol¬
lowed in fixing thefe colouring matters on animal and
vegetable produ6tions.
1. Of the Subflances employed in Dyeing Red.
The colouring matters which are principally em¬
ployed in dyeing red, are madder, cochineal, kermes, lac,
archil, carthamus, brazil wood, and logwood.
155. Madder is very extenfively employed in dye¬
ing. It is the root of a plant {rubia tinBorum, Lin.)
of which there are two varieties. It is cultivated in
different parts of Europe, and the beft, it is faid, is
brought from Zealand. Madder, as it is prepared for
dyeing, is diftinguifhed into different kinds. What
is called grape madder, is obtained from the principal
roots •, the none grape is produced from the Ilalks,
which by being buried in the earth, are converted in¬
to roots, and are called layers. When the roots are
gathered, thefe layers are Separated, with fuch of the
fibres of the roots as do not exceed a certain degree of
thicknefs, as well as thofe which are too thick *, the lat¬
ter containing a great deal of woody matter. The
beft roots are about the thicknefs of a goofe quill, they
have fome degree of tranfparency j are of a reddifh co¬
lour, and have a flrong fmell, and a fmooth bark.
When the madder is gathered, it muft be dried, to
render it fit for being reduced to powder, and being
preferved. This operation is performed in warm cli¬
mates in the open air. In Holland, floves are employ¬
ed for the fame purpofe $ but when treated in this way,
it is often injured, from too great a degree of heat,
and being mixed with particles of foot. The fuperi-
ority of madder from the Levant is aferibed to its hav¬
ing been dried in the open air.
156. The roots being dried, and the earthy matters
which adhere to them being feparated, by fhaking
them in a bag, or beating them lightly on a wooden
hurdle, they are reduced to powder by means of ma¬
nual labour, or with the aid of machinery. All the
parts of madder do not yield the fame colouring mat¬
ter. The outer bark, and the ligneous part within,
give a yellowidi dye, which injures the red. d hefe
parts may be feparated in confequence of the different
degrees of facility with which they are reduced to
powder. The outer bark and woody parts are more
eafily powdered than the parenchymatous parts, w'hich
contain the fine red dye. To effiefl the feparation of
thefe different parts, three operations are performed.
After the firfl, the madder is paffed through a fieve,
by which, what is called the fhort madder, (courte of
the French), intended for tan, and inferior colours, is
obtained. What remains is again greund and lifted.
What the French call mirobee, is obtained by this
I N G.
4i5
operation. A third operation of the fame kind affords Of Simple
the robee or finer kind of madder. Colours.
157. The refult of the experiments of D’Am- "‘ v
bourney (how, that the frefh root of madder may be
ufed with as much advantage in dyeing, as when it is
dried and powdered. Four pounds of frefh madder,
he obferved, are equal to one of the dry, although in
drying it lofes feven-eighths of its weight. When the
frefh roots are to be ufed, they are to be well w.afhed
in a current of water, immediately after they are taken
out of the ground, and afterwards cut into pieces and
bruifed. In dyeing with the frtfli roots, allowance
fliould be made for the quantity of water which they
contain, fo that a fmaller proportion fhould be put into
the bath. Beckmann feems to be of the fame opinion
with regard to the ufe of the frefh roots of madder,
and yet he has frequently obferved that it is more fit
for dyeing after it has been preferved for two or three
years.
158. The madder which is cultivated in the neigh¬
bourhood of Smyrna, and in the illand of Cyprus,
affords a brighter red than the European madder, and
therefore it is preferred in the preparation of the
Adrianople red. This is known by the name lizari.
Berthollet informs us that it is cultivated in Provence
in France, and Beckmann has been very fuccefsful in
raifing it at Gottingen. »
159. The colouring matter of madder is foluble in properties.
alcohol, and by evaporation a deep-red refiduum is
formed. In this folution fulphuric acid produces a
fawn-coloured precipitate ; fixed alkali, one of a violet
colour, and the fulphate of potafh, a precipitate of a
fine red. Alum, nitre, chalk, acetate of lead, and
muriate of tin, afford precipitates in the folution of
madder in alcohol, of various fhades. The colouring
matter of madder is alfo foluble in water. By mace¬
ration in feveral portions of cold water fucceffively,
the lafl receives only a fawn colour, which appears en¬
tirely different from the peculiar colouring particles of
this fubftance. It refembles what is extracted from
woods and other roots, and perhaps exifls only in the
ligneous and cortical parts. By repeated boiling, Ber¬
thollet exhaufled the madder of all its colouring par¬
ticles which are foluble in water. It flill retained,
however, a deep colour, and yielded a confiderable
quantity of colouring matter to an alkali. There was
an inconfiderable refiduum, which flill remained colour¬
ed. The pulp, therefore, appears entirely compofed of
colouring matter, part of which is infoluble in fimple
water. When oxymuriatic acid is employed in fufficient
quantity, to change an infufion of madder from red to
yellow, it produces a fmall portion of a pale-yellow pre¬
cipitate j the fupernatant liquor is tranfparent, and re¬
tains more or lefs of a deep yellow colour, according to
the proportion and flrength of the acid. Double the
quantity of acid is required to difeharge the colour of
a decoftion of madder of what is neceffary to deflroy
that of the fame weight of Brazil wood. I his fhows that
the colouring matter of madder is more durable than
that of Brazil wood. The infufion of madder in water
is of a brownifh orange colour. The colouring matter
may be extradled, either by cold or hot water *, in the
latter the colour is raoft beautiful. The deco£lion is
of a brownifh colour. The colouring matter of mad¬
der
416 BYE
Of Simple der cannot be extra&ed vvitbout a great deal of water.
Colours. Two ounces of madder require three quarts of water.
V™ ' Alum forms, in the infufion of madder, a deep brown-
ifh red precipitate ; the fupernatant liquor is yellowifh,
inclining to brown. Alkaline carbonates precipitate
from this laft liquor a lake of a blood-red colour ; with
the addition of more alkali, the precipitate is rediflbl-
ved, and the liquor becomes red. Calcareous earth
precipitates a darker and browner coloured lake than
alkalies. Carbonate of magnefia forms a clear blood-
red precipitate, which by evaporation produces a
blood-red extraft, foluble in water. The folution of
this extraft is employed as a red ink, but it becomes
yellow by expofure to the fun. Metallic falls alfo form
precipitates in a folution of madder. The precipitate
with acetate of lead is of a brownilh red colour ; with
nitrate of mercury and fulphate of manganefe, a pur-
plilli brown $ with fulphate of iron, a fine bright
brown.
Cochineal. 160. Cochineal, which furnilhes a valuable dye fluff,
and about the nature of which there was at firft a good
deal of uncertainty, is an infefl. It is produced on
different fpecies of the caEius, or Indian fig. The moft
perfeft variety of the cochineal infeft, is that which
breeds on the caElus coccinillifer, Lin. To this plant
Hiftory. the Mexican Spaniards gave the name of nopal. When
the Spaniards firft arrived in Mexico, they faw the
cochineal employed by the native inhabitants, in com¬
municating colours to fome part of their habitations,
ornaments, and in dyeing cotton. Struck with its
beautiful colour, they tranfmitted accounts of it to the
Spanifh miniftry, who about the year 1523, ordered
Cortes to direft his attention to the propagation of this
fubftance. The inhabitants of Europe were long mif-
taken concerning the nature and origin of cochineal,
by fuppofing it to be the grain or feed of a plant.
This opinion was firft contradifted in a paper publifh-
ed in the third volume of the Philafophical Tranfac-
tions in 1668 j and four years afterwards, Dr Lifter,
in the feventh volume of the fame work, throws out a
conje&ure, that cochineal may be a fort of kermes.
Different opinions concerning the origin of this fub¬
ftance were entertained, till about the beginning of the
year 1757, Mr Ellis obtained fome of the joints of the
plant on which the infefls breed, from South Carolina,
and prefented them the fame year to the Royal Society.
Thefe fpecimens, Mr Ellis obferves, were full of the
nefts of this infeft, in which it appeared in its various
ftates, in the moft minute when it walks about, to
the ftate when it becomes fixed, and wrapt up in a fine
web, which it fpins about itfelf. With the aflift-
ance of the microfcope, Mr Ellis difcovered the true
male infe£l in the parcels which had been fent to him
from America j and in Auguft 1759, in confequence
of Mr Ellis’s difcovery, Dr Garden caught a male co-
/chineal fly, which he obferves is rarely to be met with.
I N G. partlI
He fuppofes that there may be 150 or 200 females for ofsim ,
one male. Thefe difcoveries proved indifputably, that CoCrJ
the cochineal is an animal produ&ion*
161. The body of the female infe£l is
flat on the* MU»f,
xvm.* ^ uwj v/x luc iciiidic iiiicLi is nai on the ‘7
belly, and hemifpherical on the back, and tranfverfely
wrinkled. The fkin is dark brown ; it has no wings,
but is furnilhed with fix ftiort brown legs. The body
of the male, which is of a deep red colour, is raiher
long, and covered with two wings, extending horizon¬
tally, and crofting a little upon the back. It has two
fmall antennte, and fix legs, which are larger than
thofe of the female. It has a fluttering kind of mo¬
tion. The life of the male is only of a month dura¬
tion, but the fecundated female lives a month longer.
The female is fometimes oviparous and fometimes vi¬
viparous 5 but this is not a peculiarity confined to this
infeft. It belongs to fome others, and feems to be re¬
gulated by the temperature and feafon of the year.
The female cochineal infect adheres to the fame fpot
of the tree on which it is produced during her whole
life. As foon as the female is delivered of its nume¬
rous progeny, it becomes a mere hulk and dies. In
Mexico it is therefore an objeft of great importance
to prevent this, and to collett them in the fecundated
ftate. For this purpofe they are picked from the
plants, put into a linen bag, which is immerfed in hot
water, to deftroy the life of the young infefts, and then
carefully dried. In this, ftate they are imported into
Europe.
162. There are two kinds of cochineal. The beft,^"61*65*
or domefticated kind, is called by the Spaniards, gra-
tia Jina. Ihis variety breeds upon the Caktus coccinil-
lifer, or nopal ; and being of a larger fize, and contain-
ing a greater proportion of colouring matter, it is al¬
ways preferred. The other variety is the grana fylvejlra
of the Spaniards, or wild cochineal. It is produced
from other fpecies of the caElus. It is fmaller than
the other, and as it is covered with a downy matter,
produced by the infeft to defend itfelf againft the cold,
this increafes the weight, but is of no ufe in dyeing.
An equal weight of the wild cochineal yields a fmallet
quantity of colouring matter, and is therefore lefs va¬
luable. It ought, however, to be obferved, that it
can be reared with greater facility, and at much lefs
expence } and when it is bred upon the nopal, it ac¬
quires double the fize, and has a fmaller quantity of
downy matter for its covering, fo that it approaches, by
this management, to the nature of fine cochineal.
163. As the quantity of cochineal confumed in Eu¬
rope is very great (t>), and as the Spaniards have hi¬
therto enjoyed tne exclufive advantages of rearing and
fupplying the market with this valuable fubftance, it
has become an object with other nations to lhare them.
Attempts have therefore been made to form eflablllh-
ments for rearing thefe infedls in thole colonic's whole
foil and climate feem fuitable for the purpofe.
164.
(D) The average quantity, fays Dr Bancroft, of fine cochineal annually confumed in Europe, amounts to
about 3000 bags, or 600,000 lbs. weight, of which about 1200 bags, or 240,000 lbs. Weight may be confidered
as the prelent annual confumption of Great Britain. A greater quantity comes into the kingdom but the
lurplus is again exported to other countries. Thefe 1200 bags may be fuppofed to coft i8o,oool. fterling va-
lued at 15s. per lb. which has been about the average price for fome years paft. Philofophy of Permanent Co¬
lours, p. 258. j 1 j j
Jhap. I. . „ D Y E
. )le One of tlie moft fuccefsful of thefe attempts
cS.e was made by M. Thiery de Menonville, in 1777. He
.—— expofed himfelf to great danger, by going to Mexico
ttempts ^ might obferve the mode of rearing the cochi-
CU-U‘ neal infe£t, and procure that valuable produ£tion, to
lte1' plant it in St Domingo. He proceeded by the Ha-
vannah to La Vera Cruz, where he was informed that
the fineft cochineal infers were reared at Guaxaca, 70
leagues diftant. On the pretence of ill health, he re¬
ceived permiffion to ufe the baths of the river Magda¬
lene : but inftead of accepting this privilege, which
was not his objefl, he diredled his courfe, not with¬
out much difficulty and danger, to Guaxaca ; where
having obtained the information he wanted, and hav-
jno purchafed a quantity of nopals, covered with the
infe&s of the fine or domeftic breed, which he pretended
were of great ufe in preparing an ointment for his
feigned diforder, the gout, he put them into boxes
along with other plants, and fucceeded in bringing
them away without notice or fufpicion. On his return,
"he was driven by a ftorm into the bay of Campeachy,
where he found a living ca&us of a fpecies which was
fit for the nouriffiment of the fine cochineal. He re¬
turned in fafety towards the end of the fame year, to
St Domingo, with his prize, and immediately formed
a plantation of nopals, with the view of propagating
both varieties of the cochineal. Soon after his return,
he found the wild kind living naturally on the cciBus
perejkia, a native of that ifland. Unfortunately, how¬
ever, for the efiablifhment, Thiery de Menonville died
in the year 1780, through difappointment and vexa¬
tion, it is faid, at feeing his patriotic endeavours fo
little affifted, and his fervices fo fparingly rewarded by
government ; and foon after his death, the fine cochi¬
neal perifhed. But the difcovery of the wild kind in
St Domingo was not neglefted. M. Bruley fucceed¬
ed in his attempts to rear this fpecies of cochineal. A
pofthumous work of Thiery de Menonville was pub-
lifhed by the Royal Society of arts and fciences at Cape
Fran^oife, containing minute inftru&ions with regard
to every thing refpefting the cultivation of the nopal,
and the other fpecies of callus, which may be more or
lefs fuccefsfully fubftituted for breeding or rearing the
cochineal. Of this Berthollet has given an extraa in
the 5th volume of the Annalesde Chimie. Some of our
own countrymen, a few years ago, fucceeded in pro¬
curing fome of the fine cochineal infe£ts; and attempts
have been made, with what fuccefs we know not, to
rear them in the Eaft Indies.
Properties. 165. Fine cochineal, if it has been properly pre¬
pared and kept, ought to be of a gray colour, with a
fhade of purple. The gray colour is owing to a pow¬
der with which it is naturally covered, and part of
which it ftill retains. The colouring matter ext raffed
by the water in which the infeft has been killed, pro¬
duces the purple {hade. In a dry place, cochineal
may be kept for a long time, without lofing any of its
properties. Hellot made experiments on cochineal r qo
years old, and found that it produced the fame effefl
Vol. VII. Part II.
I N G. 417
as if it had been quite new. Cochineal yields its co- Of Simple
louring matter to water j and the decodlion, which is Colours,
of a crimfon colour, inclining to violet, may be kept w
for a long time, without lofing its tranlparency, or
becoming putrid. If this decodhon be evaporated, and
the refiduum or extradt be digefted in alcohol, the co¬
louring part diffoives, and leaves a refiduum of the co¬
lour of wine lees, of which frefh alcohol cannot de¬
prive it. The alcohol of cochineal affords, by evapo¬
ration, a tranfparent refiduum of a deep red, which
being dried, has the appearance of a refin. A fmall
quantity of fulphuric acid added to the decodtion of
cochineal, produces a red colour, inclining to yellow,
and a fmall quantity of a beautiful red precipitate.
With muriatic acid the fame change is produced, but
there is no precipitate. A folution of tartar converts
the decodtion to a yellowiffi red colour. A precipi¬
tate of a pale red colour is flowly formed, and the fu-
pernatant liquor remains yellow ; but with the addition
of an alkali becomes purple. With the yellow liquor,
folution of tin forms a rofe-coloured precipitate 5 folu¬
tion of alum brightens the colour of the inlufion, gives
it a redder hue, and produces a crimfon precipitate.
With a mixture of alum and tartar the colour is bright¬
er, more lively, and inclines to a yellowiffi red. Mu¬
riate of tin occafions a copious fediment of a beautiful
red. The fupernatant liquor is colourlefs and tranfpa¬
rent, and no change is produced on it by adding an
alkali. Sulphate of iron forms a brown violet precipi¬
tate, and the fupernatant liquor remains clear, with a
flight darkiffi hue. Sulphate of zinc gives a deep vio¬
let precipitate $ the flipernatant liquor remains colour¬
lefs and tranfparent. The precipitate with fulphate of
copper is of a violet colour, and forms flowly : the fu¬
pernatant liquor is alfo violet and tranfparent. Acetate
of lead gives a purple violet precipitate, and the fuper¬
natant liquor remains limpid.
166. The experiments of Berthollet and Bancroft
{hew, that the colouring matter of cochineal is not en¬
tirely extracted by means of water. Dr Bancroft
found, that after the whole of it which could be ex-
trafted by water was obtained, by adding a little pot-
afli to the feemingly exhaufted fediment, and pouring
on it freflr boiling water, it yielded a new quantity of
colouring matter, equal to one-eighth of what had been
given out to the water ; and Berthollet found the fame
effedt produced with the addition of tartar ; from which
he concludes that tartar favours the folution of the co¬
louring part of the cochineal.
167. Kermes (e), another animal fubftance, 'which Kerme§>
is extenfively employed in dyeing, is an infedt, (coccus
ilicis. Lin.) which breeds on a fpecies of oak (quercus
coccifera, Lin.) which grows in moft of the foUthern parts
of Europe, and in many parts in Afia. Kermes wasniftory,
known to the ancients, under the names of coccum
fcarlatinum, coccus bapticus, coccus irfeciorius, gratium
tin&orium. Kermes is chiefly obtained from Langue¬
doc, Spain, and Portugal. The infefts are colleded
in the month of May or June, when the female, which
3 G alone
(e) This word is fuppofed to have been derived
tniculus ; and from this we have the word vermilion^
ingredient.
from the Arabic language, and fignifies a little ’worm, ver-
the pigment in the manufadure of which it is the principal
4*8
DYEING.
Of Simple
Colours.
Properties,
l*ao,.
Hiftorr*
* Phil.
Tranf.
1804.
Properties.
alone is ufeful, is diftended with eggs. To deftroy the
young infedts, the kermes is expofed to the fteam of
vinegar for about half an hour, or fteeped in vinegar
for 10 or 12 hours. They are afterwards dried on li¬
nen cloths, and brought to market.
168. When the living infedl is bruifed, it gives out
a red colour. I he fmell is fomewhat pleafant j the
tafte is bitter and pungent. It gives out its colouring
matter both to water and alcohol, to which alfo it im¬
parts its fmell and talle. Che colour is alfo retained
in the extract which is obtained, both from the tinc¬
ture, and from the infufion. Kermes is one of the
molt ancient dyeing drugs and although the colours
which it communicates to cloth are lefs bright and vi¬
vid than thofe of cochineal^ and on that account it has
been lefs extenfively employed in dyeing fmce the lat¬
ter was known, yet they have been found to be ex¬
ceedingly permanent. I he fine blood-red colour which
is to be feen on old tapeftries in different parts of Eu¬
rope, was produced from kermes, with an aluminous'
mordant, and feems to have fuffered no change, though
fome of them are 200 or 300 years old. The colour
obtained from kermes was formerly called fcarlet in
grain, becaufe it was fuppofed that the infedl was a
grain 5 and from the chief manufa&ory having been
at one time in Venice, it was called Venetian fcarlet.
169. Lac is an animal produ6Hon which has been
long known in India, and ufed for dyeing filk and
other purpofes. It is the nidus of the coccus lacca, Ein.
and is generally produced on the fmall branches of the
croton lacciferum. Three kinds of lac are well known
in commerce: 1. Stick lac is the lubftance or comb,
in its natural date, forming a cruft on the fmall bran¬
ches or twigs. Seed lac is faid to be only the above,
feparated from the twigs, and reduced into fmall
fragments. Mr Hatchett, who has examined this fub-
ftance with his ufual fkill and precifion, found the beft
fpecimens confiderably deprived of their colouring
matter*. According to the information which he re¬
ceived from Mr Wilkins-, the filk dyers in Bengal
produce the feed lac by pounding crude lac into fmall
fragments, and extrafling part of the colouring mat¬
ter by boiling. 3. Shell lac is prepared from the cells,
liquefied, ftrained, and formed into thin tranfparent
laminae. There ia alfo a fourth kind called lump lac,
which is obtained from the feed lac by liquefaflion,.
and afterwards formed into cakes. The beft lac is of
a deep red colour j when it is pale, and pierced at the
top, the value is greatly diminiftied, for then the in-
fefls have left their cells, and it can no longer be of
ufe as a dye ftuff.
170. I he decofHon of powdered ftick lac in water,
gives a deep crimfon colour. With one-fifth of borax,
lac becomes more foluble in water. Pure foda, and
carbonate of foda, completely diffolve the different
kinds of lac, and produce a deeper eolour than that
which is obtained by means of borax. Pure potafti
fpeedily diffolves all the varieties of lac ; the colour
approaches to purple. Pure ammonia and carbonate
of ammonia readily aft on the colouring matter of las.
Alcohol diffolves a confiderable portion of the lac j
and according to Geoffrey, yields a fine red colour.
When the folution is heated it becomes turbid. Sul¬
phuric acid diffolves the colouring matter of lac, as
^oll as muriatic and acetic acids. In the ufe of lac in
Parti
dyeing, it has been confidered fuperior to kermes, he- 0fsim
caufe it is able to bear the aftion of a folution of tin, Colour;
without the colour being changed to yellow.
I 71, Archil is a vegetable fubftance of great ufe in Archil,
dyeing. It is employed in the form of a pafte, which
is of a red violet colour. It is chiefly obtained from
two fpecies of lichen, roccella, and parellus, Lin.
The firft, which is called Canary archil, becaufe
the lichen from which it is prepared grows abun¬
dantly in the Canary iftands, is moft valued. It is
prepared by reducing the plant to a fine powder, which
is afterwards paffed through a fieve, and flightly moif-
tened with ftale urine. The mixture is daily ftirred,
each time adding a certain proportion of foda in pow¬
der, till it acquire a clove colour. It is then put into
a wooden calk, and urine, lime-water, or a folution of
fulphate of lime, (gypfum^is added in fufficient quantity
to cover the mixture. In this ftate it is kept j but to
preferve it-any length of time, it is neceffary to moif-
ten it occafionally with urine. By a fimilar prepara¬
tion, other fpecies of lichen may be ufed in dyeing.
In this country the lichen omphalodes and tartareus are
frequently employed for dyeing coarle cloths.
172. Archil gives out its colouring matter to water, propertifl
ammonia, and alcohol. The infufion of archil is of a
crimfon colour, with a (hade of violet. The addition
of an acid: converts it to a red colour. Fixed alkalies
only render it of a deeper (hade j becaufe its natural
colour has been already modified by the ammonia with
which it is combined in the preparation. Alum pro¬
duces in the folution of archil a dark-red precipitate j
the fupernatant liquor is of a yellowilh red colour.
V ith folution of tin a reddilh precipitate is formed,
which fubfides flowly ; and the liquor retains a flight
tinge of red. This infufion lofes its colour in a few
days if it be entirely excluded from the air. To cold
marble the aqueous infufion of archil communicates a
fine violet colour, or blue inclining to purple. The
affinity between the ftone and the colouring matter is
fo ftrong, that it refills the action of the air longer
than colours which it gives to other fubftances. The
colour thus communicated to marble, has remained for
two years unchanged.
173. Archil is alfo foluble in alcohol. This tine-singular
ture is employed for making fpirit of wine thermome-change,
ters. A Angular phenomenon was obferved by the
Abb6 Nollet when the tin£lure was excluded from the
air. In a few years it was entirely deprived of its co¬
lour. The contaft of air reftored the colour $ but it
was again deftroyed when deprived of it.
174. Carthamus, or baftard faffron, a vegetable fub-Carthamui
ftance ufed in dyeing, is the flower of an annual plant
which is cultivated in Spain, Egypt, and the Levant.
There are two varieties of this plant, the one with
larger, the other with fmaller 1 aves. The variety
with larger leaves is cultivated in Egypt.
175. The method of preparing the flowers of car-Prepara,
thamus in Egypt, as it is deferibed by Haflelquift, isdon*
the following. After being preffed between two ftones,
to Iqueeze out the juice, they are walked feveral times
with fait water, preffed between the hands, and fpread
out on mats in the open air to dry. In the day time
they are covered, that they may not dry too fall with
the heat of the fun, but they are left expofed to the dew
of. the night. When they are fufficiently dry, they are
put
}hap.
3f Simple
Colours.
•repara.
ion of
■QUgC.
I, ' DYE
put Up, and kept for fale, under the name offaffranm.
Care fhould be taken afterwards, not to keep it in too
dry a place $ for unlefs it is a little moift, its properties
are confiderably impaired,
roperties. 176. Carthamus contains two colouring fubftances,
a yellow fubftance, which is foluble in water \ and as it
is of no ufe, it is extracted by the procefs mentioned
above, by fqueezing the flowers between ftones till no
more colour can be preffed out. The flowers become
reddilh in this operation, and lofe nearly one half of
their weight. The other colouring matter, which is
red, is foluble in alkaline carbonates, and it is precipi¬
tated by means of an acid. A vegetable acid, as le¬
mon juice, has been found to produce the fineft colour.
Next to this, fulphuric acid produces the beft effeft,
provided too great a quantity, which would alter and
deftroy the colour, be not employed. The juice of
the berries of the mountain a(h, or rowan tree, Qforbus
aucuparia, Lin.) is recommended by Scheffer as a fub-
ftitute for lemon juice, and it is thus prepared. The
berries are bruifed in a mortar with a wooden peflle,
and the exprefled juice, after it has been allowed to
ferment, is bottled up. The clear part, which is moft
acid, becomes fitter for ufe the longer it is kept 5 but
this operation requires a period of feme months, and
can only be conduced in fummer.
177. From the colouring matter extrafled by means
of an alkali, and precipitated with an acid, is procured
the fubftance called rouge, which is employed as a
paint for the fkin. The folution of carthamus is pre¬
pared with cryftals of foda, and precipitated with le¬
mon juice which has flood fome days to fettle. After
being dried on delft plates with a gentle heat, the pre¬
cipitate is feparated, and ground accurately with talc
which has been previoufly reduced to a very fubtile
powder; and on the finenefs of the talc depends the
difference between the cheaper and dearer kinds of
rouge.
Brazil 178. Brazil wood is of very extenfive ufe in dyeing,
wod. It is the wood of the ctzfalpinia crijla, Lin. and is a na¬
tive of America and the Weft Indies. It is known
under different names, according to the place where it
is produced ; as, Fernambouc, Bra%i!etto, wood of St
Martha, and of Sapan. It is a very hard wood, and
has fo much denfity as to fink in water. When freih
cut, it is of a pale colour, but becomes reddifh by ex-
pofure to the air, and it has a fweetifh tafte.
properties. 179. The colouring matter of Brazil wood is folu¬
ble in water, and the whole of it may be extracted by
continuing the boiling for a fufticient length of time.
The decoflion is of a fine red colour. The reliduum,
which is black, yields a confiderable portion of colour¬
ing matter to alkalies. This colouring matter is alfo
foluble in alcohol, and in ammonia, and the colour is
deeper than that of the aqueous folution. The tinc¬
ture of Brazil wood in alcohol gives to hot marble a
red colour, which afterwards changes to violet. The
frefh deco&ion yields, with fulphuric acid, a fmall por¬
tion of a red precipitate, inclining to fawn colour.
Nitric acid firft produces a yellow colour, but by add¬
ing more, a deep orange. Oxalic acid produces a pre¬
cipitate of an orange red. Tartar furnifhes a fmall
precipitate: with the addition of fixed alkali, the decoc¬
tion becomes of a deep crimfon or violet colour. Am¬
monia gives a brighter purple : alum produces a copious
4*9
TNG.
red precipitate, inclining to crimfon. Sulphate of iron rf Simple
occafions a black colour in the tin&ure, with a copious Colours,
precipitate of the fame colour. Sulphate of copper al-
fo produces an abundant precipitate, the liquor remain¬
ing tranfparent, and of a brownifti red. A copious
precipitate of a fine deep red, is produced with acetate
of lead, and that obtained with muriate of tin is abund¬
ant, and of a fine rofe colour. With the addition of
corrofive fublimate, a light precipitate, which is of a
brown colour, is obtained. The liquor remains tranf¬
parent, and of a fine yellow colour. Brazil wood,
which has been changed to a yellow colour by means
of tartar and acetous acid, with a folution of nitro-mu-
riate of tin, yields a copious rofe-coloured precipitate ;
and if to the folution, rendered yellow by an acid, a
greater quantity of the fame acid, or a ftronger acid,
as the fulphuric, be added, the red colour is reftored.
Some falls alfo polTefs the property of reftoring the red
colour of Brazil wood, which has been deftroyed by
means of acids*. The deception of Brazil -wood,* Jout-. is
which is called juice of Brazil, is found to anfwer bet- phf-l7%S'
ter for the proceffes of dyeing, when it has been kept
fome time, and has even undergone fome degree of fer¬
mentation, than when it has been freih prepared. The
colour, by keeping, becomes of a yellowilh red.
180. Logwood, fometimes called India or Cam-Logwood
peachy wood, (Hcematoxylon Campeachianum, Lin.) is
a tree which grows to a confiderable fize in Jamaica,
and the eaftern (hore of the bay of Campeachy. Its
fpecific gravity is greater than that of water ; it has a
fine grain, and is fufceptible of a fine polilh. Log¬
wood yields its colouring matter, which is a fine red,
readily and copioufly to alcohol. It is more fparingly Properties,
foluble in water, and the decoftion inclines a little to
violet or purple. When it is left fome time to itfelf,
it becomes yellowilh, and at length black. It becomes
yellowilh alfo by the aftion of acids ; alkalies produce a
deeper colour, and convert it to a purple or violet.
Sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids form a fmall pro¬
portion of precipitate, which feparates llowly : the
precipitate formed with fulphuric acid is of a dark red ;
with muriatic, a lighter red, and with the nitric,
feuil/e mart. With fulphuric and muriatic acids,
the fupernatant liquor is of a deep red colour ; with
nitric it is yellowilh, and in all tranfparent. Ox¬
alic acid produces a precipitate of a light marone co¬
lour ; the liquor remains tranfparent, and is yellowilh
red. Acetic acid produces a fimilar efleft, but the
colour of the precipitate is fomewhat deeper. A fimi¬
lar precipitate is obtained by means of tartar ; but the
liquor, which is more inclined to yellow, remains tur¬
bid. No precipitate is produced by means of fixed al¬
kali ; the decodtion becomes of a deep violet, which
is afterwards converted to a brown colour. Alum
yields a copious precipitate, of a lightilh violet colour ;
the colour of the liquor remains the fame, and it is
nearly tranfparent. A copious, dark red precipitate is
produced with alum and tartar ; the liquor is yellowilh
red and tranfparent. Sulphate of iron occafions a
bluilh black colour; a copious precipitate of the fame
colour is formed, and the liquor remains long turbid.
With fulphate of copper, a very copious precipitate, of
a deep brown colour, is obtained ; the liquor, which is
alfo of a deep brown, or yellowilh red, remains tranf¬
parent. Acetate of lead yields a black precipitate,
3 G 2 with
420 DYE
Of Simple with a flight tinge of red j the colour of the liquor is
Colours like that of pale beer, and it remains tranfparent.
'~“"v Nitro-muriate of tin gives a precipitate of a fine violet
or purple colour j the liquor remains clear and colour-
lefs.
2. Of the Procejfes for Dyeing Wool Red.
181. All red colouring matters with which we are
acquainted, come under that clafs of colours to which
Dr Bancroft has given the name of adjeBive colours j
that is, fuch colours as require the aid of mordants to
render them permanent. Red colours, we have al¬
ready obferved, are of various fliades, according to the
nature and proportion of the colouring matters em¬
ployed. Hence we have madder red, fcarlet, crimfon,
and other ihades.
Madder. 182. Madder Red.—Madder is only employed for
red. dyeing eoarfe woollen fluffs, and the following is the
procefs. The fluffs are firft boiled for two or three
hours with alum and tartar : they are then left to
drain, (lightly wrung out, put into a linen bag, and
carried into a cool place, where they are to remain for
fome days. The quantities and proportions of the alum
and tartar are varied according to the views of the
dyer, and the (hade of colour which is wanted. Some
recommend five ounces of alum and one ounce of tartar
to each pound of wool. By increafing the proportion
of tartar to a certain degree, a deep and permanent
cinnamon colour, inftead of a red, is produced. This
arifes from the yellow tinge which is induced by means
of the acid on the colouring particles of the madder.
Procefs. Others propofe to diminifli the proportion of tartar,
and to employ only a feventh part. In conducing
the procefs of dyeing with madder, the bath ftiould
not be brought to the boiling point, becaufe at that
temperature the fawn-coloured particles would be dif-
folved, and a different (hade obtained from that which
is defired. When the water is at that degree of tem¬
perature which the hand can bear, Hellot recommends
the addition of half a pound of grape madder for every
pound of wool to be dyed. It is then to be well ftir-
red before the wool is introduced, which muft remain
for an hour without boiling, excepting for a few mi¬
nutes towards the end of the procefs, that the combina¬
tion of the colouring particles with the fluff may be
more certain.
Poling. 183. Madder reds are fometimes rofed, as it is call¬
ed, with archil and Brazil wood. In this way they
become more beautiful and velvety, but this brightnefs
is not permanent. But madder reds, even when they
are moft perfect, are far inferior to thofe obtained from
lac and cochineal, and even to that produced by kermes 5
but as the expence of the materials is comparatively
fmall, they are employed, as we have already obferved,
for coarfe fluffs.
Proportion 1^4‘ Different authors recommend different propor-
of madder, lions of madder. Poerner propofes to employ one-
third of the weight of the wool, while Scheffer limits
the quantity to one-fourth. In one proeefs, Poerner
added to the alum and tartar, a quantity of iblution of
tin, equal in weight to the tartar, and after two hours
boiling, allowed the cloth to remain in the bath,
which had been left to cool for three or four days. He
then dyed it in the ufual way, and thus obtained a fine
red. According to another procefs, he prepared the
I N O.
cloth by the common boiling, and dyed it in a bath ofs.rnple
flightly heated, with a larger proportion of madder, Colours,
tartar, and folution of tin. The cloth remained 24 ’—•"V—^
hours in the bath, and when it had become cold, he put
it into another bath, made with madder only, where
it remained for"24 hours. By this procefs he got a
fine red, fomewhat brighter than the common, but in¬
clining a little to yellow. Scheffer informs us that he
obtained an orange red by boiling wool with a folution
of tin, and one-fourth of alum, and then by dyeing
with one-fourth of madder. A cherry colour is ob¬
tained, according to Bergman, by dyeing with one
part of a folution of tin, and two of madder, without
previoufly boiling the wool. By expofure to the air,
this colour becomes deeper. By boiling the wool for
two hours with one-fourth of fulphate of iron, then
waffling it, and afterrvards immerfing it in cold water
with one-fourth of madder, and then boiling for an
hour, the refult is a coffee colour. But if the wool has
not been foaked, and if it be dyed with one part of
fulphate of iron and two of madder, the colour is a
brown approaching to red.
185. When fulphate of copper is employed as the Different
mordant, the madder dye yields a clear brown, in- mordants,
dining fomewhat to yellow ; and a limilar colour may
be produced by dyeing the wool Amply leaked in hot
water, with one part of lulphate ot copper, and two of
madder. But when this mordant and dye-fluff are
ufed in equal proportions, the yellow is fomewhat
more obfcure, approaching to green j and in both thefe
inftances, expofure to the air does not produce a dark¬
er colour. Berthollet informs us that he employed a
folution of tin in various ways, both in the preparation
and the application of the madder ; and by the ufe
of different folutions of tin, he found, that although the
tint was fomewhat brighter than what is obtained by
the common procefs, it was always more inclined to
yellow or fawn colour.
186. Scarlet.—The fineft and moft fplendid of all Scarlet,
colours is Icarlet. This, like other colours, is of various
fliades, according to the quality and proportion of the
colouring matter employed. The fcarlet dye is com¬
municated to woollen fluffs by means of cochineal, the
hiftory and properties of which we have already detail¬
ed. The Mexicans, as appears from their hiftory, em¬
ployed alumina as the bafis or mordant, to fix the co¬
lour of cochineal \ and pre vious to the difcovery of the
folution of tin, the ufe of the fame fubftance feems to
have prevailed in Europe. The fine colour obtained
from the latter, received, as we have already mention¬
ed, different names in different places ; as that of bow
dye in England,of the Gobelins in Fiance, and
in Holland Dutch fcarlet.
187. In the procefs for dyeing fcarlet, two opera-Procefi.
tions are neceffary. The firft is denominated the boil¬
ing, and the fecond is diftinguilhed by the name of fi-
nilhing or reddening. The operation of boiling, which Boiling,
is the firft part of the procefs, is condurttd in the fol¬
lowing manner. For 100 pounds of cloth, 6 pounds
of pure tartar are added to the water, which is made
pretty warm. The bath is then to be brifkly ftiired,
and when the heat has increafed a little more, half a-
pound of powdered cochineal is to be added, and the
whole is then to be well mixed. The next moment
five pounds
of a very clear folution of tin are to be
poured
Part II.
hap.
Simple
o lours.
Idening'
oportion
ingre*
sms.
horter
rocefs.
lighter
ed.
I. . dye
poured in, and carefully mixed. When the bath be¬
gins to boil, the cloth is introduced, and brilkly mo-
' ved for two or three turns : after which it is moved
more llowly. The boiling having continued for two
hours, the cloth is taken out, expofed to the air, and
carried to the river to be well walked.
188. In the preparation of the fecond bath, which
is for the reddening, the boiler is to be emptied, and
when the bath has juft reached the. boiling point,
five pounds and three quarters of cochineal, previouf-
]y powdered and lifted, are to be added. Thefe are
to be carefully mixed j and after having ceafed ftirring,
when a cruft has formed on the furface, and opened of
itfelf in feveral places, 13 or 14 pounds of folution of
tin are poured in. Should the bath, during the boil¬
ing, rife above the edge of the boiler, it may.be cool¬
ed with a little cold water. This folution being well
mixed, the doth is put in, and two or three times
quickly turned. It is then boiled in the bath for an
hour, taking care to keep it under the furface. It is
afterwaids taken out, expofed to the air, and when it
has cooled, walked in the river and dried..
189. There are no determinate proportions of cochi¬
neal and folution of tin in either of thefe operations.
Hellot informs us, that fome dyers employ two-thirds
of folution of tin, and one-fourth of cochineal, in
the boiling or firft operation, and the other one-third
of the folution of tin with the remaining three-fourths
of the cochineal in the fecond operation, or the red¬
dening. He adds farther, that the ufe of tartar gives
a greater degree of permanency to the colour, provi¬
ded the proportion do not exceed one-half the weight
of the cochineal employed. According to Berthollet,
feveral dyer-* at prrfent adopt this practice. lartai,
he obferves, promotes the folution of the colouring
matter ; and this effeft is greater when it is ground
with the cochineal, after which it is found that the re-
fiduum is more completely exhaufted But this con-
fideration is of inferior confequence, when the opera¬
tions are fucceffively performed, becaufe any colouring
matter that may remain in the reiiduum, is employed
in the next operation. It ought not, however, to be
overlooked, that the tartar communicates to the colour
a rofey hue.
190. It is the praftice of fome dyers not to remove
the cloth out of the boiling. They merely refrefh it,
and perform the operation of reddening in the fame
bath. When this is done, the infufion of cochineal,
made in a teparate veffel, and mixed with the proper
proportion of folution of tin, is added. By conduct¬
ing the procefs in this way the fcarlet is fuppofed to be
equally fine, and there is a conliderable faving of time
and furl. . .
191. Xo give fcarlet the bright lively red which,
as it approaches to the colour of fire, has been diltin-.-
guifhed by the name of fiery fcarlet, a yellow tinge is
communicated by boiling luftic in the firlt bath, or by
adding a little turmeric to the cochineal. A larger
proportion of the folution of tin alfo produces this
yellow (hade, but it renders the cloth harfh, and li¬
mits the aCIion of the colouring matter. 1 be ufe of
fuflic or turmeric, therefore, although the colour ob¬
tained from them is not permanent, is preferable to an
excefs of the folution of tin. When thefe.fubftances
are ufedj the infide ot the cloth, when it is cut, ap-
4
1 N G. 421
pears yellow ; but in the ordinary procefles, the co- of Simple
chineal, it is found, does not penetrate the cloth, for Colours,
when no other fubftance is employed, the cloth is in- v—^
ternally white.
192. The ufe of tin boilers is recommended in dye-Tin and
ing fcarlet. When copper boilers are employed, the
acid a£ts on the metal, and thus forming a folution,
injures the beauty of the colour. Tin boilers, how¬
ever, are attended with feveral inconveniences. It is
difficult to procure them of fufficient fize, and they
are apt to be melted by the incautious continuance of
the firg, after they have been emptied. In the ufe of
copper boilers, there are feveral neceffary precautions.
They muft be kept very clean $ the acid liquor ffiould
not be allowed to remain in them for any length of
time, and fome contrivance ffiould be adopted to pre¬
vent the cloth from touching the metal, either by ufing
a nit, or a wicker bafket.
193. Different proportions of materials, we have Different
obferved, are recommended by different authors. For Prop°rtion
the boiling, Scheffer diretts an ounce and a half of^1”^6"
folution of tin, with an equal quantity of ftarch, and
as much tartar to every pound of cloth. The effedl
of the ftarc h is to give more uniformity to the colour.
When the water boils, a dram of cochineal is to be
added j it is then to be well ftirred, and after the
wool is introduced, to be boiled an hour, taken out,
and walked. The proportions for the reddening bath,
in which the wool is to be boiled half an hour, are
half an ounce of ftarch, three-fourths of an ounce of
folution of tin, half an ounce of tartar, and 7 drams
of cochineal. In Scheffer’s proceft, it may be obftrved,
the proportion of fulotion of tin is fmaller than in that
of Hellot, but the quantity of tin in the folution of
the former is greater than in that of the latter.
194. Poerner has deferibed three principal proceffts, Poerner’s
according to the variety of the (hade of the Icarlet. Procei**
He ufes no cochineal in the boiling j the materials
of which are one ounce and fix drams of tartar, and
an equal weight of folution of tin, the latter being
added after the tartar is diffolved, for every pound of
doth. A- foon as the boiling has commenced, the
cloth is introduced, and it is boiled for two hours.
For the reddening of the firft proeefs he employs two
drams of tartar and one ounce of cochineal, adding
Gradually afterwards' two ounces of folution of tin.
For the reddening of the fecond procefs, the fame
quantity of cochineal and folution of tin, without
any tartar, is employed. In the reddening of the
third proeefs, two drachms of tartar with one ounce of
folution of tin, one ounce of cochineal, and two ounces
of common fait, are direded to be ufed. The co¬
lour produced in the firft procefs has the deepeft
(hade ; that of the fecond is more lively, while that
of the third is paler and brighter.
195. By the ufe of tartar in the reddening in differ- Different
ent proportions, various (hades of fcarlet may be ob-^6®-
tained. When it is employed, the (hade is deeper and
fuller ; but when it is entirely omitted, the fcarlet ap¬
proaches to an orange colour. The (hade of colour
alfo is fubjed to confiderable variety, from the differ¬
ent degrees of ftrength of the folution of tin. To
afeertain this effed, Berthollet made a number of ex¬
periments. Hi found that a folution of tin cotnpofed
of fixteen parts of nitric acid, two of muriate of am¬
monia,
422
tnon fait.
Procefs of
-dyeing
Of Simple monia, and three of tin, produced a deeper (hade than
. Colours, when the proportions of the acid and muriate, of am¬
monia were equal, with only two parts of tin. The lalt
proportions, he obferves, fueceeded belt. Four parts of
water were mixed with the folution. When the propor-
ftion of muriate of ammonia amounted only to half a part,
the colour was brighter, and inclining to orange.
Ufeofcom- 1^6. Common fait has the effeft of increafing the
brightnefs of fcarlet, while it is alfo attended with
the advantage of caufing the colour to penetrate deep¬
er into the cloth. It feems difficult to explain why
common fait, which gives a deeper fliade to the co¬
lour of the infufion of cochineal, and indeed produces
•a fimilar effeft on colours in general, ffiould diminiffi
the intenfity of the colour of fcarlet. The proportion
of common fait mentioned above (194) is, according
to Poerner, the greateft that can be employed. When
lefs is ufed, the ffiade, though lighter, is more agree¬
able. By adding five ounces of white fugar to the
ingredients of the fecond procefs, a fine colour, which
is always lighter than that of the firft procefs, will be
obtained. The colour, it is faid, is more permanent,
and the ffiade more agreeable, when the cloth is left
24 hours in the boiler after it has cooled.
197. It has been generally fuppofed, Dr Bancroft
. „ obferves, that after the difeovery of the effefts of tin
cochineal °n ^ie coch>rceal colour, to produce a fcarlet, it was
only neceffary to apply the colour fo produced as a
dye to wool j or that a nitric or nitro-muriatic fo¬
lution of tin might change the natural crimfon of
cochineal to a fcarlet. This opinion, however, he
confiders to be quite erroneous^ for the nitric folu¬
tion of tin invariably produces with cochineal a crim¬
fon or rofe colour, and not a fcarlet, unlefs other
means are employed to incline the cochineal colour to
a yellow ffiade. This effeft is produced by means of
the tartar, which feems to have been accidentally Hum¬
bled upon, and has been for many ages ufed, without
knowing its true effe£t. Tartar was long employed
kind of dyeing it is the moft ufeful of all colouring
matters. I he affinity of the colouring matter of mad¬
der for cotton is ftronger than for linen ; but it has
been found that the proceffes which are moft fuccefsful
in dyeing the one are the moft preferable for the other.
There are two kinds of madder reds : the one is called
fimple madder red ; and the other, which is much
brighter, has been diftinguifhed by the name of Turkey
or Adrianople red, becaufe it comes from the Levant,
and has rarely been equalled in brightnefs and perma¬
nency. In communicating this beautiful red colour
to cotton, by means of madder, a great many ufelefs
and ridiculous direflions have been given. Accord¬
ing to fome proceffes, the period of a month is fcarce-
ly fufficient to finiffi all the operations which are •
confidered as indifpenfably neceffary for obtaining this
dye,
218,
;hap.
)f Simple
Colours.
[ordants
r madder
:d.
Jfes of gal-
ing.
I. DYE
2iB. The principal mordants which are employed in
dyeing cotton with madder, are oil, gall-nuts, and
alum. The colouring matter of madder cannot be fix¬
ed on cotton, till the latter has been impregnated with
oil. A cold foapy liquor is formed by a combination
of oil and a weak folution of foda. By the ufe of this
alkaline ley the oil is diluted and divided, and can be
eafily and equally applied to all the parts of the cot¬
ton. According to Chaptal, potafh produces the fame
effeft as foda j and attention to this is of fome impor¬
tance, from the difference of price of the two fub-
ftances. All kinds of foda or oil are not fit for this
preliminary preparation. The foda mull be in the
cauftic flate, and its cauilicity mud be the effe£l of
calcination j becaufe if it has been rendered cauftic by
means of lime, it becomes of a brown colour. The
foda alfo fhould contain little muriate, for when this
neutral fait prevails, the combination of the oil and
the foda is greatly retarded. The moft proper oil is
not of a fine kind, but that which contains a large
portion of the extra&ive principle. As the ley of fo¬
da is only employed for the purpofe of diluting and
conveying the oil equally to all the parts of the cot¬
ton, there muft be a perfeft combination of the oil
and the foda. Indeed this is of fo much importance,
that many place the whole fecret of a ftrong colour
in the choice of good oil and foda. From this it fol¬
lows, that the oil ftiould be in excefs, otherwife it would
abandon the ftuff in walking, and the colour would re¬
main dry.
219. The cotton, being impregnated with oil, is
fubje&ed to the operation of galling. The ufe of gall-
nuts is attended with feveral advantages. 1. The gal¬
lic acid which they contain decompofes the faponace-
ous liquor with which the cotton is impregnated, and
fixes the oil on the ftuff. 2. The other properties
which the galls poffefs, predifpofes the cotton to receive
the colouring matter. 3. The aftringent principle
unites with the oil, and forms with it a compound,
which on drying becomes black, is not very foluble in
water, and has a ftrong affinity with the colouring mat¬
ter of madder.
Praftical 220, From thefe principles fome practical obferva-
remarks. tions may be deduced. 1. Gall-nuts furniili the moft
proper aftringent matter for this kind of dye. 2. I o
effedl a fpeedy and perfe£t decompofition, the galls
ought to be {trained as hot as poflible. 3- ^ galled
cotton Ihould be fpeedily dried, for othervvile it might
affume a black colour, which would injure the bright-
nefs of the red. 4. The procefs of galling fhould be
performed in dry weather, becaufe when the weather
is moift, the aftringent principle produces a black co¬
lour, and dries {lowly. 5* The cotton ftiould be pref-
fed together with great care, that the decompofition
may be equally effected at every point of the mrface.
6. It is neeeffary to attend to the proportion between
the gall-nuts and the foap, for if the former predomi¬
nate the colour is black, and if the foap is in excefs,
the portion of oil uncombined with the aftringent
principle efcapes in the waftiings, and impoverifties the
colour.
Alum as a 221. Alum is alfo employed as a mordant in dyeing
roordant. cotton red. This fubftance not only heightens the red
of madder, but contributes alfo, by its decompofition,
and the fixation of its alumina, to give folidity to the
I N G. 427
colour. When cotton, after it has been galled, is im- Of Simple
merfed in a folution of alum, it immediately changes Colours,
its colour, and becomes gray. No precipitate appears J v
in the bath, becaufe the operation takes place in the
tiffue of the cloth itfelf. But if the folution of alum be
employed at too high a temperature, part of the galls
efcapes from the ftuff, and the decompofition of the
alum is then effe£led in the bath. This, which ftiould
be guarded againft, muft obvioufly diminifti the
proportion of the mordant, and render the colour
poorer.
222. This mordant, which is the moft complicated-A-Pphcation
known in dyeing, requires great attention in its appli-^^e mo,>
cation. In this, indeed, confifts the whole difficulty
of dyeing cotton a madder or Turkey red. In this
mordant there is a combination of three principles, oil,
the aftringent principle, and alumina •, and on their pro¬
per combination, the perfeftion of the colour de¬
pends. When any one of them is employed fepa-
rately, the colour is neither fo bright, nor fo complete¬
ly fixed.
223. After thefe preliminary obfervations, we ftiall
now give a fuller detail of fome of the proceffes which
are followed in dyeing cotton Turkey red. The fol-Procefs for
lowing is that which is pra&ifed at Aftracan, of which AftraT**
an account has been given by Profeffor Pallas. can>
“ The cotton to be dyed red is firft waffled exceed- prepara-
ingly clean in running water, and, when the weather tion.
is clear, hung up on poles to dry. If it does not dry
before the evening, it is taken into the houfe, on ac¬
count of the faline dews fo remarkable in the coun¬
try around Aftracan, and again expofed to the air
next morning. When it is thoroughly dry it is laid
in a tub, and fifti oil is poured over it till it is entirely
covered. In this ftate it muft Hand all night, but in the
morning it is hung up on poles, and left there the
whole day j and this procefs is repeated for a week, fo
that the cotton lies feven nights in oil, and is expofed
feven days to the atmofphere, that it may imbibe the
oil and free itfelf from all air. The yarn is then again
carried to a ftream, cleaned as much as poflible, and
hung up on poles to dry.
224. “ After this preparation, a mordant is made of The mor-
three materials, which muft give the grounds of thedant.
red colour. The pulverized leaves of the fumach are
firft boiled in copper kettles j and when their colouring
matter has been fufficiently extrafled, fome powdered
galls are added, with which the liquor muft be again
boiled j and by thefe means it acquires a dark dirty
colour. After it has been fufficiently boiled, the fire
is taken from under the kettle, and alum put into
the liquor yet hot, where it is foon diffolved. The
proportion of thefe three ingredients I cannot deter¬
mine with fufficient accuracy, becaufe the dyers make
ufe of different quantities at pleafure. The powder
of the fumach leaves is meafured into the kettle with
ladles j the water is poured in according to a gauge, on
which marks are made to ftiew how high the water
muft Hand in the kettle to foak fix, eight, ten, &c.
puds of cotton yarn. The galls and alum are added
in the quantity of five pounds to each pud of cotton.
In a wordj the whole mordant muft be fufficiently
yellow, ftrong, and of an aftringent tafle.
225. “ As foon as the alum is diffolved, no time muff:
be loft in order that the mordant may not be fuffered
3 H 2 to
423
DYEING.
Part I
Of Simple to cool. The yarn is then put into hollow blocks of
Colours wood (haped like a mortar, into each of which fuch a
quantity of the mordant has been poured as may be
fufficient to moiften the yarn without any of it being
left. As foon as the workman throws the mordant in¬
to the mortar, he puts a quantity of the ya n into it,
and prefles it down with his hand till it becomes uni¬
formly moiflened, and the whole cotton yarn has ftruck.
By this it acquires only a pale yellow colour, which
however is durable. It is then hung up on poles in
the fun to dry, again walked in the dream, and after¬
wards dried once more.
226. “ By the yellow dye of the fumacjh leaves, the
madder dye becomes brighter ana more agreeable ; but
the galls damp the fuperfluous yellow, and together
with the alum prepare the yarn for its c lour. Some
dyers however omit the ufe of thefe leaves altogether,
and prepare their mordant from galls and alum only,
by firfl boiling the galls in due proportion with the re-
quifite quantity of water, then diffolving the alum with
boiling water in a feparate veffel, afterwards pouring
both liquors together into a tub, and fuffering the cot¬
ton to remain in them an hour, or an hour and a half j
after which it is dned gradually, then wafhed, and
again dried once more. By this procefs the yarn ac¬
quires a dirty reddiih colour.
Madder 227. “ The next part of the procefs is to prepare
the madder dye. The madder, ground to a fine
pow'der, is fpread out in large troughs, and into each
trough is poured a large cup full of fheep’s blood,
which is the kind that can be procured with the great-
eft facility by the dyers. The madder muft be ftrong-
ly mixed in it by means of the hand, and then Hand
fome hours in order to be thoroughly leaked by it.
The liquor then aflumes a dark red appearance, and
the madder in boiling yields more dye.
228. “ After this procefs water is made hot in large
kettles, fixed in brick-work j and as foon as it is warm
the prepared red dye is put into it, in the proportion of
a pound to every pud of cotton. The dye is then fuffer-
ed to boil ftrongly j and when it is boiled enough, which
may be tried on cotton threads, the fire is removed
from under the kettle, and the prepared cotton is de-
pofited near it. The dyer places himfelf on the edge
of the brick-work that enclofes the kettle $ dips the
cotton yarn, piece by piece, into the dye j turns it
round, backwards and forwards j preffes it a little with
his hands ; and lays each piece, one after the other, in
pails Handing ready for the purpofe. As foon as all
the cotton has received the firft tint, it is hung up to
dry : as the red, however, is ftill too dull, the yarn
which has been already dyed once, and become dry, is
put once more into the dyeing kettle, and muft be left
there to feethe for three hours over a ftrong fire, by
which it acquires that beautiful dark red colour which
is fo much efteemed in the Turkey yarn. The yarn is
now taken from the dye with flicks ; the fuperfluous
dye which adheres to it is lhaken off; the hanks are
put in order, and hung up, one after another, to dry.
When it is thoroughly dry, it is walhed in the pure
ftream and again dried. The only fault of the Aftra-
can dyers is, that the colour is fometimes brighter and
fometimes darker, probably becaufe they do not pay
fufficient attention to the proportions, or becaufe the
madder is not always of the fame goodnefs.
229. “ In the laft place, the above-mentioned foda R ...
(kalaksr) is diffolved with boiling water in tubs deftin-
ed for that purpofe j and it is ufual h^re to allow twenty
pounds of luda to forty pounds of cotton, or half the
weight. Large earthen jars, which are made in Perfia
of very ftiong clay, a yard and a half in height, al-
moft five (pans wide in the belly, and ending in a neck
a fpan and a half in diameter, enclofed by means of ce¬
ment in brick-work over a fire-place, in fuch a manner
that the necks only appear, are filled with the dyed
cotton yarn. The ley of diffolved foda, which is
blackifh and very fliarp, is then poured over it till the
jars be filled ■, and fome clean rags are preffed into
their mouths, that the uppermoft Ikains of yarns may
not lie uncovered. A fire is then made in the fire-place
below, and continued for 24 hours ; and in the mean
time the fleam which arifes from the jars is feen col-
lefted among the rags in red drops. By this boiling
the dye is ftill more heightened, and is made to ftrike
completely •, every thing fuperfluous is removed, and all
the fat matter which ftill adheres to the yarn is waftied
out: nothing more is then neceflary for completing the
dye of the yarn but to rinfe it well feveral times in
running water, and then to dry it.
230. “ That the dye of madder might be made v£’ry’j-j] /•
penetrating by other methods, and through the meanscojour ^
of other oily and refinous fubftances, is {hewn by the other
procefs of the Tungufians to dye horfe, goat’s and rein-means*
deer’s hair, which they ufe for ornamenting their
dreffes, of a beautiful red colour, with the roots of the
crofs-wort, or northern madder (galium'), and nar¬
row-leaved woodroof {afperula tintiona'), which have a
refemblance to thofe of madder. They boil the frefh
or dried roots with about the fame quantity of agaric
(agaricus qfficinarum), which, as is well known, is
abundant in refinous gummy particles, and is uftd by
the people of Jakut inftead of foap $ they then lay in it
the white hair which they wiffi to dye, and fuffer it to
feethe flowly until it be fufficiently red. Cotton cloth
is dyed with madder at Aftracan in the fame manner :
but many purfue a fraudulent procefs, by dyeing with
red wood, and then fell their cloth as that which has
been dyed in the proper manner.”
231. The proeeffes which are employed in the Gre-TheGre.
cian manufa&ories for dyeing Turkey red, as theycianme-
have been deferibed by C. Felix, in a memoir in thethod-
French annals of chemiftry, are fomewhat different
from the above. “ In thefe manufactories,” he obft rves,
“ the workmen dye at one time a mafsot fkains weigh¬
ing thirty-five occas (g^ ; each occa being equal to
about fifty ounces. The firft procefs is that of clean-Prepara,
ing the cotton, for which purpofe three leys are em-^on‘
ployed ; one of foda, another of afhes, and a third of
lime. The cotton is thrown into a tub, and moiften-
ed with the liquor of the three leys in equal quantities ;
it is then boiled in pure water, and wathed in running
water.
Of limp] 1
Colours
O
232.
(g) Equal to 109 lb. 6 oz.
hap-
Of Simple
Colours.
Jecond
jath.
I. DYE
232. “ The fecond bath given to the cotton is com-
pofed of foda and (beep’s dung diffolved in water. To
facilitate the folution, the foda and dung are pounded in
a mortar. The proportions of thefe ingredients em¬
ployed, are, one occa of dung, fix of foda, and forty
of water. When the ingredients are well mixed, the
liquor expreffed from them is (trained, and being pour¬
ed into a tub, fix occas of olive oil are added to it, and
the whole is well (tirred till it becomes of a whitifh
colour, like milk. The cotton is then befprinkled with
this water, and when the (kains are thoroughly moift-
ened, they are wrung, preffed, and expofed to dry.
The fame bath mud be repeated three or four times,
bccaufe it is this liquor which renders the cotton more
or lefs fit for receiving the dye. Each bath is given
with the fame liquor, and ought to continue five or fix
hours. It is to be obferved that the cotton, after each
bath, mud be dried without being vvadied, as it ought
not to be rinfed till after the lad bath. The cotton is
then as white as if it had been bleached in the fields.
233. “ The bath of (beep’s dung is not ufed in our
manufactories (h) 5 it is a practice peculiar to the Le¬
vant. It may be believed that the dung is of no utili¬
ty for fixing the colours •, but it is known that this fub-
ftance contains a great quantity of volatile alkali, in a
difengaged date, which has the property of giving a
rofy hue to the red. It is therefore probable that it
is to this ingredient that the red dyes of the Levant are
indebted for their fplendour and vivacity. This much,
at any rate, is certain, that the Morocco leather of the
Levant is prepared with dog’s dung ; becaufe it has
been found that this dung is proper for heightening the
colour of the black. The bath of dung is followed
by the proeefs of galling.
Galling and 234. “ The galling is performed by immerfing the
almning. cotton in a bath of warm water, in which five occas of
pulverifed gall-nuts have been boiled. This operation
renders the cotton more fit for being faturated with the
colour, and gives to the dye more body and drength.
After the galling comes aluming, which is performed
twice, with an interval of two days, and which confids
in dipping the cotton into a bath of water in which
five occas of alum have been infufed, mixed with five
occas of water alkalized by a ley of foda. The alum¬
ing mud be performed with care, as it is this operation
which makes the colouring particles combine bed with
the cotton, and which fecures them in part from the
dedruftive action of the air. When the fecond alum¬
ing is finidied, the cotton is wrung ; it is then prtflVd,
and put to foak in running water, after being inclofed
in a bag of thin cloth.
I N G. 429
235. “ The workmen then proceed to the dyeing.— Of Simple
To eompofe the colours they put in a kettle five occas Colours,
of water and thirty-five occas of a root which the ” ?■
Greek* call ah-zari, or painting colour, and which in ^
Europe is known under the name of madder. The
madder, after being pulverifed, is moidened with one
occa of ox or (beep’s blood. The blood drengthens
the colour, and the dofe is increafed or leflened accor¬
ding to the diade of colour required. An equal heat is
maintained below the kettle, but not too violent j and
when the liquor ferments, and begins to grow warm,
the (kains are then gradually immtrfed, before the
liquor becomes too hot. They are then tied with pack¬
thread to fmall rods, placed croffwife above the kettle
for that purpofe, and when the liquor boils well, and
in an uniform manner, the rods from which the
(kains were fufpended are removed, and the cotton is
fuffered to fall into the kettle, where it mud remain
till two-thirds of the water is evaporated. When one-
third only of the liquor remains, the cotton is taken
out and wafhed in pure water.
236. “ The dye is afterwards brought to perfe&ion Alkaline
by means of a bath alkalized with foda. This mani-^at^*
pulation is the mod difficult and the mod delicate of
the whole, becaufe it is that which gives the colour its
tone. The cotton is thrown into this new bath, and
made to boil over a deady fire till the colour a (fumes
the required tint. The whole art confids in catching
the proper degree : a careful workman, therefore, mud
watch with the utmod attention for the moment when
it is neceffary to take out the cotton, and he will ra¬
ther burn his hand than mifs that opportunity. It
appears that this bath, which the Greeks think of fo
much importance, might be fupplied by a ley of foap j
and it is probable that faponaceous water would give
the colour more brightnefs and purity.
237. “ When the colour is too weak, the Levantines Methods of
kmnv how to drengthen it by increafing the dofe ofimProvn,S
the colouring fubdances •, and when they wiffi to giveUie '■° 01
it brightnefs and fplendour, they employ different roots
of the country, and, in particular, one named fnjfari,
fpecimens of which I have fent to France. The ali-
zari, which is the principal colouring matter employed
in the Greek dye-houfes, is colledled in Natolia, and
is brought to Greece from Smyrna : fome of it comes
alfo from Cyprus and Mefopotamia. The fuperiority
of this Levantine plant to the European madder is ac¬
knowledged by all tbofe acquainted with the art of
dyeing, and may arife from two caufes : the manner in
which it is cultivated, and the method employed for its
deficcation (1).”
238. To
(h) The French manufactories. . . .
(1) “ The chief manufactories,” continues our author, “ for dyeing fpun cotton red, edabliffied in Greece,
are in Theffaly. There are fome at Baba, Rapfani, lournavos, Lanffa, Pharfalia, and in all the villages fitua-
ted on the fides of Offa and Pehon. Thefe two mountains may be confidered as the alembics that didil the
eternal vapours with which Olympus is crowned, and which didribute them throughout the beautiful valleys
fituated around them. Of thefe valleys, that of Fempe has at all times been didinguifhed by the beauty of its
(hady groves and of its dreams. Thefe dreams, on account of their limpidmfs, are very proper for dyeing, and
fupply water to a gi^eat number of manufactories, the mod celebrated of which are thofe of Ambelakia.
“ Ambelakia, on account of the aftivity which prevails in it, has a greater refemblance to a town of Holland
than a village of Turkey. This village, by its indudry, communicates life and aCHvity to all the neighbouring
country, and gives birth to an immenfe trade, which conne&s Germany with Greece in a thoufand ways. ts
450
Of Simple
Colours.
Papillon’s
procefs.
DYE
238. To thefe proccites vve fhall add the account
of another, which was long fuccefsfully pradiifed at
Glafgow by Mr Papillon, a native of France, and
was communicated by him, for a fuitable premium, to
the commiffioners and truftees for manufaftures in Scot¬
land, to be by them publiftied for the benefit of the
public, at the end of a certain term of years. This
tranfaftion took place in 1790, and the period having
expired, the truftees announced it to the public in 1803.
The procefs, which confiftsof nine difterent fteps, is the
following.
Step I.
For 100 lib. cotton you muft have
IOO lib. of Alicante barilla,
20 lib. of pearl aftres,
100 lib. quicklime.
The barilla is mixed with foft water in a deep tub,
which has a fmall hole near the bottom of it, flopped
at firft with a peg.—This hole is covered in the infide
with a cloth fupported by two bricks, that the allies
may be prevented from running out at it, or flopping it
up while the ley filters through it.
Under this tub is another to receive the ley ; and
pure water is repeatedly pafled through the firft tub
to form lees of different ftrength, which are kept fe-
parate at firft until their ftrength is examined. The
ftrongeft required for ufe muft fwim or float an egg,
and is called the ley of fix degrees of the French hydro¬
meter, or pefeliqueur. The weaker are afterwards
brought to this ftrength, by palling them through frelh
barilla. But a certain quantity of the weak, which is
of 2 degrees of the above hydrometer, is referved for
diffolving the oil, and gum, and the fait, which are
ufed in fubfequent parts of the procefs. This ley of 2
degrees is called the weak barilla liquor, the other is
called the ftrong.
Diffolve the pearl-allies in 10 pails, of 4 gallons each,
of foft water, and the lime in 14 pails.
Let all the liquors Hand till they become quite clear,
and then mix ten pails of each.
Boil the cotton in the mixture five hours, then walk
it in running water and dry it.
Step II. Bainbie, or Gray Steep,.
Take a fufficient quantity (20 pails) of the ftrong
I N G.
Part II
barilla water in a tub, and diffolve or dilute in it 2 pails of Sim ■
full of flieep’s dung, then pour into it 2 quart bottles Colours,
of oil of vitriol, and 1 lib. of gum arabic, and 1 lib. of''"■“V'-'
fal ammoniac, both previoufly diffolved in a fufficient
quantity of the weak barilla water, and laftly, 25 lib. of
olive oil, which has been previoufly diffolved or well
mixed with 2 pails of the weak barilla water.
The materials of this fteep being well mixed, tramp
or tread down the cotton into it, until it is well
foaked 5 let it fteep 24 hours, and then wring it hard
and dry it.
Steep it again 24 hours, and again wring and dry it.
Steep it a third time 24 hours, after which wring
and dry it, and laftly waffi it well and dry it.
Step III. The White Steep.
This part of the procefs is precifely the fame with
the laft, in every particular, except that the fheep’sdung
is omitted in the compofition of the fteep.
Step IV. Gal/ Steep.
Boil 2? lib. of galls bruifed in 10 pails of river wa¬
ter until 4 or 5 are boiled away j ftrain the liquor into
a tub, and pour cold water on the galls in the ftrainer,
to wafti out of them all their tindlure.
As foon as the liquor is become milk-warm, dip your
cotton hank by hank, handling it carefully all the time,
and let it fteep 24 hours.
Then wring it carefully and equally, and dry it well
without waffiing.
Step V. Firjl Alum Steep.
Diffolve 25 lib. of Roman alum in 14 pails of warm
water, without making it boil, fkim the liquor well, and
add 2 pails of ftrong barilla water, and then let it cool
until it be lukewarm.
Dip your cotton and handle it hank by hank, and let
it fteep 24 hours, and wring it equally and dry it well
without waffiing.
Step VI. Second Alum Steep,
Is performed in every particular like the laft, but
after the cotton is dry, you fteep it 6 hours in the river,
and waffi and dry it.
Step
population, which has been tripled within thefe fifteen years, amounts at prefent to 4000, and all thefe people
exift by dyeing. None of thofe vices or cares produced by idlenefs are known here. The hearts of the inhabi¬
tants are pure, and their countenances unclouded. Servitude, which degrades the countries watered by the Pe-
neus, has not yet afcended to thefe hills : no Turk can refide or live among thefe people $ and they govern them-
felves, like their anceftors, by \\\T\x protoyeros and their own magiftrates. Twice have the favage muffulmans of
Lariffa, envious of their eafe and happinefs, attempted to fcale their mountains in order to plunder their houfes 5
and twice have they been repulfed by hands which fuddenly quitted the ffiuttle to affume the mufket.
“ All hands, and even thofe of the children, are employed in the dye-houfesof Ambelakia j and while the men
dye the cotton, the women are fpinning and preparing it. The ufe of wheels is not known in this part of
Greece j all the cotton is fpun on a diftaff: the thread, indeed, is certainly not fo round or equal, but it is fofter,
more filky, and more tenacious ; it is lefs apt to break, and lafts longer j it is alfo more eafily whitened, and
more proper for being dyed. It is a pleafing fpeflacle to fee the women of Ambelakia, each fpinning from a
diftaff, and fitting converfing together on the threffiold of their doors; but as foon as a ftranger appears, they
inftantly retire and conceal themfelves in their houfes, manifefting, like Galatea, in their precipitate retreat, a
defire of flying and of ffiewing themfelves—
Ft fugit ad falices, et fe cupit ante videri.”
:hap. I-
fSimple STEP VII. Dyeing Steep.
Colours. J 1
The cotton is dyed by about 10 lib. at once, for
■which take 2{ gallons of ox blood, and mix it in the
copper with 28 pails of milk-warm water, and ftir it
well ; then add 25 lib. of madder, and ftir ^11 well to¬
gether. Then having beforehand put the 10 lib. of
cotton on fticks, dip it into the liquor, and move and
turn it conftantly one hour, during which you gradu¬
ally increafe the heat, until the liquor begin to boil
at the end of the hour. Then fink the cotton, and
boil it gently one hour longer j and, laftly, wafh it
and dry it.
Take out fo much of the boiling liquor, that what
remains may produce a mik-warm heat with the frelh
water with which the copper is again filled up, and
then proceed to make up a dyeing liquor as above, for
the next 10 lib. of cotton.
Step VIII. T/ie Fixing Steep.
Mix equal parts of the gray fteep liquor, and of the
white fteep liquor, taking 5 or 6 pails of each. Tread
down the cotton into this mixture, and let it fteep fix
hours, then wring it moderately and equally, and dry
it without vvaftiing.
Step IX. Brightening Steep.
Ten lib. of white foap muft be diflblved moft care¬
fully and completely in 16 or 18 pails of warm water j
if any little bits of the foap remain undilTolved, they
will make fpots in the cotton. Add four pails of ftrong
barilla water, and ftir it well. Sink your cotton in this
liquor, keeping it down with crofs fticks, and cover it
up and boil it gently two hours, then walh and dry it,
and it is finiftied.
Vessels.
The number of veffels neceflary for this bufinefs is
greater in proportion to the extent of the manufa&o-
ry ; but, in the fmalleft work, it is neceffary to have
four coppers of a round form.
1/?, The largeft, for boiling and for finifhing is 28
inches deep by 38 or 39 wide in the mouth, and 18
inches wide in the wideft part.
2d, The fecond, for dyeing, is 28 deep, by 23 or
24 in the mouth.
3c?, The third, for the alum fteep, is like the fe¬
cond.
t[th, The fourth, for boiling the galls, is 20 deep,
by 28 wide.
A number of tubs or larger wooden veffels are ne¬
ceffary, which muft all be of fir, and hooped with wood
or with copper.
Iron muft; not be employed in their conftrudlion, not
even a nail •, but where nails are neceffary, they muft:
be of copper.
By the pail is always underftood a wooden veffel,
which holds four Englilh gallons, and is hooped with
copPer- r , 1
In fome parts of the above procefs, the ftrength
of the barilla liquor or liquors is determined, by7 tell¬
ing to what degree a pefeliqueur or hydrometer funk
in them.
The pefeliqueur is of French conftru&ion. It is
Similar to the glafs hydrometer ufed by the fpirit dealers
431
in this country j and any artift who makes thefe inftru- Of Simple
ments, will find no difficulty in conftrudting one with Colours,
a fcale fimilar to that employed by M. Papillon, when
he is informed of the following circumftances :
I/?, The inftrument, when plunged in good foft
water, fuch as Edinburgh pipe water, at temperature
60 degrees, finks to the o, or beginning of the fcale,
which ftands near the top of the ftem.
2d, When it is immerfed in a faturated folution of
common fait, at the fame temperaiure of 60 degrees,
it finks to the 26th degree of the fcale only, and this
falls at fome diftance from the top of the ball.
This faturated folution is made by boiling, in pure
water, refined fea or common fait, till no more is diffol-
ved, and by filtering the liquor when cold through
blotting paper.
It ihould alfo be obferved, that whenever directions
are given to dry yarn, to prepare it for a fucceeding
operation, that this drying ffiould be performed with
particular care, and more perfectly than our dryeft wea¬
ther is in general able to effeCt. It is done therefore
in a room heated by a ftove to a great degree.
239. There is (till another procefs, which is recom-jiauff.
mended by Hauffmann. This procefs, (fays he) obtainsmann’s pro-
a beautiful and durable red. He makes a cauftic ley cefs f°r
of one part of common potaffi diffolved in four of boil-^^er
ing water, and a half part of quicklime, which is after¬
wards llaked in it. He then diffolved one part of pow¬
dered alum in two of boiling water, and to this folu¬
tion, while it was yet warm, he added that of the cau-
ftic ley. The folution of alumina being left at reft',
formed, on cooling, a precipitate of fulphate of potalh.
A 33d part of linfeed oil was then mixed with the al¬
kaline folution of alumina, which then formed a milky
faponaceous liquid. When the mixture is to be ufed,
it ought to be well ffiaken, becaufe the oil feparates.
The fluffs of cotton or linen muft be fucceffively im¬
merfed in it, and equally preffed, and muft be dried
under ffielter from rain in fummer, and in a warm place
in winter *, and being left in that ftate for 24 hours, are
then waffied in pure running water, and again dried.
The fame procefs in the immerfion in alkaline ley is
again to be repeated, taking care to introduce firft thofe
fluffs which were laft in the firft folution. I he whole
of the mixture ffiould be confumed each time, as it
would attraCl carbonic acid from the air, and fuffer the
alumiya to be precipitated.
240. Two immerfions in the alkaline folution of alu¬
mina mixed with linfeed oil, afford a beautiful red j
but by impregnating the fluffs a third, or even a fourth
time, in the fame manner, the moft brilliant colours
are obtained. The intenfity of the colour is in pro¬
portion to the quantity of madder. A quantity of
madder equal in weight to the fluffs, will yield a red,
which, by clearing becomes of a rofy ffiade; and ffiades
of crimfon of different degrees of brightnefs are obtain¬
ed, by ufing two, three, or four times the weight of
madder *, but unlefs the water employed in the proceffes
contains fome portion of lime, the addition of the chalk
ffiould never be omitted.
241. The fcarlet colour communicated to cotton by Scarlet
means of cochineal, is far from being permanent $ but with cochin
if this colour is wiffied to be communicated to cotton,neal*
Dr Bancroft recommends to fteep the cotton, previoufly
moiftenedj for half an hour? in a diluted folution .of
murio«
DYEING.
DYE
Of simple murio-fulphate of tin, and then having wrung the cot-
Colours. ton, to plunge it into water, in which as much potalh
1 V" has been diffolved as will neutralize the acid adhering to
the cotton, lb that the oxide of tin may be more copi-
oully fixed on the fibres of the cotton, i he ftuft being
afterwards rinfed in water, maybe dyed with cochineal
and quercitron bark, in the proportion of four pounds
of the former, to two and a half or three pounds of the
latter. A full bright colour is thus given to the cot¬
ton, which will bear flight walkings with loan, and
expofure to the air. Indeed the yellow part of the co¬
lour derived from quercitron bark will bear long boil¬
ing with Ibap, and will refill the a£tion of acids.
242. With the aluminous mordant, as it is ufually
applied by callico printers for madder reds, cotton dyed
Crimfon. with cochineal receives a beautiful crimfon colour,
which will bear feveral walkings, and refill the weather
for fome time. It is not, however, to be confidered as
a fixed colour. Dr Bancroft is of opinion, that the
addition of a fmall portion of cochineal in dyeing mad¬
der reds upon the finer cottons, would be highly advan¬
tageous to the callico-printers. By this addition the
madder reds are rendered more beautiful, and the fawn
colour, or brownilh yellow hue, which injures thefe reds,
* Pii/- of would be thus overcome *.
Perm- Co/, j
432
s1?-
Sect. II. Of Yellow-
243. In dyeing yellow, it is necefiary to employ mor¬
dants, becaufe the affinity of yellow colouring matters for
either animal or vegetable fluffs is not fufficierflly ftrong
to produce durable colours. Yellow colours, therefore,
belong to that clafs which Dr Bancroft has denomina¬
ted adjeBive colours. As in the former fedlion, we lhall
firft give a ffiort defcription of the nature and properties
of the fubftances employed in dyeing yellow, and then
point out the moft approved modes of communicating
their colours to woollen, filk, cotton, and linen fluffs.
The fubftances capable of giving a yellow colour to
different fluffs are very numerous ; they do not all pro¬
duce fimilar quantities of colouring matter ; their dye
is not equally free ; the colours they impart incline
more or lefs to orange or green ; they poffefs various
degrees of brightnefs and permanency, and differ con-
fiderably in price ; circumltances by which the choice of
the dyer ought always to be regulated. But thofe
commonly employed in dyeing yellow, are weld, fuftic,
anotta, and quercitron bark.
I. Of the Suhfances employed in dyeing Yellow.
Subftances
employed 244. Weld Qrefeda luteola, Lin.) is a plant which
in dyeing grows wild in Britain, and in different European coun-
WeldT* tries. Its leaves are long, narrow, and of a bright green,
but the whole plant is madeufeof in the dyeing of yellow.
There are two kinds of weld, cultivated and wild, the
former of which is deemed more valuable than the lat¬
ter, as it yields a much greater proportion of colouring
matter. When this plant is fully ripe, it is pulled,
dried, and bound up in bundles for the ufe of the dver.
The wild fpecies grows higher and has a ftronger ftalk
than that which is cultivated, by which the one may be
readily diftinguiffied from the other.
Properties. 245. A ftrong decoflion of weld is of a browniffi yel¬
low colour, and if very much diluted with water the co-
2
I N G. -
Part I
lour inclines to a green. An alkali gives to this decoc- QfSi
tion a deeper colour, and the precipitate it occafions is
not foluble in alkalies. Moft of the acids give it a'T«
paler tinge, occafioning a little precipitate which is folu¬
ble in alkalies. Alumina has fo ftrong an affinity for the
colouring matter of weld, that it can even abftradl it
from fulphuric acid, and the oxide of tin produces a fi¬
milar effeft. The greater part of metallic falls throw
down fimilar precipitates, which vary in their ftiades of
colour according to the metal employed. A folution of
common fait renders the liquor turbid, and a folution of
tin yields a copious yellow precipitate, while the liquor
long continues turbid, and {lightly coloured.
246. Fuftic {tnorus tindlona, Lin.) is procured fromFuitfej
a tree of confiderable magnitude, which grows in the
Well Indies. The wood is yellow, as its name imports,
with orange veins. Ever fince the difcovery of Ame¬
rica it has been ufed in dyeing, as appears from a pa¬
per in the Tranfadlions of the Royal Society, of which
Sir William Petty was the author. Its price is mode¬
rate, the colour it imparts is permanent, and it readily
combines with indigo, which properties give it a claim
to attention as a valuable ingredient in dyeing. Before
it can be employed as a dye-ftuft', it muft be cut into
chips and put into a bag, that it may not fix in, and
tear the fluff, to which it is to impart its colouring
matter.
247. When a deco&ion of yellow wood or fuftic isp^rt;,
made very ftrong, the colour is of a reddiffi yellow,
and when diluted it is of an orange yellow, which it
readily yields to water. It becomes turbid by means
of acids, its colour is of a pale yellow, and the greenifh
precipitate may be re-diffolved by alkalies. The ful-
phates of zinc, iron, and copper, as well as alum, throw
down precipitates compofed of the colouring matter and
the different bafes of the falts employed.
In examining the caufes of the fixity of yellow co¬
lours, obtained from vegetables, Chaptal difcovered
that the durability of the pale yellow depended on the
tanning principle, which is found united with the yel¬
low colouring matter. He obtained by analyzing fuf¬
tic, I. A refinous or gummy matter, which can com¬
municate a beautiful yellow colour. 2. An extractive
matter, which is alfo yellow, and affords a beautiful
colour. 3. A tanning principle of a pale yellow colour,
which becomes black by boiling, or expofure to the
air. This latter diminiflies the brilliancy of the two
former ; but it may be feparated by a fimple. procefs.
Chaptal boiled with the wood fome animal fubftance
containing gelatinous matter, fuch as bits of {kin, ftrong
glue, &c. The tanning principle was thus precipitated
with the gelatinous matter, and the bath held in folu¬
tion only the colouring matters which yield a bright
full yellow ; and by means of this procefs he procured
colours from feveral vegetables, equally bright with
thofe which are communicated by yellow wood and
quercitron bark *. #
248. Anotta is a fpecies of pafte of a red colour, vjw.i.d*
obtained from the berries of the bixa orelluna, Lin. ^notta.
which is a native of America. The anotta of com¬
merce is imported from America to Europe in cakes of
two or three pound weight, where it i"s prepared from the
feeds of the tree mentioned above *, but the Am ricans
are faid to be in poffeffion of a fpecies of anotta fupe-
rior to that which they export, both for the brilliancy
Chap. I.
)fSimple an<1 permanency of the colour it imparts. They bruife
Colours, the feeds with their hands moiftened with oil, feparat-
— v» ing with a knife the pafte as it is formed, and drying
it in the fun j but the feeds are pounded with water
when defigned for fale, and allowed to undergo the
proeefs of fermentation.
roperties. 247. Anotta yields its colouring matter more rea¬
dily to alcohol than to water, on which account it is
ufed in yellow varnilhes to which an orange tinge is in¬
tended to be given. Acids form a precipitate with a
deco&ion of anotta of an orange colour, which is fo-
luble in alkalies j but folutions of common fait produce
no fenfible change. It yields an orange precipitate
with a folution of alum, and the fulphates of copper
and iron produce effe&s of nearly a fimilar nature.
With a folution of tin, the precipitate is of a lemon co¬
lour and {lowly depofited.
Quercitron 248. Quercitron, as it is denominated by Dr Ban-
>ark. croft, is the quercus nigra of Linnaeus, and is a large
lhii' °L tree which grows fpontaneoufly in North America.
Vm. 0. r^jie uf ;t yields a confiderable quantity of colour¬
ing matter, which was firft difcovered by Dr Bancroft
in the year 1784, in whom the ufe and application of
it in dyeing were exclufively veiled for a certain term
of years by virtue of an a6t of parliament. To prepare
it for ufe, the epidermis is taken off and pounded in a
mill, the refult of which procefs is a number of fila¬
ments and a fine light powder •, but as thefe do not con¬
tain equal quantities ©f colouring matter, it will be
proper to employ them in their natural propor¬
tions.
Wties. 249. Quercitron bark readily imparts _ its _ colouring
matter to water at ioo° of Fahrenheit, which is ot a yel-
lowilh brown, capable of being darkened by alkalies, and
brightened by acids. With muriate of tin the precipi¬
tate is copious, and of a yellow colour •, with fulphate
of tin it is a dark olive ; and with fulphate of copper it
is yellow, but inclining to an olive. Nitro-muriate of
tin yields a yellow extremely beautiful, probably owing
to the oxide of tin combining with the colouring mat¬
ter in a greater proportion than fome other falls.
Otherfub- 250. Befides the fubftances already mentioned as em-
ftances. ployed in the dyeing of yellow, we may add faw-wort to
the number (ferratu/a tinBona, Lin.) a plant which
yields a colouring matter nearly fimilar to that of weld,
and may of confequence be ufed as a proper fubilitute.
Dyers broom (^genijla tinBona) produces a yellow of
very indifferent nature, and is therefore only employed
in dyeing (luffs of the coarfeft kind. Turmeric (cur¬
cuma longa') is a native production both of the Eaft and
Weft Indies, and yields a more copious quantity of co¬
louring matter than any other yellow dye-ltuff j but it
will probably never be of any effential fervice in dyeing
yellow, as no mordant has yet been difcovered, capable
of giving permanency to its colour.
251. Chamomile (anthemis tinElona') yields a faint
yellow colour, the hue of which is not unpleafant, but
is far from being durable, and even mordants are not
capable of fixing it. Sulphate of lime, tartar and alum,
bid faired for fuccefs.
252. Fenugreek (trigonella fcenugrcecum) yields feeds
which, when ground, communicate to fluffs a pale
yellow of tolerable durability ; and the bed mordants
are found to be alum and muriate of fnda, or common
fait. American hiccory (juglans alba() is a tree, the
Vol. VII. Part II. ' ,
433
bark of which yields a colouring matter in every re- Of Simple
fpeft refembling that of the quercus nigra1 but in quan- Colours,
tity greatly inferior. French berries (rhamnus infeBo-'
nus^) produce a tolerable yellow colour, but it is by no
means permanent. When ufed in the procefs of
dyeing, they are to be employed in the fame manner
as weld. According to Scheffer, a fine yellow colour
may be imparted to filk, thread, and wool, by means of
the leaves of the willow : but Bergman informs us that
only the leaves of the fweet willow (falix pentandra')
are proper for producing a permanent colour, as a few
weeks expofure to the fun extracts that which is pro¬
duced by the colouring matter from the leaves of the
common willow.
253. In Switzerland and in England, the feeds of
purple trefoil are fometimes employed in the art of dye¬
ing, on which Vogler made a number of experiments,
in order to afcertain what colours they would produce :
and he found that a fine deep yellow was afforded by a
bath made of a folution of thefe feeds with potafh ; that
fulphuric acid yielded a light yellow, and fulphate of
copper or blue vitriol, a yellow inclining to green. M.
Dize informs us, that the feeds of trefoil impart to
wool a beautiful orange, and to filk a greenilb yellow ;
and that while aluming is neceffary in the procefs of
dyeing with the feeds of trefoil, a folution of tin cannot
be employed.
II. Of the Procef/es for Dyeing Wool Yellow.
254. In dyeing woollen fluffs with weld, the mor-With welft.
dants employed are alum and tartar, and by their means
a pure, permanent yellow is obtained. The boiling is
to be conducted in the ufual way } and according to
Hellot, four ounces of alum to one ounce of tartar are
to be employed. Other dyers, however, employ half
as much tartar as alum. The colour is rendered paler,
but more lively, by means of the tartar.
255. The bath is prepared by boiling the plant in-Preparation
clofed in a thin linen bag, and keeping it from rifingof the bath,
by means of a wooden crofs. Some boil it till it finks
to the bottom of the veffel; while others, after it is boil¬
ed, take it out, and throw it away. From three to
four libs, of weld, and fometimes lefs, are allowed for
every lib. of (luff; but the quantity muft be regulated
by the intcnfity of the (hade defired. Some dyers add
a fmall quantity of quicklime and allies, which are
found to promote the extraftion of the colouring mat¬
ter. Thefe fubftances at the fame time heighten the
colour, but render it lefs fufceptible of refilling the
aflion of acids.
256. With other additions, and different management, For differ-
different (hades may be obtained. Thus, lighter ftiades ent fhades.
are produced by dyeing after deeper ones, adding wa¬
ter at each dipping, and keeping the bath at the boil¬
ing temperature. Thefe {hades, however, are lefs live¬
ly than when frefti baths are employed, with a fuitable
proportion of weld. The addition of common fait or
fulphate of lime to the weld bath communicates a rich¬
er and deeper colour. With alum it is paler and more
lively, with tartar dill paler, and with fulphate of iron
the fhade inclines to brown. According to Scheffer,
by boiling the fluff two hours, with one-fourth of its
weight of a folution of tin, and the fame proportion of
tartar, and then wafliing and boiling it with an equal
weight of weld, a fine yellow is produced $ but if the
DYEING.
Of Simple
Colours.
With quer.
CiUou barK
Pro refs for
•ermanent
colours.
434 ' t> Y E
ftuffbe hi the ftate of cloth, its internal texture is not
penetrated. Poerner recommends a fimilar preparation
as for dyeing fcarlet, and by thefe means the colour is
brighter, more permanent, and lighter.
257* Dr Bancroft recommends the quercitron bark
as one of the cheapeft and belt fubltances for dyeing
wool yellow. The following is the Ample procefs which
he has propofed for its application. The bark is to be
boiled up with about its weight, or one-third more,
of alum, in a fuitable proportion of water, for about
lo minutes. The duff previoufly fcoured is then to be
immerfed in the bath, taking care to give the higher
colours firit, and afterwards the paler ftraw colours,
©heap pro-By this cheap and expeditious procefs, colours which
«efs. are noj want'd to be of a full or bright yellow, may
be obtained. The colour may be con iderably height¬
ened by palling the unrinfed fluff a few times through
hot water, to which a little clean powdered chalk, in
the proportion of about i^lb. for each ioslb. of Huff
has been previoufly added. The bark, when ufed
in dyeing, being firll reduced to powder, fhould be
tied up in a thin linen bag, and fufpended in the liquor,
fo that it may be occalionaliy moved through it, to dif-
fufc the colouring matter more equally.
258. But although the above method pofleffes the
advantages of cheapnefs and expedition, and is fully
fufficient for communicating pale yellows •, to obtain
fuller and more permanent colours, the common mode
of preparation, by previoufly applying the aluminous
mordant, ought to be preferred. The fluff, therefore,
fhould be boiled for about one hour or one hour and a
quarter, with one-fixth, or one-eighth of its weight of
alum, diffolved in a proper proportion of water. The
fluff is then to be immerfed, without being rinfed, into
the dyeing bath, with clean hot water, and about the
fame quantity of powdered bark tied up in a bag, as
that of the alum employed in the preparation. The
fluff is then to be turned as ufual through the boiling
liquor, until the colour appears to have acquired fufR-
cient intenfity. One pound of clean powdered chalk
for every loolb. of fluff is then to be mixed with the
dyeing bath, and the operation continued for eight or
ten minutes longer. This addition of the chalk raifes
»nd brightens the colour.
259. Orange Ye/low. •"■■To communicate a beauti¬
ful orange yellow to woollen fluffs, 10 lbs. of querci¬
tron bark, tied up in a bag, for every 100 lb. of fluff, are
to be put into the bath with hot water. At the end
lor differ- or e>ght minutes, an equal weight of murio-ful-
snt fhades. phate of tin is to be added, and the mixture well ftir-
red for two or three minutes. The cloth, previoufly
fcoured, and completely wetted, is then immerfed in
the dyeing liquor, and brifkly turned for a few minutes.
By this procefs the colouring matter fixes on the cloth
fo quickly and equally, that after the liquor begins to
boil, the higheft yellow may be produced in lefs than
15 minutes.
26a. High fhades of yellow, fomewbat fimilar to.
tbofe obtained from quercitron bark by the above pro*
cefs, are frequently given with young fuftic (rhus cofi-
nus, Lin.) and dyers fpirit, or nitro-muriate of tin ; but
this colour is much lefs beautiful and permanent, while
it is more expenfive than what is obtained from the
feark.
3r6Y, Bright golden 2e//oiy,———This colour is produ-
I N G.
ced by employing 10 pounds of bark for every 100 lbs.
of cloth, the bark being firfl boiled a few minutes, and
then adding feven or eight lbs. of raurio-fulphate of tin,
with about five pounds of alum. The cloth is to be
dyed in the fame manner as in the procefs for the orange
yellow.
262.. Bright yellows of lefs body are produced by
employing a fmaller proportion of bark, as well as
by diminifhing the quantity of murio-fulphate of tin
and alum. And indeed every variety of fliade of pure
blight yellow may be given by varying the proportions
of the ingredients.
Part ]
Of Simp
dolour;
263. To produce the lively delicate green fliade, For greei
which, for certain purpofes, is greatly admired, the ad-ifliyelbv
dition of tartar, with the other ingredients, only is ne-
ceflary, and the tartar muft be added in different pro¬
portions, according to the fliade which is wanted. For
a full bright yellow, delicately inclining to the greenifli
tinge, it will be proper to employ eight pounds of bark,
fix of murio-fulphate of tin, with fix of alum, and four
of tartar. An additional proportion of alum and tar¬
tar renders the yellow more delicate, and inclines it
more to the green fliade ; but when this lively green
fliade is wanted in the greateft perfe&ion, the ingredi¬
ents muft be ufed in equal proportions. The delicate
green lemon yellows are feldom required to have much
fulnefs or body. Ten pounds of bark, therefore, with
an equal quantity of the other ingredients, are fufficient
to dye three or four hundred pounds of fluffs*. * Uancn
264. To produce the exquifitely delicate and beauti-330-
ful pale green ffiades, the fureft method, Dr Bancroft
obferves, is to boil the bark with a fmall proportion of fow!" ^
water, in a feparate tin veffel for fix or eight minutes,
and then to add the murio-fulphate of tin, alum, and
tartar, and to boil thjem together for about fifteen mi¬
nutes. A fmall quantity of this yellow liquor is then
to be put into a dyeing veffel, which has been previ¬
oufly fupplied with water fufficiently heated. The mix¬
ture being properly ftirred, the dyeing procefs is to be
condu&ed in the ufual way, and the yellow liquor, as
it is wanted, gradually added from the firft veffel. In
this way, the moft delicate ffiades of lively green le¬
mon yellows are dyed with eafe and certainty. Weld
is the only dye-fluff from which fimilar ffiades of colour
can be obtained j but it is four times more expenfive.
The yellows dyed from quercitron bark, Dr Bancroft
adds, with murio-fulphate of tin and alum as mordants,
do not exceed the expence of one penny for each pound
of fluff \ befides a confiderable faving of time, labour,
and fuelf. f Ibid. 3 j
265. A greenifli ffiade may alfo be produced with- Verdign
out tartar, by fubftituting verdigrife diffolved in vine~ulec} fort ’
gar, along with the bark ; but it is neither fo perma-tar‘
nent, nor fo bright and delicate, as that produced by
means of tartar. Sulphate of indigo alfo, in very fmall
proportion, communicates a fimilar (hade, when it is
employed with the bark, murio-fulphate of tin, and
alum j but it is apt to take unequally on the fluff, and
befides, in the language of the dyers, the colour has a
tendency to cajl or fly, in the finifliing.
266. Small proportions of cochineal, employed-along Cochine;
with the bark and other ingredients, raife the colour to aml ,ma^ L
a beautiful orange, and even to an aurora. MaddereHip0y
may be alfo employed with the fame view, for it
heightens the yellow obtained from quercitron bark,
although
Chap. I- DYE
of Simple although the colour thtis obtained is inferior in beauty
Colours, to that from cochineal. The madder may alfo be em-
-—* ployed with weld for the fame purpofef.
Bancroft, rpjie colours obtained from quercitron bark,
otos by the proceffes which we have now deforibed, are very
omquer- durable. They refift the adtion of the air, of foap,
itron bark ancj 0f acids. It is by the effe&s of alum, but efpecial-
ery dur- 0p tartar) that thefe colours become fo fixed as to
'We' remain permanent by expofure to the air. It is obfer-
-ved of the higheft yellows, even when they approach
to the orange, and which are belt dyed, either with
muriate, or murio-fulphate of tin and bark, that al¬
though they refill the adtion of foap and acids, they are
apt to lofe their luftre and become brown by the effedl
of the fun and air *, but this alfo happens to yellows
dyed with nitro-muriate of tin, both with the bark and
with weld, but in a ftill greater degree with other yel¬
low vegetable colouring matters. In fome of thefe this
defedt is lefs eafily obviated by alum and tartar, than
it is in the yellow obtained from weld and quercitron
| Ibid. 334* bark |.
III. Of the Proceffes for Dyeing Silk Yellow.
Rrith weld, 268. To dye filk a plain yellow colour, the only in¬
gredient which was formerly employed is weld. The
following is the procefs. The filk being previoufly
fcoured in the proportion of 20 lbs. of foap to the 100
of fluff, and then alumed and waffled after the aluming,
er, as it is called, refrefhed, the bath is prepared with
two pounds of weld for every pound of filk •, and, ha¬
ving boiled for 15 minutes, it is to be paffed into a vat
through a fieve or cloth. When the temperature is
fuch as the hand can bear, the filk is introduced, and
turned, until it has acquired a uniform colour. While
this operation is going on, the weld is to be boiled a
fecond time in freth water 5 one half of the firft bath is
taken out, and its place fupplied with a frefh decodlion.
The temperature of the freffi bath may be a little high¬
er than the former, but it is neccffary to guard againft
too great a degree of heat, that the colouring matter
already fixed may not be diffolved. The fluff is to be
turned as before, and afterwards taken out of the bath.
A quantity of foda is to be diffolved in a part of the
fecond decoftion, and a larger or fmaller proportion of
this folution is to be added to the bath, according to
the intenfity of the ffiade required. When the filk has
been turned a few times, a fkain is wrung out, that it
may be examined whether the colour be fuffieiently full,
and have the proper golden ffiade. To render the co-
lour deep er, and to give it the gold call, an addition
lir' of the alkaline folution is to be made to the bath, and
to be repeated till the ffiade has acquired fufficient in¬
tenfity. The alkaline folution may alfo be added along
with the fecond decodtion of the weld, obferving the
precaution, that the temperature of the bath be never
too great.
For other 269. To produce other flaades of yellow, having
“ad8S' more of a gold or jonquille colour, a quantity of a-
notta, proportioned to the ffiade required, is to be add¬
ed to the bath, along with the alkali. Lighter ihades
of yellow, fuch as pale lemon, or Canary-bird colour,
are obtained, by previoufly whitening the filk, and re¬
gulating the proportion of ingredients in the bath by
the fiiade required. To communicate a yellow having
£ tinge of green, a little indigo is added to the bath, if
I N G.
435
the filk has not been previoufly azured. To prevent the of jimpte
intenfity of the ffiade from being too great, the filk may Colours
be more (lightly alumed than ufual. ^ ^
270. But, according to Dr Bancroft, the different A. cheaper
(hades of yellow obtained from weld, may be given toProee^s*
filk with equal facility and beauty, and at a cheaper
rate, by employing quercitron bark as a fubftitute. A
quantity of bark powdered and enclofed in a bag, in
proportion to the (hade of colour wanted, as from one
to two pounds for every twelve pounds of filk, is put
into the dyeing vat while the water is cold. Heat is
then applied j and when it has become rather more than
blood warm, or of the temperature of ioo°, the filk
having previoufiy undergone the aluming procefs, is to
be imtneried and dyed in the ufual way. If a deep
(hade is wanted, a fmall quantity of chalk or pearl-
aflies may be added towards the end of the operation.
To produce a more lively yellow, a fmall proportion of
murio-fulphate of tin may be employed j but it (hould
be cautioufly ufed, as it is apt to diminifh the luftre of
the filk. To produce fuch a (hade, the proportions of
the ingredients may be four pounds of bark, three of
alum, and two of murio-fulphate of tin. Thefe are t»
be boiled with a proper quantity of water for ten or fif¬
teen minutes j and the temperature of the liquid being
fo much reduced as the hand can bear it, the filk is im-
merfed and dyed as ufual, till it has acquired the pro¬
per colour. Care (hould be taken to keep the liquor
conffantiy agitated, that the colouring matter may be
equally diffufed *. * kbid. 34.5.
271. To dye (ilk of an aurora or orange colour, af- For an
ter being properly fcoured, it may be immerfed in an orange c»~-
alkaline folution of anotta, the ftrength of which is to^our•
be regulated by the (had** required ; and the tempera¬
ture of the bath ftiould be between tepid and boiling
water. When the defired (hade has been obtained, the
filks are to be wa(hed and twice beetled, to free them
from the fuperfluous colouring matter, which would in¬
jure the beauty of the colour. When raw filk is to be
dyed, that which is naturally white ftiould be fele&ed,
and the bath ftiould be nearly cold ; for otherwife the
alkali, by diffolving the gum of the filk, deftroys its
elafticity. Silk is dyed of an orange ffiade with anot¬
ta, but the (luffs muff be reddened with vinegar, alum,
or lemon juice. The acid, by faturating the alkali
employed to diffolve the anotta, deftroys the yellow
(bade produced by the alkali, and reftores its natural
colour, which inclines to a red. But although beauti¬
ful colours are obtained by this procefs, they do not
poffefs any great degree of permanency.
272. Several kinds of muftivooms afford lively and Yellow dye
durable yellow dyes. A bright ftiining dye of this dc-
feription has been extracted from the boletus hirfutusy
which commonly grow’s on walnut and apple trees.
The colouring matter is contained both in the tubular
part, and alfo in the parenchyma of the body of the
mufliroom. To extract the colouring matter, it is
pounded in a mortar, and the liquor which is thus ob-
tainad, is boiled for a quarter of an hour in water. An
ounce of liquor is fufficient to communicate colouring
matter to fix pounds of water. After the liquor has
been drained, the (luff to be dyed is immerfed in it,
and boiled for fifteen minutes. When filk is fubjedled
to this procefs, after being dyed, it is made to pafs
through a bath of foftfoap, by which it acquires a fliin-
3 I g ing
436
DYE
Of Simple ing golden yellow colour, which has a near refemblance
Colours, to the yellow of the filk employed to imitate embroi-
dery in gold. This has been hitherto brought from
China, and bears a very high price, the method of dye¬
ing it being unknown in Europe. All kinds of fluff
receive this colour, but it is lefs bright on linen and
cotton, and feems to have the ftrongefl affinity for filk.
The ufe of mordants, it is fuppofed, would modify and
improve it greatly *.
* Phil.
Mag. v,
ICO.
IV. Of the Procejfes for Dyeing Cotton and Linen
Yellow.
Procefs 273. The procefs which has been ufually followed
with weld. jn dyeing cotton and linen yellow, is by fcouring it in
a bath prepared in a ley with the allies of green wood.
It is afterwards waffied, dried, and alumed, with one-
fourth of its weight of alum. After 24 hours, it is ta¬
ken out of the aluming, and dryed, but without being
walked. The cotton is then dyed in a weld bath, in
the proportion of one pound and a quarter of weld for
each pound of cotton, and turned in the bath till it
has acquired the proper colour. After being taken out
of the bath, it is foaked for an hour and a half in a fo-
lution of blue vitriol (fulphate of copper), in the propor¬
tion of one-fourth of the weight of the cotton, and then
immerfed, without walking, for nearly an hour, in a
boiling folution of white foap, after which it is well
walked and dried.
For a deep- 274. A deeper yellow is communicated to cotton,
er yellow omitting the procefs of aluming, and employing two
pounds and a half of weld for each pound of cotton.
To this is added a dram of verdigrife, mixed with part
of the bath. The cotton is then to be dipped and
worked till the colour become uniform. It is then ta¬
ken out of the bath, that a little folution of foda may
be added, after which it is returned, and kept for fif¬
teen minutes. It is then wrung out and dried.
275. Other ffiades of yellow may be obtained, by
varying the proportion of ingredients. Thus, a lemon
colour is dyed by uling only one pound of weld for
every pound of cotton, and by diminilhing the propor-
\Berthollet,\\on uf verdigrife, or ufing alum as a fubftitute f.
u’ 276. But a better method, as it affords more perma-
< heaper nent and more beautiful colours, and at a fmaller ex¬
am! more pence, is recommended by Dr Bancroft. This is by
colours1601 ^ U^e I. . . DYE
)t Simple by mc^ns ot verdigtife and logwood, but poffeffes
Colours, little durability. It might be rendered more perma-
—“'nent, by giving it a lighter (bade in this bath, then
dipping it in a bath of archil, and finally in the indigo
vat.
yeing raw 303. When raw filk. is to be dyed blue, fuch as is
k naturally white Ihould be felefted. Being previoufly
foaked in water, it is put into the bath in feparate
hanks, as already directed for fcoured filks ; and as
taw filk is found to combine more readily with the co¬
louring matter, the fcoured filk, when it can be con¬
veniently done, fhould be firft put into the bath. If
archil, or any of the other ingredients which have
been already mentioned, are required to give more in-
tenfity to the colour, the mode of application is the
fame as that dire&ed for fcoured filk.
IV. Of the Procejfes for Dyeing Cotton and Linen Blue.
■eparation J”or dyeing cotton and linen blue, Pileur
the vat. d’^piigny recommends a vat containing about 120
gallons. From fix to eight pounds of indigo, reduced
to powder, are boiled in a ley drawn off from a quan¬
tity of lime, equal in weight to the indigo, and a
quantity of potalh double its weight. During the
boiling, which is to be continued till the indigo is
completely penetrated with the ley, the folution muft
be conftantly ftirred, to prevent the indigo from being
injured, by adhering to the bottom of the veffel.
305. During this procefs, another quantity of quick¬
lime, equal in weight to the indigo, is to be flaked.
Twenty quarts of Warm water are added, in which is
to be diflblved a quantity of copperas (fulphate of iron)
equal to twice the weight of the lime. The folution
being completed, it is poured into the vat, which is
previoufly half filled with water. To this the folution
of indigo is added, with that part of the ley which
was not employed in the'boiling. The vat muft now
be filled up to within two or three inches of the top.
It muft be raked twice or thrice a day till it is com¬
pletely prepared, which is generally the cafe in 48
hours, and fometiraes fooner, as it depends on the tem¬
perature of the atmofphere, A fmall proportion of
bran, madder, and woad, is recommended by fome, to
be added to fuch a vat as we have now defcribed.
fimpler 306. The procefs which is followed at Rouen, and
ocefs. defcribed by Quatremere, is fimpler. The vats, which
are conftrudted of a kind of flint, are coated within
and without with fine cement, and are arranged in one
or more parallel lines. Each vat contains four hogs¬
heads of water. The indigo, to the amount ol 18
or 20 pounds, being macerated for a week in a cauftic
ley, ftrong enough to bear an egg, is ground in a
mill •, three hoglheads and a half of water are put in¬
to the vat* and afterwards 20 pounds of lime. The
lime being thoroughly flaked, the vat is raked, and 36
pounds of copperas are added ; and when the folution
is complete, the ground indigo is poured in through a
fieve. It is raked feven or eight times the fame day,
and after being left at reft for 36 hours, it is in a ftate
fit for dyeing.
rocefson a 207. In extenfive manufaftories, it is neceflary to
rg«r cale.jjave va^s aj. JJfperent times. In conducing the pro¬
cefs of dyeing, the ftuffs are firft dipped in the moft ex-
haufted vat, and then regularly proceeding from the
weakeft to the ftrongeft, if they have not previoufly at»
Vol. VII. Part II.
I N G. 44,
tained the defired fliade. The ftuflfs ftiould remain in Of Simple
the bkth only about five or fix minutes, for in that time Colours,
they combine with all the colouring matter they can' v
take up. After the fluffs have been dipped in a vat,
it fhould not be ufed again, till it has been raked, and
flood at leaft 24 hours, unlefs it has been lately fet,
when a fhorter period is fufficient.
308. After the ftuffs have been dipped three or four
times in a vat, it begins to change. It becomes black,
and no blue or copper-coloured ftreaks are feen on the
furface after raking it. It muft then be renewed, by
adding four libs, of copperas, with two of quicklime,
after which it muft be raked twice. In this way a vat
may be renewed three or four times; but the additional
quantity of ingredients muft be diminifhed, as the
ftrength of the vat is exhaufted *. * Berthot-
309. A vat which is ftill more fimple and more ea_ procefs^of
fily prepared, has been recommended by Bergman. Bergman.
The proportion of the ingredients which he has diredl-
ed to be employed, is the following. To three
drachms of indigo reduced to powder, three drachms
of copperas, and three of lime, add two pints of water.
Let it be well raked, and in the courfe of a fetv hours
it will be in a proper ftate for dyeing.
3to. Hauffmann employs a ftill fmaller proportion ofHaufl*-
indigo. For 3000 libs of water, he takes 36 libs, wfoiann’*.
quicklime flaked in 200 libs, of water, with which the
indigo in the proportion of from lOto 2olibs. wellground,
is to be mixed. He then diffolves 30 libs, of copperas
in 120 libs, of hot water. The whole being left at reft
for fifteen minutes, the vat is filled and gently and
conftantly ftirred. When a deeper (hade is Wanted,
and particularly when linen is to be dyed, the propor¬
tion of indigo (hould be greater ; but the lhade depends
very much on the time the ftuffs remain in the vat, and
the times it has been ufed. When the vat becomes
turbid, the procefs of dyeing muff be interrupted, till
it has been again raked, and the fupernatant liquor be¬
come tranfparent. If the effects of the lime fail, a new
quantity frefti flaked, muft be added ; and if the iron
ceafe to produce the effeft on the indigo, a new por¬
tion muft be alfo added, obferving the precaution to hav«
a greater quantity of lime than what is mceffary to fatu-
rate the fulphuric acid. When theindigoleems to be ex¬
haufted, frefh portions ground in water are alfo to be ad¬
ded ; the vat is to be raked feveral times, and allowed
to fettle, after which it is again fit for ufe. In this way
MrHauffmann informs us he preferved a vat forthe fpace
of two years; and had it not been for the accumulation
of fediment, which prevented the ftuffs from being im-
merfed to a fufficient depth, it might have been conti¬
nued in ufe for a much longer time. It is worth while
to add, that Mr Hauffmann found, that a pattern of cloth
dipped in water acidulated with fulphuric acid, imme¬
diately after it was taken out of the bath, became of a
much deeper blue than a fimilar pattern expofed to the
air, or another dipped in river water.
311. Another convenient and expeditious vat is men¬
tioned by Bergman, and deferibed by Scheffer. Indi¬
go reduced to fine powder, in the proportion of three
drachms to a quart, is added to the ftrong ley of the
foap boiler. After a few minutes, when the colouring
matter is well penetrated by the ley, fix drachms of
powdered orpiment are to be added. In a few minutes
after the bath has been well raked, it becomes green,
3 K and
Colours.
Difcovery
of Saxon
blue.
Preparation
of the dye.
442 DYE
Of Simple and the blue ftreaks appear on the furface. Heat
is to be applied; when the operation of dyeing may
commence.
312. The preparation employed for printing cottons
is limilar to the above bath, excepting in the propor¬
tions of orpiment and indigo, which are greater in the
former ; but thefe proportions are very different in dif¬
ferent manufaflories.
313. Saxon Blue.—The colour which is obtained by
dyeing with a folution of indigo in fulphuric acid is
known under the name of Saxon blue, becaufe the pro-
cefs was firft carried on at Groffenhayn in Saxony, by
Counfellor Barth, who made the difcovery about the
year 1740. This difcovery was for fome time kept
fecret, and the method feems to have been originally
very complicated. Alumina, antimony, and fome other
fubftances, were previoufly added to the fulphuric acid.
Thefe, however, are now omitted, and the indigo alone
is diffolved in the acid.
314. From a great number of experiments which
were made on this procefs by Bergman, he concluded,
that in thofe cafes where the fulphate of indigo afford¬
ed only a fading colour, the acid employed had been
too weak. Quatremere obferves that, among feveral
proceffes for dyeing with fulphate of indigo, he difco-
vered only two, in which the fluffs were completely
penetrated with colouring matter. To effect this, he
employed an alkali, in the proportion of one ounce to
an ounce of indigo, and fix ounces of fulphuric acid.
With thefe proportions of the ingredients he obtained
a deep vivid blue, equally intenfe through every part
of the fluff. Poerner, who has paid great attention to
this preparation, alfo employs an alkali, by means of
which a more pleafing colour, which penetrates deeper,
is produced. The proportions which he recommends
are four parts of fulphuric acid to one of indigo. The
indigo is firft reduced to a fine powder, and the fulphu¬
ric acid, in the concentrated ftate, is poured upon it.
The mixture is ftirred for fome time, and having flood
twenty-four hours, one part of dry potalh in fine pow¬
der, is added ; and after the whole is again ftirred, it
remains for twenty-four hours longer. It is then to be
diluted with eight times its weight of water, which
muft be gradually added, or a greater or lefs proportion
as may be wanted.
Dr Bancroft feems to be of opinion, that a more du¬
rable blue may be obtained by diluting the acid with
an equal quantity of water, when the indigo is put in,
and allowing the mixture to remain forty-eight hours 5
for he thinks by this flower and more moderate a£lion,
the bafis of the indigo is lefs injured. Inftead of the
potafh employed by Poerner, Dr Bancroft ufes chalk j
and even in fuch a quantity as to faturate the acid. In
this cafe the indigo is precipitated along with the
chalk ; and, when collected into a folid mafs, commu¬
nicates a blue colour to wool, but more flowly than by
the common method, in which the combination is very
rapid and the dyeing unequal. This inconvenience he
thinks might be obviated by the ufe of chalk *.
315. lo produce a Saxon blue colour on woollen
By Ban¬
croft.
# Phil, of
Perm. Col.
For "woollen ftoffS’ they are prepared with alum and tartar. And
fluffs. proportion to the fhade required, the quantity of fo¬
lution of indigo put into the bath muft be regulated.
When a deep ihade of Saxon blue is wanted, the fluff
rauft be paffed different times through veffels containing
1 - 3
I N G Part II
fuch a quantity of colouring matter as is fufficient to ofs- 1
give light colours. In this way, by repeated applica- CoCT
lions, the colours become more uniform. -
316. The fulphate of indigo is alfo employed to dyeForfilk,
filk. For this purpofe, attempts have been made to
unite the advantages of the indigo vat and its folu¬
tion in fulphuric acid. A procefs of this kind is
greatly recommended by Guhliche, which produces
beautiful colours, and is at the fame time cheap and
convenient. The bath is compofed of one pound of
indigo, three'pounds of quicklime, three of copperas,
and one and a half of orpiment. The indigo is firft to
be carefully ground and mixed with water, put into a
wooden vat, and diluted with rvater, according to the
fhade of colour wanted. The lime is then to be add¬
ed, and the mixture being well ftirred, it is covered
up, and allowed to remain at reft for fome hours. Af¬
ter this the copperas in the ftate of powder is added,
the whole well ftirred, and the vat covered up. And
laftly, at the end of fome hours, the orpiment reduced to
powder is thrown in, and the whole left at rell for feveral
hours. The mixture is afterwards to be ftirred, and
then left to fettle, till the liquor becomes clear ; when
the blue ftreaks or flower which covers it is removed,
and the filk previoufly dipped in warm water, is to
be dyed hank by hank. When it is removed from
the bath, it is to be walked in a firearn of water, and
dried.
317. This procefs is recommended as the means of
obviating a greenifh eaft, which is fometimes obferved
in Saxon blue, and which is fuppofed to be owing to
fome change in the particles of indigo, by means of the
fulphuric acid.
318. The colour denominated Engllflj blue is pro-Englift
duced by means of the fulphate of indigo. To give blue,
filk this colour, it is firft to be dyed a light blue ; and,
when taken out of this bath, it is dipped in hot water,
walked in a ftream, and left in a batk compofed of
the fulphate of indigo, to which a little of the folution
of tin has been added, until the proper fhade is obtain¬
ed, or the bath is exhaufted. Previous to its being
put into this bath, it may be dipped in a folution of
alum, in which it fhould only remain a very fhort time.
Silk, which has been dyed according to this procefs, is
free from the reddifk fliade which it derives from the
blue vat, as well as from the greenifh caft of the Saxon
blue *. * Berthoi,
319. The fulphate of indigo has been hitherto only 31!!
applied for the purpofe of dyeing wool and filk. The
affinity of indigo for vegetable fubftances is not fuffi-
ciently flrong to effedl the decompofition of the fulphate.
It cannot, therefore, be employed with advantage in
dyeing cotton and linen.
320. Attempts have been made to dye with Pruffian .
blue. The procefs which was followed by Macquer
is the following. He foaked wool, filk, cotton, and
thread, in a folution of alum and fulphate of iron, and
afterwards in an alkaline folution, which was partly fa-
turated with pruffic acid. He then immeried the fluffs
in water, acidulated with fulphuric acid, for the pur¬
pofe of diffolving that part of the oxide of iron which
remained uncombined with the pruffic acid, and which
the uncombined alkali had precipitated. By fucceflive
repetitions of thefe irnmerfions he obtained a fine blue,
but very unequal. Berthollet juftly remarks on this
experiment,
hap.
lother
icefs.
: la Pla.
re’s.
I. DYE
Simple experiment, tliat an alkali faturated with pruffic acid
lolours. fliould be employed, or lime water or magnefia, both of
—v'—which have the property of combining with that acid.
In a fecond experiment Macquer boiled the ftuflfs in a
folution of tartar and alum, and then palled them
through a bath which contained pruffian blue merely
diffufed in it. The colour was faint, and could not be
made deeper ; but it was equal, and foft to the touch.
321. In the procefs propofed by Abbe Menon for
thread and cotton, they are firft dyed black, and foaked
for a few minutes in prufliate of alkali, and afterwards
boiled in a folution of alum. In this way they acquired
a deep blue. When a lighter blue is wanted, the lluffs
mull be palled through a weak acid.
322. Similar to the fecond experiment of Macquer is
the procefs of Roland de la Platiere. He takes pruf¬
fian blue in the proportion of a pound to a piece of tluff,
powdered, and pafled through a very fine fieve, and
adds muriatic acid till it is reduced to the confillence of
fyrup. It is to be conllantly ftirred for about half an
hour while it ferments. It is then well diluted, and
ftirred every hour for a day, till the fermentation ceafes.
The particles are thus in a Rate of minute divifion.
Seven or eight buckets of water for one piece of velvet,
are put into a trough •, then add the mixture, which has
been previoufly well diluted in a feparate veflfel, and
poured into the bath through a very fine fieve. When the
piece is placed on the winch, over the trough, let the
bath be brifkly ftirred, and the piece fpeedily let down •,
and the fame operation muft be continued as quickly as
poflible for feveral hours. This colour requires great
management, for as the particles of the pruflian blue
are only in a ftate of minute divifion, and heavy, they
are quickly depofited on the fluff. Hence the colour
appears very unequal and in patches, even with the
utmoft care *, and nothing can be done to avoid it, but
repeating the operations again and again. The fluff
fhould be put into the baths thoroughly wet, for when
it is dry, it penetrates with difficulty, and is always un¬
equal. Between the dryings the fluff is always to be
walked and beetled, excepting the laft time, when it
is not wafhed, but dried in the open air, either in the
fun or in the (hade j obferving, however, that it be well
ftretched. This beautiful colour is not changed by the
air; it refifts the a6tion of acids, and is little altered
by boiling with alum ; but it is foon tarnilhed by fri&ion,
or particles of duft that adhere to it. It is fcarcely ne-
ceffary to add, that it is inftantly decompofed by alka¬
line liquors. Guhliche employs a folution of tin in ni-
tro-muriatic acid, as a fubftitute for muriatic acid, in
the procefs of dyeing with pruffian blue*.
323. Dr Bancroft made a number of experiments in
dyeing both vegetable and mineral matters, Avith pruf¬
fian blue, and particularly with the view of obviating
the difficulties Avhich had occurred to others in the ufe
of it. He boiled up copperas with quercitron bark,
fuftic, and logwood, feparately, in what he thought the
beft proportions ; and in each of thefe mixtures he dyed
a piece of woollen cloth by boiling it for 10 or 15 mi¬
nutes. The fluffs Avere afterAvards feparately immerfed
in Avarm diluted pruffiate of potaffi neutralized by ful-
phuric acid. They acquired an equal and beautiful
blue. This, however, was not the uniform refult •, for
when too much copperas was employed in dyeing Avith
quercitron bark, there Avas an excefs of oxide of iron,
I
; Berth ol-
ft, ii. 20.
■ancroft’s.
n a 443
Avhich combining Avith the fibres of the wool, gave the Of Simple
pruffian blue a greenifti tinge j but this he found could Colours,
be remedied, by pafling the cloth through Avarm vva- v
ter, {lightly acidulated with muriatic acid. The pruf¬
fian colouring matter, Dr Bancroft obferves, muft al-
Avays be applied in a moderate heat, otherwife it Avill
be precipitated by the fulphuric acid, and rendered
unfit fur this purpofe, till it is again diffolved by pot-
alh, lime, or fome other fubftance.
324. He then tried to fix pruffian blue by means of
the aluminous mordant*, but at the end of 15 mi¬
nutes, after being immeried in a folution of pruffiate of
potafh, it had acquired no colour. The addition of a
fmall proportion of a folution of iron in muriatic acid,
communicated a blue colour. All parts of the cloth,
as well as thofe to Avhich the mordant had been applied,
received the colour. The cloth being Avafhed Avith
foap, the whole of the colour was difcharged, except¬
ing where it had been impregnated Avith alumina, and
even there it had become fainter. A piece of the fame
cotton Avas immerfed in a folution of ammonia (volatile
alkali) ; the pale blue was greatly heightened. Ano-
ther piece was put into water flightly tin&ured Avith a
folution of copper in ammonia. The blue colour be¬
came fuddenly of an intenfely deep garter-blue or vio¬
let, and it refifted the aiftion of foap. Into Avater mix¬
ed Avith a little of a fulution of muriate of copper, he
put another piece of the fame cotton, and it foon became
of a deeper blue, without any of the purple or violet
fhade. This refilled the adlion of foap, and after
long expofure to the Aveather, the colour was little di¬
minished ; and Avhen the colour remained in any degree
Aveakened, immeifion in water {lightly acidulated with
fulphuric acid, completely reftored it. from thefe fafls
it would appear to be advantageous to prepare woollens
by the ufual boiling Avith alum, or alum and tartar, be¬
fore they are dyed Avith copperas and quercitron bark,
fuftic or logAvood, for a pruffian blue j but a
portion of fulphuric acid, in the prufliate
lime, that the excefs of acid may difcharge the vege-
table colouring matters, becomes neceffary *.
325. Dr Brancroft afterAvards tried pieces of filk and For filk and
cotton in the diluted pruffiates of potafh, foda, lime, cotton.
&c. with folutions of moft of the metals in different
acids and alkalies ; and from the different metallic fo¬
lutions he obtained a very full, lively colour, which he
calls the red copper colour ; from the different folutions
of copper in fulphuric, nitric, muriatic, and acetic
acids j the fame effeft fucceeded well from a folution in
ammonia. He obtained alfo the fame colour from the
nitrates of filver and of cobalt. The pruffian colouring
matter fixed by thefe metallic mordants refifted the ac¬
tion of acids, wafhings Avith foap, and expofure to the
Aveather for the greateft length of time ; but in all thefe
cafes there muft be a double application. The pruffian
colouring matter muft firft be applied to the linen, cot¬
ton or filk, Avhich muft be afterwards allovtcd to dry.
It muft then be immerfed in the metallic folution, or
the metallic felution muft be applied firll, and then the
folution of prufliate of potafh, foda, lime, £ic.
Sect. IV. Of Dyeing Black.
The next of the fimple colours is black, of Avhich
Ave fhall treat as in the former fe&ions *, firft defcribing
the fubftances Avhich are employed, and then giving an
^ K 2 account
greater pro¬
of potafh or
444
Of Simple account of the proceffes which are followed in dyeing
, C°^urs> different fluffs of a black colour.
I. Of the Subjlances employed in Dyeing Black.
Juices of 326, There are few fubftances which have the pro¬
plants. perty of producing a permanent black colour, without
any addition. The juice of fome plants produces this
effect on cotton and linen. A black colour is obtained
from the juice of the cajhcw nut, which will not wafli
out, and even relifts the procefs of boiling with foap or
alkalies. The calhew nut of India is employed tor
marking linen. That of the Weft Indies Qanacardium
occidentale, Lin.) alfo yields a permanent dye, but the
colour has a brownilh (hade. The juice of fome other
plants, as that of the toxicodendron, or floes, affords a
diwable blueilh black colour j but thefe fubftances
cannot be obtained in iufficient quantity, even if they
afforded colours equal to thofe produced by the common
proceffes.
Tan,See. 327. The principal fubftances which are employed
to give a black colour are gall-nuts which contain
the aftringent principle, or tan, and the red oxide of
iron (l). For a particular account of the nature and
properties of tan, lee Chemistry Index. The black
colour is produced by the combination of the aftringent
principle with the oxide of iron, held in folution by an
acid, and fixed on the fluff. When the particles are
precipitated from the mixture of tan and a folution of
iron, they have only a blue colour j but after they are
expofed for fome time to the air, and moiftened with
water, the colour becomes deeper, although the blue
fhade is ftill perceptible. After the particles are fixed
on the fluff, the fhade becomes much deeper.
328. Logwood is not to be confidered as affording a
black dye, but is much employed to give a luftre to
black colours. We have (180.) already deferibed its
nature and properties, among the fubftances from which
red colouring matters are obtained.
Mordants 3(l) 29- Black colours are rarely produced by a Ample
neceffary combination between the colouring matter and the
for black, fluff j but are ufually fixed by means of mordants, as in
the cafe of the black particles which are the refult of
a combination of the aftringent principle and the oxide of
iron, held in folution by an acid. But when the par¬
ticles are precipitated from the mixture of an aftrin¬
gent and a folution of iron, they have only a blue co¬
lour. By being expofed to the air, and moiftened with
water, the colour becomes deeper, although the blue
{hade is ftill perceptible. No fine black colour is ever
obtained, unlefs the fluffs are freely expofed to the air.
In dyeing black, therefore, the operations muft be con¬
duced at different intervals. Berthollet has obferved,
that black fluffs, when brought in qontaC with oxy-
Part 1]
gen gas, dirainifti its volume, fo that fome portion of Of Simple
it is abforbed. t Colours,^
II. Of the Proceffes for Dyeing Woollen Black.
330. In dyeing woollen fluffs black, if a full and finejnuftbegtf
deep colour is wanted, it is neceffary that they are pre-dyed blue,
vioufly dyed of a deep blue colour. To remove all the
particles of colouring matter which happen to be loofe-
ly attached to the fluff, it fhould be waftied in a river
as foon as it is taken out of the vat, and afterwards
cleanfed at the fulling mill. After thefe preliminary
proceffes, the fluffs are ready to receive the black
colouring matter. The procefs of Hellot is the follow¬
ing.
For every hundred pounds of fluff, ten pounds of log-Hellot’s
wood, and ten pounds of galls reduced to powder, areProcefs«
put into a bag, and boiled in a middle-fized copper,
with a fufticient quantity of water, for 12 hours. A
third of this bath is put into another copper, along with
two pounds of verdigrife. The fluff is immerfed in this
bath, and continually ftirred for 2 hours. The bath
fttould be kept hot, but it ought not to boil. At the
end of two hours the fluff is taken out, and a fimilar
portion of the bath is put into the copper, with eight
pounds of copperas (fulphate of iron). During the lolu-
tion of the copperas, the fire is diminiftied, and the bath
is allowed to cool for half an hour, ftirring it well the
whole time. The remainder of the bath is then to be
added, and after making this addition, the bag contain¬
ing the aftringent matters fliould be ftrongly preffed, to
feparate the whole. A quantity of futnach from 15 to
20 pounds, is now to be added, and the bath is juft
railed to the boiling temperature ; and when it has gi¬
ven one boil, it is to be immediately flopped with a lit¬
tle cold water. A frefti quantity of fulphate of iron,
to the amount of two pounds, is then added, and the
fluff is kept in it for another hour, after which it is
taken out, waftied and aired \ it is again put into the
copper, and conftantly ftirred for an hour. It is then
carried to the river, well waflied, and fulled. To foften
the black colour, and make it more firm, another bath
is prepared with weld. This is made to boil for a mo¬
ment, and when it has cooled, the fluff is paffed through
it. By this procefs, which is indeed fomewhat com¬
plicated, a beautiful black colour is produced.
331. But the procefl'es ufually followed for dyeing Commoa
black, are more Ample. Cloth which has been pre-Proce
vioufly dyed blue, is merely boiled in a vat of galls for
two hours. It is then kept two hours, but without
boiling, in the bath of logwood and fulphate of iron,
and afterwards waftied and fulled. According to Hel¬
lot’s procefs, a bath is to be prepared of a pound and a
half of yellow wood, fiv« pounds of logwood, and ten
pounds of fumach, which is the proportion of the in¬
gredients
DYEING.
(l) Oak bark has been recommended as a fubftitute for gall-nuts in dyeing black, and particularly in dyeing
hats •, and it is faid that the colour thus obtained is fuller, more beautiful and durable, while the operation is ea-
fier and lefs liable to accident. It was firft propofed in the year 1782 by Stepbanopoli, a Corfican, and a furgeon
in the French army. The examination of the procefs ivas referred by the French' government to Macquer,
who gave a favourable report of it ; and afterwards to Berthollet, who gave a different opinion. 'I he pro-
* Phil. ce^s ^as ^nce been, examined, and gromifes to be more economical and advantageous, efpecially for dyeing
Mag. vi. hats *0
176.
ilours.
lieaper
:efs.
cefs of
Eng-
dyers,
butus
d for
Is.
iap.I. . DYEING.
gredients for every 15 yards of deep blue cloth j and
Siml>le the cloth having boiled in this bath for three hours, ten
pounds of fulphate of iron are added j the cloth is al¬
lowed to remain for two hours longer, when it is taken
out to be aired, after which it is again returned to the
bath for an hour, and then wafhed and fulled.
332. When (tuffs are to be dyed at a lefs expence,
inftead of the blue ground, a brown or root-coloured
ground may be fubftituted. This brown or fawn colour
is communicated by means of the root of the walnut
tree, or green walnut peels. The (tuffs are then to be
dyed black, according to fome of the proceffes already
defcribed.
333. The proportions of the ingredients employed by
the Englifh dyers are, for every hundred pounds of cloth
prerioufly dyed a deep blue, about five pounds of ful¬
phate of iron, five pounds of galls, and 30 of logwood.
The firft (tep in the procefs is to gall the cloth, after
which it is paffed through the deco&ion of logwood, to
which the fulphate of iron has been added.
334. The leaves of the arbutus uva urji have been
recommended, and employed as a fubftitute for galls.
The leaves muff be carefully dried, fo that the green
colour may be preferved. A hundred pounds of wool
are boiledWith 16 pounds of fulphate of iron, and eight
of tartar, for two hours. 1 he day following the cloth
is to be rinfed as after aluming. A hundred and fifty
pounds of the leaves of uva urji are then to be boiled
for two hours in water, and after being taken out, a
fmall quantity of madder is to be added to the liquor,
putting in the cloth at the fame time, which is to re¬
main about an hour and a half. It is then taken out
StockholmznA. rinfed in water •f. By this procefs, it is faid, blue
cloth receives a pretty good black, but white cloth be¬
comes only of a deep brown. It is faid, too, that the
madder and tartar are ufelefs ingredients.
335. After the different operations for dyeing the
cloth have been finifiied, it is walked in a river, and
fulled, till the water comes off clear and colourlefs.
Soap fuds are recommended by fome in fulling fine
cloths, but it is found difficult to free the cloth entirely
from the foap. After the cloth has come from the ful¬
ling mill, fome propofe to give it a dip in a bath ot
weld, by which it is faid to be foftened, and the colour
better fixed ; but according to Lewis, this operation,
which in other cafes is of fome advantage, is u(e-
lefs after the cloth has been treated with the foap
fuds.
III. Of the Proceffes for Dyeing Silk Blach.
336. In communicating a black colour to fi^k, dif¬
ferent operations are neceffary, fuch as boiling, galling,
repairing the bath, dyeing, and foftening. .
337. To give a deeper (hade to filk, it is neceilary
to deprive it of the gummy fubffance to which its ftiff-
nefs and elafticity are owing. This is done by boiling
the filk four or five hours with one-fifth its weight ot
white foap, and afterwards beetling and carefully walk¬
ing it. . ,
Sailing. 2^3. In condu&ing the procefs of galling filk, three-
fourths of its weight of gall= a*-6 to be boiled for t me or
four hours, but the proportion of galls mult depend on
their quality. After the boiling, the liquor is allowed
to remain at reft for two hours •, the filk is then put into
the bath, and left there from 1 a to 36 hours, when it
avf.
S3
id ope-
tion.
445
is to be taken out, and walhed in the river. But as filk Of Simple
is capable of combining with a great proportion of the Colours.^
aftringent principle, or tan, from which it receives a
confiderable increafe of weight, it is allowed to remain
for a longer or (horter time, as the filk is required to
have more or lefs additional weight. To communicate,
therefore, to filk, w hat is called a heavy black, it is al¬
lowed to remain longer in the gall liquor j the procefs
is repeated oftener, and the filk is alfo dipped in the
dye a greater number of times.
339. While filk is preparing for the procefs of dye-Dyeing*
ing, the bath is to be heated, and ffiould be occafional-
ly ftirred, that the grounds which fall to the bottom
may not acquire too much heat. It ffiould always be kept
under the boiling temperature. Gum and (olution of
iron are added in different proportions, according to the
different procefies. When the gum is diflolved, and the
bath near the boiling temperature, it is left to fettle
for about an hour. The filk, which in general is pre-
vioufly divided into three parts, that each may be luc-
ceffively put into the bath, is immerfed in it. Each
part is then to be three times wrung,_ and after each
wringing hung up to air. TL he filk being thus expofed
to the a6lion of the air, acquires a deeper (hade. This
operation being finiffied, the bath is again heated, with
the addition of gum and fulphate of iron, and this is
repeated two or three times, according as the black ^re¬
quired is light or heavy. When the procefs of dyeing
is finiffied, the filk is rinfed in a veffel with fome cold
water, by turning or (baking it over.
340. Silk, after it has been taken out of the dye, ^ Softening,
extremely harffi, to remove which it is fubje&ed to the
operation of foftening. A folution of four or five
pounds of foap for every hundred pounds of filk, is
poured through a cloth into a veffel of water. T.he fo¬
lution being completed, the fiik is immerfed, and al¬
lowed to remain in it for about 15 minutes j it is then
to be wrung out and dried.
341. When raw filk is to be dyed, that which has a j)ye;ng ra^
natural yellow colour is preferred. The. galling opera-fiik.
tion muft be performed in the cold, if it be propoied
to preferve the whole of the gum, and the elafticity
which it gives to the filk j but if part only of the gum
is widled to be preferved, the galling is to be perform¬
ed in the warm bath. . ,
342. The dyeing operation is alfo performed in the
cold. All that is neceffary is to add the fulphate of
iron to the water in which the fluff is rinfed. By this
fimpie procefs, the black dye is communicated. It is
then waflied, once or twice beetled, and dried without
wringing, that its elafticity may not be deftroyed. Raw
filk may be dyed by a more fpeedy procefs. Att^ A fpeed;,f
calling, it may be turned or (liaken over in the co‘Uprocefs#
bath; and thus by alternately dipping and airing the
(luff, the operation may be completed. It is then to
be waffled and dried as in the former proceffes.
34 ?. The method of dyeing velvet at Genoa,.which Improved
has been fimplified and improved in France, ^ jjjuspmcefs for
defcribed by Macquer. For every 100 pounds of (ilk,
20 pounds of Aleppo galls, reduced to powder are
boiled in a fuffieient quantity of water for an hour.
The bath is allowed to fettle till the galls have (alien
to the bottom; they are then taken out, and two
pounds and a half of fulphuric acid, twelve. pounds of
iron filings, and 20 pounds of gum, are put into a cop-
446 DYE
Of Simple per veflel, or cullender, furniftied with two handles.
Colours. This veffel is immerfed in the bath, and fupported
' that it may not touch the bottom. The gum, which
is allowed to diffolve for an hour, is to be occafionally
llirred ; and if it appear that the whole of the gum
is diflolved, three or four pounds more are to be added.
Excepting during the operation of dyeing, the cullend¬
er is to remain in the copper, which mull be kept hot
the whole time, but at a temperature below the boiling
point. In galling the lilk, one-third of Aleppo galls
is employed, and the fluff fhould remain fix hours in
the liquor the firft time, and twelve hours the fecond.
By frequent additions of fulphate of iron, and repeat¬
ed immerfions of the fluff, a fine black, according to
Lewis, has been obtained. In the above procefs, the
proportion of fulphate of iron is too fmall, and the
gum, according to fome, being carried off in the wafh-
ing, may be confidered as ufelefs. Berthollet thinks
that, although the quantity be exceflive, it has fome
effedl in keeping up the bath, and he adds, if it is to
be diminilhed, it wTould be ufeful to add the fulphate
of iron in feparate portions during each interval.
Subftitute 344* diminifh the quantity of galls, which are
for galls. an expenfive ingredient in dyeing filk black, other fub-
ftances have been propofed as fubflitutes. With this
view the following procefs is recommended.
The filk being boiled and walked, is immerfed in a
flrong decoftion of green walnut peels, and allowed to
remain till the colouring matter of both is exhaufted.
It is then to be (lightly wrung out, dried and walk¬
ed (m). To give the filk a blue ground, logwood and
verdigrife are employed, in the proportion of one ounce
of the latter for every pound of filk. The verdigrife
is diffolved in cold water, and the filk is allowed to re¬
main two hours in this folution. It is then immerfed
in a ftrong decoftion of logwood, (lightly w'rung out,
dried, and afterwards walked at the river. The bath
is prepared by macerating two pounds of galls and
three of fumach in 25 gallons of water, over a flow fire,
for twelve hours. The liquid being ftrained, three
pounds of fulphate of iron, and the fame quantity of
gum arabic, are to be diffolved in it. The filk is dip¬
ped in this folution at two different times ; it is to re¬
main in the bath two hours each time, and it mull be
aired and dried between each dip. After being twice
beetled at the river, it is dipped a third time, and left
in the bath four or five hours, after which it is to be
dried, walked and beetled as before. The temperature
of the bath fhould not exceed 120°. After the firfl:
dipping, it may be neceffary to add half a pound of
fulphate of iron, and an equal quantity of gum arabic.
345. Silk which has been previoully dyed blue with
indigo, it is faid, takes only a mealy black j but when
it has been prepared with logwood and verdigrife, it
acquires a velvety luftre. A fine black may be obtain¬
ed from green walnut peel ; but the addition of log¬
wood and verdigrife renders a fmaller quantity of ful¬
phate of iron neceffary, and this is of importance, be-
caufe it is apt to weaken the filk. The only ufe of
galls, according to iome, is to increafe the weight of
I N G,
Part 1
the filk •, for the purpofes of dyeing, fumach is confider- Of Simp’
ed fufficienl*. Colours!
IV. Of the Procejfes for Dyeing Cotton and Linen * Benlttm
Black. let, ii. Jol
346. It is more difficult to communicate a fine black Muftb*
to linen or cotton than to filk or woollen fluffs. Toprevioufl;
fucceed in producing a black colour of that degree
intenfity which will refill foap, it is neceffary to adopt
particular proceffes. In dyeing animal matters black,
as filk, and wool, the bell colours are obtained on thofe
which have been previoufly dyed blue. This alfo is
an effential preliminary procefs in dyeing linen and
cotton black j for it is found that the procefs which
fucceeds bell, is firfl; to give a deep blue grain to the
cotton or linen.
347. The firft part of the procefs is the operation of Galling,
galling. The fluffs which have been previoufly dyed
blue, wrung out and dried, are kept 24 hours in the
gall-liquor, compofed of four ounces of galls to every
pound of thread. A bath is then prepared of a folu¬
tion of iron in acetic acid. This folution is obtained
by faturating the acid with oxide of iron. In France,
vinegar, fmall beer, or fmall wine, is employed for this
purpofe. To promote the acid fermentation, rye meal,
or fome other fubftance, is added, and pieces of old
iron are thrown into the liquid, which are allowed to
remain for fix weeks or two months, that the acid may
be faturated with the iron. This folution, called iron
liquor in this country, is prepared from fermented
worts, to which old iron is added, as is deferibed above.
Five quarts of the iron-liquor for every pound of fluffs,
are put into a veffel. In this the fluffs are wrought Dyeing,
with the hand, pound by pound, for 15 minutes: they
are then wrung out and aired. This operation is to be
again repeated, taking care to add a freffi quantity of
the iron-liquor, which Ihould be carefully feummed, '
after which the fluffs are to be wrung out, aired, and
walked at the river. In the next operation, a pound
of alder bark for every pound of fluff is boiled in a
fufficient quantity of water for an hour. One half of
the bath which was employed in the galling, and about
one half the quantity of fumach as of alder bark, are
then added. The whole is boiled together for two
hours, and drained through a fieve. When this liquid
is cold, the fluffs are immerfed, wrought pound by
pound, and occafionally aired. They are afterwards
put into the bath, and after remaining for 24 hours,
are wrung out and dried. The above is the procefs
which, according to D’Apligny, is followed at Rouen,
for dyeing cotton and linen.
348. The procefs followed at Manchefler, which is Another
deferibed by Mr Wilfon, is the following. For theProC£k
operation of galling, galls or fumach are employed.
The fluff is afterwards dyed in a bath confifting of a
folution of iron in acetic acid. This bath is alfo fre¬
quently compofed of alder bark and iron. After hav¬
ing paffed through this bath, the Huff is dipped in a
decodlion of logwood, to which a fmall quantity of
verdigrife has been added. This procefs is to be re¬
peated
(m) The decoftion of walnut peels is prepared by boiling for 15 minutes, after which it is taken from the
fire. After it has fubfided, the filk, which has been previoully immerfed in warm water, is dipped in it.
hap. I* ^ ^ E
f Simple peated till a black of fufficient intenfity is obtained,
Colours, obferving to wafli and dry after each operation.
—v 349. According to Guhliche, a folution of iron may
eparation 'prepared by the following procefs. A pound of
[°*“tl0n rice is to be boiled in I 2 or 15 quarts of water, till
the whole is diffolved. A fufficient quantity of old
iron made red hot, to reach half way to the furface of
the liquor, is thrown into the folution. The veffel in
which the folution is kept muft be under cover, but ex-
pofed to the air and light at lead for a week. In ano¬
ther veffel, containing a quantity of warm vinegar
equal to the folution of rice, an equal quantity of red-
hot iron is to be put. This veffel muft alfo be expofed
in the fame way to the air and light. After feveral
days, the contents of both veffels are mixed together,
and the mixture is to be expofed for a week to the
open air, after which it is to be decanted and kept for
ufe in a clofe veffel. To give a fufficient black to
linen and cotton, it is only neceffary, it is faid, to fteep
them 29 hours in this folulion : and if it ftiould appear
that the liquor is exhaufted of colouring matter, a freffi
sapplica- p0rtion is to be employed. In this way a fine perma-
'n, nent black is obtained. According to the fame author,
this folution may be advantageoufty employed as a fub-
ftitute for fulphate of iron, in dyeing filk and wool.
But to give them a fine black, filk and woollen fluffs
muft be dipped in a decoftion of logwood after they
are taken from the bath.
Sect. V. Of Brown.
350. The laft of the fimple colours is brown. This
is alfo known under the name of fawn colour, {fauve,
Fr.). It is that brown colour which has a ftiade of
yellow, and might perhaps be confidered as a com-
'pound colour, although it is communicated to fluffs by
one procefs.
I. Of the Subjlances employed in Dyeing Brown.
351. The vegetable fubftances which are capable of
inducing a fawn or brovvn colour on different fluffs, are
very numerous, but thofe chiefly employed for this
purpofe are walnut peels and fumach. The peels con-
,’alnut ftitute the green covering o.f the nut; they are inter¬
ns. nally of a white colour, which is converted into brown
or black by expofure to the air. 1 ne Ikin, when im¬
pregnated with the juice of walnut peels, becomes of a
brown or almoft black colour. W hen tne inner
of the peel, taken freffi, is put into weak oxymuriatic
acid, it aflumes a brown colour. If the deco&ion ct
walnut peels be filtered and expofed to the air, its co¬
lour becomes of a deep brown ; tne pellicles on evapo¬
ration are almoft black 5 the liquor aetached^ from
thefe yields a brown ex trad completely foluble in wa¬
ter. The colouring particles are precipitated from a
decoftion of walnut peels, by means of alcohol,_ and
they are foluble in water. No apparent change is at
firlt produced by a folution of pctaffi 5 but it giadually
becomes turbid, and the colour is deepened. A copious
precipitate of a fawn colour, approaching to an afh co-
lour, is produced in a decoflion of walnut peels by
means of a folution of tin, and the remaining liquor has
a flightly yellow tinge.
Properties. 332. A deco&ion of walnut peels yields a imall
quantity of fawn-coloured precipitate by means ot a
I N G. 447
folution of alum, and the liquor remains of the lame Of Simple
colour. Sulphate of copper renders it flowly turbid, Colours,
and throws down a fmall quantity of precipitate of a v J
browniffi green colour, leaving the fupernatant liquor
of the fame colour. Sulphate of iron deepens the co¬
lour $ when diluted, the colour becomes browniffi green,
without the depofition of any fediment. Sulphate of
zinc alfo deepens the colour, and produces no precipi¬
tate. The fame properties are exhibited by a decoc¬
tion of the walnut-tree wood, but the colouring matter
is not obtained from it in fuch abundance as from the
peels ; and the bark may alfo be ufed with advantage
in dyeing.
353. The affinity of the colouring matter of wal-Advantages
nut peels for wool is very ftrong $ and it readily im¬
parts to it a durable colour, which even mordants do
not feem capable of increafing, but they are generally
underftood to give it additional brightnefs. A lively
and very rich colour is obtained with the affiflance of
alum. Walnut peels afford a great variety of pleafing
ftiades, and as they require not the intervention of
mordants, the foftnefs of the wool is preferved, and
the procefs of dyeing becomes both cheap and fimple.
354. Walnut peels are not gathered till the nuts are Preparation
completely ripe, when they are put into large calks,
along with as much water as is fufficient to cover them.
When ufed in dyeing at the Gobelins in Paris, Ber-
thollet informs us, they are kept for upwards of a year,
and very extenfively ufed $ but if not made ufe of till
the end of two years, they yield a greater quantity of
colouring matter, at which time their odour has be¬
come peculiarly difagreeable and fetid. The peels fe-
parated from the nuts before they arrive at maturity,
may likewife be ufed in dyeing, but in this ftate they
do not keep fo long.
355. Sumach (j'hus coriaria, Linn.) is a ffirub pro-Sumach,
duced naturally in Paleftine, Syria, Portugal, and Spain,
being carefully cultivated in the two laft of thefe coun¬
tries. Its ffioots are annually cut down, dried, and re¬
duced to powder in a mill, by which procefs they are
prepared for the purpofes of dyeing.
356. The infufion of fumach, which is of a fawn co-Properties,
lour with a greeniffi tinge, is changed into a brown by
expofure to the air. A folution of potafti has little ac¬
tion on the recent infufion of fumach ; its colour is
changed to yellow by the aftion of acids ; the liquor
becomes turbid by means of alum, a fmall quantity of
precipitate being at the fame time formed, and the fu¬
pernatant liquor remaining yellow. A copious preci¬
pitate of a yellowiffi green colour is thrown down by
fulphate of copper, and the liquor remains clear. No
change is fpeediiy produced by muriate of foda (com¬
mon fait), but it becomes rather turbid at the end of
fome hours, and its colour is rather clearer. Sulphate
of copper produces a copious precipitate of a yellowiffi
green, which after (landing fome hours, changes to a
browniffi green *, the fupernatant liquor, which is (light¬
ly yellow, remains clear. Sulphate of zinc renders the
liquor turbid, darkens its colour, and produces a deep
blue precipitate j but when the fulphate of zinc is pure,
the precipitate, which is of a browniffi fawn colour, is
in very fmall quantity. Acetate of lead gives a copi¬
ous precipitate, of a yellowiffi colour ; the fupernatant
liquor is of a clear yellow colour. No afinngent has
fo ftrong a refemblance to galls as fumach; but the
precipitate
448
Of Simple
Colours.
DYEING.
Part II
Bark of
teirch.
Sandal
Wood.
precipitate thrown down front an Infufion of it by a fo-
lution of iron, is not fo copious as that which is yield¬
ed by an equal quantity of galls, on which account fu-
mach may be generally employed as a fubftitute for
galls, only its quantity will require to be increafed.
357. The bark of the birch-tree (bclula a/ba, Lin.)
yields a decoftion of a clear fawn-colour, but it foon
becomes turbid and brown. The addition of a folu-
tion of alum in the open air, produces a copious yel¬
low precipitate ; a folution of tin gives alfo a copious
precipitate of a clear yellow colour. With folutions of
irpn the decoflion of the birch-tree ftrikes a black co¬
lour, and it diflblves in conliderable quantity the oxide
of iron, but in fmaller proportion than the deco&ion of
walnut peels. On account of this property, it is em¬
ployed in the preparation of black vats for dyeing
thread.
358. Sanders or fandal wood, is alfo employed
for the purpofe of giving a fawn colour. There are
three kinds of fandal wood, the white, the yellow, and
the red. The laft only, which is a eompadl; heavy
•wood, brought from the Coromandel coaft, is ufed in
dyeing. By expofure to the air it becomes of a brown
colour j when employed in dyeing, it is reduced to fine
powder, and it yields a fawn colour with a brownilh
{hade, inclining to red. But the colouring matter
which it yields of itfelf is in fmall quantity, and it is
faid that it gives harftinefs to woollen fluffs. When it
is mixed with other fubftances, as fumach, walnut peels,
or galls, the quantity of colouring matter is increafed 5
it gives a more durable colour, and produces confider-
able modifications in the colouring matter with which
it is mixed. Sandal wood yields its colouring matter
to brandy, or diluted alcohol, more readily than to
water.
359. Soot communicates to woollen fluffs a fawn or
brown colour, of a lighter or deeper fhade, in propor¬
tion to the quantity employedbut the colour is fad¬
ing, and its affinity for wool is not great j and befides
leaving a difagreeable fmell, it renders the fibres harffi.
In fome manufaflories, it is employed for browning
certain colours, and it produces fhades which could not
otherwife be eafily obtained.
II. Of the ProceJJes for Dyeing Woollen^ &c. a Fawn
or Brown Colour.
With wal- 360. In dyeing with walnut peels, a quantity pro¬
nut peels. portioned to the quantity of fluff, and the intenfity of
{hade wanted, is boiled for fifteen minutes in a copper.
All that is neceffary in dyeing with this fubflance is,
to moiften the cloth or yarn with warm water, previous
to their immerfion in the copper, in which they are to
be carefully flirred till they have acquired the proper
{hade. This is the procefs, if the aluminous mordant
is not employed. In dyeing cloth, it is ufual to give
the deepeft fhades firfl, and the lighter ones afterwards $
but in dyeing woollen yarn, the light fhades are given
firft, and the deeper ones afterwards. An additional
quantity of peels is joined to each parcel.
Berthollet’s 361. Berthollet made a number of experiments to
'•xperi- afcertain the difference of colour obtained from the
*nents' fimple decoction of walnut peels, and the addition of
metallic oxides as mordants. The oxide of tin, he
found, yielded a clearer and brighter fawn colour than
that of the fimple decodlion. The oxide of zinc pro-
Soot.
duced a ftill clearer colour, inclining to afli or gray. Compound
The colour from oxide of lead had an orange catt, Colours,
while that from oxide of iron was of a greenifh '
brown*. _
362. A fawn colour, which has a fhade of green,il; 2^'^’
is obtained from fumach alone; but to cotton fluffs Dyeing
which have been impregnated with printers mordant,Wl1^
or acetate of alumina, fumach communicates a goodmac *
and durable yellow. Here, however, fome precaution
is neceffary in the ufe of this fubftance for this purpofe j
for as the colouring matter is of fo fixed a nature, the
ground of the fluff cannot be bleached by expofure on
the grafs. This inconvenience is avoided by impreg¬
nating the whole of the fluff with different mordants,
producing in this way a variety of colours, and leaving
no part white.
363. Vogler employed the tin&ure of fanders tvood withfanda
for dyeing patterns of wool, filk, cotton and linen,wood,
having previoufly impregnated them with a folution of
tin, and afterwards wafhing and drying them. Some¬
times he ufed the folution unmixed, and at other times
added fix or ten parts of water, and in whatever way
he employed it, he obtained a poppy colour. When
the mordant employed was folution of alum, the colour
was a rich fcarlet ; with fulphate of copper it was
a clear crimfon, and with fulphate of iron a beautiful
deep violet f. jCrellAnn
175°.
Chap. II. Of Compound Colours.
364. A MIXTURE of two colouring fubftances, it is Nature of
well known, produces a very different fhade from thatconiPoun<*
of either of the uncorobined colouring matters; henceco^ours,
compound colours are obtained* which are merely mix¬
tures of fimple colours. It would undoubtedly be a
defirable thing to afcertain with accuracy the peculiar
fhade produced by the combination of two colouring
matters ; but thefe refults can only be certainly known
by experiment, becaufe by the a61ion of different fub¬
ftances in the baths, they are fubje£t to great variations
in their effecfs, according to the affinities which are
brought into aftion, and the new combinations which
are formed. What is natural to colouring particles is
not to be confidered as a conftituent part of compound
colours, but only the difference of fhade which they
ought to affume, with a particular mordant, or in a
particular bath. The effefts, therefore, of the chemi¬
cal agents employed in thefe prdceffes, and the refult
of different combinations, ought to be particularly at¬
tended to. It is in dyeing compound colours that {kill
and ingenuity are moft confpicuous, and their applica¬
tion of greateft utility, to enable the dyer to vary his
proceffes according to the fhade defired, and at the
fame time to accomplifh his operations by the fhorteft
and cheapeft means. r t *
365. As compound colours are obtained by the mix-^*0f ^
ture of fimple colours, very different fliades will be ob-fll.Je,
tained from difterent proportions of the fimple colours;
hence compound colours exhibit an indefinite variety
of fhade, and the precedes by which they are produced
are very numerous. It would extend this treatife to an
unufual length, were we to attempt to deferibe every
variety of fhade which is obtained from the mixture of
fimple colours. We ffiall therefore limit our obferva-
tions to fome of the principal compound colours, and
ari
;hap. If. _ DYE
ompound account of the procelftb by wlilcli they are obtained,
Colours, leaving it to our readers, who have made themfelves
—Y—“ familiar with the principles already detailed, to vary
thefe colours, by employing different proportions and
different combinations of fimple colouring matters.
366. Compound colours have been ufually divided
into four claffes, namely, green, purple, orange, and
gray or drab colour. Thefe are obtained from mix¬
tures of the following fimple colours.
1. Blue and yellow produce a green.
2. Red and blue, a purple, &c.
3. Red and yellow, orange.
4. Black and other colours, gray, &c.
The following feftions will be occupied in a fhort de¬
tail of the methods which are ufually employed in pro¬
ducing thefe different compound colours.
Sect. I. Of the Mixture of Blue and Yellow, or Green.
arious 3^7* Green colours, from the great variety of fhades
adesof which they exhibit, have been long known by differ-
eei1, ent names, by which the intenfity of fhade is chara&e-
rifed, fuch as fea-green, apple-green, meadow or grafs-
green, pea-green, parrot-green, &c. Many plants afford
a green colour, fuch as brome grafs {bromus fecalinus,
Lin.) green berries of rhumnus frangula, wild chervil
(chcerophijllum fylvefre, Lin.), purple clover {trifolium
pratenfe'), common reed {arundophragmitesi) Thefe co¬
lours, however, do not poffefs fufficient permanency.
According to D’Ambourney, indeed, a permanent
green may be obtained from the fermented juice of the
berries of the berry-bearing alder {rhamnus frangula).
Having previoufly prepared the cloth with tartar, folu-
tion of nitrate of bifmuth, and common fait, he added
to the fermented juice of the berries, after it was warm¬
ed, a fmall proportion of acetate of lead ; and in this
bath he communicated to the cloth an intermediate
fttade between parrot and grafs green. But it is ufual¬
ly from the mixture of blue and yellow that green is ob¬
tained *, and it may be obferved, that it requires much
fkill and experience, efpeeially in giving light fliades,
to produce a colour which is uniform, and entirely
without fpots.
I. Of the ProceJJes for Dyeing Woollen Stuffs Green.
irnmnn 368. To dye woollen green, either the yellow or
oce^’ the blue dye may be given to it firfl. But when the
fluff is firfl, dyed yellow, and in this flate is introduced
into the blue vat, part of the yellow colouring matter
being diffolved in the vat, communicates to it a green
colour, which renders it unfit for dyeing any other co¬
lour than green. To avoid this inconvenience, there¬
fore, the blue colour is firft given, and afterwards the
yellow. It would be quite unneceffary to refume the
account of any part of the proceffes for dyeing blue,
which have been already detailed. It is proper, however,
to add, that the intenfity of the blue fhade muft be pro¬
portioned to the green, or to the depth of the green
colour which is wiflied to be obtained. Thus, for in¬
fiance, to produce a parrot green, a ground of fky
blue is given, and for the green like that of a drake’s
neck, a deep blue is required. When the blue dye
has been communicated, the yellow is afterwards given,
according to fome of the proceffes which have been al-
Vol. VII. Part II.
I N G.
449
ready defcribed for dyeing yellow. The proper ground Compound
being communicated to the cloths, they are waffled in Colours,
the fulling mill, and boiled as for the common procefs
of welding j but when the fhade is light, the propor¬
tion of falls fliould be lefs. Cloths which are to re¬
ceive light fliades are firft boiled, and when thefe are
taken out, tartar and alum are added in frefh portions,
till the cloths which are intended for the darkefl {hades-
are boiled. 1 he procefs of welding is conduced in.
the fame way as for dyeing yellow, with this difference,
that a larger proportion of weld is employed, except¬
ing for lighter lhades, when the proportion muft; be
fmaller. In dyeing green, it is ufual to have a fuccef-
fion of fhades at the fame time; the procefs is be¬
gun with the deepeft, and ends with the lighteft. Be¬
tween each dip there fliould be an interval of one half
or three quarters of an hour, and at each interval wa¬
ter is added to the bath. It is the practice of fome
dyers to give each parcel two dips, beginning the firft
time with the deep fhades, and the fecond with the
lighter ones; but when this practice is followed, the
time of immerfion fhould be fhortened. In dyeing very
light (hades, the bath Ihould never be permitted to
reach the boiling temperature. For deep greens, a
browning is given with logwood, and a fmall propor¬
tion of fulphate of iron.
369. For fome kinds of green, fulphate of indigo issaxoa
employed ; and in this cafe either the blue and yellow green,
arc dyed feparately, or the whole of the ingredients are
mixed together in the bath, and the whole procefs is
finifhed at a Angle operation. The colour thus obtained
has been diftinguifhed by the name of Saxon green.
The following is the procefs recommended by Dr Ban¬
croft.
370. “ The moft beautiful Saxon greens (fays he)
may be produced very cheaply and cxpeditioufly, by
combining the lively yellow which refults from querci¬
tron bark, murio-fulphate of tin, and alum, with the
blue afforded by indigo when diffolved in fulphuric acid,
as for dyeing the Saxon blue.
“ To produce this combination moft advantageoufly,
the dyer, for a full-bodied green, fhould put into the
dyeing veffel after the rate of fix or eight pounds of
powdered bark, in a bag, for every 100 lb. weight of
cloth, with only a fmali proportion of water as foon as
it begins to grow warm ; and when it begins to boil,
he fliould add about fix pounds of murio-fulphate of
tin (with the ufual precautions), and a few minutes af¬
ter,- about four pounds of alum ; theft* having boiled
together five or fix minutes, cold water fhould be add¬
ed, and the fire diminifhed fo as to bring the heat of
the liquor nearly down to what the hand is able to
bear ; and immediately after this, as much fulphate of
indigo isv to be added as will fuflice to produce the
(hade of green intended to be dyed, taking care to mix
it thoroughly with the firfl folution by ftirring, &c. ;
and this being done, the cloth previoufly feoured and
moiftened, fliouid be cxpeditioufly put into the liquor,
and turned very brifkly through it for a quarter of an
hour, in order that the colour may apply itfelf equally
to every part, which it will certainly do in this way
with proper care. By thefe means, very full, even, and
beautiful greens may generally be dyed in half an
hour ; and during this fpace, it is beft to keep the li¬
quor at rather lefs tharra boiling heat. Murio-fulphate
3 L of
450
Compound
Colours.
* Phil. of
Firm. Col.
346.
Propara-
tioij.
Saxon
green.
DYE
of lin is infinitely preferable, for this ufe, to the dyer’s
fpirit ; bee a ufe the latter confifts chiefly of nitric acid,
which, bv its highly injurious a£lion upon indigo, would
render that part of the green colour very fugitive, as I
have found by repeated trials. But no fuch effefl can
refult from the murio-fulphate of tin, fince the muriatic
acid has no aftion upon indigo ; and the fulphuric is
that very acid which alone is proper to diffolve it for
this ufe.
“ RefpefHng the beauty of the colour thus produced,
tbofe wlio are acquainted with the unequalled luftre and
brightnefs of the quercitron yellows^ dyed with the tin
hafis, muft neceffarily conclude, that the greens eom-
pofed therewith will prove infinitely fuperior to any
which can refult from the dull muddy yellow of old
fultic 5 and in point of expence, it is certain that the
bark, murio-fulphate of tin, and alum, neceffary to dye
a given quantity of cloth in this way, will coft lefs than
the much greater quantity (fix or eight times more) of
fuftic, with the alum neceffary for dyeing it in the com¬
mon way, the fulphate of indigo being the fame in
both cafes. But in dyeing with the bark, the veffel is
only to be filled and heated once •, and the cloth, with¬
out any previous preparation, may be completely dyed
in half an hour j whilft in the common way of pro¬
ducing Saxon greens, the copper is to be twice filled :
and to this muft be joined the fuel and labour of an
hour and a half’s boiling and turning the cloth, in the
courfe of preparation, befides nearly as much boiling in
another veffel to extradl the colour of the fuftic y. and
after all the dyeing procefs remains to be performed,
which will be equal in time and trouble to the whole
of the procefs for producing a Saxon green with the
bark •, fo that this colour obtained from bark will not
only prove fuperior in beauty, but in cheapnefs, to that
dyed as ufual with old fuftic
II. Of ihe Procejfes for Dyeing Si/k Green.
371. In giving filk a green colour, greater precau¬
tion is neceffary, to preferve uniformity of colour, and
to prevent fpots and ftripes. Silk which is intended to
receive a green colour, is fcoured in the fame way as
for other colours j but for light (hades, the fcouring
muft be as complete as for blue. Silk which is to be
dyed green, is firft dyed yellow, and being well alu-
med, it is flightly waftied at the river, and divided into
{mall parcels, that it may receive the colouring matter
uniformly, and then carefully turned in the weld bath.
When the ground is fuppofed to have acquired a fuffi-
cient degree of intenfity, a pattern is put into the blue
vat, to aicertain the proper (hade. When this is the
cafe, the filk is taken out of the bath, wafhed, and im-
merfed in the blue vat. To produce a deeper colour,
and at the fame time to give variety of fhade, a decoc¬
tion of logwood, fuftic, or anotta, is added to the yel-
l*ow bath, after the weld has been taken out. For very
light (hades, meh as apple and fea green, it is fcarceiy
neceflary to add, that a weaker ground is to be given.
For all light (hades, except fea green, the procefs is
found to fucceed better when the yellow is communi¬
cated by baths which have been already ufed ; but
thefe baths ftiould not contain any logwood or fuftic.
372. Saxon green is produced by means of fulphate
of indigo. This is a brighter, but lefs durable colour
than the former. This procefs is conducted by boiling
I N G., Part II, I
as for welding, after which the cloth is wafhed. Fuftic Com;^ • : y
in chips is enclofed in a bag, put into the fame bath, Colours. I
and boiled for an hour and a half, when it is taken out, k—\r-—■ I
and the bath allowed to cool till the hand can bear it.
A pound and a quarter of fulphate of indigo for each
piece of cloth of eighteen yards, is added. The cloth
is at firft to be turned quickly, and afterwards more
{lowly, and it ftiould be taken out before the bath boils.
Some dyers put in only two-thirds of the folution at
firft ; and after two or three turns, take out the cloth,
and add the other one-third. By this means the colour
is more uniform.
373. To produce Saxon green at one operation, the By one ope 1
following procefs is recommended by Dr Bancroft. AraUon'
bath is prepared of four pounds of quercitron bark,
three pounds of alum, and two pounds of murio-ful¬
phate of tin, with a fufficient quantity of water. The
bath is boiled ten or fifteen minutes, and when the li¬
quor is fo far reduced in temperature as the hand can
bear it, it is fit for dyeing. By adding different pro¬
portions of fulphate of indigo, various and beautiful
(hades of green may be obtained, and the colour thus
produced is both cheap and uniform. Care iliould be
taken to keep the bath conftantly ftirred, to prevent the
colouring matter from fubfiding. Thofe (hades which
are intended to incline moft to the yellow, (liould be
dyed firft ; and by adding fulphate of indigo, the
green, having a (hade of blue, may be obtained. This
procefs, Dr Bancroft obferves, is the mod commodious ^ ^ !
and certain for dyeing moft beautiful Saxon greens up* perm. Co/J
on filk f-. 346,
37-4. To produce Engliftr green, which is moreEnglifli
beautiful than common green, and is faid to be more&rfcCn•
durable than the Saxon green, Guhliehe gives the fol¬
lowing procefs. He firft dyes the filk of a light blue
in the cold vat already deferibed (316.), then foaks it
in warm water, wafhes it in a ftream, and dips it in a
weak folution of alum. He then prepares a bath of
fulphate of indigo, one ounce of folution of tin, with
the tinfture of French berries made with aceto-citric
acid. The filk is kept in this bath till it has obtained
the defired colour. It is then walked and dried in a
(hady place. Lighter {hades may be dyed after¬
wards £. \Bertholh 1
ii.319.
III. Of the ProccJJes for Dyeing Cotton and Linen
Green.
373. Cotton and linen, after being fcoured in the Blue (lift
ufual way, are firft dyed blue ; and after being eleanfed, Sivfcn*
they are dipped in the weld bath, to produce a green
colour. The ftrength of the blue and yellow is pro¬
portioned to the fhade of green which is wanted. But
as it is difficult to give to cotton velvet an uniform co¬
lour in the blue vat, it is firft dyed yellow with turme¬
ric, and the procefs is completed by giving it a green
with fulphate of indigo. The fame refult, however,
will be obtained by commencing the procefs either with
the yellow or the blue.
376. The procefs which D’Apligny deferibes forProce^
dyeing cotton velvet, or cotton thread, a fea or apple ^tou
green, in one bath, is the following. A quantity of
verdigrife is diffolved in vinegar, and the mixture is
kept excluded from the air in the heat of a flove for
fifteen days. A quantity of potafh equal in weight to
the verdigrife employed is diffolved in. water, and four
hours-
(mp. II. Y E
n'joand hours before dyeing il is added to the folution of ver-
)lours digrife. The mixture is to be kept hot. One ounce
-v'—”' of alum in five quarts of water for each pound of fluff
being prepared, the cotton thread or velvet is foaked in
this folution. It is then taken out, and the verdigrile
mixture being added to the folution of alum, it is again
introduced to be dyed.
' ve 377* different lhades of olive green, and drake’s
i eQ- neck green, are given to thread after it has received a
blue ground, by galling it, and dipping it in a weaker
or ftronger bath of iron liquor, then in the weld bath,
to which verdigrife has been added, and afterwards in
the bath with fulphate of copper. The colour is laftly
to be brightened with foap.
een from 378. Cotton dyed with Pruffian blue may be dyed
iffian green by previoufly aluming while it is ftill wet with
e‘ the blue, and then dipping in a weld bath, the ftrength
of which is proportioned to the (hade required. The
colour from weld is more lively than that obtained from
fuftic. But fuftic which gives a deeper (hade than
weld, and dimmilhes the brightnefs of the blue, is to
be preferred when a green with an olive (hade is want-
ed.
'neraI 3<79, The (hade of green given to any fluff, it is ob-
aartS‘ vious, mull vary according to the intenfity of the blue
{hade, the llrength of the yellow bath, and the nature
of the yellow colouring matter employed,. Yellow co¬
lours are rendered more intenfe by means of alkalies,
fulphate of lime and ammoniacal falts ; but become
fainter by means of acids, alum, and folutions of tin.
In dyeing Saxon green the refult will be different ac¬
cording to the procefs which is followed. The eftedls
will be different by adding a yellow to a Saxon blue,
from the procefs in which the fulphate of indigo is mix¬
ed with the yellow ingredients •, becaufe in the latter
cafe the fulphuric acid has a coftfiderable aflion oji the
colouring matter, and thus diminifhes the intenlily of
the yellow. A.s the particles of indigo have a ftronger
affinity for the fluff than the yellow colouring^ matter,
in dying a fucceffion of (hades in a bath in which both
are mixed, the bath being firfl exhaufled of the indigo,
the laft (hades incline more to the yellow on ac¬
count of the predominance of the yellow colouring
matter.
Sect. II. Of the Mixture cf&-ecJ and B/ue, ur
Purp/e, &c.
380. By the mixture of red and blue, violet, purple,
dove-colour, lilac, and a great variety of othei ihadts,
according to the proportion of the fub(lance.i employed,
or the predominance of the blue or the red, are pro¬
duced. In fluffs which are to be dyed violet, a deeper
blue mud be given, but for purple colours, the ground
requires to be of a lighter blue j but in lilac and fimilar
light colours, it is neceffary that both the blue and the
red have a light (hade.
I. Of Dyeing Wool Violet, Purple, &c.
iluefirft 381. In the attempts which have been made to com-
(vcn. municate a violet or purple colour to a fcarlet ground,
according to the obfervations of Hellot, the colour is
very unequal. It becomes therefore neceffary to give
the blue colour firfl ; and for violets or purples, the
fhade of blue ought not to be deeper than that of fky
1 N G. 451
blue. The (luff being dved blue, ia boiled with alum, Compound
and two fifths of tartar, and is afterwards dipped in a Colours,
bath compofed of nearly two-thirds the quantity of co- ^
chirieal required for fcarlet, with the addition of tartar.
The fame procefs, indeed, as for dyeing fcarlet, is fol¬
lowed. It is a common praflice to dye thefe colours
after the reddening for fcarlet, making (uch additions
of cochineal and tartar as the intenfity of the fhade may
require.
382. For lighter (hades, as lilacs, dove-colours, &c. Lilac, Sec.
the fluff may be dipped in the bath which has ferved
for violet and purple, and is now fomewhat exhaufled,
taking care to add a quantity of alum and tartar. For
reddiffi (hades, fuch as peach bloffom, a fmall propor¬
tion of folution of tin is added. It may be obferved,
in general, that although the proportion of cochineal is
lefs in dveing lighter (hades, the quantity of tartar muff
not be diminiffied.
383. To obtain the fame colours, a fhorter and lefs Cheaper
expenfive procefs is recommended by Poerner. In this ami ‘horter
procefs he employs fulphate of indigo. He boils thePrijCeSa
(luff in a folution of alum, in the proportion of three
ounces of the latter to one pound of the former, for an
hour and a half, and afterwards allows it to remain in
the liquid for a night after it has cooled. The dyeing
bath is prepared with an ounce and a half of cochineal,
and two ounces of tartar, which are boiled for three
quarters of an hour : two ounces and a half of fulphate
of indigo are then added, the whole is flirred, and boil¬
ed gently for 15 minutes. The dyeing operation is con-
dudled in the ufual way, and a beautiful violet is thus
obtained. To have all the variety of (hades which
are produced by the mixture of red and blue, the pro¬
portion of the fulphate of indigo is increafed or dimi-
nifhed. It is fometimes increafed to five ounces, and di¬
miniffied to five drachms, for each pound of fluff. . The
quantity of cochineal is-alfo varied, but when it is lefs
than an ounce, the colour is dull. Different proportions
of tartar are alfo employed. lo produce variety of
(hades, the (luff is alfo prepared with different propor¬
tions of folution of tin.
384. To communicate a purple colour to Wool, a* PurpJe from
well as fome other (hades, logwood, with the addition
of galls, has been employed. The (luff is previouily
dyed blue, find to give a brown (hade, fulphate of iron
is ufed ; but the colours thus obtained are not perma¬
nent. By the following procefs, deferibed by Decroi-
zille, a durable dye is produced, by means of this wood.
He diffolved tin in fulphuric acid, to which were added
common fait, red acidulous tartrite of potaffi, and ful¬
phate of copper 5 or it may be more conveniently done
by making a folution of tin in a mixture of fulphurre
acid, common fait, and water, to which are to be add¬
ed the tartrite and fulphate in the (late of powder.
Of this mordant not lefs than 1500 quarts were made
in twenty-four hours, in a leaden veffel to which a mo¬
derate heat was applied. A very lucrative trade was
carried on for three years by Decroizille, who fold it
at the rate of is. 3d. (lerling per pound. _
385. If wool in the fleece is to be dyed, it will re-™* ”*
quire a third of its weight of this mordant, while a fifth
is a proportion fufficient for fluffs. A bath is prepared
of fuch a degree of temperature as the hand can bear,
with which the mordant is properly mixed, and the
wool or fluff dipped in it and flirred, the fame degree
3 L 2
45 2
Compound
Colours.
Different
Iliad es from
other iub-
ftanges.
Nature of
the procef;
DYE
of temperature being kept up for two hours, and in-
creafed a little towards the end : after which it is taken
out, aired, and well walked. A frefh bath- of pure
water is prepared at the fame temperature, to which is
added a fuflicient quantity of the decoftion of logwood j
the Huff is then immerfed, ftirred, and the heat in-
creafed to the boiling temperature, which is to be con¬
tinued for 15 minutes, after which the (luff being taken
out, aired, and carefully rinfed, the procefs of dyeing
is completed. If for every three pounds of wool, one
pound of decoftion of logwood has been ufed, and a
proportionate quantity for fluffs which require lefs, a
fine violet colour is produced, to which a fufficient
quantity of Brazil wood imparts the fhade known in
France by the name of prune de Monjleur.
386. Logwood and Brazil, fuflic and yellow wood,
are colouring fubftances which may be fixed with ad¬
vantage upon wool by means of this mordant. The
colour communicated by the two firft of thefe is liable
to be changed in the fulling by the a£tion of the foap
or urine employed for that purpofe ; but this change,
which is always produced by alkaline fubftances, is re¬
medied by a (lightly acid bath a little hot, called
brightening 1 for which the fulphuric acid has the pre¬
ference. The colour becomes as deep, and frequently
much brighter than before the change. Wools which
have been dyed by means of this mordant, are faid to
admit of being fpun into a finer and more beautiful
thread than by the ufe of alum. If the ufe of fulphate
of copper is omitted, more beautiful colours are produ¬
ced by fuftic and yellow wood, as well as by weld. An
orange red colour is communicated by madder, but not
fo deep as with a fimilar quantity of alum. When
fulphate of copper is omitted, the wool is faid to be¬
come much harfher, and the mordant thus prepared
yields but indifferent colours with logwood, and in par¬
ticular with Brazil wood. The ufe and carriage of this
mordant are inconvenient, on account of the heavy fe-
diment by which the veffel is half filled under a cor-
rofive liquor, capable only of being kept in ftone ware.
Thefe inconveniences may be remedied by the omif-
fion of the water in the receipt, which leaves only a
pafte more conveniently ufed, and the carriage of it
two-fifths cheaper.
387. The above procefs is thus explained by Ber-
‘ thollct. The decompofition of the muriate of foda is
effe£led by the adlion of the fulphurie acid j and the
muriatic acid being thus difengaged, diffolves the tin,
part of which is precipitated by means of the tartaric
acid, producing the fediment already mentioned. The
oxide of copper produces the blue with the colouring
particles of the logwood j the violet is formed by the
oxide of tin with the fame wood, and the red, with
the colouring matter of the Brazil wood. The fame
ingenious chemift farther obferves, that as an excefs of
acid is retained in the liquor, it might probably be of
advantage to employ acetate as a fubftitute for fulphate
of copper, in which cafe the a6Hon of the free acid
would be moderated. He thinks it would ftill be
more advifeable to make ufe of verdigrife j becaufe the
uncombined part of the oxide of copper would, in that
cafe, unite with the excefs of acid, on which account
a fmaller quantity of acid would remain in the liquor •,
and probably the quantity of tartar might be diminifti-
ed
as a fmaller quantity of tin would thus be precipi- Compound*
taUjd ** Colom
II. Of Dyeing Silk Violet or Purple. * Bcrthi
388. Silk is capable of receiving two kinds of vio-f^’
let colours, denominated the fine and the falfe, the lat- T'wV- ,
ter of which is produced by means of archil or Brazilofviolet.'$
wood. When the fine violet colour is required, the
(ilk muft firft be pafled through cochineal, and dipped
afterwards in the vat. The preparation and dyeing of
the filk with cochineal are the fame as for crimfon,
with the omiffion of tartar and folution of tin, by means
of which the colour is heightened. The quantity of
cochineal made ufe of is always proportioned to the re¬
quired (hade, whether it is more or lefs intenfe j but
the ufual proportion for a fine violet colour is two
ounces of cochineal for each pound of filk. When the
filk is dyed, it is walked at the river, twice beetled,
dipped in a vat more or lefs ftrong, in proportion to
the depth of the violet fhade, and then walked and
dried with precautions fimilar to thofe which all colours
require that are dyed in the vat. If the violet is to
have greater ftrength and beauty, it is ufual to pafs it
through the archil bath, a prailice which, though fre¬
quently abufed, is not to be difpenfed with for light
(hades, which would otherwife be too dull.
389. When filk has been dyed with cochineal ac-Purples
cording to the above directions, only a very light fhade
is requifite for purple *, the (hades which are deepeft
are dipped in a weak vat, while dipping them in cold
water is fufficient for fuch as are lighter, the water
having been incorporated with a fmall quantity of the
liquor of the vat, becaufe in the vat itfelf, however
weak it might be, they would acquire too deep a tinge
of blue. In this manner are the light (hades of this,
colour, fuch as gilly flower, peach bloffom, &c. pro¬
duced by diminifhing the quantity of cochineal.
390. There are various ways of imparting to filk Falfe via*
what are denominated the falfe violets-, but thofelets*
which are moft frequently ufed, and poffeffed of great-
eft beauty, are prepared with archil, the bath of which
is, in point of ftrength, to be fuked to the colour re¬
quired. Having been beetled at the river after fcour-
ing, the filk is turned in the bath on the (kein (licks 'r
and when the colour is deemed fufficiently deep, a pat¬
tern rs tried in the vat, to afeertain whether it takes
the violet colour intended to be produced. If the (hade
is found to have acquired the proper depth, the filk is
beetled at the river and dipped in the vat, in the fame
way as for the fine violet colours; and lefs either of the
blue or of the archil colour is given, according as it is
meant that the red er blue (hade of the violet colour
(hould predominate.
391. The procefs recommended by Guhliche forProcefsof
communicating a violet colour to filk is the following. G'dd'd15,
A pound of filk is to be foaked in a bath of two ounces
of alum, and a like quantity of folution of tin, after hav¬
ing carefully poured off the fediment formed in the
mixture. The dye-bath is prepared with two ounces
of cochineal reduced to powder with a dram of tartar,
and the remaining part of the bath which has anfwered
the purppfe of a mordant, with the addition of a fuffi¬
cient quantity of water. When (lightly boiled, fuch a
quantity of folution of indigo is added as may communi¬
cate
bap.
m pound
olours.
other,
II. DYE
cate to the bath a proper (hade of violet j after which
the fdk is imtnerfed, and boiled till it has acquired the
intended Grade. It is then wrung, waGied in a dream,
and like every other delicate colour, rr.uft be dried
in the Grade. The light Grades exhauft the bath. But
it ought to be obferved, that this colour, which is faid
to be a beautiful violet, poffeffes but little durability,
and is apt to a flume a reddiGr tinge, owing to the co.
lour of the indigo fading firfl.
392. A violet colour may be imparted to filks, by
immerfing them in water impregnated with verdigrife,
as a fubititute for aluming, and next giving them a
bath of logwood, in which they afifume a blue colour,
which is converted to a violet, either by the addition
of alum to the bath, or by dipping them in a weaker
or flronger folution of that fubftance, which communi¬
cates a red colour to the particles of logwood. This
violet poffefles but a fmall degree of beauty, and little
durability. But if alumed filk be immerfed in a bath
of brazd-wood, and next m a bath of archil, after waGi-
Jng it at the river, a colour is obtained poflefling a
much higher degree of beauty and intenfity. 1 he
procefs defcribed above (385.), for dyeing wool, fuc-
ceeds equally well, according to M. Decroizille, in
communicating to filk a violet colour.
III. Of Dyeing Cotton and Linen Violet,
mmon 393. The moft ordinary mode by which a violet co-
icefs. lour is communicated to cotton and linen fluffs is firfl: to
give them a blue ground in the vat, proportioned to
the required fliade, and to dry them. Ihey are after¬
wards galled, in the proportion of three ounces of galls
to a pound of fluff, and being left in this bath for 1 2
or 15 hours, are wrung out and dried again. They
are next paffed through a deco&ion of logwood, and
when thoroughly foaked and taken out, the bath re¬
ceives an addition of two drams of alum, and one of
diffolved verdigrife for each pound of cotton or thread;
The fkeins are then dipped again on the fkein flicks,
and turned for about 15 minutes, when they are taken
out and aired. They are next immerfed in the batn
for 15 minutes, taken out and wrung. To complete
the procefs, the vat employed is emptied ; half of the
deco&ion of logwood not formerly made ufe of is now
poured in, with the addition of two drams of alum,
and the thread is again dipped in it till it has acquired
the (hade propofed, which muft always regulate^ the
ftrength or weaknefs of the deco&ion of logwood. I his
colour refills in a confiderable degree the adtion of the
air, but in point of permanency is much inferior to that
which is obtained from the ufe of madder.
Sect. III. Of the Mixture of Yellow and Red, or
Orange.
394. Orange is the ufual refult of a compofition of
yellow and red colours j but an almoft endlefs variety
of (hades may be produced, according as rve vary the
proportion of the ingredients, and the particular na¬
ture of the yellow made ufe of. It is fometimes the
practice of "dyers to combine blue with yellow and red,
the refult of which is the colour denominated olive.
Many varieties may be obtained from the ufe of weld,
faw-wort, dyers-weed, and other yellows, and by em¬
ploying tartar, alum, fulphate of zinc, or fulphate of
4
I N G. 45*
copper in the bath, or in the preparation of the Com pound-
cloth. , Colours ^
I. Of Dyeing Wool Orange.
395. By a procefs exactly the fame as that which is Orange by
followed in communicating to fluffs a fcarlet colour,the
an orange may be given to wool ; but the quantity 0fProcets*
red mult be diminifhed, and that of the yellow increaf-
ed. If wool is dyed a red colour by means of madder,
and afterwards yellow with weld, the refulting com¬
pound is a cinnamon colour, and the moft proper mor^
dant in this cafe is a mixture of alum and tartar. The
(hades may be varied at pleafure by fubftituting other
yellow dye fluffs inftead of weld, and by varying the
proportions as circumftances may require. Wool may
receive a reddifh yellow colour by pafling it through a
madder bath, after it has undergone the ufual procefs
for yellow, which has already been defcribed. The
ftrength of the madder bath is always to be proportion¬
ed to the fhade required. Brafil-wood is fometimes
employed with yellow fubftances, or mixed with co¬
chineal and madder. Snuff, chefnut, mufk, and other
(hades are produced, by fubftituting walnut-tree root,
walnut peels or fumach, for weld.
II. Of Dyeing Silk, Orange, ach operation, proportioned to the effeft intended to
be produced.
Crsy* 403. Blueifti grays are communicated to fluffs, ac¬
cording to Poerner, by the folution of indigo in fulphu-
ric acid, combined with a mixture of decoiflion of galls
and fulphate of iron, varying the {hades according to
the different quantities of thefe ingredients made ufe of.
If to a bath compofed of cochineal, fuftic and galls, ful-
phate of iron be added, other {hades are obtained.
404. For rnarone, and fuch other colours as bear a
flrong refemblance to it, fanders and galls are em¬
ployed, and fometimes a browning, with the addition
of logwood. If dyed in the remains of a cochineal
bath, thefe colours may be made to incline to a crim-
fon cr purple, and the fame effeft is produced by add¬
ing a fmall quantity of madder or cochineal to the
INC. Pam
bath. A little tartar gives a greater degree of bright- Compou,
nefs to the colour. With a mixture of galls, fuftic, and Colours
logwood, and a greater or fmaller quantity of madder,' v—
with the addition of a little alum, thofe colours may be
communicated to fluffs which are known by the nameHazej
of ha%cl.
405. M. Guhlicbe produces what is called a puce co- Puce co.
lour, by boiling for fifteen minutes a pound of woollen l°ur.
ftuft with two ounces of alum, a certain proportion of
vinegar end folution of iron, after which he leaves it
in the mordant for twelve hours. He then makes a
bath with the decodtion of two ounces of white galls
carefully poured off from the fediment, and mixed
with four ounces of madder, in which, when it grows
hot, the fluff is immerfed, after being taken out of the
mordant, allowing it to remain there, while the tem¬
perature is gradually increafed, till the colour intend¬
ed has been imparted to it j after which it is boiled
for t wo minutes, waflied, and dried in the fun. The
colour thus obtained poffeffes a great degree of dura¬
bility. It is of a deeper brown by the omiffion of the
alum and vinegar in the mordant 5 and after thefe co¬
lours the lighter {hades are dyed. Sumach may be em¬
ployed as a fubftitute for half of the madder. Differ¬
ent brown colours poffefling confiderable permanency,
may likewife be produced by the ufe of brafil and log¬
wood, if more or lefs of a folution of iron be mixed
with a decoflion of thefe fubftances. The wool being
previoufiy alumed and galled, is dyed in it.
II. Of Dyeing Silk with Mixtures of Black, See.
406. M. Gubliche imparts to filk a purple violet Purple v!
without a blue ground, with a mixture of one part of In¬
galls diffolved in white wine, with three parts of water,
in which a pound of filk is macerated for twelve hours,
foaked in a mordant made up of two ounces of alum,
one ounce of folution of tin, and half an ounce of mu¬
riatic acid. After wringing the fluff, it is dyed in a
bath compofed of two ounces of cochineal and a fmall
quantity of folution of iron, till the intended {bade has
been communicated ; and for {hades which are lighter,
the refidua of thefe baths are fufficient, either feparate¬
ly or mixed together. Madder may be ufed in the
fame way, macerating a pound of filk in a folution of
alum, mixed with an ounce of muriatic acid, and a
quantity of folution of iron. When the fluff is wrung
out, it is dyed in a bath made of eight ounces of mad¬
der. When deeper colours are wanted, fome of the fo¬
lution of galls in white wine is mixed with the madder
and cochineal baths.
407. Silk may be dyed in a bath made of equal
parts of brafil and logwood juice, adding a certain
quantity of folution of iron, after the fluff has been
foaked in a folution of two ounces of alum, and an ounce
of muriatic acid. If folution of galls be added, the
colour becomes deeper.
Colours refembling that of brick, may be produ-Brick c&
ced, by immerfing filk in an anotta bath, after prepar-lour.
ing it with a folution of galls mixed with a certain
quantity of folution of iron. By the mixture of bra-
fil, logwood, archil, and galls, and by a browning
with fulphate of iron, a number of different fliades are
produced ; but the whole of them have more or lefs
< up. III.
lalico- 3 tendency to tade, although their brightnefs is very
inting. pleating to the eye.
III. Of Dyeing Silk with Mixtures of Black, &c.
• th black 408. A permanent violet colour may be given to
■ “ thread and cotton, when fcoured in the ordinary way,
bv preparing a mordant with two quarts of the bath
of what is called the black cafk, and four quarts of wa¬
ter for each pound of liuff, which is made to boil, and
the feum is removed which forms on the furface, till it
wholly difappears. The liquor is poured into a vat, and
when warm, four ounces of lulphate of copper and one
ounce of nitre are diffolved in it. The fkeins are left
to foak in it for ten or twelve hours, wrung out, and
dried. If it is required to produce a deep violet co¬
lour, two ounces of verdigrife muft be added to the
bath ; and if the nitre be omitted, the colour becomes
Hill deeper by galling the thread more or lefs, prior to
its being put into the mordant. If the nitre be in-
creaftd, and the fulphate of copper be diminifhed, the
violet colour becomes more inclined to lilac. A num¬
ber of various (hades may be produced, by different
modifications of the mordants employed,
arone Cotton is galled, dipped, and wrought in the
our* common way, when different fhades of marone colour
are wanted. To the bath employed muff be added
more or lefs of the liquor of the black calk. Tire cot¬
ton is then walked in a bath mixed with verdigrife, next
welded, and dyed to a fuftic bath, to which a folution
of foda and alum is fometimes added. When the cot¬
ton prepared in this manner has been thoroughly walk¬
ed, it is next well maddered, dipped in a weak folution
of fulphate of copper, and laft of all in foap fuds.
izel. 410. For fome hazel and fnuff colours, a browning
is communicated to fluffs by means of foot, after the
welding and madder bath, to which galls and fuffic
have been added ; fometimes foot is mixed with this
bath, and a browning is likewife imparted by means of
a folution of fulphate of iron •, and for browning co¬
lours, walnut peels are fometimes employed as a fub-
ftitute for folutions of iron. For fuch wools as are de-
figned for the manufa&ure of tapeftry, they are very
advantageous, becaufe the colour is not changed into
yellow by expofure to the air, as is the cafe in brown¬
ing which is imparted by means of iron •, but remains
a confiderable time without any fenfible change. The
hue is indeed rather dull; but its goodnefs and very
moderate price are fufficient to recommend a more ex-
tenfive ule of it for grave colours, which in common
fluffs are fometimes falhionable.
Chap. III. Of Calico-printing.
iftory. 411. This may be defined to be the art of communi¬
cating different colours to particular fpots on the furface
of cotton or linen cloth, while the reff of the fluff re¬
tains its original white colour.
The wonderful and truly ingenious art of calico-
printing feems to have been firft known in India, and
for more than two centuries before the commencement
of the Chriftian era. Although the Egyptians were
well acquainted with this art in the days of Pliny, as
he hhnfelf informs us, it can fcarcely be doubted that
they derived the knowledge of it from India, as that
455
country rather than Egypt, produced the colouring and (lalico-
other materials for carrying it on. If we confider its Printing,
prefent improved Hate, the elegance of different pat-^
terns, the beauty and durability of the colours which
can now be imparted to cotton or linen fluffs, and the
dilpatch with which the various operations of this art
are conducted, we muff be atlonilhed at the rapidity of
its improvements, when we recoiled that it has been
known in Europe for little more than a century. Per¬
haps no other art has rifen to fuch perfedion in fo Ihort
a period.
412. Our readers will not exped that our account of
this fubjed Ihould be tedious or elaborate, lince the artift
is prefumed to be already acquainted with the different
proceffes which are emplwyed in calico-printing ; and to
fuch as with only for a general knowledge of the art,
in a theoretical point of view, prolixity would be dif-
agreeable.
413. The art of calico-printing confiftsin impregnating Nature 0? ;
with a mordant, fuch parts of cotton or linen fluffs as this art.
are to have particular colours communicated to them,
and then dyeing them in the ufual manner with fome
colouring fubllance. Thofe parts of the cloth only which
receive the mordant are intimately united with the co¬
louring matter, although the whole furface muft be
more or lefs tinged j but the parts which have not re¬
ceived the mordant are reftored to their original bright¬
nefs by means of walking, and afterwards bleaching it
upon the grafs for fome days, taking care to turn the
wrong fide towards the fun. If red ftripes are to be
communicated to a piece of white cotton cloth, thofe
parts of its furface upon which llripes are intended to
appear, are marked out by a pencil dipped in acetate
of alumina ; after which it is dyed with madder in the
ufual way. When it is firft taken out of the dyeing
veffel, its whole furface is red 5 but when it is walked
and bleached, it refumes its original whitenefs, the
ftripes only excepted, which, being impregnated with
the acetate of alumina, remain red. By a fimilar pro-
cefs may yellow or any other ftripes be fixed upon cot¬
ton or linen, by the fubftitution of quercitron bark,
weld, &c. in the room of madder.
414. When different parts of the cloth are to receive To comrmfe
different coloured flripes at the fame time, different mor-”'^1®
dants muft be employed. If ftripes are delineated on lourSa
its furface with the acetates of alumina and iron, and
if it be then dyed with madder in the ordinary way, it
will, after being walhed and bleached as formerly di- -
re£ted, exhibit ftripes of a red and brown colour. If tbs
fame mordants are employed, but quercitron bark ufed :
inftead of madder, the ftripes will then be yellow, and
olive or drab.
41 5. The mordants known by the names of acetate of Ufual mor-
alumina and acetate of iron, which are made ufe of indants.
calico-printing, may either be applied to fluffs with a
pencil, as already mentioned, or ftill more expeditioully
by means of blocks, on which the intended patterns are'
cut. Being defigned only for particular parts of the
furface of the cloth, great caution is neceffary to pre¬
vent them from fpreading to any part of it which is to
remain white, and to prevent their interference when
the application of more than one is required. Such a
degree of conliftence muft of confequence be given to
the mordants employed, as will prevent this difagree- -
able effeft, which cannot fail to deftroy the beauty
and
DYEING.
4S<3 DYE
Calico- arr^ elegance of tlie print. If blocks are to be made
Printing, ufe of, the mordants may be brought to a proper
'v”“—v—confiftence by means of ftarch ; but gum arable mutt
be mixed with them, when the pencil is to be
employed. The thicknefs (hould not exceed what
is abfolutely necefl'ary to prevent the mordants from
fpreading 5 becaufe, if carried too far, the cotton is
frequently not faturated with the mordant, in con-
-fequence of which the dye is but imperfectly communi¬
cated.
416. To dittinguifh thofe parts of the cloth which
are impregnated with mordants, it is a common
practice to give the mordants fome particular tinge
by which they may be known *, and for this purpofe
printers commonly make ufe of the decoftion of brafil
wood. Dr Bancroft objects to this practice, becaufe
he is of opinion that the procefs of dyeing is im*
peded by the colouring matter of brafil wood. The
Application affinity of the dye ftuft" for the mordant difplaces
of the mar- ^|ie colouring matter of the brafil wood j and without
fuch affinity it would be impoffible to ftrike the colour.
Some of the dye fluff to be employed afterwards is re¬
commended by Dr Bancroft for colouring the mor¬
dant, who prohibits the ufe of a larger quantity than
what is fufficient to render it diflinguifhable when an
application of it is made to the cloth. Should too
large a quantity be united with the mordant, a confi-
derable proportion of the latter would be combined
with colouring matter, by which means its affinity for
the cloth would be diminifhed, and therefore a perma¬
nent colour could not be expedited to refult from fuch a
partial combination.
'•Cloth mutt 417. It is neceffary to dry the cloth completely after
ha dried, the application of the mordants, for which purpofe arti¬
ficial heat may be employed, which has a tendency to
promote the feparation of the acetous acid from its
bafe, and affift its evaporation, and thus the combina¬
tion of the mordant with the cloth will be facilitated.
and then 418. When the cloth is thoroughly dried, it is cuf-
wallied. tomary to wafli it with warm water and cow-dung, till
every particle of the ftarch or gum arabic which had
been employed to give a proper confiftence to the mor¬
dants, and thofe parts of them which do not combine
with the cloth, are entirely removed. The loofe parti¬
cles of the mordant are entangled by means of the cow-
dung, and prevented from being attached to thofe parts
of the cloth which are to remain white. After this, it
muft be completely rinfed in pure water.
Colouring 4T9* Indigo, madder, quercitron bark, and weld, are
matters em. the chief dyeing ingredients made ufe of by calico-
ployed. printers ; but the laft of thefe is feldom ufed by the
printers of this country, except for the purpofe of com¬
municating yellotvs of a delicate greenifti {hade. Quer¬
citron bark, on account of its inferior price, and capa¬
city of imparting colours equally good, as well as re¬
quiring a lefs degree of heat, is employed as a fubfti-
tute. It is ufual to apply indigo at once, either by
means of the block or pencil, becaufe it requires not
the intervention of a mordant to fix it. This prepara¬
tion is made by boiling together indigo, potafti reduced
-to the cauftic ftate by means of quicklime, and orpi-
ment ; afterwards thickening the folution with gum.
Dr Bancroft recommends the ufe of coarfe brown fugar
as a fubftitute for orpiment, which operates as power¬
fully in the decoropofition of the indigo, and in promo-
I N G.
Part
ting its folubility, anfwering at the fame time all the Cal]
purpofes of gum. prjBtj
420. When the cloth is thoroughly cleanfed after it '—■“v 1
has been impregnated with the mordant, the dyeing pro-^yei^
cefs is condufled in the ufual manner. As the whole^rocefi'
of it receives a tinge of the dye, it muft be completely
waffied and bleached for fome days on the grafs, as for¬
merly mentioned, by which means the colour is en¬
tirely removed from thofe parts of the cotton not
•impregnated with the mordant, while all the other
parts of it retain the colouring matter as powerfully as
at firft.
421. One of the moft common colours imparted toNanker
cotton prints is a fpecies of nankeen yellow of differentyellow,
{hades, and for the moft part in ftripes or fpots. It is
produced by means of a block on which is cut the in¬
tended pattern, rubbed over with acetate of iron brought
to a proper confiftence with gum or ftarch, and applied
to the cotton j which, being dried and cleanfed in the
ordinary way, is immerfed in a ley ot potafti. It is pro¬
per to obferve, that the quantity of acetate of iron muft
be proportioned to the particular {hade required.
422. In order to produce a yellow colour, the blockYellow
is rubbed over with acetate of alumina ; and the cloth,
after being impregnated with this mordant, is dyed
with quercitron bark in the common manner, and then
bleached.
423. If madder be fubftituted for the quercitron bark, Rad.
a red colour is given to cotton by the fame procefs.
424. To communicate to fluffs the fine light blue co-B]ue,
lours which we frequently behold upon cotton, the block
is rubbed over with a compofition confifting partly of
wax, by means of which all thofe parts of its furface are
to remain white. It is next dyed in a cold vat of indi¬
go, and when it is dried, the wax compofition may be
removed by the ufe of hot water.
425. Lilac and blackifh brown colours are communi-Lilac, |
cated by acetate of iron, proportioning the quantity to
the particular {hade required, and adding a little fu-
mach for fuch ftiades as are to be very deep. The cot¬
ton is then dyed with madder, and bleached in the ufual
manner. Dove colour and drab are produced by means
of acetate of iron and quercitron bark.
426. When a variety of different colours are tobeHowto
made on the fame print, a greater number of operationspft ^
are unavoidably neceffary. Upon each of the blocks to'‘‘■t col‘’’
be employed is cut that particular part of the pattern
which is to have one appropriate colour ; and when thefe
blocks are rubbed over with their refpe&ive mordants
and thus applied to the cloth, the dyeing procefs is af¬
terwards conduced in the ordinary manner. If, for ex¬
ample, three different blocks are to be made ufe of, the
firft rubbed over with acetate of alumina brought to a
proper confiftence, the fecond with acetate of iron, and
the third with a compofition of thefe two, the colours
refulting, after the dyeing and bleaching proceffes are
finiffied, will be the following.
Acetate of alumina yellow,
iron olive, drab, dove,
From the compound olive green, olive.
It is proper to obferve, that thefe are the refults when
quercitron bark is employed 5 but by the fubftitutior.
of madder the following colours will be obtained.
Acetate
hap.
lalico-
intmg.
III.
DYEING.
Acetate of alumina
trietjr of
ours by
ferent
icefles.
red,
iron brown, black,
1 From the compolirtd purple.
When it is required to produce at the Fame time both
thofe colours which are imparted by madder, and like-
wife by the ufe of quercitron bark, mordants are firft
applied for one part of the pattern, after which the cot¬
ton is dyed in a bath of madder, and then bleached.
The reft of the mordants are then applied in a fimilar
manner, after which the cotton is dyed with the quer¬
citron bark, and bleached as before. The colours
which the madder communicates are very little affe&ed
by the fecond dyeing, becaufe the mordants by which
their permanency is fecured, are previoufly faturated.
A new mordant may be applied to fome of the colours
refulting from the ufe of madder, by which means they
receive a new durable colour from the bark. And by
means of the indigo liquor other new colours may ftill
be communicated after the laft bleaching.
427. The following colours may be communicated
to cotton, by means of the different proceffes which
have been defcribed.
457
Madder Dye.
Acetate of alumina
iron
Ditto diluted
Mixture of the two
Bark Dye.
Acetate of alumina
iron
Lilac and acetate of alumina
Red and acetate of alumina
Indigo Dye.
Indigo
Indigo and yellow
red*
brown, black,
lilac,
purple.
yellow,
dove-drab,
olive,
orange*
blue,
green.
Thus may twelve different colours be communicated
to the fame print by thefe different procefles.
lours for 428. If durable colours could be directly applied to
nriling. cotton by means of the block or pencil, without the
help of mordants, nothing could be conceived more
limple than the art of calico-printing 5 but with the
fingle exception of indigo, the communicating of per¬
manent colours requires the procefs of dyeing. Yellow,
indeed, which is a compound colour, and fome others,
may be communicated to cotton at once, by mixing
together an infufion of quercitron bark and acetate of
alumina, while the fame mordant with a decodtion of
madder, imparts to it a red colour', but thofe which
are produced in this way are far from being durable,
fince they are deftroyed by walking, and iometimes
even by expofure to the air.
429. But as it is not always pradticable for calico-
printers to avoid the application of colours in this man¬
ner, every endeavour to give them a greater degree of
permanency becomes an objedt of importance. The
following compofition has been recommended for a
printing colour. Three pounds of alum, and
four. three ounces of pure chalk are to be diffolved in a gal¬
lon of hot water, to which are to be added tw'o pounds
of acetate of lead. This mixture is to be eccafionally
Vol. VII. Part II.
ftirred for 24 or 36 hours, after which it is to remain Calico-
at reft during 12 hours. The clear liquor is then to Printing,
be poured oft', and as much mote hot water added to ' ’' ^
the refiduum, as will, after being ftirred and allowed
to fettle, amount to three quarts when added to the
firft quantity. Into a tinned copper veffel put fix
pounds, or at molt a quantity not excetding eight
pounds, of quercitron bark fuffieiently ground, and boil
it for an hour in four or five gallons of clean foft wa¬
ter, adding afterwards a little more water if the bark
is not properly covered. When the liquor is thorough¬
ly boiled, let it be removed from the fire, and left to
fettle for half an hour, when the clear decoftion is to
be poured off through a fine fieve. Six quarts more of
pure water are then to be put upon the fame bark, and
boiled for a quarter of an hour, being previoufly well
ftirred. When it has flood a fuffieient time to fettle,
the clear liquor is to be ftrained off, and being mixed
with the former, both are put into a (hallow wide vef¬
fel to be evaporated by boiling, till the whole, in addi¬
tion to the mordant already mentioned, and the gum
or pafte for bringing it to a proper confiftence, does
riot exceed three gallons. It will be proper not to add
the three quarts of aluminous mordant till the decoc-
tioh has been cooled down almoft to the natural heat of
blood. Let gum arable or gum fenegal be taken for
thickening, if the pencil is to be ufed, and ftarch or
flour when blocks are to be employed.
430. If a pound of murio-fulphate of tin be ufed as For bright
a fubftitute for the aluminous mordant in the 'compuli- yellow,
tion defcribed above, a mixture will be produced which
is capable of imparting to cotton a very bright yellow,
and confiderably permanent.
431. A cinnamon colour poffeffed alfo of a fufficient Cinnamon
degree of permanency may be given to cotton, by means colour,
of a mixture of fulphate of tin and a decoftion of the
quercitron bark.
432. If the deco&ions of this bark and of logwood GreeB»
are boiled together, and proper quantities of fulphate
of copper and verdigrife added to them, together with
a fmall proportion of carbonate of potalh, there refults
a compound which communicates to cotton a green co¬
lour. Although the expeditions of Dr Bancroft were
not fully anfwered by the trials which he made of this
fubftance, he deemed his fuecefs fufficient to encourage
him to a farther inveftigation of it.
433. A permanent drab colour may be given to cot- Drab ari!
ton by means of acetate of iron mixed with a decodlion olive*
of quercitron bark, and reduced to a proper confiftence.
This mixture will alfo produce an olive, if added to
the olive colouring liquor already mentioned and the
colours may be made ftill more permanent, if a folu-
tion of iron in diluted nitric or muriatic acid be ufed as
a fubftitute for iron liquor. They ought, however, to
be ufed fparingly and with caution, that the texture of
the cotton or linen to which they are applied may not
be injured.
434. Dr Bancroft made a number of experiments Colours
with the decodlion of quercitron bark, to ascertain its(rorn
effedls when combined with diff rent metallic falls as^lts”“rj[
mordants. T he fulphate, nitrate, and muriate of zinc, quercu
with this decoftion, yielded brownilh yellow colours of iron bark,
different lhades j but none of them were found fuffi-
ciently permanent when they were applied topically
to linen or cotton* Mercury in the different acids pro-
3 M duced
458
Indian Me-duced with the decoftion of bark different fhades of
thod of brown or yellowifh brown colours j but they did not
Dyeing prove more durable than the former. The nitro-mu-
» ^ ‘ . riate of platina with a proper proportion of decotlion
of quercitron bark, afforded, when topically applied to
linen or cotton, ft rung full-bodied fnuff colours, which
were found fufficiently permanent, and capable of re¬
filling the action of acids, and of the fun and air. Ni¬
trate of filver with a decodtion of the bark, when ap¬
plied topically to linen or cotton, produced flrong dark
brown and cinnamon colours of confiderable durability.
Nitrate of lead with the fame decodfion gave by topi¬
cal application a drab colour which was not lefs dura¬
ble than the former. Nitrate of bifmuth produced with
the decodlion of bark a very full and ftrong brownifli
yellow. Thi§ colour, however, is attended with the in¬
convenience of becoming almoft black when expofed
to the adlion of the alkaline fulphurets, fulphurated
hydrogen gas, or even by the adlion of common foap.
Muriate of bifmuth with the decodlion gives a drab co¬
lour: fulphate of the fame metal affords a yellow j but
thefe colours when applied to cotton or linen are not
durable. Nitro-muriate of antimony produced with
the decodtion of bark fomething of a fnuff colour, which
applied to linen and cotton poffeffes fome degree of du¬
rability. Nitrate and muriate of cobalt with the quer¬
citron bark gave different fhades of brown*, but thefe
colours were extremely fugitive j they foon faded by ex-
pofure to the fun and air.
435* art calico-printing has been hitherto al-
Append!*
moft folely limited to linens and cottons. Many colour- M
ing matters have fuch an affinity for thefe fluffs that thod of 1
they readily enter into combination with them at the D)eing|
ordinary temperature of the atmofphere. This is alfo Re(1,
the cafe with filk, fo that colouring matters might be ^
applied topically to the latter by means of fimilar ope¬
rations as to linen and cotton. Attempts, however,Woollen
have been made to extend the procefs of topical dyeing pnnl
or printing to woollen fluffs, and particularly thofetec1,
kinds known by the name of kerfeymeres, which are
employed after being prepared in this way for waiftcoat
patterns. When it is recolledted that woollen fluffs
when they are to be dyed generally muff be expofed to
a confiderable degree of heat, it is eafy to conceive that
it will be difficult to communicate fpots or figures by
printing to woollen fluffs. The means by which this
difficulty is obviated in thofe manufactories where this
operation is conduced have been hitherto kept fecret.
The preparation of colouring matters, wfliether fuch as
may be employed limply or require the ufe of mor¬
dants to fix them, will be eafily underftood from w'hat
we have already fully detailed in the courfe of this
treatife. The application of the colours is made in the
ufual way ; and it is faid that, after the woollen fluffs
are printed, they are wrapped up in two or three folds
of thick paper, to prevent the accefs of moifture which
might caufe the colours to run, and expofed to the
fleam of boiling water for fuch a length of time as
may be fuppofed neceffary for the colouring matter to
combine with the ffuffs-f*. f Bancm
DYEING.
APPENDIX.
After that part of the preceding treatife to which it
properly belongs, was printed off, the following ac¬
count of the Indian method of dyeing cotton cloth and
cotton thread a red colour came under our notice.. It
was communicated to the Society for the Encouragement
of Arts, &c. by Mr Maelachlan of Calcutta. The in-
fertion of it may perhaps excite the curiofity of fome of
our countrymen to farther inquiries into the ftate of
this as well as of other arts in India, where, from being
long known and pra6lifed, many of them have arrived
at a high degree of fimplicity and perfeftion.
Diretiions for dyeing a bright Red, four yards of three-
fourths broad Cotton Cloth.
I ft. The cloth is to be well wafhed and dried, for
the purpofe of clearing it of lime and congee, or ftarch,
generally ufed in India for bleaching and dreffing
cloths j then put into an earthen veffel, containing
twelve ounces of chaya or red root, with a gallon
of water, and allow it to boil a fhort time over the
fire.
2d. The cloth being taken out, wafhed in clean wa¬
ter, and dried in the fun, is again put into a pot with
one ounce of myrobalans, or galls coarfely powdered,
and a gallon of clear water, and allowed to boil to
one half: when cool,, add to the mixture a quarter of
a pint of buffalo’s milk. The cloth being fully foaked
in this, take it out, and dry it in the fun.^
3d. Wafh the cloth again in clear cold water, and
dry it in the fun ; then immerfe it into a gallon of wa¬
ter, a quarter of a pint of buffalo’s milk, and a quarter
of an ounce of the powdered galls. Soak well in this
mixture, and dry in the fun. The cloth, at this ftage
of the procefs, feeling rough and hard, is to be rolled
up and beetled till it becomes foft.
4th. Infufe into fix quarts of cold water, fix ounces
of red wood fhavings, and allow it to remain fo two
days. On the third day boil it down to two-thirds the
quantity, when the liquor will appear of a good bright
red colour. To every quart of this, before it cools,
add a quarter of an ounce of powdered alum 5 foak in
it your cloth twice over, drying it between each time
in the fhade.
5th. After three days waffi in clean water, and half
dry in the fun; then immerfe the cloth into five gal¬
lons of water, at about the temperature of 120° of
Fahrenheit, adding 50 ounces of powdered chaya, and
allowing the whole to boil for three hours; take the
pot. off the fire, but let the cloth remain in it until the
liquor is perfe£lly cool; then wring it gently, and
hang it up in the fun to dry.
6th, Mix intimately together, by hand, about a pint
meafure of freffi (beep’s dung, with a gallon of cold
water, in which foak the cloth thoroughly, and imme¬
diately take it out, and dry it in the fun.
7th. Wa(h the cloth well in clean water, and fpread
it out in the fun on a fand-bank (which in India is uni-
verfally preferred to a grafs-plat) for fix, hours, fprink-
idex.
lian Me-
;hod of
. Dyeing
Red.
DYEING.
ling it from time to time, as it dries, with clean water,
for the purpofe of finilhing and perfecting the colour,
which will be of a very fine bright red.
DireBions for dyeing of a beautiful red, eight ounces
of Cotton Thread.
lit. Put one gallon and a half, by meafure, of fap-
wood afhes, into an earthen pot, with three gallons of
water, and allow the mixture to remain twenty-four
hours to perfeCt it for ufe.
2d. Put the following articles into an earthen pot,
viz. three quarters of a pint of Gingelly oil j one pint,
by meafure, of fheep’s dung, intimately mixed by hand
in water ; two pints of the above ley.—After mixing
thefe ingredients well, pour the mixture gradually up¬
on the thread into another veffel, wetting it only as the
thread, by being fqueezed and rolled about by the
hand, imbibes it, continuing to do fo until the whole is
completely foaked up, and allow the thread to remain
in this ftate until next day.
3d. Take it up, and put it in the fun to dry j then
take a pint and a half of alh-ley, in which fqueeze
and roll the thread well, and allow it to remain till
next day.
4th. Squeeze and roll it in a like quantity of alh-
ley, and put it in the fun to dry ; when dry, fqueeze
and roll it again in the ley, and allow it to remain till
next day.
5th. Let the fame procefs be repeated three or four
times, and intermit till next day. '
6th. Ley the thread once, as the day before, and,
when well dried in the fun, prepare the following li¬
quor : One gill of Gingelly oil j one pint and a half
of alh-ley.—In this fqueeze and roll the thread well,
and leave it fo till next day.
7th. Repeat the procefs of yefterday, and dry the
thread in the fun.
8th. The fame procefs to be repeated.
9th. Firft repeat the alh-ley procefs three or four
times, as under the operations 3, 4, and 5, and then
prepare the following mixture : One pint of fheep-dung
water ■, one gill of Gingelly oil j one pint and a half
of afh-ley.—In this fqueeze and roll the thread well,
and dry it in the fun.
10th. Repeat the fame procefs.
nth. Do. Do.
1 2th. Do. Do.
13th. Do. Do.
14th. Do. Do.
15th. Wafh the thread in clean water, and fqueeze
and roll it in a cloth until almoft dry ; then put it into
a veffel containing a gill of powdered chaya root, one
pint by meafure of calhan leaves, and ten pints of clear
water j in this liquor fqueeze and roll it about well,
and allow it to remain fo till next day.
16th. Wring the thread, and dry it in the fun, and
repeat again the whole of the 15th procefs, leaving the
thread to fteep.
17th. Wring it well, dry it in the fun, and repeat
the fame procefs as the day before.
18th. Do. Do.
19th. Do. Do.
2oth. Wring and dry it in the fun, and with the like
quantity of chaya root in ten pints of water ; boil the
thread for three hours, and allow it to remain in the
infufion until cold.
21 ft. Walk the thread well in clear water, dry it in
the fun, and the whole procefs is completed.
459
Indian Me¬
thod of
Dyeing
Red.
INDEX.
UJM, a mordant for cotton, N° 221
how applied, 222
'lotta, biftory of, 248
properties of, 247
Qparatus for dyeing filk, 133
wringing out, 136
raking, 137
giving a ground, 138
d!PPing, 139
rcnil, hiftory of, 171
properties, 172
fingular change of, 173
'rts, origin of, 2
when loft, 16
revived in Italy, 17
Qracan, procefs for dyeing cotton
red at, ' 223
mordant ufed at, 224
madder dye, how prepa¬
red at, 227
B. •
ancroft, Dr, his procefs for dyeing
fcarlet, 200
advantages of it, N° 202
for blue, 314
pruffian blue, 323
Bath, preparation of, for dyeing wool
yellow, _ 255
cotton and linen, 277
BertholleCs experiments for trying the
permanency of colours, 61
Betula fl/£rt,bark of, for dyeing brown, 357
Birch, bark of, ufed in dyeing brown, ib.
Black, the fubftances ufed for dyeing, 326
procefs employed for, 330
Hellot’s procefs for, ib.
common procefs for, 331
cheaper procefs for, 332
procefs of the Englilh dyers
for, 533
Blue, how to dye wool, 292
accidents which may happen in
the dyeing of, . 293
how communicated in calico-
printing, 424
Bodies, affinity of, for certain rays
the caufe of colour, 41
Bodies,T\\\n\.e, effect of colours’on, N° 49
coloured, are compounds, 53
Boilers, what kind of, beft for dyeing, 192
Brazil wood, hiftory of, 178
properties, 179
Brown, fubftances ufed in the dye¬
ing of, _ 35*
properties of, 352
advantages, 353
c.
Caldrons for dyeing, 132
Calico-printing, hiftory of, 411
nature of, 4*3
different colours how
communicated, 414
mordants ufed, 415
application of, 416
cloth waffied, 418
and dried, 417
Candle light, effedls of, on fcarlets
differently dyed, 203
Carthamus, hiftory of, *74
preparation of, 175
M 2
Carthamus,
460
Carthamus, properties of, N* 176
Chamomile, ufe of, in dyeing, 251
ChemiJlnj, importance of, in dyeing, 150
Cherry-red, how obtained, 215
Cochineal, hiftory of, 160
varieties of, 162
attempts to cultivate, 164
properties of, 165
Colours, nature of, 29
divifion of, 151
limple, 152
caufe of, explained, 30
durable, 267
Newton’s theory of, 33
objections to, 36
fupported, 34
inconfiftent
with fa£ts, 37
of metals independent of
denfity, 39
changes of, 42
from new combi¬
nations, 43
change of, produced by oxy-
gen> . 54
compound, explanation of, 364
how to try the permanency
of, 56
green, 376
violet, 393
olive green, 377
for penciling, 429
Cotton, origin of, 117
ftrudture of, 118
affinity of, for colouring matter, 119
preparations for dyeing, 120
aluming, 121
galling, 122
procefs for dyeing madder or
Turkey red, 217
at Aftracan, 223
the Grecian method, 231
by Papillon, at Glaf-
gow, 238
by Hauflman, 239
fcarlet with cochi¬
neal, 241
crimfon, 242
how dyed blue, 304
black, 346
green, 376
olive green, 377
violet, 393
Crimfon, how dyed by one procefs, 208
by the conver-
fion of fcarlet, 209
D.
Dow-colour, dyeing wool, 382
Drab-colour imparted to cloth by a-
cetate of iron, 426
Dufay's experiments for trying the
permanency of colours, 57
Dyeing, definition of, I
origin of, 3
N‘
'4
ib.
5
6
7
8
18
22
23
25
26
27
130
DYEING.
Dyeing, hiftory of,
progrefs of,
among the Indians,
Greeks,
Jews,
Egyptians,
revived in Italy,
introduced into France,
encouraged there,
reftraints impofed on,
ftate of, in Britain,
improved by chemiftry,
authors on the art of,
operations for,
E.
Englifh blue, how produced, 318
green, 374
Euler, proof adduced by, that the co¬
lours of bodies do not origi¬
nate from reflection, 46
F.
Fenugreek, ufe of, in dyeing, 252
Flax, origin of, 124
how Avatered, 125
ItruCture of, 127
prepared for dyeing, j 28
French berries, ufe of, in dyeing, 252
Fufic, hiftory of, 246
properties of, 247
G.
Galling, ufes of, 219
remarks on, 220
Grecian method of, 234
Gray, a compound of black and o-
ther colours, 366
Green, a compound of blue and yel¬
low, ib.
various (hades of, 367
fubftances for dyeing, ib.
Saxon procefs for dyeing
wool, 369
for dyeing
filk, 372
Engliffi procefs for dyeing
filk, 374
H.
HauJJman, Mr, his procefs for mad¬
der red, 239
Hazel colour, how produced, 410
Hellot's experiment for trying the
permanency of colours, 60
procefs for dyeing with in¬
digo,. . 299
Hiccory, ufe of, in dyeing, 252
Houfes £or dyeing, 131
I.
Indigo, when firft ufed, 20
in Europe, 283
different fpecies of, 284
how prepared, 28 5
Index.
N° 286
287
289
290
189
95
74
349
Indigo, different qualities of,
from what obtained,
properties of,
ufed in two ftates,
Ingredients, proportion of, for red¬
dening fcarlet,
Iron, oxide of, as a mordant,
folution of, for the fame,
how prepared,
K.
Kermes, hiftory of,
properties of, l6^
Kufer brings the oxide of tin to Lon¬
don, gg
L.
Lac, hiftory of,
properties of,
Light, nature of, 28
Lilac, how communicated to cloth in
calico-printing, 425
Lime, ufe of, in dyeing, 83
precautions in the ufe of, 296
Linen, dyed yellow with weld, 273
blue, 304
black, 346
procefs followed at Manchef-
ter for, 348
how dyed violet, 393
cinnamon colour, 399
olive, 400
dyed red with madder, 217
Liquor, purple, formed in fnails, 15
Logwood, hiftory of, 183
properties of, ib.
M.
Madder, preparation of,, 156, 184
procefs for dyeing with, 182
rofing, 183
properties of, 159
Marone colour, how produced, 409
Matters, coloured, do not refleft light, 44
proof of this, 45
animal, ufed as mordants, 97
animal and vegetable, 103
coloured black by incident
rr bgbt, . _ 47
Metallic oxides, ufe of, in dyeing, 84
Mordants, definition of, 66
importance of, 67
how applied, 69
effects of, explained, 7°
various ways applied, 100
for dyeing cotton red, 218
ufed in dyeing black, 329
MuJhrooms7u£e of, in dyeing, 272
N.
Nankeen colour, how to dye, 279
another procefs for, 280
how done in the ea ft, 281
how communicated in cali¬
co-printing, 4^
fndex.
o.
Olive communicated to cloth in ca¬
lico-printing by acetate of
iron, J-M
and by the acetates of alumina
and iron combined,
Grange colour, how produced,
a compound of red and yel¬
low,
various {hades of,
426
ib.
271
366
394
P.
Yapillon, Mr, his procefs for dyeing
red, 238
Tenet ling, colours for, 429
Tlatiere, De la, his method of dye¬
ing with Pruflian blue, 322
Toppy-red, how obtained, 214
Trocefs for dyeing wool yellow, 258
Truftan blue, how to dye with, 320
Turple, Tyrian, celebrated by the
ancients, 9
a compound of red and yel¬
low, 366
liquor, preparation of, 9
fluffs, how prepared to re¬
ceive, ib.
permanency of, 10
high price of, 11
worn by the Romans, 12
ftill ufed in dyeing, 13
found in fnails, 15
.&*
Quercitron bark, hiftory of, 248
properties, 249
for dyeing wool
yellow, 257
R.
Ted fubftances for dyeing, 155—180
how to obtain different {hades of, 195
madder, for cotton, 217
Grecian method of ob¬
taining, 231
how improved in the
Levant, 237
how communicated in
calico-printing, 423
Rofe-colour, how obtained, 216
Rouge, preparation of, ^77
madder, for wool, 182
filk^ 211
cotton and linen, 217
fearlet,
crimfon, 208
S‘
Salt, common, ufe of, in dyeing fear-
let, 196
Sandal wood, ufe of, in dyeing, 35^
Saxon blue, difeovery of, 313
how to dye with, 314
green, procefs for dyeing wool, 369
DYEING.
Saxon green, procefs for dyeingfilk, N°372
Scarlet, procefs for dyeing, 187
with cochineal, J97
procefs for boiling, ib.
reddening, 188
how to give a bright red to, 191
a compound colour, 198
different {hades of, 207
Shell-jijh, producing a purple liquid, 14
found on the French coaft, ib.
method of catching, ib.
Silk, how produced, 111
fcoured, 112
treated when ufed white, 113
to extract the colouring
matter of, 115
alumed, 116
procefs for dyeing red, 211
with madder, tb.
brazil wood, 212
cochineal, 213
weld, 268
how prepared for a blue colour, 301
Turkey blue, 302
black, 336
how galled, 33^
foftened, 340
raw, how to dye, 342
how dyed green, 371
purple, 389
a procefs for dyeing, 392
how dyed olive, 397
purple-violet, 406
brick colour, 407
how dyed with the black cajk, 408
Soot, ufe of, in dyeing, _ 359
Stuffs to be dyed ftiould be white, 51
Sumach, properties of, 356
ufe of, in dyeing, 362
T.
Terms for different {hades of colour, 140
Tejls for filks, 62
dye-fluffs, 63
Tin, oxide of, ufed in dyeing, 87
brought to London by
Kufter, 88
folution of, how prepared, 91
acetate of, recommended by
Hauffman as a mordant, 93
Trefoil, leaves of, ufed in dyeing, 253
V.
Vats, how liable to accidents, 293
recovered, 294,
preferved from putrefaflion, 295
made with indigo, 298
for blue, recommended by
D’Apligny, 3°4
by Quatremere 306
on a large fcale, 3°7
recommended by Bergman, 309
465
Vats recommended by Hauffman, N° 310
Velvet, how dyed black, 343
fubftances ufed inftead of galls
for, > . 344
Verdigrife, ufe of, inftead of tartar in
dyeing, 265
W.
Walnut-peels, for dyeing brown, 351
properties of, 352
preparation of, 354
Water, importance of, in dyeing, 142
different kinds how diftin-
gu idled, 144
method of purifying, 14I
tefts for, 145
Weld, ufe of, in dyeing yellow, 244
properties of, 245
Willows, fweet, leaves of, ufed in dye¬
ing, _ 252
Wood, ufe of, in dyeing blue, 291
Wool, different modes of dyeing* 11©
ftru&ure of, 105
felting of, 106
how fulled, 107
importance of, 108
dyed red with madder, 182
procefs for dyeing, fcarlet, 186
crimfon, 208
yellow, 254
blue, 315
brown, 360
black, 330
green, 368
purple, 381
lilac, 382
orange, 395
coffee-co¬
lour, 402
gray, 403
puce colour, 405
dyed purple with logwood, 384
procefs for obtaining, 385
Woollen fluffs, printing, 436
Y.
'lellovo, fubftances employed for dye¬
ing, 244
mordants neceffary for a per¬
manent, 243
with an orange {hade, 259
bright golden, 261
greenifti, 263
pale green, 264
procefs for a cheap, 270
how communicated in calico-
printing, 422
produced by acetate of alu¬
mina, 426
compofition for, in calico-
printing, 43°
bright, 431
DYNAMICS,
[ 462 ]
dynamics.
Introduc- I* "T\YNAMICS is that branch of phyfico-mathema-
tion. tical fcience which includes the abftraft doc-
'JJ“ y ■ trine of moving forces; that is, the neceffary refults of
Definition, relations of our thoughts concerning motion, the
immediate caufes of motion, and its changes,
idea of 2. Motion and its general properties are the firrt and
motion. principal object of mechanical philofophy. This fci¬
ence indeed prefuppofes the exiftence of motion 5 and
we may confider it as univerfally admitted and recog-
nifed. With regard to the nature of motion, however,
philofophers are greatly divided in opinion. The molt
obvious and fimpleft conception of motion is the fuccef-
live application of the moving body to the different
parts of indefinite fpace, which are confidered as the
place of the body. This idea of motion fuppofes a
fpace whofe parts are penetrable and immoveable ; a
do&rine diredlly contrary to that of the followers of
Des Cartes, who regarded extenfion and matter as one
and the fame thing. To have a diftindf idea of mo¬
tion, it feems requifite to conceive two kinds of exten¬
fion 5 the one, which is confidered as impenetrable,
and which conflitutes what we properly call matter or
body; the other, which being {imply confidered as ex¬
tended, without taking any other property into ac¬
count, is the meafure of the diflance of one body from
another ; and whofe parts being fuppofed fixed and im¬
moveable, enable us to judge of the reft or motion of
bodies. We may therefore conceive bodies to be placed
in indefinite fpace, whether real or fuppofed ; and mo¬
tion as a change in the ftate or condition of a body from
one part of fpace to another. We muft indeed confider
motion as a ftate or condition of exiftence of a body,
which would remain till it is changed by fome caufe j
otherwife we could not have any idea of motion in the
abftrafl. From the changes which we obferve, we in¬
fer agency in nature $ and in thefe changes we are to
difcover what we know of their caufes.
Idea of 3* mechanical difquifitions, the fimpleft, and at
fpace. the fame time the moft ufual conception of fpace, is
mere extenfion. We think only of the diftance be¬
tween two places. The path along which any body
moves in palling from one place or point in fpace to
another, is faid figuratively to be the path defcribed by
that body. Space is confidered by the geometer not
only as having length but alfo breadth. In this cafe it
is called a furface. But to have a more complete no¬
tion of the capacioufnefs of any portion of fpace*, thick-
nefs, as well as length and breadth, is taken into con-
fideration. This is called a folid fpace. By this, how¬
ever, is meant only the fufceptibility of meafure in
three ways, or extenfion of three dimenfions. The ad¬
jacent parts or portions of fpace are diftinguiftied from
each other by their mutual boundaries. Contiguous
portions of a line are feparated by points j contiguous
portions of a furface are feparated by lines ; and conti¬
guous portions of a folid are feparated by furfaces. The
boundaries of any portions of fpace are not to be con¬
fidered as parts of the contiguous portions. They muft
be conceived as common to both j as the places where
one portion ends and another begins. Space cannot be
faid to have any bounds or limits j it is therefore faid
to be infinite or unbounded. ' ^ ‘
4. Any portion of fpace may be confidered in rela-Reiatjve
tion to its place or fituation among other portions of and abfo-
fpace. This portion of fpace which is occupied byIute tyace.
any body has been called the relative place of that bo¬
dy. But this portion of fpace may be confidered as a
determinate portion of infinite fpace ; and this portion
of infinite fpace occupied by any body has been called
the abfolute place of that body. Space, it is obvious,
taken in this meaning, is immoveable j for it cannot
be conceived that this identical portion of fpace can be
removed from one place to another. The body which
occupies that fpace may be removed, but the fpace re¬
mains. We have no perception of the abfolute fpace
of any objedt. This may be illuftrated by the motion
of the earth or that of a fhip. A perfon in the cabin*
of a fhip does not confider the table as changing its
place while it remains fixed to the fame fpot on the
deck. While a mountain is obferved to retain the
fame fituation among other objedts, few perfons think
that it changes its place.
5. The idea of time is acquired by means of the idea oi
power of memory in obferving the fucceffion of events, time.
We conceive time as unbounded, continuous, homoge¬
neous, unchangeable in the order of its parts, and in¬
finitely divifible. It is conceived as a proper quantity
made up of its own parts, and meafured by them. But
as the relation of the parts of time is unknown, the
only means which we can employ to difcover this rela¬
tion, is to find out fome other relation which is more
obvious and better known, to which it may be compa¬
red. We fhall then have difcovered the fimpleft mea¬
fure of time, if we compare in the fimpleft manner pof-
fible the relation of the parts of time with thofe rela¬
tions which are moft familiar. Hence it follows, that
uniform motion is the fimpleft meafure of time. For,
on the one hand, the relation of the parts of a right
line is that which is moft eafily conceived j and, on
the other hand, there are no relations more fufceptible
of comparifon with each other than equal relations.
Now, in uniform motion, the relation of the parts of
time is equal to that of the correfponding parts of the
line defcribed. Uniform motion then gives us at once,
both the means of comparing the relation of the parts
of time with that which is moft obvious to our fenfes,
and alfo of making this comparifon in the fimpleft
manner. In uniform motion, then, we find the fim¬
pleft meafure of time. It may be added, that the mea¬
fure of time by uniform motion, is, independent of its
fimplicity, that which is the moft natural to think of
employing. Indeed as there is no relation with which
we are acquainted more accurate than that of the parts
of fpace ; and, as in general, a motion, the law of
which is given, would lead us to difcover the relation.
of the parts of time, by the known analogy with that
of the parts of fpace pafled over, it is evident that fuch
a motion would be the moft accurate meafure of time,
and
art I.
Iot;om and that which ought to be employed in preference to
Uy— every other. In the actual mealurement of time, fome
event which is imagined always to require an equal
time for its accomplifhment is feledted ; and this time
is employed as a unit of time or duration, in the fame
way as a foot rule is employed as a meafure of extenfion.
During any obferved operation, as often as this event
is accompliihed, fo often is it fuppofed that the time of
the operation contains this unit. While a heavy body
falls 16 feet, a pendulum, 39-^ inches long, makes one
vibration ; but it makes three vibrations, while the
fame body falls 144 feet. It. is therefore faid that the
time of a body falling 144 feet, is thrice as great as the
time of falling 16 feet.
463
6. Between the affe&ions of time and fpaco, there Motion,
is an obvious analogy j and hence in moll languages v
the fame words are employed to^exprefs the aftedlions j^^gy
of both. Thus it is that time may be reprefented bythe affec.
lines and meafured by motion $ hnce uniform motion istl0nS0f
the fimpleti fucceflion of events that can be conceived, time and
In the order of fituation all things are placed in fpaceJpace.
In the order of fucceffion all events happen in time.
Having made thefe preliminary obfervations, wTe pro¬
pole to divide the following treatife into two parts. In
the firft, we lhall confider motion in general. In the
fecond, we lhali treat of moving forcer, or of dyna¬
mics.
DYNAMICS.
PART I. OF MOTION.
BEFORE we enter on the conlideration of the dif¬
ferent kinds of motion, it may be neceffary to notice
fome general circumftances regarding it.
0 motion 7- It is impoffible to conceive that any motion can
tanta- be inftantaneous. A moving body, in paffing from
ous' the beginning to the end of its path, mull pals through
all the intermediate points. Now to fuppofe the mo¬
tion along even the molt minute portions of the (pace
pafled through inftantaneous, is to fuppofe that the mo¬
ving body is in every intervening point at the fame in-
ftant} which is impoflible.
bfolute 8. Relative motion is the change of fituation with
d relative regard to other objects. Abfolute motion is the change
Dtion. 0f abfolute place. Thefe two motions, it may be ob¬
ferved, may not only be different, but even contrary to
each other. From the relative motions of things which
are the differences of their abfolute motions, we can¬
not find out what are the abfolute motions. It is of¬
ten a fubjeft of elaborate and intricate inveftigation to
difcover and determine the abfolute motions, by means
of obferving the relative motions,
aantity of 9’ The affections or circumftances of motion are va-
otion. rious with regard to its quantity and direction. That
affeCtion of motion by which the quantity is determin¬
ed, is called velocity. The length of the line, which
is uniformly defcribed or naffed over during fome given
portion or unit of time, is the proper meafure of this
velocity. When a fhip fails fix miles per hour, ihe de-
fcribes a length of line equal to fix miles in the fpace
of a given portion or unit of time, namely the hour; and
thus the velocity of the (hip is faid to be afcertained.
reftion 10. Another affedion or circumftance of motion is
motion. |ts direBion. This is the pofition of the ftraight line
along which the motion is performed. The ftraight
line which a body deferibes or tends to defcribe is call-
Plate direction. The motion is faid to be in the Hirec-
LXXXIV1*0*1 AB fig. 1. when the body moved paffes along
fig. 1. the line AB from A to B. In common language, it
is not unufual to exprefs the direction of motion in a
manner quite the reverfe of this. We have an in-
ftance of this kind in fpeaking of the direCHon of the
winds. A current of air or wind which moves eaft-
Ward is faid to be a wefterly wind, deriving its name
from the point or quarter from which it proceeds, not
as in other cafes, and in ftriCt expreflion, from the
point to which it is directed.
3
11. Motions are of different kinds. They are either Redlilineaf
reChiineal, defleCIed, or curvilineal. In a redilinealmotioo.
motion the diredion remains unchanged during the
whole time that the motion is continued, as when a-Fig. 1.
body moves from A to B fig. 1. In a defleded mo-jyefle(qe(i,
tion it is performed along two contiguous ftraight lines
in fucceflion. Thus if a body moves from A to B
fig. 2. and at the point B its diredion is changed from
that of AD to BC ; this change has been called ffe-Fig. a.
JleBion, the quantity of which may be meafured either
by the angle DBG, or by a line DC drawn from the
point D to which the body would have arrived in the
fame time, if its motion had remained unchanged, in
which it has adually reached the point C. When a
body in moving along deferibes the fides of a polygon,
the defledions are repeated, with the intervention of
undefleded motions. In curvilineal motion the devia- Curvilineal.
tion and defledion are fuppofed to be continual. Con¬
tinual defledion therefore conftitutes curvilineal mo¬
tion. Let the motion be performed along a curve line
ABCDE (fig. 3.), the diredion is continually chan-Fig. 3.
ging. When the body is in the point C the diredion
is that of the tangent CF *, becaufe this diredion alone
lies between any pair of polygonal diredions, fuch as
CE and C a, or CB and CD, however near the points
A and E, or B and D, are taken to the point C.
1 2. Motions have been divided into uniform motions, Divifion of
variable, compound, and curvihneal. I hefe we fliall
confider feparately in the following fedions.
Sect. I. Of Uniform Motion,
13. It is of great importance in mechanical difquifi-Importance
tions, to have the charaders of uniform or unchanged ot fixed
motion fixed. For in our conceptions of motion jn™™
general, in which wre do not turn the attention to its motions,
alterations, the motion is fuppofed to be equable and
redilineal. By the deviations from fuch motion only
can we determine the marks and meafures of all
changes; and hence alfo we are to obtain the meafures
of all changing caufes, or in other words of the me¬
chanical powers of nature.
Proposition I.
14. In uniform motions, the velocities are in the pro¬
portions of the fpaces defcribed in the fame or* in equal
tunes £}
464
D Y N A
Uniform times ; or, as it is fometimes espreffed, The velocities are
Motion, proportional to the /paces defer ibed in equal times.
The fpaces deferibed are the raeafures of the velo¬
cities, and things are proportional to their meafures.
Let the fpaees deferibed in the time T, be reprefented
by S and r, and let the velocities be repreiented by
V and v. We have the analogy V : v zr: S : j. Or,
as it may be expreffed by the proportional equation,
vzzs.
Prop. II.
15. In uniform motions with equal velocities, the times
are in the proportion of the fpaces deferibed during their
currency. Or, as it is alfo expreffed. The times are
proportional to the fpaces deferibed with equal velocities.
For in uniform motions, equal fpaces are deferibed
in equal times. The fucceffive portions of time there¬
fore are equal, in which equal fpaces are deferibed in
fucceflion *, and the fums of the equal times muff be
proportional to the correfponding fums of equal fpacesi
In all cafes, therefore, which are fufceptible of being
reprefented by numbers, this propofition is evident.
And it may be extended to all other cafes, in a way
fimilar to that in which Euclid has demonftrated that
triangles of equal bafes are in the proportion of their
bafes.
16. As proportion can only take place between
quantities of the fame kind, all that is to be under-
ftood by the expreflions in the above propofitions, which
are far from being accurate, is, that the proportions of
the velocities and the times are the fame with the pro¬
portions of the fpaces. For as fpace and time are
quantities of a different nature, it is evident that we
cannot divide fpace by time. Thus when it is faid that
the velocities are as the fpaces divided by the times, it
is an abridged mode of expreflion, which fignifies that
the velocities are as the relations of the fpaces to the
fame common meafure, divided by the relations of
the times to the fame meafure. Thus, for example, if
we take a foot for the meafure of the fpaces, and a
minute for the meafure of the times, the velocities of
two bodies which move uniformly, are to each other
as the number of feet deferibed, divided by the num¬
ber of minutes which the bodies require to deferibe the
portion of fpace paffed through, and not as the feet
divided by the fame minutes.
Uniform jh Hence it is that uniform motion is univerfally
a'meafure employed as a meafure of time. But it is often diffi-
«f time. cult to find out whether the motion which is propofed
for the meafure of time be perfectly uniform. What
then are the means to afeertain this ? To this it may
be anfwered that there is no motion which is not uni¬
form, the law of which we can determine exactly j fo
that this difficulty only proves that we cannot afeertain
the relation of the parts of time with mathematical
precifion •, but it does not follow that uniform motion
from its nature may not be the firfi: and fimplefl mea¬
fure. And having no ftridtly accurate meafure of
time, we endeavour to difeover the meafure which
comes neareft in the motions which approach neareft to
Method of uniformity.
afeertain- jg. There are three Ways by which it may be afeer-
ing when a1; ta*me(j tjjat a motion is nearly uniform. I. When the
nearl^unL moving body deferibes equal fpaces in times which we
form. judge to be equal j and we can determine that the
M I C S. Partl
times are equal, after having obferved from repeated Uniform
experience that fimilar events take place in the fame Motion
times. Thus we conclude that the times which the ''■“v*-
fame clepfydra requires to be emptied are equal j fo alfo
the times in which the fame quantity of fand runs in the
fandglals j the times in which the ffiadow moves over
the fame fpace on the fundial j the times of the fame
number ot vibrations of a pendulum of the fama
length $ and the times of the revolution of the heaven¬
ly bodies through the fame fpaces—are equal. If then
it is found by obfervation that a body during the fame
time paffes over equal fpaces, we conclude that the
motion is uniform. 2. Another method of afeertaining
how far any motion is uniform, is when the effedl of the
accelerating or retarding caufe, if fuch operate, is ira*
perceptible. It is by combining thefe two methods that
we conclude the motion of the earth round its axis to be
uniform $ and this inference is not only not oppoftd by
any of the celeftial phenomena, but feems to be in per¬
fect accord with them. 3. By a third method of deter¬
mining the uniformity of any motion, we compare it
with others $ and when the fame law is^obferved in
both the one and the other, we may conclude that the
motion compared is uniform. Thus if feveral bodies
move at fuch a rate that the fpaces deferibed in the
fame time are always to each other, either precifely or
very nearly fo, if. the fame ratio, the motion of thefe
bodies, we conclude, is either precifely, or at leaft very
nearly uniform. For if a body A which moves uni¬
formly paffes through the fpace E during the time T
taken at pleafure, and another body B alfo moving uni¬
formly, paffes through the fpace e during the fame
time T, the relation of the fpaces E, e will be always
the fame, whether the two bodies have begun to move
in the fame or in different inffants j and it is only to
uniform motion that this property belongs. Where¬
fore if we divide the time into parts, whether equal or
unequal, and if it be obferved that the fpaces paffed
through by two bodies during one part of the time, are
always in the fame relation, the greater the number
the parts of the time taken, the more there is reafon to
conclude that the motion of each body is uniform.
None of thefe methods, it has been obferved, poffeffes
geometrical precifion j but they are fufficient, efpeci-
ally when they are repeated and taken together, to af¬
ford a fatisfadfory conclufion, if not with regard to ab-
folute uniformity of motion, at leaft with regard to a
near approximation to uniform motion.
Prop. III.
19. In uniform motions, the fpaces deferibed are in the
compound ratio of the velocities and the ratio of the times.
This propofition is frequently eRpreffed otheiwife thus:
The fpaces deferibed with an uniform motion are propor~
tional to the producls of the times and the velocities : Or
o1 her wife thus*, The fpaces deferibed vjith a uniform mo¬
tion are proportional to the reSlangles of the times and
the velocities.
For let S be the fpace deferibed with the velocity V,
in the time T, and let r be the fpace deferibed wi'h
the velocity v, in the time t. Let another fpace Z be
deferibed in the time T with the velocity v.
Then by propofition ift we have S : Z=V: tt/,
And by propofition 2d Z: j=:T : t.
By
e& II. D Y N A
triable Bv compofition of ratios therefore (or by VI. 23. Eu-
dotions. did), we have =V X T : ^ X '=S X Z : j- X Z ; that is,
The above are all equivalent expreflions which are
demonftrated by the fame compofition of ratios. The
produ&s or redangles of the times and velocities, are
the produ&s of numbers which are as the times, mul¬
tiplied by numbers which are as the velocities j or the
redangles whofe bafes are as the times, and whofe
heights are as the velocities.
Corollary.
20. If the [paces defcribed in two uniform motions be
equal, the velocities are in the reciprocal proportion of
the times.
For in this cafe the produds VT and v t are equal,
and therefore V : v~t : T, or V : v~rj-,:—. Or, be-
ig.4. caufe the redangles AC, DF (fig. 4.) are in this cafe
equal, we have (by VI. 14. Euclid) AB : BF~BD :
BC, that is \J : v t : T.
Prop. IV.
21. In uniform motions, the times are as the /paces,
direBly, and as the velocities, inverfely.
For by Prop. III. S : j'zrVT : v t;
Therefore, S^LruVr,
And, T : : j V.
Or,
And,
S r
T :
V v
. s
” !u‘
Prop. V.
22. In uniform motions, the velocities are as the
/paces, dir eel ly, and as the times, inverfely.
For by Prop, IV. S v /=jVT,
Therefore V : v—§ t : rT.
-rr S j-
Or, V:
T t
And,
. s
■ t
23. The values of the refults of thefe propofitions
are not changed by the abfolute magnitudes of the
fpace and time, if both are changed in the fame ratio.
12 feet - 8 feet . . - . .
The value of r—, or of ——, is the fame with
24" 16"
half a foot per fecond. Therefore, if s* be the ex-
prtffion of an extremely minute portion of fpace de¬
fcribed with this velocity in the fmall portion of time
s'
t', the velocity v is ftill accurately expreffed by
. . sr
And the accurate exprefflon of the time t* is —.
Sect. II. Of Variable Motions.
obferved ‘ 24’ obferving the phenomena of nature, it rarely
nature m happens that the motions to width our attention is di-
rareiji uni. reded are perfedly uniform. Thefe motions, however,
form. VoL. VII. Part II.
M I C S. 465
we diftindly conceive, with all their properties j and Variable
it is obvioufly of the utmoft importance that all the Motions,
deviations from uniform motions be clearly underftood j
becaufe thefe deviations afford the only marks and
raeafures of the variations, and therefore of the caufes
which produce thefe changes.
25. When a body continues to move uniformly in
the fame diredion, its motion, or circumftances with
refped to motion, have fuffered no change. The con¬
dition of that body, therefore, muff be allowed to be
the fame in any two portions of its path, whatever the
diftance of thefe portions may be. And becaufe a
change of place is involved in the very conception of
motion, the difference of place does not imply any
change. Two bodies, therefore, moving with the fame
velocity in this path, or in two lines parallel to it, their
condition in refped of motion muff be allowed to be
the fame. Their diredion is the fame, and their rate
of motion is the fame. The velocity, therefore, and Velocity
the diredion of a body, are the only circumftances apd direc-
which feem to enter into our conception of the ftate of*1®™!1^
a body, in refped of motion. Changes either in the jn moJ.;oru
velocity, or in the diredion, or in both of thefe circum¬
ftances, include all the changes of which this condi¬
tion is fufceptible. Let us now confider the firfi: of
thefe changes, namely, changes of velocity.
Of Accelerated and Retarded Motions.
26. It has been afeertained by experiment and ob-
fervation, that a ftone in falling is carried downward
with greater rapidity in every fucceffive period of its
fall. During the firft fecond it falls 16 feet ; during
the next it falls 48 feet 5 during the third, it falls 8(3
feet; during the fourth it falls J12 feet; continuing
to fall, during every fucceffive fecond 32 feet more
than during the preceding fecond. A body moving in
this manner is faid to have an accelerated motion. But
if a body be projeded perpendicularly upward*, the
very reverfe takes place in the circumftances of its mo¬
tion. It is obferved to rife with a motion which is
continually retarded. Thefe bodies therefore are con¬
ceived to be in every fucceeding inftant in different
ftates of motion. The velocity of the falling body is
conceived to be greater in a certain inftant than in any
preceding inftant; as, for example, when it has fallen
144 feet, its velocity is faid to be thrice as great as
when it has fallen only 16 feet. But this inference, it
is evident, cannot be'made diredly by comparing the
fpaces defcribed in the following moments ; for in thefe
it falls 112 and 48 feet; or by comparing the fpaces
immediately preceding ; for in thefe the body fell 80
and 16 feet. But in this expreffion it is fuppofed that
the variable condition of a body, called its velocity, is
in every inftant fufceptible of an accurate meafure ; and
yet in no moment, however ftiort, does the body de-
feribe uniformly a fpace which can be taken a* the
meafure of its velocity at the beginning of that mo¬
ment ; becaufe the fpace defcribed in any moment is
too great for meafuring the velocity at the beginning
of the moment, and too fmall for the meafure of its ve¬
locity at the end of it. Till however fuch a meafure;
is obtained, the mechanical condition of the body is not
known.
27. But in a continually accelerated motion, no
fuch meafuie can be obtained. No fpace is deicrib-
3 N ed
466 D Y N A
Variable ed in an inftanH for this requires time. In that in-
^^O“on;>' ftant, however, the body pofleffes what has been called
a potential velocity, that is, a certain tendency or de¬
termination, which remaining: unchanged, caufes it to
deicrjbe a certain fpace uniformly during fome aflign-
able portion of time. At another indaiat it has another
determination, by which, if it be not changed, another
fpace will be uniformly defcribed in an equal portion
of time. Now it is in the difference of thofe two de¬
terminations that its difference of mechanical condition
confifts. The marks and meafures of tbefe determina¬
tions are known from the fpaces which would be uni¬
formly defcribed. Thefe therefore muft be carefully
invedigated as the meafures of the velocities ; and the
proportions of thefe ipaces are to be taken as the pro¬
portions of the velocities.
Prop. VI.
S’ 28. Let theJlraipJit line ABD (fig. 5.) he defcribed
with a motion continually varied ; it is required to deter¬
mine the proportion of the velocity in the point A, to the
velocity in ant/ other point C.
Let the right line a b d, reprefent the time of this
motion along the path AD, fo that the points a, b c, d,
may denote the inifants of the moving body being in
A, B, C, D, and the proportions a b, b c, c d, may ex-
preis the times of defcribing AB, BC, CD, that is,
may be in the proportion of thofe times j and let a e,
perpendicular to a d, exprefs the velocity of the moving
bo'cfy at the inffant a, or in the point A. Let eg h be
s line, fo related to the axis ad, that the areas a bfe,
bcg f cdhg, comprehended between the ordinates
ae, bf eg, dh, all perpendicular to ad, may be
proportional to the fpaces AB, BC, CD, defcribed in
the times a b, b c, c d, and let this relation hold in eve¬
ry part of the figure. Then the velocity in A is to
the velocity in B, or C, or D, as a e to bf, or eg, or
d h. Or it may be expreffed in other words, If the ab-
feiffa ad, of a curve e g h, be proportional to the time of
any motion, and the areas interrupted hy parallel ordi¬
nates be proportional to the fpaces defcribed, the velocities
arc proportional to thofe ordinates.
Make b c and c d equal, fo as to reprefent very fmall
and equal moments of time, and make p a equal to
one of them. Complete the retffanglee y. This
will reprefent the fpace uniformly defcribed in the mo¬
ment p a, with the velocity a e (Propof. 3.). Let PA
be that portion of fpace thus uniformly defcribed in the
moment pa. Let the lines im, h n, parallel to « ,
making the rectangles b c m i, and c d n k, refpeCtively
equal to the area*- b c g f and cdhg. If the motions
along the fpaces PA and BC had been uniform, the
velocities would have been proportional to the fpaces
defcribed (Propof. I.) becaufe the times pa, and be
are equal. That i«, the velocity in A would be to
the velocity in C, as the reCtanglea e ^ to the area
b cgf that is, as p a e q b c m i, that is, as the bafe
a e to the bafe cm, becaufe the altitudes pa and' be
are equal.
But the motion along the line BC is not reprefented
as uniform ; for the line fgh diverges from the axis
b d, the ordinate eg being greater than £/! And
therefore the fpaces meafured by thefe areas increafe
fafler than the times ; and thus the figure reprefents an
accelerated motion. Therefore the velocity with which
M I C S. . . Parti.
BC would be uniformly defcribed during the moment Variable
b c, is lefs than the velocity at the end of that moment, M tiers,
that is, at the inftant c, or in the p. int C of the path j v—»'
and therefore it muft be repivfented and meafured by a
line greater than c rn.
In the fame manner it is proved that c k reprefents
and meafures the velocity with which CD would be
uniformly deferibed during the moment c d. And
therefore, fince the motion along CD is alfo accelerat¬
ed, the velocity at the beginning of that moment is lefs
than the velocity with which it would be uniformly de¬
fcribed in the fame time, and muft be reprefented by a
line lefs than c k.
Therefore the velocity in A, is to that in C, in a
lefs ratio than that of a e to c m, but in a greater ratio
than that of a e to c k. But in this cafe, as long as
the inftant b is prior, and d pofterior, to the inftant c,
c m is lefs, and c/£ is greater, than eg. Therefore the
velocity in A is to that in C in a ratio that is greater
than any ratio lefs than that of a e to eg. And, con-
fequently the velocity in A is to that in C, as a e to
CS- .
It may by proved in the fame way, with refpedt to
the velocity in any other point D ; and therefore the
propofition may be confidered as demonftrated. And
had the motion along BCD, inftead of being accelera¬
ted as in this cafe, been retarded, the fame reafoning
would ftill apply.
Corollaries.
29. Cor. 1. The velocities in different points of the
path AD, are in the ultimate ratio of the fpaces defcrib¬
ed in equal fmall moments of time. Draw g 0 parallel
to ad. Then the velocity in the inftant a, is to that
in the inftant c, as 0 to eg, that is, as the rectangle
^ e to the reftangle c 0, that is, as p a e q to cdhg,
nearly. As the moments are diminilhed, the differ¬
ence goh between the re£langles egod and c g h d,
diminifhes nearly in the duplicate ratio of the moment.
If then the moment be taken -§> y, or ^ of cd, the
error goh is diminifhed to -J, or TJy : the corollary
is now manifeft ^ for the ultimate ratio of egod to
cg h d is the ratio of equality. That is, the velocity in
A is to that in C, in the ultimate ratio of PA to BC
defcribed in equal fmall moments.
There are many cafes in which the fpaces defcribed
in. very fmall moments can be raeafured, and yet the.
ultimate ratio cannot be afeertained. Thefe fpaces
muft then be taken as meafures of the velocity. And
by taking half the fum of the fpaces- BC and CD, for
the meafure of the velocity in the point C, the error
is almoft reduced to nothing.
30. Cor. 2. The momentary increments of the fpaces
defcribed, are in the compound ratio of the velocities, and
the ultimate ratio of the moments,.
For the increments PA, CD are as the reftangles
pe and c 0. ultimately, (Propof. 3.) y and thefe are in
the compound ratio ot the bafe a e, to the bafe d 0, and
the ultimate ratio of the altitude p a, to the altitude
c d. This may be exprefftd by the proportional equa¬
tion s d^v t.
31. Confequently v~z— 5 andThe equation-
/
e<3. II.
'D T N A
Variable
dotions.
\ <5.
• • X * s
s±:vt, vdz-., and l~- feera to be the fame with
■ i ’ v
thofe in (23), but there the fame fpace s' was defcrib-
ed uniformly, and the equations were abfolute. In
30 and 35, s does not reprefent a fpace uniformly de-
fcribed. But S : s exprefies the ultimate ratio of S' to /
when they are diminilhed continually, and vanilh to¬
gether. Therefore the meaning of the equation szpvt
is, that the ultimate ratio of S' to j7, is the fame with
that of V T' to vl*.
32. The following is the converfe of this propor¬
tion.
If Jfie abfciffa 1 & of the line e f h, reprefent the time
of a motion along the line ABD, and if the ordinates
a e, b f, c g, &c. be as the velocities in the points A.
B, C, &c. then the areas are as the fpaces defcrtbed.
This is proved by an indirect demonftration, thus :
For if the fpaces AB, AD, be not proportional to
the areas a b f e, a d h e, they muft be proportional to
fome other, a b fe, a d h'e, of another line e f h', paf-
iing through e. Affuming this to be true, then (by
Propof. 6.) the velocity in A is to that in B, as a e to
If T herefore a e : b f~a e : b f, which is abfurd.
33. The relation between the fpace deferibed and the
time which elapfes is the only immediate obfervation to
be made on thefe variable motions. By means of the
foregoing propofitions, the mechanical condition of the
body, or rather the effe£l and meafure of this condi¬
tion, denominated velocicq, is inferred. The fame in¬
ference is made in another way. Sir Ifaac Newton
often reprefents the uniform lapfe of time by the uni¬
form increafe of an area during the motion along the
line taken for the abfcifla. The velocities or determi¬
nations to motion in the different points of this line,
are inverfely proportional to the ordinates of the curve
which bounds this area.
Along the ftraight line AD, (fig. 6.) let a point
move with a motion any how continually changed, and
let' the curve line LIH be fo related to AD, that
the area LICE is to the area LHDB as the time of
moving along BC to that of moving along BD. Let
this be true in every point of the line AD. Let C c,
D d, be two very fmall fpaces d< feribed in equal times,
draw the ordinates ic, h d, and draw 1 k, h l perpendi¬
cular to IC, HD.
The areas IC c ;, and HD d h muft be equal, be-
caufe they reprefent equal moments of time. It is evi¬
dent alfo, that as the fpaces C c and D d are continually
diminifhed, the ratio of IC c 7, and HD r/// to the rect¬
angles h C c i and / D d h continually approximates to
that of equality, and that the ratio of equality is the
limiting or ultimate ratio. Since, therefore, the areas
IC ci and HD d h are equal, the; rectangles t C c 1
and/D/z are ultimately in the ratio of equality.
Therefore their bafes ic and h d are inverfely as their
altitudes C c and D 7/, that is, 1 c : k d—T) d \ (Z c.
Bu* as C c and D d are deferibed in equal times, they
are ultimately as the velocities in c and d (29). i here¬
fore i c and h r/, are inverfely as the velocities in c and
r it is- equiva?
lent to the combined motions in the fides. J bus, if
the moving body firft defcribe AB, and then B b or
AC, it will be in the fame point, as if it had defcrib¬
ed A b, namely, in the point b.
60. It is often highly ufeful in mvefiigations of this
kind to fubflitule fueh motions for an obferved motion,
M 1 C S. 47*
as will produce it by compofition. This has been de* Compound
nominated the ref lation of motions. By this manner Motions.
of proceeding, a fhip’s change of fituation at the end of “
a day, having failed in different courfes, is computed.
Thus the diftance failed to the call ward or the weft-
ward, as well as that to the northward or fouthward,
on each courfe, is obferved and marked. The whole of
the callings, and the whole of the fouthings, are add¬
ed toge ther j and then it is fuppofed that the fliip has
failed for the whole day on that courfe, which would
be produced by combining the fame tailing and fouth-
ing.
61. It is alfo ufeful to confider how much the body
has been advanced in a certain direction by means of
the obferved motion ; let us fuppofe in the direftion
AB (fig. 10.). The motion CD is firft confidered as^’S-
compofed of a motion CE parallel to the given line
AB, and another motion CF perpendicular to AB.
CD is the diagonal of a parallelogram CEDF, one of
whofe fides CE is parallel to AB, and the other CF
is perpendicular to AB. It is evident, that tire body
has. advanced in the direction of AB as much as if it
had moved from G to H, inftead of moving from C to
D, fo that the motion CF has no effedt either in ob-
flru&ing or promoting the progrefs in AB. This is
called ejlimating a motion in a given direction, or re¬
ducing it to that direction.
62. A motion is alfo laid to be eflimated in a given
plane, when it is confidered as compofed of a motion
perpendicular to the plane, and of another parallel to
it. In a given plane ABCD (fig. 11.), let EF be a Fig. tu
motion compounded of a motion GE perpendicular to
the plane, and EH parallel to it. For if the lines
GE, FH are drawn perpendicular to the plane, they
cut it in two points e and f, and EH is parallel to e f.
63. In the fame way a compound motion may be
formed of any number of motions. Let AB, AC, AD,
AE, &c. (fig. 12.) be any number of motions, of which Fig. tz.-
the nlotion AF is compounded. The motion which is
the refult of this compofition is thus afcertained. The
motion AG is compounded of AB and AC } and the
motion AG compounded with AD, gives the motion
AH j which latter being compounded with AE, pro¬
duces the motion AF. And the fame place, or final
fituation F, will be found by fuppofing the different
motions AB, AC, AD, AE, to be performed fuccef-
fively. The moving body firft deferibes AB j then
BG, equal and parallel to AC ; then GH, equal and
parallel to AD; and laftly, HF, equal and parallel to
AE.. In this cafe it is not requifile that all the mo¬
tions lie in the fame plane.
64. Three motions which have the direction and
proportions of the fides of a parallelepiped, compofe a
motion having the direction of its diagonal. Let AB,
AC, AD (fig. 13.), be thefe motions, the compound-Fig. 13,,-
ed motion is in the diagonal AF of the parallelepiped ;
becaufe AB and AC compofe the motion AE ; and
AE and AD compofe the motion AF.
It is in this way that the mine-furveyor proceeds.
He fets down a gallery of a raine^ not dkedlly by its
real pofition, but marks the tailing and writing, the
northing and fouthing, as well as its dip and rife. All
thefe meafures are referred to three lines, of which one
runs eaft and weft, one north and foutb, and a third is
pcrptadicular, Theft three lines are obvioufly analo¬
gous
47 2
Compcttind
Motions.
Other com¬
pound mo¬
tions.
Tig. 14.
Condition
of com¬
pound mo¬
tions difco-
vered trom
that of the
fimple mo¬
tions.
Fig 15-
Danger of
miftakts
about
changes of
motion.
Plate
CLXXXV
fig. t6.
gous to the angular boundaries of a re&angular box,
as AC, AB, AD.
65. The compolition of uniform motions only has
yet been confidered. But it is eafy to conceive that
any motions may be compounded. It is a cafe of this
kind when a man is fuppofed to walk on a field of ice
along a crooked path, while the ice floats down a
crooked ftream. Suppofe a uniform motion in the di¬
rection AB (fig. 14.), to be compounded with a uni¬
formly accelerated motion in the direction AC. A
flone falling from the malt head of a fhip, while (he
fails uniformly forward in the direction AB, affords an
example of this kind of motion ^ for the (tone will be
obferved to fall parallel to a plummet hung from the
malt head. But the real motion of the Hone is a pa¬
rabolic arch A b f g, which AB touches in A; for
while the malt head defcribes the equal lines AB, BF,
FG, the ftone has fallen to /3 and ,
or CBZ, is equal to CAZ. And therefore the re¬
maining angles £CB and CZA are equal, and the tri¬
angles are fimilar. Therefore B b : CA—BC : AZ.
Now if the fides of the polygon are continually di-
minilhed, the points A and C continually approach to
B, and CA continually approaches to c A, or to ic B,
or 2 CB, and is ultimately equal to it j and AZ is ul¬
timately equal to BZ.
Therefore ultimately, B£ : 2BC=BC : BZ, and
2RC*
B b x BZ=2BC% and ~Eb=^—-.
BZ
Alfo, at the point E, we have E i ultimately equal
2 EFl
to —^—, for E sz is that chord of the circle through
D, E, and F, which pafles through i.
Therefore B £ : E *= 2 BCl 2 EF*
BZ
E »
The ultimate circle, when the three points A, B, C,
coalefce, is called the circle of equal curvature, or the
equicurve circle, which coalefces with the curve in B
in the clofeft manner \ and the chord BZ of this circle,
having the direction of the defledtion in B, is called its
defleBive chord. And fince BC and EF are defcribed
in equal times, they are proportional to the velocities
in B and E. This propofition therefore may be expref-
fed as follows.
hi curvilineal motions, the defleBions in different points
of the curve, are proportional to the fquare of the velo¬
cities in thofe points direBhj, and to the defleBive chords
of the equicurve circles, inverfely.
It might, however, to be remarked, that this theorem
is not limited to curvilineal motions, in which the de¬
flections tend always to the fame fixed point j it may
be extended to all curvilineal motions whatever. A
fymbolical expreflion of this theorem will be conveni¬
ent. If therefore the defleftive chord of the equicurve
circle be reprefented by c, and the defleCtion by d, the
theorem may be thus exprefled,
. . ■y* . 2 arch*
dm,— , or d — .
* c c
76. The line Bb is the linear defleftion by which
the uniform motion in the chord AB is changed into a
uniform motion in the chord BC, or it is the deviation
c C from the point to which the moving body would
have arrived, if the defleCHon at B had not taken place.
In the cafe of curvilineal motion which we are now
confidering, the lines B b and B c are expreflions of
the meafures of the velocities of thefe motions. B e is
to B ^ as the velocity of the progreflive motion is to
the velocity of the defleClion, generated in the time
that the arch BC is defcribed. But the defleClion in
the arch has been continual, and, like acceleration, it
may be meafured by the velocity generated during any Motion
moment of time. It may therefore be meafured by the continual]
velocity generated during the time the arch BC is de- deflede:
feribed. This meafure will therefore be double of the '"""v—
fpace through which the body is adtually defledted from
the tangent in B in that time. The fpace defcribed
will be BO, or only one half of B b. This is exadlly
what happens ; for the tangent is ultimately parallel to
OC, and it bifedts cC ; therefore the velocity gradu¬
ally generated is that which conftitutes the polygonal
motion in the chords, although the defledtion from the
tangent to the curve is only half of the defledlion from
the produced chord to the curve.
77. In any point of a curvilineal motion, the veloci¬
ty is that which would be generated by the defledtion
in that point, if continued through one fourth of the
defledtive chord of the equicurve circle. Take x for
the fpace along which a body is to be accelerated that
it may acquire the velocity BC.
We have B b*, or 4BO : BC*—B : x (37.— 1.): and
. . BC* x BO BC* , BC*
therefore *= 4 * =SU. or
BO : BC = BC : 4 x. But BO : BC = BC : BZ}
therefore xzz-% BZ.
78. We have now obtained charadteriftic expreflions,
or marks and meafures of the principal affedtions of
motion. Thefe expreflions may be brought into one
view as follows.
The acceleration a is — (48.), or —(49.)> or ”
t s t*
(42,?‘ . . . • •
The momentary variation of velocity vrrrat (48.).
The momentary variation of the fquare of. velocity
2 vv ~ 2 as (49.).
arc
The momentary defledtion dzz.
I'd1
The defledtive velocity =r — (75.)*
79. But for the application of thefe dodtrines, it is
neceflary to feledt fome point in any body of fenfible
magnitude, or in any fyftem of bodies, by whofe pofi-
tion or motion, a diftindt and accurate notion of the pofi-
tion or motion of the body or fyftem may be formed.
The condition by which the propriety of this feledtion
is afeertained, is, that thepofition, diftance, or motion of
this point fhall be the medium or average of the poftions,
di/lances, and motions of every particle of matter in the
aggregate or fqjhm.
This will happen, if the point be fo fituated, that Centre c
when a plane is made to pafs through in any direc- Pofitl0n*
tion whatever, and perpendiculars being drawn to this
plane from every particle of matter in this aggregate or
fyftem, the fum of the perpendiculars on the one fide
of the plane is equal to the fum of the perpendiculars
on the other fide. And that fuch a point, which is
called the centre ofpoft ion, may be found in every bo¬
dy, is proved by the following demonftration.
For let P (fig. 20.) be a point fo fituated, and let Fig. 20*'
QR be the fedlion of a plane perpendicular to the pa¬
per, and at any diftance from it, the diftance P7? of
the point P from this plane is the average of all the di-
ftances of each particle from it. Let the plane APB
pafs through P, and parallel to £)R. The diftance
'ig. Jl.
ea.lV. . DYNA
CS of any particle C from the plane QR is'equal to
rfrnua'W h)S DC, or to Vp—DC. And the diitance GT of
efleifted. a particle G on the other fide of APB, is equal to
—HT+GH, or to Pp-pCrH. Let n be the number of
particles on that fide of AB which is neareft to QR,
and let o be the number of particles on the other fide
of AB. Let m be the number of particles in the
whole body ; we have then m—n-\-o. It is evident
that the fum of all the diilances of alfthe particles fuch
as CS, is n'xVp—the fum of all the diftances, fuch as
CD. Alfo the fum of all the difiances of the particles,
fuch as G, is oxP/^» + ^ie ^um ^ie diftances GH.
And therefore the fum of both fets is «-}-0 X P/>+the
fum of GH—the fum of DC, or »2XP/>+ the fura of
GH—the fum of DC. But by the fuppofed property
of the point P, the fum of GH wanting the fum of DC
is nothing ; and therefore to X Pp is the fum of all the
diftances, and P/> is the TOth part of this fum, or the
average diftance.
Suppofe the body to have changed both its place and
its pofition with refpeft to the plane QR, and that P
(fig. 21.) is ftill the fame point of the body, and « P /3
a plane parallel to QR. Make p ^ equal to p P of
fig. 20. It is plain that Py? is ftill the average diftance,
and that toX Pp is the fum of all the prefent diftances
of the particles from QR, and that toX^P is the fum
of all the. former diftances. Therefore toX? ^ is the
fum of all the changes of diftance, or the whole quan¬
tity of motion eftimated in the dire<£!ion w P. P w is
the TOth part of this fum, and is therefore the average
motion in this direction. The point P has therefore
been properly fele&ed ; and its pofition, and diftance,
and motion, in refpeft of any plane, is a proper repre-
fentation of the fituation and motion of the whole.
Hence it follows, that if any particle C (fig. 20.)
moves from C to N, in the line CS, the centre of the
whole will be transferred from P to Q, fo that PQ is
the TOth part of CN ; for the fum of all the diftances
has been diminilhed by the quantity CN, and there¬
fore the average diftance muft be diminifhed by the TOth
. CN
part of CN, or PQ is
But it may be doubted whether there is in every bo¬
dy a point, and but one point, fuch that if a plane pafs
through it, in any direSiion whatever, the fum of all
the diftances of the particles on one fide of this plane is
equal to the fum of all the diftances on the other.
It is eafy to (hew that fuch a point may be found,
with refpeft to a plane parallel to QR. Tor if the fum
of all the diftances DC exceed the lum of all the di¬
ftances GH, we have only to pafs the plane AB a little
nearer to QR, but ftill parallel to it. This will dimi-
nifh the fum of the lines DC, and increafe the fum of
the lines GH. We may do this till the firms are equal.
In like manner we can do this with refpe£l to a
plane LM (alfo perpendicular to the paper), perpendi¬
cular to the plane AB. The point wanted is fome-
where in the plane AB, and fomewhere in the plane
LM. Therefore it is fomewhere in the line in which
thefe two planes interfeft each other. Phis line paftes
through the point P of the paper where the two lines
AB and LM cut each other. Thefe two lines repre-
fent planes, but are, in faft, only the interfeflion of
thofe planes with the plane of the paper. Part of the
body muft be conceived as being above the paper, and
M I C S. 475
part of it behind or below the paper. The plane of Motions
the paper therefore divides the body into two parts. It continually
may be fo fituated, therefore, that the fum of all the ,ct e^c e *,
diftances from it to the particles lying above it (hall be
equal to the fum of all the diftances of thofe which are
below it. Therefore the fituation of the point P is
now determined, namely, at the common interfeftion of
three planes perpendicular to each other. It is evident
that this point alone can have the condition required
in reipeift of thefe three planes.
It ftill remains to be determined whether the fame
condition will hold true for the point thus found, in
refpedt to any other plane palling through it j that is,
whether the fum of all the perpendiculars on one fide
of this fourth plane is equal to the fum of all the per¬
pendiculars on the other fide.
Let AGHB (fig. 22.), AXYB, and CDEF, be Fig. 22.
three planes interfering each other perpendicularly in
the point C ; and let CIKL be any other plane, inter¬
fering the firft in the line Cl, and the fecond in the
line CL. Let P be any particle of matter in the body
or fyftem. Draw PM, PO, PR, perpendicular to the
firft three planes refperively, and let PR, when produ¬
ced, meet the oblique plane in V •, draw MN, ON,
perpendicular to CB. T. hey will meet in one point N.
Then PMNO is a rerangular parallelogram. Alfo
draw MQ perpendicular to CE, and therefore parallel
to AB, and meeting Cl in S. Draw SV ; alfo draw
ST perpendicular to VP. It is evident that SV is
parallel to CL, and that STRQ and STPM are re£l-
angles.
All the perpendiculars, fuch as PR, on one fide of
the plane CDFE, being equal to all thofe on the other
fide, they may be confidered as compenfating each
other ; the one being confidered as pofitive or additive
quantities, the other as negative or fubtraftive. There
is no difference between their lums, and the fum of
both fets may be called o or nothing. T. he fame muft
be affirmed of all the perpendiculars PM, and of all the
perpendiculars PO.
Every line, fuch as RT, or its equal QS, is in a cer¬
tain invariable ratio to its correfponding QC, or its
equal PO. Therefore the pofitive lines RT are com-
penfated by the negative, and the fum total is no¬
thing.
Every line, fuch as TV, is in a certain invariable
ratio to its correfponding SF, or its equal PM, and
therefore their fum total is nothing.
Therefore the fum of all the lines PV is nothing j
but each is in an invariable ratio to a correfponding
perpendicular from P on. the oblique plane CIKL.
Therefore the fum of all the pofitive perpendiculars on
this plane is equal to the fum of all the negative per¬
pendiculars, and the propofition is demonftrated, viz.
that in every body, or fyftem of bodies, there is a point
fuch, that if a plane be paffed through it in any direc¬
tion whatever, the fum of all the perpendiculars on one
fide of the plane is equal to the fum of all the perpen¬
diculars on the other fide.
80. If A and B (fig. 23.) be the centres of pofition
of two bodies, whofe quantities of matter (or numbers
of equal particles) are a and b, the centre C lies in the
ftraight line joining A and B, and AC : CB~i> : a,
or its diftance from the centres of each are inverfely as
their quantities of matter. For let * C ft be any plff'C
3 O 3 palTing
47 6 ~ D Y N A
Of Moving paffing througli C. Draw A«, B/3, perpendicular to
, Forces, this plane. Then we have axAatzzixB fi, and
v A « : B fi—b : a, and, by fimilarity of triangles, CA:
CB=r£ :
If a third body D, whofe quantity of matter is t/,
be added, the common centre of pofition E of the three
bodies is in the ftraight line DC, joining the centre D
of the third body with the centre C of the other two,
and DE : lLC—a-\-b : d. For, palling the plane
JEk through E, and drawing the perpendiculars D5,
Cx, the Aim of the perpendiculars from D is r/xD^j
and the Aim of the perpendiculars from A and B is
tf-j-^XCx, and we have rfx DSzza-}-^ X C x 5 and
therefore DE : EC=:a-j-b : d.
In like manner, if a fourth body be added, the com¬
mon centre is in the line joining the fourth with the
centre of the other three, and its didance from this
centre and from the fourth is inverfely as the quantities
of matter ; and fo on for any number of bodies.
81. If all the particles of any fylfem be moving uni¬
formly, in ftraight lines, in any directions, and with
any velocities whatever, the centre of the fyftem is
either moving uniformly in a ftraight line, or is at
reft.
For, let m be the number of particles in the fyftem.
Suppofe any particle to move uniformly in any direc¬
tion. It is evident from the reafoning in a former pa¬
ragraph, that the motion of the common centre is the
mth part of this motion, and is in the fame direclion.
The fame muft be faid of every particle. Therefore
the motion of the centre is the motion which is com¬
pounded of the mlh part of the motion of each par-
M t C S. partir
tide. And becaufe each of thefe was fuppofed to be nr
, i ri * , ui M!
uniform and reCtilineal, the motion compounded of
them all is alfo uniform and reClilineal j or it may hap.
pen that they will fo compenfate each other that there
will be no diagonal, and the common centre will remain
at reft.
Corollaries.
82. Cor. 1. If the centres of any number of bodies
move uniformly in f might lines, whatever may have
been the motions of each particle of each body, by rota¬
tion or otherwife, the motion of the common centre will be
uniform and reBilineal.
Cor. 2. The quantity of motion of fuch a fyfern is .the
fum of the quantities of motion of each body, reduced to
the direBion of the centre's motion. And it is had by
multiplying the quantity of matter in the fyjlem by the ve¬
locity of the centre.
Cor. 3. The velocity of the centre is had by reducing
the motion of each particle to the direBion of the centre's
motion, and then dividing the fum of thofe reduced motions
by the quantity of matter in the fyflem.
83. If on any two bodies of fuch an aflemblage
equal and oppofite quantities of matter be impreffed, the
motion of the centre of the whole is not at all affeCled
by it. Becaufe the motion of the centre, arifing from
the motion of one of the bodies being compounded with
the equal and oppofite motion of the diagonal of the
parallelogram, becomes a point ; or thefe motions de-
ftroy one another •, and therefore no change is effefted.
on the motion of the centre.
loving
Forces.
PART II. OF MOVING FORCES.
84. HAVING in the former part confidered the
general do&rine of motion, which is the foundation of
mechanical inveftigations, we now proceed to treat of
moving forces or dynamics, properly fo called.
Objeft of It has been already obferved, that dynamics includes
dynamics, the abftraft do&rine of moving forces, or the neceffary
refults of the relations of our thought concerning mo¬
tion, the immediate caufes of motion, and its changes j
and that from the changes obferved, we infer agency in
nature y and in thefe changes we are to difcover what
we know of their caufes.
85. When we caft our eyes around us, it cannot ef-
cape obfervation, that the changes which we perceive
in the ftate or condition of any body in refpeft of mo¬
tion, are eonftantly and diftinftly related to the fitua-
tion and diftance of other bodies. The motions of the
moon, or of a ftone proje&ed through the air, have a
palpable relation to the earth y the motions of the tides
have alfo an obvious relation to the moon ; and the
motions of a piece of iron have a palpable dependence
on a magnet. The vicinity of the one of thefe bodies
feems to be the occafion, at leaft, of the motions of
the other y and the caufes of thefe motions have an evi¬
dent connexion with, or dependence on, the other bo¬
dy. Such dependences have been called the mechani-
. cal relations of bodies. They are indications of pro¬
perties or diftinguifliing qualities. They accompany
the bodies wherever they are, and are ufually conceiv*
' %
ed to be inherent in them. They at leaft afcertain and
determine what is called the mechanical nature of bo¬
dies.
86. The mutual relation of bodies is differently con-^utua] re
fidered according to the intereft we may have in thejat;onof
phenomenon. The caufe of the approach of the iron bodies dif-
to the magnet is generally afcvibed to the magnet. Itferentiy
is faid to attraft the iron. The approach of a ftone toccmfitierei'
the earth is afcribed to the ftone. It is faid to tend to
the earth. But it is probable that the procedure of
nature is the fame in both •, that both bodies are af-
feifted alike, and that the property is diftindlive of
both. For in all cafes that have been obferved, the
indicating phenomenon is equally conne&ed with both
bodies y as in the caie of magnetifm the magnet and
the iron approach each other ; and an electrified bo¬
dy and another body near it approach each other. This
property is therefore equally inherent in both bodies,
between which there is a mutual attraction. But, ac¬
cording to fome philofophers, no fuch mutual tenden¬
cies exift either in the one body or the other. The
obferved approaches or mutual feparatnms of bodies, or
their attractions and repulfions, are fuppofed to depend
on the extraneous aCtion of an ethereal fluid.
87. Thefe qualities thus inherent in bodies, which Powers?
confiitute their mechanical relations, or the mechanical
affeCtions of matter, have been called powers or forces.
The event which is indicated by their prefence, is con¬
fidered
art II- DYNA
. fidercd as the effeft and mark of their agency. Thus
Forces, the magnet is faid to a<57 on the iron, the earth is faid
to aB on the done which falls to its furface *, and the
iron and the done are faid to aft on the magnet and
the earth. But all this, it mud be obferved, is figu¬
rative language. Power, force, and aBion, when ufed
in their original drift fenfe, exprefs only the notions of
the power, force, and aftion of fentient, aftive beings \
and cannot be predicated of any thing but the exertions
of fuch beings ; for fuch beings only are agents. In
drift propriety, it is perhaps only the exerted influence
of the mind on the body which ought to be called ac¬
tion. Language having begun among Ample men,
fuch denominations were very properly given to their
own exertions •, becaufe to move a body they found it
neceflary to exert their force or power, or to aft. But
when the changes of motion, obferved in the occur¬
rence or vicinity of bodies, were attended to by fpecu-
lative men, and it was found that the phenomena great¬
ly refembled the refults or effefts when they exerted
their own drength, fimilar terms were employed to ex¬
prefs thefe occurrences in nature. The old term was
retained, in preference to the invention of a new lan¬
guage, to exprefs things which had fo near a refem-
blance. The danger of confounding things from the
ufe of the fame terms, was avoided from the difterences
in other circumdances of the cafe. It is not, however,
to be imagined, that they fuppofed inanimate bodies
exerted force or drength in the fame way as living be¬
ings. But, in the progrefs of refinement, the word
power or force came at lad to be employed to exprefs
any effi. iency whatever ; and hence the common ex-
preflions, the force of arguments, the afiiori of mo.
tives, the power of an acid to diffolve a metal, &c. It
is to this idea of conveniency, that the ufe of the terms
attra&ion, repulfion, preffure, impu/fion, as well as of
the words porver and force, which exprefs eyfficiency^ in
general, is to be afcribed. But thefe terms, excepting
in thofe cafes when they are applied to the exertions
or aftions of living beings, are metaphorical. On ac¬
count, however, of the refemhlance between the pheno¬
mena and thofe which are obferved when we draw a
thing toward us, pufli it from us, forcibly comprefs it,
or kick it away, thefe different aftions being analogous
to attraftion, repulfion, preffure, and impulfion, thefe
words are employed as terms of diflinftion. I he ac¬
tion of the mind on the body is perhaps the only cafe
of pure unngurative aftion. But this aftion being al¬
ways exerted with the view of effefting fome change on
external bodies, our attention is only direfted to them.
The indrument paffes unnoticed •, and hence it is faid
that we aft on the external body. The real aftion is
only the firfl movement in a long fucceffion of events,
and is only the remote caufe of the intereding event.
In many cafes of mechanical phenomena, we find the
refemblance to fuch aftions to be very drong. 1 he
following is of this defcription. A ball is projefted
from a man’s hand by the motion of his arm ; and in
the fame way a ball is impelled by the unbending of a
fpring. In all circumdances there is a refemblance be¬
tween thefe twm events, excepting in the pftion of the
mind on the corporeal organ. And, hence in general,
becaufe the ultimate refults of the mutual influ nee of
bodies on each other have a drong refemblance to the
ultimate refults of our aftions on bodies, no new or ap-
M I G S.
477
propriate terms have been invented ; but, as has been Of Moving
already obferved, mankind have remained fatisfied with torces.
the ufe of thofe terms that are employed to exprefs their ¥ ^
own aftions, or the exertions of their own powers or
forces.
88. When power or force is fpoken of as exiding or Aftion of
refiding in a body, and the effeft is afcribed to the ex-mechanical
ertion of this power, one body confidered as pofleding Powers’
it, is faid to aB on another. Thus a magnet is faid to
aft on a piece of iron $ a billiard ball is faid to aft on
one which it drikes. But if it be attempted to fix the
attention on this aftion, independent both of the agent
and the thing afted on, wTe (hall find that there is no
objeft of contemplation. The exertion or procedure of
nature in effefting the change is kept out of view •, and
if we limit our attention to the aftion as a thing di-
dinft from the agent, we (hall find that it is not the
aftion, driftly fpeaking, but the aft, that is brought
under confideration. And in the fame way, it is only
in the effeft produced that the aftion of a mechanical
power can be conceived.
89. In the very nature, of aftion fome change is im- Change im¬
plied. Without producing fome effieft, a man is never phed in ac-
faid to aft. Thought is the aft of a thinking principle jaon*
and the motion of the limb is the aft of the mind on it.
In mechanics too there is aftion only in fo far as fome
mechanical effeft is produced. For indance, to begin
motion on a piece of ice, or to Hide along it, we muff
aft violently ; we mud exert force ; and this force be¬
ing exerted produces motion. In all cafes, the pro-
duftions of motion are conceived as the exertions of
force ; but to continue the motion which has been be¬
gun along the ice, no exertion feems requifite. Be¬
ing confcious of no exertion, we ought to infer that
no force is neceffary for the continuation- of motion.
It is not the produftion of any new efftft, but the per¬
manency or continuation of an effeft already produced.
Motion is indeed confidered as the effeft of fome ac¬
tion *, but there would be no efiVft or no change, if
the body were not moving. Motion is not to be confi¬
dered as an aftion, but the effeft of an aftion.
90. Mechanical aftions or forces have been divided D;vif10n 0f
into preffures and impuljions. I he idea of preffure is mechanical
verv familiar; perhaps it enters into every didinft con-forces,
ception that we can form of a moving force, when the
attention is endeavoured to be fixed on it. Changes
of motion by the collifion of moving bodies are pro¬
duced by impulfion. Preffures and impulfions are ufu-
ally confidered as of different kinds, the aftions or ex¬
ertions of different powers. It is fuppofed that there
is an effential difference between preffure and impul- •
fion. That we may obtain all the knowle.dge that
thefe diftinftions can give us, let us flate fome exam¬
ples of theff kinds of forces, inftead of attempting to
define or defc-ribe them.
Let us firfb take fome examples of preffure. Pref-Examples of
fure it is known is a moving force ; for if a ball lying prtffure,
on the table be gently preffed on one fide, it move« to¬
ward the other fide of the table. If it be followed
with the finger, the preffure being continued, its mo¬
tion is continually increafed. There is an acceleration
of its motion. By prefling in the fame way on the
handle of a common kitchen jack, the fly begins to
move ; and if the preflure be continued on the handle,
the motion of the fly becomes very rapid ; and there
is
47 8
DYNAMICS.
^ Forcc"111^ a^'° a con^nua^ a^celeration. Such motions as thefe
t ^1 . are the effects of genuine preffure. The unbending of
a fpring would urge the ball in the fame way along the
table, and would produce a continually accelerated
motion 5 and a fpring coiled up round the axis of the
handle of the jack would, by uncoiling itfelf, urge
round the fly with a fimilar accelerated motion. By
comparing the preffure of the finger on the ball with
the effe£ts of the fpring, we perceive diflin611y the per-
fe61 fimilarity. Thefe exertions or aftions, or influ¬
ences, are denoted by the word preffure, which is de¬
rived from the molt familiar inftance of them.
I he fame motion may be produced in the ball or
fly, by pulling the ball or machine by means of a
thread having a weight fufpended to it. Both being
motions accelerated in the fame manner, the a£lion of
the thread on the bail or machine comes under the
fame denomination of preffure. Weight is therefore
confidered as a prefling power. And indeed the fame
compreflion is felt from the real preffure of a man on
the fhoulders and a load laid on them. But in the
inftance above, the weight afls by the intervention of
the thread. By the preffure of the weight it pulls at
that part of the thread to which it is attached, this
part pulls at the next by the force of cohefion 5 and
this at a third, and fo on, till the moft remote pulls at
the ball or machine. In this way elafticity, weight,
cohefion, and other forces, perform the office of a ge¬
nuine power $ and their refult being always a motion
beginning from nothing, and accelerating to any velo¬
city by perceptible degrees, from this refemblance we
are led to give them one fatpiliar name.
91. If the thread by which the weight is fufpended
be cut, it falls with an accelerated motion. This alfo
is afcribed to fome prefling power which arts on the
weight j and it is even confidered as the caufe of the
body’s weight, which word is a name by which this in¬
ftance of prefling power is diftinguiffied. Gravitation,
therefore, comes under the denomination of preffure.
For the famereafon the attradlions and repulfions of the
magnet, or of ele&ric bodies, belong to this clafs of
phenomena ; for on bodies placed between them they
produce a&ual compreflions, as well as motions which
are continually accelerated, in the fame way as gravi¬
tation does. To all thefe powers, therefore, the de-
fcriptive name of prejfures may be given, although this
name properly fpeaking belongs to one of them only.
This great clafs has been fubdivided by fome philofo-
phers into preflions and folicitations. Gravity is con¬
fidered as a folicitation ab extra, by which a body is
urged downward. The forces of eleflricity and mag-
netifm, with many other attraftions and repulfions, are
alfo called folicitations. But this claflification feems to
be of little ufe.
92. We have a familiar inftance of impulfion in one
ball ftriking another, and putting it in motion. In'
this cafe the appearances are very different from the
phenomena of preffure. For the body that is (truck
acquires in the inftant of impulfe a fenfible quantity of
motion. But after the ftroke this motion is neither ac¬
celerated nor retarded, unlefs by the a6tion of fome
other force. The rapidity of the motion, it is obfer-
'ved, depends on the previous velocity of the ftriking
ball. If for inftance a clay ball, moving with any ve¬
locity, ftrike another equal ball which is at reft, the
3
and of im
bullion.
Part II
ball which is ftruck moves with one half of the velo- 0r m
city of the other. It is farther obferved that the ftrik- Forces'11
ing ball always lofes as much motion as the ball which r—-
is ftruck gains. From this remarkable fad there feems
to have arifen an indiftind notion of a kind of tranf-
ference of motion from one body to another. It is
not faid that the one ball produces motion or caufes it
in the other, but it is faid to communicate motion to it
and the phenomenon is ufually termed the communica-catToTfl
tion of motion. This, however, is a very inaccurate mono,,°
mode of expreflion. We diftindly conceive the caufe
or communication of heat, the communication of falt-
nefs, of fweetnefs, and of many other things 5 but we
have no clear conception of part of the identical mo¬
tion which exifted in one body being transferred to
another. From this, therefore, it appears that motion
is not a thing which can exift independently, and is
fufceptible of adual transference ; but is a ftate or con¬
dition of which bodies are fufceptible, which may be
produced in bodies, and which is the effed or "cba-
raderiftic of certain natural properties or powers.
The notion of the adual transference of fomething
formerly poffeffed by the ftriking body, and now fepa-
rated from it, or transfufed into the body which is
ftruck, has obtained fupport from the remarkable cir-
cumftance in the phenomenon, that a rapid motion re¬
quiring for its produdion the adion of a preffing
power, continued for a fenfible, and frequently a long
time, is or feems to be effeded inrtantaneoufly by im-
pullion. Here then we find room for the employment
of metaphor, both in thought and language. We fee
the ftriking body affed the body which is ftruck. It
poffeffes the power of impulfion, or of communicating
motion, but it only poffeffes this power while it is itfelf
in motion ; and we therefore conclude that this power
is the efficient diftinguiffiing caufe of its motion. Hence
it has been called inherent force, the force inherent in
a moving body, vis infta corpori moto. This force is
communicated to the body impelled, or transfufed into
it $ the transference is inftantaneous, and the body thus
impelled continues its motion till it is changed by a
new force. But if we attend fcrupuloufly to thofe
feelings which have given rife to this metaphorical
conception, we (hall find, that although at firft fight
this train of obfervation feems very plaufible, we ffiould
entertain very different notions. To begin the motion
of Aiding on a fmooth piece of ice, we are confcious of
exertion \ but when the ice is very fmooth, no exertion
that we are confcious of feems requifite to continue the
motion. No exertion of power is here neceffary ; and
therefore we have no primitive feeling of power while
we Hide along. And indeed we cannot think of mov¬
ing forward without effort otherwife than as a certain
mode of exiftence. It has however been imagined that
thofe who fupport this opinion have in fome way de¬
duced it from their feelings. To move forward in
walking, we muft continue the exertion with which
we began ; and unlefs this power of walking be conti¬
nually exerted, we muft flop our progrefs. But this
is inaccurate obfervation. In the aftion of walking
there is much more than the continuance in progreflive
motion. It is the repeated and continued lifting the
body up a fmall height, and allowing it to come down
again, and this repeated afcent requires repeated exer¬
tion.
. 93. From
irtII. • . D Y N A
vine 93- From the confideration of the inftantaneous pro-
'orces. ° du&ion of rapid motion by impulfe, fome diftinguilhed
philofophers have been led to fuppofe that the force or
power of impulfion is not fufceptible of being compa¬
red with a preffing power. It has been afferted that
Pu^®e impulfe when compared with preffure is infinitely great,
n^ely But the fimilarity of the ultimate refults of impulfe
ater and preffure, have always led them to adopt a different
npref- view. There is no difference between the motion of
J' two balls which move with equal rapidity, one of
which defcends from a height by the force of gravity,
while the other has been flruck by another body. In
this flruggle of the mind attached to preconceived opi¬
nions, and at the fame time accommodating thefe opi¬
nions to obferved phenomena, other fingular forms of
expreffion have arifen. Preffure is confidered as an
effort to produce motion. And here we have another
inftance of metaphorical expreffion as well as thought.
The weight of a ball on the table is called a power ;
and this weight is continually endeavouring to move
the ball downward. But thefe efforts being ineffe&ual,
the power in this cafe is faid to be dead. It is called
vis mortua, in contradiftin&ion to the force of impul-
fion, which is called a living power, vis viva. But this
mode of expreflion muft appear very inaccurate, if we
confider the cafe of the impelling ball falling perpen¬
dicularly on the other ball lying on the table. No
motion is induced by this impulfion j and if the table
be conceived to be annihilated, the power of gravity
becomes a vis viva.
ppofed To prove that impulfe is infinitely greater than pref-
xtf* fure, numerous familiar inftances have been adduced by
thofe who fupport this doftrine. A nail is driven with
a moderate blow of a hammer, which would require a
preffure many hundred times greater than the impelling
effort of the perfon who employs the hammer. A
hard body may be fhivered to pieces with a moderate
blow', which would fupport an inconceivable weight
gradually applied. This prodigious fuperiority in im¬
pulfion leaves it a difficult matter to account for the
produdlion of motion by means of preffure $ becaufe
the motion of the hammer might have been acquired
in confequence of the continued preffure of the carpen¬
ter’s arm. It is confidered as the aggregate of an infi¬
nite number of fucceeding preffures repeated in every
inftant of its continuance. The fmallnefs of each ef¬
fort is compenfated by their number,
here are After all, it does not appear clear that there are
nds of ^Wo ^'n<^s mechanical force which are effentially dif-
icchanical ferent in their nature. It is, indeed, in a great mea-
nce. fure given up by thofe who fupport the dodtrine that
impulfe is infinitely greater than preffure : Some me¬
thod might perhaps be found of explaining fatisfadiorily
this remarkable difference between the two modes of
producing motion. But there feems to be no confider-
able advantage in thus arranging the phenomenon un¬
der two diftindt heads.
mpulfion pj. The nature of the foie moving force in nature
^motion ^as §lven r‘^e much difcuffion among mechanicians,
' and produced no fmall diverfity of opinion. Accord¬
ing to fome, all motion is the effedl: of preffure; for
when impulfe is confidered as equivalent to the aggre¬
gate of an infinite number of preffures, every preffure,
however fmall, is fuppofed to be a moving force.
The foie caufe of motion, according to other philofo-
M I G S.
479
phers is impulfion. Bodies are obferved in motion ; they of Moving
impel others, and produce motion in them *, and this Forces,
produdtion of motion is laid to be regulated by fuch
laws, that there is only one abfolute quantity of mo¬
tion in the univerfe, which quantity remains invariably
the fame. Some portion of this motion, therefore, muft
be transferred or transfufed when bodies come into col-
lifion with each other. But befides, there are fome
cafes in which it is perfedtly obvious that motion pro¬
duces preffure. Cafes, which are indeed both whimfi-
cal and complicated, have been adduced by Euler, to
ffiew that an adiion, in all refpedts fimilar to preffure,
may be produced by motion. Such a cafe, is the fol¬
lowing. If two balls are connedled by a thread, they
may be ftruck in fuch a way, that they (hall not only
move forward, but at the fame time alfo wheel round.
When this happens, the thread by which they are con-
nedled is ftretched. Since then, according to this rea-
foning, motion is obferved, and preffure is produced by
motion, it would be abfurd to fuppofe that preffure is
any thing elfe than the refult of certain motions. The
philofophers who are attached to this dodtrine of mov¬
ing forces, proceed to account for thofe preffing powers
or folicitajions to motion which are obferved in the ac¬
celeration of falling bodies, the phenomena of magne-
tifm and eledlricity, and others of the fame kind, where
motion is induced on certain bodies which are in the
vicinity of other bodies, or as it is expreffed in common
language by the adtion of other bodies at a diftance.
To fay that a magnet cannot ad! on a piece of iron at
a diftance, is to fay that it acts where it is not j which
is no lefs abfurd than to fay that it adts, when it is not.
Euler affumed it as an axiom, mhi/ movetur, niji a con-
tiguo et moto.
The methods propofed by thefe philofophers to pro¬
duce preffure, are lefs ingenious and not more fatisfac-
tory than that adduced by Euler which was mentioned,
above } and indeed they do not feem to be very anxious
about the manner in which thefe motions are produced..
The phenomena of magnetifm are induced, or a piece
of iron is put in motion, when it is in the vicinity of
a magnet, by a ftream of fluid which iffues from one
pole of a magnet, paffes in a circle round the magnet,
and enters at the other pole. By this ftream of fluid the
iron is impelled, and brought to arrange itfelf in cer¬
tain determined pofitions. In the fame way all bodies
are impelled in lines perpendicular to the furface of
the earth by a ftream of fluid which is in continual
motion towards its centre. In the fame way fimilar
phenomena are accounted for, and thus thefe motions are
reduced to Ample cafes of impulfion. But to fay nothing
worfe of this doflrine, it is not very compatible with
the di£!ates of common fenfe. It proceeds on the fup-
pofition that fomethirig a£ts which we do not fee 5 and
of the exiftence of which there is not the fmalleft
proof.
96. Preffure, according to the opinion of others, is or preffure,
the only moving force in nature; but it is that kind of
preffure which has been termed folicitation, not what
arifes from the mutual contact of folid bodies. Gravi¬
tation is an inftance of the kind of preffure here allud¬
ed to. It is affirmed by thefe philofophers, that there
is no fuch thing as contadl on the inftantaneous commu¬
nication of motion by the real collifion of bodies. It
is faid that the particles of folid bodies exert very ftrong
repulfions
480
DYNAMICS.
Part
Sxertions
of mechani
cal forces
Of Moving repulfions to a fmall diftance j and when they are
Forces, brought by any motion fufficiently near to another
v~ body, they exert a repulfive force, and are equally re¬
pelled by this body. Motion is thus produced in the
one body, while it is diminifhed in the other. It is
then fhown by fcrupuloully confidering the date of the
bodies while the one advances, and the other retires, in
what way they attain a common velocity, the quantity
of motion before collifion remaining the fame, and the
one body gaining exa6tly as much as the other lofes.
Cafes alfo are adduced, of fuch mutual a&ion between
bodies, where it is obvious they have never come into
contaft j but where the refult is exaftly the fame as
when the motion feemed to be inftantaneoufly changed.
And hence it is concluded that there is no fuch thing
as indantaneous communication, or transfudon of mo¬
tion, by contact in collifion or impulfe. All moving
forces, according to thefe philofophers, are of that kind
which have been named felicitations j fuch as gravi¬
ty is.
97. Different names have been given to the exer¬
tions of mechanical forces, according to the reference
named from that is made to the refult. In wredling when my an-
their refult. tagonid exerts his drength to prevent being thrown
down, and I am fenfible of his exertion, I thus difcover
that he refids. But if I opnofe him only to prevent
him throwing me, I am faid to refid. If I drike or
endeavour to throw him, I am faid to a61. The fame
didinftion is applied to the exertion of mechanical
powers. If, for indance, one body A change the mo¬
tion of another body B, the change in the motion of
B may be confidered either as the indication and mea-
fure of the power of A in producing motion, or as the
indication and meafure of the refidance made by A in
being brought to red, or having any change induced
on its motion. The didinftion which is here made is
not in the thing itfelf, but exids only in the reference
which we are difpofed to make of its effeft, from other
confiderations. If a change of motion take place when
one of the powers ceafes to be exerted, it is conceived
that this power has refided. But this language is me¬
taphorical. Refidance, effort, endeavour, are all words
which exprefs motions that relate to fentient beings.
There is perhaps no word preferable to the word re-
aFlion, to exprefs the mutual force which is obferved in
all the operations of nature which have been fuccefsful-
ly invedigated.
Suppofed to 98. A difficulty has been darted with regard to the
depend on opinion of thofe who affirm that all mechanical pheno-
aiid^re'u'l mena are dependent on attradling and repelling forces ;
lion. 1 becaufe it is here fuppofed that bodies aft on each other
at a didance, and however fmall this ciidance may be,
this is conceived to be abfurd. It may however be
obferved, that the mutual approaches or recedes of bo¬
dies may be afcribed to tendencies to, or from each
other. Without thinking of any intermediate connec¬
tion between the iron and the magnet, we conceive the
iron to be affefted by the magnet *, and if this be con¬
ceivable, it is not abfurd. Our knowlrdge of the ef-
fence or nature of matter is not fuch as to render this
tendency of the iron to the magnet impoffible. We do
not indeed fee intuitively why the iron diould approach
to the. magnet ; but this is by no means fufficient to
pronounce it impoffible or inconfident with the nature
of matter. To fuppofe therefore in the produ&ion of
motion, the impulfe of an invifible fluid, of which 'weof^
know not any thing, and of whofe exidence there is no Foro
evidence, is a rafh and unwarrantable affumption. Butv—"'V' *
farther, if it be true that bodies do not come into con-
taff, even when one ball drikes another, and drives it
before it, the fuppofition of the exidence of this invi¬
fible fiuid will not affid us in folving the difficulty j for
the fame difficulty would occur in the aCtion of any one
particle of the duid in the body. At any rate the pro¬
duction of motion without any obferved contaCt, is more
familiar to us than the production of motion by one
body aCting on another by impuldon. £very cafe of
gravitation is an indance of this.
99. In thofe cafes where the exertions of any mecha-Attraf .
nical power are obferved to be always directed towardan^reF
any body, that body is faid to attruB. Thus a boat is®”11.ex.
attracted toward a man when he pulls it toward hinv me
by means of a rope. This is a chfe of pure attraBion,
But when the other body always moves off, the body
exhibiting this phenomenon is laid to repel $ and it is a
cafe of pure repulfion when a perfon puffies any body
from him. And becaufe there is a refemblance to the
refuit- of real attraction and repulfion, the fame terms
are employed to exprefs the mechanical phenomena of
nature. But that our conceptions may not be embarraf-
fed or rendered obfcure by the ufe of luch metaphorical
expreffions, it is requifite to be careful not to allow
thefe words to fugged to us any opinion about the man¬
ner in which mechanical forces produce their effeCts.
If the opinion which is held of the exidence of an in¬
vifible duid on which mechanical aCtion depends be
well founded, it is obvious that there can be neither
attra&ion nor repulfion in the univerfe.
100. Forces are conceived as meafurable quantities.
Thus we conceive one man to poffefs double the drength raeafuije
of another man, when we obferve that he can refid the ^uant' '
combined efforts of two others. It is in this way that
animal force is conceived as a quantity made up of its
own parts and meafured by them. This however feems
not to be a very accurate conception. Our conception
of one drain being added to another is obfcure, al¬
though we have a didinCt notion of their being com¬
bined. There are no words to exprefs the difference of
thefe two notions in our minds ; but we think that the
fame difference is perceived by others. We have a
clear conception of the addition of two lines or two
minutes; but our notions of two forces combined are
indidirxff ; although it cannot be affirmed that two
equal forces are not double of one. of them. They
are meafured by the cffedls which they are known to
produce.
191. In the fame way mechanical forces are concei-and fu 11
ved as meafurable by their effects, and thus become thearelIlta*
fubjeft of mathematical difcuffion. We fpeak of themca1,
proportions of magnetifm, electricity, &c. and even of
the proportion of gravity to magnetifm. Tht-fe, how¬
ever, confidered in themfelves, are quite diffimilar^ and
do not admit of any proportion ; but fome of their ef-
fefts are meafurable, and thefe affumed meafures being
quantities of the fame kind are fufceptible of compari- •
fon. The acceleration of motion in a falling body, is
one of the effecls of gravity ; magnetifm accelerates
the motion of a piexe of iron ; and thefe two accelera¬
tions may be compared together. But becaufe none of
the meafurable effeCls of magnetifm with which we are
acquainted
ts of
vity.
safures
id be the
ne in
id and
gtee.
,rt IL B Y N A
Moving acquainted, are of the fame kind with any of the
orces. effe&s of heat, magnetifm and heat are not fafceptible
ofcomparifon.
nparifon ^\r[ien fo Js faid that the gravitation of the moon is the
be et* 3600th part of the gravitation of a ftoneat the fea-fhore, it
is meant that the fall of a ftone in a fecond is 3600 times
greater than the fall of the moon in the fame time.
But to exprefs the proportion of the tendency of gravi¬
tation more purely, if a ftone hung on the fpring of a
lleelyard, draw out the rod of the fteelyard to the mark
3600, the fame (lone carried up to the diftance of the
moon will draw it out only to the mark one. And if
the ftone at the fea-fhore draw out the rod to any mark,
it will require 3600 fuch Hones to draw the rod out
to the fame mark at the diftance of the moon. Now,
it is not in confequence of an immediate perception of
the proportion of gravitation at the moon to that at the
ftirface of the earth that fueh an afTertion is made. It
is becaufe thefe motions being confidered as its effects
in fuch fituations, and being magnitudes of the fame
kind, are fufceptible of comparifon, and have a pro¬
portion which can be determined by obfervation. And
although the proportions of the caufes or forces are
fpoken of, yet it is only the proportions of the effefls
which come under contemplation.
102. In order that thefe affumed meafures may be
accurate, they muft be always connefled with the
magnitudes which they are employed to meafure ; and
the connexion muft be of that kind, that the degrees
of the one muft change in the fame manner with the
degrees of the other. The fame thing muft alfo be
known of the meafure which is employed ; the precife
and conftant relation muft be feen. But how is this to
be accompliftied ? Force as a feparate exiftence is not a
perceptible objefl. We do not perceive its proportions,
lb as to be able to afcertain that they are the fame with
the proportions of the meafures. On the contrary, the
very exiftence of this force is inferred from obfervation
of the acceleration, and its degree is alfo an inference
from the obferved extent or magnitude of the accelera¬
tion. The meafures which are thus aflumed are there¬
fore neceffarily conne&ed with the magnitudes, and
their proportions are the fame ; the one is an inference
from the other both in kind and degree.
103. It now appears that this fubjtift is fufceptible
of mathematical inveftigation. After having feletfted
our meafures, and obferving certain mathematical re¬
lations of thofe meafures, every inference deduced from
the mathematical relations of the proportions of thofe
reprefentations is true of the proportions of the motions,
and therefore it is alfo true of the proportions of the
forces. Thus then Dynamics may be reckoned a de-
monftrative fcience.
104. Moving forces are confidered as differing alfo
in kind, that is, in direflion. The direflion of the
obferved changeof motion isaftigned to the force ; which
is not only the indication, but alfo the meaiure of the
changing force. This force is called an accelerating,
retarding, or deflefling force, according as it is obfer¬
ved, that the motion is accelerated, retarded, or de-
flefted. And from thefe terms it muft appear, that we
have no knowledge of the forces <3 ft‘rent from our
knowledge, of the effects. They are either deferiptive
of the effects, or thev have a reference to thf fubdan-
ecs in wh oh the forces are fuppofed to be inherent.
Vol. VII. Part II.
rnamics
lemon-
ative
ence.
irees dif-
f. di
ftion.
M I C S. 48!
Thus of the firft kind are the terms accelerating, c/ZeffC-Of Moving
live, or repuljive forces j of the fecond, are the terms Forces.
magnetifm, ele&ricity, &c. ' v '
Of the Laws of Motion.
105. Such then being our notions of mechanical
forces, of the caufes of the produftion of motion and
its changes, there are certain refults, which by the
eonftitution of the human mind, neceffarily arife from
the relations of thefe ideas. Thefe refults are laws of
human judgment, independent of all experience of ex¬
ternal nature. Some of thefe laws may be intuitive,
prefenung themfelves to the mind as foon as the ideas
which they involve are prefented to it. Thefe may be
called axioms. Others may be as neceffary refults
from the relations of thefe notions, are lefs obvious,
and may require a procefs of reafoning to eftablifti their
truth.
Of thefe laws there are three, which were firft di-
ftinflly propofed by Sir Ifaac Newton. Thefe may be
confidered as the firft principles of all difeuftions in me¬
chanical philofophy, give a fufficient foundation for all
the dofirines of Dynamics, and to thefe principles we
may refer for the elucidation of all the mechanical phe¬
nomena of nature.
Firfl Law of Motion.
106. Every body continues in a fate of ref, or of uni¬
form rectilineal motion, unlefs it is ajfetled by fame me-
chanical force.
On the truth of this propofition the whole of mecha-Importance
nical philofophy chiefly depends. But with regard to°f this Pro-
its truth and the foundation on w hich it refts, the opi-P°^tlon‘
nions of philofophers are very different. In general thefe
opinions are obfeure and unfatisfadtory ; and, as is ufual,
they influence the difeuftions of thofe who hold them in
all their inveftigations.
107. It is not only the popular opinion that a ft ate Reft fup-
of reil is the natural ftate of body, and that motion is poled to be
fomething foreign to it, but the fame opinion has beentlie ?a?ura*
fupported by many philofophers. They allow thatot-body,
matter unlefs it is afted on by fome moving force will
remain at reft ; and nothing feems neceffary for matter
to remain where it is, but its continuing to exift. But
the cafe is widely different, according to thefe philofo¬
phers, with refpedf to matter in motion. For here the
relations of the body to other things are continually
changing •, and as there is the continual produftion of
an effeift, the continual agency of a changing caufe is
neceffary. This metaphyfical argument, it is faid, is
fully confirmed by the moil familiar obfervations. All
motions, whatever may have been their violence, termi¬
nate in reft, and for their continuance the continual
exertion of fome force is neceffary.
108. It is affirmed by thefe philofophers, that the Continual
continual adlion of the moving caule is effentially requi-exertion of
fite for the duration of the motion. But their opinions*0I£,e ns.*
of the nature of this caufe are not uniform. Accor-in
ding to fome, all the motions in the univerfe are pro¬
duced and continued by the diredf agency of the Deity
himfelf. By others all the motions and changes of
every particle of matter are aferibed to a fort of mind
which is inherent in it. This is called an elemental
mind. It is the fame as the and tF eWeg
of Ariftotle. Every thing, according to theit phiiofo-
3 P Phers>
482
Of Moving pliers, winch moves, is mind, and every thing which
Force;.. is moved is body. But this elemental mind is only
1 1 v" known and characterized by the tfftds which are a-
fcribed to its aCtion *, and thefe are obferved in the mo¬
tions or changes which are produced. Idiefe, we learn
from uniform experience, are regulated by laws equally
precife with the laws of mathematical truth. But there
is nothing which indicates any thing like intention or
purpofe } none of the marks or characters by which
mind was brought firft into view. They referable the
effeCts produced by the exertions of corporeal force ;
and hence the word force has been applied to exprefs
the caufes of motion.
No body is 109. A ftate of reft, it has been fuppofed, is the natu-
in abfolute ra] 0f matter. But it does not appear that the con¬
tinued aCtion of fome caufe is necelfary for continuing
matter in motion. Experience gives us no authority
for fuppofing that the natural condition of matter is a
ftate of reft. It cannot be affirmed of any body what¬
ever, that it has ever been feen in abfolute reft. All
the parts of the planetary fyftem are in motion ; and
even the fun himfeif with his attendant planets is car¬
ried in a certain direCfion with a great velocity. There
is no unqueftionable evidence that any of the ftars are
abfolutely fixed 5 and many of them, it has been afcer-
tained by obfervation, are in motion. Reft, therefore,
being fo rare a condition of matter, no experience which
we have, fupports the notion that this is its natural con¬
dition. This opinion feems to be derived from our own
experiments on matter. To continue the motion of a
body, we find that the continued aCtion of fome mov¬
ing force is neceffary, otherwife the motion becomes
gradually flower, and at laft terminates in reft. Since
then we fee that our own exertions are conftantly necef¬
fary in the production of motion, and efpecially in thofe
, cafes where we are interefted; w'e are thus induced to
afcribe to matter fomething that is naturally quiefcent
and inert, and even fomething that is fluggifh and
averfe from motion. But this is an erroneous concep¬
tion, which is fuggefted to our thoughts from the im¬
perfection of language. We afcribe animation to mat¬
ter, to give it motion, and endow it with a kind of
moral character in order to explain the phenomena of
motion.
Matter has IIO more accurate and more extended obfer-
iefttU<*e t0 vat*on leads us to conclude that matter has no peculiar
aptitude to a ftate of reft. Every obferved retardation
has a diftinCt reference to external cireumftanees.
Wherever there is a diminution of motion, it is inva¬
riably accompanied by the removal of obftacles $ as in
the cafe when a ball moves through land, or air, or water.
The diminution of motion is alfo owing to oppofite mo¬
tions which are deftroyed. And it is found that the
more thefe obftacles arc kept out of the way, the lefs is
the diminution of motion. The vibration of a pendu¬
lum in water foon ceafes; it continues longer in air 'T
and much longer in the exhaufted receiver. The con-
clufion then from thefe obfervations is, that if all ob¬
ftacles could be completely removed, motion would
continue for ever. This conclufion is ftrongly fupport-
ed by the motions of the heavenly bodies. Thefe mo¬
tions, fo far as we know, are retarded by no obftacles j
and accordingly they have been obferved to retain
them without perceptible diminution for thoufands of
years*
Part I
in. The inaftivity of matter has been denied byof^;,
other philofophers. According to them it is eflentially Forces,
adtive, and continually undergoing changes in its con- “Y—
dition. Some traces of this doctrine are to be found in nje\s ‘s G(
the writings of fome of the ancient philofophers ; but it0ther..
was reduced to a fyftematic form by Leibnitz. Accord¬
ing to this philofopher, every particle of matter is en¬
dowed with a principle of individuality. This he calls
a monad, which is fuppofed to have a kind of perception
of its place in the univerfe, and of its relation to all
other parts of the univerfe. This monad too is fuppofed
to adt on the particle of matter in the fame way as the
foul adts on the body. The motion of the material
particle is modified by the monad, and thus are produ¬
ced, according however to unalterable laws, ail the ob¬
ferved modifications of motion. And thus matter, or
the particles of matter, are continually adtive and conti¬
nually changing their fituation. No information in
any way ufeful can be obtained from this fanciful hy-
potheiis. It is not unlike the fyftem of elemental
minds. And Ihould its exiftence be admitted, it would
not, any more than the adlions of animals, invalidate the
general propofition which is confidered as the funda¬
mental law of motion. The powers of the monads or
of the elemental minds are fuppofed to be the caufes of
all the changes ; but the particle of matter itfelf is fub-
jedt to the law, and any change of motion which it ex¬
hibits is afcribed to the exertion of the monad.
112. By another fet of philofophers, the law of mo-This law
tion is deduced from the want of a determining caufe.
At the head of this fed! is Sir Ifaac Newton, who main-’i®
tains the dodtnne affirmed in the propofition. But theie ^etermi.
philofophers are not uniform in their opinion of the foun-ning cau
dation on which it refts. It is afferted by fome that it is
a kind of neceffary truth which arifes from the nature of
the thing. If, for inftance, a body be in a ffate of reft,
and if it be afferted that it will not remain at reft, it
muff move in fome diredlion \ and if it be in motion iu
any diredtion, and with any velocity, and do not conti¬
nue its equable, redlilineal motion, it muft be either
accelerated or retarded j it muft either turn to one fide
or to fome other fide. The event, whatever it be,, is in¬
dividual and determinate 5 but no caufe which can de¬
termine it being fuppofed, the determination cannot
take place, and no change with refptdl to motion will
happen in the condition of the body. It will either re¬
main at reft, or perfevere in its redlilineal and equable
motion. But to this argument of fufhcient reafon, as
it has been called, confiderable objedtions may be made.
In the immenfity and perfedt uniformity of time and
{pace, there is no determining catife why the vifible
univerfe fliould exift in one place rather than in another,
or at this time rather than at another. It is effentially
neceffary that there fliould be a caule of determination j
for a determination may be without a caule, as well as
a motion without a caufe.
113. Other philofophers deduce this law of motion and fron
from experience. They confider it merely as an experi-expeIlts’
mental truth, of the unive fality of which there are in¬
numerable proofs. When a ftone is thrown from the
hand, it is preffed forward, and when the hand has the
greateft velocity that we can give it, the ftone is let go,
and it continues in that flate of motion which it gradu¬
ally acquired along with the hand. A flone may be
thrown much farther by means of a fling, becaufe with
DYNAMICS.
Part II.
)fMoving a very moderate motion of the hand, the ftone being
Forces, whirled round acquires a very great velocity, and when
jt is let go, it continues its rapid motion. We have a
fimilar illuftration in the cafe of an arrow Ihot from a
bow. The tiring which prtfles hard on the notch of
the arrow carries it forward with an accelerated motion
as it becomes a ftraight line by the unbending of the
bow ; and there being nothing to check the arrow, it
.flies off. In thefe Ample cafes of perfeverance in a ftate
of motion the procedure of nature is eafily traced ; it is
n cafes of perceived almoft intuitively. In many other phenome-
notion na it is not lefs ditlinft, although fomewhat more com¬
plicated. A man can Hand on the faddle of a horfe at
a gallop, and ilep from it to the back of another horfe
that gallops along with him at the fame rate •, and this
he feems to do with the fame eafe as if the horfes were
Handing Hill. The man is carried along with the fame
velocity as the horfe which gallops under him, and he
retains the fame velocity while he Heps fr«m the back
of one horfe to that of the other. But if the horfe to
which he Heps were Handing Hill, he would fly over his
head, becaufe he is carried forward with the velocity of
the galloping horfe ; or if he Hepped from the back of
a horfe Handing Hill to that of one at a gallop, he would
be left behind becaufe he has not acquired the veloci¬
ty of the galloping horfe. In the fame way a man toffes
oranges from one hand to the other while he is carried
forward with the motion of a horfe at a gallop, or while
he fwings on the flack-wire. In both cafes the oranges
have the fame motion as a man, and while they are in
the air are moving forward with the fame velocity, fo
that they drop into the hand at a conliderable diflance
from the place in which they were thrown from the
other hand. While a Ihip fails forward with a rapid
motion a ball dropped from the mall head falls at the
foot of the mafl : for it retains the motion which it had
previous to its being dropped, and follows the tnafl du¬
ring the whole time of its fall.
and of reft. 1x4. Familiar inftances may alfo be given of a body
in a Hate of refl. A veffel filled with water drawn
fuddenly along the floor, leaves the water behind,
which is dafhed over the poflerior fide of the veffel; and
when a boat or coach is fuddenly dragged forward, the
perfons in it find themfelves Hrike againfl the hinder
part of the carriage or boat ; or rather it fhould be faid
the carriage firikes on them, for it fooner acquires mo¬
tion from the a£Iion of the force applied. A ball dif-
charged from a cannon will pafs through a wall and
move onward ; but the wall remains behind.
But com- 115. Common experience is perhaps infufficient for
monexpe. eftabfilhing the truth of this fundamental propofition.
fufficien" ^ mU^ grantec^» t*iat we *iave never ^een a body ei-
U Ciei1 ' ther at refl, or in uniform reftilineal motion ; yet this
feems neceffary before it can be faid that the propofition
is experimentally efiablifhed. Vv hat is fuppofed in our
experiments to be putting a body, formerly at refi, into
motion, is in faft only producing a change of a very
rapid motion—a motion not lefs than 90,000 feet per
fecond.
Other proof xi6. For the purpofe of obtaining fuch experimental
aeceflary. pro()p 0£ ^jie truth of this propofition, it will be neceffary
to refort to other obfervations. I he relative motions
of bodies, which are the differences of their abfolute mo¬
tions, only can be meafured. We cannot meafure their
abfolute motions. If then it can be fliown by experi-
4*3
ment that bodies have equal tendencies to refill the of Moving
augmentation and diminution of their relative motions, forces
they thus have equal tendencies to refill the augmenta- '“‘“'v “
tion or diminution of their ablolute motions.
Let A and B two bodies be put into fuch a fituatiotl
that they cannot perievere in their relative motions.
The change which we obferve produced on A is the ef-
fe£f and meafure of the tendency of B to perfevere in
its former Hate. From the proportion of thefe changes
theiefore we derive the proportion of their tendencies
to remain in their former condition. This will be il-
lutlrated by the following experiment, which Ihould be
made at noon.
117. Let the body moving at the rate of three feet
per fecond to the we A ward, Hrike the equal body B
which is apparently at refl. P’fferent cafes of the re-
fults of the changes thus produced may be fuppoled.
ifl. Let A impel B forward without having its own
velocity at all diminilhed. From this refult it appears
that B (hows no tendency to maintain its motion un¬
changed, but that A retains its motion without dimi¬
nution.
2d. Suppofe that A Hops, and that B remains at reft.
This cafe (hows that A does not refill a diminution of
motion, and that the motion of B is not changed.
3d. Let it be fuppofed that both move weft ward at
the rate of one foot per fecond. There is in this cafe a
diminution of the velocity in A, equal to two feet per
fecond. This then is to be confidered as the effeft and
meafure of the tendency of B to maintain its velocity
unaugaiented. B has received an augmentation of one
foot per fecond in its velocity. From this change it
appears that the tendency is but half of the former ;
and the relult (hows that the refiftance to a diminution
of velocity is only equal to one half of the refitlance to
augmentation ; and perhaps equal only to one quarter,
fince the change on B has effe&ed a double change
on A.
4th. Let it be fuppofed that both bodies move for¬
ward with the velocity of one and a half feet per fe¬
cond. In this cafe it is obvious that the tendencies of
the two bodies to maintain their ftates unchanged are
equal.
5th. But fuppofe that K — l B, and that the velocity
of both after eollifion is equal to two feet per fecond.
The body B has then received an addition of two feet
per fecond to its former velocity ; and this is the effect
and meafure of the whole tendency of A to preferve
its motion undiminiflied. One half of this change on
C meafures the perfevering tendency of one half pf A ;
but it is fuppofed that A which formerly moved with
the apparent or relative velocity three, now moves with
the velocity two, and thus has loft the velocity of one
foot per fecond. Therefore each half of A has loft this
velocity ; and the whole lofs of motion is two. This
then is the meafure of the tendency of B to maintain
its former ftate unaugmented ; and it is the fame with
the meafure of the tendency of A to preferve its former
ftate undiminilhed. From fuch a refult therefore Ure
conclufion would be, that bodies have equal tendencies
to maintain their former ftates of motion unaugmented
and undiminiflied.
The fuppofitions made above in the 4th and 5th cafes
are the refult of all the experiments which have been
made ; and in all the changes of motion which are
2 P 2 produced
dynamics.
The proof
ijnperled;.
Exiftence
of forces
inferences
from mo¬
tion.
T!ris kw
a necefl'ary
truth*
D Y N A
produced by the mutual atlion of bodies on impuluon,
this is the regulating law. To this there is no excep¬
tion. And thus it appears that there exifts in bodies
no preferable tendency to red. No faff can be addu¬
ced which fhould lead us to fuppofe that a motion hav¬
ing once begun (hould fuller any diminution without
the intervening aflion of fome changing caufe.
118. It mult, however, be obferved that this is a very
imperfeft way of eltablilliing the firft law of motion.
It is inapplicable to tbofe cafes where experiment can¬
not be made ; and at belt it is fubjeft to all the inac¬
curacy of the belt managed experiments. If this pro-
pofition be examined by means of the general princi¬
ples which have been adopted in the article Philoso¬
phy (which fee), an accurate decifion of this queftion
may be given. Thefe principles, which are the foun¬
dation of all our knowledge, Ihew that this propofition
is an axiom or intuitive confequence of the relations of
thofe ideas which we have of motion, of its changes,
and of their caufes.
119. Powers or forces, it has been (hewn, are not
the immediate objefls of our perceptions. Their exif-
tence, kind, and degree, are inferences from the motions
which we oblerve. And hence it follows, that when
no change of motion is obferved, no fuch inference is
made *, no force or power is fuppofed to a£l. But
when any change of motion is obferved, the inference is
made ; a power or force is fuppofed to have afled.
By a fimilar conclufion, it is faid, that when no change
of motion is fuppofed, no force is thought of or fuppo¬
fed j and whenever a change of motion is fuppofed, it
always implies a changing force* On the other hand,
when the adfion of a changing force is fuppofed, the
change of motion is alfo fuppofed j the a£lion of this
force and the change of motion being the fame thing.
The mind does not admit the idea of the aft ion, with¬
out at the fame time thinking of the indication of the
aftion, and this indication is the change of motion.
And in the fame way, when we do not think of the
changing force, or do not fuppofe the aftion of a
changing force, we fuppofe, although it be not expref-
fed in terms, that there is no indication of this chan¬
ging force ; that there is no change. If, therefore, it
be fuppofed that no mechanical force afts on a body,
we fuppofe in faft that the body remains in its former
condition with refpeft to motion. And if it be fuppo¬
fed that nothing accelerates or retards, or deflefls the
motion, it is conceived as neither accelerated nor retarded,
nor deflefted. Hence it follows, that we fuppofe the bo¬
dy tq continue in its former ftate of reft or motion, unlefs
we fuppofe that it is changed by fome mechanical force.
I2Q. This propofition then does not depend on the
properties of body as a matter of experience or contin¬
gency. It is to us a neceflary truth. It is not fo much
any circumftances with regard to body that are expref-
fed in the propofition, as the operations of the mind in
confidering thefe circumftances. The truth of the pro¬
pofition will not be invalidated by taking into view,
that it may be effential to move in fome particular di-
redftion ; that it may be efiential to body to flop when
the moving caufe eeafes to a£I ; or gradually to dimi-
nifh its motion, and at laft to come to reft. The circum¬
ftances in the nature of body which render thofe modifica¬
tions effentially neceffary, are the caufes of thofe modifica¬
tions $ and they are to be confidered as changing forces.
M I C S. partn.
If wre fttould fuppofe that body of its own nature isQf m •
capable of producing a change in its Condition, this Force?2
change muft be effected according to fome law whichv—J
charadlerizes the nature of body. But the knowledge
of this law can be obtained only by oblerving the de¬
viations from uniform redilineal motion. It then be¬
comes indifferent whether external caufes operate thofe
changes, or they depend on the nature of the thing;
for in conlidering the various motions of bodies, we muft
firft confider the nature of matter as one of its me¬
chanical affedions which operates in every inftance ;
and this brings us back to the law contained in the pro¬
pofition. This is rendered more certain by refleding,
that the external caufes, fuch for inftance are gravity
and magnetifm, which are acknowledged to operate
changes of motion, are not lefs unknown to us than
this effential property of matter. They are, Hke it,
only inferences from the phenomena.
121. Many philofophers, among which number may ina(jeqnat8
be included Newton himfelf, have introduced modes of notions fug.
expreffion, which fuggeft inadequate notions, and fueh.S6^ ty
as are incompatible with the dodrine of the propofition;11130^1*
for although they allow that reft is the natural condi-CXi)rt U>IW
tion of body, and that force is neceffary for the con¬
tinuation ot motion, yet they fpeak of a power or force
redding in a moving body by which it perfeveres in its
motion. This has been called the vis inf to, or the in¬
herent force of a moving body. Now if the motion
be fuppoled to be continued in confequence of a force,
that force muft be fuppoled to be exerted, and it is
fuppofed that it it were not exerted the motion would
ceafe. 1 he propofition, therefore, muft be falfe. To
obviate this objedion, it is indeed fometimes laid, that
the body continues in uniform redilineal motion, un-
kfs it is aded on by fome external caufe. This mode
of expreffion, however, fubjeds us to the impropriety
of afferting that gravity, eledrieity, and other mecha¬
nical forces, are external to the bodies on which they
are fuppofed to ad and to put in motion. Every thing’
which produces a change of motion is very properly
called a force ; and when a change of motion is ob¬
ferved, the adton of fueh a force is very properly in¬
ferred. But to give the lame name to what has not
this property of producing a change, and to infer the
adion of a force when no.change is obferved, is not a
very accurate or confident exprtffion. This error has
arifen from the ufe of analogical language in philofo-
phical difcuffions.
122. But motion is not,, as philofophers have ima-Motion not
gined, the continual produdion of an effi d. We can a cont‘nu8<'
conceive there is fuch a thing as a moving caufe, torx!rtU)”V
1 • , > <- y id • . ’ out an «-
which the name or jorce has been given. Ibis pro-feft.
duces motion, and the charader of motion in body,
which is a continual change of place. Motion is the
effed: of an adion ; and previous to the commence¬
ment of the motion, this adion is equally incomplete as
it is the minute after. The immediate efft d of a moving
force is a determination to motion, which if not ob-
ftruded by fome caufe would go on for ever. In this
determination only the condition of the body differs
from a ftate of reft. Motion then is a condition or
mode of exiftence, which no more requires the conti¬
nued agency of the moving caufe than colour or figure.
Some mechanical caufe is required to change this con¬
dition into the Hate or condition of reft. When a
moving
ot the
ft of
■rent
irter-
>an hide
te term.
sfiftance
matter
ifconcep.
m.
moving body is brought to reft, fume caufe of this cef-
fation of motion never fails to occur to the mind. A
caufe is no lefs neceftary to flop the motion of body
than it is to produce it. Now this caufe muft either
refide in the body or be external to it. If it re fide in
the bodv, then it pofieffts a fdf-determining power or
force, by which it may be able to Hop its own motion
as well as to produce it.
123. Taking this view of the fubjeft, the opinion
of a force refiJing in a moving body by which its mo¬
tion is continued muft be given up ; and the remark¬
able difference between a body in a ftate of motion and
a ftate of reft muft be explained on other principles.
Motion, it cannot be doubted, is neceflary in tire im¬
pelling body to permit the forces which are inherent in
one or both bodies to continue the preffure long enough
for the produ£Iion of fenfible motion. But whether
bodies be in the condition of motion or reft, thefe
forces are inherent in them. If we reftefl on the mo¬
tions that are involved in the general conception of one
body being impelled and put in motion by another, we
fhali fee that there is nothing individual transferred
from, the om to the other. Before colli (ion took place
the determination to motion exifted only in the impel¬
ling body. After collifion, both bodies poffeffed this
condition or determination. But we have no concep¬
tion, we can form no notion of the thing transferred.
124. An expreffion not lefs vague and indefinite is
alfo very common among mechanical philofophers.
This is the phrafe inertia, or vis inertia:. This expref¬
fion, which was introduced by Kepler, feems to have
been generally employed by him as well as by Newton
to exprefs the fa& of the perfeverance of body in a
ftate of motion or reft. Sometimes, however, it has
been employed by thefe philefophers to exprefs fome-
thing like indifference to motion or reft ; and this is
fuppofed to be manifefted by body requiring the fame
quantity of force to make an augmentation of its mo¬
tion, as is neceffary to produce an- equal diminution of
it. To fuppofe refiftance from a body at reft feems to
be in diredt contradiction to the common ufe of the
word force; and yet this expreffion vis inertue is very
common. It is not lefs abfurd to fay that a body re¬
mains in the condition of reft by the exertion of a vis
viertice-, than to affirm that it maintains itielf in a Plate
of motion by the exertion of an inherent force. Such
expreftions, which are metaphorical, (hould be carefully
avoided, becaufe they are apt to lead to mifconception
of the procedure of nature.
125. In the phenomena of motion the force employ¬
ed always produces its complete effedl. No refiftance
’ whatever is obferved. A^VTen one man throws down
another, and he finds that no more force has been re¬
quired than to throw down a fimilar and equcft mais
of inanimate matter, he concludes that no refiftance
has been made } but if more force be neceffarv, the con-
clufion is that refiftance has been made. When, there¬
fore, the exerted force produces its full effedft, there is
no fuch thing as refiftance properly fo called. It is
therefore mifconeeiving the mode in which mechanical
forces operate in the collifion of bodies, to fay t lat
there is any refiftance. For there is no more in thefe
cafes than in other natural changes of condition. It
may be obferved, that thefe terms, inherent force an
inertia^ may be employed for the purpofe ol abbrevia-
D Y N A M 1 C S. 48-5
ting language, provided they are ufed only for expref- Ot Moving
fing either the fimple fadl of perfevering in the former ,
ftate, or the neceftity of a determinate force to produce
a change on that ftate, being careful to avoid all thought
of refiftance.
126. Thus it appears that deviations from uniform Deviaticms
motions are only the indications of the exiftence and from um-
agency of mechanical lorces. 1 his indication is ^rr}‘
ply change of place j and it can only indicate ^.hat cat.ons of
very fimple, fomething competent to the produdtion offorce.
the obferved motion. The fame thing is indicated by
two fimilar changes of motion. A compafs needle in
a ftate of reft, can be moved fume degrees by means of
the finger, a magnet, an eledlrified body, or by the un¬
bending of a fpring, &c. in all which cafes the indi¬
cation is precifely the fame j and therefore the thing
indicated muft alfo be, the fame. I his is the intenfity
and diredtion of fome moving power. 1 he circum-
ftances of refemblance by which the affedlions. of mat¬
ter are to be charadterized are impulfivenefs, intenfity,
and diredlion. This leads us to confider the fecond law
of motion..
Second Law of Motion.
Every change of motion is proportional to the force un-
prejfed, and it is made in the direction of that force.
127. This law of motion alfo may almoft be confi*
dered as an identical propofition. It is equivalent
faying that the changing force is to be meaiured by the
change produced, and the diredlion of this force is the
dtredlion of the change. Confidering the force only
in the fenfe of its being the caufe of motion, and with¬
drawing the attention from the manner or form of its
exertion, there can be no doubt ot this. In whatever
way a body is put in motion, whether by the expanfive
force of the air, by the unbending of a fpring, or by
any fimilar preffure, when it moves oft' in the lame di¬
redlion, and with the fame velocity,, the force or the
exertion of the force is confidered as the fame. Even
when it is put in motion by inftantaneous percuffion
from a fmart ftroke, although in this cafe the manner
of the efftdl being produced is effentially different from
the other cafes, we cannot conceive the propelling
force, as fuch, but as precifely one and the fame. 1 he
expveflion of this law of motion by Newton is equi¬
valent to faying, “ that the changes of motion are ta¬
ken as the meafures of the changing forces, and the
diredlion of the change is taken as the indication of
the diredlion of the forces ; for it cannot be faid that
it is a deduaion from the acknowledged principle, that but not
.fMsare proportional to their canfes. This la.'*
not affirmed from the proportion of the forces and the uo
proportion of the changes, and that thefe proportions torceS.
are the fame, having been obferved j and that this
univerfally holds in nature. For forces are not ol jefts
of obfervation, and we do not know their proportions.
In this way it would be ellablilhed as a phyfical law,
as indeed it is fo in fadl. But according to the definition
of the term, this does not eftablilh it as a law of mo¬
tion ; or as a law of human thought, the refult of the
relations of our ideas. Philofophers having attempted
to prove this as a matter of obfervation, have produced
great diverfity of opinion in the mode of eftimating
forces. A bullet, it is well known, which move^ with
double velocity, penetrates four times as
4H6
Of Moving
Forces.
Incompa¬
tible with
'the velo¬
city being
proportion¬
al to the
force.
confirmed by other fimilar fafls ; ami to generate this
double velocity in the bullet, it has been obferved by
philofophers,four times the force is expended, four times
as much powder is required. This is the invariable re-
fult ; and in cafes of this kind, it would appear that
the ratio of the forces employed has been very accu¬
rately afcertained. The conclufion therefore is, that
moving forces are not proportional to the velocities pro¬
duced, but to the fquares of the velocities. This is
ftrongly confirmed by obferving that moving bodies
feem to poffefs forces in this very proportion, and to
produce effects in this proportion ) when, for in dance,
the velocity is only twice as great, they penetrate four
times as deep.
128. If this mode of eflimation be juft, it is irrecon-
cileable with the conceflion of thofe, who admit that
the velocity is proportional to the force imprefled, in
thofe cafes where no previous obfervation can be had of
the ratio of the forces, and of its equality to the ratio
of the velocities. Such a cafe is the force of gravity,
which thefe philofophers alfo meafure by its acce¬
lerating power, or the velocity generated in a given
time. This muft be granted j for there are cafes in
which the force can be meafured by the actual preflure
which it exerts. Thus a fpring fteelyard can be con-
ftru&ed, the rod of which is divided by hanging on
fucceflively a number of perfe&ly equal weights. In
the different ftates of tenfion of the fpring, its elafti-
city is proportional to the prelTures of gravity which it
balances. If it be found, that at Quito in Peru, a
weight will pull out the rod to the mark 312, and that
the fame weight at Spitzbergen draws it out to' 313, it
Teems to be a fair inference to fay, that the preffure of
gravity at Quito is to its preffure at Spitzbergen as 312
to 313 *, and this is affirmed on the authority of effefts
being proportional to their caufes. Such cafes, how¬
ever, are very rare ; for it is feldom, that the whole of
a natural power, accurately meafured in fome other
way, is employed in producing the obferved motion.
Part of it is generally otherwife expended, and there¬
fore it frequently happens that the motions are not in
the proportion with the fuppofed forces. And allowing
that this could be done with accuracy, it would only be
the proof of a general law or fa£t : but thefe philofo¬
phers attempt to eflabliffi it as an abftradt truth.
129. It feems to be confidered by Sir Ifaac Newton
only as a phyfical law. And in this fenfe good argu¬
ments are not wanting. A ball which moves with a
double, triple, or quadruple velocity, generates by im-
pulfe in another, a double, triple, or quadruple velo¬
city, or it generates the fame velocity in a double, tri¬
ple, or quadruple quantity of matter, and lofing at the
fame time fimilar proportions ot its own velocity.
Two bodies, having equal quantities of motion,
meeting together mutually ftop each other.
When two forces, which aft fimilarly during equal
times, produce equal velocity in a third body, they
will, by afting together during the fame time, produce
a double velocity.
If a preffure which afts for a fecond, produce a cer¬
tain velocity, a double preffure afting during a fe¬
cond, will produce in the fame body a double velo¬
city.
A force which is known to aft equably, produces in
DYNAMICS.- partlI
equal times equal increments of velocity, whatever thenc,,
- - • ■ •" ut MoviDf
velocities may be. 01
In all the examples above adduced, the forces are —
obferved to be in the fame proportion with the change
of motion effefted by them in a limilar way.
But the curious difeoveries of Dr Hooke, about the Hooke’s
middle of the 17th century, feemed to (hew, from a'l'kovenes.
great colleftion of fafts, forces to be in a very different
proportion. In the produftion of motion it was found,
that four fprings equal in ftrengtb, and bent to the
fame degree, generated only a double velocity in the
ball which they impelled : nine fprings generated only
a triple velocity, &c. In the extinftion of motion, it
was found, that a ball moving with a double velocity,
will penetrate four times as deep into a uniformly re¬
filling mafs ; and a triple velocity will make it pene¬
trate nine, times as far, &c.
130. Thefe fafts were brought forward by Leibnitz Eftimation
in fupport of his own pretenfions to the difeovery of theof^'bnitz
real nature and meafure of mechanical aftion and force,
which he faid had been hitherto totally miftaken. He
affirmed that the inherent force of a moving bodv
was in the proportion of the fquare of the velocity. In
this argument he was fupported by John Bernoulli,
who adduced many fimple fafts to confirm the relation
between the inherent force of a moving body and it*
velocity. One of the ftrongeft arguments urged by
Leibnitz i«, that the inherent force of a moving body
is to be eftimated by all that it is able to do before the
total extinftion of its motion ; and therefore when it
penetrates four times as far, it is to be confidered as
having produced a quadruple efftft. In this mode of
eftimation many things are gratuitoufly affumed, many
contradiftions are incurred j and it is only becaufe
forces are affumed as proportional to the velocities which
they generate, that thefe fafts come to be proportional
to the fquares of the fame velocity. When Leibnitz is incorreft
affumes the quadruple penetration as the proof of the
quadruple force of a body having twice the velocity,
he has not confidered that a double time is employed
during this penetration. But a double force, afting
equably during a double time, ffiould produce a qua¬
druple effeft. This circumftance is loft fight of in all
the fafts which this philofopher has adduced. It may,
however, be obferved, that Leibnitz, as well as his
followers, holds no difference of opinion in all the con-
fequences which are deduced from the meafure which
is here adopted. They admit, that a force producing
an uniformly accelerated motion muft be conftant; they
agree with the followers of Des Cartes in the valuations
both of accelerating and deflecting forces *, and have
affiduoufly and fuccefsfully cultivated the philofophy of
Newton, which proceeds on the principle of eftimating
the meafure of moving forces by the velocity gene¬
rated.
131. It ought here to be obferved, that movingyormMoving
only are taken into confideration. When a ball hasft)rc<^°^J
acquired a certain velocity, whether it has been im-tonl eItl
pelled by the elafticity of the air, by a fpring, or ftruek
off by a blow, or urged forward by means of a dream
of air or water, or has obtained its velocity by falling j
in all thefe cafes it is conceived that it has fuftained
the fame aftion of moving force. The only diftinft
notion, perhaps, which we are able to form, is preffure *
but
-at jsMb. ._L.
? ions of
o :ant
fi 5 the
£
I rt II. D Y N A
0 loving but it is from experience that we derive the information
roes, that preffure produces motion. Whatever may be the
•- v—— difference of the ci.cumftances of mechanical forces, in
PIjur® one, namely, production of motion, they all agree,
di ft no- f’1 this circumftance of refemhlance they are capable of
ti, if mo- comparifon j and from this they derive a name, moving
vi foKe. force, which is expreflive of this comparil'on. And
therefore the particular faculty of preflure, elafticity,
&c. may be meafured by the change of motion produ¬
ced by preffure. In whatever proportion preffure may
ad on a body in a ftate of reft, the magnitude of the
change of motion meafures the preffure adually exerted
in its production j and as this is the only change of me¬
chanical condition effeCtud by the preffure in the body
moved by it, it may be meafured by the velocity.
When, therefore, preffure produces the fame change of
velocity on a foft clay ball, the preffure really exerted
is the fame whether the velocity has been augmented or
diminithed. In both cafes the fame dimple will be ob-
ferved. The changes of motion, therefore, are propor-
tional to the exerted preffures.
132. The notions which vve form of a conflant or
invariable force lead to the fame conclufion. By fuch
a force equal effe&s or changes of motion are produced
in equal times. But equal augmentations of motion are
equal augmentations of velocity. This notion of an
invariable accelerating force is confirmed by what is
obferved in the cafe of a falling body, which receives
equal additions of velocity in equal times j and this
force, fo far as we know, is invariable. The inference
then is, that whatever be the force exerted in one fe-
cond, it will be four times as much in four feconds.
And this is really the cafe, if it be granted that a qua¬
druple velocity is the indication of a quadruple force j
but it does not hold in any other ellimation of force.
Befides, it may be obferved, that four fprings applied
to an ounce ball impel it only twice as fall as one
fpring does j and if the fame four fprings be applied to
a four ounce ball, they produce in it the fame velocity
that one fpring produces on an ounce ball. In the lart
cafe, it may be demonftrated, that the four fprings a£l
during the fame time with one fpring.
133. The proper meafure, therefore, of a changing
1 'ffteof ^orc tinn, bodies may fuftain the fame change of motion.
Suppofing then one of thefe bodies to be previoufly in a
ftate of reft, the change and the motion acquired are
the fame thing. The force, therefore, producing a
change of motion in a moving body, is preoifely the
fame with that force which produces in a body, pre¬
vioufly at reft, a motion equivalent to this change 5
and in this cafe it is (imply a moving force.
This opinion of Leibnitz about the meafure offerees
has influenced the fentiments of many writers, and in
the mechanical inveftigations of fome of them, has not
a little affedled their pradlical deductions. No difpute
probably could have occurred if philofophers had not
been led to confider force as fomething exifting in
body ; the term on the contrary being-only ufed to ex-
pref* the phenomenon, which is conceived to be its
full effeCt and adequate meafure. 'i he Ample change
of motion obferved is the meafure of the fence by which
it is produced..
M I c s.
487
( ngeof
The following is the enunciation, adapted to the cha-of Moving
racteriftic and meafure of a change of motion. Forces.
Law of the Changes of Motion.
Prop. XII.
134. In every change of motion, the nexv motion is
compounded of the former motion, and of the motion
which the changing produces in a body at reJI.
Let the change of motion be from AB (fig. 23.) to Fig. 23.-
AD, this new motion AD is compounded ot the for¬
mer motion AB and of the motion AC.
For it has been (hewn, that the change in any mo¬
tion, is that motion, which when compounded with the
former motion, produces the new motion j and the new
motion (55.) is the compound of the former motion
and the changing motion. Since then the change of
motion is the mark and meafure of the changing force'
(133.) by which both the direction arid intenfity or ve¬
locity produced, are determined, the truth of the pro-
pofition will appear of courfe.
135. It has been already obferved (54.), that the
compotition of motions and the fimilar coropofition of
forces are very different things. The firft is a pure ma¬
thematical truth j the fecond, is a phyilcal quetlion de¬
pendent on the nature of the mechanical fortes as they
exift in the univerfe. Our notions are not very diftindfc
of two forces, each of which feparately produces mo¬
tions, having the direftions and velocities exprefitd by
the (ides of a parallelogram, producing by their joint
action a motion in the diagonal. The demonftrationa
which have been frequently given, are altogether in-
conclufive, and only include the compofition of mo¬
tions-, while gratuitous pullulates have been affumed by
thofe who endeavoured to accommodate their reafon-
ings to phyfical principles. The celebrated Daniel
Bernoulli gave the firft legitimate demonftration of this
propofition, in which, however, he employs a feries of
many propofitions, fome of which are very ahftrule. It
was greatly fimplified by D’Alembert, Mem Acad,
des Sciences 1769, ftill, however, requiring many pro¬
pofitions. Ingenious demonftrations have alfo been gi-
ven by other celebrated mechanicians. In the follow¬
ing demonftration by Profeffor Robifon, this diftinguifh-
ed pbilofopher has attempted to combine the dtmon-
ftration of Bernoulli, D’Alembert, and others, thus
rendering it more expeditious, and at the fame time
legitimate. This demonftration is entirely limited to -
preffures, without at all confidering or employing the
motions fuppofed to be produced by them.
(A) If two equal and oppofite preffures or incite¬
ments to motion a£t at once on a material particle, it
fuffers no change of motion ; for if it yields in either
dire6lion by their joint aftiun, one of the preffures pre¬
vails, and they are not equal.
Equal and oppofite preflures are faid TO BALANCE
each other} and fuch as balance muft be efteemed equal
and oppofite.
(B) If a and b are two magnitudes of the fame kind,
proportional to the intenfities of two preffures which aft
in the fame direction, then the magnitude a-\-b will
meafure the intenfity of the preffure, which i^ equiva¬
lent, and may be called equal, to the combined effort
of the other two ; for when we try to form a notion of
preffure as a meafurable magnitude, diflindt from mo¬
tion -
I
4S8
Ofjviovmg tion or any other effect of it, we find nothing that vve
, 1 ur^e!>- can meafure it by but another preffure. Nor have we
any notion of a double or triple preffure different irmn a
preffure that is equivalent to the joint effort of two or
three equal preffures. A preffare a is accounted triple
of a preffure b, if it balances three preflures, each equal
to b, acting together. Therefore, in all proportions
which can be exprtffed by numbers, vve muff acknow¬
ledge the legitimacy of this meafurement *, and it would
furely be, affectation to omit thofe which the mathema¬
ticians call incornmcnfarable.
The magnitude a—b, in like manner, muff be ac¬
knowledged to meafure that preffure which arifes from
the joint aCfion of two preffures a and b afting in op-
pofite directions, of which a is the greateft.
Fig. 24. (£) Let ABCD and A bCd (fig. 24.) be two
rhombufes, which have the common diagonal AC. Let
the angles BA DA d, be bife&ed by the ftraight
lines AE and AF.
If there be drawn from the points E and F the lines
EG, EH, Fg, ¥ b, making equal angles on each fide
of EA and FA, and if G £■, H/£ be drawn, cutting
the diagonal AC in I and L : then AI-j-AL will be
greater or lefs than A£), the half of AC, according
as the angles GEH, g F b, are greater or lefs than
GAH g A b.
Draw GH, g b, cutting AE, AF, in O and 0, and
draw O 0, cutting AC in K.
Becaufe the angles AEG and EAG are refpe£tively
equal to A EH and EAH, and AE is common to
both triangles, the fides AG, GE are refpefiively equal
to AH, HE, and GH is perpendicular to i^E, and is
bifefled in O ; for the fame reafons, ^ is bifefted in
e. Therefore the lines C g, O 0, H >4, are parallel,
and IL is bifefled in K. Therefore AI-{-AL is equal
to twice AK. Moreover, if the angle GEH be greater
than GAH, AO is greater than EO, and AK is great¬
er than K£). Therefore AI-j-AL is greater than
A£) ; and if the angle GEH be lefs than GAH, AI
-j-A-L >s Lfs than AQ.
(D) Two equal preffures, a&ing in the direftions
^ *5* AB and AC (fig. 25.) at right angles to each other,
: compofe a preffure in the diredlion AD, which bift£ls
the right angle ; and its intenfity is to the intenfity of
each of the conftituent preffures as the diagonal of a
fquare to one of the fides. It is evident, that the di-
reflion of the preffure, generated by their joint aflion,
will bife£I the angle formed by their direflions; be¬
caufe no reafon can be afligned for the dheftion in¬
clining more to one fide than to the other.
In the next place, fince a force in the direftion AD
does, in famn AF. It is alfo pia:n that the
preffures in the diredtions AE and AF, and the two
pr ffures in the diredfion AD, muff be all equal. And
alf anv one of them moft have the fame proportion to
AB or to AC, that AB or /iC has to the force in the
diredlion AD, arifing from their joint adlion.
Part II
Therefore, if it be faid that AD does not meafure OfMovin
the preffure arifing from the joint adtion of AB and Forets
AC, let A d, greater than AD, be its juft meafure, —v—
and make A : ABzrAB : A^zr AB : A e. Then
Ag and Ae have the fame inclination and proportion
to AB that AB and AC have to A d. We determine,
in like manner, two forces A./and Ag as contlituents
of A C.
Now A is equivalent to AB and AC, and AB is
equivalent to A e and Ag ; and AC is equivalent to
A f, and A g. Therefore A d is equivalent to A e
Af Ag, and Ag. But (a) A f and Af balance
each oilier, or annihilate each other’s effedf ; and there
remain only the two forces or preffures Ag, Ag.
Therefore (b) their meafure is a magnitude equal to
twice A g. But if A d be greater than the diagonal
AD of the fquare, whofe fides are AB and AC j then
Ag muft be lefs than AI, the fide of the fquare whofe
diagonal is AB. But twice A ^ is lefs than AD, and
much lefs than Ad. Therefore the meafure of the
equivalent of AB and AC cannot be a line A d great¬
er than AD. In like manner it cannot be a line A ^
that is lefs than AD. Therefore it muft be equal to
AD, and the propofition is demonftrated.
Corollary.
(E) Two equal forces AB, AC, adting at right
angles, will be balanced by the force AO, equal and
oppofite to AD, the diagonal of the fquare whofe fides
are AB and AC *, for AO would balance AD, which
is the equivalent of AB and AC.
(F) Let AECF (fig. 26.) be a rhombus, the acute Fig.
angle of which EAF is half of a right angle. Two
equal preflures, which have the diredtions and meafures
AE, AF, compofe a preffure, having the diredlion and
meafure AC, which is the diagonal of the rhombus.
It is evident, in the firft place, that the compound
force has the diredlion AC, which bifedls the angle
EAF. If AC be not its juft meafure, let it be AP
lefs than AC. Let ABCD be a fquare deferibed on
the fame diagonal, and make AP : AQyrrAE : AO,
~AF : A 0. Draw KOG, F* 0 g perpendicular to
AE, AF5 draw GI^, OH 0, EG, EK, FFK,
PF, and PE.
The angles CAB and FAE are equal, each being
half of a right angle. Alfo the figures A EPF and
AGEK are fimilar, beeaufe AP ; A.(^“AE : AO.
Therefore FA : APzzKA : AE, and EA : AP“
GA : AE. Therefore, in the fame manner that the
forces AE, AF are affirmed to compofe AP, the forces
AG and AK may compofe the force AE, and the forces
A g and AK may compofe the force AF. Therefore
(B) the force AP is equivalent to the four forces AG
AK, Ag, AK. But (D) AG and A^ are the fides
of a fquare, whofe diagonal is equal to twice AI ;
and the two forces AK, AK are equal to, or are mea-
fured By, twice AK. i here fore the four forces AG,
AK, A^, AK, are equivalent to 2 AI-j-2 AK, zz
4 AH.
But becaufe AP was fuppofed lefs than AC, the
angle FPE is greater than FAE, and GEK is greater
than GAK AG is greater than OE, and AH is great¬
er than HQ, and 2 All is greater than A£) ; and
therefore 4 AH is greater than AC, and much greater
than
DYNAMICS.
*
■
-
DYNA
• than AP. Therefore AP is not the jail meafure of
* orces. the force compofed of AE and AF.
v In Uke manner, it is (hewn, that AE and AF do
not compofe a force vvhofe meaiure is greater than AC.
It is therefore equal to AC •, and the propofition is de-
monilrated.
By the. fame, procefs it may be demonitrated,
that if BAD be half a right angle, and EAF be the
fourth of a right angle, two forces AE, AF will com¬
pofe a force meafured by AC. And the procefs may
be repeated for a rhombus vvhofe acute angle is one-
eighth, one-fixteenth, &c. of a right angle ; that is,
any portion of a right angle that is produced by conti¬
nual bifeftion. Two forces, forming the fides of fuch
a rhombus, eompofe a force meafured by the dia¬
gonal.
(H) Let ABCD, Kb c d (fig. 27.) be two rhom-
<>1 ■ ‘ 27' bufes formed by two confecutive bifections of a right
angle. Let AECF be another rhombus, vvhofe Tides
AE and AF bifeft the angles BA b and DA d.
The two forces AE, AF, compofe a force AC.
Bifeft AE and AF in O and 0. Draw the perpen¬
diculars GOH, y 0 h, and the lines GI^, OK 0, HL h,
and the lines EG, EH, F F A
It is evident, that AG EH and A f F /1 are rhom-
bufes j becaufe AOrrOE, and A o~o F. It is alfo
plain, that fince b A. d is half of B AD, the angle G AH
is half oib Ad. It is therefore formed by a continual
bifeftion of a right angle. Therefore (G) the forces
AG, AH, compofe a force AE ; and Ag, A Zi, com¬
pofe the force AF. Therefore the forces AG, AH,
Ag, A Zi, afting together, are equivalent to the forces
AE, AF afting together. But AG, Ag compofe
a force — 2 AI j and the forces AH, A Zz compofe a
force — 2 AL. Therefore the four forces afting to¬
gether are equivalent to 2 AI-j-2 AL, or to 4 AK.
But becaufe AO is AE, and the lines O 0, H 7,
are evidently parallel, 4 AK is equal to 2 A(^, or to
AC ; and the propofition is demonllrated.
Corollary.
('/) Let us now fuppofe, that by continual bifeftion
of a right angle we have obtained a very fmall angle a
of a rhombus; and let us name the rhombus by the
multiple of « which forms its acute angle.
The propofition (GJ is true of 0, 2 0, 4 0, Stc. 1 he
propofition (bZJ is true of 3 0. In like manner, be-
caule is true of 4 0 and 8 0, propofition (TL) is
true of 6 0 ; and becaufe it is true of 4 0, 6 0, and 8 0,
it is true of 5 « and 7 a. And fo on continually till
we have demonllrated it of every multiple of 0 that is
Plate lefs than a right angle.
XXXVI ft AS (fig. 28.) be perpendicular to AC,
1S' 2S‘ and let ABCD be a rhombus, whofe acute angle BAD
is feme multiple of 2 0 that is lefs than a right angle.
Let A b c d be another rhombus, wh )fe fides A b, A d
bifeft the angles BAB, SAD. Then the forces A b
A d compofe a force AC.
Draw b R, d S parallel to BA, DA. It is evident,
that AR b B and x\S d D are rhombufes, whofe acute
angles are multiples of 0, that are each lefs than a
right angle : Therefore ("/^ the forces AR and AB
compofe the force A b, and AS, AD compofe Ad;
but AR and AS annihilate each other’s effeft, and
there remains only the forces AB, AD. Xherefore
Vol. VII. Part II.
M I C S. 439
A b and A d are equivalent to AB and AD, which of Moving
compofe the force AC $ and the propofition is demon- Forces,
ft rated. —v—
Corollary.
(L) Thus is the corollary of laft propofition extend¬
ed to every rhombus, vvhofe angle at A is fome multi¬
ple of 0 lefs than two right angles. And fince a may
be taken lefs than any angle that can be named, the
propofition may be confidered as demonftrated of every
rhombus; and we may fay,
(AI) Two equal forces, inclined to each other in any
angle, compofe a force which is meafured by the diagonal
of the rhombus, whofe fdes are the menfures of the con-
Jlituent forces.
(N) Two forces AB, AC (fig. 29.) having the di-pj0 29>
reftion and proportion ot the fides of a reftangle, com¬
pofe a force AD, having the direftion and proportion
of the diagonal.
Draw the other diagonal CB, and draw Ex\F paral¬
lel to it •, draw BE, CF parallel to DA.
AEBG is a rhombus *, and therefore the forces AE
and AG compofe the force AB. AFCG is alfo a
rhombus, and the force AC is equivalent to AF and
AG. Therefore the forces AB and AC, afting toge¬
ther, are equivalent to the forces AE, AF, AG, and
AG afting together, or to AE, AF, and AD afting
together : But AE and AF annihilate each other’s ac¬
tion, being oppofite and equal (for each is equal to the
half of BC). Therefore AB and AC afting together,
are equivalent to AD, or compofe the force AD.
(O) Two forces, which have the direftion and pro¬
portions of AB, AC (fig. 30.) the fides of any parallel-Fig. 3c.
ogram, compofe a force, having the direftion and pro¬
portion of the diagonal AD.
Draw AF perpendicular to BD, and BG and DE
perpendicular to AC.
Then AFBG is a reftangle, as is alfo AFDE : and
AG is equal to CE. Therefore, (N) AB is equivalent
to AF and AG. Therefore AB and AC afting to¬
gether, are equivalent to AF, AG, and AC afting to¬
gether 5 that is, to AF and AE afting together 5 that
is (N) to AD 5 or the forces AB and AC compofe
the force AD.
Hence arifes the mofi: general propofition.
// a material particle be urged at once by two pref- Compofi-
fures or incitements to motion, whofe intcnfties are pro- tion of all
portional to the fides of any parallelogram, and which incitement*
aB in the directions of thofe fdes, it is ojfeBed in the t0 motlon*
fame manner as if it were aBed on by a fngle force,
whofe inten/ity is meafured by the diagonal of the paral¬
lelogram, and which aBs in zts direBion : Or, two pref-
ftres, having the direBion and proportion of the fidcs of
a parallelogram, generate a prejfure, having the direc¬
tion and proportion of the diagonal.
136. Thus is demonftrated from abftraft principles
the perfeft fimilarity of the compofition of preflures and
the compofition of forces meafured by the motions which
are produced. A feparate demonftration feems indif-
penfably neceflary ; for what may be deduced from the
one cafe is. not always applicable to the other. The
change produced on a motion already exifting by a de-
flefting force, cannot be explained by any compofition
of preffure ; becaufe the changing preflure is the only
one that exifts, and there is none with which it may be
^ O compounded.
490 D Y N A
Of Moving compounded. Nor, on the other hand, will our no-
Forces. tions of the compofition of motions explain the compo-
v fition of preflares, without afluming that the preflTures
are proportional to the velocities.
137. Confidering this law of motion merely as a uni-
verfal fa£t or phyfical law, abundant proof may be ad¬
duced in fupport of it.
J. The joint aftion of different forces is quite fami¬
liar. A lighter, for example, is dragged in different
directions by two ropes on different fides of the canal,
the lighter moving in an intermediate direction, as if
dragged in that diredion by one rope only. A ball
moving in a particular direction, which receives a ftroke
acrofs this direction, takes a direction lying between
that of the firft motion and that of the tranfverfe
ftroke.
Tig- 23* 2. If a particle of matter A (fig. 23.) be urged at
once by two preffures in the directions AB and AC $
and if AB and AC be proportional to the intenfities of
thofe prelfures, the joint aCtion of thefe two preffures is
equivalent to the aCtion of a third preffure in the direc¬
tion of the diagonal AD, and having its intenfity in
the proportion of AD. This is proved by obferving,
that the point A is withheld from moving by a preffure
AE, which is equal and oppofite to AD. But pref¬
fures are moving forces, producing velocities when they
aCt fimilarly during equal times, proportional to their
intenfities. The proportion, therefore, is true with re-
fpeCt to preffures, confidered merely as fuch, and alfu
with refpeCt to the motions which may be produced by
their compofition.
3. The weight of a ball which is fufpended by a
thread, and drawn afide from its pofition in a flate of
reft, urges it downwards, and the ball is fupported ob¬
liquely by the thread. Suppofing this propofition to be
true, the directions and intenfities of the forces incit¬
ing it to motion in any pofition, as well as the refult of
the velocities, can be precifely afcertained.
4. The motions of the planets computed on thefe
principles of the compofition of forces, do not exhibit
any perceptible deviation from calculation, at the end
of thoufands of years.
Nothing, therefore, can be relied on with greater
confidence than the perfeCt agreement between the com¬
pofition of motions, and the compofition of the forces,
which, feparately taken, would produce thofe motions,
and which are meafured by the velocities produced.
But it ought to be remarked, that if the moving forces
are meafured by the fquaresof the velocities which they
generate, the compofition cannot poflibly hold ; namely,
from two forces which are reprefented by the fides of a
parallelogram made proportional to the fquares of; the
velocities, there will not refult a force which can be
reprefented by the diagonal. But fuppofing the com¬
pofition of forces to be as the velocities, nature exhibits
them exactly.—This propofition, therefore, whether it
be confidered as an abftraft truth or as a phyfical law,
may be received as fully eftabliftied. The following
is the converfe of this propofition.
Prop. XIII.
Fig. 23. 138- The force by ’which the motion AB (fig. 23.)
is changed into AD, is that which would produce in a
body at reft, the motion AC, and this compounded with
AB produces the obferved motion AD.
M I C S. partII
Prop. XIV. orMOTii
139. The force which will produce in a body at ref Forees-
a motion having the direElion and velocity reprefented by ~ "
AC, (fig. 23.) when applied to a body moving with the Fig. 23.
velocity and in the direction AB, will change its motion
into the motion AD, which is the diagonal of the paral¬
lelogram ABDC. For the new motion muft be that
which is compounded of AB and AC, that is, it muft
be the motion AD.
The combination of thefe two propofitions gives rife
to the following, which is ftill more general.
1 Prop. XV.
140. A body A (fig. 23.) being urged at once by two Fig. 23.
forces which feparately would caufe it to defcribe AB and
AC, the fdes of a parallelogram ABDC, the body by
their joint a&ion will defcribe the diagonal AD in the
fame time.
For if the body had been already moving with the
velocity and in the diredlion AB, and if it had been
a6ted on in A by the force AC, it would defcribe AD
in the fame time. But it matters not at what time it
acquired the determination to defcribe AB. Let it be
then at the inftant that the force AC is applied to it.
And becaufe its mechanical condition in A, which has
the determination to the motion AB, is the fame as in
any other point of that line, it muft defcribe AD.
Corollary.
Two forces a Bing on a body in the fame or in oppo-
fte direBions, will caufe it to move with a velocity equal
to the fum or to the difference of the velocities which it
would have received from the forces feparately. For if
AC (fig. 23.) approach continually to AB by dimini(h-p;g
ing the angle BAG, the points C and D will at laft fall
on c and */, and then AD is equal to the fum of AB
and AC. But if the angle BAG increafe continually,
the points C and D will at laft fall on * and 5, and
then A 3 becomes equal to the difference of AB and
AC. In the laft cafe, it is evident, that if AC be
equal to AB, the point D or £ will coincide with A,
and the two forces being equal, and afling in oppofite
direclions, there will be no motion.
141. In fuch cafes the equal and oppofite forces AC
and AB are faid to balance each other ; and it is gene¬
rally faid, that thefe forces, by whofe joint operation
no change of motion is produced, balance each other.
Such forces are accounted equal and oppofite, each
producing on the body a change of motion equal to
what it would produce on a body at reft, and at the
fame time equal to the motion produced by the other
force on a body at reft. The two motions being equal
and oppofite, the forces are therefore equal and op¬
pofite.
142. What has been demonftrated concerning the
affections with refpeCt to the affeCtions of compound
motions, may notv be applied to the combination of
forces 3 taking care, however, to recoiled the effential
difference between the compofition of motions and the
compofition of forces. In the combination of forces,
the compofition is complete, when the determination
has been given to the body to move with the proper
velocity in the diagonal. When the body’has acquired
this determination there is no farther compofition j and
it continues its uniform motion, till its condition be
changed
rt II. D Y N A
loving changed by fome new force. On the other hand, in
,rces. the compofition of two or more motions, the conftituent
-V—-' motions are fuppofed to continue j and it is only during
their continuance that the compound motion exifts. If
it be poffible, which does not appear to be the cafe, that
any force can generate a finite velocity by its inftanta-
neous aftion, two fuch forces generate in an inflantthe
determination in the diagonal. But fuppofing the ac»
tion to continue for fome time, to generate the veloci¬
ties AB or AC, thefe muft be a continuance of the
joint a£Hon during the fame time to produce the velo¬
city AD. And although the moving powers of the
two forces may vary in their intenfity, yet it is necef-
fary that they retain the fame proportion to each other
during the whole time of their joint adlion. Over¬
looking this circumltance, experiments have been made
for the purpofe of comparing this do&rine with the
phenomena *, and they have been found to exhibit very
different refults. But experiments made by the combi¬
nation of preflfures, fuch as weights pulling a body by
means of threads, coincide precifely with this dodlrine j
for it is always found that two weights pulling in the
direftions AB, AC, and proportional to thofe lines,
are balanced by a third weight in the proportion of
AD, and prilling in the dire&ion AE. In this way
the compofition of prelfures is clearly proved ; and hav¬
ing no other diftinft conception of a moving force,
thefe experiments may be confidered as fufficient. But
we may go farther 5 for there is the cleareft proof by
experiment, that preffures produce motions in propor¬
tion to their intenfities by their fimilar aflion during
equal times. In the planetary motions, the diredlions
and intenfities of the compound forces are accurately
known as moving forces. Thefe motions afford a com¬
plete proof of the phyfical law, by their perfect coinci¬
dence with the calculations which proceed on the prin¬
ciples of this dodfrine. This coincidence muft be ac¬
knowledged as a full proof of the propriety of the mea-
fure which has been alfumed. The affumption of any
other meafure would exhibit refults quite different from
the phenomena.
143. Forces which produce motions along the fides
of a parallelogram are called fimple forces or conflitiient
forces. And the force which fingly produces the mo¬
tion in the diagonal, is called the equivalent force, the
compound force, or the refulting force.
144. Some general conclufions may now be pointed
out, which will facilitate greatly the ufe of the paral¬
lelogram of forces.
General Corollaries.
1. The conftituent and the refulting forces, or the
fimple and compound forces, aft in the fame plane;
for the fides and diagonal of a parallelogram are in one
plane.
2. The fimple and the compound forces are propor¬
tional to the fides of any triangle which are parallel to
their direftions. For if any three lines ab, Id, ad, be
[g<31> drawn parallel to AB, AC, and AD (fig. 31.), they
will form a triangle fimilar to the triangle ABD.
For the fame reafons they are proportional to the fides
of a triangle a'b'd, which are refpeftively perpendicular
to their direftions.
3. Therefore each is proportional to the fine of the
oppofite angle of this triangle ; for the fides of any tri-
M I C S. 491
angle are proportional to the fines of the oppofite of Moving
angles. Forces.
4. Each is proportional to the fine of the angle con- 'v ^
tained by the direftions of the other two; for AD is
to AB as the fine of the angle ABD to the fine of
the angle ADB. Now the fine of ABD is the fame
with the fine of BAG contained between the direftions
AB and AC, and the fine of ADB is the fame with '
the fine of CAD ; alfo AB is to AC, or BD, as the
fine of ADB (or CAD) to the fine of BAD.
145. Let us now proceed to the application of this <’Peci'al ufes
fundamental propofition. And we obferve, in the firft0^**16 Pa"
place, that fince AD may be the diagonal of an inde-0f forCg3
finite number of parallelograms, the motion or the pref-
fure AD may refult from the joint aftion of many pairs
of forces. It may be produced by forces which Would
feparately produce the motions AF and AG. This
generally gives us the means of difcovering the forces
v'hich concur in its produftion. If one of them, AB,
is known in direftion and intenfity, the direftion AC,
parallel to BD, and the intenfity, are difcovered. Some¬
times we know the direftions of both. Then, by
drawing the parallelogram or triangle, we learn their
proportions. The force which deflefts any motion
AB into a motion AD, is had by fimply drawing a
line from the point B (to which the body would haVe
moved from A in the time of really moving from A to
D) to the point D. The deflefting force is fuch as
would have caufed the body move from B to D in the
fame time. And, In the fame manner, we get the
compound motion AD, which arifes from any two fim¬
ple motions AB and AC, by fuppofing both of the mo¬
tions to be accomplifhed in fucceflion. The final place
of the body is the fame, whether it moves along AD
or along AB and BD in fucceflion.
146. This theorem is not limited to the compofition Equivaleat
of two forces only ; for fince the combined aftion of of many
two forces puts the body into the fame ftate as if their forces-
equivalent alone had afted on it, we may fuppofe this
to have been the cafe, and then the aftion of a third
force will produce a change on this equivalent motion.
The refulting motion will be the fame as if only this
third force and the equivalent of the other two had
afted on the body. Thus, in fig. 32. the three forces Fig. 32.
AB, AC, AE, may aft at once on a particle of mat¬
ter. Complete the parallelogram ABDC ; the diago¬
nal AD is the force which is generated by AB and
AC. Complete the parallelogram AEFD ; the dia¬
gonal AF is the force refulting from the combined ac¬
tion of the forces AB, AC, and AE. In like man¬
ner, completing the parallelogram AGHF, the diago¬
nal AH is the force refulting from the combined ac¬
tion of AB, AC, AE, and AG, and fo on of any
number of forces.
This refulting force and the refulting motion may
be much more expeditioufly determined, in any degree
of compofition, by drawing lines in the proportion and
direftion of the forces in fucceflion, each from the end
of the preceding. Thus draw AB, BD, DF, FH,
and join AH ; AH is the refulting force. The de-
monftration is evident.
147. In the compofition of more than two forces,
we are not lirtiited to one plane. The force AD is in
the fame plane with AB and AC ; but AE may be
elevated above this plane, and AG may lead below it.
3 0.2 AF
492 D Y N A
Of Moving AF is in the plane of AD and AE, and AH is in the
JF’orces. plane of AF and AG.
Complete the parallelograms ABLE, ACKE,
ELFK. It is evident that ABLFKCD is a paral¬
lelepiped, and that AF is one of its diagonals. < Hence
Ave derive a more general and very ufeful theorem.
I hree forces having the proportion and dir eft ion of the
three fides of a parallelopiped, compofe a force having
the proportion and direftion of the diagonal.
148. In the inveftigation of very complicated pheno¬
mena, the mechanician confiders every force as refulting
from the joint aftion of three forces at right angles to
each other, and he takes the fum or difference of thefe
in the fame or oppofite directions. Thus he obtains the
three fides of a parallelopiped, and from thefe computes
the pofition and magnitude of the diagonal. This is
the force refulting from the compofition of all the par¬
tial ones. This procefs is called the efimation or re¬
duction of forces. Forces may be efiimated in the di¬
rection of a given line or plane, or they may be redu¬
ced to that diredtion, as has been done with refpedt to
motion. See Cor. 2. Propof. 9. in art. 57.
1 he laws of motion which have now been confider-
ed, are neceffary confequences of the relations of thofe
conceptions which we form of motion and mechanical
force, and they are univerfal fadts or phyfical laws,
lo thefe Sir Ifaac Newton has added another, which is
the following.
Third Law of Motion.
149. Every aftion is accompanied by an equal and
contrary reaftion, or the aftions of bodies on one an¬
other are always mutual, equal, and in contrary direc¬
tions.
In all cafes which can be accurately examined, this
holds to be a univerfal fadt. Newton has made this
affirmation on the authority of what he conceives to be
a law of human thought; namely, that the qualities
difeovered in all bodies on which experiments and ob-
fervations can be made, are to be confidered as univer¬
fal qualities of body. But if the term law of motion
be limited to thofe confequences that neceffarily flow
from our notions of motion, of the caufes of its produc¬
tion and changes, this propofition is not fuch a refult.
Becaufe a magnet caufes the iron to approach toward
it, it bv no means follows, from this obfervation, that
the preffure of the iron ffiall be accompanied by any
motion or change of date of the magnet, or it does not
appear to be neceffarily fuppofed that the iron attradls
the magnet. When this was obferved, it was account¬
ed a dilcovery, and a difeovery which is to be aferibed
to the moderns. Dr Gilbert, who firft mentions it, af¬
firms that the magnet and the iron are obferved mutu¬
ally to attradl each other, as well as all eledlrical fub-
ftances, and the light bodies which are attradied by
them. The difeovery was made by Kepler, that a mu¬
tual attradlion exifls between the earth and the moon.
Newton difeovered that the fun adls on the planets, and
that the earth adfs on the moon. It had been obferved
too by Newton that the iron readts on the magnet, that
the adlions of eledtrified bodies are mutual, and that all
the adlions of folid bodies are accompanied by an equal
and contrary readlion. On the authority of the rule of
philofophizing which he had laid down, he affirmed
that the planets readt on the fun, and that the fun is
I
M I C S. Part,, •
not at reft, but is- continually agitated by a fmall mo-ofM •
tion round the general centre of gravitation ; and he Forced *
pointed out feveral of the confequences of this reaction.V'. •
As the celeftial motions were more narrowly examined
by aftronomers, thefe confequences were found to ob¬
tain, and to produce difturbances in the planetary mo¬
tions. This reciprocity of action is now found to hold
with the utmoft precifion through the whole of the fo-
lar lyftem ; and therefore this third propofition of New¬
ton is to be confidered as a law of nature. And it is
true with refpedt to all bodies on which experiment or
obfervation can be made.
150. This then being a univerfal law, we cannot
diveft our minds of the belief that it depends on a ge¬
neral principle, by which all the matter in the univerfe
is influenced. It ftrongly induces the perfuafion of the
ultimate particles of matter being alike, that a certain
number of properties belong in the fame degree to each
atom, and that all the fenfible differences of fubftance
which are obferved, arife from a different combination
of thofe primary atoms in the formation of a particle of
thofe fubftances. All this is no doubt perfeftly pof-
fible. But if each primary atom be fo conftituted, no
aftion of any kind of particle or colleftion of particles
can take place on another, which is not accompanied
by an equal reaftion in the oppofite direftion.
151. Let us now direft our attention to the applica¬
tion of thefe laws. This anfwers a twofold purpofe^
The firft is to difeover the mechanical powers of natu¬
ral fubftances by which they are fitted to become parts
of a permanent univerfe. This is aceomplifhed by ob-
ferving the changes of motion which always accompany
thofe fubftances. It is from thofe changes that the on¬
ly charafterifties of power are derived ; and thus is dif¬
eovered the power of gravity, of magnetifm, &c. Ano¬
ther purpofe in the employment of thefe laws is, that,,
after having obtained the mechanical charafter of any
fubftance, we may afee-rtain what will be the refult of
its being in the vicinity of the bodies mechanically al¬
lied, or we may afeertain what is the change induced
on the condition of the neighbouring bodies.
152. The mechanical powers of bodies occafionally
produce accelerations, retardations, and defleftions in
the motions of other bodies. Thefe names have been
given, becaufe nothing is known of their nature, or of
the manner in which they are effeftive ; they are there¬
fore named, as they are meafured by the phenomena
which are obferved and confidered as their effefts. Let
us now attend a little to the principal cireumftances re¬
lating to the aftion of thefe forces.
Of Accelerating and Retarding Forces.
153. Changes of motion are the only marks and
meafures of changing forces ; and having no other
mark of the force but the acceleration, it has obtained
the name of an accelerating force. When the motion
is retarded, it is called retarding force. Nor is there any
other meafure of the intenfity of an accelerating force,
but the acceleration which it produces. To inveftigate
therefore the powers which produce all the changes of
motion it is neceffary to obtain meafures of the acce¬
leration. What has been faid of accelerations and re¬
tardations of motion is equally deferiptive of the effefts
of accelerating and retarding forces. Hence the fol¬
lowing propofition,
V
rt II.
DYNAMICS.
If the alfalfa a d, fig. 5. reprefent the time of any mo-
rces"8 lion, and if the areas a b £ e, a c g e, &c. are as the ve-
y—J lodties at the infants b e, &c. the ordinates a e, b f, eg,
Stc. are as the accelerating forces at thofe infants.
Corollaries.
Cor. 1. The momentary change of velocity is as the
force f and the time t jointly. It may be thus ex-
COROLLARY.
The momentary change on the fquare of the velocity
is as the force, and as the fmall portion of fpace along
which it a£ts, jointly $
v vrz f s
and
493
Of Moving
Fortes.
1 r—*
v, or—vdzf t
Alfo, the accelerating or retarding force is proportional
to the momentary variation of the velocity, dire&ly, and
to the moment of time in which it is generated, in-
verfely (48.)
Indeed all that we know of force is that it is fome-
thing which is always proportional to
s
155. It deferves remark here, that as the moment¬
ary change of the Ample velocity by any ioveef depends
only on the time of its aftion, it being :=yV (I4^0 Cor.
1. fo the change on the iquare of the velocity depends on
the fpace, it being =/s. It is the fame, whatever is
the velocity thus changed, or even though the body be
at reft when the force begins to a£f on it. Ihus, in
every fecond of the falling of a heavy body, the ve¬
locity is augmented 32 feet per fecond, and, in every
foot of the fall, the fquare of the velocity increafes
by 64.
Cor. 2. Uniformly accelerated or retarded motion is
the indication of a confant or invariable accelerating
force. For, in this cafe, the areas a bfe, a eg e, &c.
increafe at the fame rate with the times ab, acy &c.
and therefore the ordinates a e,bf, eg, &c. muft all be
equal j therefore the forces reprefented by them are the
fame, or the accelerating force does not change its in-
tenfity, or, it is conftant. If, therefore, the circum-
ftances mentioned in articles 37 and 38, are obferved
in any motion, the force is conftant. And if the force
is known to be conftant, thofe propofitions are true re-
fpedling the motions.
Cor. 3. No finite change of velocity is generated in
an infant by an accelerating or retarding force. For
the increment or decrement of velocity is always ex-
preffed by an area, or by a produ£l f t, one fide or fa£tor
of which is a portion of time. As no finite fpace can
be deferibed in an inftant, and the moveable muft pafs
in fucceflion through every point of the path, fo it muft
acquire all the intermediate degrees of velocity. It muft
be continually accelerated or retarded.
Cor. 4. The change of velocity produced in a body
in any time, by a force varying in any manner, is the
proper meafure of the accumulated or whole a£tion of
the force during this time. For, fince the momen¬
tary change of velocity is expreffed by ft, the aggre¬
gate of all thefe momentary changes, that is, the whole
change of velocity, muft be expreffed by the fum of all
the quantities ft. This is equivalent to the area of
the figure employed in art. 148, and may be expreffed
^f/>'■
154. If the abfeiffa AE (fig. 8.) of the line ace be
the path along which a body is urged by the allion of a
force, varying in any manner, and if the ordinates A a,
B C c, &.c. be proportional to the ’intenfities of the
force m the different points of the path, the intercepted
areas will be proportional to the changes made on the
fyiiare of the velocity during the motion along the corre-
fponding portions of the path.
For, by art. 49. the areas are in this proportion when
the ordinates are as the accelerations. But the accelera¬
tions are the meafures of, and are therefore proportional
to, the accelerating force's. Therefore the propofition is
taanifeft.
156. The whole area AE e a, expreffed by
expreffes the whole change made on the fquare of the
velocity which the body had in A, whatever this velocity
may have been. We may therefore fuppofe the body to
have been at reft in A. The area then meafures the
fquare of the velocity which the body has acquired in
the point E of its path. It is plain that the change on
■y* is quite independent on the time of action, and there¬
fore a body, in paffing through the fpace AE with any
initial velocity whatever, fuftains the fame change of the
fquare of that velocity, if under the influence of the
fame force.
137, This propofition is the fame with the 39^
the Firft Book of Newton’s Principia, and is perhaps
the moft generally ufeful, of all the theorems in^ Dyna¬
mics, in the folution of pra&ical queftions.. It is to be
found, without demonftration, in his earlieft writings,
the Optical Le&ures, which he delivered in 1669 and
following years.
158. One important ufe may be made of it at pre-
fent. It gives a complete folution of all the fads which
were obferved by Dr Hooke, and adduced by Leibnitz
with fuch pertinacity in fupport of his meaiure of the
force of moving bodies. All of them are of precifely
the fame nature with the one mentioned in art. 157, or
with the fad, “ that a ball projeaed direaiy upward:?
“ with a double Velocity, will rife to a quadruple height,’
“ and that a body, moving twice as fall, will penetrate1
“ four times as far into a uniformly tenacious mafsi”
The uniform force of gravity, or the uniform tenacity
of the penetrated body, makes a uniform oppofition to
the motion, and may therefore be confidered as a uni¬
form retarding force. It will therefore be reprefented,
in fio. 8. by an ordinate always of the fame length, and
the areas which meafure the fquare of the velocity loft
will be portions of a rectangle AE j a. If therefore AE
be the penetration neceffary for extinguilhing the velo¬
city 2, the fpace AB, neceffary for extinguilhing the
velocity I, mult be \ of AE, becaufe the fquare of I
is 4 of the fquare of 2. ...
159. What particularly deferves remark here, is,
that this propofition is true, only on the fuppoftion that
forces are proportional to the velocities generated by them
in equal times. For the demonftration of this propofition
proceeds entirely on the previoufiy eftablifhed meafure^
494
Of Mavin
Forces.
DYNAMICS.
Fig. 33-
o of acceleration. We had vzbft} therefore v v~f t v.
But t vzzzs ; therefore vvzz f s, which is precifely
this propofition.
160. Thofe may be called Jitni/ar points of fpace,
UTid fimilar inftances of time, which divide given portions
of fpace or time in the fame ratio. Thus, the beginning
of the 5th inch, and of the 2d foot, are fimilar points
of a foot, and of a yard. The beginning of the 2ifl
minute, and of the pth hour, are fimilar initants of an
hour, and of a day.
Forces may be faid to aft Jimilarly when, in fimilar
inftants of time, or fimilar points of the path, their in-
tenfities are in a conftant ratio.
161. Lemma. If two bodies be fimilarly acceler¬
ated during given times a c and h k (fig. 33.), they are
alfo fimilarly accelerated along their refpd&ive paths
AC and HK.
Let o, b, c, be inftants of the time a c, fimilar to the
inftants b, i, k of the time h k. Then by the fimilar
accelerations, we have the force a e : h l—b f: im. This
being the cafe throughout, the area af\s to the area hm
as the area a g \.o the area h n. Thefe areas are as the
velocities in the two motions 48. Therefore the velo¬
cities in fimilar inftants are in a conftant ratio, that is,
the velocity in the inftant b is to that in the inftant
4 as the velocity in the inftant c to that in the iti-
ftant k.
The figures may now be taken to reprefent the times
of the motion by their abfciflae, and the velocities by
their ordinates, as in art. 28. The fpaces defcribed are
now reprefented by the areas. Thefe being in a con¬
ftant ratio, as already (hewn, we have A, B, C, and
H, I, K, fimilar points of the paths. And therefore, in
fimilar inftants of time, the bodies are in fimilar points
of the paths. But in thefe inttants, they are fimilarly
accelerated, that is, the accelerations and the forces are
in a conftant ratio. They are therefore in a con¬
ftant ratio in fimilar points of the paths, and the bo¬
dies are fimilarly accelerated along their refpe&ive
paths (155.).
162. If two particles of matter are fmi/arly urged by
accelerating or retarding forces during given times, the
whole changes of velocity are as the forces and times
jointly ; or v ziz f t.
For the abfciffae a c and h k will reprefent the times,
and the ordinates a e and h l will reprefent the forces,
and then the areas will reprefent the changes of velo¬
city, by art. 47. And thefe areas are as o 0 X « to
hk* hi.
XT • V 1 f • V
Hence t and / rr—.
163. If two particles of matter are fimilarly impel¬
led or oppofed through given fpaces, the changes in the
fquares of velocity are as the forces and fpaces jointly ;
or f s.
This follows, by fimilar reafoning, from art. 49.
It is evident that this propofition applies diredtly to
the argument fo confidently urged for the propriety of
the Leibnitzian meafure of forces, namely, that four
fprings of equal ftrength, and bent to the fame degree,
generate, or extinguilh only a double velocity.
164. If two particles of matter are fimilarly impelled
through given fpaces, the fpaces are as the forces and the
fquares of the times jointly.
3
Parti
For the moveables ate fimilarty urged during theofMovi,
times of their motion (converfe of 156.). Therefore Forces.
vzzf t, and v* =/* t* ; but (158.) v'z=.f s. There-' r*-
fore f s diz f* t* and s zz: f t-1.
Corollary.
J* S
Pdz-f, andy2=-. That is, the fquares of th^
times are as the fpaces, dire&ly, and as the forces, in-
verfely j and the forces are as the fpaces, diredtly, and
as the fquares of the times, inverfely.
165. The quantity of motion in a body is the fum
of the motions of all its particles. Therefore, if all are
moving in one diredtion, and with one velocity v, and
if m be the number of particles, or quantity of mat¬
ter, m v will exprefs the quantity of motion q, ot
q ZZ mV.
166. In like manner, we may conceive the acceler¬
ating forces f which have produced this velocity v in
each particle, as added into one fum, or as combined
on one particle. They will thus corapofe a force,
which, for diftindlion’s fake, it is convenient to mark
by a particular name. We ftrall call it the motive
FORCE, and exprefs it by the fymbol p. It will then
be confidered as the aggregate of the number mai equal
accelerating forces f, each of which produces the velo¬
city v on one particle. It will produce the velocity
m v, and the fame quantity of motion q.
167. Let there be another body, confifting of n
particles, moving with one velocity u. Let the moving
force be reprefented by ir. It is meafured in like manner
by n u. Therefore we have, p : tt — m v : n u, and v : W
p 7T ,
~ —: •*-; that is,
m n
The velocities which may be produced by the fimilar
aElion of different motive forces, in the fame time, are di¬
rectly as thefe forces, and inverfely as the quantities of
matter to which they are applied.
In general,
And / being =
• • P
eii ——
mt
Remark.
168. In the application of the theorems concerning
accelerating or retarding forces, it is neceffary to attend
carefully to the diftindtion between an accelerative and
a motive force. The caution neceffary here has been ge¬
nerally overlooked by the writers of Elements, and this
has given occafion to very inadequate and erroneous no¬
tions of the adtion of accelerating powers. Thus, if a
leaden ball hangs by a thread, which pafles over a pulley,
and is attached to an equal ball, moveable along a hori¬
zontal plane, without thefmalleft obflrudlion, it is known
that, in one fecond, it will defcend 8 feet, dragging the
other 8 feet along the plane, with a uniformly accelera¬
ted motion, and will generate in it the velocity 16 feet
per fecond. Let the thread be attached to three fuch
balls. We know that it will defcend 4 feet in a fecond,and
generate the velocity 8 feet per fecond. Moft readers
are difpofed to think that it fhould generate no greater
velocity than 5^- feet per fecond, or -j of 16, becaufe it
is applied to three times as much matter (162.). The
error
p
a
DYNAMICS.
•til.
0T;n(r error lies in confidering the motive force as the fame in
■ces.° both cafes, and in not attending to the quantity of mat-
v—' ter to which it is applied. Neither of thefe conjeftures
is right. The motive force changes as the motion ac¬
celerates, and in the firft cafe it moves two balls, and in
the fecond it moves four. The motive force decreafes
fimilarly in both motions. When thefe things are con-
fidered, we learn by articles 202 and 207, that the mo¬
tions will be precifely what we obferve.
Of DefleBing Forces, in General.
169. It was obferved, in art. 71, that a curvilineal
motion is a cafe of continualdefle£Hon. Therefore, when
fuch motions are obferved, we know that the body is
under the continual influence of fome natural force, act¬
ing in a direflion which croffes that of the motion in
every point. We muff infer the magnitude and di-
reflion of this deflecting force by the magnitude and di¬
rection of the obferved defleCtion. Therefore, all that
is affirmed concerning defleCtions in the 71ft and fubfe-
quent articles, may be affirmed concerning defleCting
forces. It follows, from what has been eftablifhed con¬
cerning the aCtion of accelerating forces, that no force
can produce a finite change of velocity in an inftant.
Now, a defleCtion is a compofition of a motion already
exifting with a motion accelerated from reft by infenfi-
ble degrees. Suppofing the defleCting force of invaria¬
ble direction and intenfity, the defleCtion is the compo¬
fition of a motion having a finite velocity with a mo¬
tion uniformly accelerated from reft. Therefore the
linear defleCtion from the reCtilineal motion muft in-
creafe by infenfible degrees. The curvilineal path,
therefore, muft have the line of undefleCted motion for
its tangent. To fuppofe any finite angle contained be¬
tween them would be to fuppofe a polygonal motion,
and a fubfultory defleCtion.
Therefore no finite change of direBion can be produced
by a defleBing force in an infant.
170. The moft general and ufeful propofition on
this fubjeCt is the following, founded on art. 75.
The forces by which bodies are defeBed from the tan¬
gents in the different points of their curvilineal paths are
proportional to the fquares of the velocities in thofe points
direBly, and inverfely to the defeBive chords of the equi-
curve circles in the fame points. We may ftill exprefs
the propofition by the fame fymbol
where f means the intenfity of the defleCting force.
171. We may alfo retain the meaning of the propofi¬
tion exprefled in article 76, where it is fhewn that the
aCtual linear defleCtion from the tangent is the third
proportional to the defleCtive chord and the arch defcrib-
ed in a very ffnall moment. For it was demonftrated
in that article (fee fig. 18.) that BZ : BCzrBC : BO.
We fee alfo that B b, the double of BO, is the mea-
fure of the velocity, generated by the uniform aCtion
of the defleCting force, during the motion in the arch
BC of the curve.
I?2* The art. 77. alfo furnilhes a propofition of fre¬
quent and important ufe, viz.
The velocity in any point of a curvilinear motion is
that which the defleBing force in that point would gene¬
rate in the body by uniformly impelling it along the of Moving
fourth part of the defleBive chord of the equicurve cir- Forces.
cle. —‘."v~,"*1
Remark.
I73’ The propofitions now given proceed on the fup-
pofition‘that, when the points A and C of fig. 18. af¬
ter continually approaching to B, at laft coalefce with
it, the laft circle which is defcribed through thefe three
points has the fame curvature which the path has in B.
It is proper to render this mode of folving thefe quef-
tions more plain and palpable.
If ABCD (fig. 34.) be a material curve or mould, Fig. 34.
and a thread be made faft to it at D, this thread may
be lapped on the convexity of this curve, till its extre¬
mity meets it in A. Let the thread be now unlapped
or evolved from the curve, keeping it always tight.
It is plain that its extremity A will defcribe another
curve line Abe. All curves, in which the curvature
is neither infinitely great nor infinitely fmall, may be
thus defcribed by a thread evolved from a proper
curve. The properties of the curve Abe being known,
Mr Huyghens (the author of this way of generating
curve lines) has fhewn how to conftruCt the evolved
curve ABC which will produce it.
From this genefis of curves we may infer, ift, that
the detached portion of the thread is always a tangent
to the curve ABC ; 2dly, that when this is in any fi-
tuation B b, it is perpendicular to the tangent of the.
curve Ab c m the point b, and that it is, at the fame
time/deferibing an element of that curve, and an ele¬
ment of a circle abic, whofe momentary centre is B,
and which has B b for its radius. 3dly, That the part
b A of the curve, being defcribed with radii growing
continually fhorter,. is more incurvated than the circle
bet,, which has B b for its conftant radius. For fimilar
reafons the arch bc oi the curve A is lefs incurva¬
ted than the circle oeb 4thly, That the circle ctb x.
has the fame curvature that the curve has in b, or is an
equicurve circle. B £ is the radius, and B the cen¬
tre of curvature in the point b.
ABC is the curva evoluta or the evolute.
Ab c h fometimes called the involute of ABC, and
fometimes its evolutrix.
174. By this way of deferibing curve lines, we fee
clearly that a body, wflien pafling through the point b of
the curve Abe may be confidered as in the fame ftate,
in that inftant, as in palling through the fame point b
of the circle ct b x and the ultimate ratio of the de¬
flexions in both is that of equality, and they may be
ufed indiferiminately.
The chief difficulty in the application of the preced¬
ing theorems to the curvilineal motions which are ob¬
ferved in the fpontaneous phenomena of nature, is in af-
certaining the direXion of the defleXion in every point
of a curvilineal motion. Fortunately, however, the
moft important cafes, namely thofe motions, where the
defleXing forces are always direXed to a fixed point,
afford a very accurate method. Such forces are ailed
by the general name of *
Central Forces.
175. If bodies defcribe circles with a uniform motion,
the defleBing forces are always direBed to the centres of
the
•^5- O
96
DYNAMICS.
Part
f Moving the circles, and are proportional to the fquare of the ve-
Forces. locities, direElhj, and to their diflances from the centre,
invcrfehj.
For, fince their motion in the circumference is uni¬
form, the areas formed by lines drawn from the centre
are as the times, and therefore (72-) ^ie defleftions,
and the deflecting forces (164.) are directed to the cen¬
tre. Therefore, the defleCtive chord is, in this cafe,
the diameter of the circle, or twice the diflance of the
body from the centre. Therefore, if we call the diflance
• vl
from the centre d, we have f ~ —.
176. Thefe forces are alfo as the di/lances, direElly,
and as the fquare of the time of a revolution, inverfely.
For the time of a revolution (which may be called
the periodic time) is as the circumference, and there¬
fore as the diftance, direCtly, and as the velocity, in-
.d , . d . J 4
verfely. Therefore tand , and v*——,
J • v ' t ' t
. d
and —
d ■ tx
177. Thefe forces are alfo as the diflances, and the
fquare of the angular velocity, jointly.
For, in every uniform circular motion, the angular
velocity is inverfely as the periodic time. Therefore,
1 • * • 1 j ^ • j *
calling the angular velocity, a, a ~r and ^ — da,
and therefore f dz d a*.
178. The periodic time is to the time of falling along
half the radius by the uniform aRion of the centripetal
force in the circumference, as the circumference of a cir¬
cle is to the radius.
For, in the time of falling through half the radius,
the body would defcribe an arch equal to the radius
(37.—6.) becaufe the velocity acquired by this fall is
equal to the velocity in the circumference (167.). The
periodic time is to the time of defcribing that arch as
the circumference to the arch, that is, as the circum¬
ference is to the radius.
179. When a body defcribes a curve which is all in
one plane, and a point is fo fituated in that plane, that
a line drawn from it to the body defcribes round that
point areas proportional to the times, the defcRing force
is always dircRed to that point (72-)
180. Converfely. If a body is defeRed by a force
always direRed to a fixed point, it will defcribe a curve
line lying in one plane which paffes through that point,
and the line joining it with the centre of forces will de¬
fcribe areas proportional to the times (73*)
The line joining the body with the centre is called
the RADIUS VECTOR. The defle&ing force is called
CENTRIPETAL, or attractive, if its direction be al-
wavs toward that centre. It is called REPULSIVE, or
CENTRIFUGAL, if it be diredled outwards from the cen¬
tre. In the firft cafe, the curve will have its concavity
toward the centre, but, in the fecond cafe, it will be
convex toward the centre. The force which urges a
piece of iron towards a magnet is centripetal, and that
which caufes two eleclrical bodies to feparate is centri-
fugal.
181. The force by which a body may be made to de¬
fcribe circles round the centre of forces, with the angu¬
lar velocities which it has in the different points of its
curvilineal path, are inverfely as the cubes of its diflances of Mo
from the centre of forces. For the centripetal force in Fora
circular motions is proportional to dax (172.). But
when the deflexions (and confequently the forces) are
direXed to a centre, we have a -±: ~ (75.) and
o* rX A-, therefore d of ziz d x =~, therefore
f= —■
J ■ d*
This force is often called centrifugal, the centrifugal
force of circular motion ; and it is conceived as always
aXing in every cafe of curvilineal motion, and to aX
in oppofition to the centripetal force which produces
that motion. But this is inaccurate. We fuppofe this
force, merely becaufe we muft employ a centripetal
force, juft as we fuppofe a refifiing vis inertiae, becaufe
we muft employ force to move a body,
182. If a body defcribe a curve line ABC by means
of a centripetal (fig. force direRed to S, and vary- Fig. 351
ing according to fame proportion of the difiances from it,
and if another body be impelled toward S in the firaight
line a b S % the fame force, and if the two bodies have
the fame velocity in any points A and a which are equi-
dfiant from S, they will have equal velocities in any
other two points C and c, which are alfo equidfiant
from S.
Defcribe round S, with the diftance SA, the circu¬
lar arch A a, which will pafs through the equidiftant
point a. Defcribe another arch B b, cutting off a fmall
arc AB of the curve, and alfo cutting AS in D. Draw
DE perpendicular to the curve.
The diftances AS and a S being equal, the centri¬
petal forces are alfo equal, and may be reprefented by
the equal lines AD and a b. The velocities at A and
a being equal, the times of defcribing AB and ab will
be as the fpaces (14.). The force « £ is wholly em¬
ployed in accelerating the reXilineal motion along a S.
But the force AD, being tranfverfe or oblique to the
motion along AB, is not wholly employed in thus ac¬
celerating the motion. It is equivalent to the two
forces AE and ED, of which ED, being perpendicu¬
lar to AB, neither promotes nor oppofes it, but incur-
vates the motion. The accelerating force in A there¬
fore is AE. It was fhewn, in art. 48, that the change
of velocity is as the force and as the time jointly, and
therefore it is as AEx AB. For the fame reafon, the
change of the velocity at is as ab ab, or ab*.
But, as the angle ADB is a right angle, as alfo AED,
we have AE:AD=AD: AB, and AE x ABrtrAD*,
— ab2. Therefore, the increments of velocity acquir¬
ed along AB and ab are equal. But the velocities at
A and a were equal. Therefore the velocities at B
and b are alfo equal. The fame thing may be faid of
every fubfequent increafe of velocity, while moving a-
long BC and be; and therefore the velocities at C and
c are equal.
The fame thing holds when the defleXing force is
direXed in lines parallel to a S, as if to a point S' infi¬
nitely diftant, the one body defcribing the curve line
V A'B', while the other defcribes the ftraight line VS.
183. The propofitions in art. 73. and 74. are alfo true
in curvilineal motions by means of central forces.
When
11II
o loving
-rces.
L
.3«.
;• 3<*.
When the path of the motion is a line returning
into itfelf, like a circle or oval, it is called an orbit j
otberwife it is called a TRAJECTORY.
The time of a complete revolution round an orbit is
called the PERIODIC TIME.
* V* r
184. The formula ferves for difcovering the
law of variation of the central force by which a body
defcribes the different portions of its curvilineal path $
and the formula ferves for comparing the forces
by which different bodies defcribe their refpe&ive orbits.
185. It muff always be remembered, in conformity
, and S j will be
to P a1- P to S, that is. a« SC to PC. Therefore we
{hall ft ill have jC : pC~SC : PC. Their diftances
from C will always be in the" fame proportion. Alfo
we {hall have SC • SI =P : S-j-P, and rC : pC—P : S
+P; and therefore SC ; SP~*-f C : r P. Confequent-
ly, in whatever manner the mutual forces vary by a va-
Part II
riation of diftance from each other, they will vary in QfMov'
the fame manner by the fame variation of diftance from C. Forces.
And, converfely, in whatever manner the forces vary by
a change of diftance from C, they vary in the fame man¬
ner by the fame change of diftance from each other.
Let us now fuppofe that when the bodies are at S
and P, equal moving forces are applied to each in the
oppofite dire£Hons SA and PB. Did they not attraft
each other at all, they would, at the end of fume fmall
portion of time, be found in the points A and B of a
ftraight line drawn through C, becaufe they will move
with equal quantities of motion, or with velocities SA
and PB inverfely as their quantities of matter. There¬
fore SA : PB = SC : PC, and A, C, and B are in a
ftraight line. But let them now attrafl, when impelled
from S and P. Being equally attra&ed towards each
other, they will defcribe curve lines S a and P b, fo
that their deflections A a and B b are as SC and PC 3
and we (hall have a C : b C=z:SC : PC. A- this is true
of every part of the curve, it follows that they defcribe
fimilar curves round C, which remains in its original
place.
Lajly, If the motion of P be confidered by an ob-
ferver placed in S, unconfcious of its motion, fince he
judges of the motion of P only by its change of direc¬
tion and of diftance, we may make a figure which will
perfe£tly reprefent this motion. Draw the line EF
equal and parallel to PS, and EG equal and parallel to
a b. Do this for every point of the curve S« and P b»
We fhall then form a curve EG fimilar to the curves
Stf and P b, having the homologous lines equal to the
firm of the homologous lines of thefe two curves. 1 bus
the bodies will defcribe round each other curve lines
which are fimilar and equal (lineally) to the lines which
they defcribe round their common centre by the fame
forces. They may appear to deft ribe areas proportional
to the times round each other; and they really defcribe
areas proportional to the times round their common
centre of pofition, and the forces, which really relate
to the body which is fuppofed to be central, have the
fame mathematical relation to their common centre.
Thus it appears that the mechanical inferences,
drawn from a fuppofed relation to a mere point of fpace,
are true in the real relations to the fuppofed central
body, although it is not fixed in one place.
191. The rime of defcribing any arch FG of the
curve defcribed round the other body at reft in a centre
of forces (where we may fuppofe it forcibly withheld from
moving) is to the time of defcribing the fimilar arch'
round the common centre of pofition in the fubdupiicate
ratio of S-f-P to S, that is, in the ratio of V b-}-P to
V^S. For the forces being the fame in both motions,
the fpaces defcribed by their fimilar actions, that is, their
deflexions from the tangent, are as the fquares of the
times T and t (204.). That >s HG : B Z'rrT* : /2, and
T : t=\/RG : VBT.zrVTfP : VsT
Hence it follows that the two bodies S and P are
moved in the Lme way as if they did not aft on each
other, but were both aXed upon by a third body, placed
in their common centre C, and aXing with the ame
forces on each ; and the law of variation of the forces
by a change of diflance from each other, and from this
third body, is the fame.
192. If a body P (fig. 38.) revolve around anotherF'S-S
body
DYNAMICS.
WA7-rhT£a2c7 Sculp?
DYNAMICS
PLATE CLXXXV
J?ig. 26.
V ' : ; : /■ ' / , J
1
r •
a1 '
DYNAMICS.
PLATE CLXXXVJ
irt If.
Moving body S, by the aftion of a central force, while S moves
"orc«.° in any path ASB, P will continue to defcribe areas
-V—proportional to the times round S, if every panicle in
P be affected by the fame accelerating force that a&s,
in that inftant, on every particle in S. For, fuch ac¬
tion will compound the fame motions Yp and S r with
the motions of S and P, whatever th^y are j and it
was ftiown in art. 69. that fuch compofition does not
affect their relative motions. This is another way of
making a hodv dt fcribe the fame ovb>tin motion which
it defcribes while the orbit is fixed (186.).
409
Such is the view of the abftradt doflrines of motion Of Moving
and of moving forces which we propofed to lay before forces,
our readers. Thofe who have heard the excellent lec- ““ v " '
ture of the late Profeffor Robifon of the univerfity of
Edinburgh will probably fee that we have availed our-
felves of his valuable inftruftions; and the learned
reader will readily perceive that we have enriched our
treatife with much important matter by borrowing free¬
ly from the writings of the fame diftinguilhed philofo-
pher.
DYNAMICS.
D Y N
nanome- DYNANOMETER, an inftrument for afeertain-
ter. ;ng t{je relative tlrength of men and animals. Of an
inftrument of this kind, invented by Regnier, and of
which a defcription is given in vol. ii. Jour, de rEco/e
Folytechnique, the author thus fpeaks. “ Some import¬
ant knowledge, fays he, might be acquired, had we
the eafy means of afcertaining, in a comparative man¬
ner, our relative ftrengths at the different periods of
life, and in different ftates of health. Buffon and Gue-
neau, who had fome excellent ideas on this fubjeft, re-
quefted me to endeavour to invent a portable machine,
which, by an eafy and Ample mechanifm, might con-
duft to a folution of this queftion, on which they were
then engaged. Thefe philofophers were acquainted
with that invented by Graham, and improved by Dr
Defaguliers, at London *, but this machine, conftruft-
ed of wooden work, was too bulky and heavy to be
portable; and, betides, to make experiments on the
different parts of the body, feveral machines were ne-
ceffary, each fuited to the part required to be tried.
They were acquainted alfo with the dynanometer of
Citizen Leroy of the Academy of Sciences at Paris.
It confifted of a metal tube 10 or 1 2 inches in length,
placed vertically on a foot like that of a candleftick,
and containing in the infide a fpiral fpring, having
above it a graduated fhank terminating in a globe. This
lhank, together with the fpring, funk into the tube in
proportion to the weight a£ling upon it, and thus point¬
ed out, in degrees, the ftrength of the perfon who pref-
fed on the ball with his hand.
“ This inftrument, though ingenious, did not appear
fufficient however to Buffon and Gueneau ; for they
wifhed not merely to afcertain the mufcular force of a
finger 01 hand, but to eftimate that of each limb fepa-
rately, and of all the parts of the body. I ftiall not
here give an account of the attempts I made to fulfil
the wifhes of thefe two philofophers, hut only obferve,
that in the courfe of my experiments I had reafon to be
convinced that the conftruflion of the inftrument was
not fo eafy as might have been expelled. Befides the
ufe which an enlightened naturalift may make of this
machine, it may be poffible to apply it to many other
important purpofes. For example, it may be employ¬
ed with advantage to determine the ftrength of draught
cattle; and, above all, to try that of horfes, and com¬
pare it with the ftrength of other animals. It may
D Y R
ferve to make known how far the afliftance of well* nTna^me.
cunfiructed wheels may favour the movement of a car- jj
riage, and what is its vis inertice in proportion to the Dyrra-
load. We might appreciate by it, alfo, what refiftance chium.
the dope of a mountain oppofes to a carriage, and be
able to judge whether a carriage is fufficiently loaded
in proportion to the number of horfes that are to be
yoked to it. In the arts, it may be applied to machines
of which we wilh to afcertain the refiftance, and when
we are defirous to calculate the moving force that ought
to be adapted to them. It may ferve, alfo, as a Ro- ,
man balance to weigh burdens. In fliort, nothing
would be more eafy than to convert it into an anemo¬
meter, to difcover the abfolute force of the wind, by
fitting to it a frame of a determined fize filled up -with
wax-cloth •, and it would not be impoflible to afcertain
by this machine the recoil of fire-arms, and confequent-
ly the ftrength of gun-powder.
“ This dynanometer, in its form and fize, has a near
refemblance to a common graphometer. It confifts of
a fpring twelve inches in length, bent into the form of
an ellipfis •, from the middle of which arifes a femicir*
cular piece of brafs, having engraved upon it the dif¬
ferent degrees that exprefs a force of the power ailing
on the fpring. The whole of this machine, which
weighs only two pounds and a half, oppofes, however,
more refiftance than may be neceffary to determine the
a&ion of the ftrongeft and moft robuft horfe.” For a
fuller defcription, fee Phil. Mag. vol. i.
DYNASTY, among ancient hiftorians, fignifies a
race or fucceflion of kings of the fame line or family.
Such were the dynafties of Egypt The word is form¬
ed from the Greek iwurimt, of SvvcrvH, to be powerful,
or king.
The Egyptians reckon 30 dynafties within the fpace
of 36,525 vears', but the generality of chronologers
look upon them as fabulous. And it is very certain,
that thefe dynafties are not continually fucceflive, but
collateral.
DYRRACHIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town
on the coaft of Iliyricum, before called Epidamnum, or
Epidamnus, an inaufpicious name, changed by the Ro¬
mans to Dyrrachium; a name taken from the peninfula
on which it ftood. Originally built by the Corcyreans.
A Roman colony (Pliny). A town famous in ftory : its
port anfwered to that of Brundufium, and the paffage
r 3 R 2 between
IJyrra-
chium
. H
D) fentery,
D Y S [
between both was very ready and expeditious. It was
alfo a very famous mart for the people living on the
Adriatic ; and the tree admiflion of ftrangers contri¬
buted much to its increafe : A contraft to the conduft
of the Apollonians; who, in imitation of the Spartans,
difcouraged Grangers from fettling among them.
DYSJE, in Mythology, inferior goddeffes among
the Saxons, being the meflengers of the great Woden,
whofe province it was to convey the fouls of fuch as
died in battle to his abode, called Vulhall, i. e. the hall
of daughter; where they were to drink with him and
their other gods cerevjia, or a kind of malt liquor, in
the Ikulls of their enemies. The .Dr//'? conveyed thofe
who died a natural death to He/a, the goddefs of hell,
where they were tormented with hunger, third, and
every kind of evil.
DYSCRASY, among phyfieians, denotes an ill ha¬
bit or date of the humours, as in the fcurvy, jaundice,
&Z.C.
DYSENTERY, in Medicine, a diarrhoea or flux,
wherein thedools are mixed with blood, and the bowels
miferably tormented with gripes. See Medicine
Index.
COO
} D Y V
DYSENTERIC FEVER. Ibid. Dyfenteric;
DYSER E, a borough town of Scotland, in the coun- ||
ty of Fife, fituated on the northern drore of the frith of *bVoui'’
Forth, about eleven miles north of Edinburgh. ' V~““Jf
DYSOREXY, among phyfieians, denotes a want of
appetite, proceeding from a weakly flomach.
DYSPEPSY, a difficulty of digedion.
DYSPNOEA, a difficulty of breathing, ufually cal¬
led ajihma. See Medicine Index.
DYSURY, in Medicine, a difficulty of making
water, attended with a fenfation of heat and pain. See
Medicine Index.
DY1TSCUS, Water-Beetle. See Entomology
Index.
DYVOUR, in Scots Law; otherwife Bare-man:
A perfon who, being involved in debt, and unable to
pay the fame,—for avoiding imprifonment and other
pains, makes ceffion of his effedls in favour of his cre¬
ditors; and does his devoir and duty to them, proclaim¬
ing himfelf bare-man and indigent, and becoming debt
bound to them of all that he has. The word is ufed
in the fame fenfe as Bankrupt : fee that article j and
Law Index.
■£• Tq1 THE fecond vowel, and fifth letter of the alpha-
"”v ” ' bet. The letter E is mod evidently derived from
the old chara£ter 3 in the ancient Hebrew and Phoe¬
nician alphabets, inverted by the Greeks to this pofi-
tion E, and not from the Hebrew He rr. From the
fame origin is alfo derived the Saxon e, which is the
firft letter in their alphabet that differs from the Latin
one. It is formed by a narrower opening of the la¬
rynx than the letter A ; but the other parts of the
mouth are ufed nearly in the fame manner as in that
letter.
It has a long and fhort found in mod: languages.
The fhort found is audible in bed, fret, den, and other
words ending in confonants : its long found is produ¬
ced by a final e, or an e at the end of words; as in
glebe, here, hire, fcene, fphere, interfere, revere, fin-
cere, &c. in mod of which it founds like ee ; as alfo in
feme others by coming after i, as in believe, chief grief,
reprieve, &c. and fometimes this long found isexpreffed
by ee, as in bleed, beer, creed, &c. Sometimes the fi¬
nal e is filent, and only ferves to lengthen the found of
the preceding vowel, as in rag, rage, fiag. fiage, hug,
huge, &c. The found of e is obfcure in the following
words oxen, heaven, bounden, fire, majfacre, maugre,
&c.
The Greeks have their long and fhort e, which they
call epfilon and eta. The French have at lead fix kinds
of^’s: the Latins have likewife a long and fhort ;
they alfo write e indead of a, as dicem for dicam, &c.
and this is no doubt the reafon why a is fo often
changed into e in the preter tenfe, as ago, egi; facia,
feci, &c.
As a numeral, E dands for 250, according to the £
verfe, Eachari.
E, quoque ducentos et quinquaginta tenebit. ^
In mufic it denotes the tone e-la-mi. In the kalen-
dar it is the fifth of the dominical letters. And in fea
charts it didinguiffies all the eaderly points : thus,
E alone denotes Ead ; and E. by S. and E. by N. Ead
bv South, and Ead by North.
EACHARD, John, an Engliffi divine of great
learning and wit in the lyth century, bred at Cam*
bridge, author (in 1670) of The Grounds and Occafions
of the Contempt of the Clergy and Religion inquired into.
In 1675 he was chofen mader of Catharine-hall upon
the deceafe of Dr John Lightfoot ; and the year fol¬
lowing was created D. D. by royal mandate. He died
in 1696.
Eachard, Laurence, an eminent Engliffi hidorian
of the 18th century, nearly related to Dr John Eachard.
He was the fon of a clergyman, who, by the death of
his elder brother, became mader of a good edate in
Suffolk. He was educated in the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge, entered into holy orders, and was prefented to
the living of Welton and Elkington in Lincolnffiire,
where he fpent above 20 years of his life, and didfn-
guiffied himfelf by his writings, efpecially his Hidory
of England, which was attacked by Dr Edmund Ca-
lamy and by Mr John Oldmixon. His “ General Ec-
clefiadical Hidory from the Nativity of Chrid to the
fird Edablidiment of Chridianity by Human Laws un¬
der the emperor Condantine the Great,” has paffed
through feveral.editions. He was indalled archdeacea
l
E A D
chard, of Stowe and prebend of Lincoln in 1712.
I merus
[ 5°
He died
]
E A G
in 1730.
EADMERUS, an efteemed hiftorian, was an Eng-
lilhman ; but his parents, and the particular time and
place of his nativity, are not known. He received a
learned education, and very early difcovered a tafle
for hiftory, by recording every remarkable event that
came to his knowledge. Being a monk in the cathe¬
dral of Canterbury, he. had the happinefs to become
the bofom friend and infeparable companion of two
arehbilhops of that fee, St Anfelm and his fucceflbr
Ralph. To the former of thefe he was appointed
fpiritual diredfor by the pope •, and that prelate would
do nothing without his permiffion. In the year 1120,
he was fent for by King Alexander I. of Scotland, to
be raifed to the primacy of that kingdom ; and hav¬
ing obtained leave of King Henry and the arch-
bilhop of Canterbury, he departed for Scotland, where
he was kindly received by the king •, and on the third
day after his arrival, he was eledfed bilhop of St An¬
drew’s with much unanimity. But on the day after
his eledlion, an unfortunate difpute arofe between the
king and him, in a private conference about his con-
fecration. Eadmerus having been a conftant compa¬
nion of the late and of the prefent archbilhop of Can¬
terbury, was a violent ftickler for the prerogatives of
that fee. He therefore told the king, that he was
determined to be confecrated by none but the archbi¬
lhop of Canterbury, who he believed to be the pri¬
mate of all Britain. Alexander, who was a fierce
prince, and fupported the independency of his crown
and kingdom with great fpirit, was fo much offended,
that he broke off the conference in a violent paffion,
declaring, that the fee of Canterbury had no pre-emi-
nency over that of St Andrew’s. This breach be¬
tween the king and the bilhop-eleft became daily
wider, till at length Eadmerus, defpairing of recover¬
ing the royal favour, fent his paftoral ring to the
king, and laid his paftoral ftaff on the high altar,
from whence he had taken it, and abandoning his bi-
Ihopric returned to England. He was kindly re¬
ceived by the archbilhop and clenry of Canterbury,
though they difapproved of his ftitfaefs, and thought
him too hafty in forfaking the honourable ftation to
which he had been called. Nor was it long before
Eadmerus became fenfible of his error, and defirous
of corre&ing it. With this view he wrote a long
fubmiflive letter to the king of Scotland, entreating
his leave to return to his bifhopric, promifing compli¬
ance with his royal pleafure in every thing refpe<51ing
his confecration, which was accompanied by an epiftle
to the fame purpofe from the archbilhop. Thefe let¬
ters, however, which were written A. D. 1122, did
not produce the defired effedl. But Eadmerus is moft
worthy of the grateful remembrance of pofterity for
his hiftorical works, particularly for his excellent hiftory
of the affairs of England in his own time, from A. X).
I-066 to A. D. 1122 ; in which he hath inferted many
original papers, and preferved many important fafts,
that are nowhere elfe to be found. This work hath
been highly commended, both by ancient and modern
writers, for its authenticity, as w7ell as for regularity of
eompofition and purity of ftyle. It is indeed more
free from legendary tales than any other work of
ihi? period y and it is impoflible to perufe it with at¬
tention, without conceiving a favourable opinion of£ltjmeras,
the learning, good fenfe, fincerily, and candour of its Eagle,
author.
EAGLE. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
Eagle, in Heraldry, is accounted one of the moft
noble bearings in armory y and, according to the learn¬
ed in this fcience, ought to be given to none but fuch
as greatly excel in the virtues of generofity and cou¬
rage, or for having done lingular fervices to their fove-
reigns y in which cafe they may be allowed a whole
eagle, or an eagle naiffant, or only the head or other
parts thereof, as may be moft; agreeable to their ex¬
ploits.
The eagle has been borne by way of enfign or ftand-'
ard, by feveral nations. The firft who feem to have
affumed the eagle are the Perfians y according to the
teftimony of Xenophon. Afterwards it was taken by
the Romans y who, after a great variety of ftandards,
at length fixed on the eagle, in the fecund year of the
confulate of C. Marius : till that time, they ufed in¬
differently wolves, leopards, and eagles, according to
the humour of the commander.
The Roman eagles, it muft be obferved, were not
painted on a cloth or flag y but were figures in relievo,
of filver or gold, borne on the tops of pikes ; the wings
being difplayed, and frequently a thunderbolt in their1'
talons. Under the eagle on the pike, were piled buck¬
lers, and fometimes crowns. Thus much we learn from
the medals.
Conftantine is faid to have firft introduced the eagle
with two heads, to intimate, that though the empire7
feemed divided, it was yet only one body. Others
fay, that it was Charlemagne who refumed the eagle as
the Roman enfign, and added to it a fecond head y but
that opinion is deftroyed, by an eagle with two heads,
noted by Lipfius, on the Antonine column ; as alfo by
the eagle’s only having one head on the feal of the1
golden bull of the emperor Charles IV. The con-
jefture, therefore, of F. Meneftrier appears more pro¬
bable, who maintains, that as the emperors of the Eaft,
when there were two on the throne at the fame time,
ftruck their coins with the impreffion of a crofs, with
a double traverfe, which each of them held in one*
hand, as being the fymbol of the Chriftians y the like
they did with the eagle in their enfigns j and inftead.
of doubling their eagles, they joined them toge¬
ther, and reprefented them with two heads. In
which they were followed by the emperors of the
Weft.
F. Papebroche wilhes that this conje&ure of Menef¬
trier was confirmed by ancient coins *, without which,
he rather inclines to think the ufe of the eagle with
two heads to be merely arbitrary 5 though he grants*
it probable, that it was firft introduced on occafion of
two emperors on the fame throne.
The eagle on medals, according to M. Spanheim,
is a fymbol of divinity and providence y and, accord¬
ing to all other antiquaries, of empire. The princes
on whofe medals it is moft ufually found, are the Pto¬
lemies and the Seleucides of Syria. An eagle with
the word consecratio, expreffes the apatheofis ot an
emperor.
Eagles, a name found very frequently in the an¬
cient hiftories of Ireland, and ufed to exprefs a fort of
bafe money that was current in that kingdom in the
fitii-
E A L r 502 ] EAR
£ag!e firft years of the reign of Edward I. that is, about the
II year 1272. There were, befides the eagles, lionines,
"a °rman; rofades, and many other coins of the fame fort, named
according to the figures they were impreffed with.
The current coin of the kingdom was at that time a
compofition of copper and filver, in a determined pro¬
portion j but thefe were fo much worfe than the ftand-
ard proportion of that time, that they were not intrin-
fically worth quite half fo much as the others. They
were imported out of France and other foreign coun¬
tries. When this prince had been a few years efta-
blilhed on the throne, he fet up mints in Ireland for
the coining fufficient quantities of good money, and
then decried the ufe of thefe eagles, and other the like
kinds of bafe coins, and made it death, with confifca-
tion of effedfs, to import any more of them into the
kingdom.
Eagle, in j4J}ronomy, is a conftellation of the north¬
ern hemifphere, having its right wing contiguous to the
equinoctial. See AquiLA.
There are alfo three feveral ftars, particularly deno¬
minated among the Arab altronomers, najr, i. e.
“ eagle.” The firft, nafr Jo hail, the “ eagle of Cano¬
pus,” called alfo Jitareh jemen, the ftar of Arabia Felix,
over which it is fuppofed to prefide ; the fecond, nafr
althair, the “ flying eagle j” and the third, nafr alveke,
the “ refting eagle.”
White EAGLE, is a Polifh order of knighthood, in-
ftituted in 1325 by Uladiflaus V. on marrying his fon
Cafimir with a daughter of the great duke of Li¬
thuania.
T. he knights of this order were diftinguiftied by a
gold chain, which they wore on the ftomach, whereon
hung a filver eagle crowned.
Black EAGLE, was a like order, inftituted in 1701
by the eleClor of Brandenburgh, on his being crowned
king of Pruflia.
7 he knights of this order wear an orange-coloured
ribbon, to which is fufpended a black eagle.
Eagle, in Architeclure, is a figure of that bird an¬
ciently ufed as an attribute or cognizance of Jupiter,
in the capital and friezes of the columns of temples
confecrated to that god.
Eagle flower. See Balsamixe.
Eagle flone, in Natural Hiflory, is a ftone by the
Greeks called eetites, and by the Italians fiietra d'aqui/a,
as being fuppofed to be fometimes found in the. eagle’s
neft. It is of famous traditionary virtue, either for
forwarding or preventing the delivery of women in
labour, according as it is applied above or below the
womb. Matthiolus tells us, that birds of prey could
never hatch their young without it, and that they
go in fearch of it as far as the Eaft Indies. Baufch
has an exprefs Latin treatife on the fubjeCL See
iEriTES.
EAGLET, a diminutive of eagle, properly fignifv-
ing a young eagle. In heraldry, when there are fe¬
veral eagles on the fame efcutcheon, they are termed
eaglets.
EALDERMAN, or Ealdorman, among the
Saxons, was of like import with earl among the
Danes.
The word was alfo ufed for an elder, ferator, or
ftatefman. Hence, at this day, we call thofe aldermen
who are aflbciates to the chief officer in the common v ij
council of a city or corporate town. |in:najB
EAR. See Anatomy Index. Ear-pid I
Several naturahfts and phyiicians have held, that ,
cutting off the ear rendered perfons barren and unpro-
lific •, and this idle notion was what firft occafioned the
legiflators to order the ears of thieves, &c. to be cut
off, left they ffiould produce their like.
The ear has its beauties, which a good painter ought
by no means to difregard \ where it is well formed, it
would be an injury to the head to be hidden. Sueto¬
nius infifts, particularly, on the beauties of Auguftus’s
ears j and Alian, defending the beauties of Afpafia,
obferves, ffie had ftiort ears. Martial alfo ranks large
ears among the number of deformities.
Among the Athenians, it was a mark of nobility
to have the ears bored or perforated. And among
the Hebrews and Romans, this was a mark of fervi-
tude.
Lofs of one ear is a punifhment enabled by 5 and 6
Edw. VI. cap. 4. for fighting in a churchyard ; and
by 2 and 3 Edw. VI. cap. 15. for combinations to raife
the price of provifions, labour, &c. if it be the third
offence, befide pillory, and perpetual infamy, or a fine
of 40I.
By a ftatute of Henry VIII. malicioufly cutting
off the ear of a perfon is made a trefpafs, for which
treble damages fhall be recovered 5 and the offender is
to pay a fine of ten pounds to the king, 37 Hen.
VIII. cap. 6. § 4. In the Index to the Statutes at
Large, it is faid, that this offence may be punifhed as
ftlony, by 22 and 23 Car. II. cap. I. § 7. commonly
called Coventry'1 s a£l; but ear is not mentioned in that
ftatute.
Ear of Fifhes. See Anatomy Index.
Ear, in Muflc, denotes a kind of internal fenfe,
whereby we perceive and judge of harmony and mufi-
cal founds. See Music.
In mufic we feem univerfally to acknowledge fome-
thing like a diftindt fenfe from the external one of
hearing ; and call it a good ear. And the like diftinc-
tion we fhould probably acknowledge in other affairs,
had we got diftindl names to denote thefe powers of
percep ion by. Thus a greater capacity of perceiving
the beauties of painting, architedfure, &c. is called a
fine tafle
Ear is alfo ufed to fignify a long elufter of flowers
or feeds, produced by certain plants •, dually called by
botanift- fpica. The flowers and feeds of wheat, rye,
barley, &e. grow in ears. The fame holds of the
flowers of lavender, &c. We fay the flem of the ear,
i. e. its tube or ftraw j the knot of the ear ; the lobes
or cells wherein the grains are enclofed ; the beard of
the ear, &c.
Ear-AcIi. See Medicine Index.
EARING, in the fea language, is that part of the
bolt rope which at the four corners of the fail is left
open, in the fliape of a ring. The two uppermoft parts are
put over the ends of the yard aims, and fo the fail is
made faft to the yard ; and into the lowermoft earings,
the tfieet^ and tacks are feized or bent at the clew.
EAR-Pick, an inftrument of ivory, filver, or other
metai, fomewhat in form of a probe, for cleanfing the
ear. The Chinefe have a variety of thefe inftruments,
with
EAR
. Pick with which they are mighty fond of tickling their ears ;
but this pradlice, Sir Hans Sloane obferves, mutt be
very prejudicial to fo delicate an organ, by bringing
too.great a flow of humours on it.
EAR-Ring. See PENDENT.
EAR-Wax. See Anatoiiy Index.
EARWIG. See Forficula, Entomology 7/?^.
EARL, a Britifli title of nobility, next below a
marquis, and above a vifcount.
The title is fo ancient, that its original cannot be
clearly traced out. This much, however, feems toler¬
ably certain, that among the Saxons they were called
ealdormen, quaji elder men, fignifying the fame with
fenior or fenator among the Romans 5 and alio fchire-
tnen, becaufe they had each of them the civil govern¬
ment of a feveral divifion or {hire. On the irruption
of the Danes they changed their names to eore/s, which,
according to Camden, fignified the fame in their lan¬
guage. In Latin they are called comites, (a title firft
ufed in the empire), from being the king’s attendants ;
a focietate nomen fumpferunt, reges enim tales fibiaffociant.
After the Norman corqueft they were for iome time
called counts, or countees, from the French } but they
did not long retain that name themfelves, though their
{hires are from thence called counties to this day. It
is now become a mere title ; they having nothing to do
with the government of the county *, which is now en¬
tirely devolved on the flieriff, the earl’s deputy, or vice-
comei. In writs, commiflions, and other formal inftru-
ments, the king, when he mentions any peer of the de¬
gree of an earl, ufually ftyles him “ trufty and well be¬
loved coulin an appellation as ancient as the reign of
Henry IV. ; xvho being either by his wife, his mother,
or his lifters, aftually related or allied to every earl in
the kingdom, artfully and conftantly acknowledged that
connexion in all his letters and other public acts j
whence the ufage has defcended to his fucceffors, though
the reafon has long ago failed.
An earl is created by cimfhire of fword, mantle
of ftate put upon him by the king himfelf, a cap
and a coronet put upon his head, and a charter in his
hand.
Earl Mnrfhal. See Marshal.
EARNEST (ARRHJE), money advanced to bind the
parties to the performance of a verbal bargain. By the
civil law, he who recedes from his bargain lofes his
earneft, and if the perfon who received the earneft give
back, he is to return the earneft double. But with us,
the perfon who gave it, is in ftriftnefs obliged to abide
bv his bargain ; and in cafe he decline it, is not dif
charged upon forfeiting his earneft, but may be fued
for the whole money ftipulated.
E ARTH, among ancient philofophers, one of the
four elements of which the whole fyftem of nature was
thought to be compofed. See ELEMENT.
' Earths, in Chemijlry, are fuch fubftances as have
neither talle nor fmell, are incombuftible, are nearly
infolnble in water, and have a fpecific gravity under
5> Such are lime, barytes, &e. Set Chemistry In¬
dex.
Earth, in AJlronomy and Geography, one of the
primarv olanets; being this terraqueous globe which
we inhabit.
For the aftrnnomical fafts with regard to the earth,
[ 5^3 ]
E A S
fee Astronomy
for its geographical hiftory, fee
4
Geography ; and for the opinions or theories of its
formation and changes, fee Geology Index.
EARTHQUAKE. See Geology Index.
EARTH-worm. See Helminthology Index.
EASEL pieces, among painters, fuch fmall pieces,
either portraits or landfcapes, as are painted on the
eafel, i. e. the frame whereon the canvas is laid. They
are thus called to diftinguifti them from larger pictures
drawn on walls, ceilings, &c.
EASEMENT, in Law, a privilege or convenience
which one neighbour has of another, whether by char¬
ter or prefcription, without profit: fuch are, a way
through his lands, a fink, or the like. Thefe, in many
cafes, may be claimed.
EASING, in the fea language, fignifies theflacken-
ing a rope or the like. Thus, to eafe the bow line, or
ftieet, is to let them go flacker j to eafe the helm, is to
let the fhip go more large, more before the wind, or
more larboard.
EAST, one of the four cardinal points of the world j
being that point of the horizon where the fun is feen
to rife when in the equinoctial.
The word eajl is Saxon. In Italy, and throughout
the Mediterranean, the eaft wind is called the /evante:
in Greek. and becaufe it coriaes from
the fide of the iun, cctt «jA»a •, in Latin eurus.
EASTER, a feitival of the Chriftian church, ob-
ferved in memory of our Saviour’s refurreftion.
The Greeks call it pajga, the Latins pafcha, a He¬
brew word fignifying applied to the Jewifti feaft
of the paflbver. It is called eajier in Englifti, from the
goddefs Eoitre, worlhipped by the Saxons with peculiar
ceremonies in the month of Ap il.
The Afiatic churches kept their eafter upon the very
fame day the Jews obferved their paffover, and others
on the firrt Sunday after the firft full moon in the new
year. This controverfy was determined in the council
of Nice j when it was ordained that eafter fhould be
kept upon one and the fame day, which fhould always
be a Sunday, in all Chriftian churches in the world.
For the method of finding eafter by calculation, fee
Chronology.
EASTER IJland, an ifland in the South Sea, lying in
N. Lat. 27. 5. VV. Long. 109. 46. It is thought to
have been firft difcovered in 1686 by one Davis an
Englifhman, who called it Davis's Land. It was next
vifited by Commodore Roggewein, a Dutchman, in
1722; who gave it the name of Eajier IJland, and
publifhed many fabulous accounts concerning the coun¬
try and its inhabitants. It was alfo vifited by a Spa-
nilh fhip in 1770, the captain of which gave it the
name of St Carlos. The only authentic accounts of
this ifland, however, which have yet appeared, are thofe
publifhed bv Captain Cook and Mr Forfter, who vifit¬
ed it in the month of March 1774. According to
thefe accounts, the ifland is about 10 or 12 leagues in
circumference, and of a triangular figure ; it^ greateft
length from north-weft to fouth-eaft is about four leagues,
and its greateft breadth two. The hills are fo high, that
thev may be feen at the diftance of 15 or 16 leagues.
The north and eaft points of the ifland are of a confi-
derable height ; between them, on the fouth eaft fide,
the fhore forms an open bay, in which Captain Cook
thinks the Dutch anchored in 1722. He himfelf an¬
chored on the weft fide of the ifland, three miles north¬
ward
Earth
E A S [ 504 ] E A S
Eafter ward from the fouth point. This, he fays, is a good
Ifland. road with eaflerly winds j but a dangerous one when
the wind blows from the contrary quarter, as the other
on the fouth-eaft fide muft be with eafierly winds: fo
that there is no good accommodation to be had for
{hipping round the whole ifiand.
The ifland itfeif is extremely barren •, and bears evi¬
dent marks not only of a volcanic origin, but of having
been not very long ago entirely ruined by an eruption.
As they approached the fouth point, Mr Forfter in¬
forms us, that they obferved the (bore to rife perpen¬
dicularly. It confifted of broken rocks, whole ca¬
vernous appearance, and black or ferruginous colour,
feemed to indicate that they had been thrown up by
fubterraneous fire. Two detached rocks lie about a
quarter of a mile off this point: one of them is fingu-
lar on account of its.ftiape, and reprefents a huge co¬
lumn or obeli Ik j and both thefe rocks were inhabited
by multitudes of fea fowls. On landing and walking
into the country, they found the ground covered with
rocks and flones of all fizes, which appeared to have been
expofed to a great fire, where they feemed to have ac¬
quired a black colour and porous texture. Two or three
fhrivelled fpecies of grafles grew among thefe ftones,
and in Come meafure foftened the defolate appearance
of the country. The farther they advanced, the more
ruinous the face of the country feemed to be. The
roads were intolerably rugged, and filled with heaps of
volcanic ftones, among which the Europeans could not
make their way but with the greateft difficulty ; but
the natives leaped from one ftone to another with fur-
prifing agility and eafe. As they v'ent northward
along the ifland, they found the ground ftill of the fame
nature ; till at laft they met with a rock of large black
melted lava, which feemed to contain fome iron, and
on which was neither foil nor grafs, nor any mark of
vegetation. Notwithftanding this general barrennefs,
however, there are feveral large trafts covered with
cultivated foil, which produces potatoes of a gold yel¬
low colour as fweet as carrots, plantains, and fugar
,canes. The foil is a dry hard clay : and the inhabi¬
tants ufe the grafs which grows between the ftones
,in other parts of the ifland as a manure, and for pre-
ferving their vegetables when young from the heat of
the fun.
The moft remarkable curiofity belonging to this
ifland is a number of coloflal ftatues j of which, how¬
ever, very few remain entire. Thefe ftatues are placed
only on the fea coaft. On the eaft fide of the ifland
were feen the ruins of three platforms of ftone work, on
each of which had flood four of thefe large ftatues ;
but they were all fallen down from two of them, and
one from the third: they were broken or defaced
by the fall. Mr Wales meafured one that had fallen,
which was 15 feet in length, and fix broad over the
{boulders j each ftatue had on its head a large cylin-
dric ftone of a red colour, wrought perfe£fly round.
Other were found that meafured near 27 feet, and up¬
wards of eight feet over the {boulders j and a ftill lar¬
ger one was feen Handing, the {hade of which was fuf-
Scient to (belter all the party, confifting of near 30
perfons, from the r.ays of the fun. The workmanffiip
is rude, but not bad, nor are the features of the face
ill formed j the ears are long, according to the diftor-
tion pradlifed in the country, and the bodies have hard¬
ly any thing of a human figure about them. How
thefe iflanders, wholly unacquainted with any media- Ifland.
nical power, could raife fuch ftupendous figures, and
afterwards place the large eylindric ftones upon their
head-., is truly wonderful ! The moft probable conjec¬
ture leems to be, that the ftone is factitious ; and that
each figure was gradually ereded, by forming a tem¬
porary platform round it, and railing it as the work
advanced : but they are at any rate very ftrong proof*
of the ingenuity and perfeverance of the iflanders in the
age when they were built, as well as that the anceftors
of the prefent race had feen better days than their de-
feendants enjoy. The water of this ifland is in general
brakifh, there being only one well that is perfedly
frefh, which is at the eaft end of the ifland : and when¬
ever the natives repair to it to flake their tbirft, they
wafli themfelves all over ; and if there is a large com¬
pany, the firft leaps into the middle of the hole, drinks,
and walhes himfelf without ceremony j after which
another takes his place, and fo on in fucceffion. This
cuftom was much dilrelifhed by their new friends,
who flood greatly in need of this valuable article, and
did not wifh to have it contaminated by fuch ablu¬
tions.
The people are of a middle flze. In general they are
rather thin •, go entirely naked •, and have punClures on
their bodies, a cuftom common to all the inhabitants of
the South Sea iflands. Their greateft Angularity is the
fize of their ears, the lobe of which is ftretehed out fo
that it almoft refts on their (hsulder ; and is pierced with
a very large hole, capable of admitting four or five fin¬
gers with eafe. The chief ornaments for their ears are
the white down of feathers, and rings which they wear
in the infide of the hole, made of the fugar cane, which
is very elaftic, and for this purpofe is rolled up like a
watch fpring. Some were feen clothed in the fame
cloth ufed in the ifland of Otaheite, tinged of a bright
orange colour with turmeric ; and thefe our voyagers
fuppofed to be chiefs. Their colour is a chefnut brown $
their hair black, curling, and remarkably ftrong;
and that on the head as well as the face is cut fliort.
The women are fmall, and (lender limbed : they have
punflures on the face, refembling the patches fome-
times ufed by European ladies j they paint their face
all over with a reddifti brown ruddle, and above this
they lay a fine orange colour extrailed from turmeric
root *, the whole is then variegated with ft teaks of white
{hell lime. But the moft furprifing circumftance of all
with regard to thefe people, is the apparent fcarcity of
women among them. The niceft calculation that could
be made, never brought the number of inhabitants in
this ifland to above 700, and of thefe the females bore
no proportion in number to the males. Either they
have but few females, or elfe their women were reftrain-
ed from appearing during the flay of the {hip j not-
withflanding, the men (bowed no figns of a jealous dif-
pnfition, or the women any fcruples of appearing in
public.: in fa£l:, they feemed to be neither referved nor
chaile } and the large pointed cap which they wore
gave them the appearance of profeffed wantons. But
as all the women who were feen were liberal of their
favours, it is more than probable that all the married
and modeft ones had concealed themfelves from their
impetuous vifitants in fome infcrutable parts of the
ifland j and what further ftrengthens this fuppofition is,
i rafter
[(land
£ A U [5°j] E B I
that heaps of ftones were feen piled up into little hil¬
locks, which had one fteep perpendicular fide, where
a hole went under ground. The fpace within, fays
Mr Forfter, could be but fmall j and yet it is probable
that thefe cavities ferved, together with their miferable
huts, to give (belter to the people at night •, and they
may communicate with natural caverns, which are very
common in the lava currents of volcanic countries.
The few women that appeared were the moft lafcivious
of their fex perhaps that have been ever noticed in any
country ; ftiame feemed to be entirely unknown to
them.
EATON, a town of Buckinghamfhire, fituated on
the north fide of the Thames, oppofite to Windfor, and
famous for its collegiate fchool, founded by King Hen¬
ry VI. being a feminary for King’s College, Cambridge,
the fellows of which are all from this fchool. See Eaton.
EAU de Carmes. See Pharmacy.
Eau de Luce, a fragrant alkaline liquor which was
fome years ago in great repute, efpecially among the
fair fex, and of which the leading perfeftion is, that it
(ball poflefs and retain a milky opacity.
Mr Nicholfon, in the fecond number of his valuable
Journal, tell us, that being informed by a philofophical
friend, that the ufual recipes for making this compound
do not fucceed, and that the ufe of maftic in it has hi¬
therto been kept a fecret, he made the following trials
to procure a good eau de luce.
One dram of the rectified oil of amber was diffolved
in four ounces of the ftrongeft ardent fpirit of the
{hops j its fpecific gravity being 840 at 60 degrees of
Fahrenheit. A portion of the clear fpirit was poured
upon a larger quantity of fine powdered maftic than it
was judged could be taken up. 1 his was occafionally
agitated without heat j by which means the gum refin
was for the moft part gradually diffolved. One part of
the oily folution was poured into a phial, and to this
was added one part of the folution of maftic. No opa¬
city or other change appeared. Four parts of ftrong
cauftic volatile alkali were then poured in, and imme¬
diately (haken. The fluid was of a denfe opaque white
colour, affording a flight ruddy tinge when the light
was feen through a thin portion of it. In a fecond
mixture, four parts of the alkali were added to one of
the folution of maftic j it appeared of a lefs denfe and
more yellowifh white than the former mixture. More
of the gum refinous folution was then poured in j but it
ftill appeared lefs opaque than that mixture. It was
ruddy by tranfmitted light. The laft experiment was
repeated with the oily folution infteadof that of maftic.
The white was much lefs denfe than either of the fore¬
going compounds, and the requifite opacity was not
given by augmenting the dofe of the oily folution. No
ruddinefs nor other remarkable appearance was feen by
tranfmitted light. Thefe mixtures were left at repofe
for two days ; no feparation appeared in either of the
compounds containing maftic ; the compound, confift-
ing of the oily folution and alkali, became paler by the
feparation of a cream at the top.
It appears, therefore, that the firft of thefe three
mixtures, fubje£t to variation of the quantity of its in¬
gredients, and the odorant additions which may be
made, is a good eau de luce.
In a fubfequent number of the fame Journal, we have
the following recipe by one of the author’s correfpond-
Vol. VII. Part II.
ents, who had often proved its value by experience. Eau de
“ Digeft ten or twelve grains of the whiteft pieces of Luce
maftic, felefled for this purpofe and powdered, in two H.
ounces of alcohol; and, when nearly diffolved, add, l0^ltei-
twenty grains of elemi. When both the refins are dif¬
folved, add ten or fifteen drops of re&ified oil of am¬
ber, and fifteen or twenty of effence of bergamot:
(hake the whole well together, and let the faeces fub-
fide. The folution will be of a pale amber colour. It
is to be added in very fmall portions to the beft aqua
ammonia puree, until it affumes a milky whitenefs, {ba¬
king the phial well after each addition, as direfted by
Macquer. The ftrength and caufticity of the ammo¬
niac are of moft effential confequence. If, upon the
addition of the firft drop or two of the tindlure, a denfe
opaque coagulated precipitate is formed, not much un¬
like that which appears on dropping a folution of filver
into water {lightly impregnated with common fait, it is
too ftrong, and muft be diluted with alcohol. A con-
fiderable proportion of the tinfture, perhaps one to four,
ought to be employed to give the liquor the proper de¬
gree of opacity.”
EAVES, in Archite&ure, the margin or edge ®f the
roof of a houfe j being the loweft tiles, flates, or the
like, that hangs over the walls, to throw off water to a
diftance from the wall.
EAVES-Droppers, are fuch perfons as (land under the
eav^s, or walls, and windows of a houfe, by night or
day, to hearken after news, and carry it to others, and
thereby caufe ftrife and contention in the neighbour¬
hood. They are called evil members of the common¬
wealth by the flat, of Weft. 1. c. 33. They may be
puniflied either in the court leet by way of prefentment
and fine, or in the quarter feflions by indi&ment and
binding to good behaviour.
EBBING of the Tides. See Tide.
EBDOMARIUS, in ecclefiaftical writers, an offi¬
cer formerly appointed weekly to fuperintend the per¬
formance of divine fervice in cathedrals, and preferibe
the duties of each perfon attending in the choir, as to
reading, finging, praying, &c. To this purpofe the
ebdomary, at the beginning of his week, drew up in
form a bill or writing of the refpe&ive perfons, and
their feveral offices, called tabula, and the perfons there
entered were ftyled intabulati.
EBDOME, E/zdop*, in antiquity, a feftival kept on
the feventh of every lunar month, in honour of Apollo,
to whom all feventh days were facred, becaufe one of
them was his birth-day j whence he was fometimes call¬
ed Ebdomagenes. For the ceremonies of this folemnity
fee Potter's Archeeol. Greet, lib. ii. cap. 20.
EBENUS, the Ebony Tree. See Botany Index.
EIlION, the author of the herefy of the EbioNITES,
was a difciple of Cerinthus, and his fucceffor. He im¬
proved upon the errors of his mafter, and added to
them new opinions of his own. He began his preach¬
ing in Judea : he taught in Afia, and even at Rome.
His tenets infefted the ifle of Cyprus. St John oppo-
fed both Cerinthus and Ebion in Afia $ and it is
thought, that this apoftle wrote his gofpel, in the year
p'j, particularly againft this herefy.
EBIONITES, ancient heretics, who rofe in the
church in the firft ages, and formed therafelves into a
fe£l in the fecond century, denying the divinity of
Jefus Chrift.
3 S . Ongen
(
E B I [ 50^ ] E B O
Ebionitcs. Origen takes them to have been fo called from the
‘...1 - y—1 Hebrew word ebion, vvliich in that language fignifies
poor ; becaufe, fays he, they were poor in fenfe, and
wanted underftanding. Eufebius, with a view to the
fame etymology, is of opinion they were thus called, as
having poor thoughts of Jefus Chrift, taking him for
no more than a mere man.
It is more probable the Jews gave this appellation to
the Chriftians in general out of contempt; becaufe in
the firtt times there were few but poor people that em¬
braced the Chriftian religion. This opinion Origen
himfelf feems to give into, in his book againft Celfus,
where he fays that they called Ebionites, fuch among
the Jews as believed that Jefus was truly the expelled
Meffiah.
It might even be urged, with feme probability, that
the primitive Chriftians affumed the name themfelves,
in conformity to their profeffion. It is certain, Epi-
phanius obferves, they valued themfelves on being
poor, in imitation of the apoftles. The fame Epipha-
nius, however, is of opinion, that there had been a
man of the name of Ebion, the chief and founder of
the fe£l of Ebionites, contemporary with the Nazarenes
and Corinthians. He gives a long and exaft account
of the origin of the Ebionites, making them to have
rifen after the deftruftion of Jerufalem, when the firft
Chriftians, called Na%arenes, went out of the fame to
live at Pella.
The Ebionites were little elfe than a branch of Na¬
zarenes : only that they altered and corrupted in many
things the purity of the faith held among thofe firft
adherents to Chriftianity. For this reafon Origen dif-
tinguifhes two kinds of Ebionites, in his anfwer to
Celfus j the one believed that Jefus Chrift was born of
a virgin ; and the other, that he was born after the man¬
ner of other men.
The firft: were orthodox in every thing, except that
to the Chriftian do&rine they joined the ceremonies of
the Jewifti law, with the Jews, Samaritans, and Naza¬
renes ; together with the traditions of the Pharifees.
They differed from the Nazarenes, however, in feveral
things, chiefly as to what regards the authority of the
facred writings ; for the Nazarenes received all for
Scripture contained in the Jewifti canon ; whereas the
Ebionites rejected all the prophets, and held the very
names of David, Solomon, Ifaiah, Jeremiah, and Eze¬
kiel, in abhorrence. They alfo rejefted all St Paul’s
epiftles, whom they treated with the utmoft difrefpeft.
They received nothing of the Old Teftament but
the Pentateuch j which ftiould intimate them to have
defeended rather from the Samaritans than from the
Jews. They agreed with the Nazarenes in ufing the
Hebrew gofpel of St Matthew, otherwife called the
Gofpel of the Twelve Apoftles ; but they had corrupt¬
ed their copy in abundance of places j and particularly,
had left out the genealogy of our Saviour, which was
preferved entire in that of the Nazarenes, and even in
thofe ufed by the Cerinthians.
Some, however, have made this gofpel canonical, and
of greater value than our prefent Greek gofpel of St
Matthew : See Nazarenes. Thefe laft, whofe fen-
timents, as to the birth of our Saviour, were the fame
with thofe of the Ebionites, built their error on this
very genealogy.
Befides the Hebrew gofpel of St Matthew, the
Ebonites had adopted feveral other books, under the Ebionit
names of St James, John, and the other apoftles: they || **
alio made ufe of the Travels of St Peter, which are Ebony
fuppoftd to have been written by St Clement j but had WQ0(,•
altered them fo, that there was fcarce any thing of
truth left in them. They even made* that faint tell a
number of falfehoods, the better to authorife their own
practices. See St Epiphanius, who is very diffufive on
the ancient herefy of the Ebionites, Hcer. 30. But
his account deferves little credit, as, by his own con-
feflion, he has confounded the other fedts with the
Ebionites, and has charged them with errors to which
the firft adherents of this fe£l were utter ftrangers.
EBONY of Crete. See Ebenus, Botany Index.
Eb0NT Wood is brought from the Indies, exceeding¬
ly hard and heavy, fufceptible of a very fine polifh, and
on that account uied in mofaic and inlaid works, toys,
&c. There are divers kinds of ebony ; the raoft ufual
among us are black, red, and green, all of them the
produdl of the ifland of Madagafcar, where the natives
call them differently Jia%on mainthi^ q. d. black wood.
I he ifland of St Maurice, belonging to the Dutch,
likewife furnifhes part of the ebonies ufed in Europe.
Authors and travellers give very different accounts
of the tree that yields the black ebony. By fome of
their deferiptions, it fhould be a fort of palm tree; by
others a cytifus, &c. The moft authentic of them
is that of M. Falcourt, who refided many years in Ma¬
dagafcar as governor thereof j he affures us, that it
grows very high and big, its bark being black, and its
leaves refembling thofe of our myrtle, of a deep dufky
green colour.
Tavernior affures us, that the iflanders always take
care to bury their trees when cut down, to make them
the blacker, and to prevent their fplitting when wrought.
F. Plumier mentions another black ebony tree, difeo-
vered by him at St Domingo, which he calls fpartium
portulacce foliis aculeatum ebeni miner ice. Candia alfb
bears a little ihrub, known to the botanifts under the
name of EBENUS Cretica, above deferibed.
Pliny and Diofeorides fay the beft ebony comes from
Ethiopia, and the worft from India ; but Theophraftus
prefers that of India. Black ebony is much preferred
to that of other colours. The beft is a jet black, free
of veins and rind, very maflive, aftringent, and of an
acrid pungent tafte. Its rind, infufed in water, is faid
to purge pituita, and cure venereal diforders ; whence
Matthiolus took guaiacum for a fort of ebony. It
yields an agreeable perfume when laid on burning coals y
when green, it readily takes fire from the abundance of
its fat. If rubbed againft a ftone, it becomes brown.
The Indians make ftatues of their gods, and feeptres
for their princes, of this wood. It was firft brought to
Rome by Pompey, after he fubdued Mithridates. It
is now much lefs ufed among us than anciently, fince
the difeovery of fo many ways of giving other hard
woods a black colour.
As to the green ebony, befides Madagafcar and St
Maurice, it likewife grows in the Antilles, and cfpe-
cially in the ifle of lobago. The tree that yields it is
very buftiy j its leaves are fmooth, and of a fine green
colour. Beneath its bark is a white blea, about two
inches thick j all beneath which, to the very heart, is
a deep green, approaching towards a black, though
fometinjes ftreaked with yellow veins. Its ufe is not
confined
mer folftice, and confequently anfwered to the latter Ecatonv-
part of our June and beginning of July. The Boeoti- baeon
ans called it Hippodromus, and the Macedonians Lous. II
See Month. The word is a derivation from the Greek Ecc ^ a e,f'
tiKxloftZn, a hecatomb, becaufe of the great number of
hecatombs facrificed in it.
ECAVESSADE, in the manege, is ufed for a jerk
of the eaveffon.
ECBATANA, in Ancient Geography, the royal re-
fidence and the capital of Media, built by Deioces king
of the Medes, according to Herodotus : Pliny fays, by
Seleucus ; but that could not be, becaufe it is men¬
tioned by DemoftIrenes. It was fituated on a gentle
declivity, diltant 12 fladia from Mount Oronte.s, and
was in compafs 150 ftadia. Here flood the royal trea*
fury and tombs. It was an open unwalled town, but
had a very flrong citadel, encompaffed with feven walls,
one within and rifing above another* The extent of
the outmoft was equal to the whole extent of Athens,
according to Herodotus j the fituation favouring this
conftru&ion, as being a gentle afcent, and each wall
was of a different colour.—x\nother Ecbatana of Perfia,
a town of the Magi (Pliny).—A third of Syria.
ECCENTRICITY. See Excentricity.
ECCHELLENSIS, Abraham, a learned Maro-
nite, whom the prefident Le Jai employed in the edi¬
tion of his Polyglott Bible. Gabriel Sionita, his coun¬
tryman, drew him to Paris, in order to make him his
fellow labourer in publilhing that Bible. They fell outy
Gabriel complained to the parliament, and cruelly de¬
famed his affociate $ their quarrel made a, great noife.
The congregation de propaganda fde affociated him,
1636, with thofe whom they employed in making an
Arabic tranflation of the Scriptures. They recalled
him from Paris, and he laboured in that tranflation at
Rome in the year 1652. While he was profeffor of
the Oriental languages at Rome, be was pitched upon
by the great duke Ferdinand II. to tranflate from A-
rabic into Latin, the 5th, 6th, and 7th books of Apol¬
lonius’s Conics •, in which he was affifled by John Al-
phonfo Borelli, who added commentaries to them. He
died at Rome in 1644.
ECCHYMOSIS, from to pour out, or from
jj|, out of, and x,v[*o?, juice. It is an eftufion of hu¬
mours from their refpe&ive veffels, under the integu¬
ments 5 or, as Paulus iEgineta fays, “ When the flefh
is bruifed by the violent collifion of any objefr, and its
fmall veins broken, the blood is gradually difcbarged
from them.” This blood, when colle&ed under the
Ikin, is called ecchymofs, the fkin in the mean time
remaining entire £ fometimes a tumour is formed by it,
which is foft and livid, and generally without pain. If
the quantity of blood is not confiderable, it is ufualiy
reforbed ; if much, it fuppurates ; it rarely happens
that any further inconvenience follows; though, in
cafe of a very bad habit of body, a mortification may
be the refult, and in Inch cafe regard muft be had
thereto.
ECCLAIRCISSEMENT. See Esclaircisse-
confined to ttiofaic work : it is like wife good in dyeing,
as yielding a fine green timflure. As to red ebony,
called alfo grenadilia, we know little of it more than
the name.
The cabinet-makers, inlayers, &c. make pear tree
and other woods pafs for ebony, by giving them the
black colour thereof. This fome do by a few wafhes
of a hot decoftion of galls ; and when dry, adding
Writing ink thereon, and polifhing it with a ftiff brufh,
and a little hot wax; and others heat or burn their
wood black.
EBORACUM, in Ancient Geography, a famous
city of the Brigantes in Britain, the refidence of Sep-
timius Severus and Conflantius Chlorus, and where
thtv both died j a Roman colony; and the ftation of
the Legio Sexta Vi&rix. Now York. W. Long. 50.
Lat. 54. Caer-frock, or Caer-ejfroc, in Britilh (Cam-
den).
EBRO, anciently Iberus, a large river of Spain,
which, taking its rife in Old Caftile, runs through Bif-
cay and Arragon, paffes by Saragoffa, and, continuing
its courfe through Catalonia, difcharges itfcdf with great
rapidity into the Mediterranean, about 20 miles below
the city of Tortofa.
EBUDiE, or Hebudes, in Ancient Geography,
iflands on the weft of Scotland. The ancients differ
greatly as to their fituation, number, and names ; (aid
in general to Re in the north of Ireland and weft of
Scotland. Now called the Wejlern IJles, alfo Hebrides ;
this laft a modern name, the reafon of which does not
appear, unlefs it be a corruption of Hebudes. By Beda
called Mevanice, an appellation equally obfcure.
EBULLITION, the fame with Boiling. The
word is alfo ufed in a fynonymous fenfe with Effer¬
vescence.
E BUS US, in Ancient Geography, the greater of the
two iflands called Pityufae, in the Mediterranean^ near
the eaft coaft of Spain, to the fouth-weft of Majorca.
Famous for its paftures for cattle, and for its figs. Now
Ivicn, 100 miles in compafs, without any noxious ani¬
mals but rabbits, who often deftroy the corn.
ECALESIA, 'Ey.xMrta., in antiquity, a feftival kept
in honour of Jupiter, furnamed Hecalus, or Hecalefus,
from Hecale, one of the borough towns in Attica.
ECASTOR, in antiquity, an oath wherein Caftor
was invoked. It was a cuftom for the men never to
fwear by Caftor, nor the w’omen by Pollux.
ECATEA, E**W, in antiquity, ftatues ereaed to
the goddefs Hecate, for whom the Athenians had a
great veneration, believing that (lie was the overfeer of
their families, and that ihe proteaed their children.
ECATESIA, Exdhn*, in antiquity, an anmverfary
folemnity, obferved by the Stratonicenfians, in honoui
of Hecate. The Athenians like wife had a public en¬
tertainment or fupper every new moon, in honour of
the fame goddefs. The fupper rvas provided at the
charge of the richer fort; and wTas no fooner brought
to the accuftomed place but the poor people carried all
off, giving out that Hecate had devoured it. For tne
reft of the ceremonies obferved on this occafion, ice
Pott. Arch. Greec. lib. ii. c?p. 20.
ECATOMB^iON, ExaVS*'*"’ in Chronology,
firft month of the Athenian year. It confifted of 30
days, and began on the firft new moon after ..he lum-
ECCLESIASTES, a canonical book of the Old
Teftament, the defign of which is to (hew the vanity
of all fublunary things.
It was compofed by Solomon ; who enumerates the
3 S 2 feveral
E C C [ 508 ]
Kcclefiaftes,feveral objefls on which men place their happinefs, altogether certain.
Kcclefiafti- and then Ihows the infufficiency of all worldly enjoy-
Comrnent.
ments
l he Talmudifts made King Hezekiah to be the
author of it : Grotius afcribes it to Zorobabel, and
others to Ifaiah j but the generality of commentators
believe this book to be the produce of Solomon’s re¬
pentance, after having experienced all the follies and
pleafures of life.
ECCLESIASTICAL, an appellation given to
"whatever belongs to the church : thus we fay, ecclefia-
Ilical polity, jurifdi£lion, hiftory, &c.
mack/lone's ECCLESIASTICAL Courts. In the time, of the Anglo-
Saxons there was no fort of diftindtion between the
lay and the ecclefiaftical jurifdidlion : the county court
was as much a fpiritual as a temporal tribunal : the
rights of the church were afcertained and afferted at
the fame time, and by the fame judges, as the rights
of the laity. For this purpofe the bithop of the dio-
cefe, and the alderman, or in his abfence the fheriff of
the county, ufed to fit together in the county court,
and had there the cognizance of all caufes as well ec-
clefiaftical as civil ; a fuperior deference being paid to
the bithop’s opinion in fpiritual matters, and to that
of the lay judges in temporal. This union of power
was very advantageous to them both : the prefence of
the bifliop added weight and reverence to the flieriff’s
proceedings; and the authority of the Iheriff was equal¬
ly ufeful to the bifhop, by enforcing obedience to his
decrees in fuch refradlory offenders as would other-
wife have defpifed the thunder of mere ecclefiaftical
cenfures.
But fo moderate and rational a plan was wholly in-
inconfident with thofe views of ambition that Avere then
forming by the court of Rome. It foon became an
eftablilhed maxim in the papal fyftem of policy, that
all ecclefiadical perfons, and all ecclefiaflical caufes,
fhould be folely and entirely fubjedt to ecclefiaftical ju-
rifdi&ion only : which jurifdi&ion Avas fuppofed to be
lodged in the firfl place and immediately in the Pope,
by divine indefeafible right and inveftiture from Chrift
himfelf, and derived from the Pope to all inferior tri¬
bunals. Hence the canon law lays it doAvn as a rule,
that11 facerdotes a regibus honoranclifunt, non judicandi?''
and places an emphatical reliance on a fabulous tale
which it tells of the emperor Conftantine, That Avhen
fome petitions Avere brought to him, imploring the aid
of his authority againft certain of his bilhops accu.fed
of oppreflion and injuftice ; he caufed, (fays the holy
canon) the petitions to be burnt in their prefence, dif-
snifling them Avith this valedi&ion : “ Ite, et inter vos
eaufas vejlrcts difcutite. quia dignutn non ejl ut nos judice-
mus Deosi”
It Avas not, hoAvever, till after the Norman conquefl,
that this do&rine was received in England, Avhen WTl-
iiam I. (Avhofe title was Avarmly efpoufed by the mo-
nafteries which he liberally endowed, and by the fo¬
reign clergy whom he brought over in (hoals from
France and Italy, and planted in the bed preferments
of the Englidi church) was at length prevailed upon
to edablidi this fatal encroachment, and feparate the
.ecclefiaftical court from the civil : Avhether a floated by
principles of bigotry, or by thofe of a more refined po¬
licy, in order to difcountenance the laws of King Ed¬
ward abounding with the fpirit of Saxon liberty, is not
3
E C C
But the latter, if not the caufe, Eccleiiafti
was undoubtedly the confequence of this feparation : cal Courts
for the Saxon laws Avere foon overborne by the Nor-
man judiciaries, Avhen the county court fell into’difre-
gard by the bidiop’s Avithdrawing his prefence, in obe¬
dience to the charter of the Conqueror ; Avhich prohi¬
bited any fpiritual caufe from being tried in the fecu-
lar courts, and commanded the fuitors to appear before
the bifhop only, Avhofe decifions Avere diretted to con¬
form to the canon laAV.
King Henry I. at his acceftion, among other redo-
rations of the laAvs of King Edward the Confeffor, re¬
vived this of the union of the civil and ecclefiaftical
courts. Which Avas, according to Sir Edivard Coke
after the great heat of the conqueft Avas pad, only a
reftitution of the ancient law of England. This hoAv-
ever Avas ill relidied by the Popifti clergy, Avbo, under
the guidance of that arrogant prelate Archbifhop An-
felm, very early difapproved of a meafure that put
them on a level Avith the profane laity, and fubje&ed
fpiritual men and caufes to the infpeflion of the fecu-
lar magiftrates ; and therefore, in their fynod at Weft-
minder, 3 Hen. I. they ordained, that no bifhop Ihould
attend the difeuffion of temporal caufes ; which foon
diffolved this neAvly effedled union. And, Avhen upon
the death of King Henry I. the ufurper Stephen Avas
brought in and fupported by the clergy, avc find one
article of the oath Avhich they impofed upon him Avas,
that ecclefiaftical perfons and ecclefiaftical caufes ftiould
be fubjedl only to the bifhop’s jurifdi&ion. And as it.
Avas about that time that the conteft and emulation be¬
gan between the lavvs of England and thofe of Rome,
the temporal courts adhering to the former, and the
fpiritual adopting the latter as their rule of proceed¬
ing ; this widened the breach betAveen them, and made
a coalition afterwards impra&icable ; Avhich probably
Avould elfe have been effe&ed at the general reforma¬
tion of the church.
Ecclefiaftical courts are various ; as the Archdea-
con’s, the Consistory, the court of Arches, the
Peculiars, the Prerogative, and the great court
of appeal in all ecclefiaftical caufes, viz. the Court of
Delegates. See thefe articles.
As to the method of proceeding in the fpiritual Blackftnl
courts, it muft (in the ftrft place) be acknoAvledged to Comment,
their honour, that though they continue to this day to
decide many queftions which are properly of temporal
cognizance, yet juftice is in general fo ably and im¬
partially adminiftered, in thofe tribunals (efpecially of
the fuperior kind), and the boundaries of their poAver
are now fo Avell known and eftabliftied, that no mate¬
rial inconvenience at prefent arifes from this jurifdic-
tion ftill continuing in the ancient channel. And,
Ihould any alteration be attempted, great confufion
would probably arife, in overturning long eftablilhed
forms, and neAv-modelling a courfe of proceedings that
has now prevailed for feven centuries.
The eftablifliment of the civil laiv procefs in all the
ecclefiaftical courts Avas indeed a mafterpiece of papal
difeernment, as it made a coalition impraflicable be-
tAveen them and the national tribunals, Avithout mani-
feft inconvenience and hazard. And this confideration
had undoubtedly its weight in caufing this meafure to
be adopted, though many other caufes concurred. In
particular, it may be here remarked, that the Pandedfs,
or;
E C C [ 509 ] E C H
efiafti- or collections of civil law, being written in the Latin
l Courts, tongue, and referring fo much to the will of the prince
l 'and his delegated officers of juftice, fufficiently recom¬
mended them to the court of Rome, exclufive of their
intrinfic merit. To keep the laity in the darkeft ig¬
norance, and to monopolize the little fcience which
then exifted entirely among the monkilh clergy, were
deep-rooted principles of papal policy. And as the
biffiops of Rome affeCled in all points to mimic the
imperial grandeur, as the fpiritual prerogatives were
moulded on the pattern of the temporal, fo the canon
law procefs was formed on the model of the civil law j
the prelates embracing, with the utmoft ardour, a me¬
thod of judicial proceedings, which was carried on in
a language unknown to the bulk of the people, which
baniffied the intervention of a jury (that bulwark of
Gothic liberty), and which placed an arbitrary power
of decifion in the breaft of a fingle man.
The proceedings in the eccleliaflical courts are there¬
fore regulated according to the pra&ice of the civil and
canon laws $ or rather to a mixture of both, correfted
and new-modelled by their own particular ufages, and
the interpofition of the courts of common law. For,
if the proceedings in the fpiritual court be ever fo re¬
gularly confonant to the rules of the Roman law, yet
if they be manifeftly repugnant to the fundamental
maxims of the municipal laws, to which, upon prin¬
ciples of found policy, the ecclefiaftical procefs ought
in every date to conform (as if they require two wit-
neflfes to prove a fat, among the ancients, patrons of
cities, who defended their rights, and took care of the
public money. Their office refembled that of the mo¬
dern fyndics.
ECHAPE, in the manege, a horfe begot between
a ftallion and a mare of different breeds and countries.
ECHAPER, in the manege, a gallicifm ufed in the
academies, implying to give a horfe head, or to put on
at full fpeed.
ECHENEIS, the Remora. See Ichthyology
Index.
ECHEVIN, in the French and Dutch polity, a
magiftrate defied by the inhabitants of a city or town,
to take care of their common concerns, and the deco¬
ration and cleanlinefs of the city.
At Paris, there is a prevot and four echevins ; in
other towns, a mayor and echevins. At Amfterdam,
there are nine echevins ; and at Rotterdam, feven.
In France, the echevins take cognizance of rents,
taxes, and the navigation of rivers, &c. In Holland,
they judge of civil and criminal eaufes j and if the cri¬
minal confefl.es himfelf guilty, they can fee their fen-
tence executed without appeal.
ECHINATE, or Echinated, an appellation given
to whatever is prickly, thereby refembling the hedge-
hog-
ECHINITES, in Natural Hifiory, the name by
which authors call the foffil centronia, frequently found
in chalk pits.
ECHINOPHORA. See Botany Index.
ECHINOPS. See Botany Index.
ECHINUS,
E C H [ 510 ] E C H
Echinus ECHINUS, a genus of animals belonging to the
H order of vermes mollufca. See Helminthology
i ^c^10- Index.
Echinus, in Archite&ure, a member or ornament
near the bottom of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Compo-
fite capitals.
ECHITES. See Botany Index.
ECHIUM, Viper’s Bugloss. See Botany Index.
ECHO, or Eccho, a found reflefted or reverberat¬
ed from a folid, concave, body, and fo repeated to tiie
|See Acou-vax f. The word is formed from the Greek founds
Jiics, N°2<5. which comes from the verb nytu, fono.
The ancients being wholly unacquainted with the
true caufe of the echo, afcribed it to feveral caufes fuf-
ficiently whimfical. The poets, who were not the worft
of their philofophers, imagined it to be a perfon of
that name metamorphofed, and that (lie affefled to take
Up her abode in particular places ; for they found by
experience, that (he was not to be met with in all. (See
below, Echo in fabulous hiftory'). But the moderns,
who know found to conlifl: in a certain tremor or vibra¬
tion in the fonorous body communicated to the conti¬
guous air, and by that means to the ear, give a more
confident account of echo.
For a tremulous body, driking on another folid bo¬
dy, it is evident, may be repelled without dedroying
cr diminidring its tremor j and confequently a found
may be redoubled by the refilition of the tremulous
body, or air.
But a fimple rede&ion of the fonorous air is not
enough to folve the echo: for then every plain furface
of a folid hard body, as being fit to redt ft a voice or
found, would redouble it, which we find does not
hold.
To produce an echo, therefore, it (hould feem that
a kind of concameration or vaulting were neceflary, in
order to colleft, and by collefting to heighten and in-
creafe, and afterwards redeft, the found j as we find is
the cafe in redefting the rays of light, where a concave
mirror is required.
In effeft, as often as a found drikes perpendicularly
on a wall, behind which is any thing of a vault or arch,
or even another parallel wall, fo often will it be rever¬
berated in the fame line, or other adjacent ones.
For an echo to be heard, therefore, it is necedary
the ear be in the line of redeftion : for the perfon who
made the found to hear its echo, it is neceffary he be
perpendicular to the place which rededts it: and for a
manifold or tautological echo, it is neceflary there be a
number of walls, and vaults or cavities, either placed
behind or fronting each other.
A fingle arch or concavity, &c. can fcarce ever flop
and redeft all the found j but if there be a convenient
difpofition behind it, part of the found propagated thi¬
ther, being collefted and redefted as before, will pre-
fent another echo : or, if there be another concavity,
oppofed at a due didance to the former, the found re-
deft ed from the one upon the other will be toffed back
again by this latter, &c.
Many of the phenomena of echoes are well confider-
ed by the bidiop of Leighs, &c. who remarks, that any
found, falling either direftly or obliquely on any denfe
body of a fmooth, whether plain or arched, fuperficies,
is redefted, or echoes, more or lefs. The furface, fays
he, mud be fmooth j otherwife the air, by reverbera-
2
tion, will be put out of its regular motion, and the
found thereby broken and extinguidied. He adds, that i
it echoes more or lefs, to (how, that when all things p
are as before defcribed, there is dill an echoing, though
it be not always heard, either becaufe the direft found
is too weak to beat quite back again to him that made
it ; or that it does return to him, but fo weak, that it
cannot be difcerned ; or that he Hands in a wrong place
to receive the redefted found, which pades over his
head, under his feet, or on one fide of him j and which
therefore may be heard by a man danding in the place
where the rtdefted found does come, provided no in-
terpofed body intercepts it, but not by him that drd
made it.
Echoes may be produced with different circum-
dances. For, 1. A ‘plane obdacle red efts the found
back in its due tone and loudnefs j allowance being
made for the proportionable dccreafe of the found, ac¬
cording to its didance.
2. A convex obdacle reflefts the found fomewhat
fmaller and fomewhat quicker, though weaker, than
otherwife it would be.
3. A concave obdacle echoes back the found, bigger,
flower, and alfo inverted ; but never according to the
order of words.
Nor does it feem poflible to contrive any fingle echo,
that (hall invert the found, and repeat backwards j be¬
caufe, in fuch cafe, the word lad fpoken, that is, which
lad occurs to the obdacle, mult be repelled firit j which
cannot be. For where in the mean time diould the
fird words hang and be concealed j or how, after fuch a
paufe, be revived, and animated again into motion ?
From the determinate concavity or archednefs of
the redefting bodies, it may happen that fome of them
(hall only echo back one determinate note, and only
from one place.
4. The echoing body being removed farther olf, it
redefts more of the found than when nearer j which is
the reafon why fome echoes repeat but one fyllable,
fome one word, and fome many.
5. Echoing bodies may be fo contrived and placed,
as that reflefting the found from one to the other, ei¬
ther direftly and mutually, or obliquely and by fuccef-
fion, out of one found, a multiple echo or many echoes
(hall arife.
Add, that a multiple echo may be made, by fo pla¬
cing the echoing bodies at unequal didances, that they
may redeft all one way, and not one on the other j by
W'hich means, a manifold fucceflive found will be heard ;
one clap of the hands, like many ; one ha, like a laugh¬
ter ; one fingle word, like many of the fame tone and
accent; and fo one viol, like many of the fame kind,
imitating each other.
Ladly, Echoing bodies may be fo ordered, that from
any one found given, they diall produce many echoes
different both as to tone and intenfion. By which
means a mufical room may be fo contrived, that not
only one indrument playing therein (hall feem many
of the fame fort and fize, but even a concert of differ¬
ent ones, only by placing certain echoing bodies fo,
that any note placed (hall be returned by them in
3ds, 5ths, and 8ths.
Echo is alfo ufed for the place where the repetition
of the found is produced or heard.
Echoes are didinguidied into divers kinds, viz.
I. Single)
E C H [ 5
1. Single, which return the voice but once. Whereof
fome are tonical, which only return a voice when mo¬
dulated into fome particular mufical tone : Others,
polyfyllabical, which return many fyllables, words, and
fentences. Of this lalt kind is that fine echo in Wood-
ftock park, which Dr Plot afiures us, in the day time,
will return very diftinftly feventeen fyllables, and in the
night twenty.
2. Multiple or tautological; which return fyllables
and words the fame oftentimes repeated.
In echoes, the place where the fpeaker Hands is call¬
ed the centrum phonicum, and the objeft or place that
returns the voice, the centrum phonocnmpticum.
At the fepulchre of Metella, wife of Craffus, was an
echo, which repeated what a man faid five times.
Authors mention a tower at Cyzicus, where the echo
repeated feven times. One of the fined echoes we read
of is that mentioned by Barthius, in his notes on Sta¬
tius’s Thebais, lib. vi. 30. which repeated the words
a man uttered 17 times : it was on the banks of the
Naha, between Coblentz and Bingen. Barthius affures
us, he had proved what he writes ; and had told 17
repetitions. And whereas, in common echoes, the re¬
petition is not heard till fome time after hearing the
word fpoke, or the notes lung j in this, the perfon who
fpeaks or fings is fcarce heard at all ; but the repeti¬
tion mod clearly, and always in furprifing varieties •, the
echo feeming fometimes to approach nearer, and fome-
times to be further off. Sometimes the voice is heard
very diftinftly, and fometimes fcarce at all. One hears
only one voice, and another feveral *, one hears the
echo on the right, and another on the left, &c. At
Milan in Italy, is an echo which reiterates the report
of a piftol 56 times } and if the report is very loud, up¬
wards of 60 reiterations may be counted. The firft
20 echoes are pretty didindl ; but as the noife feems
to fly away, and anfwer at a greater diftance, the re¬
iterations are fo doubled, that they can fcarce be count¬
ed. See an account of a remarkable echo under the
article Paisley.
Echo, in ArchiteElure, a term applied to certain
kinds of vaults and arches, moft commonly of the el¬
liptic and parabolic figures, ufed to redouble founds,
and produce artificial echoes.
Echo, in Poetry, a kind of compofition wherein the
laft words or fyllables of each verfe contain fome
meaning, which, being repeated apart, anfwers to
fome queftion or other matter contained in the verfe j
as in this beautiful one from Virgil :
Crucle/is mater mag is, an puer improbus tile ?
Improbus ille puer, crudelis tu quoque mater.
The elegance of an echo confifts in giving a new fenfe
to the lafl words •, which reverberate, as it were, the
motions of the mind, and by that means aflfeft it with
furprife and admiration.
Echo, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of the Air
and Tellus, who chiefly rcfided in the vicinity of the
Cephifus. She was once one of Juno’s attendants,
and became the confidant of Jupiter’s amours. Her
loquacity, however, difpleafed Jupiter, and (lie was de¬
prived of the power of fpeech by Juno, and only per¬
mitted to anfwer to the q ue. ft ions which were put to
her. Pan had formerly been one of her admirers, but
he never enjoyed her favours. Echo, after fhe had
1 ] E C L
been punifhed by Juno, fell in love with Narciflusj but Ech«
being defpifed by him, pined herfelf to death, having jl
nothing but her voice left. Ecliptic.
ECHOMETER, among muficians, a kind of fcale ' ~¥ "
or rule, with feveral lines thereon, ferving to meafure
the duration and length of founds, and to find their in¬
tervals and ratios.
ECHOUERIES. See under Trichecus.
ECKIUS, John, an eminent and learned divine,
profefibr in the univerfity at Ingolftadt, memorable
for the oppofition he gave to Luther, Meiandthon,
Caraloftadius, and other leading proteflants in Ger¬
many. He wrote many polemical tradfs j and among
the reft, a Manual of Controverfies, printed in 1535,
in which he difcourfes upon moft of the heads contefted
between the Proteftants and Papifts. He was a man
of uncommon learning, parts, and zeal, and died in
1J43*
ECLECTICS (ecleBici'), a name given to fome an¬
cient philofophers, who without attaching them-
felves to any particular fedf, took what they judged
good and folid from each. Hence their denomina¬
tion j which, in the original Greek, fignifies, “ that
may be chofen,” or “ that choofes j” of the verb
l choofe.—Laertius notes, that they were alfo,
for the fame reafon, denominated analogetici; but
that they call themfelves Philalethes, i. e. lovers of
truth.
The chief or founder of the ecledlici was one Po-
tamon of Alexandria, who lived under Auguftus and
Tiberius ; and who, weary of doubting of all things
with the Sceptics and Pyrrhonians, formed the ecleftic
fe£l ; which Voflius calls the ecleSlive.
Towards the clofe of the fecond century, a fe£l
arofe in the Chriftian church under the denomination
of Ecle&ics, or modern Platonics. They profelTed to
make truth the only objeft of their inquiry, and to
be ready to adopt from all the different fyftems and
fedls fuch tenets as they thought agreeable to it.—-
However, they preferred Plato to the other philofo¬
phers, and looked upon his opinions concerning God,
the human foul, and things invifible, as conformable to
the fpirit and genius of the Chriftian doflrine. One of
the principal patrons of this fyftem was Ammonius
Saccas, who at this time laid the foundation of that
fedt, afterwards diftinguifhed by the name of the new
Platonics, in the Alexandrian fchool. See Ammonius
and Platonists.
Eclectics were alfo a certain fet of phyficians
among the ancients, of whom Archigenes, under Tra¬
jan, was the chief, who fele&ed from the opinions of
all the other fefts that which appeared to them belt
and moft rational ; hence they are called ecle&ics, and
their prefcriptions medicina ecleBica.
ECLIPSE, in AJlronomy, the deprivation of the
light of the fun, or of fome heavenly body, by the in-
terpofition of another heavenly body between our fight
and it. See Astronomy Index.
ECLIPTA, in Botany, a genus of the polygamia
fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants. The receptacle is chaffy ; there is no pappus,
and the corollulae of the dilk quadrifid.
ECLIPTIC, in Afronomy, a great circle of the
fphere, fuppofed to be drawn through the middle of the
zodiac, making an angle with the equinoftial of about
E C T [51
Ecliptic 23° 30', which is the fan’s greateft declination ; or,
II more ftri£tly fpeaking, it is that path or way among the
Ec yloticc ^xe3 flars, that the earth appears to defcribe to an eye
placed in the fun. See Astronomy Index.
Some call it via folis, “ the way of the fun becaufe
the fun in his apparent annual motion never deviates
from it, as all the other planets do more or lefs.
Ecliptic, in Geography, a great circle on the ter-
reftrial globe, not only anfwering to, but falling within,
the plane of the celeftial ecliptic. See Geography.
ECLOGUE, in Poetry, . a kind of pafloral com-
polition, wherein Ihepherds are introduced converfing
together. The word is formed from the Greek **A<9yjj,
choice; fo that, according to the etymology, eclogue
Ihould be no more than a feleft or choice piece ; but
cuftom has determined it to a farther fignification, viz.
a little elegant compofition in a fimple natural ftyle and
manner.
Idyllion and eclogue, in their primary intention, are
the fame thing : thus, the idyllia, itivXKia., of Theocri¬
tus, are pieces wrote perfeftly in the fame vein with the
eclogee of Virgil. But cuftom has made a difference be¬
tween them, and appropriated the name eclogue to pieces
wherein (hepherds are introduced fpeaking : idyllion, to
thofe wrote like the eclogue, in a fimple natural ftyle,
but without any fhepherds in them.
ECLUSE, a fmall but ftrong town of the Dutch
Low Countries, in the county of Flanders, with a good
harbour and fluices. The Englifh befieged it in vain in
1405, and the people of Bruges in 1436. But the
Dutch, commanded by Count Maurice of Naffau, took
it in 1644. It is defended by feveral forts, and ftands
near the fea. E. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 50. 25.
ECONOMY, Political. See Political Eco¬
nomy.
ECPHRACTICS, in Medicine, remedies which at¬
tenuate and remove obftruflions. See AtTEnuants,
and Deobstruents, Materia Medica Index.
ECSTACY. See Extasy.
ECSTATICI, Exf-ctTMot, from I am entran¬
ced, in antiquity, a kind of diviners who were call into
trances or ecftafies, in which they lay like dead men,
or afleep, deprived of all fenfe and motion j but, after
fome time, returning to themfelves, gave ftrange rela¬
tions of what they had feen or heard.
ECTHESIS, in church hiftory, a confeflion of
faith, in the form of an edift, publiftied in the year 639,
by the emperor Heraclius, with a view to pacify the
troubles occafioned by the. Eutychian herefy in the
eaftern church. However, the fame prince revoked it,
on being informed that Pope Severinus had condemned
it, as favouring the Monothelites ; declaring at the fame
time, that Sergius, patriarch of Conftantinople, was
the author of it.
ECTHLIPSIS, among Latin grammarians, a fi¬
gure of profody, whereby the m at the end of a wofd,
when the following word begins with a vowel, is elided,
or cut off, together with the vowel preceding it, for the
fake of the meafure of the verfe : thus they read mult'>
ille, for rnultum ille.
ECTROPIUM, in Surgery, is when the eyelids are
inverted, or retraced, fo that they (how their internal
or red furface, and cannot fufficiently cover the eye.
ECJTYLOTICS, in Pharmacy, remedies proper for
^eonfuming callofities.
2 ] E D B
ECU, or Escu, a French crown ; for the value of £tu
which, fee Money. jiU
EDAY, one of the Orkney illes, is about five miles Edda.
and a half long, and about a mile and a half broad.'"""'V'-
It has feveral good harbours, and contains about 600
inhabitants.
EDDA, in antiquities, is a fyftem of the ancient
Icelandic or Runic mythology, containing many cu¬
rious particulars of the theology, philofophy, and
manners, of the northern nations of Europe; or of
the Scandinavians, who had migrated from Afia, and
from whom our Saxon anceftors were defcended. Mr
Mallet apprehends that it was originally compiled,
foon after the Pagan religion was aboliftied, as a courfe
of poetical lectures, for the ufe of fuch young Ice¬
landers as devoted themfelves to the profeflion of a
fcald or poet. It confifts of two principal parts ; the
JirJl containing a brief fyftem of mythology, properly,
called the Edda ; and the fecond being a kind of art of
poetry, and called fcalda or poetics. The moft ancient
Edda was compiled by Soemund Sigfuffon, furnam-
ed the Learned, who was born in Iceland about the
year 1057. This was abridged, and rendered more
eafy and intelligible, about 120 years afterwards, by
Snorro Sturlefon, who was fupreme judge of Iceland
in the years 1215 and 1222; and it was publifhed in
the form of a dialogue. He added alfo the fecond
part in the form of a dialogue, being a detail of dif¬
ferent events tranfa£led among the divinities. The
only three pieces that are known to remain of the more
ancient Edda of Soemund, are the Volupfa, the Hava-
maal, and the Runic chapter. The Volupfa, or pro¬
phecy of Vola or Fola, appears to be the text, on
which the Edda is the comment. It contains, in two
or three hundred lines, the whole fyftem of mythology
difclofed in the Edda, and may be compared to the
Sibylline verfes, on account of its laconic yet bold ftyle,
and its imagery and obfcurity. It is profeffedly a re¬
velation of the decrees of the Father of nature, and
the aftions and operations of the gods. It defcribes
the chaos, the formation of the world, with its various
inhabitants, the functions of the gods, their moft fignal
adventures, their quarrels with Loke their great ad-
verfary, and the vengeance that enfued j and con¬
cludes with a long defcription of the final ftate of the
univerfe, its diffolution and conflagration, the battle of
the inferior deities and the evil beings, the renova¬
tion of the world, the happy lot of the good, and the
punifhment of the wicked. The Havamaal, or Sub¬
lime Difcourfe, is attributed to the god Odin, who is
fuppofed to have given thefe precepts of wifdom to
mankind j it is comprifed in about 120 ftanzas, and re-
fembles the book of Proverbs. Mr Mallet has given fe¬
veral extrafts of this treatife on the Scandinavian ethics.
The Runic chapter contains a ftiort fyftem of ancient
magic, and efpecially of the enchantments wrought by
the operation of Runic characters, of which Mr Mal¬
let has alfo given a fpecimen. A manufcript copy of
the Edda of Snorro is preferved in the library of the
univerfity of Upfal ; the firft part of which hath been
publiftied with a Swedifti and Latin verfion by M.
Goranfon. The Latin verfion is printed as a fupple-
ment to M. Mallet’s Northern Antiquities. The firft
edition of the Edda was publifhed by Refenius, pro-
feffor at Copenhagen, in a large quarto volume, in the
year
E D E . [ 5
:j(]a year 1665 j containing the text of the Edda, a Latin
'll tranflation by an Icelandic pried, a Danilh verfion,
•linck. anj various readings from different MSS. M. Mallet
y has alfo given an Englirti tranllation of the firft part,
accompanied with remarks; from which we learn, that
the Edda teaches the doddrine of the Supreme, called
the Un iv erf a l Father, and Odin, who lives forever, go¬
verns all his kingdom, and directs the great things as
well as the fmall ; who formed the heaven, earth, and
air; made man, and gave him a fpirit or foul, which
{hall live after the body fliall have mouldered away ;
and then all the juft fhall dwell with him in a place Gimle
or Vingof the palace of friendthip ; but wicked men
(hall go to Hela,or death, and from thence to Niflheim,
or the abode of the wicked, which is below in the ninth
world. It inculcates alfo the belief of fevcral inferior
gods and goddeffes, the chief of whom is Frigga or
Frea, h e. lady, meaning hereby the earth, who was
the fpoufe of Odin or the Supreme God ; whence
we may infer that, according to the opinion of thefe
ancient philofophers, this Odin was the active prin¬
ciple or foul of the world, which uniting itfelf with
matter, had thereby put it into a condition to pro¬
duce the intelligences or inferior gods, and men and
all other creatures. The Edda likewifes teaches the
exigence of an evil being called Lake, the calumnia¬
tor of the gods, the artificer of fraud, who furpaiTes
all other beings in cunning and perfidy. It teaches
the creation of all things out of an abyfs or chaos ;
the final deftrmffion of the world by fire ; the abforp-
tion of the inferior divinities, both good and bad, into
the bofom of the grand divinity, from whom all things
proceeded, as emanations of his effence, and who will
furvive all things; and the renovation of the earth in
an improved ftate.
EDDISH, or EaDISH, the latter pafture or grafs
that comes after mowing or reaping ; otherwife called
eagrafe or earfh, and etch.
EDDOES, or Edders, in Botany, the American
name of the Arum efculentum.
EDDY, (Saxon), of ed, “ backward,” and ea,
“ water,” among feamen, is where the water runs
back contrary to the tide ; or that which hinders the
free paffage of the ftream, and fo caufes it to return
again. That eddy water, which falls back, as it were,
on the rudder of a fhip under fail, the fearaen call the
dead water.
EbdT V/ind is that which returns or is beat back
from a fail, mountain, or any tiling that may hinder
its paffage.
EDELINCK, Gerard, a famous engraver, born
at Antwerp, where he was inftructed in drawing and
engraving. He fettled at Paris, in the reign of
Louis XIV. who made him his engraver in ordinary.
Edenlick was alfo counfellor in the Royal Academy
of Painting. His works are particularly efteemed tor
the neatnefs of the engraving, their brilliant caft, and
the prodigious eafe apparent in the execution; and
to this facility is owing the great number of plates
we have of his; among which are excellent portraits
of a great number of illuflrious men of his time.
Among the mod admired of his prints, the fol¬
lowing may be fpecified as holding the chief place.
I. A battle between four horfemen, with three figures
lying {lain upon the ground, from Leonardo da Vinci.
Vol. VII. Part il.
13] E D H
2. A holy family, with Elizabeth, St John, and ttvo
angels, from the famous picture of Raphael in the king
ot France’s collection. The firlt imprefllons are before
the arms of M. Colbert were added at the bottom of
the plate ; the fecund are with the arms ; and in the
third the arms are taken out, but the place where they
had been inferted is very perceptible. 3. Mary Mag¬
dalen bewailing her fins, and trampling upon the riches
of the world, from Le Brun. The firlt imprefllons are
without the narrow-border which furrounds the print-.
4. Alexander entering into the tent of Darius, a large
print on two plates, from Le Brun. This engraving
belongs to the three battles, and triumphal entry of
Alexander into Babylon, by Girard Audran, and
completes the fet. The firft impreflions have the
name of Gaytan the printer at the bottom. 5. Alex¬
ander entering into the tent of Darius (finifhed by
P. Drevet), from Peter Mignard. Edelinck died in
1707, in an advanced age, at the Hotel Royal at the
Gobelins, where he had an apartment. He had a
brother named John, who was a fkilful engraver, but
died young.
EDEN, (Mofes) the name of a country, with a
garden, in which the progenitors of mankind were
fettled by God himfelf: The term denotes pleafure
or delight. It would be endlefs to recount the fe-
veral opinions concerning its fituation, fome of them
very wild and extravagant. Mofes fays, that “ a ri¬
ver went out of Eden to water the garden, and from
thence it was parted and became into four heads.”
The river is fuppofed to be the common channel of
the Euphrates and Tigris, after their confluence;
which parted again, below the garden, into two dif¬
ferent channels; fo that the two channels before, and
the other two after their confluence, conffitute th©
heads mentioned by Mofes. Which will determine
the fituation of the garden to have been in the fouth
of Mefopotamia, or in Babylonia. The garden was
alfo called Paradife; a term of Perlic original, denot-
ing a garden. See PARADISE.
EDGINGS, in Gardening, the feries of fmall hut
durable plants fet round the edges or borders of flower
beds, &c. The heft and mod durable of all plants for
this ufe is box ; which, if well planted and rightly ma¬
naged, will continue in ftrength and beauty for many
years. The feafons for planting this are the autumn,
and very early in the fpring : and the belt fpecies for
this purpofe is the dwarf Dutch box.
Formerly, it was alfo a very common praftiee to
plant borders, or edgings, of aromatic herbs; as thyme,
favoty, hyffop, lavender, and the like: but thefe are
all apt to grow woody, and to be in part, or wholly,
deftroyed in hard winters. Daifies, thrift, or fea july-
flower, and chamomile, are alfo ufed by fome for this
purpofe : but they require yearly tranfplanting, and a
great deal of trouble, elfe they grow out of form ; and
they are alfo fubjedl to perifli in very hard feafons.
EDHILING, Edhilingus. an ancient appellation
of the nobility among the Anglo-Saxons.
The Saxon nation, fays Nit hard (Hi ft. lib. iv.) is
divided into three orders or claffes ot people; the edhi-
iingi, the frilingi, and the la%xi: which fignifv the no¬
bility, the freemen, and the vaffals or {laves.
Inftead of edhiling, we fometimes meet with atheiing,
or cetheliftg i which appellation was likewife given to
3 T the
Edelinck
11
Edhiling.
EDI [5
lidhillng the king’s fon, and the prefumptive heir of the crown,
ii See Atheling.
Edinburgh. EDICT, in matters of polity, an order or inftru-
ment, figned and fealed by a prince, to ferve as a law
to his fubjefts. We find frequent mention of the edi£ls
of the praetor, the ordinances of that officer in the
Roman law. In the French law, the edidls are of fe-
veral kinds; fome importing a new law or regulation ;
others, the ere£fion of new offices 5 eflabliffiments of
duties, rents, &c.; and fometimes articles of pacifica¬
tion. In France, edi£Is are much the fame as a pro¬
clamation is with us : but with this difference, that the
former have the authority of a law in themfelves, from
the power which iffues them forth ; whereas the latter
are only declarations of a law, to which they refer, and
have no power in themfelves.
1 EDILE, or AEdile. See ^Edile.
Oiigin of EDINBURGH, a city of Mid-Lothian, in Scot-
t e name. jan(j^ fituatecJ ln \y. Long. 30, and N. Lat. 56°, near
the fouthern bank of the river Forth.—The origin of
the name, like that of mofl: other cities, is very uncer¬
tain. Some imagine it to be derived from Eth, a fup-
pofed king of the Pi6ls ; others from Edwin, a Saxon
prince of Northumberland, who overran the whole or
greateft part of the territories of the Pifts, about the
year 617; while others choofe to derive it from two
Gaelic word": Dun Kdin, fignifying the face of a hill.
The name Edinburgh itfelf, however, feems to have
been unknown in the time of the Romans. The moft
ancient title by which we find this city diltinguiffied is
that of Cajielh Mynyd /Igned; which, in the Britilh lan¬
guage, fignifies “ the fortrefs of the hill of St Agnes.”
Afterwards it was named Cajlrum Puellarum, becaufe
the Pidfilh prin.ceffes were educated in the caftle (ane-
2 ceffary protedlion in thofe barbarous ages) till they
Time of were married.—-The ages in which thefe names were
its founda- given cannot indeed now be exadtly afcertained : but
tain uncer" the town certainly cannot boaft of very great antiquity 'y
lince, as Mr Whittaker informs us, the celebrated King
Arthur fought a battle on the fpot where it is fituated
towards the end of the fifth century.
The Romans, during the time they held the domi¬
nion of part of this illand, divided their poffeffions into
fix provinces. The moll northerly of thefe was called
Valentia, which comprehended all the fpace betwixt
the walls of Adrian and Severus. Thus Edinburgh,
lying on the very outlkirts of that province which was
moll expofed to the ravages of the barbarians, became
perpetually fubjeft to wars and devaftations; by means
of which, the time of its firft foundation cannot now be
gueffed at.
The caftle is certainly very ancient. It continued
in the hands of the Saxons or Englilh from the inva-
fion of Ofla and Ebufa in the year 452 till the defeat
of Egfrid king of Northumberland in 685 by the Pifts,
who then repoffeffed themfelves of it. The Saxon
kings of Northumberland reconquered it in the ninth
century; and it was retained by their fucceffors till
the year 956, when it was given up to Indulphus
king of Scotland. In 1093 it was unfuccefsfully be-
fieged by the ufurper Donald Bane. Whether the city
was at that time founded or not is uncertain. Moft
probably it was : for as proteftion from violence was
neceffary in thofe barbarous ages, the caftle of Edin¬
burgh could not fail of being an inducement to many
14 ] EDI
people to fettle in its neighbourhood; and thus theEdinfo I
city would gradually be founded and increafe In "Ul!
1128, King David I. founded the abbey of Holy-
roodhoufe, for certain canons regular : and granted
them a charter, in which he ftyled the town Burgo meo
de Edwinejburgh, “ my borough of Edinburgh.” By
the fame charter he granted thefe canons 40 (hillings
yearly out of the town revenues ; and likewife 48 [hil¬
lings more, from the fame, in cafe of the failure of cer¬
tain duties payable from the king’s revenue; and like¬
wife one half of the tallow, lard, and hides, of all the
beads killed in Edinburgh. ^
In 1174, the caftle of Edinburgh was furrendered toCaftlefiL
Henry II. of England, in order to purchafe the liberty ren(iei:e ii
of King William I. who had been defeated and taken thei:ilS
prifoner by the Englilh. But when William recovered
his liberty, he entered into an alliance with Henry,
and married his coufin Ermengarde ; upon which the
caftle was reftored as part of the queen’s dower.
In 1215, this city was firft diftinguilhed by having a
parliament and provincial fynod held in it.—In 1296,
the caftle was befieged and taken by Edward I. of
England ; but was recovered in 1313 by Randolph earl
of Moray, who was afterwards regent of Scotland du¬
ring the minority of King David II. At laft King
Robert deftroyed the fortrefs, as well as all others in
Scotland, left they (hould afford (belter to the Engliffi
in any of their after incurfions into Scotland.—It lay
in ruins for a confiderable number of years ; but was^
afterwards rebuilt by Edward III. of England, who-
placed a ftrong garrifon in it.
In 1341 it was reduced by the following ftratagem.
A man pretending to be an Englifti merchant, came
to the governor, and told him that he had on board hi's
drip in the Forth, fome wine, beer, bifcuits, &c. which
he would fell him on very reafonable terms. A bargain
being made, he promifed to deliver the goods nexfc
morning at a very reafonable rate: but at the time ap¬
pointed, twelve men, difguifed in the habit of failors,.
entered the caftle with the goods and fuppofed mer¬
chant: and having inftantly killed the porter and cen-
tinels, Sir William Douglas, on a preconcerted fignal,
rulhed in with a band of armed men, and quickly made
himfelf mafter of the place, after having cut moft of
the garrifon im pieces.
The year 143713 remarkable for the execution of Cruel 1
the earl of Athol and his accomplices, who had a con-cutIoni
cern in the murder of James I. The crime, it muft
be owned, was execrable ; but the punilhment was al- james
together Ihocking to humanity. For three days fuc-
celfively the affaffins were tortured by putting on their
heads iron crowns heated red hot, diflocating their
joints, pinching their flefti with red hot pincers, and
carrying them in that dreadful fituation through the
ftreets upon hurdles. At laft an end was put to their
fufferings, by cutting them up alive, and fending the
parts of their mangled bodies to the principal towns of
the kingdom. ^
About the end of the 14th century it was cuftom-Ed;nbu<
ary to confider Edinburgh as the capital of the king- become <
dom. The town of Leith, with its harbour and mills,j
had been beftowed upon it by Robert I. in 1329 ; and Sc°l an
his grandfon John earl of Garrick, who afterwards
afeended the throne by the name of Robert III. con¬
ferred upon all the burgeffes the fingular privilege of
building
EDI
flburgii. building houfes in the caftle, upon the foie condition
-y—^ that they fhould be perfons of good fame j which we
mull undoubtedly confider as a proof that the number
of thefe burgeffes was at that time very fmall. In
1461, a very confiderable privilege was conferred on
the city by Henry VI. of England when in a Hate of
exile ; viz. that its inhabitants (hould have liberty to
trade to all the Englilh ports on the fame terms with
the city of London. This extraordinary privilege was
beftowed in confequence of the kindnefs with which
that king was treated in a vifit to the Scottifh
monarch at Edinburgh ; but as Henry was never re-
ftored, his gratitude was not attended with any bene¬
fit to this city. From this time, however, its privi¬
leges continued to be increafed from various caufes.
In 1482 the citizens had an opportunity of libe¬
rating King James from the oppreffion of his nobles,
by whom he had been impriloned in the caftle. On
this account the provoft was by that monarch made
hereditary high Iheriff within the city, an office which
he continues Hill to enjoy. The council at the
fame time were invefted with the power of making
laws and ftatutes for the government of the city 5 and
the trades, as a teftimony of the royal gratitude for
their loyalty, received the banner known by the name
of the Blue Blanket; an enfign formerly capable of
producing great commotions, but which has not now
been difplayed for many years paft. Howrever, it Hill
exifts ; and the convener of the trades has the charge
g of keeping it.
nereal It was not long after the difcovery of America that
:ate im- the venereal difeafe, imported from that country, made
teif its way to Edinburgh. As early as 1497, only five
years after the voyage of Columbus, w7e find it looked
upon as a moll dreadful plague ; and the unhappy per¬
fons affefted with it were feparated as effedlually as pof-
fible from fociety. The place of their exile was Inch-
keith, a fmall ifland, near the middle of the Forth ;
which, fmall as it is, has a fpring of freffi water, and
^ now affords pafture to fome ffieep.
gin of By the overthrow of James IV. at the battle of
town Flowden, the city of Edinburgh was overwhelmed
ln*' with grief and confufion, that monarch having been
attended in his unfortunate expedition by the earl of
Angus, then provoft, with the reft of the magiftrates,
and a number of the principal inhabitants, moft of
whom perifhed in the battle. After this difafter, the
inhabitants being alarmed for the fafety of their city,
it was enabled that every fourth man ftiould keep
watch at night ; the fortifications of the town were
renewed, the wall being alfo extended in fuch a man¬
ner as to enclofe the Grafsmarket, and the field on
which Heriot’s Hofpital, the Grey Friars Church, and
Charity Workhoufe, Hand. On the eaft fide it was
made to enclofe the College, Infirmary, and High
School ; after which, turning to the north, it met the
old wall at the Netherbow port. After this alarm was
over, the inhabitants were gradually relieved from the
trouble of watching at night, and a certain number of
militia appointed to prevent difturbances ; who con¬
tinue to this day, and are known by the name of
the Town Guard. Before thefe new enclofures, moft
of the principal people lived in the Cowgate without
the wall; and the burying place was fituated where the
EDI
Parliament Clofe now is. In our days of peace, when Edinburgh,
no alarm of an enemy is at all probable, great part of ——y—
the walls, with all the gates, have been taken down,
and the city laid quite open, in order to afford more
ready paffage to the great concourfe of people with
whom the ftreet is daily filled. But at the period
we fpeak of, not only were the inhabitants much lefs
numerous by reafon of the fmall extent of the city,
but it was depopulated by a dreadful plague j fo that,
to flop if poffible the progrefs of the infedfion, all
houfes and (hops were (hut up for 14 days, and fome
where infedled perfons had died were pulled down al¬
together. s
In 1504, the traft of ground called the Bwrror/^^Eredtion of
Muir was totally overgrown with wood, though now wooden
it affords not the fmalleft veftige of having been in^011!6**
fuch a ftate. So great was the quantity at that time,
however, that it was enadted by the town council, that
whoever inclined to purchafe as much wood as was
fufficient to make a new front for their koufe, might
extend it feven feet into the ftreet. Thus the city
was in a (hort time filled with houfes of wood inftead
of ftone j by which, befides the inconvenience of ha¬
ving the ftreet narrowed 14 feet, and the beauty of
the whole entirely marred, it became much more lia¬
ble to accidents by fire : but almoft all thefe are now
pulled down 5 and in doing this a fingular tafte in the
mafonry which fupported them is faid to have been dif-
covered. 9
In 1542, a war with England having commenced Edinburgh
through the treachery of Cardinal Beaton, an Engliffi cleHroyecI
fleet of 200 fail entered the Forth j and having landed ^7
their forces, quickly made themfelves mailers of the 'a
towns of Leith and Edinburgh. They next attacked
the caftle, but were repulfed from it with lofs ; and by
this they were fo enraged, that they not only deftroyed
the towns of Edinburgh and Leith, but laid wafte the
country for a great way round.—Thefe towns, hoAV-
ever, fpeedily recovered from their ruinous ftate ; and,
in 1547, Leith was again burned by the Englifli after
the battle of Pinkey, but Edinburgh was fpared. ie
Several difturbances happened in this capital at the gjege 0f tj1<5
time of the Reformation, of which an account is given caftle in
under the article Scotland ; but none of thefe greatly C^ueen^Eli-
affeded the city till the year 1570, at which timezabeth’s
there was a civil war on account of Q. Mary’s forced
refignation. The regent, who Avas one of the contending
parties, bought the caftle from the perfidious governor
(Balfour) for 5000I. and the priory of Pittemveem.
He did not, hoAvever, long enjoy the fruits of this in¬
famous bargain. Sir William Kirkaldy, the neAV go¬
vernor, a man of great integrity and bravery, declared
for the queen. The city in the mean time Avas fome-
times in the hands of one party and fometimes of ano¬
ther ; during Avhich contentions, the inhabitants, as
may eafily be imagined, fuffered extremely. In the
year 1570 above mentioned, Queen Elizabeth fent a
body of 1000 foot and 300 horfe, under the command
of Sir William Drury, to affift the king’s party. The
caftle was fummoned to furrender j and feveral fldr-
miftes happened during the fpace of two years, in
which a kind of predatory war was carried on. At
laft a truce was agreed on till the month of January
l C72 : and this opportunity the earl of Morton, now
3T2 regent.
[ 515 ]
EDI [5
Edinburgh, regent,, made ufe of to build two bulwarks acrofs ike
w-\~— kigh ftreet, nearly oppofite to the tolbootb, to defend
the city from tlie fire of the cattle.
On the firft of January, early in the morning, the
governor began to cannonade the city. Some of the
cannon were pointed againll the fifh-'market, then
held on the high ftreet ; and the bullets falling among
the fifhes, fcattered them about in a furprifing manner,
and even drove them up fo high in the air, that they
fell down upon the tops of the houfes. This unufual
fpedtacle having brought a number of people out of
their houfes, fome of them were killed, and others
dangeroufly wounded. Some little time afterwards,
feveral houfes were fet on fire by fliot from the caftle,
and burned to the ground, which greatly enraged ihe
people againft the governor. A treaty was at laft con¬
cluded between the leaders of the oppofite factions 5
but Kirkaldy refufed to be comprehended in it The
regent therefore folicited the affifiance of Queen Eli¬
zabeth, and Sir William Drury was again fent into
Scotland with 1500 foot and a train of artillery. The
caftle was now belieged in form, and batteries railed
againft it in different places. i he governor defended
himfelf with great bravery for 33 days ; but finding
moft of the fortifications demolithed, the well choked
up with rubbifh, and all fupplies of water cut off, he
was obliged to furrender. Ihe Englifh general, in
the name of his miftrefs, promifed him honourable
treatment *, but the queen of England (harmfully gave
him up to the regent, by whom he was hanged.
Soon after this, the fpirit of fanaticifm, which fuc-
ceeded the Keformation, produced violent commotions,
not only in Edinburgh, but through the whole king¬
dom. The foundation of thefe diffurbances, and in¬
deed of moft others which have ever happened in Chri-
flendom on account of religion, was that pernicious
maxim of Popery, that the church is independent of
the ftate. It is not to be fuppofed that this maxim
xvas at all agreeable to the fovereign ; but fucb was
the attachment of the people to the doctrines of the
clergy, that King James found himfelf obliged to com¬
pound matters with them. This, however, anfwered the
11 purpofe but very indifferently 5 and at laft a violent up-
?he Cltyf roar was excited. The king was then fitting in the
difpleafure court of which was held in the tolbooth,
of Janies when a petition was prefented to him by fix perfons,
lamenting the dangers which threatened religion 5 and
being treated with very little refpeeft by one Bruce, a
minifter, his majefty afked who they were that dared
to convene againft his proclamation ? He was anfwer¬
ed by Lord Lindfay, that they dared to do more, and
would not fuffer religion to be overthrown. On this
the king perceiving a number of people crowding in¬
to the room, withdrew into another without making
any reply, ordering the door to be fhut. By this the
petitioners were fo much enraged, that on their return
to the church the moft furious refolutions were taken ;
and had it not been for the aftivity of Sir Alexander
Home the provoft, and Mr Watt the deacon convener,
who affembled the crafts in his majefly’s behalf, it is
more than probable that the door would have been
forced, and an end put to his life. This affront was
fo much refented by the king, that he thought proper
to declare Edinburgh an unfit place of refidence for the
court or the adminiftration of juftiee. In confequence
5 ] EDI
of this declaration, he commanded the college of juft ice, jy ,
the inferior judges, and the nobility and barons, to JaJ
retire from Edinburgh, and not to return without ex-
prefs licenfe. This unexpected declaration threw the
whole town into conftemalion, and brought back the
magiftrates and principal inhabitants to a ft ufe of their
duly. With the clergy it was far otherwife. They
railed againft the king in the moft furious manner,
and endeavouring to perfuade the people to take
up arms, the magiftrates were ordered to imprilbn
them ; but they elcaped by a timely flight. A de¬
putation of the moft refpe£!able burgelfes was then
lent to the king at Linlithgow, with a view to miti¬
gate his refentment. But he refufed to be pacified j
and on the laft day of December 1596 entered the
town between two rows of his foldiers who lined the
ftreets, while the citizens were commanded to keep
within their houfes. A convention of the eliates was
held in the tolbooth, before whom the magiftrates
made the moft abje£t fubmiflions, but in vain. The
convention declared one of the late tumults, in which
an attack had been made upon the king’s perfon, to
be high treafon ; and ordained, that if the magiftrates
did not find out the authors, the city itfelf ftiould be
lubjeifted to all the penalties due to that crime. It was
even propofed to raze the town to the foundation, and
eredt a pillar on the fpot where it had flood, as a mo¬
nument of its crimes. The inhabitants were now re¬
duced to the utmoft defpair ; but Queen Elizabeth in-
terpoling in behalf of the city, the king thought pro¬
per to abate fomewhat of his rigour. A criminal
profecution, however, was commenced, and the town
council were commanded to appear at Perth by the firft
of February. On their petition, the time for their ap¬
pearance was prolonged to the firft of March ; and the
attendance of 13 of the common council was declared
fufficient, provided they bad a proper commiflion from
the reft. The trial commenced on the 5th day of
the month j and one of the number having failed in his
attendance, the caufe was immediately decided againft
the council •, they were declared rebels, and their re¬
venues forfeited.
For 15 days the city continued in the utmoft confu-j; r
fion ; but, at laft, on their earneft fupplication, and of-ceivedint
fering to fubmit entirely to the king’s mercy, the com-favour‘
rounity were reftored on the following conditions, which
they had formerly proffered : That they fhould conti-
nue to make a moft diligent fearcb for the authors of
the tumult in order to bring them to condign punilh-
ment ; that none of the feditious minifters fhould be
allowed to return to their charges, and no others ad¬
mitted without his majefty’s confent j and that in the
el eft ion of their magiftrates they ftiould prefent a lift
of the candidates to the king and his lords of council
and feffion, whom his majefty and their lordfhips might
approve or rejeft at pleafure. To thefe conditions the
king now added fome others ; viz. that the houfes
which had been poffeffed by the minifters fhould be de¬
livered up to the king j and that the clergymen fhould
afterwards live difperfed through the town, every one
in his own parifti : That the town council houfe fhould
be appointed for accommodating the court of exche¬
quer : and that the town ftiould become bound for the
fafety of the lords of feflion from any attempts of the
burgeffes, under a penalty of 40,000.. merks j and, laftly,
that
£, bur^h.
T3.
p eeciings
o ,e ffli*
g ates,
i
M
ifturban.
s in the
ne of
larles I.
EDI [ 517 ] EDI
that the town fhould immediately pay 20,000 merks to
his majefty.
Upon thefe terms a reconciliation took place j which
appears to have been very complete, as the king not
only allowed the degraded minifters to be replaced, but
in 1610 conferred a mark of his favour on the town,
by allowing the provolt to have a fword of date carried
before him, and the magiftrates to wear gowns on pub¬
lic occafions. In 1618 he paid his laft vifit to this city,
when he was received with the molt extravagant pomp
and magnificence. See SCOTLAND.
The events which, during this period, regard the
internal police of the city, were principally the follow¬
ing. After the unfortunate battle at Pinkey, the ma-
gillrates, probably apprehending that now their power
was enlarged by reafon of the prefent calamity, pro¬
ceeded in fome refpe&s in a very arbitrary manner ;
forcing the inhabitants to furnilh materials for the pub¬
lic works •, enjoining merchants to bring home diver to
be coined at the mint ; and ordering lanterns to be
bung out at proper places to burn till nine at night,
&.c. Another invafion from England beingapprehended
in 1 558, the city railed 1450 men for its defence, among
whom there are faid to have been 200 tailors, fo that
their profeffion feems to have been in a very flourilhing
date at that time. During the didurbances which
happened at the Reformation, and of which a particular
account is given under the article Scotland, it was
enacted, that the figure of St Giles Ihould be cut out
of the town dandard, and that of a thidle inferted in its
place. It waslikewife enabled, that none but thole who
profeffed the reformed religion Ihould ferve in any office
whatever ; and the better to preferve the extraordinary
appearance of fanftity which tvas affedted, a pillar was
erected in the North Loch, for the purpofe of ducking
fornicators.
In 1595, the boys of the High School rofe againd
their matters; and fuch was the barbarifm of thofe
days, that one of thefe driplings diot a magidrate with
a pidol, who had come along with the red to reduce
them to obedience. The reafon of the uproar was,
that they were in that year refufed two vacations,
which had been cudomary in former times: however,
they were at lad obliged to fubmit, and ever fince have
been allowed one for about fix weeks in the autumn.
The fame year the houfe of one of the bailies was af-
faulted by the tradefmen’s fons, affided by journeymen
who had not received the freedom of the town ; he
efcaped with his life, but the offenders were baniuied
the city for ever.
In the beginning of the reign of Charles I. a pei-
feft harmony feems to have fubfitted between the court
and the city of Edinburgh ; for in 1627 King Charles I.
prefented the city with a new fword and gown to be
worn by the provott at the times appointed by his fa¬
ther James VI. Next year he paid a vifit to this ca¬
pital, and was received by the magidrates in a mod
pompous manner ; but foon after this the didurbances
arofe which were not terminated but by the death of
that unfortunate monarch. Thefe commenced on an
attempt of Charles to introduce Epifeopacy into the
kingdom ; and the fird dep towards this was ihe elec¬
tion of the three Lothians and part of Berwick into
a diocefe, Edinburgh being the epifcopal feat, and the
church of St Giles the cathedral. An account of tne
X
didurbance occafioned by the fird attempt to read the Edinburgh,
prayer book there, is given under the article Britain ; —1
but though the attempt was given over, the minds of
the people were not to be quieted. Next winter they
reforted to town in fuch multitudes, that the privy-
council thought proper to pubiifti two a£ls ; by one of
which the people were commanded, under fevere pe¬
nalties, to leave the town in . 24 hours ; and by the
other, the court of feffion was removed to Linlithgow.
The populace and their leaders were fo much enraged
by the latter, that Lord Traquair and fome of the bi-
ffiops narrowly efcaped with their lives; and next year
(1638) matters became dill more ferious. For now,
the king having provoked his fubje&s throughout all
Scotland with the innovations he attempted in religion,
Edinburgh was made the general place of rendezvous,
and the mod formidable affociations took place ; an
account of which has already been given under the ar¬
ticle Britain. Each of the towns in Scotland had a
copy ; and that which belonged to Edinburgh, crowd¬
ed with 5000 names, is dill preferved among the
records of the city. Notwithdanding this difagree-
roent, however, the king once more vifited Edinburgh
in 1641, and was entertained by the magidrates at an
expence of 12,0001. Scots. It does not appear that af¬
ter this the city was in any way particularly concerned
with the didurbances which followed either through¬
out the remainder of the reign of Charles I. the com¬
monwealth, or the reign of Charles II. In 1680 the
duke of York with his duchefs, the princefs Anne,
and the whole court of Scotland, were entertained by
the city in the Parliament Houfe, at the expence of
15,0001. Scots. At this time it is faid that the fcheme
of building the bridge over the North Loch was fird
proje8 1
E D I
16
Infamous
treatment
quis of
Momrofe.
notwithftanding the viftory gained at that time by the Ed'
court party, Sir Patrick Johnfton the provoft, who wS
voted {or the union, was obliged afterwards to leave 17
the country. In 1715 the city remained faithful toLoyalty
the royal caufe, and proper meafures were taken for itsthtaty
defence. A committee of fafety was appointed, thenj?.811
city guard increafed, and 400 men raifed at the ex¬
pence of the town. The trained bands likewife were
ordered out, 100 of whom mounted guard every night:
by which precautions the rebels were prevented from
attempting the city : they, however, made themfelves
mailers of the citadel of Leith 5 but fearing an attack
from the duke of Argyll, they abandoned it in the
night time. A fcheme was even laid for becoming
mailers of the caftle of Edinburgh ; for which purpofe
they bribed a ferjeant to place their fcaling ladders.
Thus fome of the rebels got up to the top of the walls
before any alarm was given j but in the mean time the
plot being difcovered by the ferjeant’s wife, her hulhand
was hanged over the place where he had attempted to
introduce the rebels. The expence of the armament
which the city had been at on this occafion amounted
to about 1700I. which was repaid by government in the
year 1721.
The loyalty of this city was ftill farther remarkable
in the year 1725, when difturbances were excited in
all parts of the kingdom, particularly in the city of
Glafgow, concerning the excife bill 5 for all remained
quiet in Edinburgh, notwithftanding the violent out¬
cries that were made elfewhere ; and fo remarkable was
the tranquillity in the metropolis, that government af¬
terwards returned thanks to the magiftrates for it. In
1736, however, the city had again the misfortune to fall
under the royal difpleafure, on the following account.*
Two fmugglers having been dete£led in ftealing their
own goods out of a cuftomhoufe, were condemned to
be hanged. The crime was looked upon as trivial 5
and therefore a general murmur prevailed among the
populace, which was no doubt heightened by the fol- jS
lowing accident. At that time it had been cuftomaryCaptain
for perfons condemned to die to be carried each Sun-Porteous
day to the church, called from that circumftance thee*ecu^}tj
Tolbooth church. The two prifoners juft mentioned**m<>
were condu6ted in the ufual way, guarded by three
foldiers, to prevent their making their efcape: but ha¬
ving once gone thither a little before the congrega¬
tion met, one of the prifoners feized one of the guards
in each hand, and the other in his teeth, calling out
to his companion to run *, which he immediately did
with fuch fpeed, that he foon got out of fight, and '
was never heard of afterwards. The perfon who had
thus procured the life of his companion without re¬
gard to his •wn, would no doubt become a general ob-
je6t of compaffion j and of courfe, when led to the
place of execution, the guard were feverely pelted by
the mob, and fome of them, according to the teftimony
of the witneffes who were fworn on the occafion, pretty
much wounded. By this Captain Porteous, who
commanded the guard, was fo much provoked, that he
gave orders to fire, by which fix people were killed
and eleven wounded. The evidence, however, even -
of the fa6I that the orders to fire were given, appears
not to have been altogether unexceptionable j never-
thelefs, on this he was tried and condemned to be exe¬
cuted. At that time the king was abfent in Hanover,
having
EDI [ 5,
v mreh. having left the regency in the hands of the queen j and
^ ^ ... ' cafe sf the unfortunate Porteous having been re-
prefented to her, (lie was pleafed to grant him a re¬
prieve : but fuch was the inveteracy of the people
againft him that they determined not to allow him to
avail himfelf of the royal clemency. On the night
previous to the day that had been appointed for his exe¬
cution, therefore, a number of people affembled, Hurt
the gates of the city, and burnt the door of the prifon,
the fame which the mob would formerly have broken
open in order to murder King James. They then took
out Porteous, whom it was found impoffible to refeue out
of their hands, though every method that the magi-
ftrates could take for that purpofe in fuch a confufion
was made ufe of. It was even proved that the member
of parliament went to the commander in chief, and re-
quefted that he would fend a party of foldiers to quell
the difturbance, but was abfolutely denied this requeft,
becaufe he could not produce a written order from the
provoft to this purport •, which, in the confufion then ex-
ifting in the city, could neither have been expefted to
be given by the provoft, nor would it have been fafe for
any perfon to have carried it about him. Thus the un¬
happy vi£Km was left in the hands of his executioners,
and being dragged by them to the place deftined for
receiving his fate, was hanged on a dyer’s fign poft. As
they had not brought a rope along with them, they
broke open a (hop where they knew they were to be
had ; and having taken out what they wanted, left the
money upon the table, and retired without committing
any other diforder.
C ern. Such an atrocious infult on government could not
n thigh- but be highly refented. A royal proclamation was if-
b cenied offering a pardon to any accomplice, and a re-
c izt ac- warcj 0£ 200I. to any perfon who would difeover one of
thofe concerned. The proclamation was ordered to be
read from every pulpit in Scotland the firft Sunday of
every month for a twelvemonth : but fo divided were
the people in their opinions about this matter, that ma¬
ny of the clergy hefitated exceedingly about complying
with the royal order, by which they were brought in
danger of being turned out of their livings ; while thofe
who complied were rendered fo unpopular, that their
fituation was rendered ftill worfe than the others.
All the efforts of government, however, were infuffi-
cient to produce any difeovery j. by which, no doubt,
the court was ftill more exafperated j and it was now
determined to execute vengeance on the magiftrates
and city at large. Alexander Wilfon, the provoft
at that time, was imprifoned three weeks before he
could be admitted to bail j after which, he and the
four bailies, with the lords of jufticiary, were order¬
ed to attend the houfs of peers at London. On
their arrival there a debate enfued, whether the lords
ihould attend in their robes or not ? but at laft it was
agreed that they fhould attend in their robes at the
bar. This, however, was refufed by their lordftiips,
who infifted that they (hould be examined within the
bar ; upon which the affair of their examination was
dropped altogether. A bill at laft paffed both houfes,
by which it was enafted that the city of Edinburgh
ihould be fined 2000I. for the benefit of Porteous’s
widow (though fhe was prevailed upon to accept of
1500!. for the whole) ; and the provoft w:as declared
incapable of ever ferving government again in any
4
9 ] EDI
capacity whatever. To prevent fuch cataftrophes in time Edinburgh,
coming, the town council enacted, that, on the firft v——'
appearance of an infurreftion, the chief officers in the
different focieties and corporations ffiould repair to the
council to receive the orders of the magiftrates for the
quelling of the tumult, under the penalty of 81. 6s. 8d.
for each omiffion. 2o
In I745» the city was inverted by the Pretender’s The city
army ; and on the 17th of September, the Netherbow taken by
gate being opened to let a coach pafs, a party of High-th*3 ret>els
landers, who had reached the gate undifeovered, ru(h-m
ed in, and took poffeffion of the city. The inhabi¬
tants were commanded to deliver up their arms at the
palace of Holyroodhoufe j a certain quantity of mili¬
tary ftores was required from the city, under pain of
military execution ; and an affeffment of 2s. 6d. upon
the pound was impofed upon the rea/ rents within the
city and liberties for defraying that expence.
The pretender’s army guarded all the avenues to the
caftle ; but no figns of hoftilities enfued till the 25th of
the month, when the garrifon being alarmed from fbme
unknown caufe, a number of cannon were difeharged
at the guard placed at the Weft Port, but with very
little effeft. This gave occafion to an order to the
guard at the Weigh-houfe, to prevent all intercourfe
between the city and caftle $ and then the governor
acquainted the provoft by letter, that unlefs the com¬
munication was preferved, he would be obliged to dif-
lodge the guard by means of artillery. A deputa¬
tion was next fent to the Pretender, acquainting him
with the danger the city was in, and entreating him to
withdraw the guard. With this he refufed to comply j
and the Highland centinels firing at fome people who
were carrying provifions into the caftle, a pretty fmart
cannonading enfued, which fet on fire feveral houfes,
killed fome people, and did other damage. The Pre¬
tender then confented to difmifs the guard, and the
cannonading ceafed. After the battle of Culloden, the
provoft of Edinburgh was obliged to ftand a very long
and fevere trial, firft at London and then at Edinburgh,
for not defending the city againft the rebels ; which,
from the fituation and extent of the walls, every one
muft have feen to be impoffible.
During this trial a very uncommon circumftance
happened ; the jury having fat two days, infifted that
they could fit no longer, and prayed for a ffiort refpite.
As the urgency of the cafe was apparent, and both par¬
ties agreed, the court, after long reafoning, adjourned
till the day following, taking the jury bound under a
penalty of 500I. each j when the court continued fitting
two days longer, and the jury were one day enclofed.
The event was, that the provoft was exculpated.
After the battle of Culloden the duke of Cumber¬
land caufed fourteen of the rebel ftandards to be burn¬
ed at the crofs; that of the Pretender was carried by
the common executioner, the others by chimney-fweep-
ers j the heralds proclaiming the names of the com¬
manders to whom they belonged as they were thrown
into the fire. At this time the city of Edinburgh felt
a temporary inconvenience from the elefiion of their ai
magiftrates not having taken place at the ufual time ; Govern-
fo that it became neceffary to apply to his majefty
for the reftoration of the government of the city. Thise(j'
was readily granted, the burgeffes being allowed a poll
tax; after which an entire new fet of magiftrates was
returnedj
23 r
Account of
tumults.
EDI t 5
Edinburgh, returned, all of them friends to the houfe of Hanover j
‘■‘"""V ' and foon after the freedom of the city in a gold box
was prefented to the duke of Cumberland.
With thefe tranfaftions all interferences betwixt go¬
vernment and the metropolis of Scotland were ended ;
the reft of its hiftory therefore only canfifts of inter¬
nal occurrences, the regulations made by its own ma-
giftrates for the benefit of the city, their applications
to government for leave to improve it, or the execution
of thefe improvements ; of which we ftiall now give a
22 brief detail.
Salary be- In year 1716, the city firft beftowed a fettled fa¬
llowed on jary on tjie ;n order to enable him to fupport
e prove .^e jjgn;ty Qf the fofl; magiftrate. This was at firrt
300I. ; was afterwards augmented to 500I. and now we
believe is a larger fum. In 1718 it was recommended
to the magiftrates to diftinguith themfelves by wearing
coats of black, velvet, for which they were allowed
10I. but this a£l being abrogated in 1754, gold chains
■were affigned as badges of their office, which they
continue to wear. Provoft Kincaid happened to die in
office in the year 1777; which being a rare occur¬
rence, perhaps the only one at that time of the kind to
be met with in the records of Edinburgh, he was bu¬
ried with great folemnity. A fimilar funeral proceftion
took place at the death of Mr Coulter in 1809.
Tumults have been frequent in Edinburgh, chiefly on
account of the dearnefs of provifions. In 1740 Bell’s
mills were firft attacked by the populace, and afterwards
Leith mills ; nor could the rioters be difperfed till the
military had fired among them and wounded three, of
whom one died *, and it was found neceflary to order
fome dragoons into the city in order to preferve tran¬
quillity. In 1742, another violent tumult took place,
owing to a cuftom of ftealing dead bodies from their
graves for anatomical purpofes, which had then become
common. The populace beat to arms, threatened deftruc*
tion to the furgeons $ and, in fpite of the efforts of the
magiftrates, demolifhed the houfe of the beadle at St
Cuthbert’s. In 1756 new difturbances, which required
the afliftance of the military, took place : the caufe at
this time was the impreffing of men for the war which
was then commencing. A difturbance was likewife ex¬
cited in 1760. This was occafioned by the footmen, who
till then were allowed to follow their matters into the
play houfe, and now took upon them to difturb the en¬
tertainment of the company ; the confequence of which
was, that they were turned out, and have ever fince
been obliged to wait for their mafters. In 1763 and
1765, the tumults on account of the price of provi-
fions were renewed ; many of the mealmongers had
their houfes broken open and their {hops deftroyed.
The magiftrates, as ufual, were obliged to call in a
party of dragoons to quell the difturbance ; but at the
fame time, to put an effeftual flop, as far as was in their
power, to thefe proceedings for the future, they gave
fecurity, that people who brought grain or provifion
into the market fhould be fecured in their property.
Since that time there have been no tumults direftly on
the account of provifions •, though in 1784 a terrible
riot and attack of a diftillery at Canonmills took place,
on a fuppofition that the diftillers enhanced the price of
meal by ufing unmalted grain. The attack was re¬
pelled by the fervants of the diftillery •, but the mob
could not be quelled until the Iheriff called the foldiers
urg
20 ] EDI
quartered in the caftle to his afliftonce. The fame
night a party of rioters fet out for Ford, a place ten
miles to the fouthward, where there was likewife a
large diftillery ; which, as there was none to make any
oppofition, they foon deftroyed. One man was killed
in this riot at Edinburgh by the fire of a fervant of the
diftillery, and feveral of the rioters were afterwards fe¬
cured and punifhed.
In the years 1778 and 1779 two very alarming, di¬
fturbances happened, which threatened a great deal of
bloodihed, though happily they were terminated with¬
out any. The firft was a mutiny of the earl of Sea~
forth’s Highland regiment, who were at this time quar¬
tered in the caftle. Thefe having been ordered to em¬
bark, for fome reafon or other unanimoufly refufed, and
potted themfelves on the top of Arthur’s feat, where
they continued for two days. Troops were colle&ed to
prevent their efcape, and the inhabitants were ordered
to keep within doors at the firft toll of the great bell,
which was to be a fignal of violence about to take
place ; but fortunately all the fears, naturally arifing
from the expectation of this event, were diflipated by an
accommodation. The other happened on account of the
attempt to repeal the penal laws againft the Papifts;
and was much more alarming than the other, as being
the eflFeCl of a premeditated fcheme and determined re-
folution to oppofe government. On the fecond of Febru¬
ary 1779 a mob afiembled in the evening, burned a
Popilh chapel, and plundered another. Next day they
renewed their depredations.; deftroying and carrying
off the books, furniture, &c. of feveral Popifli priefts
and others of that perfuafion. The riot continued all
that day, though the affiftance of the military was
called in ; but happily no lives were loft, nor was there
any firing. The city was afterwards obliged to make
good the damage fuftained by the Catholics on this
occafion, which was eftimated at 1500I. This year
alfo an unlucky accident happened at Leith. About
50 Highland recruits having refufed to embark, a par¬
ty of the South Fencibles was fent to take them pri-
foners. Unexpectedly, however, the Highlanders flood
upon their defence; when, after fome words, a firing
commenced on both fides, and about one half of the
Highlanders were killed and wounded, the remainder
being taken prifoners and carried to the caftle. Captain
Mansfield and two or three privates were killed in this
affray' ... . . 24
We ftiall clofe this hiftory of Edinburgh with a ge-General
neral account of the improvements which have lately liiftofy0!
taken place in it, and of which a particular defcriptiontlie im‘
will afterwards be given. Thefe began in the year^0^6
1753, when the foundation-ftone of the Exchange
was laid, at which time there was a grand proceflion,
and the greateft concourfe of people ever known in
Edinburgh. A triumphal areh ivas ereCled for the
purpofe, through which the proceffion patted, and me¬
dals were feattered among the populace. In 1756 the
high ftreet was cleared by the removal of the crofs;
though many regretted this, on account of its being a
very ancient and elegant building. In the middle it
had an unicorn placed on the top of a pillar 20 feet
high ; but this fine ornament was broken to pieces by
the giving way of the tackle by which it was attempt¬
ed to remove it. It is now again ereCled at Drum, a
feat formerly belonging to Lord Somerville, about four
miles
EDI [ s
, nburgt. miles from Edinburgh. In 1763 the firft ftone of the
Jilorth bridge was laid by Provoft Drummond ; and in
1767 an atl of parliament was obtained for extending
the royalty of the city over the fields to the north¬
ward, where the New Town is now fituated. About
the fame time a fpot of ground upon the fouth fide of
the town was purchafed by a private perfon for 1 200I.
which being feued out for building, gave rife to the
increafe of the town on that quarter *, and this pro¬
ceeded the more rapidly, as the houfes built there were
free from the dues impofed upon others fubjedd to the
royalty. In 1774 the foundation of the Regifter Of¬
fice was laid. In 1784 the projedd for rendering the
accefs to the town equally eafy on both fides was be¬
gun to be put in execution by laying the foundation of
the South bridge. At the fame time a great improve¬
ment wyas made by reducing the height of the ftreet
feveral feet all the way from the place where the crofs
flood to the Netherbow 5 by which means the afcent
is rendered more eafy, not only for carriages, but alfo
for perfons wdio walk on foot. At the fame time, the
ftreet was farther cleared by the removal of the town
guard houfe, which had long been complained of as an
encumbrance. Within thefe three years (1805) part
of the Luckenbooths has been removed, and it is ftill far¬
ther in contemplation to remove the whole with the
prifon. When this is accompliftred, with other im¬
provements by which it mult neceflarily be accom¬
panied, it is to be queftioned w hether any city in Bri¬
tain wall be able to vie with Edinburgh in elegance and
beauty.
Having thus given a concife hiitory of the city from
its earlielt foundation, we ftrall now7 proceed to defcribe
it in its molt improved ftate.
Edinburgh is fituated upon a fteep hill, rifing from
eaft to weft, and terminating in a high and inacceflrble
rock, upon which the caftle Hands. At the ealt end
or lower extremity of this hill Hands the abbey of
Holyroodhoufe, or king’s palace, diftant from the
caftle upwards of a mile} and betwixt which, along
the top of the ridge, and almoft in a ftraight line, runs
the high ftreet. On each fide, and parallel to this
ridge or hill, is another ridge of ground lower than
that in the middle, and which does not extend fo far
to the eaft j that on the fouth being intercepted by Sa-
lifbury rocks and Arthur’s feat, a hill of about 800
feet of perpendicular height } and that on the north by
the Calton hill, confiderably lower than Arthur’s feat :
fo that the fituation of this city is moft lingular and
romantic ; the eaft or lower part of the town lying be¬
tween two hills ; and the w7eft or higher part rifing up
towards a third hill, little inferior in height to the hign-
eft of the other two, upon which, as has been obferved,
icription
Edin-
'gh-
the caftle is built, and overlooks the town.
The buildings of the town terminate at the diftance
of about 200 yards from the caftle gate j wdfich fpace
affords a moft delightful as well as convenient and
healthful w7alk to the inhabitants. The profpedl from
this fpot is perhaps the fineft anywhere to be met with,
for extent, beauty, and variety.
In the valley or hollow betwixt the mid and the fouth
ridges, and nearly parallel to the high ftreet, is another
ftreet called the Cowgate j and the town has now ex¬
tended itfelf over moft part of that fouth ridge alfo.
Vojl. VII. Part II.
21 ] EDI
Betwixt the mid and the north ridges was a loch, which, Edinburgh-
till of very late, terminated the town on that lide. From v ' f
the high ftreet towards the loch on the north, and
Cowgate on the fouth, run narrow crofs ftreets or lanes,
called wynds and clofes, which grow fteeper and fteeper
the farther weft or nearer the caftle } fo that, were it
not for the clofenefs and great height of the buildings,
this city, from its fituation and plan, might naturally be
expected to be the beft aired, as well as the cleaneft, in
Europe. The former, notwithftanding thefe difad-
vantages, it enjoys in an eminent degree ‘7 but we can¬
not compliment it upon the latter, notwithftanding every
poflible means has been ufed by the magiftrates for that
purpofe.
The fteepnefs of the afcent makes the accefs to the
high ftreet from the north and fouth very difficult j
which no doubt greatly retarded the enlargement of
the city. To remedy this inconvenience on the north,
and with a view to extend the town on that quarter, a
moft elegant bridge has been thrown over the North
Loch, which joins the north ridge to the middle of the
high ftreet, by fo eafy an afcent as one in fixteen j
and in purfuance of the defign, a plan of a new town
to the north was fixed upon, and is now nearly finiffied,
with an elegance and tafte that does honour to this
country. In like manner, to facilitate the accefs from
the fouth fide, a bridge has been thrown over the val¬
ley through which the Cowgate runs j which, if not
equally elegant with the North bridge, is certainly as
convenient. 26
The gradual increafe of the city of Edinburgh may Account of^
in fome degree be underftood from the traces of its an- t^graduab
cient walls that ftill remain. James II. in I 450> Edinburgh,
bellowed on the community the privilege of fortify¬
ing the city with a wTall, and empowered them to levy
a tax upon the inhabitants for defraying the expence.
When the city was firit fortified, the wall reached no
further than the prefent water-houfe, or refervoir, on
the caftle hill: from thence to the foot of Halker -
fton’s wynd, juft below the new bridge, the city was
defended by the North Loch j an inconfiderable morals,
which, being formerly overflowed, formed a fmall lake
that hath fince been drained. From this place to the
foot of Leith wynd, it does not appear how the city
was fortified ? but from the foot of Leith wynd to the
Nether-bow port it was defended only by a range of
houfes j and wffien thefe had became ruinous, a wall wras
built in their place. The original wall of Edinburgh,
therefore, began at the foot of the north-ealt rock ol
the caftle. Here it was ftrengthened by a fmall fortrefs,
the ruins of which are ftill to be feen, and are called the
Weil-houfe Tower, from their having a fpring in their
neighbourhood. When the wrall came oppolite to the
refervoir, it was carried quite acrofs the hill, having a
gate on the top for making a communication between
the towm and caftle. In going down the hill, it went
flanting in an oblique direction to the firft angle m
going down the Weft-bow, where was a gate, named
the Upper-bow Port, one of the hooks of which ftill
remains. Thence it proceeded eaftward in fuch a man¬
ner, as would have cut oft not only all the Cowgate,
but fome part of the parliament houfe ; and being con¬
tinued as far as the Mint clofe, it turned to the north-
eaft, and connected itfelf with the buildings on the
3 U north
EDI [ 522 ] EDI
jj^inbnrgfi. north iide of the high ftreet, where was the original
w—y——' Nether-bow Port, about 50 yards well from that which
afterwards went by the fame name.
Soon after the building of this wall, a new ftreet
was formed on the outftde of it, named the Cowgate,
which in the 16th century became the refidence of the
nobility, the fenators of the college of juftice, and other
perfons of the firft diftindlion. After the fatal battle
of Flowden, however, the inhabitants of the Cowgate
became very anxious to have themfelves defended by
a wall as well as the reft. The wall of the city was
therefore extended to its prefent limits. This new
wall begins on the fouth-eaft ftde of the rock on which
the caftle is built, and to which the town wall comes
quite clofe. From thence it defcends obliquely to the
Weft Port ■ then afcends part of a hill on the other
ftde, called the High Riggs ; after which, it runs eaft-
ward -with but little alteration in its courfe, to the
Brifto and' Potter-row ports, and from thence to the
Pleafance. Here it takes a northerly direction, which
it keeps from thence to the Cowgate port j after which
the enclofure is completed to the Nether-bow by the
houfes of St Mary’s wynd. The original Nether-bow
port being found not well adapted for defence was
pulled down, and’a new one built in 1571 by the ad¬
herents of (^ueen Mary. In 1606, the late hand-
fome building was eredled about 50 yards below the
place where the former flood. It was two ftories high,
and had an elegant fpire in the middle ; but being
thought to encumber the ftreet, and the whole build¬
ing being in a crazy lituation, it was pulled down by
order of the magiftrates in 1764.
In the original wall of Edinburgh there was, as has
been already obferved, a port on the Caftle hill. Oil
the extenfion of the wall, after building the houfes in
the Cowgate, this gate was pulled down. That in the
upper or Weft-bow flood for a much longer time, and
was pulled down -within the memory of fome perfons
lately or perhaps flill living. Belides thefe, there was
a third, about 50 yards above the head of the Canon-
gate ; but whether there were any more, is uncertain.
The ports or gates of the new walls were, 1. The IVefl
Port, fituated at the extremity of the Grafs Market 3
beyond which lies a fuburb of the town and a borough
of regality, called Porjburgh. Next to this is a wicket,
ftruck out of the town wall in 1744, for the purpofe
of making an eafter communication between the town
and the public walks in the meadows, than by Brifto
port. The next to this was Brijlo Port, built in 1515 3
beyond which lies a fuburb called Brijio Street. At a
fmalldiftancefrom Brifto was the Potter-row Port, which
took this name from a manufactory of earthen ware in
the neighbourhood. Formerly it was called Kirk of
Field Port. Between this and the Cowgate port flood
another, called St Mary's IVynd Port, which extended
from call to weft acrofs the foot of the Pleafance, and
which was demolilhed only fince the middle of the laft
century. Clofe to the middle of this flood the Cow¬
gate Port; which opened a communication between the
Cowgate and St Mary’s wynd, and the Pleafance.
The Nether-bow Port has been already fpoken of. At
the foot of Leith wynd was another gate, known by
the name of Leith Wynd Port; and within it was a
wicket giving accefs to the church of Trinity College,
and which ftill remains. At the fcot of Halkerfton’s
wynd was another, which, as well as the former, was Edinbnrq
built about the year 1560. Both of thefe were pulled —
down fome years ago, and all the reft in 1785. Ano¬
ther ftill remains at the foot of the Canongate, known
by the name of the Water-gate.
For 250 years the city of Edinburgh occupied the
fame fpace of ground, and it is but very lately that its
limits have been fo confiderably enlarged. In the
middle of the 16th century, it is defcribed as extending
in length about an Italian mile, and about half as much
in breadth 3 which anfwers very nearly to its prefent
limits, the late enlargements only excepted. This fpace
of ground, however, was not at that time occupied in
the manner it is at prefent. The houfes were neither
fo high nor fo crowded upon each other as they are now.
This was a confequence of the number of inhabitants
increaling, which has occalioned the railing of the
houfes to fuch a height as is perhaps not to be paral¬
leled in any other part of the world. Till the time of
the Reformation, the burying ground of the city
extended over all the fpace occupied by the Par¬
liament fquare, and from thence to the Cowgate.
The lands lying to the fouthward of the Cowgate were
chiefly laid out in gardens belonging to the convent of
Black friars, and the church of St Mary in the Field.
Thefe extended almoit from the Pleafance to the Pot-
terrow port. From the Brifto to the Weft port the
ground was laid out in gardens belonging to the Gray
friars. The magiftrates, on their application to Queen
Mary, obtained a grant of the Gray friars gardens for a
burying place 3 for which it was given as a reafon, that
they were fomewhat diftant from the town. Here,
however, it muft be underftood, that thefe gardens
were diftant from the houfes, and not without the
walls 3 for they had been inclofed by them long be¬
fore. In the time of James I. the houfes within the
walls feem to have been in general, if not univerfal-
ly, covered with thatch or broom 3 and not above
20 feet high. Even in the year 1621, thefe roofs
were fo common, that they were prohibited by aft
of parliament, in order to prevent accidents from fire.
In the middle of the laft century, there were nei¬
ther courts nor fquares in Edinburgh. The Parlia¬
ment clofe or fquare is the oldeft of this kind in the
city. Miln’s fquare, James’s court, &c. were built
long after ; and Argyll’s and Brown’s fquares about
the years 1750 or 1760. ^
The vVeru Town was projefted in the year 1752; New
but as the magiftrates could not then procure an ex-Town,
tenfion of the royalty, the execution of the defign was
fufpended for fome time. In 1767, an aft was ob¬
tained, by which the royalty was extended over the
fields to the northward of the city 3 upon which ad*
vertifements were publilhed by the magiftrates, de¬
firing proper plans to be given in. Plans were given
in accordingly, and that defigned by Mr James Craig
architeft was adopted. Immediately afterwards, peo¬
ple were invited to purchafe lots from the town coun¬
cil 3 and fuch as purchafed became bound to conform
to the rules of the plan. In the mean time, however,
the town council had fecretly referved to themfelves a
privilege of departing from their own plan 3 which
they afterwards made ufe of in fuch a manner as pro¬
duced a law fuit. According to the plan held forth ,
to the purchafers, a canal was to be made through that
place
EDI [ 523 ] EDI
! jr ,burgh- place where the North Loch had been, and the bank on
w. -v——1 the north fi.de of it laid out in terraces : but inftead
of this, by an a61 of council, liberty was referved to
the town to build upon this fpot j and therefore, when
many gentlemen had built genteel houfes in the new
town on faith of the plan, they were furprifed to find
the fpot appointed for terraces and a canal, beginning
to be covered with mean irregular buildings, and
work houfes for tradefmen. This deviation was im¬
mediately complained of} but as the magiftrates Ihow-
ed no inclination to grant any redrefs, a profecution
was commenced againft them before the Lords of Sef-
fion. In that court the caufe was given agamft the
purfuers, who thereupon appealed to the Houfe of
Lords. Here the fentence of the Court of Seflion was
reverfed, and the caufe remitted to the confideration
of their Lordfhips. At laft, after an expenfive con-
teft, matters were accommodated. The principal
term of accommodation was, that fome part of the
ground was to be laid out in terraces and a canal;
but the time of difpofing it in that manner, was refer¬
red to the Lord Prefident of the Court of Seflion and
the Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer. The fall
of part of the bridge, hereafter mentioned, proved a
Very confiderable difadvantage to the New Town $ as it
neceflarily induced a fufpicion that the paffage, by
means of the bridge, could never be rendered fafe.
An overfight of the magiftrates proved of more effen-
tial detriment. A piece of ground lay to the fouth-
ward of the Old Town, in a fituation very proper for
building. This the magiftrates had an opportunity
of purchafing for 1200I j which, however, they ne-
gledled, and it was bought by a private perfon, who
immediately feued it out in lots for building, as has
been already mentioned. The magiftrates then began
to fee the confequence, namely, that this fpot being
free from the duties to which the royalty of Edinburgh
is fubje61, people wTould choofe to refide there rather
than in the New Town. Upon this they offered the
purchafer 2000I. for the ground for wdiich he had paid
1200I. •, but as he demanded 20,oool. the bargain
did not take place. Notwithftanding thefe difcourage-
ments, the New Town is now almoft finiflied } and
from the advantages of its fituation, and its being built
according to a regular plan, it hath undoubtedly a fupe
xiority over any city in Britain. By its fituation, how¬
ever, it is remarkably expofed to ftorms of wind, which,
at Edinburgh, fometimes rage with uncommon violence.
It has three ftreets, almoft a mile in length, running
from eaft to weft, interfe6!ed wdth crofs ftreets at proper
diftances. The moft northerly, called Queen's Street,
till lately that Heriot row was built, is IOO feet broad,
and commands an extenfive profpect of the Forth, the
county of Fife, and the fhipping in the river. That
called George's Street, which is in the middle, is no lefs
than 115 feet wide. It is terminated at each end by
two very elegant and extenfive fquares 5 that on the eaft
end is called St Andrew's Square; the other, which is
not yet finiflied, is called Charlotte's Square. Prince’s
ftreet is the moft- foutherly •, and extends from the
northern extremity of the bridge, quite to the weft end
of the town. It has only been finiihed this year (1805).
From the weft end of Prince’s ftreet, a fpacious road
has been lately opened to join the two .roads to Glai-
gow by Airdrie and Whitburn. This has greatly im- EJinburgn,
proved the approach to the town from the weft.
The moft remarkable public buildings in Edinburgh
are— . 28
I. The Cajlle. This Hands on a high rock, acceflible Public
only on the eaft fide. On all others it is very fteep, and
in fome places perpendicular. It is about 300 feet high
from its bafe : fo that, before the invention of artillery,
it might well have been deemed impregnable j though
the event {bowed that it was not. The entry to this
fortrefs is defended by an outer barrier of pallifadoes j
within this is a dry ditch, draw-bridge, and gate, de¬
fended by two batteries which flank it; and the whole
is commanded by a half-moon mounted with brafs
cannon, carrying balls of 12 pounds. Beyond thefe
are two gate-ways, the firft of which is very ftrong,
and has two portculiffes. Immediately beyond the fe-
cond gate way, on the right hand, is a battery mount¬
ed with brafs cannon, carrying balls of 12 and 18
pounds weight. On the north fide are a mortar and
fome gun batteries. The upper part of the caftle
contains a half-moon battery, a chapel, a parade for
exercife, and a number of houfes in the form of a fquare,
which are laid out in barracks for the officers. Be-
fides thefe there are other barracks fufficient to con¬
tain 1000 men •, a powder magazine, bomb proof; a
grand arfenal, capable of containing 8000 Hand of
arms j and other apartments for the fame ufe, which
can contain 22,000 more : fo that 30,000 Hand of
arms may be conveniently lodged in this caftle, On
the eaft fide of the fquare above mentioned, -were for¬
merly royal apartments *, in one of which King James
VI. was born, and which is ftill (flown to thofe who
vifit the caftle. In another, the regalia of Scotland
were depofited on the 26th of March 17075 but as
they were never (flown to any body, a (ufpicion has
arifen that they were carried to London, perhaps du¬
ring the rebellions I7I5 or I apartment was
opened in 1794 by an order from government, in pre¬
fence of the firft civil officers of the crown, as the lord
prefident of the court of (effion, the lord juftice clerk,
&c. but no part of the regalia was found.
The governor of the caftle is generally a nobleman,
whofe place is worth about 1000I. a-year 5 and that of
deputy governor, 500I. This laft refides in the houfe ap¬
pointed for the governor, as the latter never inhabits it.
There is alfo a fort-major, a (lore-keeper, mafter gunner,
and chaplain 5 but as this laft does not refide in the caftle,
worffiip is feldom performed in the chapel. I he parlia¬
ment houfe was formerly included in the great (quare
on the top, and the royal gardens were in the marfti
afterwards called the North Lech ; the king’s (tables be¬
ing on the fouth fide, where the houfes ftill retain the
name, and the place where the barns were ftill retain
the name of Caftlebarns.
The caftle is defended by a company of invalids, and
four or five hundred men belonging to fome marching
regiment, though it can accommodate 1000, as above
mentioned 5 and this number has been fometimes kept
in it. Its natural ftrength of fituation was not fufficient
to render it impregnable, even before the invention of
artillery, as we have already obferved 5 much lefs would
it be capable of fecuring it againft the attacks of a mo¬
dern army well provided with cannon. It could not, i»
3 U 2 aii
E D I
Edinburgh, all probability, withftand, even for a few hours, a well-
u*—““v""”” direfted bombardment: for no part but the powder
magazine is capable of refilling thefe deftru£live ma¬
chines 5 and the fplinters from the rock on which the
caltle is built, could not fail to render them Hill more
formidable. Befides, the water of the well, which is
very bad, and drawn up from a depth of 100 feet, is
apt to fubfide on the continued difcharge of artillery,
which produces a concufilon in the rock.
2. The Palace of Ilolyroodhoufe. This, though much
negledted, is the only royal habitation in Scotland
that is not entirely in ruins. It is a handfome fquare of
230 feet in the infide, furrounded with piazzas, The
front, facing the weft, confifts of two double towers
joined by a beautiful low building, adorned with a
double baluftrade above. The gate-way in the middle
is decorated with double Hone columns, fupporting a
cupola in the middle, reprefenting an imperial crown,
with a clock underneath. On the right hand is the
great ftaircafe which leads to the council chamber and
the royal apartments. Thefe are large and fpacious, but
unfurnilhed : in one of them the Scotch peers meet to
cleft 16 of their number to reprefent them in parliament.
. The gallery is on the left hand, and meafures 150 feet by
27 J. It is adorned with the fuppofed portraits of all the
kings of Scotland. In the apartments of the duke of
Hamilton, which he poffeffes as hereditary keeper of
the palace, Queen Mary’s bed of crimfon danT&lk, bor¬
dered with green fringes and taffels, is ftill to be feen,
but almoft reduced to rags. Here alfo ftrangers are
Ihown a piece of wainfcot hung upon hinges, which
opens to a trap ftair communicating with the apart¬
ments below. Through this palfage Harnley and the
other confpirators ruftied in to murder the unhappy
Rizzio. Towards the outward door of thefe apart¬
ments are large dulky fpots on the floor, faid to be
occafioned by Rizzio’s blood, winch could never be
walhed out. In the lodgings afligned to Lord Dun-
more is a pifture by Van Dyke, efteemed a mafter-
ly performance, of King Charles I. and his queen go¬
ing. a-hunting. There are likewife the portraits of
their prefent majefties at full length by Ramfay. The
lodgings above the royal apartments are occupied by
the duke of Argyll as heritable mafter of the houfe-
hold.
The front of this palace is two ftories high 5 the
roof flat} but at each end the front projefts, and is or¬
namented with circular towers at the angles. Here
the building is .much higher, and the reft of the palace
is three hones in height. The north-w7eft towers wrere
built by James V. for his own refidence : his name is
ftill to be feen below a niche in one of thefe towers.
During the minority of Queen Mary, this palace was
buraed by the Englifh 5 but foon after repaired and
enlarged beyond its prefent fize. At that time it
confifted of five courts, the moft wefterly of which
was the largeft. It wras bounded on the eaft by the
front of the palace, which occupied the fame fpace it
does at prefent j but the building itfelf extended fur¬
ther to the fouth. At the north-weft corner was a
ftrong gate with Gothic pillars, arches, and towers,
part of which was not long ago pulled down. Great
part.of the palace was burnt by Cromwell’s foldiers •
but it was repaired and altered into the prefent form
after the Reftoratien. The fabric was planned by Sir
[ 524 1
E D I
William Bruce a celebrated architeft, and executed EdihWsi,
by Robert Mylne mafon. The environs of the palace
afford an . afylum for infolvent debtors j and adjoin¬
ing to it is an extenfive park, all of which is a ianc-
tuary.
The abbey church was formerly called the manajlery
of Holyroodhoufc, and built by King David I. in 1128.
He gave it the name of Hohyroodhoufej in memory, as
is faid of his deliverance from an enraged hart, by the
miraculous interpofition of a crofs from heaven. This
monaftery he gave to the canons regular of St Augul-
tine : on whom he alfo beftowed the church of Edin¬
burgh caftle, with thofe of St Cuthbert’s, Corftorphin,
and Libberton, in the fliire of Mid Lothian, and of
Airtli in Stirlingftiire 5 the priories of St Mary’s Me
in Galloway, of Blantyre in Clydefdale, of Rowadill
in Rofs, and three others in the Weftern Lies. To
them he alfo granted the privilege of erefting a bo¬
rough between the town of Edinburgh and the church
of Holyroodhoufe. From thefe canons it had the
name of the Canongate, which it ftill retains. In this
new borough they had a right to hold markets. They
had alfo portions of land in different parts, with a moft
extenfive jurifdiftion, and right of trial by duel, and
fire and water ordeal. They had alfo certain re¬
venues payable out of the exchequer and other funds,
with fifhings, and the privilege of erefting mills
on the water of Leith, which ftill retain the name
of Canon jnills. Other grants and privileges were be¬
ftowed by fucceeding fovereigns; fo that it was deem¬
ed the richeft religious foundation in Scotland. At
the Reformation, its annual revenues were 442 bolls
of wheat, 640 bolls of bear, 560 bolls of oats, 500
capons, two dozen of hens, as many falmon, 1 2 loads
of fait 5 befides a great number of fwine, and about
25°1. fterling in money. At the Reformation, the
fuperiority of North Leith, part of the Pleafance, the
barony of Broughton, and the Canongate, were veiled
m the earl of Roxburgh ; and were purchafed from
him by the town council of Edinburgh in 1636. In
I544> t^le church fuffered confiderably by the invafion
of the Engliftr) but was fpeedily repaired. At the
Reftoration, King Charles II. ordered the church to be
fet apart as a chapel royal, and prohibited its ufe as a
common pariih church for the future. It was then fit¬
ted up in a very elegant manner. A throne was
erefted for the fovereign, and 12 ftalls for the knights
of the order of the thiftle : but as mafs had been ce¬
lebrated in it in the reign of James VII. and it had
an organ, with a fpire, and a fine chime of bells on
the. weft fide, the Prefbyterians at the Revolution
entirely deftroyed its ornaments, and left nothing but
the bare walls.—Through time, the roof of the church
became ruinous 3 on which the duke of Hamilton re-
prefented its condition to the barons of exchequer, and
craved that it might be repaired. This requeft was
complied with : but the architeft and mafon who were
employed, covered the roof with thick flag ftones,
which foon impaired the fabric 3 and on the 2d of
December 1768, the roof fell in. Since that time, no
attempt has been made to repair it, and it is now en¬
tirely fallen to ruin.
The ruins of this church, however, are ftill fufficient
to difeover the excellency of the workmanlhip. Here
fome _of the kings of Scotland are interred 3 and an
odd
EDI [52
nburgh. odd kind of curiofity has been the oec.afion of expofmg
-v~*^ lome bones faid to be thofe of Lord Darnley and a
countefs of Roxburgh who died feveral hundred years
ago, Thofe faid to belong to the former were very
large, and the latter had feme fleth dried upon them.
The chapel was fitted up in the elegant manner above
mentioned by James VII. but fuch was the enthufiafm
of the mob, that they not only deftroyed the orna¬
ments, but tore up even the pavement, which was of
marble.
To the eaftward of the palace is the bowling green,
now entirely in diforder •, and behind it is a field called St
Ann's Yards. Beyond this is a piece of ground called the
King's Park; which undoubtedly was formerly over¬
grown with wood, though now there is not a fmgle
tree in it. It is about three miles in circumference;
and was firfl enclofed by James V. It contains the
rocky hills of Atrhur's Seat and Salilbury Craigs,
which lafl afford an inexhauftible done quarry *, and up¬
on the north fide of the hill Hands an old ruinous cha¬
pel, dedicated to St Anthony. The flones are ufed in
building, as well as for paving the ilreets and highways.
The park was mortgaged to the family of Haddington
for a debt due to them *, and by the prefent earl has
been divided into a number of enclofures by Hone dykes
railed at a confiderable expence. A good number of
flieep and fome black cattle are fed upon it) and it is
now rented at 1500I. annually.
3. St Giles's Church, is a beautiful Gothic building,
meafuring in length 206 feet. At the weH end, its
breadth is no; in the middle, 129 ; and at the eaH
end, 76 feet. It has a very elevated fituation, and
is adorned with a lofty fquare tower ; from the Tides
and corners of which rife arches of figured Hone
work : thefe meeting with each other in the middle,
complete the figure of an imperial crown, the top of
which terminates in a pointed fpire. T he whole height
of this tower is 161 feet.
This is the moil ancient church in Edinburgh. From
a paffage in an old author called Simeon Dunelmenjis,
fome conjeflure it to have been built before the year
854 ; but we do not find exprefs mention made of it
oefore 1359. The tutelar faint of this church, and of
Edinburgh, was St Giles, a native of Greece. He
lived in the fixth century, and wps defeended of an
illuHrious family. On the death of his parents,., he
gave all his eflate to the poor ; and travelled into
France, where he retired into a wildernefs near the
conflux of the Rhone with the fea, and continued there
three years. Having obtained the reputation of ex¬
traordinary fanftity, various miracles were attributed
to him ; and he founded a monaHery in Languedoc,
known long after by the name of St Giles's.—In the
reign of James II. Mr Preflon of Gorton, a gentleman
whofe defeendants Hill poffefs an eHate in the county
of Edinburgh, got pofTeflion of the arm of this faint;
which relick he bequeathed to the church of Edin¬
burgh. In gratitude for this donation, the magillrates
granted a charter in favour of Mr PreHon’s heirs, by
which the neared heir of the name of PreHon was en¬
titled to carry it in all proceffions. At the fame
time, the magiflrates obliged themfelves to found
an altar in the church of St Giles’s, and appoint a
chaplain for celebrating an annual mafs for the foul of
Mr PreHon; and likewife, that a tablet, containing
5 ] E D ^
his arms, and an account of his pious donation, fhould Edinburgh,
be put up in'the chapel.'—St Giles’s was fird limply a ' ' v
parifh church, of which the bifhop of Lindisfarn or Ho¬
ly Illand, in the county of Northumberland, was pa¬
tron. He was fucceeded in the patronage by the ab¬
bot and canons of Dunfermline, and they by the ma-
gidrates of Edinburgh, In 1466, it was eredled into*'
a collegiate church by James III. At the Reforma¬
tion, the church was, for the greater convenience, di¬
vided into feveral parts. The four principal ones are
appropriated to divine worlhip, the leffer ones to
other purpofes. At the fame time the religious uten-
fils belonging to this church were feized by the magi-
Hrates. They were,—St Giles’s arm, enflirined in-
filver, weighing five pounds three ounces and a half; a
diver chalice, or communion cup, weighing 23 ounces y
the great eucharijl or communion cup, with golden we ike
andjlones; two cruets of 25 ounces; a golden bell, with a.
heart, of four ounces and a half; a golden unicorn ; a
golden pix, to keep the hod ; a fmall golden heart,,
with two pearls ; a diamond ring ; a diver chalice, pa-
tine, and fpoon, of 3 2 ounces and a half: a commu¬
nion table cloth of gold brocade ; St Giles's coat, with
a little piece of red velvet which hung at his feet; a
round diver eucharijl; two diver confers, of three
pounds dfteen ounces; a diver fhip for incenfe ; a large
diver crofs, with its bafe, weighing dxteen pounds thir¬
teen ounces and a half; a triangular diver lamp ; two
diver candleflicks, of feven pounds three ounces ; other
two, of eight pounds thirteen ounces ; a diver chalice
gilt, of 20^ ounces; a diver chalice and crofs, of 75
ounces ; beddes the prieHs robes, and other veflments,.
of gold brocade, crimfon velvet embroidered with gold, -
and green damafk.—Thefe were all fold, and part of
the money applied to the repairs of the church ; the
red was added to the funds of the corporation.
In the Heeple of St Giles’s church are three large
bells brought from Holland in 1621 ; the biggeH.
weighing 2000lb. the fecond 700, and the third 500.-
There are alfo a fet of mude bells, which play every
day between one and two o’clock, or at any time in the
cafe of rejoicings. The cathedral is divided by parti¬
tion walls ; and the principal apartments are ufed as
four feparate churches, which are diHinguifhed by the
names of the New or High Church, the Old Church, the
Tolbooth Church, which is contiguous to the prifon, and
the Little Church, or Haddow's Hole Church, which
derives its latter name from a gentleman wrho had been
condned in it. The principal dividon is called the
High Church, which has been elegantly repaired and
newr feated. There is a very elegant and dnely orna¬
mented feat for his majelly, with a canopy fupported .
by four Corinthian pillars decorated in high tafle. This
feat is ufed by the king’s commiflioner during the
time the General Aflembly fits. On the right hand is
a feat for the lord high conHable of Scotland, whofe
office it is to keep the peace within doors in his ma-
jeily’s prefence ; it being the duty of the earl mardial
to do the fame without. The feats belonging to the
lords of council and feffion are on the right of the lord
high conflable ; and on the left of the throne wras a feat
for the lord high chancellor of Scotland; but that office
being now aboliffied, the feat is occupied by others.
On the left of this dt the barons of exchequer; and,
to the left of them, the lord provoH, magiflrates, ..
E D I [ 526 1 EDI
Edinburgh, and town council. The pulpit, king’s feat, and gal-
■' leries, are covered with crimfon velvet with gold and
filk fringes.
The aide of St Giles’s church is fitted up with feats
for the general affembly who meet here ; and there
is a throne for his majefty’s commilTioner with a cano¬
py of crimfon filk damafk, having the king’s arms em¬
broidered with gold, prefented by the late Lord Cath-
cart to his fucceflor in office. In this church is a mo¬
nument dedicated to the memory of Lord Napier, baron
of Merchifton, well known as the inventor of loga¬
rithms j a fecond to the earl of Murray, regent of
Scotland during the minority of James VI. } and a
third to the great marquis of Montrofe.
4. The 'Parliament Houfe, in the great hall of which
the Scottifh parliament ufed to affemble, is a magnificent
building. The hall is 1 23 feet long and 42 broad, with
a fine arched roof of oak, painted and gilded. In this the
lawyers and agents now attend the courts, and fingle
judges fit to determine caufes in the firft inftance, or to
prepare them for the whole court, wdio fit in an inner
room formerly appropriated to the privy council. This
inner apartment has been lately repaired and very com-
modioully fitted up. In a niche of the wall is placed a
fine marble ftatue of Prefident Forbes, erefted at the
expence of the faculty of advocates. There are alfo
full-length portraits of King William III. Queen Mary
his confort, and Queen Anne, all done by Sir Godfrey
Kneller 5 alfo of George I. John duke of Argyll and
Archibald duke of Argyll, by Mr Aikman of Cairney.
Above flairs were formerly the court of exchequer
and treafury chamber, with the different offices belong¬
ing to that department} but thefe were removed in
1803 to the apartments in the royal exchange occu¬
pied by the cullomhoufe j and beknv is one of the moll
valuable libraries in Great Britain, belonging to the
faculty of advocates. Befides 30,000 printed volumes,
there are many fcarce and valuable manufcripts, me-
-dals, and coins : here is alfo an entire mummy in its ori¬
ginal chefl, prefented to the faculty (at the expence
of 300I.) by the earl of Morton, late prelident to
the Royal Society. As thefe rooms are immediately
below the hall where the parliament fat, they are fub-
je£l to a fearch by the lord high conllable of Scot¬
land ever lince the gunpowder plot} and this is fpeci-
fied in the gift from the city to the faculty. This li¬
brary was founded, in the year 1682, by Sir George
Mackenzie lord advocate. Among other privileges, it
is entitled to a copy of every book entered in Stationers
hall. Before the great door is a noble equeflrian ftatue
of Charles II. the proportions of which are reckoned ex¬
ceedingly juft. Over the entrance are the arms of Scot¬
land, with Mercy and Truth on each fide for fup-
porters.
The court of feffion, the fupreme tribunal in Scot¬
land, conftfts of 15 judges, who lit on a circular bench,
clothed in purple robes turned up with crimfon velvet.
Six of thefe are lords of the jufticiarv, and go the cir¬
cuit twice a-year j but, in that capacity, they wear
icarlet robes turned up with white fatin.
5. The Tolbooth u'as erected in 1561, not for the
purpofes merely of a prifon, but likewife for the ac¬
commodation of the parliament and other courts ; but
it has ftnce become fo very unfit for any of thefe
• purpofes, that it is now propofed to pull it down, and
1
rebuild it in feme other place, efpecially as it is very
inconvenient in its prefent fituation on account of its
encumbering the ftreet. The provoft is captain of the
tolbooth, wfith a gaoler under him : and the latter has
a monopoly of all the provifions for the prifoners ; a
circumftance which muft certainly be confidered as a
grievous oppreffion, thofe who are leaft able to pur-
chafe them being thus obliged to do fo at the higheft
price. There is a chaplain who has a falary of 30I. a-
year.
6. Bridewell. “ On the Calton-hill, to be feen from
the North Bridge, is a correftion-houfe or Bridewell,
built within thefe few years. It is a ftrong ftone fabric.
The principal part of the building is in the form of the
letter D, with a houfe for the governor at fome diftance
oppofite to the northern or reftilineal part of it. The
whole is furrounded by lofty walls, betwixt which and
the houfe is an area laid out as a garden.
“ This is faid to be one of the moft complete buildings
of the kind in Britain. It confifts of five ftories j the
uppermoft of which is ufed as an hofpital for fick pri¬
foners and for ftore-rooms, &c. The other four ftories
are laid out in the following manner : A paffage goes
along the middle of the femicircular part of the build¬
ing with apartments on each hand. The apartments
on the outward fide of the curvature are fmaller than
thofe on the inner fide. They are double the number,
and are ufed as feparate bed-chambers for each of the
perfons confined. The apartments on the inner fide of
the femicircle, of wffiich there are thirteen in each
ftory, are allotted for labour. They have a grate in
front, and look into the inner court. Oppofite to
them, in the flat fide of the building, is a dark apart¬
ment with narrow windows, from which, without be¬
ing feen, the governor can fee how the prifoners in the
apartments for work are employed. The court, or
fpace in the middle between the flat and femicircular
part of the building, is roofed in at the top ; and a
great part of it is covered with glafs, fo as to light the
whole. On the floor of the area is a ftove, which
during winter heats the whole apartments allotted to
labour. There is alfo a pulpit, from witich a chaplain
preaches on Sundays ; and the prifoners come into the
front apartments to attend the fervice.
“ The bed-chambers, looking outwards to the country,
are lighted by a long narrow window in each. The
window is glazed. The frame in which the glafs is
fixed is of iron. It turns on pivots fixed at the top
and bottom, fo as to be opened and ffiut at pleafure.
Each bed-chamber, which is about eight feet long by
feven broad, is furnifhed with a bed and a bible. The
frame of the bed is of iron, the bed confifts of a ftraw
mattrefs of the belt quality. The whole floors and par¬
titions of the building are of ftone. No wTood is ufed
excepting for the doors of the apartments. There are
cells, how’ever, for folitary confinement for male cri¬
minals, in which the frames of the beds are of wood,
left, by breaking them, tools or weapons of a danger¬
ous nature Ihould be obtained. Large cifterns, fupplied
with water from the city’s refervoir, are placed at the
top of the houfe, from which the water is diftributed to
the different ftories, and to a kitchen, wralhing houfe,
and baths, on the ground floor.
“ The inftitution is managed w ith great care. Befides
being fuperintended by the magiftrates of Edinburgh,
the
nburgh.
EDI [ 527 ]
the fheriff of the county once each month vifits every Provoil Drummond
wtles of
tland)
.1.
14-
corner of it. It is kept in a {late of the molt perfect
cleannefs. The prifoners, when firlt received, are
clothed in a uniform belonging to the place ; and their
own clothes, after being cleaned, are preferved for them
till their difmiifion. They remain during the day in
the apartments allotted to labour, from which they are
always difmifled as foon as it becomes dark to their bed¬
chambers. The women fpin, and the men pick oakum.
Their food conilfts of oatmeal porridge with fmall beer
for breakfaft and fupper j and for dinner, of bfbth
made of fat and vegetables, refembling what in Scotland
is called (hearer's kail (reaper’s broth). Thofe that
exert any tolerable indultry are allowed bread to their
broth, and alfo a larger portion of porridge. Only
one death has occurred in the houfe during the lall
four years ; and in that cafe the individual who died
had come into Bridewell under a complication of dif-
eafes. In truth, the food, clothing, good air, and
comfortable lodging, which are enjoyed in this place,
are far fuperior to what the greater number of inha¬
bitants can expeft to obtain on their return to the
world at large. To relide here, therefore, is a punifh-
ment from moral and not from phyfical caufes} that is
to fay, becaufe it is attended with the lofs of freedom
and of fociety, and becaufe it is a place of infamy.”
7. There is a hall in the Writers Court belonging
to the clerks to his majefty’s fignet, where there is alfo
an odice for the buiinefs of the fignet. The office of
keeper of the fignet is very lucrative, and he is allowed
a depute and clerks under him. Before any one enters
into this fociety he mull attend the college for two
years, and ferve five years as an apprentice to one of
the fociety. There is a very excellent library belong¬
ing to this hall, which is rapidly increafing, as every
one who enters mull pay 10I. towards it. He pays al¬
io tool, of apprentice fee, and 100I. when he enters.
8. The Exchange is a large and elegant budding,
with a court of about 90 feet fquare in the middle.
On the north fide are piazzas where people can wralk
under cover, the other three fides being laid out in
{hops *, but the merchants have never made ufe of it to
meet in, ftill {landing in the ilreet as formerly. The
back part of the building formerly ufed for the general
cullomhoufe of Scotland, v/here the commiffioners met
to tranfa£l bufinefs, is now occupied by the offices con-
nefted with the Exchequer. They had above 20 offices
for the different departments, to which the accefs is by
a hanging flair 60 feet in height. In looking over the
window before he afcends this Hair, a ilranger is fur-
prifed to find himfelf already 40 feet from the ground,
which is owing to the declivity on which the Ex¬
change is built. The fine manfion of Bellevue north
of the New Town is now converted into apartments for
the cuflomhoufe.
The Truftees Office for the improvement of fiffieries
and manufactures in Scotland is in the fonth-weft cor¬
ner of the Exchange j the fund under their manage¬
ment being part of the equivalent money given to Scot¬
land at the Union. This is diflributed in premiums
amongft thofe who appear to have made any confider-
able improvement in the arts.
9. The North Bridge, which forms the main paffage
of communication betwixt the Old and New Towns,
was founded, as has already been obferved, in 17^3 ky
EDI
, but the contrail for building it Edinburgh.
was not figned till Auguft 21. 1765. The architedl
was Mr William Mylne, who agreed with the town
council of Edinburgh to finiffi the work for 10,140!.
and to uphold it for 10 years. It w^as alfo to be finifh-
ed before Martinmas 1769 : but on the 3d of Auguft
that year, when the work was nearly completed, the
vaults and fide walls on the fouth fell down, and five
people were buried in the ruins. This misfortune wras
occafioned by the foundation having been laid, not up¬
on the folid earth, but upon the rubbilh of the houfes
which had long before been built on the north fide of
the High ftreet, and which had been thrown out into
the hollow to the northward. Of this rubbifh there
were no lefs than eight feet between the foundation of
the bridge and the folid -earth. Befides this deficiency
in the foundation, an immenfe load of earth which had
been laid over the vaults and arches in order to raife
the bridge to a proper level, had no doubt contributed
to produce the cataftrophe above mentioned.—The
bridge was repaired, by pulling down fome parts of the
fide walls, and afterwards rebuilding them; ftrengthen-
ing them in others with chain bars ; removing the
quantity of earth laid upon the vaults, and fupplying
its place wdth hollow arches, &c. The whole was fup-
ported at the fouth end by very ftrong buttrefles and
counterforts on each fide ; but on the north it has only
a fingle fupport.—The wffiole length of the bridge,
from the High ftreet in the Old Town to Prince’s ftreet
in the Newq is 11 25 feet; the total length of the piers
and arches is 310 feet. The wddth of the three great
arches is 72 feet each j of the piers, 134- feet; and of
the fmall arches, each 20 feet. The height of the great
arches, from the top of the parapet to the bafe, is 68
feet; the breadth of the bridge wnthin the wmll over
the arches is 40 feet, and the breadth at each end 50
feet.—On the fouthern extremity of this bridge Hands
the General Poll Office for Scotland j a neat plain build¬
ing, with a proper number of apartments for the bufi- -
nefs, and a houfe for the fecretary.
The communication betwixt the two towms by means
of this bridge, though very complete and convenient
for fuch as lived in certain parts of either, wTas yet
found infufficient for thofe who inhabit the weftern
diftrifts. Another bridge being therefore neceffary,
it was propofed to fill up the valley occafionally with
the rubbiih dug out in making the foundations of
houfes in the Newr Town; and fo great w^as the quan¬
tity, that this vTas accomplifhed fo as to be fit for the
paffage of carriages in little more than four years and
a half. -
10. The South Bridge is direflly oppofite to the other,
fo as to make but one ftreet, eroding that called the
High Street almoft at right angles. It confiits of 19
arches of different fizes : but only one of them is vi-
fible, viz. the large one over the Cowgate 5 and even
this is fmall in comparifon with thofe of the North
Bridge, being no more than 30 feet wide and 31 feet
high. On the fouth it terminates at the Univerfity
on one hand, and the Royal Infirmary on the other.
The Tron Church, properly called Ckriji Church, Hands
at the northern extremity, facing the High Ilreet, and
in the middle of what is now called Hunter's Square,
in memory of the worthy chief magidrate who plan¬
ned thofe improvements, but did not live to lee them-
executed.
E D I
Edinburgh, executed. On the weft fide of this fquare the Mer-
chant Company have built a very handfome hall for
the occafional meetings of their members. This bridge
was erefted with a defign to give an eafy accels to the
great number of ftreets and fquares on the fouth fide,
as well as to the country on that quarter from whence
the city is fupplied with coals. The ftreet On the top
is fuppofed to be as regular as any in Europe j every
houfe being of the fame dimenfions, excepting that
between every two of the ordinary conftruction there
is one with a pediment on the top, in order to prevent
that famenefs of appearance which would otherwife
take place. So great was the rage for purchafing
ground on each fide of this bridge for building, that
the areas fold by public auction at 50I. per foot in
front. By this the community will undoubtedly be
confiderable gainers $ and the proprietors hope to
indemnify themfelves for their extraordinary expence
by the vaft fale of goods fuppofed to attend the ftiops
in that part of the town ; though this feems fomewhat
more dubious than the former.
11. T he Concert Hal/, called alfo St Cecilia''s Hall,
{lands in Niddery’s ftreet j and was built in 1762,
after the model of the great opera theatre in Parma.
The plan was drawn by Sir Robert Mylne, architedl
of Blackfriars bridge. The mufical room is of an oval
form, the ceiling being a concave elliptical dome, light¬
ed from the top by a lanthorn. The feats are ranged in
the form of an amphitheatre \ and are capable of con¬
taining 500 perfons, befides leaving a large area in the
middle of the room. The orcheftra is at the upper end,
and is terminated by an-elegant organ.
The mufical fociety was firft inftituted in the year
1728. Before that time, feveral gentlemen had formed
a weekly club at a tavern kept by one Steil, a great
lover of mufic, and a good finger of Scots fongs. Here
the common entertainment confifted in playing on the
harpiichord and violin the concertos and fonatas of
,Handel, juft then publifhed. The meeting, however,
loon becoming numerous, they inftituted, in the year
above mentioned, a fociety of 70 members, for the
purpofe of holding a weekly concert. The affairs of
the fociety were regulated by a governor, deputy-go¬
vernor, treafurer, and five dire&ors, who were annual¬
ly chofen by the members. The meetings were
continued ever fince that time on much the fame
footing as at firft, and the number of members in-
creafed to 200, The weekly concerts were on Friday j
the tickets being given gratis by the direftors, and at¬
tention paid in the firft place to ftrangers. Oratorios
were occafionally performed throughout the year ; and
the principal performers had alfo benefit concerts.
The band were excellent in their feveral departments j
‘ind feveral of the members being alfo good performers
took their part in the orcheftra. There were al¬
ways many applications on the occafion of a vacancy j
and fuch was generally the number of candidates, that
it was no eafy matter to be admitted. This fociety,
however, has been long neglefted, and the hall difpofed’
of for other purpofes.
1 2. The Umverjity. In the year ij8i, a grant was
obtained from King James VI. for founding a college
Of. univerfity within the city of Edinburgh j and the
.citizens, aided by various donations from well-difpofed
per Ions, purchafed a fituation for the intended new
2
E D I
college, confifting of part of the areas, chambers, and EdinW.
church of the collegiate provoftry and prebends of the
Kirk-a-freld, otherwife called Templum et Pra-feciura
San 61 a- Maria in camp is, lying on the fouth fide of the
city. Next year, a charter of confirmation and erec¬
tion was obtained alfo from King James VI. from
which the college to be built did afterwards derive all
the privileges of an univerfity.
In 1583? the provoft, magiftrates, and council, the
patrons^ of this new inftitution, prepared the place
im the beft manner they could for. the reception of
teachers and ftudents $ and in the month of October
the fame year, Robert Rollock, whom they had in¬
vited from a profefibrihip in St Salvator’s College in
the univerfity of St Andrew’s, began to teach in the
new college of Edinburgh. Other profeffbrs were
foon after elefted} and in the year 15.86, Rollock was
appointed principal of the college, and the following
year alfo profeflor of divinity, immediately after he
had conferred the degree of M. A. on the ftudents
who had been under his tuition for four years. The
offices of principal and profeflbr of divinity remained
united till the year 1620.
In the 1617, King James VI. haring vifited Scot¬
land after his acceffion to the crowm of England, com¬
manded the principal and regents of the college of
Edinburgh to attend him in Stirling caftle j and after
they had there held a folemn philofophical deputation
in the royal prefence, his majefty was fo much fatif-
fied with their appearance, that he defired their col¬
lege for the future might be called The College of King
"James, which name it ftill bears in all its diplomas or
public deeds.
For feveral years the college confifted only of a
principal, w ho was alfo profefibr of divinity, with four
regents or profeflbrs of philofophy. Each of thefe
regents inftrufted one clafs of ftudents for four years,
in Latin, Greek, fchool logic, mathematics, ethics,
and phyfics, and graduated them at the conclufion of
the fourth courfe. A profeflbr of humanity or Latin
was afterwards appointed, who prepared the ftudents
for entering under the tuition of the regents j alfo a
profeflbr of mathematics, and a profeflbr of Hebrew
or Oriental languages. It was not till about the year
1710 that the four regents began to be confined each
to a particular profeffion j fince which time they have
been commonly ftyled Profejfors of Greek, Logic, Mo.
ral Philofophy, and Natural Philofophy.—The firft me¬
dical profeflbrs inftituted at Edinburgh, were Sir Ro-
bert Sibbald and Dodlor Archibald Pitcairn, in the
year 1685 *. Thefe, however, were only titular pro-1 „„
fefibrs 5 and for 30 years afterwards, a fummer le&ure .-p'LL?*
on the officinal plants, and the diffeclion of a human J*,.
body once in two or three years, completed the whole
courfe of medical education at Edinburgh. In 1720,
an attempt was made to teach the different branches
of phyfic regularly j wffiich fucceeded fo well, that
ever fince, the reputation of the univeriity as a fchool
for medicine hath been conftantly increaiing, both in
the ifland of Britain, and even among dillant nations.
The college is endow'ed with a very fine library,
founded in 1580 by Mr Clement Little advocate,
wTho bequeathed it to the town council. They order¬
ed a houfe to be built for it in the neighbourhood of
St Giles’s church, where it was for ibme time kept
under
\
[ 528 ]
EDI [5
under the care of the eldeft minifter of Edinburgh,
but was afterwards removed to the college. This col-
leftion is enriched, as well as others of a fimilar kind,
by receiving a copy of every book entered in Station¬
ers hall, according to the llatute for the encourage¬
ment of authors. Befides this, the only fund it has
is the money paid by all the ftudents at the univerlity,
except thofe of divinity, upon their being matriculated ;
and a fum of 5I. given by each proftflfor at his admif-
fion. The amount of thefe fums is uncertain, but has
been eftimated at about 150I. annually. The ftudents
of divinity, who pay nothing to this library, have one
belonging to their own particular department.
Here are fhown two Ikulls, one almoft as thin as pa¬
per, pretended to be that of the celebrated George Bu¬
chanan ; and, by way of contraft, another faid to have
been that of an idiot, and which is exceflively thick.
Here alfo are preferved the original proteft againft the
council of Conftance for burning John Hufs and Jerome
of Prague in 1417 5 the original contradf of Queen
Mary with the dauphin of France, and feme valuable
coins and medals. There are alfo feveral portraits j
particularly of Robert Rollock the firfl: principal of the
univerfity, King James VI. John Napier the inventor
of logarithms, John Knox, Principal Carftairs, Mr
Thomfon the author of the Seafons, &c. The mufeum
contains a good collection of natural curiofities, the
number of which is daily increafing. The anatomical
preparations are worth notice, as are alfo thofe belong¬
ing to the profeffbr of midwifery.
The celebrity of this college has been greatly owing
to the uniform attention of the magiftracy in filling up
the vacant chairs with men of known abilities in their
refpeCtive departments.
The univerfity of Edinburgh “ having been inftituted
after the Reformation, among a frugal people that had
no love for ecclefiaftical dignities, it differs greatly
from the wealthy foundations which receive the name
of univerjities and colleges in England, or in the ca¬
tholic countries of the continent of Europe. The uni¬
verfity of Edinburgh confifts of a fingle college, which
enjoys the privilege of conferring degrees. It confifts
of a principal, with a falary of ml. 2s. o-|d. whofe of¬
fice is in a great meafure nominal, and of a profeffor in
each of the following departments :
29 ]
E D I
Salaries Edinburgh.
Faculty of Theology.
Salaries.
L.l6l 2 C4
100 O O
119 12 8
Divinity -
Church hiftory
Oriental languages
Faculty of Law.
Law of Nature and Nations.—Salary
variable, but always above - 300 o 6
Civil Law - - - . 100 00
Scots Law - - _ . 100 o 0
Civil Hiftory and Antiquities - 100 o o
Faculty of Medicine.
Anatomy and Surgery - jo 0 o
PraCtice of Medicine - - —
Botany - - - - 77 6-^
Materia Medica - .
Chemiftrv - > , . __ „
Vol. VII. Part II.
Theory of Medicine
Midwifery - - -
Clinical Surgery
Military Surgery
Medical Jurifprudence -
Natural Hiftory - - -
Faculty of Arts.
Moral Philofophy
Rhetoric and Belles Lettres
Greek - *■
Latin -
Natural Philofophy
Mathematics - - -
Practical Aftronomy *
Logic - - -
Agriculture - -
100
100
100
70
102
70
52
52
52
1I3
100
52
50
4
o
4
10
4
6
o
5f
o
5t
8
o
5t
o
“ Of thefe, the profeffors of church hiftory and natu¬
ral hiftory, botany, clinical and military furgery, me¬
dical jurifprudence, aftronomy, law of nature and na¬
tions, and rhetoric, are in the gift of the crown. The
profeffor of agriculture was nominated by Sir William
Pultney, founder of the inftitution. The remaining
chairs are in the gift of the town-council of Edinburgh.
Befides thefe claffes here enumerated, the medical pro-Beauties of
feffors alternately give clinical leCtures upon the cafes
of the patients in the royal infirmary of Edinburgh.”
The univerfity is now attended by not lefs than from
1200 to J 400 ftudents in the different departments of
fcience and literature.
The old buildings being very mean, and unfit for
the reception af fo many proftffors and ftudents. and
quite unfuitable to the dignity of fuch a flourilhing
univerfity, as well as inconfiftent with the improved
ftate of the city, the Lord Provoft, Magiftrates, and
Council, fet on foot a fubfcription for ereCling a new
ftruCIure, according to a defign of Robert Adam, Efq.
architeft. Part of the old fabric has in confequence
been pulled down, and the new building is already in
confiderable forwardnefs. The foundation (tone was
laid on Monday the 16th of November, with great fo-
lemnity, by the Right Hon. Francis Lord Napier,
grand mafter mafon of Scotland, in the prefence of
the Right Hon. the Lord Provoft, Magiftrates, and
Town Council of the city of Edinburgh, with the
principal, profeffors, and ftudents of the univerfity of
Edinburgh, a number of nobility and gentry, and
the mafters, officers, and brethren of all the lodges
of free mafons in the city and neighbourhood, who
marched in proceflion from the Parliament Houfe
down the High llreet. After the different mafonic
ceremonials were performed, two cryftal bottles, call
on purpofe at the glafs houfe of Leith, were deposited
in the foundation ftone. In one of thefe were put
different coins of the prefent reign, each of them be¬
ing previouffy enveloped in cryftal, in fuch an ingeni¬
ous manner, that the legend on the coins could be di-
ftinCHy read without breaking the cryftal. In the other
bottle were depofited feven rolls of vellum, containing
a ftiort account of the original foundation and prefent
ftate of the univerfity, together with feveral other pa¬
pers, in particular the different newfpapers, containing
advcrtifements relative to the college, &c. and a lift of
3 X the
EDI [ 53° 1 EDI
Edinburgh, the names of the principal and profeffors, alfo of the
iw—prefent lord provoft and magiftrates, and officers of
the grand lodge of Scotland. The bottles being care¬
fully fealed up, were covered with a plate of copper
wrapt in block tin 5 and upon the under fide of the
copper were engraved the arms of the city of Edin¬
burgh and the univerfity ; likewile the arms oi the
Right Hon. Lord Napier, grand mafter mafon of Scot¬
land. Upon the upper fide, a Latin infcription, of
which the following is a copy :
ANNUENTE DEO OPT. MAX.
REGNANTE GEORGIO III PRINCIPE
MUNIFICENTISSIMO j
ACADEMIC ED1NBURGENSIS
iEDIBUS,
INITIO QUIDEM HUM1LEIMIS,
£T JAM, POST DUO SECULA, PENE RUIN05FS J
NOVI HUJUS iEDIFlCII,
UBI COMMOD1TATI SIMUL ET ELEGANTIiE,
TANTO DOCTRINARUM DOM1CILIO
DIGNAE
CONSULERETUR,
FR1MUM LAPIDEM POSUIT,
PLAUDENTE INGENTI OMNIUM ORDINU1VP
FREQUENTIA,
VIR NORILISSIMUS
FRANCISCUS DOMINUS NAPIER,
REIPUB. ARCHITECTONICS APUD SCOTOS
CURIO MAXIMUS :
XVI. KAL DECEMB.
ANNO SALUTIS HUMANS MDCCLXXXIX.
SRS ARCHITECTONICS I0013CCLXXXIX..
CONSULT THOMA ELDER,
ACADEMIS PRSFECTO GULIELMO
ROBERTSON,
ARCHITECTO ROBERTO ADAM<,„
q. F. F. Q. S.
The eaft and weft fronts of this pile are to extend 255
feet, and the fouth and north 3a8. There are to be
hwufes for the principal and fix or feven of the profeffors.
The library is to be a room of 160 feet in length 5 the
mufeum for natural curiofities is to be of the fame
extent •, and the dimenfions of the hall for degrees and
public exercifes are about 90 feet by 30. There are
likewife to be an elegant and moft convenient anatomi-
# This is cal theatre * *, a chemical laboratory ; and large rooms
sow finifh- for mftruments and experiments for the profeffors of
mathematics, natural philofophy, and agriculture. The.
whole, when finifhed, if not the moft fplendid ftrufture
of the fort in Europe, will however be the completeft
and moft commodious. The progrefs of the building
has now (1804) flopped. The front was completed by
the aid of royal munificence j but after an expendi¬
ture of 50,000!. it is fuppofed that not more than one
third of the plan has been executed.
The botanical garden belonging to the univerfity is
fituated at the diftance of about a mile, on the road
between Edinburgh and Leith. It confifts of about five
acres of ground ; and is furnilhed with a great variety
of plants, many of them brought from the moft diftant
quarters of the globe. The profeffor is botanift to the
king, and receives a falary of 120I. annually for the
fupport of the garden, A monument, to the memory
of the celebrated botanift Linnaeus, was ere&ed here by Edinbu 1
the late Dr Hope, who firft planned the garden, and -v—t
brought it to perfection.
The univerfity of Edinburgh, like the others in this
kingdom, fends one member to the General Affembly
of the church of Scotland j and the widows of the
profeffors have a right to the funds of thofe of mini-
iters, the profeffors being truftees on that fund along
with the preihytery of Edinburgh.
“ In the year 1772, the Board of Truftees for the en¬
couragement of Manufa6tures, &c. in Scotland, ap¬
pointed Mr Alexander Runciman, painter, to teach 2Q
boys or girls drawing, "allowing him a yearly falary of
120I. He was fucceeded in this office by Mr Allan, to
whom followed Mr Graham. This inftitution being
appropriated for the ufe of manufactures, is not proper¬
ly a fchool of painting. In this laft art, however, very
eminent teachers are to be found in Edinburgh, but n»
public eftablilhment exifts for its encouragement.
“ Near the Univerfity there is alfo a Riding School^
called the Royal Academy for teaching Exercifes. The
teacher of this academy receives a falary of 200I. a-
year from the crown, and is accommodated with a ri¬
ding fchool of 120 feet in length by 40 in breadth*
and (tables to a confiderable extent.
“ In Edinburgh there is eftabliftied, in imitation of
that in London, a Royal Society, which has publifhed
fome volumes of tranfaCtions. It contains a number of
members of great refpedtability ; but in Edinburgh men
of letters are apt to be extremely jealous and unfociabl®
■with regard to each other.. This illiberality of temper/
prevents the Royal Society from being of much value.
Great numbers of the moft accompliftied and aCtive
men of letters are unconnected with it, while it con¬
tains others who have been introduced to it merely by
their rank in the world, or the circumftance of having
attained to diflinguiftied literary fituations by the pa¬
tronage of men in power, who of late years have, in
this country, difplayed little of that anxiety to diferi-
minate and bring into notice men of literary talents, ^eautiis
which once formed the moft honourable charaCleriftic Seotland,
of the nobles and ftatefmen of Scotland.” 59*
13. The RoyalInfirmai'y was firft thought of by the
College of Phyficians in 1723. A fiftiing company
happening to be diffolved at that time, the partners
contributed fome of their flock, towards the eftablifti-
ment of the Infirmary. A fubfeription was alfo fet on
foot, and application made to the General Affembly to
recommend the fame throughout their jurifdiCHon.
This was readily complied with, and the affembly paff-
ed an a£l for that purpofe ; but very little regard was
paid to it by the clergy. Notwithftanding this, how¬
ever 2000L being procured, a fmall houfe was opened
for the reception of the fick poor in Auguft 1729. In
1736, the contributors towards the Infirmary were
ereCted' into a body corporate by royal ftatute ; and
after this the contributions increafed very confiderably :
by which means the managers were enabled to enlarge
their fcheme from time to time j and at laft to under¬
take the prefent magnificent ftruClure, the foundation
of which was laid in 1738. During 25 years, when
this inftitution was in its infancy, Lord Hopetoun be-
ftowed upon it an annuity of 400I. In 175°, Doc¬
tor Archibald Ker bequeathed to this incorporation
200I. a-year iii the ifland of Jamaica. In 1755, th®
lords,
n nborgli,
E D 1 [S3
lords of the treafury made a donation to it of 8000I.
which had been appointed for the fupport of invalids.
In return for this, the managers of the Infirmary con-
tfantly keep 60 beds in readinefs for the reception of
fick foldiers. This year alfo lick fervants began to be
admitted into the Infirmary, and a ward was fitted up
for their reception.
This inftitution, however, was more indebted to
■George Drummond, Efq. than to any other perfon. He
was feven times chofen lord provolt of Edinburgh j and
always direfled his attention to the improvement of the
city, particularly to that of the Royal Infirmary. So
fenfible were the managers of their obligations to him,
that, in their hall, they eredted a bull of him with this
infcription, “ George Drummond, to whom this coun¬
try is indebted for all the benefit which it derives from
the Royal Infirmary.”—In 1748, the flock of the In¬
firmary amounted to 5000I. ; in 1755, to 7076I. be-
fides the eftate left by Dodtor Ker ; in 1764, to
23,4261. ; and in 1778, to 27.074I.
The Royal Infirmary is attended by two phyficians
ehofen by the managers, who vifit their patients daily
in prefence of the lludents. All the members of the
College of Surgeons were obliged to attend in rota¬
tion, according to feniority. If any furgeon declined
attendance, he was not allowed to appoint a depute j
and the patients were committed to the care of one of
four afliflant furgeons, chofen annually by the managers :
this was formerly the mode of attendance, but the ma¬
nagers have in confequence of a decifion of the high
court of judicature affumed to tbemfelves the foie right
of eledting the furgeons.—From the year ] 762 to 1 769,
there were admitted 6261 patients ; which number ad¬
ded to 109 who were in the hofpital at the commence¬
ment of the year 1762, made, in all, 6370. Of thefe,
4395 vvt’re cured •, 358 died : the reft were either re¬
lieved, difmifl'ed incurable, for irregularities, or by
their own defire, or remained in the hofpital.— From
1770 to 1775, the patients annually admitted into the
Infirmary were, at an average, 1 567 3 of whom 63
died. In 1766, there were admitted 1668, of whom
57 died*, and in 1777, the number admitted was 1593,
and of deaths 52. In the year 1786, there were ad¬
mitted 1822 patients: Of thefe 1354 were cured $
166 relieved 3 84 died: the reft were either relieved,
difmiffed incurable, for irregularities, or by their own
defire.
The building confifts of a body and two wings, each
of them three ftories high, with an attic ftory and gar¬
rets, and a very elegant front. The body is 210 feet
long, and 36 broad in the middle, but at the ends only
24 feet broad. There is a buft of King George II. in
a Roman drefs, above the great door. The wings are
70 feet long, and 25 broad. In the centre is a large
ftaircafe, fo wide that ledan chairs may be carried
up. In the different wards, 228 patients may be ac¬
commodated, each in a different bed. There are
cold and hot baths for the patients, and alfo for the
citizens 3 and to thefe laft the patients are never ad¬
mitted.
Befides the apartments neceffary for the fick, there
are others for the officers and fervants belonging to the
houfe. There are likewife rooms for the managers, a
confulting room for the phyficians and furgeons, a
waiting room for the ftudents, and a theatre that will
i ] EDI
hold upwards of 200 people, for performing chirur-Edinburgh
gical operations. There is a military ward, fupport- v '
ed by the intereft of the 8000I. already mentioned ;
and in confequence of which a fmall guard is always
kept at the Infirmary. The wards for fick fervants
are fupported by colledlions at the church doors. Be¬
fides the furgical attendance already mentioned, there
are two phyficians belonging to the houfe, who are
eledted by the managers, and have a falary : there is
likewife a houfe furgeon and apothecary. Students
who attend the Infirmary, paid formerly 3I. 3s. which
is increafed to 5I. 5s. annually, which brings in a con-
fiderable revenue towards defraying the expence of the
houfe. Two wards are fet apart for the patients whofe
cafes are fuppofed to be molt interefting 3 and the me¬
dical profeffors in the univerfity give clinical lectures
upon them by rotation.
14. The Public Difpenfanj was founded by Dr Dun¬
can in 1776, for the poor whofe difeafes are of fuch a
nature as to render their admiffion into the Infirmary
either unneceflary or improper. Here the patients
receive advice gratis four days in the week 3 a regifter
is kept of the difeafes of each, and of the effes Hofpital has its name from the founder pointing moft of the great officers of ftate in Scotland, Edinburgh.
George Watfon, who was at firft clerk to Sir William
Dick provoft of Edinburgh in 1676, then accountant
of the bank of Scotland j after that he became receiver
of the city’s impolt on ale, treafurer to the Merchants
Maiden Hofpital, and to the Society for propagating
Chrilfian knowledge. Dying a bachelor in 1723, he
left 12,0001. for the maintenance and education of the
children and grandchildren of decayed members of
the merchant company of Edinburgh. The fcheme,
however, was not put into execution till the year 1738,
when the fum originally left had accumulated to
20,cool. The prefent building was then erefted, in
which about 60 boys are maintained and educated.
It is much lefs magnificent than Heriot’s Hofpital, but
the building is far from being defpicable. It ftands to
the fouthvvard of the city at a fmall diftance from
Heriot’s Hofpital, and was ere&ed at the expence of
5000I. : its prefent revenue is about 1700I. It is un¬
der the management of the mailer, affiftants, and trea¬
furer of the Merchant Company, four old bailies, the
old dean of guild, and the two minifter* of the Old
church. The boys are genteelly clothed and liberally
educated. Such as choofe an univerfity education are
allowed 10I. per annum for five years : thofe who go to
trades have 20I. allowed them for their apprentice fee,
and at the age of 25 years, if they have behaved pro¬
perly, and not contrafted marriage without conlentofthe
governors, they receive a bounty of 50I. 1 he boys are
under the immediate infpedlion of the treafurer, fchool-
xnafter, and houfekeeper.
20. The Merchants Maiden Hofpital was eftablilhed
by voluntary contribution about the end of the laft cen¬
tury, for the maintenance of young girls, daughters of
the merchants burgefles of Edinburgh. 1 he gover¬
nors were erefted into a body corporate, by aft of par¬
liament, in 1707. The annual revenue amounts to
1350I. Seventy girls are maintained in it ; who, up¬
on leaving the houfe, receive 3l' excePtin?
a few who are allowed 81. 6s. 8d. out of the funds of
the hofpital. The profits anting from work done in the
houfe are alfo divided among the girls, according to
their induftry.
21. The Trades Maiden Hofpital was founded in the
year 1704 by the incorporations of Edinburgh, for the
maintenance of the daughters of decayed members, on
a plan fimilar to that of the Merchants hofpital. To
this, as well as to the former, one Mrs Mary Erfkine,
a widow gentlewoman, contributed fo liberally, that
Hie was by the governors ilyled joint foundrefs of the
hofpital. Fifty girls are maintained in the houfe, who
pay of entry money ll. t3s* 4^-i anck when they
leave it, receive a bounty of 5I. 11s. i-^d. T. he re¬
venues are eftimated at 600I. a-year.
22. The Orphan Hofpital was planned in 1732’
Andrew Gairdner merchant, and other inhabitants.
It was promoted by the fociety for propagating Chri-
flian knowledge, by other focieties, by voluntary fub-
fcriptions, and a colleftion at the church doors. In
1733, the managers hired a houfe, took in 30 orphans,
maintained them, gave them inftruftions in reading
and writing, and taught them the weaving bufinels.
In 1735, they were erefted into a body corporate
by the town of Edinburgh : and, in 1742, they ob¬
tained a charter of ereftion from hts late majelty, ap-
and the heads of the different focieties in Edinburgh,
members of this corporation ’f with powers to them to
hold real property to the amount of 1000I. a-year.
The revenue is inconfiderable j but the inllitution is
fupported by the contributions of charitable perfons.
Into this hofpital orphans are received from any part
of the kingdom. None are admitted under feven, nor
continued in it after 14 years of age.
The orphan hofpital is fituated to the eaft of the
North bridge*, and is a handfome building, confifting
of a body and two wings, with a neat fpire, furnifhed
with a clock and two bells. The late worthy Mr
Howard admits, that this inftitution is one of the molt
ufeful charities in Europe, and is a pattern for all in-
ftitutions of the kind. The funds have been confider-
ably increafed, and the building greatly improved,
through the attention and exertions of Mr Thomas'J’od
formerly treafurer.
23. The Trinity Hofpital. This was originally found¬
ed and amply endowed by King James II.’s queen. At
the Reformation it was dripped of its revenues ; but
the regent afterwards beftowed them on the provolt of
Edinburgh, who gave them to the citizens for the ufe
of the poor. In 1585, the town council purchafed
from Robert Pont, at that time provoft of Trinity col¬
lege, his intereft in thefe fubjefts *, and the tranfaftion
was afterwards ratified by James VI. I he hofpital was
then repaired, and appointed for the reception of poor
old burgefles, their wives and unmarried children, not
under 50 years of age. In the year 1700, this hof¬
pital maintained 54 perfons ; but, fince that time, the
number has decreafed.—The revenue confifts in a
real eftate of lands and houfes, the grofs rents of which
are 762I. a year, and 5500I. lent out in bonds at 4 per
cent.
This hofpital is fituated at the foot of Leith wynd,,
and maintains about 50 of both fexes, who are com¬
fortably lodged, each having a room for themfelves.
They are fupplied with roaft «r boiled meat every day
for dinner, have money allowed them for clothes, and
like wife a fmall fum for pocket money. There is
a fmall library for their amufement, and they have a
chaplain to fay prayers. There are fome out-pen-
fioners who have 61. a-year, but thefe are difcouraged
by the governors. The funds are under the manage¬
ment of the town council.
24. The Charity Work houfe was erefted in 1743 by
voluntary contribution. It is a large plain building,
on the fouth fide of the city. Here the poor are em¬
ployed, and are allowed twopence out of every fhilling
they earn. The expence of this inftitution is fuppo-
fed not to be lefs than 40C0I. annually ; as about 700
perfons of both fexes, including children, are main¬
tained here, each of whom cannot be reckoned to colt
lefs than 4I. los. per annum *, and there are befides
300 out penfioners. The only permanent fund for de¬
fraying this expence is a tax of two per cent, on the
valued rents of the city, which may bring in about
600I. annually ; and there are other funds which yield
about 400I. The reft is derived from colleftions at
the church doors and voluntary contributions *, but as
thefe always fall ihort of what is requifite, reeourfe muft:
frequently be had to extraordinary bolleftions. 1 he-
fum arifing from the rents of the city, however, i»
conftantlyv
XL
D 1
•Edinburgh, ^onlla-.’ly inertafing ; but the members of the college
of jufiice are exempted from the tax.
25. “ i'o the fouth-weif of the callle, near a fuburb
called the Wrights Houfes, on the fite of a very ancient
building, which was demolilhed to make way for it,
Gil!efpie's Hofpital has lately been erefted. Its appel¬
lation is derived from the founder, an eminent manu-
fafturer of fnuff in Edinburgh. It is intended for the
fupport of aged perfons ; and thofe bedring the name
of the founder are preferred. It is a neat ftone build¬
ing, executed in a Ityle of moderate expence, with a
fmall tower in the centre and a parapet, and Gothic
turrets at fuitable diftances around the roof.
“ Befides thefe there are to be found in Edinburgh
feveral charitable eftablilhments, which, though not
furnilhed with coftly buildings, are not of a lefs bene¬
volent or valuable nature. Of thefe, one of the moll
diftinguilhed is the Hofpital or Workhoufe, or dfylum,
as it is called, for the Indujirious Blind; which is fup-
ported by the contributions of charitable perfons, and
by the price of the articles manufa£lured in it. Here
the blind are taught fuch trades as may enable them to
earn a fubfiftence, or at lead aid them in contributing
to their own fupport. They manufafture balkets,
matts, &c. $ and fome of them have been taught to
aft as weavers, for which purpofe they ufe the fly-
fhuttle.
‘‘ The Magdalene Afylum alfo deferves notice ; in
which a mod laudable attempt has of late years been
made, by a benevolent fociety, to reclaim, from vice
and mifery, women who have degraded themfelves by
public proditution, but who think fit to retire thither
with the view of abandoning their mode of life, and of
fupporting themfelves by indudry. This inditution is
managed with a degree of care and delicacy which does
the highed credit to its patrons. The objefts of this
chanty are kept concealed . they reap the fruits of
their own labour; and every effort is made to procure
-employment for them. In particular, needle-work of
all forts is executed in it in the neated manner ; and
linen is waflred, at moderate prices, for fuch perfons in
the city as think fit to tranfmit thefe articles to the fo-
-ciety.
“ Befides all thefe charities, there is an hofpital in
the city for Lying-in Women, under the care of the
profeffor of midwifery : which is an inditution analogous
to that of the Royal Infirmary.—There is a Society for
the Relief of the Defitute Sick, which has received con-
fiderable public countenance, though it has no appro¬
priate building or local edablifliment An inditution
of a peculiar nature, not unconnefted with the prefent
fubjeft called the Repoftory, ought not to pafs un¬
noticed. It .is a fhop or ware-room on South Bridge
Street, to which ladies in draitened circumdances have
an opportunity of fending for fale curious, beautiful, or
ufeful articles of needle-work, with the price affixed.
When a purchafer has been found for the goods the
proceeds are tranfmitted in fuch a manner as to prevent
its being known to the public by whom the articles
SS freHP7rd; /bi? inl!!tUtil>n has b"-" promoted by
mlani, ‘•tb^dttchefs of Buccleugh and many otter perfons of
,There lre twL° °rtlier charity workhoufes in the fub-
urbs, much on the fame plan with that now deferibed i
[ 534 ]
E D I
one in the Canongate, and the other in St Cuthbert’s
or WTed kirk pariffi. ^
To this account of the charitable edablidiments in
Edinburgh, we diall add that of fome others j which
though not calculated to decorate the city by any
public bdilding, are perhaps no lefs deferving of
praife than any we have mentioned. The fird is that
of Captain William Horn 5 who left 3503]. in trud to
the magidrates, the annual profits to be divided on
Chridmas day to poor out day labourers, who mud at
that feafon of the year be deditute of employment-
five pounds to be given to thofe who have large families,
and one half to thofe who have fmaller.
Another charity is that of Robert Johndon, LL.D.
of London, who in 1640 left 3000I. to the pooi of
this city 5 1000I. to be employed in fetting them to
work, another icool. to clothe the boys in Heriot’s
Hofpital, and the third 1000I. to burfars at the univer-
fity.
About the beginning of this century John Strachan
left his edate of Craigcrook, now upwards of 300I.
a-year in trud to the prefbytery of Edinburgh, to be
by them difpofed of in fmail annual dims to poor old
people not under 65 years of age, and to orphans not
above 12.
There is befides a fociety for the fupport of the in-
dudrious poor, another for the indigent fick, and there
are alfo many charity fcbools.
Having thus given an account of the mod remark¬
able edifices belonging to Old Edinburgh, we fhall
now .proceed to thofe of the New Town. This is
terminated on the ead fide by the Calton hill, round
which there is a pleafant walk, and which affords
one of the fined profpefts that can be imagined, vary¬
ing remarkably almod at every dep. On this hill is
a burying ground, which contains a fine monument
to the memory of David Hume the hidorian.—On
the. top is an obfervatory, the fcheme for building
which was fird adopted in the year 1736; but the di-
durbance occafioned by the Porteous mob prevented
any thing from being done towards the execution of it
at that time. The earl of Morton afterwards gave
look for the purpofe of building an obfervatory, and
appointed.Mr M‘Laurin profeffor of mathematics, to¬
gether with the principal and fome profeffors of the
umverfity, trudees for managing the fum. Mr M‘Lau-
rin added to the money above mentioned the profits
arifing from a courfe of leftures which he read on ex¬
perimental philofophy ; which, with fome other fmall
fums, amounted in all to 300I.; but Mr M‘Laurin
dying, the defign was dropped.-—Afterwards the mo¬
ney was put into the hands of two perfons who became
bankrupt 5 but a confiderable dividend being obtained
out of their effefts, the principal and intered, about
the year 1776, amounted to 400I. A plan of the
building was made out by Mr Craig architeftj and
the foundation done was laid by Mr Stodart, lord proved
of. Edinburgh, on the 25th of Augud 1776. About
this time, however, Mr Adam architeft happening to
come to Edinburgh, conceived the idea of giving the
whole the appearance of a fortification, for which its
fituation on the top of the Calton hill was very much
adapted. Accordingly a line was marked out for en-
clofing the limits of the obfervatory with a wall con-
drufted
EDI l 535 1 E E) I
burgli. buttreffes and embrafures, and having
{ ' y .. .- Gothic towers at the angles. Thus the money defigned
for the work was totally txhaufted, and the obfervatory
ftill remains unfinilhed ; nor is there any appearance of
its being foon completed either by voluntary fubfcrip-
tion or any other way.
26. Proceeding to the weft ward, the firft remarkable
building is the Theatre, which ftands oppolite to the
Regifter Office, in the middle of Shakefpeare Square.
The building is plain on the outlide, but elegantly
fitted up within, and is generally open three days in
the week, and when full will draw about 150I. a-night
fo that the manager generally finds himfelf well re¬
warded when he can procure good adlors.
Entertainments of the dramatic kind came very early
into fafliion in this country. They were at firft only
reprefentations of religious fubje&s, and peculiarly de¬
figned to advance the intererts of religion ; the clergy
being the compofers, and Sunday the principal time of
exhibition.. In the 16th century, the number of play-
houfes was fo great, that it was complained of as a nui-
fance, not only in Edinburgh, but throughout the
kingdom. They foon degenerated from their original
inftitution ‘7 and the plays, inftead of being calculated
to infpire devotion, became filled with all manner of
buffoonery and indecency.—After the Reformation,
the Prefbyterian clergy complained of thefe indecencies j
and being a£luated by a fpirit of violent zeal, anathe-
matifed every kind of theatrical reprefentation what¬
ever. King James VI. compelled them to pal's from
their cenfures againft the ftage y but in the time of
Charles I. when fanaticifm was carried to the utmoft
length at which perhaps it was poffible for it to arrive,
it cannot be fuppofed that ftage plays would be tolera¬
ted.—It feems, however, that amufemen-ts of this
kind were again introduced at Edinburgh about the
year 1684, when the duke of York kept his court
there. His refidence at Edinburgh drew off one half
of the London company, and plays were a bled in E-
dinburgh for fome little time.. 1'he misfortunes at¬
tending the duke of York, however, and the eftabliffi-
ment of the Prefbyterian religion (the genius of which
is unfavourable to amufements of this kind), foon put
a flop to the progrefs of the ftage, and no theatrical
exhibition was heard of in Edinburgh till after the
year 1715. The firft adventurer was Signora Violante,
an Italian, remarkable for feats of ftrength, tumbling,
&c. In this way ffie fi^l exhibited in a houfe at the
foot of Carruber’s clofe, which has fince been employ¬
ed by different fe&aries for religious purpofes. Meet¬
ing with good fuccefs, ftie foon invited a company of
comedians from London j and thefe being alfo well
received, Edinburgh continued for fome years to be
entertained with the performances of a ftrolling com¬
pany, who vifited it annually. Becoming at laft, how¬
ever, obnoxious to the clergy, they were in I727
prohibited by the magiftrates from ailing within their
jurifdiftion. But this interdift was fulpended by the
court of fefiion, and the players continued to perform
as ufual.
Still, however, theatrical amufements were but
rare.. The town was vifited by itinerant companies
only once in two or three years. They performed in
the Taylor’s Hall in theCanongate 5 which, when the
jboufe was full, would have drawn (at the rate of 2s. 6d,
for pit and boxes, and is. 6d. for the gallery) 40I. or Ed
45I. a night. About this time an aft of parliament
was paffed, prohibiting the exhibition of plays, except
in a houfe licenfed by the king. Of this the prefby-
tery of Edinburgh immediately laid hold j and at their
own expence brought an aftion on the ftatute againll
the players. The caufe was by the court of feffion
decided againft the players j who thereupon applied to
parliament for a bill to enable his majefty to licenfe a
theatre in Edinburgh. Againft this bill petitions were
presented in 1739 to the houfe of commons by the
magiftrates and town council, the principal and pro-
feffors of the univerfity, and the dean of guild and his
council; in confequence of which, the affair was drop-*
ped.. All this oppofition, however, contributed in
reality to the fuccefs of the players j for the fpirit of
party being excited, a way of evading the aft was ea-
fily found out, and the houfe was frequented more
than ufual, in&much that Taylor’s Hall was found in-:
fufficient to contain the number of fpeftators.
The comedians now fell out among themfelves, and
a new plavhoufe was erefted in the Canongate in the
year 1746. The confequence of this was, that the old
one in Taylor’s Hall became entirely deferted, and
through bad conduft the managers of the new theatre
foon found themfelves greatly involved. At laft, a riot
enfuing through diffenfions among the performers, the
play houfe was totally demoliftied.—When the extenfion
of the royalty over the fpot where the New Town is
built was obtained, a claufe was likewife added to the
bill, enabling his majefty to licenfe a theatre in Edin¬
burgh. This was obtained, and thus the oppofition
of the clergy for ever filenced. But notwithftanding
this, the high price paid by the managers to the pa¬
tentee, being no lefs than 500 guineas annually, pre¬
vented them effeftually from decorating the houfe as
they would otherwife have done, or even from always
retaining good aftors in their fervice •, by which means
the fuccefs of the Edinburgh theatre has not been fo
great as might have been expefted^
Not far from this building, an amphitheatre was
opened in 1790, on the road to Leith, for equeftrian
exhibitions, pantomime entertainments, dancing, and
tumbling. The circus was 60 feet diameter j and in the
forenoon ladies and gentlemen were taught to ride.
The houfe held about 1500 people. The building has
been fince converted into an elegant and commodious
concert room.
27. The Regi/Ier Office. This work was firft fug-
gefted by the late earl of Morton, lord-regifter of Scot¬
land, with a view to prevent the danger which attended
the ufual method of keeping the public records. In
former times, indeed,, thefe fuffered from a variety of
accidents. Edward I. carried off or deftroyed moft of
them, in order to prevent any marks of the former in¬
dependence of the nation from remaining to pofterity.
Afterwards Cromwell fpoiled this nation of its records,
moft of which were fent to the Tower of London. At
the time of the reftoration many of them were fent
down again by fea ; but one of the veffels was fliip-
wrecked, and the records brought by the other have
ever fince been left in the greateft confufion.—The
earl of Morton taking this into confideration, obtain¬
ed from his majefty a grant of l2,oool. out of the for¬
feited eftates, for the purpofe of building a regiftex
EDI [ 5.
-Edinburgli. oftice, or houfe for keeping the records, and difpofing
*v~~ - them in proper order. The foundation was laid on the
17th of June 1774, by Lord Frederick Campbell lord-
regifter, Mr Montgomery of Stanhope lord advocate,
and Mr Millar of Barfkimming lord juftice clerk ;
three of the truftees appointed by his majefty for exe*
cuting the work. The ceremony was performed under
a difcharge of artillery, in prefence of the judges of the
courts of feflion and exchequer, and in the fight of a
multitude of fpe&ators. A brafs plate was put into the
foundation ftone with the following infcription : Con-
5ERVANDIS TaBULIS PuBLICIS POSTTUM EST, ANNO
M.DCC.LXXIV, MUNIFICENTIA OPTIMI ET PlETtSSIMI
PRINCIPIS GEORG!! Tertii. In a glafs vafe herme¬
tically fealed, which is alfo placed in the foundation
Hone, are depofited fpecii'nens of the different coins of
his prefent majefty.
The front of the building dire&ly faces the bridge,
extends from eaft to weft 100 feet, and is 40 feet back
from the line of Prince’s ftreet. In the middle of the
front is a fmall proje&ion of three windows in breadth.
Here is a pediment, having in its centre the arms of
Great Britain, and the whole is fupported by four Co¬
rinthian pilafters. At each end is a tower proje&ing
beyond the reft of the building, having a Venetian
window in front, and a cupola on the top. The front is
ornamented from end to end with a beautiful Corin¬
thian entablature. In the centre of the building is a
dome of wooden work covered with lead. The infide
forms a faloon 50 feet diameter and 80 high, lighted
at top by a copper window 15 feet in diameter. Round
the whole is a hanging gallery of ftone, with an iron
v balluftrade, which aifords conveniency for prefles in
the walls for keeping the records. The whole number
of apartments is 97; all of which are vaulted beneath,
and warmed with fire-places. This building, which is
the moft beautiful of Mr Adam’s defigns, has been exe¬
cuted in a fubftantial manner, in about 16 years, at
the expence of near 40,000!. and is one of the principal
ornaments of the city. A ferjeant’s guard is placed
here from the caftle, for the further protection of the
records. It is intended to place a ftatue of his prefent
majefty in the front of the building, with the lion and
unicorn above the centinels boxes. The lord regifter
has the direction of the whole, and the principal clerks
of feflion are his deputes. Thefe have a great num¬
ber of clerks under them for carrying on the bufinefs
of the court of feflion. The lord regifter is a minifter
of ftate in this country. He formerly collected the
votes of the parliament of Scotland, and ftill colle&s
thofe of the peers at the eleftion of 16 to reprefent them
in parliament.
27. On the eaft fide of St Andrew’s fquare ftands
the General Excife Office, built by the late Sir Law¬
rence Dundas for his own refidence, but fold by his fon
for the above purpofe. It is a very handfome building,
with a pediment in front ornamented with the king’s
arms, and fupported by four Corinthian pilafters j and,
in conjunction with the two corner houfes, has a fine
effeft.
28. St Andrew's Church ftands on the north fide of
George’s ftreet. It is of an oval form j and has a very
heat fpire of 186 feet in height, with a chime of eight
bells, the firft and only one of the kind in Scotland. It
has alfo a handfome portico in front.
I
6 ] EDI
2g. Oppofite to St Andrew’s church is the Vhj fi.Edi^ur k
clans Hall, defigned for the meetings of the faculty, - ^ 6 j,
and which has a portico refembling that of the
church.
30. Farther to the weftward, on the fouth fide, ftand
the /IJfembly Rooms, which though a heavy looking
building on the outfide, are neverthelefs extremely ele¬
gant and commodious within. The largeft is 100 feet
long and 40 broad, being exceeded in its dimenfions by
none in the ifland, the large one at Bath excepted.
Weekly affemblies are held here for dancing, and card¬
playing, under the direction of a mafter of ceremonies j
admifiion tickets five (hillings each.
There are three Banking Companies in Edinburgh
eftablifhed by ftatute, or by royal charters. Thefe are
the Bank of Scotland, commonly called the Old Bank,
the Royal Bank of Scotland, and the Britilh Linen
Company.
31. The Bank of Scotland, commonly called the Old
Bank, was ereCted by aCt of parliament, A. D. 169^.
By the ftatute of ereCtion, the company was empowered
to raife a joint flock of 1,200,0001. Scots, or loo,oool»
fterling, for the purpofe of carrying on a public bank.
The fmalleft (hare which any perfon could hold in the
bank was declared to be 1000I. Scots $ and the largeft
fum for which any one was allowed to fubfcribe was
20,0001. of the fame money. Eight thoufand are de¬
clared to be the qualification neceffary to entitle anyone
to be eleCted governor5 6000I. deputy-governor j and
3000I. for each direCIor. The management of the af¬
fairs of the company was veiled in a governor, deputy-
governor, and twenty-four direClors J and in choofing
thefe managers, each proprietor was declared to have a
vote for every lo£>ol. of flock held by him.
The office of this company has hitherto been held
in a houfe down a narrow lane at the fouth fide of that
part of the High ftreet called the Lawn-market; but,
at a great expence, they have erefled for their accom¬
modation a building which will fpeedily be ready to b«
occupied, and which is fituated to the northward of the
High ftreet, in full view of Prince’s ftreet. This is at
once a magnificent and beautiful fabric. The back of
the building is towards Prince’s ftreet 5 and here, while
erefling, it had the difadvantage, from its vaft height,
of having fomewhat the afpeft of a tower. This effeft,
however, is now removed by reftoring the earth for the
purpofe of covering up the lower part of it, and by a
wall of confiderable height in the nature of a curtain,
which has been added to augment its apparent breadth.
It forms, Upon the whole, a beautiful and moft fuperb
fabric. As a work of magnitude, it is feen to moft ad¬
vantage from the mound of earth which conneffs the
Old and the New Town, at that part of the mound
which is in the direftion of the north-weft angle of the
building. Here the eye is filled by the full view of
two fides of the fabric, and by a difplay of its great
height. The refult of which is, that as a magnificent
and ftupendous ftrudlure, it feems to have no rival in
this country.
“ This banking company has eftabliftied branches in
every confiderable town in Scotland, excepting Glaf-
gow, which, in confequence of an amicable adjuftment
to avoid rivallhip, is left to the Royal Bank. By
agreement, the latter has a branch in Glafgow, and no
branch in any other town in Scotland.
32*
EDI t 537 l
. 33- The Royal Bank was eftabliiheci in the follow- and Company
ing manner ; By the articles of union, Scotland was de¬
clared to be liable to the fame duties which were levied
by way of cuftoms or excife in England* As thefe du¬
ties had, in the latter of thefe nations, been appropria¬
ted for the difcharge of debts contracted by England
before the union, it was found reafonable to give Scot¬
land an equivalent for this additional burthen. The
Him, given by way of equivalent, was ordained to be
paid for certain purpofes, and to certain perfons or bo¬
dies corporate, mentioned in the articles of union and
in pofterior fiatutes. The proprietors of thele fums, to
the extent of 148,550!* Sterling, were erected into a
body corporate, under the name of the Equivalent Com¬
pany ; and the faid fum of 248,550!. was declared to be
the joint dock of the company. Upon application by
this company, they obtained a royal charter, empower¬
ing fuch of them as inclined to fubfcribe their ftiares
in the joint dock for that purpofe, to carry on the bufi-
nefs of banking. By this charter the fubfcribers to this
banking budnefs were, in A. D. 1727, eredted into a
body corporate, to be called, “ The Royal Bank of Scot¬
land.” They were veded with the requifite powers,
and the management of the company’s affairs declared
to be in a governor, deputy governor, nine ordinary and
nine extraordinary directors. The qualifications of
thefe managers were declared to be, that of the gover¬
nor to hold dock to the extent of 2000I. j of the depm-
ty governor, of 1560k ", of the ordinary diredlors, of
loocl. j and of the extraordinary direftors, of 500I.
The fum originally fublcribed was 111 ,oool.", but by
a charter pafied in favour of the Royal Bank, A. D.
*738, explaining the privileges formerly bedowed up¬
on them, and enabling them to increafe their capital,
they were empowered to raife their dock to a fum not
exceeding in whole, when joined to their original funds,
150,000!. By the charter of ere&ion of this company,
adiare of 300I. entitles a proprietor to one vote, one of
€o0l. to two, of 1 look to three, and of 2000k to
four j and no proprietor can have more than four
votes.
34. “ The Britifh Linen Company, with a capital of
100,000k was incorporated by royal charter in 1746,
with a view to encourage the manufacture of linen in
Scotland. By the conditution of this company, its affairs
are declared to be under the management of a governor,
deputy governor, and five diredlors. It is declared a ne-
ceffary qualification in the governor to be poffed'ed of
a (bare in the company’s dock to the amount of
1000k ; of the deputy governor, 500k-, and of each
director, of 300!. A fhare of look entitles a proprie¬
tor to vote in the choice of thefe managers, of 500k
to two votes, and of 1000k to four votes •, but it is de¬
clared that no proprietor fhaff poffefs more than four
Votes.
“ This company carries on the bufinefs of banking,
and iffues promiffory notes like the two former com¬
panies^ but the banking bufinefs is carried on feparately
from the linen trade. The Linen Hall remains in the
Canongate ) but the apartments of the bank are removed
ho a lane on the fouth fide of the High dreet, above
what was called the Nether-bow port.
“ Promiffory notes, payable on demand, have alfo
been long iffued in Edinburgh by a private banking
houfe, that of Sir William Forbes, Sir James Hunter,
Vol, VJI. Part JL
E D I
and their notes have poffeffed a mod Edinburgh
extenfive circulation.
“ Befides thefe there are feveral private banking
houfes of great reputation in Edinburgh, which do
not iffue promiffory notes for fmall fums payable on
demand, but which carry on the other branches of Beauties cf
the banking trade, by tranfmitting money, difeount- Scotland, L
ing bills, and accommodating individuals with cadi ac-91*
counts.” 20
It now remains only to fpeak fomething of the re-Religious
ligious and civil edablidiments of this metropolis, eftabliiti-
The highed of the former is the General Affembly 0fment$*
the Church of Scotland, who meet here annually in the
month of May, in an aide of the church of St Giles
fitted up on purpofe for them. The throne is filled by
a commifiioner from his majedy, but he neither debates
nor votes. He calls them together, and diffolves them
at the appointed time in the name of the king •, but
they call and diffolve themfelves in the name of the
Lord Jefus Chrid. This affembly confids of 350
members chofen out of the various prefbyteries through¬
out the kingdom j and the debates are often very in-
tereding and eloquent. This is the fupreme eccle-
fiadical court in Scotland, to which appeals lie from
the inferior ones.
The ecclefiadical court next in dignity to the af¬
fembly is the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale, who
meet in the fame place in April and November } and
next to them is the Prelhytery of Edinburgh. Thefe
meet on the lad Wednefday of every month, and are
trudees on the fund for miniders widows. They have
a hall in Scott’s clofe, where there is a good picture
of Dr Webder by Martin, which was put up at
the expence of the trudees, out of gratitude for the
trouble he took in planning and fully edablifhing the
fund.
The Society for propagating Chridian Knowledge
in the Highlands and Iflands of Scotland, was eda-
bliihed a body corporate by Queen Anne in the yeat
1709, for the purpofe of erefting fchools to indrudl
poor children in the principles of Chridianity, as well
as in reading and writing. The fociety have a hall in
Warridon’s clofe where their bufinefs is tranfafted.
From time to time they have received large contribu¬
tions, which have always been very properly applied ;
and for much the fame purpofe his majedy gives 1000k
annually to the general aflembly of the church of
Scotland, which is employed by a committee of their
number for indru&ing the poor Highlanders in the
principles of the Chridian religion.
The Erfe church at Edinburgh was built about
30 years ago by fubferiptions for the fame laudable
purpofe. Great numbers of people rrfort to the me¬
tropolis from the Highlands, who underdand no other
language but their own, and confequently have no op¬
portunity of indrudlion without it } and a mod re¬
markable proof of the benefit they have received from
it is, that though the church is capable of holding
! 000 people, yet it is not large enough for thofe who
apply for feats. The minider has look, per annum
arifing from the feat rents, and holds communion with
the church of Scotland. The edablifitment was pro¬
moted by William Dickfon dyer in Edinburgh.
With regard to the political conditution of Edih-Politico!
burgh, the town council have the direction of all pub-conftinu
3 Y lictic>ri-
E D 1
Edinburgh, lie affairs. The ordinary council conliits only of 25
v perfons j but the council ordinary and extraordinary, of
^. The whole is compofed of merchants and tradef-
men, whole refpeftive powers and interefts are fo in¬
terwoven, that a balance is preferved between the two
bodies. The members of the towTn council are partly
eheeled by the members of the 14 incorporations, and
they partly choofe their own fucceffors. The eleefion
is xnade in the following manner : Fir If, a lift or leet of
fix perfons is 2iade out by each incorporation ; from
which number, the deacon belonging to the incorpo¬
ration muff be chofen. Thefe hits are then laid before
the ordinary council of 25, who “ Ihorten the leets,
by expunging one half of the names uom each , an
from the ^three remaining ones the deacon is to be
chofen. When this eleftion is over, the new deacons
are prefented to the ordinary council, wTho choofe fix
of them to be members of their body, and the fix dea¬
cons of laft year then walk off. Ihe council of 25
next proceed to the eleflion of three merchant and
two trades counfellors. The members of council, who
now amount to 33 in number, then make out le&ts,
from which the lord provolt, dean of guild, treafurer,
and bailies, muff be chofen. Ihe candidates for each
of thefe offices are three in number } and the eleefion
is made by the 30 members of council already men¬
tioned, joined to the eight extraordinary council dea¬
cons.
The lord provofl of Edinburgh, who is flyled right
honourable, is high fheriff, coroner, and admiral, within
the city and liberties, and the town, harbour, and road
cf Leith. He has alfo a jurifdiction in matters of life
and death. He is prefes of the convention of royal
boroughs, colonel of the trained bands, commander of
the city guard and of Edinburgh jail. In the city he
has the precedency of all the great officers of Hate and
of the nobility 5 walking on the right hand of the king
or of his majeffy’s commiflioner } and has the privilege
of having a fword and mace carried before him. Un¬
der him are four magiilrates called bailies, wffiofe office
is much the fame with that of aldermen in London.
There is alfo a dean of guild, who has the charge of
the public buildings, and without whofe warrant no
houfe nor building can be erected within the city. He
has a council to confult with, a nominal treafurer, who
formerly had the keeping of the town’s money, which
is now given to the chamberlain. Uhefe feven are
elefted annually; who with the feven of the former
year, three merchants and twro trades counfellors, and
14 deacons or prefes of incorporated trades, making in
all 33, form the council of the city, and have the foie
management and ciifpofal of the city revenues •, by
which means they have the diipofal of places to the
amount of 20,000!. annually. Formerly the provoft
was alfo an officer in the Scots parliament. The ma-
giilrates are ffieriffs-depute and juftices of the peace ;
and the town council are alfo patrons for all the churches
in Edinburgh, patrons of the univerfity, and electors
of the city’s reprefentative in parliament. They have
^elides a very ample juriidiilion both civil and crimi¬
nal. They are fuperiors of the Canongate, Portffiurgh,
and Leith •, and appoint over thefe certain of their own
number, who are called baron bailies : but the perfon
who prehdes over Leith has the title of admiral be-
E D I
caufe he hath there a jurifdiction over maritime affairs. EdinW |
The baron bailies appoint one or two of the inhabi- —r--
tants of their refpeftive diitri£ts to be their fubftitutes,
and thefe are called refident bailies. They hold courts
in abfence of the baron bailies, for petty offences and
difeuffing civil caufes of little moment.
No city in the world affords greater fecurity to the
inhabitants in their perfons and properties than Edin¬
burgh. Robberies are here very rare, and ftreet murder
hardly known in the memory of man \ fo that a perfon
may walk the ftreets at any hour of the night in per¬
fect fecurity. This is in a great meafure owing to the
town guard. This inftitution originated from the con- Town i
fternation into which the citizens were thrown after the guard,
battle at Flowden. At that time, the town council
commanded the inhabitants to affemble in defence of
the city, and every fourth man to be on duty each
night. " This introduced a kind of perfonal duty for
the defence of the town, called watching and warding;
by w hich the trading part of the inhabitants were ob¬
liged in perfon to watch alternately, in order to pre¬
vent or fupprefs occafional diliurbances. Ihis, how¬
ever, becoming in time extremely inconvenient, the
towm council, in 1648, appointed a body of 60 men to
be raifed 5 the captain of which was to have a monthly
pay of ill. 2S. 3d. two lieutenants of 2I. each, two
ferjeants of il. 5s. and the private men of 15s. each.
No regular fund was eftabliffied for defraying this
expence : the confequence cf which was, that the old
method of watching and wrarding wras refumed : but
the people on whom this fervice devolved were
now become fo relaxed in their difeipline, that the
magiftrates wrere threatened with having the king’s
troops quartered in the city if they did not appoint a
fufficient guard. On this 40 men were raifed in 1679,,
and in 1682 the number was increafed to 108. Alter
the Revolution, the town council complained of the
guard as a grievance, and requefted parliament that it.
might be removed. Their requeft was immediately
granted, and the old method of watching and warding
was renewed. This, however, was now fo intoler¬
able, that the very next year they applied to parlia¬
ment for leave to raife 1 26 men for the defence of the .
city, and to tax the citizens for their payment. This
being granted, the corps was raifed which Hill con¬
tinues under the name of the town guard. At prefent
the eftabliffiment confifts of three officers and about
90 men, who mount guard by turns. The officers
have a lieutenant’s pay \ the ferjeants, corporals, drum¬
mers, and common foldiers, the fame with thofe of the
army. Their arms are the fame with thofe of the
king’s forces : but w7hen called upon to quell mobs,
they ufe Lochaber axes, a part of the ancient 8cot-
tiffi armour nowr in ufe only among themfelvesv 32
The militia or trained band of the city confift of Militia ei '
16 companies of 100 men each. They were in ufe
turn out every king’s birth day j but only the officers
now remain, who are chofen annually. They confift
of 16 captains and as many lieutenants and enfigns 3
the provoft, as has already been mentioned, being the
colonel. _ _
The town guard are paid chiefly by a tax on the
trading people j thefe being the only perfons former¬
ly fubieft to watching and warding. This tax, how*
4 ever,
[ 538 1
EDI
[ 539 ]
E D 1
33 f
tem oi
uburgH. ever, amounts only to 1250I. and as the expence of
^the guard amounts to 1400I. the magiftrates are obli¬
ged to defray the additional charge by other means.
S But in the year 1805, in confequence of a new fyftem
of police being eftabliftied, the city guard was reduced
to one lieutenant, two ierjeants, two corporals, two
drummers, and thirty men, the lord provoft for the time
being to be captain, without pay, and the company to
be armed and clothed at the expence of the city, but
their pay to be defrayed out of the general fund raifed
under the new police ad; and the duty oi this compa¬
ny is to attend upon his majefty’s commithoner to the
general affembly of the church of Scotland, the magi¬
ftrates and town council, the fupreme courts of juftice,
and to aft in general for the fupport of the new fyftem
of police.
The fyftem of police above alluded to, was eftabliftl-
ed in 1805 by aft of parliament, under the authority of
which the city and fuburbs are divided into fix diitrifts
or wards for the more convenient execution of the pur-
pofes to which the aft extends. The regulations in¬
cluded under this fyftem of police relate to cleanfing
and lighting the ftreets and paiTages in the city and fub¬
urbs, apprehending and punilhing vagrants and diior-
derly perfons, fupprefling common begging, preventing
nuifances and obftruftions, and for other purpofes con-*
nefted with the prefervation of peace and good orders
The management of the whole affairs under this fyftem
of police is entrufted to the general and reftdent com-
milhoners. The general commiflioners appointed by
the aft, are, the lord provoft and magiftrates of the city^
of Edinburgh, with the lord prelident of the court ot
feffion, the lord juftice clerk, the lord chief baron of
the court of exchequer^ the law officers of the crown,
and feveral other public charafters,,in conjunftion with
the. whole refident commiffioners in the different wards*
There are to be feven refident commiliioners in each
ward, the two higheft in the lift to go ojvt, and two o-
thers to be elefted in their ftead annually •, the com-
miflioners to be occupiers of houfes valued at twenty
pounds fterling of free rent yearly, excepting in two
wards, where occupying a houfe ot twelve pounds rent
is a iufficient qualification* In each ward there are to
be elefted by the refident commifhoners^ with the ap¬
probation of the general commiffioners, an infpeftor,
and fuch a number of officers ot police and watchmen
as may be neceffary, the officers ot police and wratch-
men upon duty having the authority and pofleffing the
powers given by the law of Scotland to the office ot
conftable*
The generate ommiffionershave the pow’er of choofing
a fupe tint end ant or mafter of police for the whole city
and fuburbs included in the aft, and to appoint a clerk
who ffiall do the duty of clerk to the general meetings,
as well as-to the court of police to be held by the fu-
perintendant. The general commiffioners alio are
authorized to fix the number of officers and watchmen
to be employed in the different wards. I he fuperin-
tendant of police having been appointed by the com¬
miffioners, is to receive from the fherift depute of the
county of Edinburgh the authority of a fheriff iubftitute,
as w'ell as a commiffion of fheriff depute within the city
and liberties from the lord provoft wffio is principal
fheriff within thefe bounds, that the fuperintendant atf-
ing as mafter or judge of police may have the full
powTers of a magiftrate in the execution of his^ duty'. Edinburg! y
By the powers with which the fuperintendant is invelt-
ed, he may commit offenders to the tolbooth or. to
bridewell for a period not exceeding 60 days, and im-
pofe fines for offences not exceeding 40 {hillings fter¬
ling, and give judgment in damages for any fum not
exceeding three pounds fterling with the expences in
either cafe. From the fentences of the fuperintendant
there is no appeal to the ffieriff depute of the county,
or to the lord provoft as ffieriff principal within the ci¬
ty. The fuperintendant of police is alfo the billet-maf-
ter within his bounds, and the infpeftors of wards are
billet-mafters within their feveral w'ards* The infpec-
tors alfo have the powers of procurator fifeals with re-
fpeft to all profecutions for offences committed within
their bounds.
The expences neceffary to carry the above aft into
execution, are to be defrayed from a fund railed by
affeflment on the inhabitants of three per cent, on the
free rent of houles, fhops or w arehoufes, and for the ex¬
pences of clothing and alimenting the perfons commit¬
ted to bridewell a farther affeilment not exceeding per
cent, of the free rent of fuch houies, &c. 1 or the pur-
pofe of afeertaining rents, furveyors are appointed j
and if the rent fixed by them fhould be over-rated,
an appeal may be made to a committee of the general
commiffioners fpecially appointed.
The office of the fuperintendant of police is in the
Lawnmarket* The operation of the aft has only con¬
tinued for a few months (September 1805) and al¬
though fome complaints have been made of its rigorous
execution, arifing probably from iuch unavoidable and
Unforefeen circumftances as frequently occur in the efta-
blifhment of a new fyftem, y*et there is every reafon to
hope, that it will prove highly beneficial for the preler-
vation of pe&ce and good order in the city and fuburbs
over which it extends. _ _
The number of inhabitants in the City of Edinburgh Number of
is fomewhat uncertain, and has been very variouflyinhabitants,
calculated. By a furvey made in the year 1775,^it
appears that the number of families in the city, Ca-
nongate, and other fuburbs, and the town of Leith,
amounted to 13,806* I he difficulty thererore is to fix
the number of perfons in a family* Dr Price fixes this
number at 4/0 > hfr Maitland, at 5t > an<^ ^'Ir Amot,
at 6 j fo that, according to this laft gentleman, the
whole number of inhabitants is 82,836 j to which he
thinks 1400 more may be added for thofe in the gar-
rifon, hofpitals, &c.
The following table exhibits a comparative view of
the population of the city of Edinburgh and fuburbs
taken in different years. The laft enumeration made in
1801 by aft of parliament is fuppofed to be conlldera-
blv defeftive in the real amount of the inhabitants,. as
an alarm was induftriouffy fpread that it was done with
a view to the impofition of new taxes. This, it appear¬
ed, induced many to conceal the names and number of
the individuals in their families.
1678
1722
1755
1775
1791
1801
35>500
40,420
57»I95
70>43°
84,886
82,560
Y 2
There
EDI t 540 ] EDI
Edinburgh, There are in Edinburgh 14 incorporations, capable
*™-°f choofing their own deacons, viz. The royal college
s. of furgeoiis 5 the corporations of goldfmiths, Ikinners,
furriers, hammermen, wrights and mafons, taylors, ba¬
kers, butchers, fhoemakers, weavers, waukers, bonnet-
- - makers, and merchant company.
Plenty of The markets of Edinburgh are plentifully fupplied
provifions. with all forts of provifions. Frelh butcher meat, as
well as fowl and hlh, if the weather permit, may be
had every day 5 and no city can be better fupplied
tvith garden fluffs. The Edinburgh flrawberries par¬
ticularly are remarkably large and fine. A ftrik-
ing inllance of the plenty of provifions with which
Edinburgh is fupplied was obferved in the year 1779,
wdien feveral large fleets, all of them in want of ne-
ceffaries, arrived in the Forth, to the amount of
about 500 fail, and having on board at leafl: 20,000
men j yet the increafed confumption of provifions,
which certainly enfued upon the arrival of fo many
flrangers, made not the leaft increafe in the rate of the
markets, infomuch that feveral victualling fhips fent
down by the navy board returned without opening
their hatches. The city mills are let to the corporation
of bakers in Edinburgh j and the bread made in the
city is remarkable for its goodnefs.
Edinburgh is fupplied with water brought for fome
miles in pipes, and lodged in two refervoirs, from
whence it is diftributed through the city both to
public wells and private families. A revenue accrues
to the town from the latter, which mufl: undoubtedly
increafe in proportion as the city extends in magni¬
tude.
There are but few merchants in Edinburgh, moll of
them refiding at the port of Leith 5 fo. that the fup-
port of the city depends on the confumption of the
neceffaries as well as the fuperfluities of life. There
are five different forts of people on whom the fliop-
keepers, publicans, and different trades depend : 1. The
people of the law, who are a very refpeClable body in
the city. 2. The number of young people of both
fexes who come to town for their education, many of
the parents of whom come along with them. 3. The
country gentlemdh, gentlemen of the army and navy,
and people who have made their fortunes abroad, &c.
all of whom come to attend the public diverfions, or
to fpend their time in fuch a manner as is moll agree¬
able to them. 4. The vaft concourfe of travellers from
all parts. 5. Moll of the money drawn for the rents
of country gentlemen is circulated among the bankers
or other agents.
At Edinburgh there are excellent manufadures of
linen and cambrics j there are alfo manufactures of
paper in the neighbourhood, and printing is carried on
very extenfively. But for fome time the capital branch
about Edinburgh has been building : which has gone
on, and itill continues to do fo, with fuch rapidity,
that the city has-been increafed exceedingly in its ex¬
tent 5 and it is not uncommon to fee a houfe built in
a few months, and even inhabited before the roof is
quite finilhed.
EDINBURGHSHIRE, or Midlothian, is bound -
ed on the north by the frith of Forth and the river
Amend,, which divides it from Welllothian or Linlith¬
gow 5 on the call by Haddingtonflxire 5 on the fouth by
the counties of Lanark, Peebles, and Berwick 5 and at
the well corner by part .of the county of Linlithgow. Edinbur'
It extends about 30 miles in length, and its breadth
varies from 16 to 205 containing in all about 360^“^"
fquare miles, or 230,400 Englilh acres. The furface
of the country is plealant, having much level ground
interfperfed with fome hills, watered with many aoree-
able llreams, and flickered and decorated with woods.
The arable land, which may be calculated about one
third of the whole, is in a Hate of high cultivation, and
affords excellent crops. The two great ridges of hills
which pafs through the county, called the Moorfoot and
the Pent land hills, afford pafture ; the former is far
fuperior in quality to the latter : in thefe hills it is ge¬
nerally remarked that the north fide of the hill is the
finell and belt pafture, contrary to what we ftiould be
apt, a priori, to imagine. Like the other parts of the
country, this diftrift experiences the confequences of an
infulated fitution ; being fubjedl to that inllability and
uncertainty, that the climate in one day exhibits the
weather of every feafon of the year 5 the cold call winds
in the fpring are exceedingly detrimental to fruit, and in
autumn the hoars or mills from the fea, are apt to
whiten and vdther the corns before they are ripe. The
immediate vicinity of many of the farms to the metro¬
polis affords the opportunity of procuring ftreet dung
eafily, and has been- of material advantage in improving
the land; it has this difadvantage, however, that by
long continuance the fields become very full of weeds,
particularly the /caller or wild muftard ; it is imagined
that this wrould be obviated by throwing the held out
in pafture for a few years, and afterwards liming it w^dl
before ploughing. The chief rivers of the county of
Edinburgh, are the North and South Ejls, which, unit¬
ing, fall into the frith of Forth at the town of Muffel-
burgh ; the Amend, which falls into the fame frith at
the village of Cramond, and the water of Leith, which
forms the harbour of that town : all of thefe abound
with trout. The illands of Inchkeith and Cramond,
and of Inchmickery, alfo belong to this county. Few
diftricls of Scotland afford more minerals than the coun¬
ty of Edinburgh 5 it abounds everywhere with coal,
limeftone, and freeftone of fuperior quality *, and iron
ore of different fpecies is very abundant j compound
ftone, called petuntfe, is found in great quantity in the
Pentland hills, and has been fuccefsfully employed in
the manufa£lure of Britifn porcelain. In the parifli
of Ratho is found a fine fpecies of whetftone or hone 5
and in theparilh of Duddingllone, at Brickfield, is found
clay, fit for making earthen ware. The hills are com-
pofed of porphyry and bafaltic whin/one, which in
many places, particularly Arthur’s Seat and Craig-
Lockhart, exhibit regular forms. Near Glencrofs, and in
the Braid-hills, are found great veins of the heavy fpar,
or barytes, which is often an attendant on metallic
veins, efpecially of lead and copper. All the hills con¬
tain Ipecimens of zeolites, jafpers, fpars, &c. From the
vicinity to the metropolis, numerous feats of nobility
and gentry are everywhere to be feen. Befides the
city of Edinburgh and its fuburbs, in which we may in¬
clude the town of Leith, this county contains feveral
large towns and villages, as Dalkeith, Muffelburgh, Lb
berton, Laffwade, and Gilmerton, and is divided into
31 parifhes, of wThich the following is the population at
tlvo different periods.
Parijhes,
EDO
| iburgli-
iire
III
lom.
Varijhes.
I Bortliwick
Calder, Weft
Canongate
Carrington
5 Cockpen
Colingtown
Corftorphin£
Cramond
Cranftoun
Crichton
Currie
Dalkeith
Duddingfton
Edinburgh
Fala
Glencrofs
Heriot
Inverelk
Kirkne^vton
LaiTwade
Leith, North
Leith, South
Libbertoun
Midc alder
Newbottle
Newton
Pennycuick
Ratho
St Cuthberts
30 Stow
31 Temple
10
J5
20
25
Population
in J75S*
910
1294
45°°
555
640
792
995
J455
725
611
1227
3110
989
31,122
312
557
209
4645
T157
2190
2205
7200
2793
*369
J439
1199
890
93°
12,193
1294
9°5
9°>412
Population in
j79o—x79s.
858
I 289
6200
329
1123
J395
1037
1485
839
900
130°
43 66
910
3^898
372
385
300
5392
81 2
3000
2409
n,432
3457
12 c 1
1295
iI35
1721
825
32,947
1400
593
t
541 ] . E- D u
but in Solomon’s time extending to the
(1 Kings ix. 26.)
EDMUND I. and II. See (Hi/lory 0/) England.
Red fea, Edmund,
Education.
122,655
9°,4l 2
Increafe, 3 2,243
EDITOR, a perfon of learning, who has the care
of an impreflion of any work, particularly that of an
ancient author : thus, Erafmus was a great editor ; the
Louvain dodlors, Scaliger, Petavius, F. Sirmond, Bi-
ftiop Walton, Mr Hearne, Mr Ruddiman, &c. are
likewdfe famous editors.
EDOM, or Esau, the fon of Ifaac and brother of
Jacob. The name of Edom, which fignifies red, Ras
given him, either becaufe he fold his birthright to
Jacob for a mefs of red pottage, or by reafon of the
colour of his hair and complexion. Idumaea derives
its name from Edom, and is often called in Scripture,
the land of Edom. See the next article.
Edom, or Idumaea, in Ancient Geography, a did riel,
of Arabia Petrsea j a great part alfo of the fouth of
Judaea was called Idumara, becaufe occupied by the
Jdumajans, upon the Jewilh captivity, quite to Hebron.
But the proper Edom or Idumaea appears not to have
been very extenlive, from the march of the Ifraelites, in
which they compaffed it on the fouth eaftwrards, till
they came to the country of the Moabites. Within
this compafs lies Mount Hor, where Aaron died j
inarching from which the Ifraelites fought with King
Arad the Canaanite, wrho came down the wildernefs
againft them (Mcfes). And this is the extent of the
Mum era Propria lying to the fouth of the Dead fea 3
EDUCATION maybe defined, that feries of means Definitjon>
by which the human underftanding is gradually en¬
lightened, and the difpofitions of the human heart are
formed and called forth between earlieft infancy and
the period when we confider ourfelves as qualified to
take a part in active life, and, ceafing to diredl our
viewTs folely to the acquifition of new knowledge or
the formation of newT habits, are content to act upon
the principles which wre have already acquired. . 2
This comprehends the circumftances of the child in Particulars
regard to local fituation, and the manner in which the
neceflaries and conveniencies of life are fupplied to him 3^ the Se¬
ttle degree of care and tendemefs writh wThich he is finition.
nurfed in infancy 3 the examples fet before him by
parents, preceptors, and companions 3 the degree of
reftraint or licentioufnefs to wdiich he' is accultomed 3
the various bodily exercifes, languages, arts, and fei-
ences, which are taught him, and the method and or¬
der in which they are communicated 3 the moral and
religious principles which are inftilled into his mind 3
and even the ftate of health which he enjoys during
that period of life. _ 3
In different periods of fociety, in different climates, Various^
and under different forms of government, various infti- niodes ot
tutions have naturally prevailed in the education
youth 3 and even in every different family, the children
are educated in a different manner, according to the
differences in the fituation, difpofitions, and abilities,
of the parents. The education of youth being an
obje the education
of the youth is regarded as highly worthy of public
concern : it is coniidered that the fooliffi fondnefs or
the unnatural caprice of parents may, in the riling ge¬
neration, blall the hopes of the Hate.
, 1,*. In reviewing ancient hiftory, we find that this ac-
j lift-* tually took place in feveral of the molt celebrated go-
i its for vernments of antiquity, I he Perlians, the C retans,
' catltf and the Lacedemonians, were all of them too anxious
! ’en°sthe to form their youth for difcharging the duties of citi¬
zens to intruft the education of the children folely to
the parents. Public eftabliffiments were formed among
thofe nations, and a feries of inftitutions enacled, for
carrying on and regulating the education of their
youths: Not fuch as our European univerfities, in which
literary knowledge being the fole^ object of purfuit,
the ftudent is maintained folely at his parents expence,
and attends only if his parents think proper to fend
him 5 but of a very different nature, and on a much
more enlarged plan.
, ong the The Perlians, according to the elegant and accurate
lient account delivered by Xenophon in the beginning. of
■ ^an5, his Cyropaedia, divided the whole body of their citi¬
zens into four orders *, the boys, the youtn, the full-
grown men, and thofe who were advanced beyond that
period of life during which military fervice was requir¬
ed. For each of thefe orders particular halls were
appropriated. Each of them was lubjected to the in-
fpeclion of twelve rulers. Ihe adults and the fuper-
annuated were required to employ themfelves in the
performance of particular duties, fuitable^ to their age,
their abilities, and their experience j while the boys
and the youth were engaged in fuch a courfe of edu¬
cation as feemed likely to render them worthy and ufe-
ful citizens.
The boys were not employed, in their places ci in-
ftruflion, in acquiring literary accomplithments j for to
filch the Perfians were Itrangers. 1 hey went thither
to learn jufiice, temperance, modeffy j to ihoot the
bow, and to launch the javelin. 1 he virtues and the
bodily exercifes were what the Perfians laboured to
teach their children. Thefe were the direft, and not
fubordinate, purpofes of their i'yftem of education. Ihe
mailers ufed to fpend the great#!! part of the day in
difpenfing juftice to their fcholars j who carried before
them actions for thefts, robberies, frauds, and other
fuch grounds of complaint again!! one another. Such
were the means by which the Perfians endeavoured to
infill, even in early youth, a regard for the laws of na¬
tural equity, and for the infiitutions of their country.
Till the age of 16 or 17, the boys were bufied irt aC-Education!,
quiring thofe parts of education. At that period they t J
ceafed to be confidered as boys, and were raifed to the
order of the youths. After they entered this order,
the fame views were ffill attended to in the carrying
on of their education. They were Hill inured to bo¬
dily labour. They were to attend the magifirates, and
to be always ready to execute their commands. They
were led out frequently to the chafe ; and on fuch ex¬
peditions they were always headed by the king, as in
time of war. Here they were taught to expofe them--
felves fearlefsly to danger \ to fuffer, without repining
or complaint, hunger, thirft, and fatigue j and to con¬
tent themfelves with the coarfeft, fimpleft fare, for re¬
lieving the necefiities of nature. In Ihort, whether at
home or out on fome hunting expedition, they were
confiantly employed in acquiring new Ikill and dexte¬
rity in military exercifes, new vigour of mind and
body, and confirmed habits of temperance, fortitude,
abftinence, patience, patriotifm, and noble integrity.
After fpending ten years in this manner, their courle
of education was completed; they were admitted into
the clafs of the adults, and were efieemed qualified for
public offices. It mull not efcape our notice, that
the citizens were not compelled to fend their children
to pafs through this courfe of education in the public
halls ) but none except fuch as paffed through this,
courl’e of education were capable of civil power, or ad¬
mitted to participate in public offices or public ho¬
nours.
Such are the outlines of that fyftem of education,
which Xenophon reprefents as publicly eftablilhed
among the Perfians. Were we able to preferve in a
tranfiation all the manly and graceful fimplicity of that
enchanting author, we would have offered to the per -,
ufal of our readers the paffage in which he has deferib-
ed it : but confcious of being inadequate to that talk,
we have prefumed only to extracl the information
which it contains. It
Perhaps, however, this fyftem of education did not Remaik,
fubfift precifely as the eloquent difciple of Socrates de- on Xeno-
feribes it among that rude and fimple people. Onp.Wsac-
other occafions he has commemorated fuch inftances of cou^t of
their barbarity, as would tempt us to think them inca-^^jffi^
pable of fo much order and fo much wifdom. Perhaps,
as the difeoverers of the new would have fometimes
conferred on the inhabitants of that hemiiphere, in the
accounts of them with which they entertained their
friends in Europe, amazing degrees of moral and po¬
litical wifdom, of Ikill and dexterity in the arts, of in-
duftry and valour, which thofe uncivilized children of
nature were afterwards found not to pofiefs j fo the
Athenian philofopher has alfo aferibed to the Perfians
prudence and attention in .regulating the education of
their youth beyond what people in fo rude a ftate can.
poffibly exert.
But if we examine into the principles on which this
fyftem of education proceeds, without concerning our-
felves whether it once a&ually prevailed among the
Perfians, or is the produ&ion of the fine imagination
of Xenophon, we will find it peculiarly fuitable for a
nation juft emerging from the rudenefs and ignorance
of barbarity to a knowledge of focial and civil rela¬
tions, and of the duties conne&ed with fuch relationv
They have facrificed their independence to obtain the
comfort
E D U [
^Education comfort and fecurity of a focial ftato. They now
'' —v glory in the appellation of citizens, and are delirous to
difcharge the duties incumbent on a citizen. h hey
’muft inform their children in the nature of their focial
relations, and imprefs them with habits of difcharging
their focial duties •, otherwife the fociety will loon be
diffolved, and their pollerity wall fall back into the
fame wild miferable hate from which they have, emer¬
ged. But perhaps the circUmftanees, or abilities, or
difpofitions of individuals, render them unequal to this
weighty talk. It becomes therefore naturally an ob¬
ject of public care. The whole focial body find it ne-
ceffary to deliberate on the molt proper means for dif¬
charging it aright. A plan of education is then form¬
ed •, the ghat object of which is, to fit the youth for
difcharging the duties of citizens* Arts and fciences
are hitherto almolt wholly unknown : and all that can
be communicated to the youth is ptily a lldll in fuch
exercifes as are neceffary for their procuring fubliftence,
or defending themfelves againft human enemies or
beafts of prey ; and habits of performing thofe duties,
the negleft of which mull be fatal to the fociety or the
Individual.
Such is the fyllem of education which we have furvey-
ed as eftablilhed among the Perfians ; and perhaps we
may now be lefs fufpicious than before of Xenophon’s
veracity. It appears natural for a people wrho have reach¬
ed that degree of civilization in which they are defcrib-
ed, and have not yet advanced farther, to inllitute
fuch an eftablilhment. Some fuch ellabliihment alfo ap¬
pears neceffary to prevent the fociety from falling back
into their former barbarity* It will prevent their vir¬
tue and valour from decaying, though it may perhaps
at the fame time prevent them from making any very
rapid progrefs in civilization and refinement. Yet the
indultry, the valour, the integrity, and the patriotifm
which it infpires, mull necelfarily produce fome favour¬
able change in their eircurnlfances; and that change in
their circumltances will be followed by a change in
i2 their fyllem of education.
Among tlie The Cretans, too, the wifdom of whofe laws is fo
Cretans. much celebrated in the records of antiquity, had a
public eftablilhment for the education of their youth.
Minos, whom they revered as their great legiilator,
was alfo the founder of that eltablilhlnent. Its tendency
was fimilar to that of the CoUrfe of education purfued
among the Perliaiis,—to form the foldier and the citi¬
zen. We cannot prefent Our readers with a very par¬
ticular or accurate account of it *, but fuch as we have
been able to procure from the bell authorities we think
it our duty to lay before them.
The Cretans were divided into three clalfes; the
boys, the youth, and the adults. Between feven and
feventeeh years of age, the boy ivas employed in learn¬
ing to Ihoot the bowr, and in acquiring the knowledge
of his duties as a man and a citizen, by lillening to
the converfation of the old mert in the public halls,
and obferving their conduft. At the age of feven, he
was conducted to the public halls to enter on this
courfe of education. He was taught to expofe himfelf
boldly to danger and fatigue •, to afpire after Ikill and
dexterity in the ufe of arms and in the gymnaltic ex¬
ercifes to repeat the laws and hymns in honour of
the gods. At the age of feventeen he was enrolled
among the youth. Here his education tvas Hill con-
544 1 £ D tJ
w tinued on the fame plan. He was to exercife himfelf EQncat't
among his equals in hunting, wrelliing, and the milk '"’““r"
tary exercifes 5 and while thus engaged, his fpirits
were roufed and animated by drains of martial mufic
played on fuch inllruments as -were then in ufe among
the inhabitants of Crete. One part of the education
of the Cretan youth, in which they wrere particularly
delirous to excel, was the Pyrrhic dance) wdiich was
the invention of a Cretan, and confided of various mi¬
litary evolutions performed to the found of indru-
ments.
Such were the principles and arts in which the Cre¬
tan legillature diredled the youth to be indrudled.
This courfe of education could not be dire&ed or fu-
perintcnded by the parent. It w^as public, and car¬
ried on with a view to fit the boy for difcharging the
duties of a citizen when he diould attain to man¬
hood. jj
It is eafy to fee, that fuch a fydem of education Remark)
mud have been indituted in the infancy of fociety, be-ont^e i
fore many arts had been invented, or the didinftions of^.^f
rank had arifen) at a time when men fubfilted in a con-
fiderable degree by hunting, and when the intercourfe
of nations was on fuch a footing, that war, indead of
being occafional, was the great bulinefs of life* Such
a fyitem of life would then naturally take place, even
through no fage legillator had arifen to regulate and
enforce it.
Lycurgus, the celebrated lawgiver of Lacedemon, Among
thought it neceffary to direct the education of youth hacet*cc'
In a particular manner, in order to prepare them formanS‘
paying a dri£l obedience to his laws* He regarded
children as belonging more properly to the date than
to their parents, and wifhed that patriotifm Ihould be
dill more carefully cheridied in their breads than filial
affeftion. The fpirit of his fydem of education was j
pretty fimilar to that of thofe which we have jud view*
ed as fubfiding among the Perfians and the Cretans.
As foon as a boy was born, he w as fubmitted to the
infpeftion of the elders of that tribe to which his pa*
rents belonged. If he wras wTell draped, drong, and
vigorous, they direfted him to be brought up, and
adigned a certain portion of land for his maintenance*
If he wras deformed, weak, and lickly, they condemn¬
ed him to be expofed, as not being likely ever to be¬
come an ufeful citizen. If the boy appeared worthy
of being brought up, he wras intruded to the care of
his parents till he attained the age of feven years ; but
his parents were driftly charged not to fpoil either his
mind or his bodily conditution by foolilli tendernefs*
Probably, too, the date of their manners was at that
time fuch as not to render the injunftion peculiarly ne-
celfary.
At the age of feven, however, he was introduced
to a public clafs, confiding of all the boys of the fame
age. Their educatioil wTas committed to maders ap¬
pointed by thd date 5 and what wras chiefly inculcated
on them in the courfe of it, was fubmiffive obedience
and refpefl to their fuperiors ; quicknefs and brevity in
their converfation, and replies to fuch quedions "as
were put to them •, dexterity and addrefs in perform¬
ing what W’as commanded them, and firmnefs and pa¬
tience in bearing every pain or harddiip to which they
might be expofed. One of the means ufed to foml
them to habits of aclivity and addrefs, was to permit.,
nay,
E D U
to dire& them to commit little
r
a£s of theft j
y performed them fo dexteroufly as to
IS
;marks.
[acation. nay
«-Y"—' which, if th
avoid deteflion, they might afterwards boaft of
noble exploits: but if dete61ed in fuch enterprifes,
the awkward artlefs bf>y was expofed both to punilh-
nient and difgrace. To avoid the punifhment and dif-
grace incurred by being difcovered in an ail of theft, the
Spartan boy would often fuller with unlhrinking forti¬
tude the fevered torments. It is related of one of them,
that rather than be deteiled with a young fox under
his cloak, which he had llolen, he fuffered the little
animal to tear open his bowels. Not content with be¬
holding the children fuffer by fubmitting voluntarily
to fuch hardfhips, the Spartans alfo endeavoured to
form them to fortitude, by whipping them on their re¬
ligious feftivals, fometimes with fuch feverity that they
expired under the lalb. The Lacedaemonian youth
were alfo taught fuch bodily exercifes, and the ufe of
fuch warlike weapons, as were neceffary to render them
expert and Ikilful foldiers.
They too, as well as the Cretans and Perfians, a-
rnong whom we have feen fimilar modes of education
adopted, were to be citizens and foldiers, not hulband-
men, mechanics, artifts, merchants, &c. Their mode
of education, therefore, was fimple and uniform. Its
aim was, to make them acquainted with the nature of
their focial duties, and to form them to fuch vigour of
body and fuch firmnefs of mind as might render them
fit for the flation in which they were to be placed^ and
adequate to the part which they were to aft. This
eilablilhment for education was perfeftly confiftent
with the other parts of that legillalure which was infti-
tuted by Lycurgus. Youth educated among the La¬
cedaemonians could hardly fail to become worthy mem-
bers of that fingular republic. Let us not, however,
regard the Spartans as lingularly inhumane in their
treatment of youth. Let us reafcend, in imagination,
to that period in the progrefs of fociety from rudenefs
to refinement, which they had reached when Ly¬
curgus arofe among them. What were then their
circumllances, their arts and manners, their moral
principles, and military difcipline ? Not very different
from thofe which the laws of Lycurgus rendered fo
long ftationary among them. He, no doubt, reftified
fome abufes, and introduced greater order and equali¬
ty. But man is not to be fo eafily metamorphofed
into a new form. As you cannot, at once, raife an
acorn to a venerable oak ; fo neither will you be able
to change the favage, at once, into the citizen. All
the art or wifdom of Lycurgus, even though afiifted
by all the influence of the prophetic Apollo, could
never have eftablifhed his laws among his countrymen,
had not their charafter and circumflances previoufly
difpofed them to receive them. But, grant this, and
you muff, of confequence, allow, that, what to us
may appear cruel and inhumane, muff have affefted
their feelings in a different manner. The change in¬
troduced in the treatment of youth by the eflablifh-
ment of this fyflem of education, was probably recom¬
mended by its being more humane than what before
prevailed. Corrupted as are our manners, and effemi¬
nate our modes of education ; yet we would not per¬
haps aft wifely in laying them afide, to adopt in their
ftead thofe of ancient Sparta. But the Spartan edu¬
cation was peculiarly well fitted to form citizens for
Vol. VII. Part XL
45 ] E I) U
the republic of Lycurgus; it Was happily adapted toEducatio*.
the ftate of fociety in which it was introduced. And, v "
if we fhould inquire by what means Lycurgus was
enabled to fix the arts, the manners, and in (hort
the civilization of his country, tor fo long a period, in
a ftationary fate ; we would perhaps find reafon to
afcribe that effeft to the public elta-jlilhmerit which
he inlfituted for the education of youth ; to his
confining the Spartan citizens to the profeffion of
arms, and affigning all fervile offices to the Helots ;
and to his prohibiting the ufe of gokl^ and filver.
Among thefe however his eftabiifhment for education
occupies the chief place. Never was any Hate adorn*
ed with more patriotic citizens than thofe of Sparta.
With them every private affeftion teemed to be fwal-
lovved up by the amor pairice : the love of their coun¬
try was at leaft their ruling paffion. Poedaretes being
rejefted when he offered himfelf a candidate lor a leat
among the council of three hundred, returned home,
rejoicing that there were in Sparta no fewer than
three hundred whom his countrymen found reafon to
regard as better citizens than himfelf. This was not
a feeming joy, affumed to conceal the pain which he
fuffered from the difappointment ; it was heartfelt
and fincere. Such were the effefts of their fyftem of
education. t&
When we turn our eyes from the Perfians, the Cre- Education
tans, and the Spartans, to the other nations of anti- the
quity; we nowhere behold fo regular a fyftem of i>ub-ot^er
3 V . . , * , • j i n r t,0l S ot an*'
lie education. Among the Athenians and the Komans, t)
the laws did not defeend to regulate in lo particular a
manner the management of the youth. Fhefe nations
gradually emerged from a ftate of the rudeft barbarity,
to that poliffied, enlightened, and civilized ftate, which
rendered them the glory and the wonder of the hea¬
then world : but in no part of their progrefs from the
one ftate to the other do we find any fuch eftablifhment
fubfifting among them. So various, however, are the cir¬
cumllances which form and diverfify the charafter
of nations, that we cannot reafonably conclude, be-
caufe no fuch eftablilhments exifttd among the Athe¬
nians and Romans, that therefore their exiftence was
unnatural among thofe nations who poffeffed them.
But though the education of youth was managed in a
different manner among thefe and moft other nations
in the ancient world, than by public eftabiilhments,
which detached children from the care of their parents ;
yet ftill it was everywhere regarded as an objeft of the
higheft importance. As the manners of mankind gradu¬
ally improved to a ftate of refinement ; as the invention
of arts, and the difeovery of fcience gradually intro¬
duced opulence and luxury ; connubial, parental, and
filial affeftion gradually acquired greater ftrength and
tendernefs. Of confequence, children experienced more
of their parents care ; and that care was direfted to
form them for afting a becoming part in life. Ac¬
cording to the circumftances of each nation, the arts
which they cultivated, and the form of government
under which they lived ; the knowledge which they
fought to communicate to their children, and the ha¬
bits which they endeavoured to imprefs upon them,
were different from thofe of other nations : And again,
according to the different circumftances, tempers, abi¬
lities, and difpofitions of parents, even the children of
each family were brought up in a manner different from
3 Z that
E D U [ 5
Education, that in which thofe of other families were managed.
——v-—- The Athenians, the Romans, the Carthaginians, con-
duffed each of them the education of their youth in a
different manner, becaufe they had each different ob¬
jects in view. But having confidered the mod hngular
eftablifriments for education which prevailed in the an¬
cient world, it fee ms unneceffary for us to defcend to a
particular account of the manner which every nation,
or fantaffic individual, thought proper to purfue in
bringing up their youth. It will probably be more
ufeful and entertaining to our readers, if we next pre-
fent them with a view of fome of the moft judicious or
fanciful plans of education which have been propofed
^ by the writers on that fubjeff.
QuinAi- One rno^; r^fpefiable writers on education
ban. among the ancients is the celebrated Quinffilian. He
taught rhetoric in Rome during the reign of Domitian,
and under feveral of the other emperors. When he re¬
tired from the exercile of his employment as a teacher
of rhetoric, he fpent his leifure in the compofition of a
treatife, not merely on rhetoric, but on the moft pro¬
per means for educating a boy fo as to render him both
an eloquent orator and a good man.
In that valuable treatife, he enters into a minute de¬
tail of all that appears to him moft likely to conduce to
thofe important ends.
As foon as the boy enters the world, he would have
the greateft care to be ufed in felefling thofe who are
to be placed about him.. Let his nurfe have no impe¬
diment of fpeecb. It will be happy for him, if his
parents be perfons of fenfe and learning. Let his tu¬
tor, at leaft, poffefs thefe qualifications. As foon as he
attains the diftinfl ufe of his organs of fpeecb,, let him
be initiated in the firft elements of literature. For
as he is capable of diftinguiftiing and remembering at
a very early age j fo his faculties cannot pofiibly be
employed in a more advantageous manner. And even
at this early period of life, let maxims of prudence
and the firft principles of morals be inculcated upon
his mind by the books which are put into his hands,
and even by the lines which he copies in learning the
art of writing. The Greek language was to the Ro¬
mans in the days of Quinffilian, what the Latin and
Greek and French are to us at prefent, an acquifition
held indifpenfably necefiary to thofe who afpired to a
liberal education ; and QuinfUlian judges it proper
that the boy ftiould begin his application to letters
with the Greek language in preference to his mother
tongue.
This judicious writer next examines a queftion which
has been often agitated. Whether a domeftic or a pub¬
lic education is liable to the feweft inconveniences,
and likely to be attended with the greateft advantages ?
And he is of opinion, that in a domeftie education the
boy is in danger of being corrupted by injudicious
fondnefs and evil example $ is not roufed by the fpur
of emulation j and is deprived of proper opportunities
for acquiring a juft idea of his own power, or that
aftivity and dexterity which he will afterwards find fo
neceffary when he comes to a& a part in life : While
in a public education, which was preferred by fome of
the moft renowned nations of antiquity, the morals are
not greatly expofed to corruption, emulation is roufed,
friend (hips are formed, all the powers of the mind are
called forth to a& with new vigour, and the youth is
- . 4 ,
|6 ] E D U
prepared for performing his part on the great theatre gj „ .
of the world, (^uinftilian, therefore, wifties that pa- ^ uc^
rents would place their children in public feminaries of
education.
When a boy is committed to a mafter’s care, the
mailer’s attention muft be firft directed to difcover his
difpofitions and the extent of his capacity. Of his
capacity he will form a favourable judgment, not from
his fprightlinefs, nor even from his quicknefs of appre-
henfion, but from his modefty, docility, and virtuous
difpofitions. If the boy poffefs thefe laft qualifica¬
tions, the mafter will rej,oice in him, as likely to give
him fatisfa&ion and do him honour. According to
his temper and difpofitions, let the boy be treated with
mildnefs or feverity ; but never let feverity extend to
blows. Let the boy be allured and led, by the moft
artful and infinuating treatment, to do his duty ; there
will then be no occafion to punilh him for neglecting
it.
As QuinCtilian’s profeffed objeft was, not merely to
give general directions for forming the heart and cul¬
tivating the underftanding, but to form a particular
character in life, the fcholar and the orator ; he finds
it neceffary to enter into minute details concerning ths
manner in which the boy is to be inftruCted in fpeak?
ing, writing, grammar, and compofition j of which it
does not appear neceffary for us take particular no¬
tice in this place. Mufic and geometry, he thinks,
ought to make a part of the young orator’s ftudies ;
as being ufeful to render him accurate in reafoning,
and capable of reliftiing the beauties of the poets. Hs
is alfo of opinion, that the boy fhould not be confined
to one branch of ftudy, without being allowed to at¬
tempt others till he have made himfelf mafter of that.
Let feveral parts of literature engage his attention
by turns: let him dedicate a considerable portion of
his time to them. He may thus acquire habits of in-
duftrious application which will remain with him
through life.
With the tender attention of a good man, this fern-
fible and elegant writer flill acccompanies his pupil
through the courfe of his ftudies j anxioufly infills that
he be placed under a mafler diftinguilhed for purity of
morals, and for no mean abilities in his profeflion 5 di-
reCls his memory to be ftored with the nobleft paffages-
of the poets, orators, and hiftorians ; and carefully di£-
cuffes and refutes thofe opinions which reprefent ge¬
nius as above induftry. The remaining part of his
work being employed on the principles of rhetoric,
without containing any thing on the fubjtit of educa¬
tion in general, it is not neceffary that we Ihould here
prefent an analyfis of it to our readers. But fince
Quinflilian was fo diftinguiftied, not only as a rheto¬
rician, but as an inftruftor of youth, and difplays fo
much good fenfe and fo folid a judgment, formed on
long experience, in whatever he advances on the fub-
jefl of education •, we could not, without extreme ne¬
gligence, omit taking notice of him under this ar¬
ticle, and affording our readers an opportunity of
being inftrudled by liftening to his fentiments on this
head. IS
The name of John Milton is fo much revered in Bri- Milton's!
tain, that his fentiments on any fubjt 61 are intereftmg Ireariej
to Britons. His life was dedicated to ftudy : During kducat!(
a part 0/ it; he was employed in the talk of inftru61ing
youth $.
E D U [ 547 ] E D U
Ilucation. youth J and among his other works we find a treatife
— on education. He had himfelf been educated accord¬
ing to that plan which has long been eftablifhed in the
H Englith univerfities j but with that mode of education
he was not fatisfied. The objeft of his directions is
chiefly to form a fcholar. He confidered himfelf as
qualified to exhibit a model of “ a better education,
in extent and comprehenfion far more large, and yet
of time far fhorter, and of attainment far more certain,
'than any that had yet been in praftice.” The follow¬
ing is the fubftance of his treatife.
As the end of learning is to cultivate our under-
ftandings, and to rectify our difpofitions ; therefore the
defign of our applying to the ftudy of languages cannot
be merely that we may commit to memory the words
of which they confitt, or that we may acquire a know¬
ledge of their analogy and ftruCture } but that we may
enrich our minds with the treafures of wifdom which
they contain. But in the prefent modes of education
this dtfign does not appear to be kept in view. The
learner of Latin is burdened with rules, and themes,
and verfes, and orations *, but no care is taken to make
him mailer of the valuable knowledge which the claflics
contain. And when he advances a little farther, he is
driven into the thorny paths of logic and metaphyfics.
So, when his itudies are completed, and he is confi¬
dered as having received a liberal education, he is al-
moft as dellitute of real knowledge as when he firfl
entered a fchool.
But to render learning truly beneficial, inflead of
the fchool and univerfity education which youth at
prefent receive, let the place of both fchool and uni¬
verfity be fupplied by an academy, in which they may
acquire all that is taught at either, except law and phy-
fic. Let the academy afford accommodation for 150
perfons •, 20 of whom may be fervants and attendants.
As many academies as are-neceffary may be afterwards
erected on the model of this one. Let the youth who
are introduced into this academy begin their tludies
with learning the principal rules of grammar from
fume good elementary book. In their pronunciation
of Latin, let them be taught to follow the pronun¬
ciation of the Italians •, as that of the Englilh is in-
diftinft, and unfuitable to the genius of the language.
Next, read to them fome entertaining book on educa¬
tion ; fuch as, the three firff books of Quinctilian in
Latin, and Cebes, Plutarch, or fome other of the So-
cratic difeourfes, in Greek ; and be careful to feize
every opportunity of infpiring them, by feafonable lec¬
tures and explanations, with love for learning, admira¬
tion of great and virtuous characters, and a difpofition
to cheerful obedience. At the fame time, but at a
different hour of the day, let them be inftruCted in the
rules of arithmetic and the elements of geometry. Be¬
tween fupper and bedtime, inltruCt them in the prin¬
ciples of religion and the facred hiftory. From the
writers on education let your pupils pafs to the authors
on agriculture, to Cato, Varro, and Columella. Be¬
fore half thefe authors be read, they cannot but be
pretty well qualified to read moll of the pr.ife authors
in the Latin language ; and they may now, with great
propriety, learn the ufe of the globes, and make them-
fflves acquainted with the ancient and modern maps.
Let them, about the fame time, begin the iiudy of
the Greek tongue, and proceed in it as in the Latin:
they will not fail to overcome, in a Ihort time, all the Education,
difficulties of grammar ; after which they will have ac-
cefs to all the treafures of natural knowledge to be
found in Ariftotle and Theophraftus. In the fame
manner they may make themfelves acquainted with
Vitruvius, Seneca, Mela, Celfus, Pliny, and Solinus.
And having thus paffed through the principles of arith¬
metic, geometry, aflronomy, and geography, with a
general compaor tVitMr nup.dions in a ludicrous or de-
ren, by anfwering their quedions in a ludicrous
ceitful manner.
You mud, however, not only liden with obliging at¬
tention to his quedions, and drive to gratify his curio¬
fity ; but even whenever he attempts to reafun on fuck
fubjefts as are offered to his obfervation, be careful to
encourage him ; praife him if he reafons with any de¬
gree of plaufibility j even if he blunders, beware of ri¬
diculing or laughing at him. With regard to the boy s
playthings : while you indulge him freely in innocent
diverfions, give him fuch playthings as may be necef-
fary in the amufements in which he engages, provided
they be fuch as he cannot make himfelf; but it will be
dill better for him to exercife his dexterity and inge¬
nuity in making them himielf.
After throwing out thefe things concerning the ge¬
neral principles on which education fhould be carried
on, Mr Locke next proceeds to thofe particular parts
of knowledge in which he thinks every young gentle¬
man ought to be indrufted. In virtue, wifdom, breed¬
ing, and learning, he comprehends all that is neceffary
to enable his pupil to aft a refpeftable part in life.
In forming the boy to virtue, the fird thing to be done
is to inform him of the relation fubfiding between hu¬
man creatures and a fupreme independent Being, their
creator, preferver, and governor j and to teach him,
* that
E D U [ 550 1 E D U
5. that obedience and worihip are due to that Being. But
when you inform the child of the exiftence of an invifi-
ble Being, beware of impreffing his mind with any no¬
tions concerning fpirits or goblins, which may render
him incapable of bearing darknefs or folitude. In in¬
fancy our minds are, by the indifcretion of thofe about
us, generally impreffed with fuch prejudices concerning
a thoufand frightful forms, ever ready to affail or haunt
us under the fhade of night, that we become incapable
of manly fortitude during the courfe of life : the foldier
who will boldly face death in the field of battle, fhall
perhaps tremble and take to flight at the ruftling of a
few leaves, or the grunting of a hog in the dark. But
were the imaginations of children not crazed with wild
(lories concerning fpirits and hobgoblins, darknefs would
be no more alarming to them than light. After inform¬
ing the child of the exiftence of a Deity, and teaching
him to pray to him 5 next labour to imprefs his mind
with a veneration for truth, and habituate him to a ftrict
adherence to it on every occafion. Endeavour alfo to
render him gentle and good-natured.
The beft means you can ufe to teach him wifdom or
prudence in conducing himfelf in the ordinary bufinefs
and intercourfe of life, is to teach him to defpife the
mean fluffs of cunning. The reft muft be learned by
a&ual experience in life.
The decencies of life, comprehended under the word
Good Breeding, form no ineonfiderable part of a good
education. In teaching thefe, two things are to be
attended to : Infpire the youth with a difpofition to
pleafe and oblige all with whom he is converfant ; next,
teach him how to exprels that difpolition in a becoming
manner. Let boifterous roughnefs, haughty contempt
of others, cenforioufnefs, impertinent raillery, and a
Spirit of contradiction, be banilhed from his temper and
behaviour. At the fame time, beware of leading him
to regard the mere forms of intercourfe as a matter of
the higheft importance. Remember that genuine good
breeding is only an eafy and graceful way of exprefling
good fenfe and benevolence in his converfation and de¬
portment.
Mr Locke, when he comes to give his opinion con¬
cerning thofe parts of learning which are proper to be
taught a young gentleman, and the manner in which
they ought to be communicated, advifes to initiate the
child in the art of reading, without letting him know
that he is engaged about a matter of any importance,
or learning an aecomplifliment which you are folicitous
that he fliould acquire. Prefent it to him in the form of
an amufement, or teach him to coniider it as an high
honour to be permitted to learn his alphabet; otberwife
he will turn from it with difguft. When by infinuating
arts you have allured him to apply to reading, put into
his hands fuch books as are plain, entertaining, and in-
ftru&ive. Infift not on his reading over the Bible: in-
ftead of gaining any advantage from an indifcriminate
perufal of it at this period of life, he is likely to acquire
the moft confufed notions of religion, and an indiffer¬
ence for the facred volume during the reft of life : yet
'it may be highly improper to caufe him to perufe feme
of its beautiful hiftorieal paffages, and to familiarize
him with its elegant and fimpie moral precepts. A
learning to read his mother tongue, the boy’s
ought to be next din-Cted :o the art of writing j.'he
eafiell way to teach him that art, is to ge-
graved, after the model of any hand which you think
moft proper for his imitation. With this plate get a
number of copies caft with red ink j the letters of thefe
the learner may trace with his pen filled with black ink:
and lie will thus in a (hort time, and without much
trouble to you or himfelf acquire a decent hand. As
drawing is ufeful on many occafions in life, if the boy
be not naturally incapable of acquiring it, he may with
great propriety dedicate fome part of his time and at¬
tention to that art.
When the fcholar has attained a tolerable degree of
(kill in writing, and in reading and fpeaking his native
language, he muft next begin an acquaintance with
other languages. Among thefe, the firft objeft of his
fludy will naturally be the Latin. Yet let none wafte
their time in attempting to acquire a knowledge of
Latin, but fuch as are defigned for fome of the learned
proftflions, or for the lite of a gentleman without a
profeflxon. To thefe laft it may be ufeful j to others
it is wholly unferviceable. But in learning the Latin
tongue, a much happier method than burdening and
perplexing him with rules of grammar, would be to
make him fpeak it with a tutor who was fufficiently
mafter of it for that purpofe. Thus might he fpend
that time which is ufually occupied in acquiring this
language, in learning fome other neceflary branches
of education. But if you cannot conveniently have the
boy taught the language by the way of converfation,
let the introductory books be accompanied with an
Englifti verfion, which he may have eafy recourfe to
for the explanation of the Latin. Never perplex him
with grammatical difficulties. Reflea that, at his
age, it is impoffible to enter into the fpirit of thofe
things. Render every thing as eafy and pleafing as
poffible : for the attention will not fail to wander, even
though you labour not to render the talk difagreeable.
Skill in grammar may be ufeful ; but it is to thofe
whofe lives are to be dedicated to the ftudy of the dead
languages : that knowledge which the gentleman and
the man of the world may have occafion to derive from
the treafures contained in the ancient languages, may
be acquired, without a painful fludy of profody or fyn-
tax. A* the learning of any language is merely learn¬
ing words j if poflible, let it be accompanied with the
acquifition of lome real knowledge of things j fuch as
the nature of plants, animals, See. their growth and pro-
pagtition. But if you cannot or will not give your boy
a private education, and are ftill refolved to fend him
to fchool, to be whipped through the ufual courfe of
Greek and Latin j at leaft aCl with fo much good
fenfe and humanity, as to infift that he be not burdened
and tormented with the compofition of Latin themes
and veifes. Neither let his memory be opprefled with
whole pages and chapters from the daffies. Such ridi¬
culous exercifts have no tendency, whatever prejudice
may urge to the contrary, to improve him either in the
knowledge of languages or of nature.
Mr Locke Items to wiffi that the French language,
which in his days bad attained to higher refinement
and a more regular analogy than any of the other mo¬
dern languages of Europe ;—he feems to wifti that
' French were learned along with the Latin : and he
s the ftudy of thele languages to be accompanied
he ftudy of arithmetic, geography, hiftory, and
■-...-.o-.iLet thefe branches of knowledge be
communicated
E D U [ SSi J E D U
communicated to the learner in one of the two lan-
1 n ^atl0ri‘i rU3goc • and he will thus acquire the language with
'I preater facility. He next points out the advantages
of the branches of knowledge which he recommends
as pr0per to be learned together with the languages 'y
but on that head he fays nothing fingular. One me¬
thod which he recommends for facilitating the ftudy
of language is, to put into the youth’s hands, as foon
as he has acquired a tolerable knowledge of chronolo-
ov feme of the mod entertaining Latin hiftorians :
the interefting nature of the events which they relate
will not fail to command his attention, in fpite of the
difficulty which he muft find in making out their mean¬
ing. The Bible and Tully’s Offices will be his bed
guides in the ftudy of ethics. The law of nature and
nations, as well as the civil and political inditutions of
his country, will form to him an important objeft,
which he ought to dudy with the mod careful atten¬
tion. Rhetoric and logic, though generally regarded
as objefts of great importance in a liberal education,
can neither of them contribute much, with all their
rules and terms, to render him an acute reafoner or an
eloquent fpeaker 5 and it is therefore unnecedary for
him to honour them with very particular attention.
Tally and Chillingworth will be more beneficial in
teaching him to reafon and to perfuade, than all the
treatifes on rhetoric and logic which he can poffibly
perufe, or all the le&ures on thofe arts which he can
gain opportunities to hear. In every art and every
fcience, pra&tce and experience are infinitely better
than rules. Natural philofophy, as contributing to
infpire the bread with warmer fentiments of devotion,
and ferving alfo to many ufeful purpofes in life, ought
to make a part in the young gentleman’s dudies.
But the humble experimental writers on that fubjedl
are to be put into his hands in preference to the lofty
builders of fydems. As for Greek, our pupil is not
to be a profeiTed fcholar, but a gentleman and a man
of the world : and therefore it does not appear necef-
fary that Greek fhould make a part in the fydem of
his education. But in none of thefe dudies will, the
pupil ever attain any proficiency, unlefs he be accu-
ftomed to method and regularity in the profecution of
them. In languages, let him gradually afeend from
what is fimpled to what is mod difficult: in hidnry,
let him follow the order of time ; in philofophy, that
of nature..
Dancing, as contributing to eafe and gracefulnefs
of carriage,, ought to make part in our young gentle¬
man’s education. Fencing and riding being faffiion-
able, cannot well be denied him. As he is likely, in
the courfe of life, to have feme leifure hours on his
hands, and to be fometimes difpofed to adtive recrea¬
tion, let him learn fome mechanical trade, with the
exercife of which he may agreeably fill up fome of thofe
hours. If he is to poffefs any property, let him not be
unlkilled in the management of accounts. 1 ravel, in-
flead of being ufeful, appears more likely to be hurt¬
ful to the underdanding and morals of the traveller,
unlefs deferred to a later period than that at which
young men are ufually fent out to complete their edu¬
cation by traverfing through toreign conntries.
Here Mr Locke concludes his work with obferving,
that he does not offer it to the world as a full or com-
prehenfive treatife on the fubjedt of education, but
merely as the outlines of what occurred to him as mod Education,
proper to be obferved in breeding up a young gentle- —
man not intended for any learned profeffion or mechar
nical employment, but for adting a refpedlable part in
life at the head of a competent hereditary fortune. . 23
In confidering the. fentiments of this refpedlable phi-Remarks.
lofopber on the fubjedl of education, we perceive, that
as he was, on the one hand, fuperior to tbofe preju¬
dices which render us incapable of didinguidiing the
defedls or abfurdities of any cudom or inditution whicn
has long prevailed 5 fo, on the other hand, he was free
from that filly vanity which difpofes thofe who are fub-
jedf to its infiuence to affedl novelty and fingularity of
fentiment on every fubjedt which they confider. I hough
a member of one of the univerfities, he hefitates not
to declare himfelf againd a very laborious attention to
claffical learning ; and his reafoning is, through the
whole of his treatife, rather plain and folid than fubtle
or refined.
Yet, however we refpedt the foundnefs of his under¬
danding or the benevolence of his intentions, we can¬
not avoid obferving, that his opinions are not always
fuch as experience judifies. He had no doubt taken
notice of fome indances in which the too great anxiety
of parents about the prefervation of their children’s
health was the very means of rendering their conditu-
tion feeble and tender through the courfe of life ; and
from that circumdance might be led to propofe thofe.
expedients which he mentions for preferving the health
and drengthening the conditution of children. But a
little more obfervation or inquiry would have eafily
convinced him, that fome of his expedients, indead of
drengthening the child’s conditution, would in all pro¬
bability fhorten his days.
He had perhaps feen fome of the heroes of claffical
literature, who were familiar with Demodhenes and
Cicero, and had Homer and Virgil at their finger ends,
—he had feen fome of thofe gentlemen fo overloaded
with their cargo of Greek and Latin as to be unfit for
the ordinary bufimefs and intercourfe of life ; and fuch
indances might tempt him to forget the advantages
which he himfelf, and a long feries of philofophers,
patriots, and datefmen, with whofe names the annals of
our country are adorned, had derived from a regular
claffical education. But as we are afterwards to de¬
liver our own fentiments on the fubjedd, we will not
here extend our obfervations on Mr Locke to a greater
length. ... , 24
An author more didinguiffied than Mr Locke for R.oufleau»
tendernefs of fentiment, fingularity, eloquence, and
whim, has prefented the public with a work on the
fubjeft of education, in which, with unexampled bold-
nefs, he inveighs againd all the edablidied modes, as
well as reprobates whatever had been advanced by for¬
mer writers on the fubjei lile which is naturally
the golden part of our days. But when he has attain¬
ed the proper age, matters fhall be fo ordered, that he
{hall find his ignorance of letters an inconvenience. A
card {ball be fent him, which being unable to read, he
will apply to fome of thofe about him. I hey may be
unwilling to oblige him, or other wife engaged. It, at
length, it is read to him, that may be when it is now
too late to take advantage of fome agreeable invitation
which it contained. This may be two or three times
repeated. At length he becomes eager to learn to read}
and accomplilhes that almoft without affiftance.
The prineiple on which we proceed, is to leave the
pupil almoft wholly under his own direftion, feemingly
st
E D U
T 555 1
E D U
[ucation
3°
cpofure
f id exer-
fc.
at leaft ; to lead him to acquire new accomplifliments,
, f0ieiy from the defire of increafing his powers, and
extending his influence ; and humbly to follow nature,
not to force her.
As we are defirous of cultivating his underftanding,
the means which we employ for that purpofe is, to cul¬
tivate thofe abilities on which it depends j he is always
active and in motion. Let us firft make him a man in
point of health and vigour, and he will foon become a
tnan in underftanding.
By our conftant attention to the welfare of children,
we render it unneceftary for them to attend to it them-
felves. What occafion has your fon or pupil to obferve
whether the afpeft of the fky threaten rain, when he
knows that you will take care to have him fheltered
from a {bower ; or to regulate the length of his excur-
fions, when he is fure that you will not fuffer him to
lofe his dinner ? ...
While matters are fo ordered that Emilius thinks
himfelf fubjeft only to his own will, though all his mo¬
tions are regulated according to your pleafure j inftead
of becoming fantaftic and capricious, he infenfibly ac¬
quires the habit of keeping utility in view in all his
a&ions. .
The firft obje&s which engage the attention of chil¬
dren are the appearances of the material world around
them : our firft ftudy is a kind of experimental philo-
fophy •, our inftruments and inftrudlors are our hands,
our feet, and our eyes. By exercifing thefe bodily
organs, the boy will acquire more real knowledge
even in the period of childhood, than if he ftiould de¬
dicate nine-tenths of his time to books, from the age
of fix to fixty. All who have examined, with any fa-
gacity, the chara&ers, circumftances, and manners of
the ancients, have agreed in attributing to their gym-
naftic exercifes that fuperior ftrength of body and
mind which renders them objefts of admiration to the
moderns.
Our pupil’s clothes cannot be too light and eafy. If
tight and clofe, they fetter and confine his joints and
limbs, and likewife obflruft the circulation of the
blood •, if accuftomed to warm clothing, he will foon
become incapable of bearing cold.
In every thing let him be habituated to what is
plain and hardy. Let his bed be coarfe and hard, his
clothes plain, his fare fimple. Infants mult be freely
indulged in fleep : but as Emilius is now advanced be¬
yond infancy, he muft be accuftomed at times to go
to bed late and get up early, to be fometimes hallily
waked from fleep j and thus to prepare himfelf for what
he may afterwards have occafion to fubmit to in the
courfe of life*
As this period is in a particular manner that of ex-
ercife, and Emilius is encouraged to take as much
exercife as he choofes j we muft endeavour to prompt,
but without feeming to direift him to fuch as are moft
proper. Swimming, though not generally attended to,
is yet one of the firft which a boy ought to learn. It
may, on many ocpafions in life, be of the greateft ad¬
vantage, by enabling us to fave
our own life or the
life of others. Emilius {hall be taught to fwim *, he
{hall be taught whatever can really’ enlarge the fphere
of his power : “ could I teach him to fly in the air, I
Would make him an eagle j if to bear the fire, a fala-
toander,”
To exercife the fenfes is not merely to make ufe of EducatitMU
them $ it is to learn to judge by them. Call not your - v ...w
pupil to exert his ftrength on every occafion j but
let him learn to judge of the truth of the information
which he receives from one fenfe, by having recourfe to
the evidence of another.
It is not impoflible to improve the fenfes to a higher
degree of perfection than that which they ufually at¬
tain. Blind men generally poffefs the fenfe of touch
in a more exquifite degree, than we who haVe alfo
eyes to guide and inform us. But they acquire this
funerior delicacy and acutenefs of fenfation, only by
their finding it neceffary to have more frequent re¬
courfe to the information of that fenfe. Here is then
a wide field for improvement and agreeable exercife to
our pupil. _ 31
What a variety of ufeful diVerfions might he be led Darknefs
to entertain himfelf with in the courfe of the night, and ghofts.
The hours of darknefs are generally hours of terror,
not only to men, but alfo to the brute animals. Even
reafon, knowledge, and courage, are not always fuffr-
cient to render us fuperior to the terror which darknefs
infpires.
This timidity is ufually attributed to the tales of
gbofts and goblins with which we are frightened in
infancy. But it originates from another caufe : our
ignorance of what is pafting around us, and our ina¬
bility to diftinguifti objeCls during that period of
darknefs. The paflion of fear was implanted by nature
in the human breaft, iti order that it might ferve to
put us on our guard againft danger. But in confe-
quence of our being fubjeft to the influence of that
paflion, when we are ignorant of what furrounds us,
imagination calls up dangers on all hands. And fuch
is the caufe from which our terror in darknefs naturally
arifes.
But the only way to free our pupil from this tyran¬
ny of imagination, is to oppofe to it the power of ha¬
bit. A bricklayer or tyler is never giddy on looking
down from the roofs of houfes. Neither will our pupil
be alarmed by the terrors of darknefs, if he be accu¬
ftomed to go frequently abroad under night. It is eafy
to contrive a number of little amufements, the agree-
ablenefs of which may, for a time, overcome our pupil’s
averfion for darknefs j and thus may a habit be at
length impreffed.
Let us give yet another inftance of the means by
which children may be led to do what we wifti, with¬
out our impofing any reftraint on their will. Sup-
pofe Emilius is lazy and inaaive, and we wifti to make
him learn to run. When walking out with the young
fluggard after dinner, I would fometimes put a couple
of his favourite cakes in my pocket j of thefe each of
us {hould eat one in the courfe of our walk.. After
fome. time I would ftiow him I had put a third cake
in my pocket. 1 his he would not fail to afk after
finifhing his own l no fays I, I can eat it myfelf, or we
will divide it j—or flay, we had better let thefe two
little boys there run a race for it. Accordingly I pro-
pofe the race to the boys 5 who readily accept the con¬
ditions, and one of them carries off the. prize. After
feeing this feveral times repeated, Erailius begins to
think himfelf qualified to obtain the third cake as Well
as any of the little boys, and to look upon running as
an accompliftunent of fome confequence. He feeks an
nnnortunitif
E D U [ 556 ] - E D U
Education, opportunity of being permitted to enter the lifts. He
'■—“■v"'—^ runs ; and after being two or three times outftripped, is
at length fuccefsful, and in a ftiort time attains an un-
32 doubted fuperiority.
Drawing. children naturally imitate almoft whatever they
behold, they are often difpofed to attempt drawing.
In this our pupil might be obliged, not merely for the
fake of the art, but to give him a fteady hand and a
good eye. But he ftiould draw from nature, not from
other drawings or from prints. Were he to draw the
likenefs of a horfe, he fhould look at the animal : if to
attempt a reprefentation of a houfe, he (hould view the
houfe itfelf. In this method he will, no doubt, fcratch
for a long time without producing any likenefs : but
he will acquire what we propofed as the ends of his at¬
tempting to draw *, namely, fteadinefs of hand and
juftnefs of fight, by this method, fooner than by any
^ other. ,
Geometry. Geometry, when taught in the ufual way, is cer¬
tainly above the capacity of children ; they cannot go
along with us in our reafonings : yet they are not to¬
tally incapable of acquiring even this difficult fcience ;
if, when they are profecuting their amufements, you
lead them infenfibly to obferve the properties of the
circle, the triangle, and the fquare, and place them
now and then in circumftances when they may have
occafion to apply their knowledge of thefe to real ufes
in life.
A child has been taught the various relations be¬
tween the outlines, furfaces, and contents of bodies, by
having cakes fet before him, cut into all manner of re¬
gular folids ; by which means he was led to mafter the
whole fcience of Archimedes, by ftudying which form
contained the greateft quantity.
There is a period between infancy and the age of
puberty, at which the growth and improvement of our
faculties exceed the increafe of our defires. About 12
or 13, when the appetite for the fex has not yet begun
to make itfelf felt, when unnatural wants are yet un¬
known, no falfe appetites yet acquired ; at that pe¬
riod, though weak as a man, as a child the youth is
ftrong.
This interval, when the individual is able to effeft
more than is neceflary for the gratification of his
wilhes, contains the moft precious moments of his life,
•which ought to be anxioufly filled up in an ufeful man-,
ner. This is the beft time for employment, for in-
ftru6Hon, for ftudy.
Now, let us begin to confider what is ufeful; for*
hitherto, we have only inquired what was neceffary.
In entering on our ftudies, we will make no account of
any but fuch as inftinft direfts us to purfue : thofe
which the pedant and the pretended philofopher are
impelled to purfue folely from the defire of attract¬
ing the admiration of mankind, are unworthy of our
notice.
The earth which we inhabit, and the fun by whofe
beams we are enlightened, are the firft objeCts which
claim our attention. We will therefore direft the at¬
tention of our pupil to the phenomena of nature. We
will lead him to the knowledge of geography, not by
maps, fpheres, and globes : we will lead Emilius out
on fome beautiful evening to behold the fetting fun.
Here we take particular notice of fuch objeCls as
mark the place of his going down. Next morning
we vifit the fpot to contemplate the rifing of the Educati
glorious luminary. After contemplating for fome —^
time the fucceffive appearances which the fcene before
us aflumes, and making Emilius obferve the hills and
the other furrounding objeCts, I ftand filent a few mo¬
ments, affeCling to be occupied in deep meditation.:
At laft I addrefs him thus: “ I am thinking, that
when the fun fet laft night, it went down yonder j
whereas this morning you fee he is rifen on the oppo-
fite of the plain here before us. What can be the
meaning of this ? I fay nothing more at this time,
but rather endeavour to direCt his attention to other
objeCls.
This is our firft leffon on cofmography.
Our laft obfervation was made about Midfummer -}
we will next view the rifing fun on fome fine morn¬
ing in the middle of winter. This fecond obfervalion
fhall be made on the very fame fpot which we chofe
for the former. When Emilius and I perceive the
fun now emerging above the horizon, we are ftruck
at the change of the place of his rifing. By fuch
leffons as thefe may the pupil be gradually taught
a real, not a feeming, acquaintance with the relative
motions of the fun and the planets and with geogra-
phy.
During the firft period of childhood, the great ob-
jedl of our fyftem of education was to fpend our time
as idly as poffible, in order that we might avoid em¬
ploying it loan ill purpofe : but our views are now oW"^ 1
changed with our pupil’s progrefs in life j and we ring the
have fcarce enough of time for the accompliftiment of cond per
our neceffary purfuits. We therefore proceed as quick-ofchlld“ <
ly as poffible in making ourfelves acquainted with thehood‘
nature of the bodies around us, and the laws by which
their motions and appearances are regulated. We
keep to this ftudy at prefent, as being neceffary for
the moft important purpofes in life, and as being the
moft fuitable to the prefent ftate of our pupil’s powers.
We ftill begin with the moft common and obvious
phenomena of nature, regarding them as mere fafls
and, advancing from thefe, we come to generalize by
degrees.
As foon as we are fo far advanced as to be able to
give our pupil an idea of what is meant by the word
ufeful, we have attained a confiderable influence over
his future conduft. On every occafion after this, a
frequent queftion between us will be. Of what ufe is
this ? This ftiall be the inftrument by means of which
I ffiall now be able to render him abfolutely fubmiffive
to my wiffies. However, I will allow him to make ufe
of it in his turn, and will be careful not to require of
him to do or learn any thing the utility of which he
cannot comprehend.
Books only teach people to talk about what they
do not underftand. Emilius ffiall have as little re-
courfe as poffible to books for infiru&ion. Yet if we
can find a book in which all the natural wants of man
are difplayed in a manner fuitable to the underftand-
ing of a child, and in which the means of fatisfying
thofe wants are gradually difplayed with the fame
eafe and fimplicity ; fuch a book will be worthy of
his moft attentive ftudy. There is fuch a book to be
found j but it is neither Ariftotle, nor Pliny, nor
Buffon ; it is Robinfon Crufoe. Emilius thall have ^
the adventures of Robinfon put into his hands: he^obinfoi
(hall Crufoe.
E D U [ 557 1 E D U
(hall imitate his example; even affe& his drefs 5 and,
‘j like Robinfon, learn to provide for himfelf without the
aid of others.
Another employment of Emilius at this period
(hall be, to vifit the (hops of various artifans j and
when he enters a (hop, he (hall never come out with¬
out lending a hand to the work, and underftanding
the nature and the reafon of what he fees going for¬
ward.
Still, however, we are careful to afford not a hint
concerning thofe focial relations the nature of which
he is not able to comprehend.
The value and importance of the various arts are
ordinarily eftimated, not according to their real uti¬
lity, but by a very injudicious mode of eftimation :
Thofe which contribute in a particular manner to the
gratification of the fantaftic wi(hes of the rich, are pre¬
ferred to thofe which fupply the indifpenfable necefla-
ries of life. But Emilius (hall be taught to view them
in a different light. Robinfon Crufoe (hall teach him
to value the (lock of a petty ironmonger above that
of the moft magnificent toy-fhop in Europe. Let us
eftablilh it as a maxim, that we are to lead our pupil
to form juft notions of things for himfelf, not to
diftate to him ours. He will eftimate the works both
of nature and art by their relation to his own conve¬
nience ; and will therefore regard them as more pre¬
cious than gold—a (hoemaker or a mafon, as a man of
more importance than the moft celebrated jeweller in
Europe.
The intercourfe of the arts confifts in the reciprocal
exchange of induftry ; that of commerce, in the ex¬
change of commodities j and that of money, in the ex¬
change of bills and ca(h. To make our pupil compre¬
hend the nature of thefe, we have now only to generalize
and extend to a variety of examples thofe ideas of the
nature of property, and of the exchange of property,
which we formerly communicated to him. The nature
of money, as bearing only a conventional value, which
it derives from the agreement of men to ufe it as a fign
for facilitating commerce, may be now explained to E-
milius, and will be eafily comprehended by him. But
go no farther : feek not yet to explain to the child, in
what manner money has given rife to the numerous
chimeras of prejudice and caprice ; nor bow countries
which abound moft in gold and filver, come to be the
moft deftitute of real wealth.
Still our views are directed to bring up our pupil in
fuch a manner that he may be qualified to occupy any
place in the order of fociety into which even the caprice
of fortune can throw him. Let us make him a man ;
not a (lave, a lord, or a monarch. How much fuperior
the charafter of a king of Syracufe turned fchoolmafter
at Corinth, of a king of Macedon become a notary at
Rome, to an unhappy Tarquin incapable of fupporting
himfelf in a (late of independence when expelled from
36 his kingdom !
Hie pro- Whatever be our (ituation in the world, we can con-
»rietyof tribute nothing but our perfonal abilities to fociety.
nig a rp0 exer(. them is therefore the indifpenfable duty of
young man, , . . , r r • 1 n. .
in whatever every one wbo enjoys the advantages ot a locial Itate ;
Sphere of and to cultivate them in our pupil to the beft purpofe,
‘tfe learn a ought to be the great aim of every courfe of education.
Emilius has already made himfelf familiar with all the
labours of induftry j I can therefore bid him culti¬
vate the land which he inherits from his father. But Education*
if it (hould be loft, what (hall be his refource ? He (hall ——v——>
learn a trade, that he may be provided againft fuch an
accident. And he (hall not be a politician, a painter,
a mufician, or an architeft 5 to gain employment for his
talents in any of thefe three arts, would coft him no lefs
trouble than to regain his loft eftate. He (hall learn
fome (imple mechanical art : he will then need only to
ftep into the firft drop he fees open, to perform his day’s
labour, and receive his wages.
It may be here proper to take notice of a miftake
into which people generally fall in determining the trade
or profeflion in which they are to place their children.
Some accident difpofes the child to declare himfelf for
a particular employment : the parent regards that as
the employment to which his talents are fitted by the
defign of nature j and permits him to embrace it with¬
out inquiring whether another would have been more
fuitable or advantageous. But becaufe I am pleafed
with my occupation, I am not on that account neceffa-
rily qualified for it. Inclinations do not confer abili¬
ties. It requires more careful and accurate obferva-
tion than is generally imagined, to diftinguilh the par¬
ticular tafte and genius with which nature has endow¬
ed the mind of a child. We view him carelefsly, and
of confequence we are apt to miftake cafual inclination
for original difpofition.
But Emilius needs not now to hefitate about the oc¬
cupation which he is to choofe. It is to be fome me¬
chanical employment. All the diftin&ion we have now
to make is, to prefer one that is cleanly and not likely
to be injurious to his health. We (hall make choice
of that of a joiner. We cannot dedicate all our time
to the trade j but at lead for two days in the week we
will employ ourfelves in learning our trade. We will
have no workftiop erected for our convenience, nor
will we have a joiner to wait on us in order to give us
the neceflary inftrudlions: but for the two days in eve¬
ry week which we dedicate to the purpofe of learning
a trade, we will go to our mailer’s workftiop $ we
will rife before him in the morning j work according
to his orders y eat at his table j and, after doing our¬
felves the honour of flipping with his family, return to
our own hard mattreffes at night. We (hall be treated
only according to the merit of our performances. Our
mailer (hall find fault with our work when clumfily or
negligently done, and be pleafed with it only when
well executed.
While my pupil has been accuftomed to bodily ex* New ideas
ercife and manual labour, his education has been hi-fuggefted
therto conduced in fuch a manner as to, give him in-toEmihus
fenfibly a tafte for refledlion and meditation. Before ^^ioTto
he has been long a workman, therefore, he will begin a'trade” °
to become more fenfible of that inequality of ranks
which takes place in the order of fociety. He will
therefore take notice of his own dependence, and of
my apparent wealth, and will be defirous to know why
I contribute not my perfonal exertions to foeiety. I
put off" the queftion with telling him, that I bellow my
fuperfiuous wealth on him and the poor j and will take
to make a bench or table every week, that I may not
be quite ufelefs to the public.
And now, when about to enter the moft critical
period of life, when juft on the brink of that age at
which the heart and blood begin to feel the impulfe of
a*
£ D U
[ 553 ]
E D U
3s
Pro^refs
that Emi-
lius has
made be¬
fore the
age of pu¬
berty.
Education, a new appetite, what progrefs has our pupil made ?
what knowledge has he acquired ? All his fcience is
merely phyfical. Hitherto he has fcarce acquired any
ideas of moral relations $ but the effential relations be¬
tween men and things he has attentively ftudied. He
knows the general qualities of certain bodies 5 but upon
thofe qualities he has not attempted to reafon. He
has an idea of abftraft fpace by means of geometrical
figures ; of abftraft quantity, by means of algebraical
figns. He has no defire to find out the eflence of things j
their relations alone intereft him. He values nothing
external but from its relation to himfelf. The general
confent of mankind, or the caprice of cuftom, have not
yet given any thing a value in his eyes *, utility alone is
his meafure of eftimation. He is laborious, temperate,
patient, refolute, and bold. His imagination never ex-
aggerates danger. He fcarce knows as yet what death
is j but fhould it approach him, he is prepared to fub-
mit to neceflity. He is virtuous in every thing relative
merely to himfelf. He is prepared to become a virtuous
member of fociety as foon as he fhall be made acquainted
with the nature of his focial relations. He is free from
vice and error as far as is poflible for human nature.
He confiders himfelf as unconne&ed with others; re¬
quires nothing from any perfon, and thinks none has a
right to require any thing of him. Sure a youth ar¬
rived thus at his fifteenth year has not mifpent the
period of his infancy.
But now our pupil has reached the moft critical pe¬
riod of life. He now feels the influence of the paflion
for the fex ; and as foon as we become fubjeft to the
tion atthat influence of that paflion, we are no longer unfocial be¬
ings. The want of a miftrefs foon produces the want
of a friend.
As hitherto we have been careful not to force or
anticipate nature, fo even now our attention muft be
directed to divert the impulfes of that dangerous appe¬
tite which now begins to make itfelf felt. To confine
the growing paflions within proper limits, let it be our
care to defer as long as poflible the time at which they
begin to difplay themfelves. For this purpofe, let us
cautioufly guard our words and aftions in the prefence
of our pupil. Let us be careful to give him no prema¬
ture inftrudlions.
To excite and cherifh that fenfibility of mind which
now firft begins to fliow itfelf, to extend the care of
the youth beyond himfelf, and to intereft him in the
welfare of his fellow creatures, let us be careful to put
fuch obje&s in his way as have a tendency to call forth
and refine the feelings. It is not poflible for the hu¬
man heart to fympathize with thofe who are happier
than ourfelves : our fympathy is moved only by the
fight of mifery. We pity in others only thofe diftref-
fes to which we ourfelves are liable : and our pity for
the misfortunes of others is meafured, not by the quan¬
tity of the evil, but by the fuppofed fenfibility of the
fufferer. Let thefe obfervations ferve to direft us in
what manner we are to form the minds of children to
humanity and compaflion.
In profecution of our defign, to retard rather than ac¬
celerate the growth of the paflions, let us, when that cri¬
tical period which we have fo much feared comes on, fe-
clude him as much as poflible from the intercourfe of fo¬
ciety, where fo many objefts appear to inflame the ap¬
petites. Let us be circumfpedt in the choice of his com-
2
+ 39
New mea¬
fure s to be
adopted in
his educa
age
panions, his employment, his pleafures. Let all our care
be diredled to nourifli his fenfibility without inflaming
his defires. As his moral powers now begin to unfold
themfelves, in cultivating them let us proceed not by
■way of le&ure, or by dire&ing his attention to books,
but ftill by leading him to acquire experience. At
length the period will arrive for communicating to him
fome religious inftru&ion. When he knows the na¬
ture of his relations to fociety, he may be informed of
his relation to, and dependence upon, a Deity.
[The creed of the Savoyard curate, containing
thofe fentiments concerning religious matters which
Rouffeau feems to propofe as the moft proper to be
inculcated on his pupil, comes next in the order of the
work ; but it does not appear to be fo clofely con-
ne&ed with the fubjeft of education as to render
it proper for us to give a view of it in this place.
The fentiments which he there advances, the reafon*
ings which he urges, are evidently hoftile to reveal¬
ed religion *, and the power of his eloquence has
adorned flight and fuperficial arguments with fuch a
charm, that even the fterneft believer, if not abfo-
lutely deftitute of tafte and feeling, muft read them
with delight.]
And now* notwithftanding all my arts, I can no
longer keep back that moment which I have endeavour¬
ed to defer to as late a period as poflible. As^ioon as I
perceive that it has entirely arrived, I no longer treat
Emilius as my pupil or difciple, but as my friend,
His affieftions are now expanded beyond himfelf; his
moral powers have begun to exert themfelves, and have
received fome cultivation ; he alfo is become capable
of religious fentiments, and inftrufted in the nature of
his relation to a fupreme Being. Befides, it is now
requifite, if we confider the period to which nature
has conduced him, that he fbould no longer be treat¬
ed as a Ample child. Hitherto ignorance has been his
guardian, but now he muft be reftrained by his own
good fenfe.
Now is the time for me to give him in my accounts;
to fhow him in what manner his time and mine have
been employed ; to acquaint him with his ftation and
mine, with our obligations to each other, his moral
relations, the engagements he has entered into with
regard to others, the degree of improvement which he
has attained, the difficulties he will hereafter meet
with, and the means by which he may furmount them ;
—in a Word, to point out to him his critical fituation,
and the new perils which furround him ; and to lay
before him all the folid reafons which ftiould engage
him to xvatch with the utmoft attention over his con-
duff, and to be cautious of indulging his youthful de¬
fires. 43 !
Books, folitude, idlenefs, a fedentary and effemi-Meanseifi*
nate life,, the company of women and young people,ployedt0
are what we mull carefully avoid at this age. He
learned a trade, he is not unfkilled in agriculture; 0fi,is aia'n.
thefe may be means, but not our only means, for pre-ners.
ferving him from the impulfe of fenfual defire. He is
now too familiar with thefe ; he can exercife them
without taking the trouble to refief! ; and while his
hands are bufv, his head may be engaged about fome-
thing quite different from that in which he is employ¬
ed. He muft have fome new exercife which may at
once fix his attention and eaufe him to exert his bodily
powers.
w J
E D U
ation powers. We can find none more fuitable for this pur-
! pofe than hunting. Now, therefore, Emilius (hall
eagerly join in the chafe j and though I do not wifti
him to acquire that cruelty of difpofition and ferocity
of temper which ufually diftinguiih thofe who dedi¬
cate their lives to that barbarous diverfion, yet at pre-
fent it may have the happieft effe&s in fufpending the
influence of the moft dangerous of paflions.
When I have now conduced my pupil fo far j have
informed him of what I have done for him, and of the
difficulty of his fituation $ and having refigned my au¬
thority into his hands ; he is fo feniible of the dangers
to which he is expofed, and of the tender folicitude
with which I have watched over him, that he ftill
wiflies to continue under my dire&ion. With fome
feigned difficulty I again refume the reins. My au¬
thority is now eftablifhed. I may command obedience ;
but I endeavour to guard again!! the neceffity of ufing
it in this manner.
To preferve him from indulging in licentious plea-
fures, I let him know that nature has defigned us for
living in a ftate of marriage, and invite him to go in
fearch of a female companion. I will defcribe to him
the woman whom he is to confider as worthy of his at¬
tachment in the moft flattering colours. I will array
her in fuch charms, that his heart lhall be hers before
he has once feen her. I will evfen name her: her name
{hall be Sophia. His attachment to this imaginary
fair one will preferve him from all the allurements of
unlawful love. Befides, I take care to infpire him
with fuch reverence for himfelf, that notwithftanding
all the fury of his defires, he will not condefcend to
purfue the enjoyments of debauchery. And though
I may now fometimes intruft him to his own care, and
not feek to confine him always under my eye ; yet ftill
I will be cautious to watch over his condudl with care¬
ful circumfpedlion.
But as Emilius is to be ffiortly introduced to his So¬
phia, it may perhaps be proper for us to inquire into
her charadfer, and in what manner (be has been brought
UP;
There is a natural difference between the two fexes.
The difference in the ftrudture of their bodies (hows
them to be deftined by nature for different purpofes in
life, and muft neceffarily occafion a diftindlion between
their charadlers. It is vain to afk which of them me¬
rits the pre-eminence : each of them is peculiarly fitted
to anfwer the views of nature. Woman is naturally
weak and timid, man ftrong and courageous the
one is a dependent, the other a proUdW. As the
guardian of her virtue, and a reftraint on her defires,
woman is armed with native modefty. Reafon is the
guide and governor of man. When a man or a wo¬
man are united by conjugal vows, a violation of thofe
vows is evidently more criminal in the woman than in
the man. The wife ought to be anfwerable for the
genuinenefs of the offspring with which (he has been
intruded by nature. It is no doubt barbarous and
wicked for the hufband to defraud his wife of the only
reward which (he can receive for the fevt-re duties of
her fex : but the guilt of the faithlefs wife is ftill
more atrocious ; and the confequences of her infidelity
are, ftill
more unhappy.
But if nature has eftabliffied an original diftindfion
between the charadlers of. the two fexes; has formed
[ 559 ]
E D U
them for different purpofes, and affigned them differ- Educatieis*
ent duties ; it muft; follow, that the education of the v— J
one fex ought to be condudled in a manner different
from that of the other. The abilities common to the
two fexes are not equally divided between them ; but
if that (bare which nature has diftributed to woman be
fcantier than what (he has beftowed on man, yet the
deficiency is more than compenfated by the qualities
peculiar to the female. When the woman confines
herfelf to affert her proper rights, (he has always the
advantage over man ; when (he would ufurp thofe of
the other fex, the advantage is then invariably againft
her.
But we require not that woman ffiould be brought
up in ignorance. Let us confider the delicacy of he.r
fex, and the duties which (he is deftined to perform ;
and to thefe we may accommodate the education which
we beftow upon her. While boys like whatever is at¬
tended with motion and noife, girls are fond of fuch
decorations as pleafe the eye. Dolls are the favourite
plaything of the fex in their infant years. This is an
original tafte, of the exiftence of which we have the t
plained evidence. All therefore that we ought to do
is, to trace and bring it under proper regulation. Al¬
low the girl to decorate her baby in whatever manner
(lie plcafes ; while employed about that, (he will ac¬
quire fuch (kill and dexterity in thofe arts which are
peculiar to her fex, that with fcarce any difficulty die '
will acquire needle-work, embroidery and the art of
working lace. Her improvements may even be ex¬
tended as far as defigning, an art fomewhat connedled
with tafte in drefs ; but there is no reafon that their
(kill in this art ffiould be carried farther than to the
drawing of foliage, fruits, flowers, drapery, and fuch
parts ot the art as bear fome relation to drefs. Al¬
ways affign reafons for the employment which you
give to young girls, but be fure you keep them con-
(lantly bu(y. They ought to be accuftomed to labo¬
rious induitry, as well as to bear the abridgement of
their liberty. Ufe every art to prevent their work
from becoming difagreeable to them. For that pur-
pofe, let the mother be careful to make herfelf agree¬
able. A girl who loves her mother or her aunt, will
work cheerfully by them all day ; while (he to whom
her mother is not dearer than all the world befides,
feldom turns out well. Never (offer girls, even at their
diverfions, to be entirely tree from reftraint, nor allow
them to run from one amuftmenl to another. If you
now and then detecl your daughter ufing a little artifice
to excule herfelf from obedience, reftedft that artifice is,
in a certain degree, natural to the fair fex; and as every
natural inclination, when not abufed, is upright and
good, why fhould it not be cultivated ? In order to
give girls proper notions of drefs, let them be taught
to confider (plendonr and elegance of drefs, as defigned
only to conceal the natural defers of the perfon ; and
to regard it as the nobleft triumph, the higheft praife,
of beauty, to (bine with unborrowed luftre in the
fimpleft attire. Forbid not young women to acquire
thole arts which have a tendency to render them agree¬
able. Why refufe them the indulgence of learning to
dance, to fing, and to ftudy fuch other accomplifhments
as afterwards enable them to entertain their hufbands ?
Girls are more difpofed to prattle, and at an earlier
age, than boys. We may now and then find it ne-
ceffary
t
E D U
;E lucation. ceffary to reftrain their volubilit * But the proper
y—queftion to them on fuch occafions is not, as to boys,
Of what ufe is this ? but, What effecls will this produce ?
At this early period, when they are yet ftrangers to
the diftin<5Hon between good and evil, and therefore
unable to form a juft judgment concerning any perfon’s
condudf, we ought to reftrain them carefully from
faying what may be difagreeable to thofe with whom
they converfe.
Girls are no lefs incapable than boys of forming di-
ftinft notions of religion at an early age. Yet, and
even for that very reafon, religious inftru&ion fhould
be communicated to them much fooner than to the
youth of the other fex. Were we to wait the period
when their mental faculties arrive at maturity, we might
perhaps lofe the happieft time, from our inability to
make a right diftinflion. Since a woman’s condudl is
fubjeft to public opinion, her belief ought therefore
to depend, not on reafon, but on authority. Every
girl ought to follow the religion of her mother, every
married woman that of her hufband. They cannot
derive a rule of faith from their own inquiry. Let us
therefore feek, not fo much to inftrudt them in the
reafons of our belief, as to give them clear diftin£t no¬
tions of thofe articles which we require them to be¬
lieve. Be more careful to inftruft her in thofe doc¬
trines which have a connexion with morality, than in
thofe myfterious articles which we are required to be¬
lieve, though we cannot comprehend them.
Such are the principles on which the education of
Emilius’s unknown miftrefs has been conduced.
[Notwithftanding the merit of that part of this trea-
tife in which the author entertains us with the court-
fliip between his Emilius and Sophia, it does not ap¬
pear to be fo intimately connefted with the fubjeft of
education as to render it proper for us to prefent our
readers with a view of it. We therefore pafs over
the courtfhip, to give a view of our author’s fentiments
concerning the advantages to be derived from travel¬
ling, and the manner in which it ought to be direft-
4'4 ed.]
Emilius at- When Emilius has formed a firm attachment to So-
miftnffst0 aP^,"a» anc* ky bis afliduities has been fo fortunate as to
gain her affe&ions, his great wilh now is, to be united
with her in the bonds of marriage. But as he is ftill
young, is but imperfeftly acquainted with the nature
of thofe duties incumbent on him as a member of a
particular fociety, and is even ignorant of the nature
of laws and government, I muft feparate him from his
Sophia, and carry him to gain a knowledge of thefe
things, and of the character and circumftances of man¬
kind, in various countries, and under various forms of
civil government, by travelling. Much has been faid
concerning the propriety of fending young people to
travel, in order to complete their education. The
multiplicity of books is unfavourable to real knowledge.
We read with avidity, and think that by reading we
render ourfelves prodigioufly wife. But we impofe on
ourfelves: the knowledge which we acquire from books
is a falfe fpecies of knowledge, that can never render
us truly wife.
To obtain real knowledge, you muft obferve nature
with your own eyes, and ftudy mankind. But to gain
this knowledge by travelling, it is not neceffary that
we (hould traverfe the univerfe. Whoever has feen ten
Educatior
43
Travel.
560 ] E D U
Frenchmen has beheld them all; and whoever has fur-
veyed and compared the circumftances and manners of
ten different nations may be faid to know mankind.
To pretend that no advantages may be derived from
travelling, becaufe fome of thofe who travel return home
without having gained much real improvement, would
be highly unreafonable. Young people who have had
a bad education, and are fent on their travels without
any perfon to direft or fuperintend their condudl, can¬
not be expe&ed to improve by vifiting foreign coun¬
tries. But they whom nature has adorned with vir¬
tuous difpofitions, and who have been fo happy as to re¬
ceive a good education, and go abroad with a real de¬
fire of improvement, cannot but return with an in-
creafe of virtue and wifdom. In this manner ftiall E-
milius conduct his travels. To induce him to improve
in the moft attentive manner that time which he {hould
fpend in travelling, I would let him know, that as he
had now attained an age in which it might be proper
for him to form fome determination with regard to the
plan of his future life, he ought therefore to look
abroad into the world, to view the various orders in
fociety, to obferve the various circumftances of man-
-kind under different forms of government, and in
different parts of the globe ; and to choofe his country,
his ftation, and his profeflion. With thefe views ftiould
Emilius fet out on his travels: and with thefe views,
in the courfe of our travels, we fhould inquire into the
origin of fociety and government, into the nature of
thofe principles by means of which men are united in a
focial ftate, into the various circumftances which have
given rife to fo many different forms of government,
and into the neceffary relation between government and
manners. Our ftay in the great towns {hould be but
fhort: for as in them corruption of manners has rifen
to a great height, and diflipation reigns, a long ftay
in any great town might be fatal to the virtuous dif¬
pofitions of Emilius. Yet his attachment to Sophia
would alone be fufficient to fave him from the dangers
to which his virtue is expofed. A young man muft
either be in love, or be a debauchee. Inftances may be
pointed out in which virtue has been preferved without
the aid of love j but to fuch inftances I can give little
credit.
Emilius, however, may now return to his Sophia.Return
His underftanding is now much more enlightened than from his
when he fet out on his travels. He is now acquainted trave.k’“>
with feveral forms of government, their advantages
and defeats, with the charafters of feveral different na¬
tions, and with the effe£ts which difference in circum¬
ftances may be expedted to produce on the characters
of nations. He has even been fo fortunate as to get
acquainted with fome perfons of merit in each of the
countries which he has vifited. With thefe advantages
gained, and with affedlion unchanged and unabated, he
returns to his Sophia. After having made him ac¬
quainted with the languages, the natural hiftory, the
government, the arts, cuftoms, and manners, of fo
many countries, Emilius eagerly informs me that the
period which we had deftined for our travels is now ex¬
pired. I a{k, What are then his purpofes for life ? He
replies, that he is fatisfied with the circumftances in
which nature has placed him, and with my endeavours
to render him independent on fortune, and wifties only
for his Sophia to be happy. After giving him a few
44
advices
E D U
[ 561 1
E D U
cation,
45
larks.
advices for the regulation of his conduct in life, I con-
dud him to his Sophia, and behold him united with her
in marriage. I behold him happy $ with affe&ionate
gratitude he blefles me as the author of his happinefs 5
and I thus receive the reward of all the pains with
which I have conduded his education.
Such are the outlines of the fyitem of education pro-
pofed by this lingular and original genius. For origi¬
nality of thought, affeding fentiment, enchanting de-
fcription, and bold vehement eloquence, this book is
one of the nobleft pieces of compolition, not only in
the French language, but even in the whole compafs
of ancient and modern literature. The irregularity of
his method, however, renders it a very difficult talk to
give an abridged view of his work. He conduds his
pupil, indeed, from infancy to manhood : But inftead
of being barely a fyftem of eduation, his work is be-
fides a treafure of moral and philofophical knowledge.
He has chofen a path, and follows it from the bottom
to the fummit of the hill: yet whenever a flower ap¬
pears on the right or left hand, he eagerly Heps afide
to pluck it 5 and fometimes, when he has once ftepped
alide, a new objed catches his eye and feduces him
(till farther. Still, however, he returns. His obfer-
vations are in many places loofely thrown together 5
and many things are introduced, the want of which
would by no means have injured either the unity or the
regularity of his work. If we attempt to review the
principles on which he proceeds in reprobating the pre¬
valent modes of education, and pointing out a new
courfe, his primary and leading one feems to be, that
we ought to watch and fecond the defigns of nature,
without anticipating her. As the tree bloffoms, the
flowers blow, and the fruit ripens at a certain period $
lb there is a time fixed in the order of nature for the
fenlitive, another for the intelledual, and another for the
moral powers of man to difplay themfelves. We. in
vain attempt to teach children to reafon concerning
truth and falfehood, concerning right and wrong, before
the proper period arrive : We only confound their no¬
tions of things, and load their memories with words
without meaning; and thus prevent both their reafon-
ing and moral powers from attaining that ftrength and
acutenefs of which they are naturally capable. He at¬
tempts to trace the progrefs of nature, and to mark in
what manner (lie gradually raifes the human mind to
the full ufe of all its faculties. Upon the obfervations
which he has made in tracing the gradual progrefs of
the powers of the human mind towards maturity, his
fyftem is founded.
As it is impoffible to communicate to the blind any
juft ideas of colours, or to the deaf of founds : fo it
muft be acknowledged, that we cannot poffibly com¬
municate to children ideas which they have not facul¬
ties to comprehend. If they are, for a certain period
of life, merely fenfitive animals, it muft be folly to treat
them during that period as rational and moral beings.
But is it a truth that they are, during any part of life,
guided folely by infUmEV, and capable only of fenfation ?
Or, how long is the duration of that period ? Has na¬
ture unkindly left them to be, till the age of twelve,
the prey of appetite and paffion ? So far are the fadls
of which we have had occafion to take notice, concern¬
ing the hiftory of infancy and childhood, from leading
' Vol. VII. Part II.
to fuch a conclufion, that to us it appears undeniable Frlucatiott^
that children begin to reafon very foon after their en- ’ - »
trance into life. When the material world firft opens
on their fenfes, they are ignorant of the qualities and
relations of furrounding objects : they know not, for
inftance, whether the candle which they look at be near
or at a diftance \ whether the fire with which they are
agreeably warmed may alfo affedl them with a painful
fenfation. But they remain not long in this Hate of
abfolute ignorance. They foon appear to have acqui¬
red fome ideas of the qualities and relative fituation of
bodies. They cannot, however, acquire fuch ideas,
without exerting reafoning powers in a certain degree.
Appearances muft be compared, and inferences drawn,
before knowledge can be gained. It is'not fenfation
alone which informs us of the relative diftances of bo¬
dies 5 nor can fenfation alone teach us, that the fame
effe£ts which we have formerly obferved will be again
produced by the fame caufe.
But if children appear capable of reafoning at a very
early period, they appear alfo to be at a very early pe¬
riod fubjedt to the influence of the paffions : they are
angry or pleafed, merry or fad, friends or enemies,
even while they hang at the breaft j inftead of being
felfifh, they are naturally liberal and focial. And if
we obferve them with candid attention, we will find
that the paffions do not difplay themfelves fooner than
the moral fenfe. As nature has wifely ordered, that we
fhould not fee, and hear, and feel, without being able
to compare and draw inferences from our perceptions $
fo it is a no lefs certain and evident law of nature, that
the paffions no fooner begin to agitate the human
breaft, than we become able to diftinguifh the beauty
and the deformity of virtue and vice. The child is not
only capable of gratitude and attachment to the perfon
who treats him with kir.dnefs j he is alfo capable of
diftinguifhing between gratitude and ingratitude, and
of viewing each with proper fentiments. He cries
when you refufe to gratify his defires ; but he boldly
infills that he is injured when you ufe him cruelly or
unjuftly. It is indeed impoffible to attend to the con- •
du£t of children during infancy, without being convin¬
ced that they are, even then, capable of moral diftinc-
tions. So little are they acquainted with artificial lan¬
guage, that we and they do not then well underftand
each other. But view their adftions ; confider thofe figns
by which nature has taught them to exprefs themfelves.
Our limbs, our features, and our fenfes, are not gradu¬
ally and by piecemeal beftowed as we advance towards
maturity ; the infant boy comes not into the world
mutilated or defective : why then, in point of mental
abilities, ffiould we be for a while brutes, without be¬
coming rational and moral beings till the fulnefs of
time be accompliftied ? All the differences between the
phenomena of manhood and thofe of infancy and child¬
hood may be accounted for, if we only reflect, that
when children come into the world, they are totally un¬
acquainted with all the objefts around them ; with the
appearances of nature, and the inftitutions of fociety }
that they are fent into the world in a feeble date, in
order that the helpleffnefs occafioned by their ignorance
may attradl the notice and gain the affiftance of thofe
who are able to help them ; and that they attain not
full ftrength in the powers either of mind or body,
4 B nov
E D U r 562 1 E D U
Education, nor a fufficient acquaintance with nature, with artificial
v~-. ' language, and with the arts and intlitutions of fociety,
till they arrive at manhood.
Even Rouffeau, notwithftanding the art with which
he lays down his iyftem, cannot avoid acknowledging
indireflly, on feveral occafions, that our focial difpofi-
tions, our rational and our moral powers, difplay them-
felves at an earlier period than that at which he wifhes
us to begin the cultivation of them.
But though the great outlines of his fyftem be mere¬
ly theory, unfupported by fa6ts, nay plainly contra-
ditlory to fadts } yet his obfervations or the improprie¬
ty or abfurdity of the prevalent modes of education are
almoft always juft, and many of the particular direc¬
tions which he gives for the conducting of education
are very judicious. He is often fanciful, and often de¬
viates from the common road, only to (how that he is
able to walk in a feparate path. Yet why ftiould he
be oppofed with fo much virulence, or branded with fo
many reproachful epithets ? His views are liberal and
extenfive : his heart feems to have glowed with bene¬
volence : his book contains much obfervation of human
adtions*, difplays an intimate acquaintance with the mo¬
tives which fway the human heart j and if not a perfedt
fyftem for education, is yet fuperior to what any other
writers had before done upon the funjedl. It R furely
true, that we ourfelves often -call forth evil paflions in
the breads of children, and imprefs them with bad ha¬
bits : it is no lefs true that we put books in their hands,
and load their memory with words, when we ought ra¬
ther to diredl their attention to things, to the pheno¬
mena of nature, and the fimpleft arts of life. I he form
in which he has chofen to communicate his fentiments
on the fubjedl of education renders the perufal of it
more pleafing, and his precepts more plain, than they
would otherwife have been : it is nearly that dramatic
form with which we are fo much delighted in fome of
the nobleft compofitions of the ancients.
After viewing the public eftablifhments for educa¬
tion which exifted in fome of the moft renowned ftates
of antiquity $ and after liftening to the fentiments of
the experienced Quindfilian, the learned Milton, the
judicious Locke, and the bold fanciful Roufieau, on
this interefting fubjett ; it may now be proper, to lay
before the reader our own fentiments concerning the
education of youth under a few diftinft heads.
Indeed, if we were difpofed to give abridgments of all
the books which have been written on the fubjeft of edu¬
cation, or even to bint at all the various modes which
have been recommended by teachers or theorifts, we
might fwell this article to an amazing fize : Nay, were
we only to take notice of the many elegant and fen-
fible writers who have of late endeavoured to call the
attention of the public to this fubjeft, we might , ex¬
tend it to an immoderate length. A Kames, a Prieft-
ley, a Knox, a Madame de Sillery, and a Berquin,
might well attra£l and fix our attention. But as,
among fuch a crowd of writers, every thing advanced
by each cannot be original ; and even of tbofe things
which are original, only a certain, and that perhaps
even a moderate, proportion, can be juft and judicious ;
and as they often either, borrow from one another, or
at leaft agree in a very friendly manner, though in fome
things they profefs a determined hoftility j therefore
we fliall content ourfelves with having taken notice of
four of the mort refpe£lable writers on the fubjedl.
In prefenting to our readers the refult of our own
obfervations and reflexions, we ftiall throw our thoughts
nearly under the following heads. The management of
children from their birth till they attain the age of five
or fix j from that period till the age of puberty j and from
that age till manhood ; private and public education ; re¬
ligion and morals ; the languages j natural philofophy j
the education of people of rank and fortune 5 education
of perfons defigned for a mercantile employment, and
for the other humbler occupations in aXive life not
particularly conntXed with literature ; education of the
female fex 5 foreign travel ; knowledge of the world y.
and entrance into aXive life. We do not pretend to
be able to include under thefe heads every thing worthy
of notice in the fubjeX of education : but under thefe
we will be able to comprehend almoft; every thing of
importance that has occurred to us on the fubjeX.
Educatios,
I. On the Management of Infants from the Time of their
Birth till they attain the Age of five or fx.
The young of no other animal comes into the
world in fo helplefs a ftate, or continues fo long to
need affiftance, as that of the human fpecies. The
calf, the lamb, and the kid, are vigorous and lively
at the inftant of their birth j require only, for a very
fliort period, nouriftiment and proteXion from their re-
fpeXive dams j and foon attain fuch degrees of ftrength
and aXivity as to become entirely independent. The
infancy of the oviparous animals is not of longer con¬
tinuance : And, indeed, whatever department of the
animal world we may choofe to furvey, we ftill find that
no fpecies is fubjeX to the fame fevere laws as man
during the firft period of life.
Yet the charaXer and the views of man are fo very
different from thofe of the other animals, that a more
careful attention to thefe may perhaps induce us to re¬
gard this feeming feverity rather as an inftance of the ^
peculiar kindnef- of the Author of nature. From every Mari conl,’
obfervation which has been hitherto made on the powerspared to
and operations of the inferior animals, we are led to con-ot^er anl-
fider them as guided and aXuated chiefly, if not to (
by inftinX, appetite, and fenfation t their views extend(jeipiffine
not beyond the prefent moment; nor do they acquire of iufanq
new knowledge or prudence as they advance in life.
But the charaXer of the human race is much more ex¬
alted. We have alfo powers and organs of fenfation,
inftinXs and appetites ; but thefe are the moft ignoble
parts of our nature : our rational faculties and moral
powers elevate us above the brutes, and advance us to
an alliance with fuperior beings. Thefe rational facul¬
ties and moral powers render us capable of focial life,
of artificial language, of art, of fcience, and of religion.
Now, were one of the fpecies to come into the world
full grown, poffeffed of that bodily ftrength and vigour
which diftinguilhes manhood, his ignorance would ftill
render him inadequate to the duties of life ; nay,
would even render him unable to procure means for hi*
fubfiftence ; while his manly appearance would deprive
him of the compaflion and benevolent affiflance of
others ; and his ftrength and vigour would alfo render
him lefs docile and obedient than is necelfary, in order
E D U [ 563 ] E D U
that he may receive inftru&ion in the duties and arts
of life. Again, were the period of infancy as ihort to
the human fpecits as to the other animals $ were we
to be no longer fubjedled to a parent’s authority, or
prote£led by his care, than the bird or the quadruped;
we Ihould be expofed to the dangers and difficulties of
the world before we had acquired fufficient knowledge
or prudence to conduct us through them, before we
had gained any acquaintance with the ordinary pheno¬
mena of nature, or were able to ufe the language or
praftife the arts of men in a focial ftate.
Since then, it is by the benevolence of nature that
we are feeble and helplefs at our entrance into life,
and that our progrefs towards maturity is flow and
gradual} fince nature has deftined us to be for a con-
flderable time under the care and authority of our pa¬
rents j and fince the manner in which we are managed
during that early part of life has fo important an in¬
fluence on our future chara&er and conduct: it is
therefore incumbent on parents to direct that tender-
nefs, which they naturally feel for their offspring, in
fuch a manner as to fecond the views of nature.
When children come into the world, inftimff directs
them to receive nourilhment from the breaft, and
to claim attention to their pains and wants by crying.
We attend to their figns, and ftrive to render them as
eafy as we can. They are wafhed, clothed with fuch
garments as we think moft fuitable, and fuckled either
by their mother or by fome other woman who is con-
fidered as proper for the purpofe. The abfurd mode
of Twaddling up infants in fuch a manner as to confine
them almoft from all motion, and leave fcarce a limb at
liberty, which has been fo often exclaimed againft and
reprefented as highly injurious to the fymmetry and vi¬
gour of the human frame, is now almotl entirely laid
afide •, and therefore we need not raife our voice againft;
it. Still, however, there are certainly too many pins
and bandages ufed in the drefs of infants : thefe are un¬
favourable to the circulation of the blood, impede the
growth, and often occafion thofe tears and that peevifh-
nefs which we rafhly attribute the natural ill humour
of the poor creatures. Their drefs ought to be loofe
and cool, fo as to prefs hard on no joint, no vein nor
niufcie; and to leave every limb at liberty. If too
heavy and clofe, it may occafion too copious a perfpi-
ration, and at the fame time confine the matter perfpi-
red on the furface of the flcin ; than which nothing can
be more prejudicial to the health of the child. It may
alfo, however, be too thin and cool : for as moderate
warmth is neceffary to the vegetation of plants j fo it is
no lefs neceflary for promoting the growth of animals:
and, therefore, though the drefs of infants ought to be
loofe and eafy, yet flill it ffiould be moderately warm.
It is common for mothers in affluent or even in
comfortable circumftances, to forego the pleafure of
nuriing their own children, that they may avoid the fa¬
tigues with which it is attended. I his pradlice has
long prevailed in various ages and among various na¬
tions: it has been often reprobated with all the warmth
of paffion, and all the vehemence of eloquence, as difho-
nourable, inhuman, contradi£Wy to the defigns of
nature, and deftruftive of natural affetftion : yet ftill it
prevails 5 fathers and mothers are ftill equally deaf to
the voice of nature and the declamation- of philofo-
phers. Indeed, in a luxurious age, fuch a pra<5lice may
be naturally expelled to prevail. In fuch an age, they Education,
who are poflefled of opulence generally perfuade them- ^
felves, that, to be happy, is to ipend their time wholly
amid diverfions and amulements, without defeending to
ufeful induftry, or troubling themfelves about the ordi¬
nary duties of life. Influenced by fuch notions, they
think it proper for them to manage their family affairs,
and to nurfe and educate their children, by proxy; nay,
to do for themfelves nothing that another can perform
for them. It is vain to make a ferious oppofition to
thefe abfurd notions ; the falfe views of happinefs, the
pride and the indolence produced by luxury, will ftill
be too powerful for us. We muff not hope to per¬
fuade the mother, that to receive the carefles, to
behold the fmiles, and to mark the bodily and mental
powers of her child in their gradual progrefs towards
maturity, would be more than a fufficient compenfa-
tion for all the fatigues which ilie would undergo in
nurfing and watching over him in his infant years. We
need not mention, that the mutual affedtion between a
mother and her child, which is partly the effedt of in-
fiindl, depends alfo, in no inconfiderable degree, on
the child’s fpending the period of infancy in its mo¬
ther’s arms ; and that when fhe fubftitutes another in
her place, the child naturally transfers its affedlion to
the perfon who performs to it the duties of a mother.
We need not urge thefe, nor the various other reafons
which feem to recommend to every mother the province
of fuckling her own children, and watching over their
infant years ; for we will either not be heard, or be
liftened to with contempt. Yet we may venture to fug-
geft, that if the infant muff be committed to a ftran-
ger, fome degree of prudence may be employed in fe-
ledting the perfon to whom he is to be intrufted.
Her health, her temper, and her manner of fpeaking,
muff be attended to. A number of other qualifica¬
tions are alfo to be required in a nurfe : but it is rather
the bufinefs of the phyfician to give dirediions with re¬
gard to thefe. If her habit of body be any way un¬
healthy, the conftitution of the infant that fucks her
milk cannot but be injured : if her temper be rough or
peevifti, the helplefs child fubjefted to her power will
be often harftfly treated ; its fpirit will be broken, and
its temper foured : if her pronunciation be inarticulate
or too rapid, the child may acquire a bad habit when
it firft begins to exert its vocal organs, which will not
be eafily corre&ed.
In the milder feafons of the year, infants ought t°influence of
be frequently carried abroad. Not only is the open treatment
air favourable to health, but the frefhnefs, the beau-in infancy
ty, the variety, and the lively colours of the feenes00.1*1''a^1"'
of nature, have the happieft effe
to learn to read j yet we do not mean to require thatUr
be be confined to his talk during the greateft part of
the day, or that his attention be ferioully dkedled to no
other objeft. To fubjeft him to too fevere reftraint
would produce the moft unfavourable effedls on his ge¬
nius, his temper, and his difpofitions. It is in confe-
quence of the injudicious management of children, while
they are fometimes fuffered to run riot, and at other
times cruelly confined like prifoners or Haves ; it is in-
confequence of this, that we behold fo many inftances
of peevilhnefs, caprice, and invincible averfion to all,
ferious application at this period of life. But were a
due medium obferved, were reftraint duly tempered
with liberty and indulgence, nothing would be more
eafy than to difpofe children to cheerful obedience,
and to communicate to them inftruflion at this uge.
That part of their time which they are left to enjoy
at liberty, they naturally dedicate to their little fport*,-.
Tim-
E D U [ 566 ] E D U
Education. favourite fports of boys are generally a6live j thofe
V— < of girls, fedentary. Of each we may take advantage,
to prepare them for the future employments of life.
However, neither are the amufements of boys invari¬
ably a&ive, nor thofe of girls always fedentary; for
as yet, the manners and difpofitions of the two fexes
are dillinguifhed rather by habit or accident than by
nature. The difpofition to activity which character¬
izes children, is no lefs favourable to health than to
their improvement in knowledge and prudence ; their
aftive fports have a tendency to promote their growth,
and add new vigour to their limbs. Perhaps, even at
this time, children might be enticed to learn the ele¬
ments of natural philofophy and natural hiltory amid
their amufements and fports. Birds, butterflies, dogs,
and other animals, are now favourite objeCts of their
care ; their curiofity is powerfully roufed by the ap¬
pearance of any ftrange objeCl ; and many of the fim-
pleft experiments of natural philofophy are fo pleafing,
that they cannot fail to attraCl the attention even of
thofe who are lead under the influence of curiofity.
Yet it would be improper to infill: on their attention
to thefe things as a talk : if we can make them regard
them as amufements, it will be well j if not, we muft
defer them to fome happier feafon. They might alfo,
by proper management, be led to acquire fome Ikiil in
the arts. They build mimic houfes, and fill them with
fuitable furniture ; they conftruCl little boats, and fail
them j they will fence-in little gardens, and cultivate
them •, and we even fee them imitate all the labours
of the hufbandman. Such is the pleafure which man
naturally feels in exerting his powers, and in aCling
with defign. Let us encourage this difpofition. Thefe
are the moll fuitable amufements in which they can
53 engage.
What books As the boy’s attention to literary obje&s is Hill fup-
moft pro- pofed to be continued, he will foon be able to read
Per* with fome correChiefs and facility. It becomes an ob-
jeCt of importance, and of no fmall difficulty, to deter¬
mine what books are to be put into his hands, and in
what manner his literary education is to be condu&ed.
After the child is made acquainted with the names
and powers of the letters, with their combination into
fyllables, and with the combination of thefe again into
words, fo that he can read with tolerable facility ; it
will be proper that the pieces of reading which are. put
into his hands be fuch as are defcriptive of the ac¬
tions of men, of the fcenes of external nature, and of
the forms and charadlers of animals. With thefe he
is already in fome degree acquainted ; thefe are the ob¬
jects of his daily attention ; beyond them the range
of his ideas does not yet extend ; and therefore other
fubjetts will be likely to render his talk difagreeable to
him. Befides, our prefent objeft is to teach him
words : in order to teach him words, we muft let him
know their fignification *, but till he have acquired a
very confiderable knowledge of language, till he have
gained a rich fund of fimple ideas, it will be impoffible
for him to read or to hear with underftanding on any
other fubjeft but thefe. And let us not as yet be par¬
ticularly anxious to communicate to him religious or
moral inftru&ion, otherwife than by our example, and
by <£aufing him to aft in fuch a manner as we think
molt proper. Our great bufinefs at prefent is, to
make him acquainted with our language, and to teach
4
him in what manner we ufe it to exprefs our ideas.£jucatjoe
By his own obfervation, and by our inftrudtion, he ^
will foon become capable of comprehending all that
we wifli to communicate : But let us not be too hafty :
the boy cannot long view the aftions of mankind, and
obferve the economy of the animal and the vegeta¬
ble world, without becoming capable of receiving both
religious and moral inftruflion when judicioufly com¬
municated. ^
As foon as the pupil can read and fpell with tolera-Writinr, |
ble facility, and has acquired fufficient ftrength of
arm and fingers to hold a pen, it may be proper to
initiate him in the art of writing. If this art is not
made difagreeable by the manner in which his appli¬
cation to it is required, he will learn it without diffi¬
culty. Children’s natural difpofition to imitate, parti¬
cularly whatever depends on manual operation, renders
this art peculiarly ealy and pleafing to them, when they
are not hardily forced to apply to it, nor differed to
get into a habit of performing their talk with hafte
and negligence.
It requires indeed the moft cautious prudence, theReftrj;a-(
niceft delicacy, and the moft artful addrefs, to prevail
with children to give a cheerful and attentive appli¬
cation to any appointed talk. If you are too ftern and
rigid in enforcing application, you may feemingly ob¬
tain your objeft : the child fits motionlefs, and fixes
his eye on his book or copy j but his attention you
cannot command ; his mind is beyond your reach, and
can elude your tyranny ; it wanders from the prefent
objefls, and flies with pleafure to thofe fcenes and ob-
jefts in which it has found delight. Thus you are dif-
appointed of your purpofe ; and, befides, infpire the
child with fuch averfion both to you and to thofe objefrs
to which you wifti him to apply, that perhaps at no
future period will he view learning otherwife than
with difguft. jg
Again, gentlenefs, and the arts of infinuation, willGentlenef1
not always be fuccefsful. If you permit the child to
apply juft when he pleafes j if you liften readily to all
his pretences and excufes ; in ffiort, if you feem to
confider learning as a matter not of the higheft im¬
portance, and treat him with kindnefs while he pays
but little attention and makes but flow progrefs 5 the
confequences of your behaving to him in this manner
will be fcarce lefs unfavourable than thofe which at¬
tend imprudent and unreafonable feverity. It is, how¬
ever, fcarce poffible to give particular dire£Hons how to
treat children fo as to allure them to learning, and at
the fame time to command their ferious attention.
But the prudent and affeflionate parent and the judi¬
cious tutor will not always be fuccefsful j fince there
are fo many circumftances in the condition of children,
and fo many principles in their nature, which fubjeft
them to our will. ^ j
The principles of arithmetic ought to make a part ^rithme-
in the boy’s education as foon as his reafoning powers'^*
appear to have attained fuch ftrength and quitkr.efs
that he will be able to comprehend them. Arithme¬
tic affords more exercife to the reafnning powers of the
mind than any other of thofe branches of learning
to which we apply in our earlier years: and if the child’s
attention be direifted to it at a proper period, if he be
allowed to proceed flowly, and if care be taken to make
him comprehend fully the principles upon which each
particular
E D U [ 567 ] E D U
ication. particular operation proceeds, it will contribute much
-v—' to increafe the ftrength and the acutenefs of the powers
of his underftanding.
Where the learned languages are regarded as an ob-
je& worthy of attention, the boy is generally initiated
in them about this time, or perhaps earlier. We have
referved to a feparate head the arguments which occur
to us for and againft the pra&ice of inftru&ing chil¬
dren in the dead languages ; and (hall therefore only
obferve in this place, that the fludy of them ought not
to engrofs the learner’s attention fo entirely as to ex-
. elude other parts of education,
tflical From arithmetic our pupil may proceed to the prac-
theraa- tical branches of the mathematics : And in all of thefe,
s* as well as in every other branch of learning, what you
teach him will be beft remembered and moft thorough¬
ly underftood, if you afford him a few opportunities of
applying his leffbns to real ufe in life. Geometry and
geography are two moft important branches of educa¬
tion ; but are often taught in fuch a manner, that no
real benefit is derived from the knowledge of them. The
means which Rouffeau propofes for initiating young
people in thefe and in feveral other of the arts and
Iciences are excellent $ and if judicioufly applied, could
hardlv fail of fuccefs.
While boys are engaged in thefe and in the lan¬
guages, they may alfo attend to and cultivate the bo-
dilv exercifes ; fuch as dancing, fencing, and horfe-
manfhip. Each of thefe exercifes is almoft abfolutely
necefiary for one who is defigned to have intercourfe
with the world ; and befides, they have a tendency to
render the powers of the body a&ive and vigorous,
and even to add new courage and firmnefs to the
mind.
•ft exer- When our pupil has acquired fome knowledge of
■ :sincom-his own and of the learned languages, has gained
ition. fome feiii ;n the principles of arithmetic and of prac¬
tical mathematics, and has received fome inftru6tion
in the principles of morality and religion, or even be¬
fore this time, it will be proper to begin him to the
pradice of compofition. 1 hemes, verfions, and let¬
ters, the firft exercifes in compofition which the boy is
ufually required to perform, none of them feems hap¬
pily calculated for leading him to increafe his know¬
ledge, or to acquire the power of expreffing himfelf
with eafe and elegance. Without enlarging on the
impropriety or abfurdity of thefe exercifes, we will
venture to propofe fomething different, which we can¬
not help thinking would conduce more effeftually to
the end in view. It has been already obferved, that
the curiofity of children is amazingly eager and aftive,
and that every new objeft powerfully attraffs their re¬
gard : but they cannot view any objeft without tak¬
ing notice of its moft obvious qualities $ any animal,
for inftance, without taking notice of its fhape, its
colour, its Teeming mildnefs or ferocity ; and they are
generally pretty ready to give an account of any thing
extraordinary which they have obferved. How eafy
then would it be to require them to write down an ac¬
count of any new objeft expofed to their obferva-
tion ? The talk would not be difficult 5 and every
new piece of compofition which they prefented to us
would add fo much to their knowledge of nature. We
might even require fuch fpecimens of their accuracy of
obfervation and fkill in language, at times when they
enjoyed no opportunities of beholding new or furprif- Education,
ing obje&s : a tree, a flower, a field, a houfe, an ani- v—y—
mal, any other Ample object, Ihould be the fubjefl of
their exercife. After fome time, we might require
them to deferibe fomething more various and complex.
They might give an account of feveral obje&s placed
in a relative fituation 5 as, a ftream, and the vale
through which it flows •, or, a bird, and the manner
in which it conftru&s its neft ; or, of one objeft fuc-
ceflively affuming various appearances, as the bud, the
flower, the apple. Human aftions are daily expofed
to their obfervation, and powerfully attrafl their at¬
tention. By and by, therefore, their talk fliould be
to deferibe fome action which had lately paffed in their
prefence. We need not purfue this hint farther •, but,
if we miftake not, by tbefe means young people might
fooner, and much more certainly, be taught to exprefs
themfelves with eafe and corre&nefs in writing, than
by any of the exercifes which they are at prefent -
caufed to perform with a view to that. Befides, they
would at the fame time acquire much more real know¬
ledge. The ftudy of words would then be rendered
truly fubfervient to their acquiring a knowledge of
things.
We cannot defeend to every particular of that feries
of education in which we with the boy to be engaged
from that period when he firft becomes capable of fe-
rious application till he reach the age of puberty. It
is not necelfary that we (hould, after having given ab-
ftra&s of what has been offered to the world by fo
many refpe&able writers on the fubjefl.
The few hints which we have thrown out will be fuf-
ficient to fhow, in general, in what manner we wifti the
youth’s education to be conducted during this period.
Let the parent and the tutor bear in mind, that much
depends on their example, with regard to the difpofi-
tion and manners of the youth ; and let them careful¬
ly ftrive to form him to gentlenefs, to firmnefs, to pa¬
tient induftry, and to vigorous courage j let them, if
poffible, keep him at a diftance from that contagion
with which the evil example of worthlefs fervants and
playfellows rvill be likely to infeft him. Now is the
time for fowing the feeds of piety and virtue : if care¬
fully fown now, they will fcarce fail to grow up, and.,
bear fruit in future life.
III. From Puberty to Manhood. .
This age is every way a very important period in
human life. Whether we confider the change which
now takes place in the bodily conftitution, or the
paffion which now firft begins to agitate the breaft,
ftill we muft regard this as a critical feafon to the
youth. The bufinefs of thofe to whofe care he is
ftill intrufted, is to watch over him fo as to prevent
the paflion for the fex from hurrying him to fhameful
and vicious indulgence, and from feducing him to ha¬
bits of frivolity and indolence ; to prevent him from
becoming either the (hamelefs rake, or the trifling
coxcomb. Though fo furious is the impulfe of that
appetite which now fires the bofom and (hoots through
the veins of the youth, that to reftrain him from the
exceffes to which it lead- can be no eafy talk ; yet if
his education has been hitherto conduced with pru¬
dence, if he is fond of manly exercifes, a&ive, fober,
E D U
[ 563 ]
E D U
■Education, and temperate, and ftill influenced by modefly and
the fenfe of (bame j even this may through the blef-
fing of heaven be accompliflied. It is impoflible to
give better direffions than thofe of Roufleau for this
purpofe. Let the young man know his fituation j fet
before him in a ftriking light the virtue which he may
pradtife by reftraining appetite, and the frightful fa¬
tal vices into which he may be hurried. But truft not
to precept, nor to any views which you can lay before
him, either of the difgracefulnefs and the pernicious
confequences of vice, or of the dignity and the hap
py fruits of virtue. Something more mufl: be done
Watch over him with the attention of an Argus ; en
gage him in the moft adlive and fatiguing fports
Carefully keep him at a diftance from all fuch compa
ny, and fuch books, as may fuggefl: to his mind ideas of
love, and of the gratification at which it aims. But ftill
all your precautions will not counteradl the defigns of
nature j nor do you wilh to oppofe her defigns. The
youth under your care muft feel the impulfe of defire,
and become fufceptible of love, Let him then fix his
affedtions on fome virtuous young woman. His attach¬
ment to her will raife him above debauchery, and teach
him to defpife brutal pleafures: it will operate as a mo¬
tive to difpofe him to apply to fuch arts, and to purfue
fuch branches of knowledge, as may be neceflary for his
future eftablilhment in the world. The good fenfe of
Rouffeau on this head renders it lefs necelfary for us
to enlarge on it ; efpecially as we are to treat of fome
articles feparately which regard the management of
youth at this period.
Eiiueatii
do
At what
age the
principles
of religion
may be
taught.
IV. Religion and Morals.
In pointing out the general plan of education which
appears to us the moft proper to be purfued in order
to form a virtuous and refpedtable member of fociety,
we took but flight notice of the important objedts of
religion and morals. At what period and in what
manner, ought the principles of religion and morality
to be inftilled into the youthful mind ? It has been
before obferved, that children are capable of reafon-
ing and of moral diftindlions even at a very early age.
But they cannot then comprehend our reafonings, nor
enter into our moral diftindlions j becaufe they are
ftrangers to our language, and to the artificial manner
in which we arrange our ideas when we exprefs them
in converfation or in writing. It follows, then, that as
foon as they are fufficiently acquainted with our lan¬
guage, it muft be proper to communicate to them the
principles and precepts of morality and religion. Long
before thh time, they are diligent and accurate obfer-
vers of human adtions. For a fhort period it is merely
the external adt which they attend to and obferve :
foon, however, they penetrate farther j confcious them-
felves of refledlion and volition, they regard us alfo as
thinking beings j confcious of benevolent and of un¬
friendly difpofitions, they regard us as adfing with de-
fign, and as influenced by paffion : naturally imitative
animals, they are difpofed in their condudt to follow
the example which we fet before them. By our ex¬
ample we may teach them piety and virtue long be¬
fore it can be proper to offer them religious or moral
mftrudlion in a formal manner.
We cannot prefume to determine at what -particular
period children ought to be firft informed of their re¬
lations to God and to fociety, and of the duties incum¬
bent on them in confequence of thofe relations. That
period will be different to different children, according
to the pains which have been taken, and the means
which have been employed, in cultivating their natural
powers. Perhaps even where the moft judicious maxims
of education have been adopted, and have been putfued
with the happieft effe6!s, it cannot be fooner than the
age of eight or nine. But even before this period
much may be done. Show the child your reverence
for religion and virtue ; talk in his prefence, and in
the plaineft, fimpleft terms, though not dire&ly to
him, of the exiftence of God the creator, the preferver
and the governor of the world ; fpeak of the conftant
dependence of every creature on the gracious care of
that Being ; mention with ardour the gratitude and 0-
bedience which we owe to him as our great parent and
beft benefadlor $ next, fpeak of the mutual relations
of fociety \ of the duties of children and parents, of
mailers and fervants, of man to man. At length, when
his mind is prepared by fuch difcourfes which have paf-
fed in his prefence without being addreffed to him,
you may begin to explain to him in a diredl manner
the leading doflrines of religion. He will now be able
to comprehend you, when you addrefs him on that im¬
portant fubjeft: the truths which you communicate
will make a powerful imprefflon on his mind 5 an im-
preflion which neither the corruption and diflipation of
the world, nor the force of appetite and pafiion, will
ever be able to efface.
Some writers on this fubje£l have afferted, thatHabit
youth are incapable of any juft ideas of religion till
they attain a much more advanced age ; and have in¬
filled, that, for this reafon, no attempts fhould be
made to communicate to them the articles of our creed
in their earlier years. This doftrine, both from its
novelty and from its pernicious tendency, has provoked
the keeneft oppofition. It has, however, been oppo-
fed rather with keennefs than with acutenefs or fkill.
Its opponents feem to have generally allowed that
children are incapable of reafoning and of moral di-
flinffions ; but they have afcribed wonderful effeffs to
habit. Enrich the memories of children, fay they,
with the maxims of morality, and with the doftrines
of religion ; teach them prayers, and call them to en¬
gage in all the ordinances of religion. What though
they comprehend not the meaning of what they learn ?
What though they underftand not for what purpofe
you bid them repeat their prayers, nor why you con¬
fine them on the Lord’s day from their ordinary a-
mufements ? Their powers will at length ripen, and
they will then fee in what they have been employed,
and derive the higheft advantage from the irkfome
talks to which you confined them. You have formed
them to habits which they will not be able to lay afide:
After this they cannot but be religious at fome period
of life, even though you have infpired them with a
■difguft for the exercifes of religion. Thofe good
people have alfo talked of the principle of the affbcia-
tion of ideas. As no man ftands alone in fociety, fay
they $ f« no one idea exifts in the mind Angle and
unconne£ted with others : as you are connefled with
your parents, your children, your friends, your coun¬
try men $ fo the idea of a tree, for inftance, is conneft-
ed
S: s'
EJ tion.
Di ieft-
V le; 3pi-
liii ^li¬
ce; ig af-
ion of
E D U
ed with that of the field in which it grows
fruit which it bears, and of contiguous, diflimilar, and
refembling objects. When any one fet of related
ideas have been often prefented to the mind in con¬
nexion with one another, the mind at length comes to
view them as fo intimately united, that any particular
one among them never fails to introduce the reft.
Revifit the fcenes in which you fpent your earlieft
years j the fports and companions of your youth na¬
turally arife to your recolledlion. Have you applied
to the ftudy of the claflics with reluctance and con-
ftraint, and fuffered much from the feverity of parents
and tutors for your indifference to Greek and Latin j
you will, perhaps, never through the courfe of life fee
a grammar fchool, without recolleCting your fufferings,
nor look on a Virgil or Homer without remembering
the ftripes and confinement which they once occafion-
ed to you. In the fame manner, when religious prin¬
ciples are impreffed on the mind in infancy in a proper
manner, a happy affociation is formed which cannot
fail to give them a powerful influence on the fentiments
and conduft in a future life. But if we have advanced
to manhood before being informed of the exiftence of
a Deity, and of our relation to him, the principles of
religion, when communicated, no longer produce the
fame happy effeCts : the heart and the underftanding
are no longer in the fame ftate j nor will the fame af-
fociations be formed.
This doCtrine of the ajfociation of ideas has been ad¬
duced by an ingenious writer, diftinguifhed for his
difcoveries in natural philofophy, and for his labours
in controverfial divinity, as an argument in behalf of
the propriety of inftruCting youth in the principles of
religion even in their earlieft years. We admire, we
efteem, the fpirit which has prompted him to difcover
fo much concern for the interefts of the rifing genera¬
tion } but at the fame time we will not conceal our
opinion, that even this argument ought to be urged
with caution. Many of the phenomena of human na¬
ture may indeed be explained, if we have recourfe to
the principle of ajfociation. The influence of any
principle, religious or moral, depends in a great mea-
fure on the ideas and images which, in confidering it,
we have been accuftomed to afibciate with it in our
minds. But what are the ideas or images moft likely
to be alfociated by children with the doftrines and du¬
ties of religion, if we call them to liften to the one
and perform the other at too early a period ? Will
they be fuch as may aflift the influence of religion on
their fentiments and conduft in the future part of
life ? Obferve the world : Are thofe who, in infancy,
have been moft rigidly compelled to get their cate-
chifms by rote, either the moft pious or the beft in¬
formed in religious matters ? Indeed, when we confi-
der what has been faid of the influence of habit, and
of the aflbciation of ideas, we cannot help thinking,
that any arguments which on the prefent occafion
may be adduced from either of thefe, tend direflly to
prove, not that we ought to pour in religious inftruc-
tion into the minds of children, without confidering
whether they be qualified to receive it; but, on the
contrary, that we ought cautioufly to wait for and
catch the proper feafon $—that feafon when the youth-
fill mind, no longer a ftranger to our language, our
fentiments, our views of nature, or our manner of rea-
Vol. VII. Part II.
[ 569 ] E D U
of the foning, will be able to go along with us, when we talk Education.
to him of a fupreme Being, or our condition as depen- ’“““v 1"
dant and accountable creatures, of truth, benevolence,
and juftice.
We flatter ourfelves, then, that our readers will rea¬
dily agree with us, ift, That the moral and reafoning
powers of children begin to difplay themfelves at a
very early age, even in infancy. 2dly, That as foon
as they have made themfelves acquainted with the moft;
obvious appearances of nature, and have gained a to¬
lerable knowledge of our language and our manner of
arranging our ideas in reafoning, we may with the
greateft propriety begin to inftrudt them in the prin¬
ciples of religion. 3dly, That the moft careful and
judicious obfervation is neceffary to enable us to di*
ftinguilh the period at which children become capable
of receiving religious inftrudlion ; becaufe, if we either
attempt to communicate to them thefe important truths
too early, or defer them till towards manhood, we
may fail of accomplifhing the great end which we have
in view.
If we can be fo fortunate as to choofe the happieft
feafon for fowing the firft feeds of piety in the infant
mind, our next care will be to fow them in a proper
manner. We muft anxioufly endeavour to communi¬
cate the principles of religion and morality, fo as they
may be eafieft comprehended by the underftanding of
the learner, and may make the deepeft impreflion on
his heart. It would be a matter of the greateft diffi¬
culty to give particular dire£lions on this head. The
difcretion of the parent or tutor muft here be his ^
guide. We are afraid that fome of the catechifms
commonly taught are not very happily calculated to
ferve the purpofe for which they are intended. Yet
we do not wiffi that they ftiould be negledled while
nothing more proper is introduced in their room. In
inftrufting children in the firft principles of religion,
we muft beware of arraying piety in the gloomy garb,
or painting her with the forbidding features, in which
ffie has been reprefented by anchorites, monks, and pu¬
ritans. No j let her affume a pleafing form, a cheer¬
ful drefs, and an inviting manner. Defcribe the Deity
as the affectionate parent, the benefaftor, and though
the impartial yet the merciful judge of mankind.
Exhibit to them Jefus Chrift, the generous friend and
Saviour of the pofterity of Adam, who with fuch en¬
chanting benevolence hath faid, “ Suffer little children
to come unto me.” Reprefent to them his yoke as
eafy, and his burden as light. Infill not on their fay¬
ing long prayers or hearing tedious fermons. If pof-
fible, make the doCtrines of religion to appear to them
as glad tidings, and its duties as the moft delightful of
talks. „
V. The Languages.
Is the time ufually fpent in learning the languages
ufefully occupied ? What advantages can our Bri-
tiffi youth derive from an acquaintance with the
languages and the learning of Greece and Rome ?
Would we liften to many of the fathers, the mothers,
and the polite tutors of the prefent age, they will
perfuade us, that the time which is dedicated to
grammar-fchools, and to Virgil, Cicero, Homer, and
Demofthenes, is foolilhly thrown away j and that no
4 C advantages
E D U [ 57° ]
Education, advantages can be gained from the ftudy of claflical tions, in words.
—v—— learning. They wilh their children and pupils to be
.^4 not merely fcholars : they widi them to acquire what
a^mft'daf may be ufeful and ornamental uben they come to min-
fical educa-gie with the world j and for this purpofe, they think it
very early period
have continued to
E D U
Satisfied with this, or called at a
to a life of humble induftry, they
exprefs r'
tien.
to fmatter
in company
.65
Prejudices
fur it.
much better to teach their young people
out French, to dance, to fence, to appear
with invincible aflurance, and to drefs in fuch a manner
as may attradt the attention of the. ladies. Befides, the
tendernefs and humanity of thofe people are amazing.
They are (hocked at the idea of the fufferings which
boys undergo in the courfe of a claflical education.
The confinement, the ftripes, the harfli language, the
burdens laid on the memory, and the pain oCcafioned
to the eyes, during the dreary period fpent in acquiring
a knowledge of Greek and Latin, affedt them with
horror when they think of them as inflidted on children.
They therefore give the preference to a plan of education
in which lefs intenfe application is required and lefs
feverity employed.
But, again, there are others who are no lefs warm
in their eulogiums on a claflical education, and no lefs
induftrious in recommending the ftudy of Greek and
Latin, than thofe are eager in their endeavours to
draw negledt on the polithed languages of antiquity.
With this fecond clafe, if an adept in Greek and Latin,
you are a great and learned man j but without thofe
languages, contemptible for ignorance. They think it
impoffible to infpire the youthful mind with generous
or virtuous fentiments, to teach the boy wifdom, or to
animate him with courage, without the afliftance of the
ancient philofophers, hiflorians, and poets. Indeed
their fuperftitious reverence for the ancient languages,
and for thofe writers Avhofe compofitions have rendered
Greece and Rome fo illuftrious, leads them to afcribe
many other ftill more wonderful virtues to a claflical
education.
With which of thefe parties (hall we join ? or ftiall
we mediate between them ? Is it improper to call youth
to the ftudy of the languages? Is it impoflible to com¬
municate any ufeful knowledge without them ? Or are
they, though highly ufeful, yet not always indifpenfably
neceflary ?
We have formerly taken notice of one circumftance
in favour of a claflical education, to which it may be
wards^flie0" ProPer *0 reca^ *be attention of our readers. We ob-
improve ferved, that the cultivation of claflical learning has a
merit of favourable influence on the living languages. It has
our mother a tendency to preferve their purity from being debaf-
tongue. ancj ^eir analogy from becoming irregular. In
ftudying the dead languages, we find it neceffary to
pay more attention to the principles of grammar than
in acquiring our mother tongue. We learn our native
language without attending much to its analogy and
ftrufture. Of the numbers who fpeak Englifh through
the Britifh dominions, but few are Ikilled in the in¬
flexion of its nouns and verbs, or able to diftinguilh
between adverbs and conjunXions. Defirous only of
making their meaning underflood, they are not anxi¬
ous about purity or correXnefs of fpeech. They re-
jeX not an exprtflion which occurs to them, becaufe
it is barbarous or ungrammatical. As they grew up
they learned to fpeak from their mothers, their nurfes
and others about them •, they were foon able to make
known their wants, their willies, and their obferva-
66
Utility of
claflical
themfelves in their mother
tongue without acquiring any accurate knowledge of
its general principles. If thefe people find occafion
to exprefs themfelves in writing, they, are fcarce more
ftudious of correXnefs and elegance in writing than in
fpeaking 5 or, though they may afpire after thofe
properties, yet they can never attain them. But fuch
writers or fpeakers can never refine any language*
or reduce it to a regular analogy. Neither can they
be expeXed to diftinguilh themfelves as the guardians
of the purity and regularity of their native tongue, if
it fliould before have attained a high degree of per-
feXion. But they who, in learning a language dif¬
ferent from their native tongue, have found it necef¬
fary to pay particular attention to the principles of
grammar, afterwards apply the knowledge of grammar
which they have thus acquired in ufing their mother
tongue j and by that means become better acquainted
with its ftruXure, and learn to write and fpeak it with
more correXnefs and propriety. Befides, the lan¬
guages of Greece and Rome are lo highly diftinguilh-
ed for their eopioufnefs, their regular analogy, and
for various other excellencies, which render them fu-
perior to even the chief of modern languages, that the
ftudy of them has a natural tendency to improve and
enrich modern languages. If we look backwards to
the 15th century, when learning began to revive in
Europe, and that fpecies of learning which began firft
to be cultivated was claflical literature, we find that
almoft all the languages then fpoken in Europe were
wretchedly poor and barbarous. Knowledge could not
be communicated, nor bufinefs tranfaXed, without-
calling in the aid of Latin. Claflical learning, how¬
ever, foon came to be cultivated by all ranks with en-
thufiaftic eagernefs. Not only thofe defigned to pur-
fue a learned profeflion, and men of fortune whofe ob-
jeX was a liberal education without a view to any par¬
ticular profefiion j but even the lower ranks, and the
female fex, keenly ftudied the languages and the wif¬
dom of Greece and Rome. This avidity for claflical
learning was followed by many happy effeXs. But its
influence was chiefly remarkable in producing an ama¬
zing change on the form of the living languages. Thefe
foon became more copious and regular j and many of
them have confequently attained fuch perfeXion, that
the poet, the hiftorian, and the philofopher, can clothe
their thoughts in them to the greatefl advantage.,
Cou!d vve derive no new advantage from the ftudy of
the ancient languages, yet would they be worthy of
our care, as having contributed fo much to raife the
modern languages to their prefent improved ftate. But
they can alfo conduce to the prefervation and fupport
of thofe noble ftruXures which have been reared by
their afliftance. The intercourfe of nations, the afiec-
tation of writers, the gradual introduXion of provin¬
cial barbariftns, and various other caufes, have a ten¬
dency to corrupt and debale even the nobleft languages^
By fuch means were the languages of Greece and
Rome gradually corrupted, till the language uled by a
Horace, a Livy, a Xenophon, and a Menander, was
loft in a jargon unfit for the purpofes of compofition.
But if we would not difdain to take advantage of
them, the claflical works in thofe languages might
prevent
E D U [ 5?i ] - E D U
■ation prevent that which we ufe from experiencing fuch a
^ decline. He who knows and admires the excellencies
of the ancient languages, and the beauties of thofe
writers who have rendered them fo celebrated, will be
the firm enemy of barbarifm, affe&ation, and negli¬
gence, whenever they attempt to debafe his mother
tongue. We venture therefore to affert, that when
the polHhed languages of antiquity ceafe to be ftudied
among us, our native tongue will then lofe its purity,
regularity, and other excellencies, and gradually de¬
cline till it be no longer known for the language of
Pope and of Addifon •, and we adduce it as an argu¬
ment in behalf of claflical learning, that it has contri¬
buted fo much to the improvement of the living lan¬
guages, and is almoft the only means that can prevent
them from being corrupted and debaled.
inuring In thofe plans of education of which the ftudy of
duftry. the dead languages does not make a part, proper
means are feldom adopted for impreffing the youthful
mind with habits of induftry : nor do the judgment,
the memory, and the other powers of the mind, receive
equal improvement, as they pafs not through the fame
exercifes as a claflical education. Let us enter thofe
academies where the way to a complete education leads
not through the thorny and rugged paths of claflical
literature •, let us attend to the exercifes which the
polite teachers caufe their pupils to perform. Do
they infill on laborious indullry or intenfe application ?
No; they can communicate knowledge without re¬
quiring laborious ftudy. They profefs to allow their
pupils to enjoy the fweets of idlenefs, and yet render
them prodigies of learning. But are their magnificent
promifes ever fufilled ? Do they indeed cultivate the
underflandings of the young people intrufted to their
care ? They do not: their care is never once directed
to this important obje£t. To adorn them with Ihovyy
and fuperficial qualities, is all that thofe gentlemen aim
at. Hence, when their pupils come to enter the world
and engage in the duties of aflive life, they appear de-
ftitute of every manly qualification. Though they have
attained the age, and grown up to the fize of man¬
hood, their underftandings are ftill childifti and feeble :
they are capricious, unfteady, incapable of induftry
or fortitude, and unable to purfue any particular ob-
jett with keen, unremitting perfeverance. That long
feries of ftudy and regular application, which is requi-
fite in order to attain (kill in the ancient languages,
produces much happier effedls on the youthful mind.
The power of habit is univerfally felt and acknow¬
ledged, As he who is permitted to trifle away kthe
earlieft part of his life in idlenefs or in frivolous oc¬
cupations, can fcarce be expefled to difplay any man¬
ly or vigorous qualities when he reaches a more ma¬
ture age ; fo, on the contrary, he whofe earlier days
have been employed in exercifing his memory and fur-
nilhing it with valuable treaferes, in cultivating his
judgment and reafoning powers by calling the one to
make frequent diftinftions between various objects,
and the other to deduce many inferences from the
comparifon of the various objedls prefented to the un-
derftanding, and alfo in (Lengthening and improving
the acutenefe of his moral powers by attending to hu¬
man adlions and characters, and diftinguifhing between
them, as virtuous or vicious, as mean or glorious : he
^vho has thus cultivated his powers, may be naturally
expected to diftinguifli himfelf when he comes to per- Education,
form his part in aCtive life, by prudence, activity, v “*
firmnefs, perfeverance, and molt of the other noble
qualities which can adorn a human character. But in
the courfe of a claflical education, the powers of the
mind receive this cultivation ; and therefore thefe happy
effeCts may be exptCted to follow from it. i he repe¬
titions which are required afford improving exercife
to the memory, and (tore it with the molt valuable
treafures; the powers of the underftanding are em¬
ployed in obftrving the diflinCtions between words;
in tracing words to the fubftances and qualities in na¬
ture which tlrey are uled to reprefcnt ; in comparing
the words and idioms of different languages, and in
tracing the laws of their analogy and conftruCtion ;
while our moral faculties are at the fame time improv¬
ed by attending to the characters which are defcrib-
ed, and the events and aCtions which are related, in
thofe books which we are direCled to perufe in order
to acquire the ancient languages. We affert there¬
fore that the fludy of the ancient languages is par¬
ticularly ufeful for improving and ftrengthening all the
powers of the mind : and by that means, for prepar¬
ing us to aCt our part in life in a becoming manner*,
and this our readers will readily agree with us in con-
fidering as a weighty argument in behalf of that plan
of education. _ . . gg
But if, after all, claflical learning is ftill to be given Fund of
up, where (hall we find the fame treafures of moral ufeful and
wifdotn, of elegance, and of ufeful hiftorical knowledge, e
which the celebrated writers of Greece and Rome af-
ford ? Will you content yourfelf with the modern wri-c;ent au-
ters of Italy, France, and England ? Or will you deign thors af-
to furvey the beauties of Homer and Virgil throughford*
the medium of a tranflation ? No furely ; let us pene¬
trate to thofe fources from which the modern writers
have derived molt of the excellencies which recommend
them to our notice; let us difdain to be impofed upon
by the whims or the ignorance of a tranflator.
Juvat integros accedere fantes.
Farther, claflical learning has long been cultivated
among us ; and both by the ftores of knowledge which
it has conveyed to the mind, and the habits which it
has impreffed, has contributed in no fmall degree to
form many illuftrious characters. In reviewing the
annals of our country, we will fcarce find an eminent
politician, patriot, general, or philofopher, during the
two laft centuries, who did not fpend his earlier years
in the ftudy of the claflics.
Yet though we have mentioned thefe things in fa¬
vour of claffical literature, and were we to defeend
to minute particulars might enumerate many more
faCts and circumltances to recommend it ; we mean
not to argue that it is abfolutely impofiible to be a
wife, a great, or a good man, unlefs you are (killed
in Greek and Latin. Means may, no doubt, be a-
dopted to infpire the young mind with virtuous dif-
pofitions, to call forth the powers of the youthful un¬
derftanding, and to imprefs habits of induftry and vi¬
gorous perfeverance, without having recourfe to the dif-
cipline of a grammar fchonl. But we cannot help
thinking, for the reafons which we have dated to our
readers, that a claflical education is the moft likely to
produce thefe happy effeCts.
V 4C2 A*
E D U [ 572 1 E D U
Education. As we are afterwards to take particular notice of
—““■v-" the courfe of education moft fuitable for thofe who
are to occupy the humble ftations in fociety, we {hall
not here inquire whether it be proper to introduce them
to an acquaintance with the Greek and Latin claffes.
VI. On the Education of People of Rank and Fortune.
fig
Duties of Those whom the kindnefs of providence has placed
people of in an elevated flation, and in affluent circumltances,
rank. fo that they feem to be born rather to the enjoyment
of wealth and honours than to aft in any particular
profeffion or employment, have notwithftanding a cer¬
tain part affigned them to perform, and many impor¬
tant duties to fulfil. They are members of fociety,
and enjoy the proteftion of the civil inftitutions of
that fociety to which they belong j they muft there¬
fore contribute what they can to the fupport of thofe
inftitutions. The labours of the induftrious poor are
neceflary to fupply them with the luxuries of life ;
and they muft know how to diftribute their wealth
with prudence and generofity among the poor. They
enjoy much leifure ; and they ought to know how to
employ their leifure hours in an innocent and agreeable
manner. Befides, as their circumftances enable them
to attraft the regard and refpeft of thofe who are pla¬
ced in inferior ftations, and as the poor are ever ready
to imitate the conduft of their fuperiors ; it is neceflary
that they endeavour to adorn their wealth and honours
by the moft eminent virtues, in order that their example
may have a happy influence on the manners of the com¬
munity.
Their education ought therefore to be condufted
with a view to thofe ends. After what we have urged
in favour of a claffical education, our readers will na¬
turally prefume that we regard it as highly proper for
How m a man f°rtune* The youth who is deftined to the
form the enjoyment of wealth and honours, cannot fpend his
temper of earlier years more advantageoufly than in gaining an
a young acquaintance with the elegant remains of antiquity.
tun©01^01" benefits to be derived from claflical learning are
particularly neceflary to him. Care muft be taken to
preferve him from acquiring a haughty, fierce, imperi¬
ous temper. The attention ufually paid to the children
of people of fortune, and the foolifh fondnefs with which
they are too often treated, have a direft tendency to in-
fpire them with high notions of their own importance,
and to render them paffionate, overbearing, and con¬
ceited. But if their temper acquire that bias even in
childhood, what may be expefted when they advance
towards manhood, when their attention is likely to be
oftener turned to the dignity and importance of that
rank which they occupy, and to the pitiful humility of
thofe beneath them ? Why, they are likely to be fo
proud; infolent, refentful, and revengeful, as to render
themfelves difagreeable and hateful to all who know
them : and befides, to be incapable of thofe delight¬
ful feelings which attend humane, benevolent, and mild
difpofitions. Let the man of fortune, therefore, as he
is concerned for the future happinefs and dignity of
his child, be no lefs careful to prevent him from being
treated in fuch a manner as to be infpired with
haughtinefs, caprice, and infolence, than to pre¬
vent his mind from being foured by harfh and tvrannical
ttfage.
The manly exercifes, as they are favourable to the ki
health, the ftrength, and even the morals ; fo they are —I!!!
highly worthy of engaging the attention of the young
gentleman. Dancing, fencing, running, horfeman-
fflip, the management of the mufket, and the motions
of military difcipline, are none of them unworthy of
occupying his time at proper feafons. It is unne-
ceflary to point out the advantages which he may de¬
rive from dancing j thefe feem to be pretty generally
underftood. Perhaps our men of fortune would be
afhamed to make ufe of their legs for running ; but
occafions may occur, on which even this humble ac-
compliftiment may be ufeful. Though we wifti not to
fee the young man of fortune become a jockey ; yet
to be able to make a graceful appearance on horfe-
back, and to manage his horfe with dexterity, will
not be unworthy of his ftation and charafter. If times
of public danger fflould arife, and the ttate fflould call
for the fervices of her fubjefts againft any hoftile at¬
tack, they whofe rank and fortune place them in the
moft eminent ftations will be firft expefted to ftand
forth y but if unacquainted with thofe exercifes which
are connefted with the military art, what a pitiful
figure muft they make in the camp, or on the field of
battle ?
As the man of fortune may perhaps enjoy by he-Law/
reditary right, or may be called by the voice of his
fellow citizens, to a feat among the legiflative body of
his country *, he ought in his youth to be carefully
inftrufted in the principles of her political conftitution,
and of thofe laws by which his own rights and the
rights of his fellow citizens are determined and fe-
curedw
Natural philofophy, as being both highly ufeful and philofep
entertaining, is well worthy of the attention of all
who can afford to appropriate any part of their time
to fcientific purfuits; to the man of fortune a tafte for
natural philofophy might often procure the moft de¬
lightful entertainment. To trace the wonders of the
planetary fyftems, to mark the procefs of vegetation,
to examine all the properties of that fine element which
we breathe, to trace the laws by which all the different
elements are confined to their proper funftions, and
above all to apply the principles of natural philofophy
in the cultivation of the ground, are amufements which
might agreeably and innocently occupy many of the
leifure hours of the man who enjoys a fplendid and in¬
dependent fortune. ^ |
_ Neither do we fuppofe civil hiftory and the prin-Hiftory .•
doles of morals to be overlooked. Without being ac-moraJi*
quainted with thefe, how could any juft or accurate
knowledge of the laws and political conftitution of his
country be acquired by the young gentleman ? Hiftory
expofes to our obfervation the fortune and the aftions of
other human beings, and thus iupplies in fome meafure
the place of experience $ it teaches prudence, and
affords exercife to the moral fenfe. When hiftory con-
defcends to take notice of individuals, they are almoft
always fuch as have been eminent for virtue, for abilities,
or for the rank which they held in life ; to the
rich and great it ought to fpeak with peculiar efficacy,
and they ought to be carefully invited to liften to its
voice.
Such then is the manner in which we wiftv the edu¬
cation of young men of rank and fortune to be con¬
dufted;
E D U [ 573 ] E D U
ucation* dueled, in order that they may be prepared for en-
■"Y“—r joying their opulence and honours with becoming dig¬
nity. Let them be early inured to habits of vigorous
induftry and perfevering firmnefs, by paffing through a
regular courfe of claflical learning in a free fchool ; let
them play and converfe with their equals, and not be
permitted to form high ideas of their own importance,
nor to domineer over fervants or inferiors : Let them
be carefully inftrufted in the principles of morality and
religion : Let them be taught the manly exercifes : Let
them be carefully informed of the nature of the political
conftitution of their country, and of the extent of thole
civil and political rights which it fecures to them and
their fellow citizens : Let them be called to trace the
annals of mankind through the records of hiftory 5 to
mark the appearances and operations of nature, and to
amufe themfelves by purfuing thefe to their general
caufes. We fay nothing of caufing the young man of
fortune to learn fome mechanical art : We think Ikill
in a mechanical art might now and then afford him an
innocent and pleafing amufement ; but we do not con¬
sider it as abfolutely neceflary, and therefore do not in¬
fill on his acquiring it. With thofe accomplifhments
we hope he might become an ufeful member of f >ciety,
might adorn the rank and fortune to which he is born,
and might find wealth and high (lation a bleffing, not
a cuife. It is peculiarly unfortunate for our age and
country, that people of rank and fortune are not fo ftu-
dious that their children acquire thefe as the more fu-
perficial aceomplilhments.
VII. On the Education of People defigned for a Mercan¬
tile Employment, and for the humbler Occupations in
Life not particularly conne&ed with Literature.
Were modern literature in a lefs flourilhing Hate ;
were the Englifh and French languages adorned with
fewer eminent poetical, hiilorical, and philofophical
compofitions ; we might perhaps infill on it as ne-
ceflary to give, the boy, who is defigned for a mercan¬
tile employment, a clrffical education. At prefent
74 this does not appear abfolutely neceffary ; yet we do
legant li. not prefume to forbid it as improper. Even the
rature. merchant will fcarce find reafon to repent his hav¬
ing been introduced to the acquaintance of Plato
and Cicero, But Hill, if the circumllances of the
parent, or any other juft reafon, Ihould render it
inconvenient, to fend the young man who is intend¬
ed for trade to a free fchool to ftudy the ancient
languages, means may be eafily adopted to make up
for his lofs. Confine him not to writing and accounts
alone. Thefe, though particularly ufeful to the mer¬
chant, have no great power to reftrain the force of
evil paflions, or to infpire the mind with generous and
virtuous fentiments. Though you burden him not
with Latin and Greek, yet ftrive to infpire him with
a tafte for ufeful knowledge and for elegant literature.
Some of the pureft and moll elegant of our poets, the
excellent periodical work* which have appeared in our
language, fuch as the Spectator, the Adventurer, the
Mirror, and the compofitions of our Britilh hiftorians,
together with fome of the bell tranflations of the daf¬
fies which we poflefs •, thefe vou may with great pro¬
priety put into his hands. They will teach him how
33
to think and reafon juftly, and to exprefs himfelf in Education,
converfation or in writing with correftnefs and elegance: «
they will refine and polilh his mind, and raife him above
low and grofs pleafures. And as no man, who has
any occafion to fpeak or write, ought to be entirely ig¬
norant of the principles of grammar, you will therefore
be careful to inftrudl the young man who is defigned for
a mercantile occupation in the grammar of his mother
tongue. . 7S
A facred regard to his engagements, and an honefty Integrity,
which may prevent him from taking undue advantages
or exacting unreafonable profits, are the virtues which
a merchant is molt frequently called to exercife : punc¬
tuality and integrity are the duties moft particularly
incumbent on the mercantile profeflion. Temptations
will now and then ar;fe to feduce the merchant to the
violation of thefe. But if fuperior to every fuch temp¬
tation, he is one of the moft illuftrious charafters, and
is likely to be one of the moft fuccefsful merchants.
From his earlieft years, then, labour to infpire the
child whom you intend for trade with a facred regard
for truth and juftice : let him be taught to view deceit
and fraud, and the violation of a proraife, with abhor¬
rence and difdain. Frugality is a virtue which, in the
prefent age, feems to be antiquated or proferibed. Even
the merchant often appears better fkilled in the arts of
profufion than in thofe of parfimony. The mifer, a
character at no time viewed as amiable, is at prefent be¬
held with double detellation and contempt. Yet, not-
withftanding thefe unfavourable circumftances, fear not
to imprefs upon the young merchant habits of frugality.
Let him know the folly of beginning to fpend a for¬
tune before he have acquired it. Let him be taught to
regard a regular attention to confine his expences with¬
in due bounds, as one of the firit virtues which can
adorn his chara&er.
Frugality and induftry are fo clofely conne£led,' that Induftry.
when we recommend the one of them to the merchant,
we will be naturally underftood to recommemd the other
alfo. It is eafy to fee, that without induftrious appli¬
cation, no man can reafonably expe£l to meet with fuc-
ceL in the occupation in which he engages ; and if the
merchant thinks proper to leave his bufinefs to the ma¬
nagement of clerks and fttop-keepers, it is not very pro¬
bable that he will quickly accumulate a fortune. It is,
therefore, no lefs neeeftary, that he who is intended for
trade be early accuftomed to habits of fober application,
and be carefully reftrained from volatility and levity,
than that he be inftrufted in writing, arithmetic, and
keeping of accounts.
With thefe virtues and qualifications the merchant is
likely to be refpeflable, and not unfuccefsful, while he
continues to profecute his trade : and if, by the blefiing
of Providence, he be at length enabled to accumulate a
moderate fortune, his acquaintance with elegant litera¬
ture, and the various .habits which he has acquired,
will enable him to enjoy it with tafte and dignity. In¬
deed, all the advantages which a man without tafte, or
knowledge, or virtue, can derive from the poffeflion of
even the moft fplendid fortune, are fo inconfiderable,
that they can be no adequate reward for the toil which
he undergoes, and the mean arts which he praflifes in
acquiring it. At the head of a great fortune a fool can
only make himfelf more ridiculous, and a man of a
wicked .
E D U [ 574 ] E D U
Education, wicked and vicious character more generally abhorred,
t—v..-,1 than if fortune had kindly concealed their crimes and
77. foliies by placing them in a more obfcure llation.
Educatun ^ ^onfidtrable part of the members of fociety are
an the low* placed in fuch circumltances, that it is impoliible tor
eft ranks, them to receive the advantages of a liberal education.
The mechanic and the hufbandman, who earn a fubfift-
ence by their daily labour, can feldom afford, whatever
parental fondnefs may fuggeft, to favour their children
with many opportunities of literary inftruftion. Con¬
tent if they can provide them with food and raiment
till fuch time a> they acquire fufficient ftrength to la¬
bour for their own fupport, parents in thofe humble
circumflances feldom think it neceffary that they fliould
concern themfelves about giving their children learning.
Happily it is not requifite that thofe who are deftined
to fpend their days in this low fphere fhould befurnifh-
ed with much literary or fcientific knowledge. They
may be taught to read their mother tongue, to write,
and to perform fome of the moft common and the moft
generally ufeful operations of arithmetic: for without
an acquaintance with the art of reading, it will fcarce
be poflible for them to acquire any rational knowledge
of the do&rines and precepts of religion, or of the du¬
ties of morality j the invaluable volume of the facred
Scriptures would be fealed to them: we may allow
them to write, in order that they may be enabled to
enjoy the fweet fatisfa&ion of communicating accounts
of their welfare to their abfent friends •, and, befides,
both writing and arithmetic are neceffary for the ac-
complifhment of thofe little tranfaftions which pafs
among them. It would be hard, if even the loweft and
pooreft were denied thefe Ample and eafily acquired
branches of education $ and happily that degree of {kill
in them which is neceffary for the labourer and the me¬
chanic may be attained without greater expence than
may be afforded by parents in the meaneft circumftan-
ces. Let the youth who is born to pafs his days in
this humble ftation be carefully taught to confider ho-
neft patient induftry as one of the firft of virtues : let
him be taught to regard the fluggnrd as one of the moft
contemptible of chara&ers: teach him contentment
with his lot, by letting him know that wealth and ho¬
nour feldom confer fuperior happinef* : Yet fcruple not
to inform him, that if he can raife himfelf above the
humble condition to which he was born, by honeft arts,
by abilities virtuoufly exerted, he may find fome com¬
fort in affluent circumftances, and may find reafon to
rejoice that he has been virtuous, induftrious, and aflive.
In teaching him the principles of religion, be careful
to fhow him religion as intimately connefted with mo¬
rality: teach him none of thofe myfterious doflrines,
whole foie tendency is to fofter that enthufiafm which
naturally prevails among the vulgar, and to perfuade
them that they may be pious w'lthout being virtuous.
Labour to infpire him with an invincible abhorrence
for lying, fraud, and theft. Infpire him with a high
efteem for chaftity, and with an awful regard to the
duties of a fon, a hufhand, and a father. Thus may he
become refpeftable and happy, even in his humble fta-
fcion and indigent circumftances ; a charaaer infinitely
fuperior, in the eyes of both God and man, to the rich
and great man who. mifemploys his wealth and leifure
in fhameful and vicious purfuits.
VIII. On the Education of the Female Sex.
The abftra&s which we have given of fome of the
moft celebrated and original treatiles on education, as
well as our own obfervations on this fubjedt, have been
hitherto either relative to the education of both fexes,
or diredied chiefly to the education of the male fex.
But as there is a natural difference between the charac¬
ters of the two fexes, and as there are certain duties pe¬
culiar to each of them j it is eaiy to fee that the educa¬
tion of the boy and that of the girl cannot, ought not,
to be condudled prtcifely in the fame manner. And
fince the duties of the. female it x are fo important to fo¬
ciety, and they form fo confiderable a part ot our
fpecies, their education, therefore, merits the higheft at¬
tention.
In infancy, the inftindls, the difpofitions, and the Similarity
faculties of b >ys and girls feem to be nearly the fame. tlie dia
They difcover the fame curiofity, and the lame difpo-^*^
lion to adlivity. For a while they are fond of theinthe5r(>
fame fports and amufements. But by and by, when we period of
begin to make a diftindlion in their drels j when the^6,
girl begins to be more confined to a fedentary life un¬
der her mother’s eye, while the boys are permitted to
ramble about without doors ; the diftindtion between
their charadters begins to be formed, and their tafle
and manners begin to become different. The boy now
imitates the arts and the adfive amufements of his fa¬
ther ; digs and plants a little garden, builds a houfe in
miniature, fhoots his bow, or draws his little cart; while
the girl, with no lefs emulation, imitates her mother,
knits, fews, and dreffes her doll. They are no longer
merely children ; the one is now a girl, the other a
boy. This tafte for female arts, which the girl fo eafily
and naturally acquires, has been judicioufly taken no¬
tice of by Houffeau, as affording a happy opportunity
for inftrudling her in a very confiderable part of thofe
arts which it is proper to teach her. While the girl
is bufied in adorning her doll, fhe infenfibly becomes
expert at needle work, and learns how to adjuft her
own drefs in a becoming manner. And therefore, if
fhe be kindly treated, it will not be a matter of difficulty
to prevail with her to apply to thefe branches of female
education. Her mother or governefs, if capable of
managing her with mildnefs and prudence, may teach
her to read with great facility. For being already
more difpofed to fedentary application than the boy of
the fame age, the confinement to which ffie muft fub-
mit in order to learn to read will be lefs irkfome to
her. Some have pretended that the reafoning powers
of girls begin to exert tbemfelves fooner than thofe of
boys. But, as we have already declared our opinion,
that the reafoning powers of children of both fexes
begin to difplay themfelves at a very early period j fowe
do not believe that thofe of the one fex begin to ap¬
pear or attain maturity, fooner than thofe of the other.
But the different occupations and amufements in which
we caufe them to engage from their earlitft years, na¬
turally call forth their powers in different manners, and
perhaps caufe the one to imitate our modes of fpeaking
and behaviour fooner than the other. However, as
we wifh both boys and girls to learn the art of reading
at a very early age, even as foon as they are capable of
any
E D U [ 575 ] E D U
ucation. any ferious application ; fo we wifli girls to be taught
w the art of writing, arithmetic, and the principles of re¬
ligion and morals, in the fame order in which thefe are
inculcated on boys.
We need not point out the reafons which induce us
to regard thefe as accomplilhments proper for the female
fex : they feem to be generally confidered as not only
fuitable, but neceffary. It is our moft important pri¬
vilege, as beings placed in a fituation different from
that of the inferior animals, that we are capable of re¬
ligious fentiments and religious knowledge*, it there¬
fore becomes us to communicate religious inftru6tion
with no lets affiduity and care to the youth of the fe¬
male fex, than to thofe of our own- Befides, as the care
of children during their earlier years belongs in a parti¬
cular manner to the mother ; fhe, therefore, whom na¬
ture has deftined to the important duties of a mother,
ought to be carefully prepared for the proper difcharge
of thofe duties, by being accurately inftrufted, in her
youth, in fuch things as it will be afterwards requifite
for her to teach her children.
Ladies have fometimes diftinguilhed themfelves as
prodigies of learning. Many of the moft eminent ge-
jg niufesof the French nation have been of the female fex..
adition, Several of our countrywomen have alfo made a refpe£t-
ivfar be-gjjjg figUre in the republic of letters. Yet we cannot
”lnSln approve of giving girls a learned education. To ae-
1 * quire the accompliftiments which are more proper for
their fex, will afford fufficient employment for their
earlier years. If they be inftru£!ed in the grammar of
their mother tongue, and taught to read and fpeak it
with propriety *, be taught to write a fair hand, and
to perform with readinefs the moft ufeful operations of
arithmetic : if they be inftrutled in the nature of the
duties which they owe to God, to themfelves, and to
fociety *, this will be almoft all the literary inftrusftion
neceffarv for them. Yet we do not mean to forbid
them an acquaintance with the literature of their coun¬
try. The periodical writers, who have taught all the
duties of morality, the decencies of life, and the prin¬
ciples of tafte, in fo elegant and pleafinga manner, may
with great propriety be put into the hands of our fe¬
male pupil. Neither will we deny her the hiftorians,
the moft popular voyages and travels, and fuch of our
Britifti poets as may be put into her hands without cor¬
rupting her heart or inflaming her paffions. But could
our opinion ®r advice have fo much influence, we would
endeavour to perfuade our countrymen and countrywo¬
men to banifli from among them the novelifts, thofe
panders of vice, with no lefs determined feverity than
that with which Plato excludes the poets from his re¬
public, or that with which the converts to Chriftianity,
mentioned in the Adis, condemned their magical vo¬
lumes to the flames. Unhappily, novels and plays are
almoft the onlv fpecies of reading in which the young
people of the nrefent age take delight; and nothing
has contributed more effedlually to bring on that diffo-
lutenefs of manners which prevails among all ranks.
But we will not difcover fo much aufterity as to ex-^
prefs a wifh that the education of the female fex fhould
Jo be confined folely to fuch things as are plain and ufe-
rnamentalful. We forbid not thofe aecompliftiments which are
complilh- merely ornamental, and the defign of which is to ren-
ent5, der them amiable in the eyes of the other fex. When
Vte confider the duties for which they are deftined by
nature, we £nd that the art of pleafing conftxtutes no Education*
inconfiderable part of thefe ; and it would be wrong, ’ ■*
therefore, to deny them thole arts, the end of which
is to enable them to pleafe. Let them endeavour to
acquire tafte in drefs : to drefs in a neat graceful man¬
ner, to fuit colours to her complexion, and the figure of
her clothes to her fhape, is no fmall accomplifhment for
a young woman. She who is rigged out by the tafte
and dexterity of her maid and her milliner, is nothing
better than a doll fent abroad to public places as a gr
fample of their handy work. Dancing is a favourite Dancinj.
exercife : nay, we might almoft call it the favourite
ftudy of the fair fex: So many pleafing images are af-
fociated with the idea of dancing ; drefs, attendance,
balls, elegance and grace of motion irrefiftible, admira¬
tion, and courtfhip: and thefe are fo early inculcated
on the young by mothers and maids, that we need not
be furprifed if little Mifs confider her leffon of dancing
as a matter of much more importance than either her
book or fampler. And indeed, though the public in
general feem at prefent to place too high a value on
dancing ; and though the undue eftimation which is
paid to it feems owing to that tafte for diflipation, and
that rage for public amufements, which naturally pre¬
vail amid fuch refinement and opulence y yet ftill dan¬
cing is an accomplifhment which both fexes may cul¬
tivate with confiderable advantage. It has a happy
effeft on the figure, the air, and the carriage ; and we
know not if it be not favourable even to dignity of
mind : Yet as to be even a firft-rate poet or painter,
and to value himfelf on his genius in thtfe arts, would
be no real ornament in the charafter of a great mo¬
narch ; fo any very fuperior {kill in dancing muft ferva
rather to difgrace than to adorn the lady or the gen¬
tleman. There are lome arts in which, though a mo¬
derate degree of Ikill may be ufeful or ornamental, yet
fuperior tafte and knowledge are rather hurtful, as they
have a tendency to feduce us from the more important
duties which we owe to ourlelves and to fociety. Of
thofe, dancing feems to be one : It is faid of a certain
Roman lady, by an eloquent hiftorian, “ that fhe was
more fkilled in dancing than became a modeft and vir¬
tuous woman.’*' ^
Mufic, alfo, is an art in which the youth of the fe-Mafic,
male fex are pretty generally inftrudled ; and if their
voice and ear be fuch as to enable them to attain any
excellence in vocal mufic, it may conduce greatly to
increafe their influence over our fex, and may afford a.
pleafing and elegant amufement to their leifiire hours.
The harpfichord and the fpinet are inftruments often
touched by female hands ; nor do we prefume to for*
bid the ladies to cxercife their delicate fingers in calling
forth the enchanting founds of thefe inftruments. But
ftill, if your daughter have no voice or ear for mufic,,
compel her not to apply to it.
Drawing is another acenmplifhment which general-Drawing,
ly enters into the plan of female education. Girls are
ufually taught to aim at feme fcratches with a pencil :
but when they grow up, they either lay it totally afide,
or elfe apply to it with fo much afliduity as to neglett
their more important duties. We do not confider (kill
in drawing, any more than fkill in poetry, as an ac¬
complifhment very neceffary for the ladies; yet we agree
with Rouffeau, that as far as it can contribute to im¬
prove their tafte in drefs, it may not be improper for
them
E D U t 576 ] E D U
Education, them to purfue it. They may very propet’y be taught
[0 fketch and colour flowers j but we do not wifti them
to forget or lay afi.de this as foon as the drawing-mafter
is difmifled ; let them retain it to be ufeful through life.
Though pride can never be lovely, even in the faireft
female form j yet ought the young women to be care¬
fully impreffed with a due refpe£t for herfelf. 1 his will
join with her native modefty to be the guardian of her
virtue, and to preferve her from levity and impropriety
of conduft.
Such are the hints which have occurred to us on the
education proper for the female fex, as far as it ought
to be conduced in a manner different from that of the
jnale.
IX. 'Public and Private Education.
One queftion ufually difeuffed by the writers on this
fubjedf has not hitherto engaged our attention. It is,
Whether it be mofl proper to educate a young man pri¬
vately, or fend him to receive his education at a public
fchool ? This queftion has been fo often agitated, and
by people enjoying opportunities of receiving all the
information which experience can furnifhon the fubjeft,
that we cannot be expe&ed to advance any new ar¬
gument of importance on either fide. Yet we may
ftate what has been urged both on the one and the
84 other.
Arguments They who have confidered children as receiving their
for private education in the houfe and under the eye of their parents,
e ucation. an[j ag fec^U(je(j jn a great meafure from the fociety of
other children, have been fometimes led to confider this
fituation as particularly favourable for their acquiring
ufeful knowledge, and being formed to virtuous habits.
Though we reap many advantages from mingling in
focial life, yet in fociety we are alfo tainted with many
vices to which he who paffes his life in folitary retire¬
ment is a ftranger. At whatever period of life we be¬
gin to mix with the world, we ftill find that we have
•r.ot yet acquired fufficient ftrength to refift thofe temp¬
tations to vice with which we are there affailed. But
if we are thus ready to be infefted with the contagion
of vice, even at any age, no other argument can be ne-
ceflary to fhow the propriety of confining children from
thofe dangerous feenes in which this infedlion is fo ea-
fily caught. And whoever furveys the ftate of morals
in a public fchool with careful and candid attention,
even though it be under the management of the moft
virtuous, judicious, and afliduous teachers, will find
reafon to acknowledge, that the empire of vice is efta-
blifhed there not lefs fully than in the great world.
Nothing, therefore, can be more negligent or inhu¬
man, than for parents to expofe their children to thofe
ledudlions which a great fchool prefents, at a time when
they are ftrongly difpofed to imitate any example fet
before them, and have not yet learned to diftinguifh
between fuch examples as are worthy of imitation, and
thofe which ought to be beheld with abhorrence. Even
when under the parent’s eye, from intercourfe with
lervants and vifitors their native innocence is likely to
fuffer confiderably. Yet the parent’s care will be much
more likely to preferve the manners of his child uncor¬
rupted in his own houfe, than any afliduity and watch-
fulnefs of his teachers in a fchool.
The morals and difpofitions of a child ought to be
the firft objects of our concern in conducling his edu¬
cation : but to initiate him in the principles of ufeful
knowledge is alfo an important object; and it will be
happy, if in a private education virtue be not only
better fecured, but knowledge alfo more readily ac¬
quired, than in a public. But this a£tually happens.
When one or two boys are committed to the care of a
judicious tutor, he can watch the moft favourable fea-
fons of communicating inftru&ion ; he can awake cu-
riofity and command attention by the gentle arts of in-
finuation : though he ftrive not to inflame their breads
with emulation, which leads often to envy and invete¬
rate hatred ; yet he will fucceed in rendering learning
pleafing, by other means lefs likely to produce unfa¬
vourable effects on the temper and difpofitions of his
pupils. -W his attention is not divided among a num¬
ber, he can pay more regard to the particular difpo¬
fitions and turn of mind of each of his pupils : he
can encourage him who is modeft and flow, and reprefs
the quicknefs and volatility of the other j and he can
call forth and improve their powers, by leading them
at one time to view the feenes of nature and the changes
which ftie fucceflively undergoes through the varying
feafons : at another, to attend to fome of the moft en¬
tertaining experiments of natural pbilofophy ; and again
alluring them artfully to their literary exercifes. With
thefe he may mix fome active games ; and he may af-
fume fo much of the fondnefs of the parent, as to join
in them with his little pupils. Thefe are certainly cir-
cumftances favourable both to the happinefs and to the
literary improvement of youth j but they are peculiar
to a private education. Befides, in a private educa¬
tion, as children fpend more of their time with grown¬
up people than in public j thofe, therefore, who re¬
ceive a domeftic education, fooner acquire our manner
of thinking, of exprefling ourfelves, and of behaving
in our ordinary intercourfe with one another. For the
very fame reafon for which girls are often obferved to
be capable of prudence and propriety of behaviour at
an earlier age than boys, thofe boys who receive a fa¬
mily education will begin fooner to think and a£l like
men, than thofe who pafs their earlier days in a public
feminary. And though you educate your fon at home,
there is no reafon why he ftiould be more accuftomed
to domineer over his inferiors, or to indulge a capri¬
cious or inhumane difpofition, than if he were brought
up among fifty boys, all of the fame age, fize, and rank,
with himfelf. He may alfo, in a private education,
exercife his limbs with the fame aftivity as in a public
one. He cannot indeed engage in thofe fports for
which a party of companions is neceffary $ but ftill
there are a thoufand objedts which will call forth his
adlivity : if in the country, he will be difpofed to
fifh, to climb for bird nefts, to imitate all that he fees
performed by labourers and mechanics: in ftiort, he
will run, leap, throw and carry ftones, and keenly exert
himfelf in a variety of exercifes, which will produce
the moft favourable effedls on the powers both of his
mind and body. It may indeed be poflible for you to
oppofe the defigns of nature fo effedtually, if you take
pains for that purpofe, as to reprefs the natural adlivity
of your child or pupil, and caufe him to pine away his
time in liftlefs indolence j but you will thus do violence
to his difpofitions, as well as to thofe inftindts which
nature has for wife purpofes implanted in his breaft.
And
.ication.
EDO [ 577
And the bad confequences which may rcfult from tliis fires,
management are not to be confidered as the natural
effe£ls of a domeftic education, but as the effects of an
■education carelefsly or imprudently conduced.
But there is another confideration which will per¬
haps be dill more likely than any of thofe which we
have hitherto urged, to prevail with tire fond parent
to give his child a private education. As the infant
who is abandoned by its mother to the care of an hire¬
ling nurfe, naturally transfers its affe£lkm from the
unnatural parent to the perfon who fupplies her room
and performs the duties incumbent upon her •, fo the
boy who is banilhed from a parent’s houfe at a time
when he has fcarce begun to know the relation in which
he (lands to his father and mother, brothers or fiffers,
foon ceafes to regard them with that fondnefs which
he had contrafted for them from living in their com¬
pany and receiving their good offices. His refpe£l,
his affe£lion, and his kindnefs, are be (In wed on new
objetls, perhaps on his mafter or his companions •, or
elfe his heart becomes felfidi and deftitute of every ten¬
der and generous feeling ; and when the gentle and
amiable affections of filial and fraternal love are thus,
as it were torn up by the roots, every evil paffion
1
e r> u
*5
guments
public
: ication.
fprings up, with a rapid growth, to fupply their place.
The boy returns afterwards to his father’s houfe : but
he returns as a ftranger $ he is no longer capable of
regarding his parents and relations with the fame ten-
dernefs of affedion. He is now a ftranger to that fi¬
lial love which fprings up in the bread of the child
who is conftantly fenfible of the tender care of his pa¬
rents, and fpends his earlier years under their roof, in
fuch a manner as to appear the effeCl of inftind rather
than of habit. Selfifh views are now the only bond
which attaches him to his parents and relations •, and
by coming under their influence at fo early a period of
life, he is rendered for ever incapable of all the moft
amiable virtues which can adorn human nature. Let
the parent, therefore, who loves his child, and wiffies
to obtain from him a mutual return of affe&ion, be¬
ware of excluding him from his houfe, and devolving
the foie charge1 of him upon another, in his child¬
hood.
Thefe views reprefent a private education as the moft
favourable to virtue, to knowledge, and to the mutual
affeClion which ought always to unite the parent and
his child. But let us now liften to the arguments
which are ufually urged in behalf of a public educa¬
tion.
In the firft place, it has been afferted, that a public
education is much more favourable than a private to
the pupil’s improvement in knowledge, and much
more likely to infpire him with an ardour for learning.
In a private education, with whatever affiduity and
tendernefs you labour to render learning agreeable to
your pupil, ftill it will be but an irkfome talk. You
may confine him to his books but for a very (hort fpace
in the courfe of the day, and allow him an alternation
of ftudy and recreation. Still, however, you will ne¬
ver be able to render his hooks the favourite objecls of
his attention. He will apply to them with reluftance
and carelefs indifference ; even while he feems enga¬
ged on his leffon, his mind will be otherwife occupied j
it will wander to the fcenes where he purfnes his diver-
ftons, and to thofe objefls which have attracted his de»
Vol. VII. Part II.
If the period during which you require his ap- Educatioh.
plication be extremely (hort ; duiing the firft pari of v 1 J
it, he will ftill be thinking of the amufements from
which you have called him, and regretting bis con¬
finement •, during the laft, he will fondly anticipate
the moment when he is to be fet at liberty, and think
of new amufements. Again, if you confine him du¬
ring a longer period, ftill more unfavourable eft'edls
will follow. Peeviftmefs, dulnefs, and a determined
averfion to all that bears the name of literature, will
be naturally impreffed on his mind by fuch treatment.
How can it be otherwife ? Books poffefs fo few of
thofe qualities which recommend any objefl to the at¬
tention of children, that they cannot be naturally a-
greeable. They have nothing to attradl and deiain
the eye, the ear, or any of the fenfes ; they prefent
things with which children are unacquainted, and of
which they know not the value : children cannot look
beyond the letters and words, to the things which thele
reprefent ; and even though they could, yet it is much
more pleafing to view fcenes and obje£ls as they exift
originally in nature, than to trace their images in a
faint and imperfect reprefentation. It is vain, there¬
fore, to hope that children will be prevailed with to pay
attention to books by means of any allurements which
books can of themfelves prefenf. Other means muft
be ufed j but thofe in a private education you cannot
command. In a public feminary, the fituation of
mafters with refpe6t to their pupils is widely different.
When a number of boys meet together in the fame
Ichool, each of them foon begins to feel the impulfe
of a principle which enables the mafter to command
their attention without difficulty, and prompts them
to apply with cheerful ardour to talks which would
othenvife be extremely irkfome. This principle is a
generous emulation, which animates the bread with
the defire of fuperior excellence, without infpiring en¬
vy or hatred of a competitor. When children are pru¬
dently managed in a great fchool, it is impoffible for
them not to feel its impulfe. It renders their talks
fcarce lefs agreeable than their amufements, and dire£ls
their atftivity and curiofity to proper objedls. View
the fclfolar at a public fchool, compofing his theme,
or turning over his diflionary ; how alert ! how cheer¬
ful ! how indefatigable ! He applies with all the eager-
nefs, and all the perfeverance, of a candidate for one
of the moft honourable places in the temple of fame.
Again, behold and pity that poor youth who is con¬
fined to his chamber with no companion but his tutor j
nbne whofe fuperiority can provoke his emulation, or
whofe inferiority might flatter him with thoughts of
his own excellence, and thus move him to preferve by
induftrious application the advantages which he has
already gained. His book is before him ; but how
languid, how liftlefs his pofture ! how heavy and dull
his eye ! Nothing is expreffed in his countenance but
deje6tion or indignation. Examine him concerning
his leffon ; he replies with confufion and hefitation. Af¬
ter a few minutes obfervation, you cannot fail to be
convinced that he has fpent his time without making
any progrefs in learning j that his fpirits are now broken,
his natural cheerfulnefs deftroyed ; and his bread arm¬
ed with invincible prejudices againft all application in
the purfuit of literary knowledge. Befides, in a fchool
there is fomething more than emulation to render learn-
4 ^ ing
E D U [ 573 ] E D U
Education, ing lefs dlfagreeable than it naturally is to children.
"“■“■■v The flighted obfervation of life, or attention to our
own conduft in various circumftances, will be fufficient
to convince us, that whenever mankind are placed in
circumftances of diftrefs, or fubjefted to any difagree-
able reftraint, that which a Angle perfon bears with
impatience or dejection will make a much lefs impref-
flon on his mind if a number of companions be joined
with him in his fuffering or reftraint. It is efteemed
a piece of much greater feverity to confine a prifoner
in a folitary cell, than where he is permitted to mix
with others in the fame uncomfortable fituation. A
journey appears much lefs tedious to a party of travel¬
lers, than to him who beats the path alone. In the
fame manner, when a number of boys in a great fchool
are all bufied on the fame or on fimilar talks, a fpirit
of induftry and perfeverance is communicated from one
to another over the whole circle ; each of them infen-
fibly acquires new ardour and vigour $ even though he
feel not the fpur of emulation, yet, while all are bufy
around him, he cannot remain idle. Thefe are fa£ls
obvious to the moft carelefs obferver.
Neither are public fchools fo unfavourable to the
virtue of their members as they have been reprefented
to be. If the mafters are men of virtue and prudence,
careful to fet a good example before their pupils, at¬
tentive to the particular chara&er and behaviour of
each individual among them, firm to punilh obftinate
and incorrigible depravity, and even to expel thofe who
are more likely to injure the morals of others than to
be reclaimed themfelves, and at the fame time eager
to applaud and to encourage amiable and virtuous dif-
pofiuons wherever they appear ; under the government
of fuch mafters, a public fchool will not fail to be a
fchool of virtue. I here will no doubt be particular
individuals among the pupils of fuch a feminary,
whofe morals may be corrupt and their difpofitions
vicious ; but this, in all probability, will arife from
the manner in which they were managed before en¬
tering the fchool, or from fume other circumftances,
rather than from their being fent for their education
to a public fchool. Again, at a public fchool, young
people enjoy much greater advantages for preparing
them to enter the world, than they can poflibly be fa¬
voured with if brought up in a private and folitary
manner. A great fchool is a miniature reprefentation
of the world at large. The objefts which engage the
attention of boys at a fchool are different from thofe
which occupy their parents ; the views of the boys
are lefs extenfive, and they are not yet capable of pro-
fecuting them by fo many bafe and mean arts : but, in
other refpetfts, the two fcenes, and the adlors upon
them nearly referable each other •, on both you behold
contending paflions, oppofite interefts, weaknefs, cun-
ning, folly, and vice. He therefore who has perform¬
ed his part on the miniature fcene, has rehearfed as it
were for the greater ; if he has acquitted himfelf well
on the one, he may be alfo expefted to diftinguifli him¬
felf on the other j and even he who has not diftinguifhed
himfelf at fchool, at leaft enters the world with fuf>e-
rior advantages when viewed in comparifon with him
who has fpent his earlier days In the ignorance and fo-
litude of a private and domeftic education. Befides,
when a number of boys meet at a public feminary of
education, feparated from their parents and relations • gj .
nearly of the fame age, engaged in the fame ftudies*, - - u^atl0^
and fond of the fame amufements $ they naturally con-
trad friendlhips with one another which are more cor¬
dial and fincere than any that take place between
perfons farther advanced in life. A friendfhip is often
formed between two boys at fchool which continues
through life, and is produdive of the happieft confe-
quences to each of them. While at fchool, they mu¬
tually aflift and encourage each other in their learning ;
and their mutual affedion renders their talks lefs bur-
denfome than they might otherwife find them. As
they advance in life, their friendlhip ftill continues to
produce happy effeds on their fentiments and condud :
perhaps they are mutually ufeful to each other by in-
tereft or by perfonal afliftance in making their way in
the world j or when they are engaged in the cares
and buftle of life, their intercourfe and correfpondence
with each other may contribute much to coniole them
amid the vexations and fatigues to which they may be
expofed.
Such are the chief arguments ufually adduced in fa¬
vour of a public education. When we compare
them with thofe which have been urged to recommend
a private education, we lhall perhaps find that each has
its peculiar advantages. A public education is the
more favourable to the acquifition of knowledge, to
vigour of mind, and to the formation of habits of in¬
duftry and fortitude. A private education, when ju-
dicioufly conduced, will not fail to be peculiarly fa¬
vourable to innocence and to mildnefs of difpofition $
and notwithftanding what has fometimes been advan¬
ced by the advocates for a public education, it is furely
better to keep youth at a diftance from the reduc¬
tions of vice till they be fufficiently armed againft
them, than to expofe them to them at an age when
they know not to what dangers they lead, and are ^
wholly unable to refill them. Were we to give impli- ^ medium
cit credit to the fpecious talk of the two parties, either tv tween
a private or a public education would form chara£ters the two.
more like to angels than to thofe men whom we or¬
dinarily meet in the world : but they fpeak with the
ardour of enthufiafts ; and therefore we muft liiten
with caution both to the fa£fs which they adduce, and
to the inferences which they draw. Could we, with¬
out expofing children to the contagion of a great town,
procure lor them the advantages of both a public and a
private education at the fame time, we would by this
means probably fucceed bed in rendering them both
refpe£lable fcholars and good men. If we may pre¬
fume to give our opinion freely, we would advife pa¬
rents never, except when fome unavoidable neceflity of
circumftances obliges them, to expel their children from
under their own roof till they be advanced beyond
their boyilh years : let the mother nurfe her own child j
let her and the father join in fuperintending its edu¬
cation : they may then expedl to be rewarded, if they
have adled their parts aright, by commanding the gra¬
titude, the affeftion, and the refpefl of their child,
while he and they continue to live together. Let mat¬
ters be fo ordered, that the boy may refide in his fa¬
ther’s houfe, and at the fame time attend a public
fchool: but let the girl be educated wholly under her
mother’s eye.
X. On
E D U
[ 579 1
1 rel con- ANOTHER queftion which has been often difcuf-
-ji red in- fed comes here under our review. The philofophers
g :ral. ancient Greece travelled in fearch of knowledge.
Books were then fcarce, and thofe few which were
to be obtained were no very rich treafuries of ufe-
ful information. The rhapfodies of a poet, the rude
legends of fome ill-informed and fabulous hiftorian,
or the theories of fanciful philofophers, were all that
they could afford. Thales, Lycurgus, Solon, Plato, tra¬
velled, feeking that knowledge among more civilized
nations which they could not find in their native coun¬
try. In the courfe of their travels, they heard the lec¬
tures of celebrated philofophers ; confulted the priefts,
who were the guardians of the traditions of antiquity,
concerning the nature and origin of thofe traditions ;
and obferved the inftitutions of thofe nations which
were moft renowned for the wifdom of their legifia-
ture. When they fet out to vifit foreign countries,
they feemed to have propofed to themfelves a certain
end ; and by keeping that end fteadily in view during
the courfe of their travels, they gained fuch improve¬
ment as to be able on their return to command the
veneration of their countrymen by means of the know¬
ledge which they were enabled to communicate. Many
befides the philofophers of ancient Greece have tra¬
velled for improvement, and have fucceeded in their
views. But ancient hiftory does not relate to us, that
travelling was confidered by the Greeks or Romans as
neceffary to finifii the education of their young men
of fortune before they entered the fcenes of aftive life.
It is true, after Greece became a province of the Ro¬
man empire, and the Romans began to admire the
fcience and elegance of Greece, and to cultivate Gre¬
cian literature, the young noblemen of Rome often
repaired to Rhodes and Athens to complete their ftu-
dies under the mailers of philufophy and eloquence
who taught in thofe cities. But they went thither
with the fame views with which our youth in modern
times are fent to free fchools and univerfities, not to
acquire knowledge by the obfervation of nature, of the
inftitutions, manners, and cuftoms of nations j but mere¬
ly to hear leftures, read books, and perform exercifes.
In modern times, a few men of reflexion and expe¬
rience have now and then travelled for improvement :
but the greateft part of our travellers, for a long time,
were enthufiaftic devotees who went in pilgrimage to
vifit the Ihrine or relics of fome favourite faint ; fol-
diers, who wandered over the earth to deftroy its in¬
habitants *, or merchants, whofe bufinefs as fa&ors be¬
tween widely diftant countries and nations led them to
brave every danger in traverfing from one corner of the
globe to another. But fince the nations of modern
Europe have begun to emerge from rudenefs, igno¬
rance, and fervile depreffion, they have formed one
great commonwealth, the members of which are fcarce
lefs intimately conneifted with each other than were
the ftates of ancient Greece. The confequence of
this mutual connexion and dependence is, that almoft
all the nations of Europe have frequent intercourfe with
one another ; and as fome of them are, and have long
been, more enlightened and refined than others, thofe na¬
tions who have attained the higheft degree of civiliza-
E D U
tion and refinement have naturally attra&ed the admira- Education,
tion and homage of the reft. Their language has been ' '"V
ftudied, their manners and arts have been adopted, and
even their drefs has been imitated. Other nation^ have
thronged to pay the homage due to their fuperior
merit, and to ftudy under them as mailers. Hence
has arifen the practice which at prefent prevails among
us of fending our youth to complete their education
by travelling, before we introduce them to a£tive life,
or require them to engage in bufinefs. Formerly young
men were not fent to travel till after they had proceed¬
ed through the forms of a regular education, and had
at leaft attained fuch an age that they were no longer
to be confidered as mere boys. But the progrefs of
luxury, the defire of parents to introduce their child¬
ren into the world at an early age, that.they may
early attain to wealth and honours, and various other
caufes, have gradually introduced the practice of
fending mere boys to foreign countries, under pretence
of affording them opportunities of (baking off prejudices,
of ftoring their minds with truly uftful knowledge, and
of acquiring thofe graceful manners and that manly ad-
drefs which will enable them to acquit themfelves in a
becoming manner when they are called to the duties of
aflive life. How much travelling at fuch an early age
contributes to fulfil the views of parents, a flight fur-
vey of the fenate-houfe, the gambling-houfes, the race-
courfe, and the cockpit, will convince the fagacious ob-
ferver.
But we wifti to fofter no prejudices againft neigh¬
bouring nations ; we entertain no fuch prejudices in
favour of Britain, as to with to confine our country¬
men within the fea-girt ifle. Let us inquire what ad¬
vantages may be gained by travelling, and at what age it
may be moft proper to fet out in purfuit of thofe advan-.
tages. 88
After all that bookifh men have urged, and not-Travel ne-
withftanding all that they may continue vehemently IT uifi
urge, in behalf of the knowledge to be derived from Uon 0f
their beloved books j it muft ftill be acknowledged, that knowledge,
books can teach us little more than merely the lan¬
guage of men. Or, if we (hould grant that books are
of higher importance, and that language is the leaft
valuable part of the knowledge which they teach, yet
ftill we need to beware that they lead us not aftray j
it is better to examine nature with the naked eye, than
to view her through the fpecftacles of books. Neither
the theories or experiments of philofophers, nor the
narratives of travellers, nor the relations of hiftorians,
though fupported by a numerous train of authorities,
are worthy of implicit credit. You retire from the
world, confine ^ourfelf for years to your clofet, and
read volume after volume, hiftorians, philofophers, and
poets ; at laft you fancy that you have gained an im-
menfe (lore of knowledge : But leave your retirement,
return into the world, compare the knowledge which
you have treafured up with the appearances of nature j
you will find that you have laboured in vain, that it is
only the femblance of knowledge which you have ac¬
quired, and will not ferve for a faithful guide in life,
nor even enable you to diftinguifti yourfelf for literary
merit. Compare the relations of travellers with one
another j how feldora do they agree when they deferibe
the fame fcenes and the fame people ! Turn your at¬
tention to the moft refpe&able hiftorians, compare
4 D 2 their
E D U
[ 58
o
Education, their accounts of the fame events : what difaoreement!
v what contrariety ! Where {hall truth be found ? Liften
to the coolr the candid philofophers; what contradiftory
theories do they build on the fame fyftem of fafh !
We agree, then, that it is better to feek knowledge
by a&ual obfervation and experiment, than to receive
it at fecond hand from the information of others. He
who would gain an acquaintance with the beauties of
external nature, mufl view them with his own eyes j
lie who would know the operations of the human under-
ftanding, muft refleft upon what pafles in his own mind ;
he who would know the cuftoms, opinions, and manners
' of any people, muft mingle with them, muft obferve
their condudft, and liften to their eonverfation. The
arts are acquired by a&ual praftiee ; the fcienees by
aftual obfervation in your own perfon, and by deducing
inferences from your obfervations.
If therefore to extend our knowledge can contri¬
bute in any degree to render us happier, wifer, or
better ; travelling, as being more favourable to know¬
ledge than the fludy of books, muft be highly advan¬
tageous. Get well acquainted with your own coun¬
try ; with the manners, the cuftoms, the laws, and the
political fituation of your countrymen : Get alfo a
knowledge of books; for books would not be altoge¬
ther ufelefs, though they could ferve no other purpofe
but to teach us the language in which mankind ex-
prefs themfdves : And then, if your judgment have at¬
tained maturity ; if curiofity prompt you ; if your con-
ftitution be robuft and vigorous, and your fpirits live¬
ly ; you may imitate the Solons, Homers, and Platos,
cf old, and vifit foreign countries in fearch of know-
ledge, and with a view to bring home fomething which
may be of real utility to yourfelf and your country.
T ou will, by this time, be fo much mailer of the lan¬
guage of your own country, that you will not lufe it
while you are learning the languages of foreign nations ;
your principles of tafte and of right and wrong will
be fo formed and fixed, that you will not defpife any
inftitution or cuftom or opinion merely becaufe it pre¬
vails not in your own country j nor yet will vou be
ready to admire and adopt any thing, merely becaufe
it prevails among a foreign nation who are djftinguifh-
ed for profound and extenfive knowledge, or for ele¬
gance of tafle and manners. No ; you will divert
yourfelf of every prejudice, and judge only by the
fixed unalterable principles which determine the dif-
tihiflion between right and wrong, between truth and
falfehood, between beauty and deformity, fublimity
and meannefs. Your obje6l will not be to learn exotic
vices, to mingle in frivolous amufements, or to form
a catalogue of inns. Your views, your inquiries, will
have a very different dire&ion. You will attend to
the ftate of the arts, of the fciences, of morals, man¬
ners, and government 5 you will alfo contemplate with
eager delight, the grand or beautiful fcenes of nature,
and examine the vegetable productions of the various
regions through which vou pafs, as well as the different
tribes of animals which inhabit them ; you will obferve
what b'eflrngs the beneficence of nature has conferred on
the inhabitants of each particular divifion of the globe,
and how far the ingenuity and induftry of man have ta¬
ken advantage of the kindnefs of nature. Thus fur-
v.eying the face of the earth, and confidering how ad¬
vantages. and difadvantages are balanced with each
] E D U
other, through every various region and climate,from oneE(tirat;0(
extremity of the globe to another j you will admire—-v-’-J
and revere that impartiality with which the Author of
nature has diiiributed his benefits to the whole human
race. When from the chilly climes and ftubborn foil
of the north, you turn your eyes to the fertile genial
regions of the fouth, where every tree is loaded with
exquifite fruits,, and every vegetable is nourilhing and
delicious ; you will be pleafed to find, that the inha¬
bitants of the. north, by their fuperior ingenuity and
vigour, are able to raife themfelves to circumftances
no lefs comfortable and refpeflable than thofe which
the nations inhabiting between the tropics enioy ; when
you behold the French (baking off the yoke of def-
potifm, and afpiring to the fvveets of liberty as well as
their Britilh neighbours; you will be pleafed to fee, that
the natural gaiety and cheerfulnefs of the former nation
render them not incapable of the energy of the latter.
You will be pleafed to view the remains of antiquity,
and the noble monuments of art j but you will think
it below you to trifle away your time in gazing at
palaces and churches, and colledling rufty medals and
fragments of marble j you will feek the fociety of emi¬
nent men, and eagerly cultivate an acquaintance with
the moft diftinguiflied artifts and men of fcience who
adorn the nations among whom you may happen to
fnjourn. Knowing that the knowledge which is to
be acquired in great towns, is by no means an adequate
compenfation for the vicious habits which you are liable
to contract in them j and befides, that the luxuries, the
arts, the manners, the. virtues, and the vices of all great
towns are nearly the fame, fo that when you have feen
one, you have feen all others ; you will avoid taking
up your refidence for any confiderable time in any
of the great towns through which you have occafion
to pafs in the courfe of your travels. The traveller
who has attained the previous accomplifhments which
we have mentioned as neceffary, who fets out with the
views which we have fuppofed him to entertain, and
who conducts his travels in this manner, cannot fail to
return home enriched with much ufeful knowledge; he
cannot but derive more real improvement from travel¬
ling, than he could have gained by fpending the fame
period of time in folitary ftudy : when he returns to his
native country, he will appear among his country¬
men as more than a philofopher; a fage, and a be-
nefaflor. His knowledge is fo extenfive and accurate,
his views are fo liberal and enlarged, and he is fo
fuperior to prejudices, without being the enemy of
any ufeful eftahlifhments, that he will be enabled to
command univerfal efteem, bv performing his part iu
life with becoming dignity and propriety, and perhaps
to render his name illuftrious, and his memory dear
to future times, by feme important fervices to the com¬
munity to which he belongs, or even to mankind in
general.
But though we have thus far, and we hope for ob-circum-
vious and folid reafons, decided in favour of travelling,ftancesthaj
being more- likely than a folitary application to^^^^J
books, to furnifh the mind with ufeful and orna-proflta!,ie
mental knowledge ; yet we do n< t fee that our Britiftitotheycuti
youth either take care to furniflx themfelves with the of the pre* I
previous knowledge which we confider as indifpen^ent
fably neceffary in order to prepare them for travelling
with advantage,,or fet out with proper views, or pre-
fecute.
E D U [ 581 ] E D U
fecute their travels in a prudent judicious manner.
After receiving a very iruperfefl education, in which
religious and moral inftruftion are almoft wholly ne-
glefted, and no means are ufed to infpire the youth¬
ful m;nd with folid, virtuous, manly qualities; but
every art is tried to make the young man appear learn¬
ed, while his mind is deftitute of all ufeful information,
and to teach him to affume the confidence of manhood
before he has attained even to a moderate degree of
fenfe and prudence *,—alter an education conduced
in this manner, and with thefe views, the llripling is
font abroad to view the world, and is expect'd to re¬
turn home a finilhed cbara£ler, an ornament and a
comfort to his parents and all his connexions. He is
hitherto unacquainted, perhaps, even with the fimple
events of the hidory of his native country ; and either
totally ignorant of clailical literature, or but very fu-
perficially inltru£ted in it. He has not yet viewed
with a difcerning eye the manners and cuftoms pre¬
vailing among his countrymen j he knows not the na¬
ture of the government under which he lives, nor the
fpirit of thofe laws by which his civil condudl muft be
regulated. He has no fixed principles ; no clear, di-
flindt views. But to fupply all his wants of this na¬
ture, he is put into the hands of a travelling governor,
who is to be entirely fubmillive to his will, and yet to
ferve him both for eyes and intelleft. This governor
is generally either fome macaroni officer, who is confi-
dered as well bred, and thought to know the world j
or elfe, perhaps, fome cringing fon of literature, who,
having (pent much time among his books, without
acquiring fuch ftrength or dignity of mind as to raife
him above frivolity of manners and converfation or
pitiful fawning arts, is therefore regarded as happily
qualified for this important charge. This refpe&able
perfonage and his pupil are (hipped off for France,
that land of elegant diffipation, frivolity, and faffiion.
They travel on with eager impatience, till they reach
the capital. There the young man is induftrioufly
introduced to all the gay fcenes which Paris can dif-
plav. He is, at firft, confounded ; by and by his
fenfes are fafcinated ; new defires are awaked in his
bread •, all around him he fees the fons of diffipation
wallowing in debauchery, or the children of vanity
fluttering about like fo many gawdy infefts. 1 he
poor youth has no fixed principles : he has not been
taught to regard vanity as ridiculous, or to turn from
vice with abhorrence. No attempt is made to allure
him to thefe objects, an attention to which can alone
render travelling truly beneficial. Hitherto his mind
had been left alrnoil wholly uncultivated j and now
the feeds of vice are plentifully fown in it. From one
great town he is conveyed to another, till he vifit al-
moft every place in Europe where profligacy of man¬
ners has attained to any uncommon height. In this
happy courfe of education he probably continues to
purfue improvement till he is well acquainted with
mod of the pod roads, the principal inns, and the great
towns at lead in France and Italy ; and perhaps till
he has worn out his conditution, and rendered his
mind totally incapable of any generous fentiments or
fiber reflection. He then revifits his native country,
to the inexpreffible happinefs of his parents, who now
eagerly long to embrace their all-accomplidied child.
But how miferably are the poor folks dii.appoin.ted,
when they find his conditution waded, his underdand- Education,
ing uninformed, his heart deditute of every manly or "v ~ ’"v
generous fentiment : and perceive him to poffefs no
accomplifhraent, but fuch as are merely fuperficial ?
Perhaps, however, his parents are prevented by their
partiality both for their child and for the means
which they have adapted in cunduding his education,
from viewing his charaCler and qualifications in a
true light. Perhaps they overlook ail his defeCls, or
confider them as ornaments, and regard their dear fon
as the mirror of perfe&ion. But, unfortunately,
though they be blind to the hideous deformity of the
monder which they have formed, they cannot hinder
it from being conipicuous to others ; though they may
view their fun’s charaCler as amiable and refpeftable,
they cannot render it ufeful, they cannot prevent it
from being hurtful to fuciety. Let this youth whofe
education has been thus wifely conduced, let him be
placed at the head of an opulent fortune, advanced to
a feat in the legiflative body of his country, or called
to a£t in any public chara&er ; how will he didinguidi
himfelf ? As the virtuous patriot, the honed yet able
datefman, the fkilful general, or the learned upright
judge ? How will he enjoy his fortune ? Will he be
the friend of the poor, the deady fupporter of the laws
and conditution under whofe proteftion he lives ? Will
he (how himfelf capable of enjoying otium cum digni-
tate ? If we reafon by the ufual laws of probability,
we cannot expect that he fliould : and if we obferve the
manners and principles of our men of wealth and high
birth who have been brought up in this manner, we find
our reafonings confirmed.
Such are the opinions which candid obfervation leads
us to entertain with regard to the advantages which may
be gained by travelling.
He whofe mind has been judicioudy cultivated, and
who has attained to maturity of judgment, if he fet out
on his travels with a view to obtain real improvements,
and perfid invariably in the profecution of that view,
cannot but derive very great advantages from travel-
ling.
But again, thofe young men whofe minds have not
been previoufly cultivated by a judicious education, who
fet out without a view to the acquifition of real know¬
ledge, and who wander among foreign nations, without
attention to any thing but their luxuries, their follies,
and their vices, thofe poor young men cannot gain any
real improvement from their travels.
Our countrymen, who travel for improvement, do
not appear to derive fo much advantage from their
travels as were to be wiffied, becaui’e they generally re¬
ceive too fuperficial an education, fet out at too early
a period of life, and dire£l not their views to objects of
real utility and importance.
XI. On Knowledge of the World, and Entrance into
Life.
00
Much has been faid concerning the utility of a 0 hippy
knowledge of the world, and the advantage of acqui-effects of
ring it at an early period of life. But thofe who have
the mod earneflly recommended this knowledge of the tion int()
world, have generally explained themlelves in fo inac-the world.•
curate a manner concerning it, that it is difficult to
underdand what ideas they affix to it. They feem. to
wiffi,
E D U [ 5§2 ] E D W
Education, wiflv, that, in order to acquire it, young people may
'“■““Y—be early made acquainted with all the vices and follies
of the world, introduced into polite company, carried
t to public places, and not confined even from the ga¬
ming table and the (lews. Some knowledge of the
■world may, no doubt, be gained by thefe means. But
it is furely dearly purchafed j nor are the advantages
which can be derived from it fo confiderable, as to
tempt the judicious and affe&ionate parent to expofe
his child to the infe61ion of vanity, folly, and vice, for
their fake. Carry a boy or girl into public life at the
age of fourteen or fifteen j (how them all the fcenes of
fplendid vanity and diffipation which adorn London or
Paris j tell them of the importance of drefs, and of
the ceremonies of good breeding and the forms of in-
tercourfe j teach them that falhionable indifference and
affurance which give the ton to the manners of our fine
gentlemen and fine ladies of the prefent age. What
effects can you expe£t the fcenes into which you intro¬
duce them, and the myfleries which you now teach
them, to produce on the minds of the children ? They
have a dire£f tendency to infpire them with a tafte for
vanity, frivolity, and diffipation. If you wiffi them to
be like the foolifh, the diffipated, and the gay, you
are likely to obtain your purpofe ; but if, on the con¬
trary, your views are to prepare them for difcharging
tne duties of life, you could not adopt more improper
means 5 for though they be well acquainted with all
thofe things on which you place fo much value, yet
they have not thereby gained any acceffion of ufeful
knowledge. They are not now more able than before
to eftimate the real value of objefts ; nay, their judge¬
ment is now more liable than before to be milled in
eftimating the value of the obje&s around them. Lux-
ury, vanity, and faffiion, have ftamped on many things
an ideal value. By mingling at an early age in thofe
icenes of the world where luxury, vanity, and faffiion,
reign with arbitrary iway, young people are naturally
impreiTed with all thofe prejudices which thefe have
a tendency to infpire. Inftead of acquiring an ufeful
knowledge of the world, they are rendered incapable
of ever viewing the world with an unprejudiced and
difcerning eye. If poffible, therefore, we ffiould ra¬
ther labour to confine young people from mingling in
the fcenes of gay and diffipated life till after they have
attained maturity of age and judgment. They will
then view them in a proper light, and perhaps be
happy enough to efcape the infetlious contagion of
vice.
What ^,ere *s another and a more valuable knowledge
knowledge the world, which we ought induftrioufly to com-
ofthe municate to them as foon as they are capable of recei-
be'fafe'ly1^ V'n^ .*t‘ ^OI! 85 are mac*e thoroughly acquaint-
communi- ed 'Vlth the diftin«aions between right and wrong, be-
cated to tween virtue and vice, between piety and impiety, and
young peo- have become capable of entering into our reafonings;
pie. we ought then to inform them concerning the various
eftabliffiments and inftitutions which exift in foeiety ;
concerning the cultoms, opinions, and manners of man¬
kind ; and concerning the various degrees of ftrength
or weaknefs of mind, of ingenuity or dulnefs, of vir¬
tuous or vicious qualities, which difcriminate thofe cha-
rafters which appear in fociety. We ought alfo to feize
every ppportunity which may be prefented of exempli¬
fying our Mims by inftances in real life. We muft
4
point out to them thofe circumftances which have led
mankind to place an undue value on fome obje&s, while
they appreciate others much below their real utility and
importance. Thus let us fortify their judgments againft
that impreffion which the dazzling novelty of the fcene
and the force of paffion, will be apt to produce j and
communicate to them a knowledge of the world, with¬
out expofing them imprudently to the contagion of its
vices and follies.
When at length the period arrives at which they
muft be emancipated from fubjedlion, and committed
to the guidance of their own confcience and reafon, and
of thofe principles which we have laboured to inculcate
on their minds ; let us warn them of the dangers to
which they are about to be expofed ; tell them of the
glory and the happinefs to which they may attain ; infpire
them, if poffible, with difdain for folly, vanity, and
vice, whatever dazzling or enchanting forms they may
affume j and then difmifs them to enrich their minds
with new ftores of knowledge by vifiting foreign na¬
tions j or, if that ffiould be inconvenient, to enter im¬
mediately on the duties of fome ufeful employment in
aftive life.
EDULCORATION, properly fignifies the render¬
ing fubftances more mild. Chemical edulcoration con-
fifts almoft always in taking away acids and other fa-
line fubftances j and this is effe&ed by waffiing the bo¬
dies to which they adhere in a large quantity of water.
The waffiing of diaphoretic antimony, powder of alga-
roth, &c. till the water comes off quite pure and infipid,
are inftances of chemical edulcoration.—In pharmacy,
juleps, potions, and other medicines, are faid to be edul¬
corated, by adding fugar or fyrup.
EDWARD, the name of feveral kings of England.
See (Hijlory of) England.
EDWARDS, George, fellow of the royal and an¬
tiquarian foeieties, was born at Stratford, a hamlet be-
longing to Weftham in Effex, on the 3d of April 1694.
After having fpent fome time at fchool, he was put
apprentice to a tradefman in Fenchurch ftreet. His
mafter, who was eminent both for his piety and Ikill in
the languages, treated him with great kindnefs; but
about the middle of his apprenticeftiip, an accident
happened which totally put a flop to the hopes of
young Edwards’s advancing himfelf in the way of trade.
Dr Nicolas, a perfon of eminence in the phyfical world,
and a relation of his mafter’s, happened to die. The
Doctor’s books were removed to an apartment occu¬
pied by Edw’ards, who eagerly employed all his leifure
hours, both in the day and great part of the night, in
perufing thofe which treated of natural hiftory,' fculp-
ture, painting, aftronomy, and antiquities. The reading
of thefe books entirely deprived him of any inclination
for mercantile bufinefs he might have formerly had, and
herefolved to travel into foreign countries. In 1716, he
vifited moft of the principal towns in Holland, and in
about a month returned to England. Two years after,
he took a voyage to Norway, at the invitation of a
gentleman who was difpofed to be his friend, and who
was nephew to the mafter of the ffiip in which he em¬
barked. At this time Charles XII. was befieging Fre-
derickffiall \ by which means our young naturalift was
hindered from making fuch excurfions into the coun¬
try as other wife he could have done, for the Swedes
were very careful to confine fuch ftrangers as could not
give
Educatfoi
II
Edwards,
E D W [ 5S3 1 E D Y
} ?ards. g‘ve a g00^ account themfelves. Bat notwithftand-
L y—^ ing all his precaution, he was confined by the Danilh
guard, who fuppofed him to be a fpy employed by the
enemy to get intelligence of their defigns. However,
by obtaining tellimonials of his innocence, a releafe was
granted. In 1718 he returned to England, and next
year vifited Paris by the way of Dieppe. During his
flay in this country he made two journeys of 100 miles
each ; the firft to Chalons in Champagne, in May 1720 j
the fecond on foot, to Orleans and Blois; but an edidl
happening at that time to be iffued for fecuring va¬
grants, in order to tranfport them to America, as
the banks of the MifliiTippi wanted population j our au¬
thor narrowly efcaped a weftern voyage. On his ar¬
rival in England, Mr Edwards clofely purfued his fa¬
vourite ftudy of natural hiftory, applying himfelf to
drawing and colouring fuch animals as fell under his
notice. A ftrift attention to natural, more than pic-
tureique beauty, claimed his e.arlieft care : birds firft
engaged his particular attention ; and having pur-
chaled lome of the beft pictures of thefe fubjedts, he
was induced to make a few drawings of bis own j which
were admired by the curious, who encouraged our
young naturalift to proceed, by paying a good price
for his early labours. Among his firft patrons and bene-
faftors may be mentioned James Theobalds, Efq. of
Lambeth } a gentleman zealous for the promotion of
fcience. Our artift, thus unexpectedly encouraged, in-
creafed in Ikill and afliduity j and procured, by his ap¬
plication to his favourite purfuit, a decent fubfiftence
and a large acquaintance. However, he remitted hisin-
duftry in 1731 ; when, in company with two of his re¬
lations, he made an excurfion to Holland and Brabant,
where he collected feveral fcarce books and prints, and
had an opportunity of examining the original pictures of
feveral great maftersat Antwerp, Brufiels, Utrecht, and
other cities. In December 1733, by the recommenda¬
tion of the great Sir Hans Sloane, Bart, prefident of the
College of Phyficians, he was chofen librarian, and had
apartments in the college. This office was peculiarly a-
greeable to histafteand inclination, as he had the oppor¬
tunity of a conftant recourfe to a valuable library, fill¬
ed with fcarce and curious books on the fubjeCt of na¬
tural hiftory, which he fo affiduoufiy ftudied. By de¬
grees he became one of the moll eminent ornithologifts
in this or any other country. His merit is fo well
known in this refpeCt, as t« render any eulogium on his
pertormances unneceflary : but it may be obf^rved, that
he never trufted to others what he could perform him¬
felf ; and often found it fo difficult to give fatisfaftion
to his own mind, that he frequently made three or four
drawings to delineate the objeCt in its molt lively cha¬
racter, attitude, and reprefentation. In 1743, the firft
volume of the Hiftory of Birds was publiffied in quarto.
Hi> (ubfcribers exceeding even his molt fanguine expec¬
tations, a fecond volume appeared in 1747. The third
volume was publifhed in 1750. In 1751, the fourth
volume came from the prtfs. This volume being the laft
he intended to publilh at that time, he feems to have
confidered it as the molt pcrfeCt of his productions in
natural hiftory ; and therefore devoutly offered it up to
the great God of nature, in humble gratitude for all
the good things he had received from him in this world.
Our author, in 1758, continued his labours under a
new title, viz. Gleanings of Natural Hi/lory. A fe- Edward;,
cond volume of the Gleanings was publilhed in 1760. Ed>lt>ne.
The third part, which made thefeventh and laft volume ^ »
of his works, appeared in 1764. Thus our author, af¬
ter a long feries of years, the molt ftudious application,
and the molt extenfive correfpondence to every quarter
of the world, concluded a work which contains engra¬
vings and defcriptions of more than 600 fubjeCts in na¬
tural hiftory, not before defcribed or delineated. He
likewife added a general index in French and Engliffi j
which was afterwards perfected, with the Linnaean names,
by that great naturalift Linnaeus himfelf, who frequent¬
ly honoured him with his friendlhip and correfpondence.
Some time after Mr Edwards had been appointed
library keeper to the Royal College of Phyficians, he
was, on St Andrew’s day, in the year 1750, prefented
with an honorary compliment by the prefident and
council of the Royal Society, with the gold medal, the
donation of Sir Godfrey Copley, Bart, annually given
on that day to the author of any new difcovery in art
or nature, in confideration of his natural hiftory juft
then completed. A copy of this medal he had after¬
wards engraved, and placed under the title in the firft
volume of his hiftory. He was a few years afterwards
eleCted fellow of the Royal Society, and of the Society
of Antiquaries, London 5 and alio a member of many
of the academies of fciences and learning in different
parts of Europe. In compliment to thofe honorary
diltinCtions from fuch learned bodies, he prefented ele¬
gant coloured copies of all his works to the Royal Col¬
lege ot Phyficians, the Royal Society, and Society of
Antiquarians, and to the Britiffi mufeum : alfo to the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, from whom he re¬
ceived the moft polite and obliging letter of thanks by
their then fecretary Monfieur Defouchy. His collec¬
tion of drawings, which amounted to upwards of 900,
were purchafed by the earl of Bute. They contain a
great number of Britiffi as well as foreign birds, and
other animals hitherto not accurately delineated or de¬
fcribed. After the publication of the laft work, being
arrived at his 70th year, he found his fight begin to fail,
and his hand loft its wonted fteadinels. He retired from
public employment to a little houfe which he purchaf¬
ed at Plaiftow ; previous to which, he difpofed of all
the copies, as well as plates of his works. The conver-
fation of a few feleft friends, and the perufal of a tew
feledt books, were the amufement of the evening of his
life j and now and then he made an excurfion to fome
of the principal cities in England, particularly to Bri-
ftol, Bath, Exeter, and Norwich. Some years before
his death, the alarming depredation of a cancer, which
baffled all the efforts of medical Ikill, deprived him of
the fight of one of his eyes : he alfo luffered much
from the (tone, to which at different periods of his life
he had been fubje£t. But in the fevereft paroxyfms of
pain, he was fcarcely known to utter a fingle complaint.
Having completed hi> 80th year, emaciated with age
and ficknefs, he died, di fervedly lamented, on the 23d
of July 1772.
EDYS'I ONE, a lighthoufe in the Britiffi channel,
built on rocks of the fame name, which are fuppofed to
have got this appellation from the great variety of con¬
trary fets of the current among them, both upon the tide
of flood and the tide of ebb. They are fftuated nearly
ibuth-
E D Y r 584 1 • ED Y
E'lyftone. lout h Tout h-we ft from the middle of Plymouth found, ac-
u 1 cording to t he true meridian ; and the diftance, as near¬
ly ascan be collected, is twelve miles and a half; and from
the fame point in the Sound to the Jetty Head, called the
JBarbican, in the port of Plymouth, is a mile and a half
more, which makes the diftance of the Edyftone from
the port of Plymouth to be nearly fourteen miles.
“ The promontory called Ram Head is the neareft
point of land to the Edyftone, which bears from thence
fouth fearcely one point weft, diftant about ten miles,
and confequently by the compafs is nearly fputh-weft by
fouth.—Thofe rocks are nearly in a line, but*fomewhat
within that line which joins the Start and the Lizard
Points ; and as they lie nearly in the direftion of vef-
fels coafting up and down the channel, they muft, be¬
fore a lighthoufe was eftablifhed thereon, have been
very dangerous, and often fatal to (hips under fuch cir-
cumftances: and many rich (hips and other vefiels have,
in former times, been actually loft upon thofe rocks,
particularly fuch as were homeward-bound from foreign
parts ; it being even now a common thing in foggy
and thick hazy weather, for homeward bound (hips
from long foreign voyages to make the Edyftone light¬
houfe as the firft point of land of Great Britain ; fo
that in the night, and nearly at high water, when the
whole range of thefe rocks is covered, the moft careful
mariner might run his (hip upon them, if nothing was
placed there by way of warning.
“ The many fatal accidents which fo frequently hap¬
pened, made it a thing very defirable to have a light¬
houfe built thereon, and that for many years before
any competent undertaker appeared. At length, how¬
ever, we learn, that in the year 1696 Mr Henry Win-
ftanley, of Littlebury in the county of Eflex, Gent.
iVas not only hardy enough to undertake it, but was
furnifhed with the neceflary powers to put it in execu¬
tion. This, it is fuppofed, was done in virtue of the
general powers lodged in the mafter, wardens, and aflif-
tants of the Trinity-houfe at Deptford Strond to ereft
fea marks, &c. by a ftatute of Queen Elizabeth, where¬
by they are impowered ‘ to erefl and fet up beacons,
marks, and figns for the fea, needful for avoiding the
dangers ; and to renew, continue, and maintain the
fame.’ But whether Mr Winftanley was a proprietor
or (barer of the undertaking under the Trinity-houfe, or
only the dire&ing engineer employed in the execution,
does not now appear.
This gentleman had diftinguifhed himfelf in a cer¬
tain branch of mechanics, the tendency of which is to
raife wonder and furprife. He had at his houfe at Lit¬
tlebury a fet of contrivances, fuch as the following :—
Being taken into one particular room of his houfe, and
there obferving an old flipper carelefslv lying on the
middle of the floor,—if, as was natural, you gave it a
kick with your foot, up ftarted a ghoft before you : If
you fat down in a certain chair, a couple of arms would
immediately clafp you in, fo as to render it impoflible
to difentangle yourfelf till your attendant fet you at li¬
berty : And it you fat down in a certain arbour by the
fide of a canal, you was forthwith fent out afloat to the
middle of the canal, from whence it was impoflible for
you to efeape til! the manager returned you to your
former place.—Whether thole things were (hewn to
lirangers at his houfe for money, or were done by way
of amulement to thofe that came to vifit the place, is
uncertain ; as Mr Winftanley is faid to have been a
man of fome property : but it is at leaft certain, that
he eftablifhed a place of public exhibition at Hyde
park corner, called Winftanley's ivater-u orks ; which
were (hewn at ftated times at one Kuiling each perfon.
The particulars of thofe water-works are not now
-known ; but, according to the fade of the times, we
muft naturally fuppofe a great variety of Jets d'eau.
&.c. (a).
“ The lighthoufe Mr Winftanley built was begun in
the year 1696, and was more than four years in build¬
ing ; not (lays the architect) for the greatnefs ef
the work, but for the difficulty and danger in getting
backwards and forwards to tiie place. The difficulties
were many, and the dangers not lefs. At length, in the
third year, all the work was raifed, which to the vane
was eighty feet. Being all finifhed, with the lantern,
and all the r.ooms that were in it, they ventured to
lodge there foon after midfummer, for the greater dif-
patch of the work. But the firft night the weather
came bad, and fo continued, that it was eleven days be¬
fore any boats could come near them again, and not
being acquainted with the height of the fea riling, they
were almoft all the time drowned with wet, and their
proviftons in as bad a condition, though they worked
night and dav to make fhelter for themfelves. In this
ftorm they loft fome of their materials, although they did
what they could to fave them; but the boat then return¬
ing, they all left the houfe to be refreftied on fhore ; and
as foon as the weather permitted, they returned again
and finiftied all, and put up the light on the 14th of
November 1698; which being fo late in the year, it
was three days before Chriftmas before they had relief
to get on ftiore again, and were almoft at the laft extre¬
mity for want of provifions ; but by good providence,
then two boats came with provifions, and the family that
was to take care of the light.
“ The fourth year,- finding in the winter the effeifts
the fea had upon the houfe, and burying the fantern at
times, although more than 60 feet high; Mr WinfiSnley
earlv in the fpringt ncompaffed the building with a. new
work of four feet thicknefs from the foundation, making
all folid near 20 feel: high ; and taking down the upper
part of the firfl building, and enlarging every part in its
proportion, he raifed it forty feet higher than it was at
firft ; and yet the fea, in time of ftornw, flew up in ap¬
pearance 100 feet (b) above the vane ; and at times
covered half the fide of the houfe and the lantern as if
they were under water.
“ On the finiftiing this building, it was generally faid,
that in the time of hard weather, fuch was the height
of
(a) It appears that the exhibition of thefe water-works continued fome years after the death of Mr Winftanley,
as they were exifting in the month of September 1709, being mentioned in the Tatler of that date.
(b) Mr Smeaton fays this is ftiort of its real height 50 feet.
£ £>.Y [ 585 ] E D Y
ot the fea?, that it was very pofiible for a fix-oared boat
to be lifted up upon a wave, and driven through the
open gallery of the lighthoufe.
f “ In November 1703, the fabric wanted feme repairs,
and Mr Winftanley went down to Plymouth to fuper-
jntend the performance of them. The opinion of the
common people was, that the building would not be of
long duration. Mr Winftanley, however, held different
fentiments. Being amongft his friends previous to his
going off with his workmen on account of thofe repara¬
tions the danger was intimated to him and it was faid,
that one day or other the lighthoufe would certainly be
overfeU To this he replied, “ He was fo well affured
of the ftrength of his building, he fhould only with to
be there in the greateft ftorm that ever blew under the
face of the heavens, that he might fee what effefl it
would have upon the ftruflure.”
“ In this wifh he was foon gratified j for while he
was there with his workmen and light-keepers, that
dreadful ftorm began which raged the moft violently
upon the 26th November 1703, in the night ; and of
all the accounts of the kind which hiftory furnifhes us
with, we have none that has exceeded this in Great
Britain, or was more injurious or extenfive in its deva-
ilation.
“ The next morning, when the ftorm was abated,
nothing of the lighlhoufe was to be feen. The follow¬
ing account of its deftrudlion was printed at the time,
by Daniel Defoe, in a book entitled T/ie Siorm”
“ The lofs of the lighthoufe called the Edyftone, at
Plymouth, is another article of which we never heard
any particulars, other than this, that at night it was
Handing, and in the morning all the upper part of the
gallery was blown down, and all the people in it perifh-
ed, and, by a particular misfortune, Mr Winftanley the
contriver of it ; a perfon whofe lofs is very much re¬
gretted by fuch as knew him, as a very ufeful man to
his country. The lofs of that lighthoufe is alfo a con-
fiderable damage, as it is very doubtful whether it will
ever be attempted again } and it was a great fecurity to
the failors, many a good fhip having been loft there
in former times.
“ It was very remarkable, that, as we are informed
at the fame time the lighthoufe aforefaid was blown
down, the model of it in Mr Winftanley’s houfe at
Littlebury in Elfex, above 200 miles from the light¬
houfe, fell down and was broke to pieces.
“ At Plymouth they felt a full proportion of the
ftorrn in its utmoft fury. The Edyftone has been al¬
ready mentioned } but it was a double lofs, in that the
lighthoufe had not been long down when the Winchel-
fea, a homeward-bound Virginia-man, was fplit upon
the rock where that building ftood, and moft of her
■men drowned.”
“ The great utility of Mr Winftanley’s lighthoufe had
been fufficiently evident to thofe for whofe ufe it was
erected 5 and the lofs of the Wmchelfea Virginia-man,
before mentioned, proved a powerful incentive to fuch
as were interefted, to exert themfelves in order for its
reftoration. It was not, however, begun fo foon as
might have been expefted. In fpring of the year 1706,
an aft of parliament paffed enabling the .Trinity houfe to
rebuild, but it was no earlier than July that it was be¬
gun. The undertaker was a Captain Lovell or Lovett,
who took it for the term of ninety-nine years, eom-
Vol. VII. Part II.
mencing from the day that a light ftiould be exhi- Edyftone.
bited. "
“ To enable him to fulfil his undertaking, Captain
Lovett engaged Mr John Kudyerd to be his engineer
or architect j and his choice, though Mr Rudyerd does
not appear to have been bred to any mechanical bufi-
nefs or fcientifical profeflion, was not ill made. He at
that time kept a linen-draper’s (hop upon Ludgate-hill.
His want of experience, however, was in a degree aflift-
ed by Mr Smith and Mr Notcutt, both (hip-wrights
from the king’s yard at Woolwich, who worked with
him the whole time he was building the lighthoufe.
“ It is not very material in what way this gentleman
became qualified for the execution of the work : it is
fufficient that he direfted the performance thereof in a
mafterly manner, and fo as perfedlly to anfwer the end
for which it was intended. He law the errors in the
former building, and avoided them : inftead of a poly¬
gon, he chofe a circle for the outline of his building,
and carried up the elevation in that form. His princi¬
pal ai n appears to have been ufe and fimplicity 5 and
indeed, in a building fo fituated, the former could
hardly be acquired in its full extent without the latter.
He feems to have adopted ideas the very reverfe of his
predeceflbr $ for all the unwieldy ornaments at top, the
open gallery, the projefling cranes, and other contri¬
vances, more for ornament and pleafure than ufe, Mr
Rudyerd laid totally afide : be law, that how beautiful
foever ornaments might be in themfelves, yet when they
are improperly applied, and out of place, they (hew a
bad talk, and betray ignorance of its firft principle,
judgment.
“The building was begun in July 1706, a light
was put up in it the 28th July 1708, and it was
completely finiftied in 1709. The quantity of ma¬
terials expended in the conltrudlion, was 500 tons of
(lone, 1200 tons of timber, 80 tons of iron, and 35
tons of lead 3 of trenails, ferews, and rack-bolts 2500
each.
“ Louis XIV. being at war with England during
the proceeding with this building, a French privateer
took the men at work upon it, together with their
tools, and carried them to France 3 and the captain
was in expeftation of a reward for the atchievement.
While the captives lay in prifon, the tranfa£lion reached
the ears of that monarch. He immediately ordered
them to be releafed, and the captors to be put in their
place ; declaring, that though he was at war with
England, he was not at war with mankind 3 he there¬
fore diredkd the men to be fent back to their work
with prefents 3 obferving, that the Edyftone lighthoufe
was fo fituated, as to be of equal fervice to all nations
having occafion to navigate the channel that divides
France from England.”
In the year 1715, Captain Lovett being dead, his
property in the Edyftone lighthoufe was fold before a
mafter in chancery to Robert Wetton, Efq. — Noyes,
Efq. of Gray’s Inn ; and Cheetham, Efq. an al¬
derman of Dublin, who divided the fame into eight
(hares. After a few years fome repairs were found
wanting; and in 1723, Mr Rudyerd being, we fuppofe,.
then dead, Mr John Holland, foreman (hip-wiight in
the dock-yard at Plymouth, became oyerfeer and di-
re£lor of the neceflary reparations 3 which office he a-
gain executed in 1734-
‘4 The
E D Y [ 586 1 E D Y
£dyftone. 44 The cataftrophe of this light-houfe took place on the
-y—■ ■' 2d Decembe-r 1755, when the light-keeper upon watch,
about two o’clock in the morning, went into the lantern
as ufual to fnuff the candles ; he found the whole in a
fmokeand upon opening the door of the lantern into
the balcony, a flame inftantly burft from the infide of
the cupola : he immediately endeavoured to alarm his
companions 5 but they being in bed, and afleep, were
not fo ready in coming to his affittance as the occafion
required. As there were always fome leather buckets
kept in the houfe, and a tub of water in the lantern,
he attempted to extinguilh the fire by throwing water
from the balcony upon the outfide cover of lead. By
this time his companions arriving, he encouraged them
to fetch up water with the buckets from the lea •, but
the height of the place, added to the confternation which
muft attend fuch an unexpefted event, rendered their
efforts fruitlefs. The flames gathered ftrength every
moment-, the poor man with every exertion, having the
water to throw four yards higher than himfell, found
himfelf unable to flop the progrefs of the conflagration,
and was obliged to defift.
“ As he was looking upward with the utmoft attention
to fee the effeft of the water thrown, a pofition which,
phyfiognomifts tell us, occafions the mouth naturally to
be a little open, a quantity of lead diffolved by the heat
of the flames fuddenly ruflied like a torrent from the
roof, and fell upon his head, face, and (boulders, and
burnt him in a dreadful manner : from this moment he
had a violent internal fenfation, and imagined that a
quantity of this lead had paffed his throat, and got into
his body. Under this violence of pain and anxiety, as
every attempt had proved ineffeftual, and the rage of
the flames was inereafing, it is not to be wondered that
the terror and difmay of the three men increafed in pro¬
portion j fo that they all found themfelves intimidated,
and glad to make their retreat from the immediate
fcene of horror into one of the rooms below. They
therefore defcended as the fire approached, with no
other profpeff than that of fecuring their immediate
fafety, with fcarcely any hopes of being faved from
deftruftion.
“ How foon the flames were feen on the (bore is
uncertain *, but early in the morning they were per¬
ceived by fome of the Cawfand fifliermen, and intelli¬
gence thereof given to Mr Edwards, of Rame, in that
neighbourhood, a gentleman of fome fortune, and more
humanity, who immediately fent out a fifhing-boat
and men to the relief of the diftreffed obje&s in the
light-houfe (c).
“ The boat and men got thither about ten o’clock,
after the fire had been burning full eight hours; in which
time the three light-keepers were not only driven from
all the rooms and the ftaircafe, but, to avoid the falling
of the timber and red-hot bolts, &c. upon them, they
were found fitting in the hole or cave on the eafl fide of
the rock under the iron ladder, almofl. in a ftate of flu-
pefaftion ; it being then low water.
“ With much difficulty they were taken off; when
finding it impoflible to do any further fervice, they
haftened to Plymouth. No fooner were they fet on
(hore, than one of the men ran away, and was never n
afterwards heard of. This circumffance, though itL y ^
might lead to fufpicions unfavourable to the man, Mr
Smeaton is of opinion ought not to weigh any thing
again ft him, as he fuppofes it to have arifen from
a panic which fometimes feizes weak minds, and
prevents their a£ling agreeable to the dnStates of right
reafon.
“ It was not long before the dreadful news arrived at
Plymouth. Alderman Tolcher and his fon immediately
went to fea, but found it impoflible to do any thing with
effedt. Admiral Well alfo, who then lay in Plymouth
found, fent a (loop properly armed, with a boat and
an engine therein, which alfb carried out Mr Jeffupthe
furveyor. This veffel arrived early in the day. Many
attempts were made to play the engine, but the agita¬
tion of the fea prevented it from being employed with
fuccefs. On the fucceeding days the fire (till continued,
and about the 7th the dellrudtion of the whole was
completed.
“ The man who has been mentioned already was
named Henry Hall, of Stonehoufe, near Plymouth, and
though aged 94 years, being of a good conftitution, was
remarkably adtive, confidering bis time of life. He in¬
variably told the furgeon who attended him, Mr Spry
(now Dr Spry) of Plymouth, that if he would do any
thing effedlual to his recovery, he muft relieve his fto-
mach from the lead which he was fure was within him J
and this he not only told Dr Spry, but all thofe about
him, though in a very hoarfe voice, and the fame afler-
tion he made to Mr Jtffop.— The reality of the afler-
tion feemed, however, then incredible to Dr Spry, who
could fcarcely fuppofe it poffible than any human being
could exift after receiving melted lead into theftomach;
much lefs that he fliould afterwards be able to bear
towing through the fea from the rock, and alfo the fa¬
tigue and inconvenience from the length of time he was
in getting on fhore before any remedies could be applied.
The man, however, did not (hew any (ymptoms ot be¬
ing much worfe or better until the fixth day after the
accident, when he was thought to mend : he conftant-
ly took his medicines, and fwallowed many things
both liquid and folid, till the tenth or eleventh day; af¬
ter which he fuddenly grew worfe; and on the twelfth,
being feized with cold fweats and fpafms, he foon after
expired.
“ His body was opened by Dr Spry, and in the flomach
was found a folid piece of lead of a flat oval form, which
weighed 7 ounces and 5 drachms. So extraordinary
a circumftance appearing to deferve the notice of the
philofophical world, an account of it was fent to the Royal
Society, and printed in the 49th volume of their I ranf-
aftions, p. 477.
“ The light-houfe being thus demolifhed, the proprie¬
tors immediately turned their thoughts to the rebuild¬
ing of it. They bad in it a term of near half a cen¬
tury, but fome (hares being fettled by the marriage ar¬
ticles of one of the parties, fume impediments arofe which
could not be overcome without the aid of parliament,
which was foon obtained. To one of the partners, Ro¬
bert Weflon, Efij. the management of the bufinefs was
committed*
(c) This benevolent gentleman caught a cold on this occafion which coft ium his life.
’(tone.
E D Y C 587 ] ED
committed, and he thought it requifite to apply to the immediately began his operations
earl of Macclesfield, then prefident of the Royal So¬
ciety, to recommend a proper perfon to fuperintend the
work. On communicating the objeft of his vifit, Lord
Macclesfield told him, that there was one of the Royal
Society whom he would venture to recommend to the
bufmefs ; yet that the molt material part of what he
knew of him was, his having within the compafs of the
laft feven years recommended himfelt to the Society by
the communication of feveral mechanical inventions and
improvements ; and though he had at firft made it his
bufinefs to execute things in the inltrument way (with¬
out having been bred to the trade), yet on account of
the merit of his performances, he had been chofen a
member of the Society, and that for about three years
paft, having found the bufinefs of a philofophical inttru-
ment-maker not likely to afford an adequate recom-
penfe, he had wholly applied himfelf to fuch branches
of mechanics as were wanted by the proprietors 5 that
he was then fomewhere in the north of England, exe¬
cuting a work : and that as he had always fatisfied his
employers, he would not be likely to undertake what
he could not perform.
“ The perfon thus defcribed was Mr Smeaton, who
was written to by Mr Benjamin Wilfon the painter,
laconically informing him, that he was the perfon fixed
upon to rebuild the Edyftone lighthoufe. But this in¬
timation conveying to his mind no more than a mere
notice that he might, in common with others, deliver
in propofals to repair it, not knowing then that it was
entirely deftroyed, it afforded but little fatisfadfion,
and he returned only a cool anfwer. Mr ^Adillon’s re¬
ply was ftill more laconic : That the demolition was to¬
tal, and that as Nathan faid unto David, ‘ Thou art
the man.’
“ Mr Smeaton immediately diverted himfelf of his
engagements in the north, and arrived in London the
23d of February 1756, and had an interview next day
with the principal proprietor. The mode of rebuilding
then became the fubjedt of their deliberations, which
at length ended in a determination to rebuild it with
ftone.
“ On the 5th of April Mr Smeaton firft fet his foot
on the Edyftone rock. He immediately began to take
his meafures for proceeding on the work. He made all
the neceffary inquiries on the fpot, and in the neigh¬
bourhood. He confidered the nature and quality of the
ftone proper to be ufed, and from whence it might be
obtained at the beft and cheapeft rates. He vifited the
quarries at Beare in Devonfliire, and the ifle of Port¬
land, and from the latter of thefe places he at length
determined to be fupplied with his materials,
“ Having proceeded thus far, he returned to London,
and had a meeting with the proprietors, who, for rea-
fons highly honourable to them, confirmed their deter¬
mination to rebuild with ftone. He accordingly pre¬
pared his models and defigns, which were approved
by his employers, and diredfed to be exhibited to
the lords of the Admiralty, and the mafters of the S ri-
nity houfe. To the former they were {hewn ; but
the latter having fixed their time for viewing them
at fo diftant a day as to hazard the progrefs of the work,
he determined to fet off for Plymouth without their in-
fpedlion.
“ He arrived at Plymouth the 23d of July 1756, and
Y
He appointed his
aftiftants, hired his men, fettled their wages, and
drew up rules for their condudL He alfo hired a piece
of ground for a work-yard. On the 3d of Auguft they
went off to the rock, and continued to work as long as
the weather would permit. JLhe next winter Mr
Smeaton determined to continue at Plymouth, to go
through a courfe of experiments on cements. On the 3d
of June 1757, the works were refumed, and on the 12th
the firft ftone was fixed. From this time the eredfion
proceeded with regularity and difpatch, and with no
other interruptions than what might be expelled from
the nature of the work, until the pth of Oftober I7J9>
when, after innumerable difficulties and dangers, a hap¬
py period was put to the undertaking, without the lofs
of life or limb to any one concerned in it, or accident
by which the work could be faid to be materially re¬
tarded.
“It now remained only to wait for a ftorm to try
the durability of the building. 1 he hard weather
of 1759, 1760, and 1761, appeared to make no im-
preffion. The year 1762 was ufhered in by a tempeit
of the firft magnitude, the rage of which was fo great,
that one of thofe who had been ufed to predict its
downfal was heard to fay, ‘ If the Edyftone lighthoufe
is now Handing, it will ftand to the day of judgment ?
and in reality, from this time its exiftence has been fo
entirely laid out of men’s minds, that whatever ftorms
have happened fince, no inquiry has ever been made
concerning it. So confident was a very intelligent
friend of Mr Smeaton’s of its durability, that he wrote
to him, that he might for ever rid himfelf of any uneafy
thought of the houfe as to its danger from wind and
fea.
“ The lighthoufe is attended by three men, who re¬
ceive 25I. a-year each, with an occaflonal abfence in
fummer. Formerly there were only two, who watched
alternately four hours and four hours j but one being
taken ill, and dying, the neceflity of an additional hand
became apparent. In this dilemma, the living man
found himfelf in an awkward fituation. Being appre-
henfive if he tumbled the dead body into the fea, which
was the only way in his power to difpofe of it, he might
be charged with murder, he was induced for fome time
to let the dead body lie, in hopes that the boat might
be able to land, and relieve him from the diftrefs he
was in. By degrees the body became fo offenfive,
that it was not in his power to get quit of it without
help j for it was near a month before the attending
boat could effe£t a landing; and then it was not with¬
out the greateft difficulty that it could be done, when
they did land. To fuch a degree was the whole build¬
ing filled with the flench of the corpfe, that it was all
they could do to get the dead body difpofed of and
thrown into the fea, and it was fome time after that be¬
fore the rooms could be freed from the noifome ftench
that was left.
“ It is faid, that while two light-keepers only were
employed, on fome difguft they forbore to fpeak to
each other. A perfon obferving to one of them how
happy they might live in their ftate of retirement,
‘ Yes,’ fays the man, ‘ very comfortably, if we could
have the ufe of our tongues ; but it is now a full month
fince my partner and I have fpoke to each other.’
“ To thefe anecdotes we fhall add one more, and con-
4 E 2 elude.
Eilyttan'*
.. 11 j <
E F F T 583 ] E F F
Edyftone elude. A fhoemaker was carrying out to the light-
11 houfe in order to be light-keeper. In their way, fays
the fkipper to him, ‘ How happens it, friend Jacob,
^ that you fliould choofe to go out to be a light-keeper,
when you can on fhore (as I am told) earn half-a-crown
and three fhillings a day in making leathern hofe
(leathern pipes fo called) ; whereas the light-keeper’s
lalary is but 25I. a-year, which is fcarce ten (hillings a-
week.’ Says the (hoemaker, ‘ I go to be a light-
keeper, becaufe I don’t like confinement.’ After this
anfwer had produced its {hare of merriment, he at laft
explained himfelf by faying, that he did not like to be
confined to work.
“ The whole time between the firfl ftroke upon the
rock and leaving the lighthoufe complete, was three
years nine weeks and three days j from the 5th of De¬
cember 1755, to exhibiting the light 06iober 1759,
was three years ten months and fixteen days j and
the whole time of working on the rock 111 days 10
hours (d).”
EEL. See Mur^ena, Ichthyology Index.
EEL-Fi/hing. See Bobbing and Sniggling.
The filver eel may be catched with feveral forts of
baits, as powdered beef, garden worms, minnows, hens
guts, fifli garbage, &c. The mod proper time for tak¬
ing them is in the night, faftening your line to the bank
fides, with your laying hook in the water : or a line
may be thrown with good (tore of hooks, baited and
plumbed, with a float to difeover where the line lies,
that they may be taken up in the morning.
Microfcopic EELS. See ANIMALCULE, N° 8.
Eels in vinegar, are fimilar to thofe in four pafte.
The tafte of vinegar was formerly thought to be occa-
fioned by the biting of thefe little animals, but that
opinion has been long juftly exploded. Mentzelius
fays, he has obferved the a&ual transformation of thefe
little creatures into flies.
F.EL Spear, a forked inftrument with three or four
jagged teeth, ufed for catching eels : that with the four
teeth is beft, which they (trike into the mud at the bot¬
tom of the river, and if it (trike againlt any eels it never
fails to bring them up.
EFFARE', or Effraye', in Heraldry, a term ap¬
plied to a bealt rearing on its hind legs, as if it were
frighted or provoked.
EFFECT, in a general fenfe, is that which refults
from, or is produced by, any caufe. See Cause.
EFFEMINATE, womanifli, unmanly, voluptuous.
Effeminate (effeminati), according to the vulgate,
are mentioned in feveral places of feripture. The word
is there ufed to fignify fuch as were confecrated to fome
profane god, and proflituted themfelves in honour of
him. The Hebrew word hadejh, tranflated effeminatus,
properly fignifies confecrated, and hence was attributed
to thofe of either fex, who publicly proftituted them¬
felves in honour of Baal and Aflarte. IVIofes exprefsly
forbids thefe irregularities among the Ifraelites ; but the
hiftory of the Jews (hows, that they were notwithftand-
ing frequently pratfifed. Levit. xxiii. 18.
EFFEND1, in the J urkifli language, fignifies ma-
Jler : and accordingly is a title very exienfively applied ;
as to the mufti and emirs, to the priells of mofques, to
men of learning, and of the law. The grand chancellor
of the empire is called reis ejfendi.
EFFERVESCENCE, an intefline motion excited
betwixt the parts of two bodies of different natures,
when they reciprocally d:ffolve each other. Eftervef-
cences are commonly attended with bubbles, vapours,
fmall jets of the liquid, and a hiding noife j and thefe
phenomena are occafioned by the air which at that time
difengages itfelf. Sometimes alfo they are accompanied
with a great degree of heat, from the decompofition of
fome (ubflances and the formation of new compounds.
Formerly the word fermentation was alfo applied to
effervefeenees ; but now that word is confined to the
motion naturally excited in animal and vegetable mat¬
ters, and from which new combinations among their
principles take place.
EFFIGY, the portrait, figure, or exaiR reprefenta-
tion of a perfon.
Effigy, is alfo ufed for the print or impreflion of a
coin, reprefenting the prince’s head who (truck it.
EffigT, to execute or degrade in, denotes the execu¬
tion or degradation of a condemned contumacious cri¬
minal, who cannot be apprehended or feized. In
France, they hang a piflure on a gallon’s or gibbet,
wherein is reprefented the criminal, with the quality or
manner of the punifliment : at the bottom is written
the fentence of condemnation. Such perfons as are fenr-
tenced to death are executed in effigy.
EFFLORESCENCE, among phyficians, the fame
with exanthema. See Exanthema,
Efflorescence, in denotes the formation
of a kind of mealy powder on the furface of certain
bodies. Efflorefcence is occafioned either by decompo¬
fition or drying. The efflorefcence which happens to
cobalt and martial pyrites is of the firft ; and that ob¬
ferved on the cryftals of foda, Glauber’s (alt, &c. of the
latter kind. An efflorefcence is fometimes alio a fpecies
of cryflallization ; fuch as the beautiful vegetations
which (hoot up from different faline fubflances. See
( ' p VQ'T ATT 17 A'TTrvXT
EFFLORESCENT!A, in Botany, (from effiorefco
to bloom) $ the precife time of the year and month in
which every plant fliows its firft flowers.
Some plants flower twice a-year, as is common be¬
tween the tropics ; others oftener, as the monthly rufe.
The former are called by botaniffs biferce ; the latter,
tnultiferce.
The time of flowering is determined by the degree of
heat which each fpecies requires. Mezereon and fnow-
drop produce their flowers in February ; primrofe, in
the beginning of March •, the greater number of plants,
during the month of May 5 corn, and other grain, in
the beginning of June ; the vine, in the middle of the
fame month ; feveral compound flowers, in the months
of July and Auguft *, laftly, meadow-faffron flowers in
the month of Oftober, and announces the fpeedy ap¬
proach of winter.
Grafs of Parnaffus always flowers about the time of
cutting
(d) I his account is extracted from a Narrative of the Building, and a Defcription of the Conftruftion of the
j*. ylfone Lighthoufe with (tone. By John Smeaton, Civil Engineer, F. R. S.
E G E [ 589 ] EGG
i j. cutting down the hay; and in Sweden, the different
mia fpecies of thiftle, mountain lettuce, fuccory, and bal-
II fam, feldom flower till after the fummer folltice : the
!eria' countrymen even know, as by a kalendar, that the fol-
jj;ce is paft when thefe plants begin to produce their
dowers*
The temperature of the feafons has a great influ¬
ence both in accelerating and retarding the flowering
of plants. All plants are earlier in warm countries :
hence fuch as are cultivated out of their native foil,
never flower till the heat of the climate, or fituation in¬
to which they are removed, is equal to that under the
influence of which they produced flowers in their own
country. For this reafon, all exotics from warm cli¬
mates are later in this country than many plants which
it naturally produces.
In general, we may obferve, that the plants of the
coldefl countries, and thofe produced on the mountains
in all climates, being of equal temperature, flower
about the fame time, viz. during our fpring in Eu-
rope.
Plants that grow betwixt the tropics, and thofe of
temperate climates, flower during our fummer.
Plants of temperate climates, fituated under the fame
parallel of latitude with certain parts of Europe, but
removed much farther to the weft, fuch as Canada, Vir¬
ginia, and Mifliflippi, do not produce flowers till au¬
tumn.
Plants of temperate climates in the oppofite hemi-
fphere to Europe, flower during our winter, which is
the fummer of thefe regions.
Linnaeus and Adanfon have given a fketch of the
different times in which plants flower at Upfal and
Paris.
EFFLUVIUM, in 'Physiology, a term much ufed by
pbilofophers and phyficians, to exprefs the minute par¬
ticles which exhale from moft, if not all, terreftrial bo¬
dies, in form of fenfible vapours.
EFFRON FES, in church hiftory, a feci of here¬
tics, in 1534, who fcraped their forehead with a knife
till it bled, and then poured oil into the wound. This
ceremony ferved them inftead of baptilm. I hey are
likewife faid to have denied the divinity of the Holy
Spirit.
EFFUSION, the pouring out of any liquid thing
with fome degree of force. In the ancient heathen fa-
crifices there were divers effufions of wine and other li¬
quors, called libations.
Effusion, or Fusion, in Aflronomy, denotes that
part of the fign Aquarius, reprefented on celeftial
globes and planifpheres, by the water iffuing out of the
urn of the water-bearer.
EFT, or Water Lizard. See Lacerta, Erpe-
TOLOGY Index.
EGERIA, or AEgeria, a nymph held in great
veneration by the Romans. She was courted by Nu-
ma Pompilius ; and according to Ovid, (he became his
wife. This prince frequently vifited her ; and that he
might introduce his laws and new regulations into the
ftate, he folemnlv declared before the Roman people,
that they were previouflv fanflified and approved by
the nymph Egeria. Ovid fays, that Egeria was fo dif-
eonfolate at the death of Numa, that the melted into
tears, and was changed into a fountain by Diana. She
is reckoned by many as a goddefs who prefided over the
pregnancy of women 3 and fome maintain that fhe is
the fame as Lucina.
EGG, in Physiology, a body formed in certain fe¬
males, in which is contained an embryo or foetus of
the fame fpecies, under a cortical furface or ftiell. The
exterior part of an egg is a Iheli ; which in a hen, for
inftance, is a white, thin, and triable cortex, including
all the other parts. The thell becomes more brittle by
being expofed to a dry heat. It is lined everywhere
with a very thin but a pretty tough membrane, which
dividing at, or very near the obtufe end of the egg,
forms a fmall bag, where only air is contained. In new
laid eggs this follicle appears very little, but becomes
larger when the egg is kept.
Within this are contained the albumen or white, and
thevitellus or yolk ; each of which have their different
virtues.
The albumen is a cold, vifcous, white liquor in the
egg, different in confiftence in its different parts. It is
obferved, that there are two diftinft albumens, each
of which is enclofed in its proper membrane. Of thefe
one is very thin and liquid : the other is more denfe
and vilcous, and of a fome what whiter colour ; but,
in old and tlale eggs, after fome days incubation, in¬
clining to a yellow. As this fecond albumen covers
the yolk on all lides, fo it is itfelf furrounded by the
other external liquid. The albumen of a fecundated
egg is as fweet and free from corruption, during all
the time of incubation, as it is in new laid eggs ; as is
alfo the vitellus. As the eggs of hens confift of
two liquors feparated one from another, and diifin-
guilhed by two branches of umbilical veins, one of
which goes to the vitellus, and the other to the albu¬
men ; fo it is very probable that they are of different
natures, and confequently appointed for different pur-
pofes.
When the vitellus grows warm with incubation, it
becomes more humid, and like melting wax or fat;
whence it takes up more fpace. For as the foetus increaf-
es, the albumen infenfibly waftes away and condenfes :
the vitellus, on the contrary, feems to lofe little or no¬
thing of its bulk when the foetus is perfe&ed, and only
appears more liquid and humid when the abdomen of
the foetus begins to be formed.
The chick in the egg is firft nourilhed by the albu¬
men : and when this is confumed, by the vitellus, as
with milk. If we compare the chalazae to the extre¬
mities of an axis palling through the vitellu-, which is
of a fpherical form, this iphere will be compofed of
two unequal portions, its axis not palling through its
centre ; confequently, lince it is heavier than the white,
its fmaller portion mull always be uppermolf in all po-
fitions of the egg.
The yellowifh white round fpot, called cicatricu/a,
is placed on the middle of the fmaller portion of the
yolk ; and therefore, from what has been faid in the laft
paragraph, mull always appear on the fuperior part of
the vitellus.
Not long before the exclufion of the chick, the
whole yolk is taken into its abdomen ; and the (hell,
at the obtufe end of the egg, frequently appears crack¬
ed fome time before the exclufion of the chick. The
chick is fometimes obferved to perforate the thdl with
Egeria,
£gg-
-—v - >J
II
Egret.
E G It [ 590
its beak. After exclufion, the yolk is gradually waft¬
ed, being conveyed into the fmall guts by a
1
E G Y
fmall
duft.
Eggs differ very much according to the birds that
lay them, as to their colour, form, bignefs, age, and
the different way of drefting them : thofe moft ufed
in food are hens eggs j of which, fuch as are new laid
are beft.
As to the prefervation of eggs, it is obferved that
the egg is always quite full when it is firft laid by the
hen *, but from that time it gradually becomes lefs and
lefs fo, to its decay : and however compact and clofe
its (hell may appear, it is neverthelefs perforated with
a multitude of fmall holes, though too minute for the
difcernment of our eyes, the effe£V of which is a daily
decreafe of matter within the egg, from the time of its
being laid •, and the perfpiration is much quicker in hot
weather than in cold.
To preferve the egg frefti, there needs no more than
to preferve it full, and flop its tranfpiration *, the me¬
thod of doing which is, by flopping up thofe pores with
matter which is not foluble in watery fluids: and on
this principle it is, that all kinds of varnifh, prepared
with fpirit of wine, will preferve eggs frefli for a long
time, if they are carefully rubbed all over the ftiell:
tallow, or mutton fat, is alfo good for this purpofe •, for
fuch as are rubbed over with this, will keep as long as
thofe coated over with varnifh.
Artificial Method of Hatching EGGS. See HATCH¬
ING.
EGINA. See ^Egina.
EGINHART, fecretary to the emperor Charles the
Great, was a German. He is the moft ancient hifto-
rian of that nation, and wrote very eloquently for a
EGYPT, an extenfive country of Africa, lying be¬
tween 30° and 36° of eaft longitude, and between 210 '
and 310 of north latitude. It is bounded by the Medi¬
terranean on the north ; by the Red fea and ifthmus of
Egyi»t.
Suez, which divide it from Arabia, on the eaft ; by
man of the pth century. It is faid, that he infinuated
himfelf fo well into the favour of Imma, daughter to
Charles the Great, that he obtained from her whatever
he defired. Charles the Great, having found out the
intrigue, did not do as Auguftus, who is thought to
have banifhed Ovid, becaufe he believed him to be too
much favoured by Julia j for he married the two lovers
together, and gave them a fine eftate in land.
EGLANTINE. See Rosa, Botany Index.
EGLON, a king of the Moabites, who oppreffed
the Ifraelites for l8 years (Judges iii. 12—14.) Cal-
met confounds this fervitude of the Hebrews with that
under Chufan-rifhathaim, making it to fubfift only eight
years, from the year of the world 2591 to 2599;
whereas this fervitude under Eglon lafted 18 years, and
commenced in the year of the world 2661, and 62
years after they had been delivered by Othneil from
the fubje£Hon of Chufan-rifliathairu.
EGRA, a town of Bohemia, formerly imperial, but
now fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria. It contains a
great number of able artificers, and is famous for its
mineral waters. Wadenftein, the emperor’s general,
was affaflinated here in 1634. The French became
matters of this town in 1741; but afterwards being
blocked up, they were forced to capitulate on Septem¬
ber 7th 1743. It is looked upon as a town of the
greateft confequence in Bohemia, except Prague. It is
feated on a river of the fame name, in E. Long. 12.
30. N. Lat. 50. 21.
EGRET, in Ornithology, a fpecies of ardea. See
Ardea, Ornithology Index.
2
Abyflinia or Ethiopia, on the fouth ; and by the de-
ferts of Barca and Nubia, on the weft ; being 600 miles
in length from north to fouth, and from 100 to 200
in breadth from eaft to weft. t
As a nation, the Egyptians may with juftice lay Different
claim to as high antiquity as any in the world. Thenames«
country was moft probably peopled by Mizraim the
fun of Ham and grandfon of Noah. By its ancient
inhabitants it was called Chemia, and is ftill called
Chemi in the language of the Copts or native Egyp¬
tians ; and this name it is fuppofed to have received
from Ham the fon of Noah. In fcripture, we find it
moft generally named Mifraim ; though in the PfalmS
it is ftyled the land of Ham.—To us it is beft known
by the name Egypt, the etymology of which is more
uncertain.—Some derive it from JEgyptus, a fuppofed
king of the country ; others fay it fignifies no more
than “ the land of the Copts j4ia in Greek figni-
fying a country, and JEcoptos being eafily foftened into
JEgypti/s.—The moft probable opinion, however, feems
to be, that it received its name from the blacknefs of
its foil, and the dark colour both of its river and inha¬
bitants : for fuch a blackilh colour is by the Greeks
called crgyptios, from gyps, and cegyps “ a vulture 5” and
by the Latins fubvulturius. For the fame reafon, other
names of a fimilar import have been given to this coun¬
try by the Greeks •, fuch as Aeria and Melambolus:
the river itfelf was called Melo or Me/as ; by the He¬
brews, Shihor ; and by the Ethiopians, Siris; all of
which fignify “ black.”
Ancient Egvpt is by fome divided into two parts,
the Upper and Lower Egypt : bv others into three, the
Upper Egypt, properly fo called, or Thebais; the Middle
Egypt, or Heptanomes ; and the Lower Egypt, the beft
part of which was the Delta, or that fpace encompaf-
fed by the branches of the Nile. See THEBAIS, &c.
The Egyptians, like the Chinefe, pretend to an ex-
ceffive antiquity, pretending to have records for ten,
twenty, or even fifty thoufand years. Thus their hi-
ftory i* fo much involved in obfcurity and fable, that
for many ages it mu ft be paffed over in filence,—The
firft mortal king whom the Egyptians own to have
reigned in that country, was Menes or Alenas. At
what time he reigned, it would be to very little pur¬
pofe to inquire. He had been preceded, however, by
a fet of immortals, who it feems left him the kingdom
in a very bad fituation : for the whole country, except
Thebais, was a morafs $ the people alio were entirely
deftitute of religion, and every kind of knowledge
which could render their life comfortable and happy.
Menes diverted the courfe of the Nile, which before
that time had waftied the foot of a fandv mountain
near the borders of Libya<; built the city of Memphis,
inftru£led his fubje6fs, and did other things of a fimilar
kind which are ufually attributed to the founders of
kingdoms. 2
.From the time of Menes, the Egyptian chronology Invaded i
is filled with a lift of 330 kings, who reigned 1400
the ihep'
years, but did nothing worthy of notice.—The firft
diftinft piece of hiftory we find concerning Egypt, is
the
herds.
E G Y [ 59i 1 E G Y
the irruption of the Shepherds, by whom the country
was fubdued ; but whether this revolution happened
during the vaft interval of indolence above mentioned,
or before or after, cannot be known. The affair is
thus related by Manetho. It happened, in the reign
of Timaus king of Egypt, that God being difpleafed
with the Egyptians, they fuffered a great revolution :
for a multitude of men, ignoble in their race, took
courage, and, pouring from the eaft into Egypt, made
war with the inhabitants •, who fubmitted to them with¬
out refiftance. The fhepherds, however, behaved with
the greateft cruelty j burnt the cities, threw down the
temples of the gods } and put to death the inhabitants,
carrying the women and children into captivity. This
people came from Arabia, and were called Hycfos, or
king-fhepherds. They held Egypt in fubjeftion for 259
years; at the end of which period, they were obliged
by a king of Upper Egypt, named Amofis, or Theth-
imfis, to leave the country. This prince’s father had,
it feems, gained great advantages over them, and fhut
them up in a place called Aborts, or Avaris, contain¬
ing 10,000 acres of land. Here they were clofely be-
fieged by Amofis, with an army of 400,000 men ; but
at laft the king, finding himfelf unable to reduce them
by force, propofed an agreement, which was readily
accepted. In confequence of this agreement, the fliep-
herds withdrew from Egypt with their families, to the
number of 240,000 ; and, taking the way of the de-
fert,entered Syria: but fearing the Affyrians, who were
then very powerful, and matters of Afia, they enter¬
ed the land of Judaea ; and built there a city capable
of holding fo great a multitude, and called it Jeru-
falem.
According to Mr Bruce, the fhepherds who invaded
Egypt were no other than the inhabitants of Barabra.
They were, he fays, carriers to the Cufhites who lived
farther to the fouth. The latter had built the many
flately temples in Thebes and other cities of Egypt ;
though, according to him, they had no dwelling places
but holes or caves in the rocks. Being a commercial
people, they remained at home collefling and prepa¬
ring their articles, which were difperfed by thu Bara-
bers or fhepherds already mentioned. Thefe, from the
nature of their employment, lived in moveable habi¬
tations, as the Tartars do at this day. By the He¬
brews, he tells us, they were called phut, h\s\- fiepherds
by every other people ; and from the name bomber, the
word Barabra 'is derived. By their employment, which
was the difperfing the Arabian and African goods all
over the continent, they had become a gr^at and
powerful people ; and from their oppofite difpofitions
and manners, became verv frequently enemies to the
Egyptians. To one Salatis our author afcribes the
deflruflion of Thebes in Upper Egypt, fo much cele¬
brated by Homer for its magnificence. But this cer¬
tainly cannot be the cafe ; for H >mer wrote long af¬
ter the time of Jofeph : and we find that even then
the Egyptians had the (hepherds in abhorrence, in all
probability becaufe thev had been grievoufiv oppreflfed
by them. Mr B^uce counts three invafions of thefe
people ; the firfl that of Salatis already mentioned, who
overthrew the firft dynafly of Egyptian kings from Me-
nes, and deftroyed Thebes : the fecond was that of
Sabacco or So; for according to him this was not
the name of a Angle prince, but of a people, and ligni-
fies Jhepherdsi and the third, after the building of Mem- Egypt,
phis, where 240,000 of them were befieged as above —v—
mentioned. But accounts of this kind *f« evidently
inconliftent in the higheft degree, ; for how is it pof-
fible that the third invalion, antecedent to the building
of Jerufalem, could be port trior to the fecund, if the
latter happened only in the days of Heztkiah ?
In thefe early ages, however, it would feem that the
kingdom of Egypt had been very powerful and its do¬
minion very widely extended ; fince we find it faid, that
the Ba&rians revolted from Ofymandyas, another E-
gyptian king of very high antiquity, and of whofe
wealth the moft marvellous accounts are given.
After an unknown interval of time from this mo¬
narch, reigned Sefoftris. He was the firft great war¬
rior whofe conquefts are recorded with any degree of
diftin&nefs. In what age of the world he lived, is
uncertain. Some chronologers, among whom is Sir
Ifaac Newton, are of opinion, that he is the Sefac
or Shifhak, who took Jerufalem in the reign of Re-
hoboam the fon of Solomon. Others, however, place
him much earlier; and Mr Whifton will have him
to be the Pharaoh who refufed to part with the If-
raelites, and was at laft drowned in the Red fea. Mr
Bryant endeavours to prove that no fuch perfon ever
exilted ; but that in his hiftory, as well as that of many
ancient heroes, we have an abridgement of that of the
Cufhites or Babylonians, who fpread themfelves over
great part of the then known world, and everywhere
brought the people in fubjeflion to them. His reign
is reckoned the raoft extraordinary part of the Egyp¬
tian hiftory ; and the following feems to be the leaft
fabulous account that can be got of it. The father of
Sefoftris was told in a dream, by the god Vulcan, that
his fon, who was then newly born, or perhaps ftill
unborn, fhould be lord of the whole earth. His fa¬
ther, upon the credit of this vifion, got together all
the males in the land of Egypt that were born on the
fame day with Sefofiris; appointed nurfes and pro¬
per perfons to take care of them, and had them treat¬
ed like his own child ; being perluaded that they who
had been the conltant companions of his youth would
prove the moft faithful minirters and fiddlers. As
they grew up, they were inured to laborious exercifes ;
and, in particular, were never permitted to tafte any
food till they had performed a courfe of 180 furlongs,
upwards of 22 of our miles. When the old king ima¬
gined they were fufficiently educated in the martial
way he defigned them to follow, they were fent by way
of trial of their abilities againft the Arabians. In this
expedition Sefoftris proved fuccefsful, and in the end
fubdued that people who had never before been con¬
quered. He was fent to the we ft ward, and conquered
the greateft part of Africa ; nor could he be flopped
in his career till lie arrived at the Atlantic ocean.
Whilft he was on this expedition, his father died j
and then Sefoftris refolved to fulfil the prediifJion of
Vulcan, by a&ually conquering the whole world. As
he knew that this muft take- up a long time, he pre¬
pared for his journey in the beft manner portable. The
kingdom he divided into 56 provinces, and endeavour¬
ed to fecure the affeflions of the people by gifts both
of money and land. He forgave all who had been
guilty c offences, and difeharged the debts of all
his foldiers. He then conftituted his brother Armak
th®
j
E G Y [ 592 j E G Y
Egypt, the fupreme regent; but forbade him to ufe the diadem,
y—aiicj commanded him to offer no injury to the queen or
her children, and to abflain from the royal concubines.
His army confuted of 600,000 foot, 24,000 horfe, and
27 ,000 chariots. fUfides thefe land forces, he had at
fea two mighty fleets *, one, according to Diodorus, of
400 fail. Of thefe fleets, one was defigned to make
conquefls in the weft, and the other in the eaft ", and
therefore the one was built on the Mediterranean, and
the other on the Red fea. The firft of thefe conquered
Cyprus, the coaft of Phoenicia, and feveral of the
iflands called Cyclades ; the other conquered all the
coafts of the Red fca ; but its progrefs was flopped by
fhoals and difficult places which the navigators could not
pafs, fo that he feems not to have made many conquefts
by fea.
With the land forces Sefoftris marched againft the
Ethiopians and Troglodites j whom he overcame, and
obliged them to pay him a tribute of gold, ebony, and
ivory. From thence he proceeded as far as the pro¬
montory of Dira, which lay near the ftraits of Babel-
mandel, where he fet up a pillar with an infcription in
facred charadters. He then marched on to the coun¬
try where cinnamon grows, or at leaft to fome country
where cinnamon at that time was brought, probably
fome place in India; and here he in like manner fet
up pillars, which were to be feen for many ages after.
As to his farther conquefts, it is agreed by almoft all
authors of antiquity, that he overran and pillaged the
whole continent of Afia, and fome part of Europe.
He crofled the Ganges, and eredled pillars on its
banks ; and from thence he is faid to have marched
eaft ward to the very extremity of the Afiatic conti¬
nent. Returning from thence, he invaded the Scy¬
thians and Thracians \ but all authors do not agree
that he conquered them. Some even affirm, that he
was overthrown by them with great flaughter, and ob¬
liged to abandon a great part of his booty and mili¬
tary ftores. But whether he had good or bad fuc-
cefs in thefe parts, it is a common opinion that he
fettled a colony in Colchis. Herodotus, however, who
gives the moft particular account of the conquefts of
this monarch, does not fay whether the colony was de-
fignedly planted by Sefoftris : or whether part of his
army loitered behind the reft, and took up their refi-
dence in that region. From his own knowledge, he af-
ferts, that the inhabitants of that country were undoubt¬
edly of Egyptian defcent. This was evident from the
perfonal refemblance they bore to the Egyptians, who
were fvvarthy complexioned and frizzle haired; but more
efpecially from the conformity of their cuftoms, par¬
ticularly circumcifion. '
The utmoft boundary of this mighty monarch’s con¬
quefts, however, was in the country of Thrace ; for
beyond this country his pillars were nowhere to be
feen. Thefe pillars he was accuftomed to fet up in
every country which he conquered, with the following
1 infcription, or one to the fame purpofe : “ Sefoftris,
kings of kings, and lords of lords, fubdued this country
by the power of his arms ” Befides thefe, he left alfo
ilatues of himfelf; two of which, according to Hero¬
dotus, were to be feen in his time j the one on the
road between Ephefus and Phocaea, and the other be¬
tween Smyrna and Sardis : they were armed after the
Ethiopian and Egyptian manner j holding a javelin in
one hand and a bow in the other. Acrofs the breaft £a..
they had a line drawn from one (boulder to the other, —
with the following infcription : “ This region I obtain¬
ed by thefe my (boulders.” They were miftaken for
images of Memnon.
The reaibns given by Sefoftris for his returning intoRetuny
Egypt from Thrace, and thus leaving the Conqueft ofEgjpt.
the world unfiniftied, were the want of provifions for
his army, and the difficulty of the pafles. Moft pro¬
bably, however, his return was haftened by the intelli¬
gence he received from the high pried of Egypt, con¬
cerning the rebellious proceedings of his brother j who,
encouraged by his long abfence, bad alfumed the dia¬
dem, violated the queen, and alfo the royal concu¬
bines. On receiving this news, Sefoftris haftened from
Thrace •, and at the end of nine years came to Pelu-
fmm in Egypt, attended by an innumerable multitude
of captives taken from many different nations, and
loaded with the fpoils of Alia. The treacherous bro¬
ther met him at this city ; and it is faid, with very
little probability, that Sefoftris accepted of an invita¬
tion to an entertainment from him. At this he drank
freely, together with the queen and the reft of the
royal family. During the continuance of the enter¬
tainment, Armais caufed a great quantity of dried
reeds to be laid round the apartment where they were
to deep j and as foon as they were retired to reft fet
fire to the reeds. Sefoftris perceiving the danger he was
in, and that his guards, overcharged with liquor, were
incapable of affifting him, ruffled through the flames, and
was followed by his wife and children. In thankf-
giving for this wonderful deliverance, he made feveral
donations to the gods, particularly to Vulcan the god
of fire. He then took vengeance on his brother Armais,
faid to be the Danaus of the Greeks, who, being
on this occafion driven out of Egypt, withdrew into
Greece. ^
Sefoftris now laid afide all thoughts of war, and ap-jiisgre;
plied himfelf wholly to fuch works as might tend to works,
the public good, and his own future reputation. In or¬
der to prevent the incurfions of the Syrians and Ara¬
bians, he fortified the eaft fide of Egypt with a wall
which ran from Pelufium through the defert to Helio¬
polis, for 1874 miles. He raifed alfo an incredible
number of vaft and lofty mounts of earth, to which he
removed fuch towns as had before been fituated too
low, in order to fecure them from the inundations of
the Nile. All the way from Memphis to the fea he
dug canals which branched out from the Nile j and not
only made an eafier communication between different
places, but rendered the country in a great meafure im-
paffable to an enemy. He eredled a temple in every
city in Egypt, and dedicated it to the fupreme deity
of the place j but in the courfe of fuch a great under¬
taking as this neceffarily muft have been, he took care
not to employ any of his Egyptian fubjefts. 'Ihus he
fecured their aftedlion, and employed the vaft multi¬
tude of captives he had brought along with him ; and
to perpetuate the memory of a tranfaflion fo remark¬
able, he caufed to be infcribed on all thefe temples,
“ No one native laboured hereon.” In the city of
Memphis, before the temple of Vulcan, he raifed fix
gigantic ftatues, each of one (lone. Two of them were
30 cubits high, reprefenting himfelf and his wife ; the
other four were 20 cubits each, and reprefented hre
four
/pt
E G Y [ 593 1
Tliefe he dedicated to Vulcan in memory of know
5
B 'eath
four Tons.
his above-mentioned deliverance. He raifed alfo two
obelilks of marble 120 cubits high, and charged them
with infcriptions, denoting the greatnefs of his power,
his revenues, &c.
The captives taken by Sefoftris are faid to have been
treated with the greateft barbarity j fo that at laft they
refolved at all events to deliver themfelves from a fer-
vitude fo intolerable. The Babylonians particularly
were concerned in this revolt, and laid wafte the coun¬
try to fome extent $ but being offered a pardon and a
place to dwell in, they were pacified, and built for therm
felves a city, which they called Babylon. Towards the
conquered princes who waited on him with their tri¬
bute the Egyptian monarch behaved with unparalleled
infolence. On certain occafions he is faid to have un-
harnafled his horfes, and, yoking kings together, made
them draw his chariot. One day, however, obferving
one of the kings who drew his chariot to look back
upon the wheels with great earneftnefs, he alked what
made him look fo attentively at them ? ,The unhappy
prince replied, “ O king, the going round of the wheel
puts me in mind of the viciffitudes of fortune : for as
every part of the wheel is uppermoft and lowermolt by
turns, fo it is with men j who one day fit upon a throne,
and on the next are reduced to the vileft degree of
flavery.” This anfwer brought the infulting conqueror
to his fenfes j fo that he gave over the practice, and
thenceforth treated his captives with great humanity.
At length this mighty monarch loll his fight, and laid
violent hands on himfelf.
After the death of Sefoftris, we meet with another
chafm of an indeterminate length in the Egyptian
hiftory. It concludes with the reign of Amafis or Am-
mofis ; who being a tyrant, his fubjecls joined A£ti-
fanes the king of Ethiopia to drive him out.—Thus
A&ifanes became mailer of the kingdom ; and after
his death follows another chafm in the hiftory, during
which the empire is faid to have been in a ftate of
anarchy for five generations.—This period brings us
down to the times of the Trojan war. The reigning
prince in Egypt was at that time called Cetes ; by the
Greeks, Proteus. The priefts reported that he was a
magician 5 and that he could affume any lhape he
t fable ofeven that of fire. This fable, as told by the
if eus. Greeks, drew its origin from a cuftom among the E-
gvptians, perhaps introduced by Proteus. 'I hey were
ufed to adorn and diftinguifti the heads of their kings
with the reprefentations of animals or vegetables, or
even with burning incenfe, in order to flrike the be¬
holders with the greater awe. Whilft Proteus reigned,
Paris or Alexander, the fon of Priam king of Troy,
was driven by a llorm on the coaft of Egypt, with
Helen, whom he was carrying off from her hulhand.
But when the Egyptian monarch heard of the breach
oi hofpitality committed by Paris, he feized him, his
miftrtfs, and companions, with all the riches he had
brought away with him from Greece. He detained
Plelen, with all the effects belonging to Mene.laus her
bufband, promifing to reftore them to the injured party
whenever they were demanded $ but commanded Paris
and his companions to depart out of his dominions in
three days, on pain of being treated as enemies. In
what manner Paris afterwards prevailed upon Proteus
to reftore his miftrefs, vve are not told } neither do we
VOL. VII. Part II.
6
iin of
7
4 ival of
1 s and
if :n in
1 pt.
E Cx Y
any thing further of the tranfa£lions of this Epyph
prince’s reign nor of his fucceflbrs, exxept what has ^— J
entirely the air of fable, till the days of Sabbaco the 8
Ethiopian, who again conquered this kingdom. He
began his reign with an a£l of great cruelty, caufingjappaco,
the conquered prince to be burnt alive j neverthelefs, he
no fooner faw' himfelf firmly eftablifiied on the throne
of Egypt, than he became a new man j fo that he is
highly extolled for his mercy, clemency, and wifdom.
He is thought to have been the So mentioned in Scrip-*
ture, and who entered into a league with Hulhea king
of Ifrael againft Shalmanefer king of Affyria. He is
faid to have been excited to the invafion of Egypt by
a dream or vifion, in which he was allured that he
fhould hold that kingdom for 50 years. Accordingly,
he conquered Egypt, as had been foretold ; and at the
expiration of the time above mentioned, he had another
dream, in which the tutelar god of Thebes acquainted
him, that he could no longer hold the kingdom of
Egypt with fafety and happinefs, unlefs he maffacred
the priefts as he palled through them with his guards.
Being haunted with this vifion, and at the fame time
abhorring to hold the kingdom on fuch terms, he fent
for the priefts, and acquainted them with what feemed
to be the will of the gods. Upon this it was concluded,
that it was the pleafure of the Deity that Sabbaco
Ihould remain no longer in Egypt ; and therefore he
immediately quitted that kingdom, and returned to
Ethiopia.
Of Anysias, who was Sabbaco’s immediate fucceflbr,
we have no particulars worth notice. After him reign- ^
ed one Sethon, who was both king and prieft of Vul-Remaik-
can. He gave himfelf up to religious contemplation jable ftory
and not only neglected the military clafs, but deprived
them of their lands. At this they were fo much incen-
fed, that they entered into an agreement not to bear
arms under him; and in this ftate of affairs Sennache¬
rib king of Affyria arrived before Pelufium with a
mighty army. Sethon now applied to his foldiers, but
in vain: they unanimoufly perfifted in refufing to march
under his banner. Being therefore deftitute of all hu¬
man aid, he applied to the god Vulcan, and requefted
him to deliver him from his enemies. Whilft he was
yet in the temple of that god, it is faid he frll into a
deep fleep ; during which he faw Vulcan Handing at
his fide, and exhorting him to take courage. He pro-
mifed, that if Sethon would but go out againft the
Affyrians, he fhould obtain a complete viflory over
them. Encouraged by this aflurance, the king affem-
ble a body of artificers, fhop-ktepers, and labourers ;
and, with this undifciplined rabble, marched towards
Pelufium. He had no occafion, however, to fight ; for
the very night after his arrival at Ptlufium, an innu¬
merable. multitude of field rats entering the enemies
camp, gnawed to pieces the quivers, bowllrings, and
fhield {traps. Next morning, when Sethon found the
enemy difarmed, and on that account beginning to fly,
he purfued them to a great diftance, making a terrible
{laughter. In memory of this extraordinary event, a
fiatue of Sethon was erefted in the temple of Vulcan,
holding in one hand a rat, and delivering thefe words :
“ Whofoever beholdeth me, let him be pious.”
Soon after the death of Sethon, the form of govern¬
ment in Egypt was totally changed. The kingdom
was divided into twelve parts, over which as many of
4 F the!
Egypt.
10
Ri-ign of
Pfahiraiti-
chus.
E C Y [ 59+ J
the chief nobility prefided. This divifion, however, fo much, that the
IT
Succeeded
by Nee 1ms
12
His wars
with Jofiah
and Nebu¬
chadnez¬
zar.
fubfifted but for a ihort time. Pfammitichus, one of
the twelve, dethroned all the reft, 15 years after the
divifion had been made. The hiftory now begins to
be diverted of fable; and from this time may be ac¬
counted equally certain with that of any other nation.
The vaft conquefts of Sefoftris were now no longer
known ; for Pfammitichus poflefied no more than the
country of Egypt itfelf. It appears, indeed, that none
of the fucceflbrs of Sefoftris, or even that monarch him-
felf, had made ufe of any means to keep in fubje£Uon
the countries he had once conquered. Perhaps, indeed,
his defign originally was rather to pillage than to con¬
quer ; and therefore, on his return, his vaft empire va-
niftied at once. Pfammitichus, however, endeavoured
to extend his dominions by making war on his neigh¬
bours ; but by putting more confidence in foreign auxi¬
liaries than in his own fubjedts, the latter were fo
much offended, that upwards of 200,000 fighting men
emigrated in a body, and took up their relidence in
Ethiopia. To repair this lofs, Pfammitichus earneftly
applied himfelf to the advancement of commerce ; and
opened his ports to all ftrangers, whom he greatly ca-
reffed, contrary to the cruel maxims of his predecef-
fors, who refufed to admit them into the country. He
alfo laid fiege to the city of Azotus in Syria, which
held out for 29 years againft the whole ftrength of the
kingdom ; from which we may gather, that, as a war¬
rior, Pfammitichus was by no means remarkable. He
is reported to have been the firft king of Egypt that
drank wine. He alfo fent to difeover the fprings of
the Nile ; and is faid to have attempted to difeover the
moft ancient nation in the world bv the following me¬
thod. Having procured two newly born children, he
caufed them to be brought up in fuch a manner that
they never heard a human voice. He imagined that
thefe children would naturally fpeak the original lan¬
guage of mankind : therefore, when, at two years of
age, they pronounced the Phrygian word becos (or fome
found refembling it), which fignifies bread, he con¬
cluded that the Phrygians were the moft ancient people
in the world.
Nechus, the fon and fucceffor of Pfammitichus, is
the Pharaoh-Necho of Scripture, and was a prince of an
enterprifing and warlike genius. In the beginning of
his reign, he attempted to cut through the ifthmus of
Suez, between the Red fea and the Mediterranean ;
but, through the invincible obftacles which nature has
thrown in the way of fuch undertaking->, he was obli¬
ged to abandon the enterprife, after having loft 120,000
men in the attempt. After this he fent a (hip, manned
with fome expert Phoenician mariners, on a voyage to
explore the coaft of Africa. Accordingly, they per¬
formed the voyage ; failed round the continent of A-
frica ; and after three years returned to Egypt, where
their relation was deemed incredible.
The moft remarkable wars in which this king was
engaged are recorded in the facred writings. He went
out againft the king of Affyria, by the divine com¬
mand, as he himfelf told Jofiah ; but being oppofed by
the king of Judea, he defeated and killed him at Me-
giddo ; after which he fet Up, in that country. King
Jehoiakim, andimpofed on him an annual tribute of 100
talents of filver and one talem 0*’ gold. He then pro¬
ceeded againft the king of Affyria ; and weakened him
E G Y
empire was foon after diffolved.
Thus he became mafter of Syria and Phoenicia ; but'—!!!!
in a fhort time, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came
againft him with a mighty army. Ihe Egyptian mo¬
narch, not daunted by the formidable appearance of
his antagonift, boldly ventured a battle; but was over¬
thrown with prodigious daughter, and Nebuchadnez¬
zar became mafter of all the country to the very gates
of Pelufium.
The reign of Apries, the Pharaoh Hophra of Scrip. ApnJ;
ture, prefents us with a new revolution in the Egyp-maitial
tian affairs. He is reprefented as a martial prinee,^^1
and in the beginning of his reign very fuccefsfui. HepnilCe'
fook by ftorm the rich city of Sidon ; and having over¬
come the Cypriots and Phoenicians in a fea-fight, re¬
turned to Egypt laden with fpoil. This fucceis pro-
bably incited Zedekiah king of Judea to enter into an
alliance with him againft Nebuchadnezzar king of
Babylon. The bad fuccefs of this alliance was fore¬
told by the prophet Jeremiah ; and accordingly it hap¬
pened. For Nebuchadnezzar having fat down with
his army before Jerufalem, Apries marched-from E-
gypt with a defign to relieve the city ; but no fooner
did he perceive the Babylonians approaching him, than
he retreated as faft as he could, leaving the Jews ex-
pofed to the rage of their mercilefs enemies; who were
thereupon treated as Jeremiah had foretold ; and by
this ftep Apries brought upon himfelf the vengeance
denounced by the fame prophet. The manner in which Bad cor'
thefe predictions were fulfilled is as follows : The Cy-quence*
reneans, a colony of Greeks, being greatly ftrength-^!S al'la|
ened by a numerous fupply of their countrymen under Zt ‘
their third king Battus ftyled the Happy, and encou-
raged by the Pythian oracle, began to drive out their
Libyan neighbours, and fhared their poffeflions among
themfelves. Hereupon Andica king of Libya fent
a fubmiflive embaffy to Apries, and implored his pro¬
tection againft the Cyreneans. Apries complied with
his requeft, and fent a powerful army to his relief. jj
The Egyptians were defeated with great ftaught- r; and
thofe who returned complained that the army had been
fent off by Apries in order to be deitroyee, and that
he might tyrannize without controul over the remain¬
der of his fubjeCts. This thought catching the atten-His fubj i
tion of the giddy multitude,, an almoft umverial defee-revolt. '
tion enfued. Apries fent one Amafis, a particular
friend, in whom he thought he could confide, to bring
back his people to a lenfe of their duty. But by this
friend he was betrayed ; for Amafis, taking the op¬
portunity of the prefent ferment, cauled himfelf to be
proclaimed king. Apries then defpatched one Patar-
bemis, with orders to take Amafis, and bring him alive
before him. This he found impoflible, and therefore
returned without his prifoner ; at which the king was
foenragtd, that he commanded Patarbemis’s noie and
ears to be cut off. This piece of cruelty completed his
ruin ; for when the reft of the Egyptians who con¬
tinued faithful to Apries beheld the inhuman mutila¬
tion of fo worthy and noble a perfon as Patarbemis
was, they to a man deferted Apries, and went over to
Amafis.
Both parties now prepared for war; theufurper hav¬
ing under his command the whole body of native E-
gvptians; and Apries only thofe Ionian^, Carians, -nd
other mercenaries whom he could engage in his fer-
vice.
E G Y [ 595 ] E G Y
t> vice. The army of A pries amounted only to 30,000 j
q but, though greatly inferior in number to the troops
of his rival, as he well knew that the Greeks were
much fuperior in valour, he did not doubt of vi&ory.
Nay, fo far was Apries puffed up with this notion, that
he did not believe it was in the power even of any
god to deprive him of his kingdom. The two armies
foon met, and drew u-p in order of battle near Memphis.
I ies de- A bloody engagement enfued ; in which, though the
f ed and army of Apries behaved with the greateft refolution,
tjin pri- they were at laft overpowered with numbers, and utterly
f :rfby defeated, the king himfelf being taken prifoner. Amafis
1 aIS‘ now took poffelfion of the throne without oppofition.
He confined Apries in one of his palaces, but treated
him with great care and refpeft. The people, how¬
ever, were implacable, and could not be fatisfied while
he enjoyed his life. Amafis, therefore, at laft found
himfelf obliged to deliver him into their hands. Thus
the predi<5tion received its final completion : Apries
was delivered up to thofe who fought his life; and who
no fooner had him in their power, than they ftrangled
him, and laid his body in the fepulchre of his ancef-
tors
. ,p1Jjn_ During thefe inteftine broils, which muft have great-
• ed by ly weakened the kingdom, it is probable that Nebu-
• buchad- chadnezzar invaded Egypt. He had been for 13 years
i zar. before this employed in befieging Tyre, and at laft had
nothing but an empty city for his pains. To make
himfelf fome amends, therefore, he entered Egypt, mi-
ferably haralfed the country, killed and carried away
great numbers of the inhabitants, fo that the country
did not recover from the effefts of this incurfion for a
long time after. In this expedition, however, he feems
not to have aimed at any permanent conqueft, but to
have been induced to it merely by the love of plunder,
and of this he carried with him an immenfe quantity to
s Babylon.
pp!y ad- During the reign of Amafis, Egypt is faid to have
ultra- been perfectly happy, and to have contained 20,000
pof populous cities. That good order might be kept
la^16, among fuch vaft numbers of people, Amafis enabled a
law, by which every Egyptian was bound once a-year
to inform the governor of his province by what means
he gained his livelihood ; and if he failed of this, to
put him to death. The fame puniftiment he decreed to
thofe who could not give a fatisfa&ory account of
themfelves.
This monarch wTas a great favourer of the Greeks,
and married a woman of Grecian extrafl. To many
Greek cities, as well as particular perfons, he made
confiderable prefents. Befides thefe, he gave leave to
the Greeks in general to come into Egypt, and fettle
either in the city of Naucratis, or carry on their trade
upon the fea coafts 5 granting them alfo temples, and
places where they might eredt temples to their own
deities. He received alfo a vifit from Solon the cele¬
brated Athenian lawgiver, and reduced the ifland of
l5 Cyprus under his fubjeftion.
■ends This great profperity, however, ended with the death
mbytes of Amafis, or indeed before it. The Egyptian mo-
rla°^ narch had fome how or other incenfed Cambyfes king
of Perfia. The caufe of the quarrel is uncertain ; but
whatever it was, the Perfian monarch vowed the de-
ftrufl i' n of Amafis. In the mean time Phones of Ha-
Hcarnaffus, commander of the Grecian auxiliaries in the
pay of Amafis, took fome private difguft ; and leaving Egypt.
Egypt, embarked for Perfia. He was a wife and able
general, perfeftly well acquainted with every thing that
related to Egypt $ and had great credit with the Greeks
in that country. Amafis was immediately fenfible how
great the lofs of this man would be to him, and there¬
fore fent after him a trufty eunuch with a fwift galley.
Phanes was accordingly overtaken in Lycia, but not
brought back j for making his guard drunk, he conti¬
nued his journey to Perfia, and prefented himfelf before
Cambyfes, as he was meditating the deftruftion of the
Egyptian monarchy.
At this dangerous crifis alfo, the Egyptian monarch And Po!y-
imprudently made Polycrates the tyrant of Samos hiscrates ty-
enemy. This man had been the moll remarkable per
haps of any recorded in hiftory, for an uninterrupted
courfe of fuccefs, without the intervention of one lingle
unfortunate event. Amafis, who was at this time in
ftrift alliance with Polycrates, wrote him a letter, in
which, after congratulating him on his profperity, he
told him that he was afraid left his fuccefles were to®
many, and he might be fuddenly thrown down into
the greateft mifery. For this reafon he advifed him
voluntarily to take away fomething from his own hap-
pinefs ; and to call away that which would grieve him
moft if he was accidentally to lofe it. Polycrates fol¬
lowed his advice, and threw into the fea a fignet of
ineftimable value. This, however, did not anfwer the
intended purpofe. The fignet happened to be fwal-
lowed by a fifh, which was taken a few days after¬
wards, and thus wTas reftored to Polycrates. Of this
Amafis was no fooner informed, than, confidering Po¬
lycrates as really unhappy, and already on the brink of
deftru6fion, he refolved to put an end to the friendlhip
which fubfifted between them. For this purpofe he
defpatched a herald to Samos, commanding him to
acquaint Polycrates, that he renounced his alliance,
and all the obligations between them •, that he might
not mourn his misfortunes with the furrow of a friend.
Thus Amafis left Polycrates at liberty to a6t againft
him, if he chnfe to do fo ; and accordingly he offered
to aflift Cambyfes with a fleet of (hips in his Egyptian
expedition.
Amafis had not, however, the misfortune to fee the
calamities of his country. He died about 525 years
before Chrift, after a reign of 44 years ; and left the 2I
kingdom to his fun Pfammenitus, juft as Cambyfes was Egypt in-
approaching the frontiers of the kingdom. The newvadedby
prince was fcarce feated on the throne, when the Per-(-'amhy^es*
fians appeared. Pfammenitus drew together what forces
he could, in order to prevent them from entering the
kingdom. Cambyfes, howmver, immediately laid liege
to Pelufium, and made himfelf mafter of it by the fol¬
lowing ftratagem : he placed in the front of his army
a great number of cats, dogs, and other animals that
were deemed facred by the Egyptians. He then at¬
tacked the city, and took it without oppofition ; the
garrifon, which confifted entirely of Egyptians, not
daring to throw a dart or {hoot ari arrow againft:
their enemies, left they Ihould kill fomc of the holy
animals.
Cambyfes had fcarce taken poffeffion of the Cruelty and
when Pfammenitus advanced againft him with a nume-defeat 0f
rous army. But before the engagement, the Greeks the Egypt-
who ferved under Pfammenitus, to Ihow their indig-tians*
4 F 2 . nation
Egypt-
23
Their
dreadful
pumfn merit
by CaiiiDy-
{*>.
Ev G Y
nation againft their treacherous
brought his children into the camp, killed them in the
prefence of their father and the two armies, and
then drank their blood. The Perfians enraged at fo
cruel a fight, fell upon the Egyptians with the utmoft
fury, put them to flight, and cut the greateft part of
them in pieces. Thofe who efcaped fled to Memphis,
where they were fdon after guilty of a horrid outrage.
Cambyfes fent a herald to them in a fliip from Mity-
lene : but no fooner did they fee her come into the
port, than they flocked down to the fliore, deflroyed
the fliip, and tore to pieces the herald and all the crew,
afterwards carrying their mangled limbs into the city,
in a kind of barbarous triumph. Not long after, they
were obliged to furrender : and thus Pfammenitus fell
into the hands of his inveterate enemy, who was now
enraged beyond meafure at the cruelties exercifed upon
the children of Phanes, the herald, and the Mitylenean
failors.
The rapid fuccefs of the Perfians ftruck with fuch
terror the Libyans, Cyreneans, Barcseans, and other
dependents or allies of the Egyptian monarch, that
they immediately fubmitted. Nothing now remained
bur to difpofe of the captive king, and revenge on him
and his fubjefls the cruelties which they had commit¬
ted. This the mercilefs vidflor executed in the fevereft
manner. On the 10th day after Memphis had been
taken, Pfammenitus and the chief of the Egyptian no¬
bility were ignominioufly fent into one of the fuburbs
of that city. The king being there feated in a pro¬
per place, faw his daughter coming along in the habit
of a-poor flave with a pitcher to fetch water from the
river, and followed by the daughters of the greateft
families in Egypt, all in the fame miferable garb, with
pitchers in their hands, drowned in tears, and loudly
bemoaning their miferable fituation. When the fathers
faw their daughters in this diftrefs, they burft into tears,
all but Pfammenitus, who only caft his eyes on the
ground and kept them fixed there. After the young
women, came the fon of Pfammenitus, with 2000 of
the young nobility, all of them with bits in their mouths
and halters round their necks, led to execution. This
was done to expiate the murder of the Perfian herald
and the Mitylenean failors ; for Cambyfes caufed ten
Egyptians of the firft rank to be publicly executed for
every one of thofe that had been flain. Pfammenitus,
however, obferved the fame conduft as before, keep¬
ing his eyes ftedfaftly fixed on the ground, though all
the Egyptians around him made the loudeft lamenta¬
tions. A little after this he faw an intimate friend and
companion, now advanced in years, who having been
plundered of all he had, was begging his bread from
door to door in the fuburbs. As foon as he faw this
man, Pfammenitus wept bitterly *, and calling out to
him by his name, ftruck himfelf on the head as if be
had been frantic. Of this the fpies who had been fet
over him to obferve his behaviour, gave immediate no¬
tice to Cambyfes, who thereupon fent a mefl'enger to
inquire the caufe of fuch immoderate grief. Pfamme¬
nitus anfwered, That the calamities of his own family
confounded him, and were too great to be lamented by
any outward figns of grief ^ but the extreme diftrefs
of a bofom friend gave more room for reflexion, and
therefore extorted tears from him. With this anfwer
Cambyft'S was fo affefled, that he fent ordets to pre-
[ 596 ] E G Y
countryman Phanes, vent the execution of the king’s fon ; but tbefe came
Egypt:
*4
too late, for the young prince had been put to death
before any of the reft. Pfammenitus himfelf was then
fent for into the city, and reftored to his liberty : and
had he not (bowed a defire of revenge, might perhaps
have been trufted with the government of Egypt: but
being difcovered hatching fchemes againft the govern¬
ment, he was feized, and condemned to drink bull’s
blood.
The Egyptians were now reduced to the lowed de-E ^
gree of flavery. Their country became a province ofCo,^s
the Perfian empire : the body of Amaiis their late king province of
was taken out of his grave ; and after being mangledtlie ^^an,
in a (hocking manner was finally burnt. But what
feemed more grievous than all the reft, their god Apisthe Grecian
was llain, and his priefts ignominioufly fcourged ; and empire,
this infpired the whole nation with fuch a hatred to
the Perfians, that they could never afterwards be re¬
conciled to them. As long as the Perfian empire fub-
fifttd, the Egyptians could never (hake off their yol^e.
They frequently revolted indeed, but were always over¬
thrown with prodigious lois. At laft they iubmitted,
without opnofition, to Alexander the Great : after
his death, Egypt again became a powerful kingdom,
though fince the eonqueft of it by Cambyfes to the
prefent time it hath never been governed but by fo¬
reign princes, agreeable to the prophecy of Ezekiel.
“ There (hall be no more a prince of the land of E-
gypt.” 2?
On the death of Alexander the Great, Egypt, to- AffigneJt#
gether with Libya, and that part of Arabia which Ptoiemy
borders on Egypt, were afligned to Ptolemy Lagus as j^agus, wha
governor under Alexander’s fon by Roxana, who was 1 *
but newly born. Nothing was farther from the inten-^ng,
tion of this governor, than to keep the provinces in
truft for another. He did not, however, affume the
title of king, till he perceived his authority lb firmly
eftablifhed that it could not be (haken ; and this did
not happen till 19 years after the death of Alexander,
when Antigonus and Demetrius had unfuccefsfully at¬
tempted the conqueft of Egypt.
From the time of his firft eftabliftunent on the throne,
Ptolemy, who had aflumed the title of Soler, reigned
20 years $ which added to the former 19, make up the
39 years which hiftorians commonly allow him to have
reigned alone.—In the 39th year of his reign, he made
one of his fons, named Philadelphus, partner to the em¬
pire ; declaring him his fucceffor, to the prejudice of his
eldelt fon named Ceraunus; being excited thereto by
his violent love for Berenice Philadelphus’s mother.
When the fucceffion was thus fettled, Ceraunus imme¬
diately quitted the court 5 and fled at laft into Syria,
where he was received with open arms by Seleucus Ni-
cator, whom he afterwards murdered.
The moft remarkable tranfaflion of this reign was
the embellitliing of the city of Alexandria, which Pto¬
lemy made the capital of his new kingdom, and of which
an account is given under the article Alexandria.
About 284 years before Chrift, died Ptolemy Soter,
in the 41ft year of his reign,'and 84th of his age. He
was the beft prince of his race ; and left behind him
an example of prudence, juftice, and clemency which
few of his filcceffors chofe to follow. Befides the pro¬
vinces originally affigned to him, he added to his
empire ihofe of Ccslo-Syria, Ethiopia, Pamphylia,
1 ' Lyciaj
E G Y
[ 597 3
E G Y
Egypt-
26
icceeded
- Phila-
jilphus.
27
'tolemy
iuergetes
Lycia, Caria, and feme of the Cyclades. His fuccef-
for, Ptolemy Philadelphus, added nothing to the ex¬
tent of the empire *, nor did he perform any thing wor¬
thy of notice except embellifhing further the city of
Alexandria, and entering into an alliance with the Ro¬
mans. In his time, one Magas, the governor of Libya
and Gyrene, revolted : and held thefe provinces as an
independent prince, notwithftanding the utmoft efforts
of Ptolemy to reduce him. At laft an accommodation
took place j and a marriage was propofed between Be¬
renice, the only daughter of Magas, and Ptolemy’s
eldeft fon. The young princefs was to receive all her
father’s dominions by way of dowry, and thus they
would again be brought under the dominion of Ptole¬
my’s family. But before this treaty could be put in
execution, Magas died ; and then Apamea, the prin-
cefs’s mother, did all fhe could to prevent the match.
This, however, die was not able to do ; though her ef¬
forts for that purpofe produced a deftru&ive war of four
years continuance with Antiochus 1 heus king of Sy¬
ria, and the afting of a cruel tragedy in the family of
the latter. See SYRIA.
About 246 years before Chrift, Ptolemy Philadel¬
phus died } and was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Ptole-
Egvp*-
——V“M
28
L — 7 # •111 f
great con "my, who had been married to Berenice the daughter or
[ueror. Magas, as above related. In the beginning of his
reign, he found himfelf engaged in a war with Antio¬
chus Theus king of Syria. From this he returned vic¬
torious, and brought with him 2500 ftatues and piftures,
among which were many of the ancient Egyptian
idols, which had been carried away by Cambyfes into
Perfia. Thefe were reftored by Ptolemy to their an*
cient temples ; in memory of which favour, the Egyp¬
tians gave him the furname of Euergetes, or the Bene¬
ficent. In this expedition he greatly enlarged his do¬
minions, making himielf mafter of all the countries
that lie between Mount Taurus and the confines of In¬
dia. An account of thefe conquefts was given by him¬
felf, inferibed on a monument, to the following efteft.
“ Ptolemy Euergetes, having received from his father
the fevereignty of Egypt, Libya, Syria, Phoenice,
Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, and the other Cyclades, affem-
bled a mighty army of horfe and foot, with a gi-eat fteet,
and elephants, out of 1 rogloditia and Ethiopia 5 lome
of which had been taken by his father, and the reft by
‘ himfelf, and brought from thence, and trained up for
war : with this great force he failed into Afia j and
having conquered all the provinces which lie on this
fide the Euphrates, Cilicia, Parephylia, Ionia, the Ktl-
lefpont, and Thrace, he crofted the river with "11 the
forces of the conquered countries, and the kings of
thofe nations, and reduced Mefopotamia, Babylonia,
Sufiana, Perfia, Media, and all the country as far as
Baclria.”
On the king’s return from this expedition, he paffed
through. Jerufaletn, where he offered many facrifices
to the God of Ifrael, and ever afterwards expreffed a
great favour for the Jewifti nation. At this time, the
jews were tributaries to the Egyptian monarchs, and
paid them annually 20 talents of filver. This tribute,
however, Onias, who was then high prieft, being of a
very covetous difpofitkm, had for a long time neglept‘
up in the Hippodrome, which was a very fpacious
place without the city, where the people ufed to af-
femble to fee hdrfe races and other public diverfions.
He then fent for Herman mafter of the elephants •
and commanded him to have 500 of thefe animals ready
againft the next day, to let loofe upon the Jews in the
Hippodrome. But when the elephants were prepared
for the execution, and the people were affembled in
great crowds to fee it, they were for that day difap¬
pointed by the king’s ablence. For, having been late
up the night before with fome of his debauched com¬
panions, he did not awake till the time for the ihow
was over, and the fpedlators returned home. He
therefore ordered one of his fervants to call him early
on the following day, that the people might not meet
with a fecond difappointment. But when the perfon
awaked him according to his order, the king was not
yet returned to his fenfes; having withdrawn, exceed¬
ingly drunk, only a ftiort time before. As he did not
remember the order, he therefore fell into a violent
paffion, and threatened with death the fervant who had
awaked him ; and this caufed the ftiow to be put off
till the third day. At laft the king came to the Hip.
podrome attended with a vaft multitude of fpe&ators j
but when the elephants were let locfe, inftead of fall¬
ing upon the Jews, they turned their rage againft the
fpedlators and foldiers, and deftroyed great numbers
of them. At the fame time, fome frightful appearances
which were feen in the air fo terrified the king, that he
commanded the Jews to be immediately fet at liberty,
and reftored them to their former privileges. No fooner
were they delivered from this danger than they de¬
manded leave to put to death fuch of their nation as
had abandoned their religion j and this being granted,
they defpatched the apoftates without excepting a fingle
man. f
Philopater was fucceeded by Ptolemy Epiphanes; Ptolemy
and he, after a reign of 24 years, by Ptolemy Philo- Philometor
metor. In the beginning of his reign, a war com‘fonerRi,Pn*
menced with the king of Syria, who had feized on the Antiochus,
provinces of Coelo-Syria and Paleftine in the preceding and Phyf-
reign. In the courfe of this war, Philometor w^as ei-con raif£(1
ther voluntarily delivered up to Antiochus, or taken
prifoner. But however this was, the Alexandrians de-
fpairing of his ever being able to recover his liberty,
raifed to the throne his brother Ptolemy, who took the
name of Euergetes II. but was afterwards called Phyfcon
or “ the great-bellied,” on account of the prominent
belly which by his gluttony and luxury he had acquir¬
ed. He was fcarce feated on the throne, however,
when Antiochus Epiphanes, returning into Egypt,
drove out Phyfcon, and reftored the whole kingdom
except Pelufiura, to Philometor. His defign was to
kindle a war betwixt the two brothers, fi> that he might
have an opportunity of feizing the kingdom for him-
felf. For this reafon lie kept to himfelf the city of
Pelufium} which being the key of Egypt, he might at
his pleafure re-enter the country. But Philometor, ap-
prifed of his defign, invited his brother Phyfcon to an
accommodation $ which was happily effected by their
filter Cleopatra. In virtue of this agreement, the bro¬
thers were to reign jointly, and to oppofe to the utmoft
of their power Antiochus, whom they confidered as a
common
E G Y [ 599 1 E G Y
,ypt. common enemy. On this the king of Syria invaded
i Egypt with a mighty army, but was prevented by the
^ Romans from conquering it.
jjjreoce The two brothers were no fooner freed from the ap-
M-een prehenfions of a foreign enemy than they began to
tPV0 quarrel with each other. Their differences fuon came
P jl ded by to a height, that the Roman fenate interpofed.
t loraan But before the ambaffadors employed to inquire into
te. the merits of the caufe could arrive in Egypt, Phyfcon
had driven Philometor from the throne, and obliged
him to quit the kingdom. On this the dethroned
prince fled to Rome, where he appeared meanly drefs-
ed, and without attendants. He was very kindly re¬
ceived by the fenate j who were fo wrell fatisfied of the
injuftice done him, that they immediately decreed his
reftoration. He was recondufted accordingly ; and
on the arrival of the ambaffadors in Egypt, an accom¬
modation between the two brothers was negotiated.
By this agreement, Phyfcon was put in poffefllon of
Libya and Cyrene, and Philometor of all Egypt and
the ifland of Cyprus ; each of them being declared in¬
dependent of the other in the dominion allotted to
them. The treaty, as ufual, was confirmed with oaths
and facrifices, and was broken almoft as foon as made.
Phyfcon was diffatisfied with his (hare of the dominions ;
and therefore fent ambaffadors to Rome, defiring that
the ifland of Cyprus might be added to his other pof-
feflions. This could not be obtained by the ambaffadors j
■ ]Ld jf ar,d therefore Phyfcon went to Rome in perfon. His
B Crus ad- demand was evidently pnjuft ; but the Romans, confi-
K \ rei*t0 dering that it was their intereft to weaken the power
‘(i0n’ of E. ypt as much as poflible, without further ceremo¬
ny adjudged the ifland to him.
Phyfcon fet out from Rome with two ambaffadors;
and arriving in Greece on his way to Cyprus, he raifed
there a great number of mercenaries, with a defign to
fail immediately to that ifland and conquer it. But
the Roman ambaffadors telling him, that they were
commanded to put him in poffeflion of it by fair means
and not by force, he difmiffed his army, and returned
to Libya, while one of the ambaffadors proceeded to
Alexandria. Their defign was to bring the two bro¬
thers to an interview on the frontiers of their domi¬
nions, and there to fettle matters in an amicable man¬
ner. But the ambaffador who went to Alexandria,
found Philometor very averfe from compliance with the
decree of the fenate. He put off the ambaffador fo
long, that Phyfcon fent the other alfo to Alexandria,
13^ hoping that the joint perfuafions of the two would in-
lometor duce Philometor to comply. But the king, after en-
u'esto tertaining them at an immenfe charge for 40 days, at
laft plainly refufed to fubmit, and told the ambaffadors
that he was refolved to adhere to the firfi treaty. With
this anfwer the Roman ambaffadors departed, and were
followed by others from the two brothers. The fenate,
however, not only confirmed their decree in favour of
Phyfcon, but renounced their alliance with Philome¬
tor. and commanded his ambaffador to leave the city in
3(5 five days.
dnft'°n mean time, the inhabitants of Cyrene having
ylCon heard unfavourable accounts of Phyfcon’s behaviour
during the fhort time he reigned in Alexandria, con¬
ceived fo ftrong an averfion againft him, that they re¬
folved to keep him out of their country by force of
arms. On receiving intelligence of this refolution,
Phyfcon dropped all thoughts of Cyprus for the pre- Egypt.
fent 1 and haftened with all his forces to Cyrene, where v
he foon got the better of his rebellious fubjedls, and
eftablilhed himfelf in the kingdom. His vicious and
tyrannical conduct, however, foon effranged from him
the minds of his fubje&s, in fuch a manner, that fome
of them entering into a confpiracy againft him, fell
upon him one night as he was returning to his palace, .
wounded him in feveral places, and left him for dead
on the fpot. This he laid to the charge of his bro¬
ther Philometor; and as foon as he was recovered, took
another voyage to Rome. Here he made his com¬
plaints to the fenate, and (bowed them the fears of his
wounds, accufing his brother of having employed the
affaflins from whom he received them. Though Phi¬
lometor was known to be a man of a moft humane and
mild difpofition, and therefore very unlikely to have
been concerned in fo black an attempt; yet the fenate,
being offended at his refufing to fubmit to their decree
concerning the ifland of Cyprus, hearkened to this falfe
accufation j and carried their prejudices fofar, that they
not only refufed to hear what his ambaffadors had to fay,
but ordered them immediately to depart from the city.
At the fame time, they appointed five commiflioners to
conduct Phylcon to Cyprus, and put him in poffeflion
of that ifland, enjoining all their allies in thofe parts to -
fupply him with forces (or that purpofe.
Phyfcon having by this means got together an army
which feemed to him to be fuflicient tor the accom-
pliftiment of his defign, landed in Cyprus •, but being
there encountered by Philometor in perfon, he was
entirely defeated, and obliged to (belter himlelf in a
city called Lnpitho. Here he was clofely befieged, and
at laft obliged to furrender. Every one now expelled fpe
that Phyfcon would have been treated as he delerved ;.re.:ted and
but his brother, inftead of punifhing, reftored him tot»ken pri-.
the government of Libya and Cyrene, adding lome
other territories inftead of the ifland of Cyprus, andlori
promifing him his daughter in marriage. Thus an
end was put to the war between the two brothers j for
the Romans were afhamed any longer to oppofe a prince
who had given fuch a lignal inftance of his juftice and
clemency.
On his return to Alexandria, Philometor appointed
one Archias governor of Cyprus. But he, foon alter
the king’s departure, agreed with Demetrius king of
Syria, to betray the ifland to him for 5C0 talents.
The treachery was discovered before it took tff 61 ; and
the traitor, to avoid the punifhrmnt due to his crime,
laid violent hands on himfelf. Ptolemy being offended
with Demetrius for this attempt on Cyprus, joined Atr
talus king of Pergamu'-, and Ariarathes king of Cap¬
padocia, in fetting up a pretender to the crown of Sy¬
ria. This was Alexander Bala''*, to whom he even gave
his daughter Cleopatra in marriage, after he had placed
him on the throne of Syria. But he, notwithiianding
thefe and many other (avour«, being fu(pe6f ed of having
entered into a plot againft his benefa6tor, Ptolemv be¬
came his greateft enemv *, and marching again!! him,
routed his army in the neighbourhood of Antioch.
He did not, however, long enjoy his viefory ; for he Qeath
died in a few days after the engagement, of the wounds Philome-
he had received. tor.
On the death of Philometor. Cleopatra the queen
defigned to fecure the throne for her fon. But fome
of
E
fioypt. of toe principal nobility declaring
— . i xvar was about to enfue, when matters were eompro-
mifed on condition that Phyfcon fliould marry Cleo¬
patra, that he ihould reign jointly with her during his
life, and declare her fon by Philometor heir to the
jP crown. Thefe terms were no fooner agreed upon than
wic'kednefs Phyfcon married Cleopatra, and, on the very day of
ofFhyfcon. the nuptials, murdered her fon in her arms. J his was
only a prelude to the cruelties which he afterwards
praftifed on his fubje&s. He was no fooner feated on
the throne, than he put to death all thofe who. had
(hown any concern for the murder of the young prince.
He then wreaked his fury on the Jews, whom he treat¬
ed more like Haves than fubje&s, on account of their
having favoured the caufe of Cleopatra. His own people
were treated with little more ceremony. Numbers of
them were every day put to death for the fmalled faults,
and often for no fault at all, but merely to gratify his
inhuman temper. His cruelty towards the Alexandri¬
ans is particularly mentioned under the article Alex¬
andria. In a fhort time, being wearied of his queen,
who was alfo his lifter, he divorced her ^ and married
-0 her daughter, who was alfo called Cleopatra, ana whom
He is dr-iv- he had previoufly raviftied. In Ihort, his behaviour was
.cn out. f0 exceedingly wicked, that it foon became quite into¬
lerable to his fubje&s ; and he was obliged to fly to the
ifland of Cyprus with his new queen, and Memphitis, a
fon he had by her mother.
On the flight of the king, the divorced queen was
placed on the throne by the Alexandrians^ but Phyfcon,
fearing left a fon whom he had left behind fhould be ap¬
pointed king, fent for him into Cyprus, and caufed him
to be aflaflinated as foon as he landed. This provoked
the people againft him to fuch a degree, that they pulled
down and dallied to pieces all the ftatues which had been
erefted to him at Alexandria. This the tyrant fuppofed
to have been done at the inftigation of the queen, and
therefore refolved to revenge it on her by killing his
Murders own fon whom he had by her. He therefore, without
Ms fon. the leaft remorfe, caufed the young prince’s throat to be
cut j and having put his mangled limbs into a box, fent
them as a prefent to his mother Cleopatra. The mef-
fenger with whom this box was fent, was one of his
guards. He was ordered to wait till the queen’s birth¬
day, which approached, and was to be celebrated with
extraordinary pomp ; and in the midft of the general
rejoicing, he was to deliver the prefent.
The horror and deteftslion oceafioned by this un¬
exampled piece of cruelty cannot be expreffed. An
army was foon raifed, and the command of it given to
one Marfyas, whom the queen had appointed general,
and enjoined to take all the neceffary fteps for the de¬
fence of the country. On the other hand, Phyfcon
having hired a numerous body of mercenaries, fent
them, under the command of one Hegelochus, againft
the Egyptians. The two armies met on the frontiers
of Egypt, on which a bloody battle enfued 5 but at
laft the Egyptians were entirely defeated, and Marfyas
was taken prifoner. Every one expeOed that the cap¬
tive general would have been put to death with the fe-
vereft torments •, but Phyfcon, perceiving that his cru¬
elties only exafperated the people, refolved to try whe¬
ther he could regain their affe&ions by lenity •, and
therefore pardoned Marfyas, and fee him at liberty.—
Cleopatra, in the mean time, being greatly diftreffed
E G Y
by this overthrow, demanded aftiftance from Heme- Egypt,
trius king of Syria, who had married her eldeft daugh- 1 y 1 -J
ter by Philometor, promiftng him the crown of Egypt
for his reward. Demetrius accepted the propolal
without hefitation, marched with all his forces into E-
gypt, and there laid ftege to Pelufmm. But he being
no lefs hated in Syria than Phyfcon was in Egypt, the
people of Antioch, taking advantage of his abfence,
revolted againft him, and were joined by moft of the
other cities in Syria. Thus Demetrius was obliged to
return ; and Cleopatra, being now in no condition to
oppofe Phyfcon, fled to Ptolemais, where her daughter 4J
the queen of Syria at that time refaded. Phyfcon was Phyfcon r«J
then reftored to the throne of Egypt, which he enjoy-ft°red.
ed without further moleftation till his death 5 which
happened at Alexandria, in the 29th year of his reign
and 67th of his age.
To Phyfcon fucceeded Ptolemy Lathyrus, about 122
years before Chrift j blit he had not reigned long, be¬
fore his mother, finding that he would not be entirely
governed by her, by falfe furmifes ftirred up the Alex- 43
andrians, who drove him from the throne, and placed j
an it his youngeft brother Alexander. .Lathyrus after driveyBr“sut
this was obliged to content himfelf with the govern-and Alex/
ment of Cyprus, which he was permitted to enjoy inanderfct
quiet. Ptolemy Alexander, in the mean time, finding UP*
he was to have only tbe fhadow of fovereignty, and that
bis mother Cleopatra was to have all the power, ftole
away privately from Alexandria. The queen ufed every
artifice to bring him back, as well knowing that the
Alexandrians would never fuffer her to reign alone.
At laft her fon yielded to her entreaties-, but foon after,
unde.rftanding that fhe had hired aflaflins to dtfpatch
him, he caufed her to be murdered. 44
Tbe death of the queen was no fooner known to the Lathyrus
Alexandrians, than, difdaining to be commanded byreftore ‘
a parricide, they drove out Alexander, and recalled La¬
thyrus.—The depofed prince for fome time led a ram¬
bling life in the ifland of Cos -, but having got together
fome (hips, he, the next year, attempted to return into
Egypt. But being met by Tyrrhus, Lathyrus’s admi¬
ral, he was defeated, and obliged to fly to Myra in
Lycia. From Myra be fleered bis courfe towards
Cyprus, hoping that the inhabitants would place him
on the throne, inftead of his brother. But Choreas,
another of Lathyrus’s admirals, coming up with him
while he was ready to land, an engagement enfued, in
which Alexander’s fleet was difperfed, and he himfelf
killed. 45
During thefe diflurbances, Apion king of Cyrenaica, Cyrenaicai
the fon of Ptolemy Phyfcon by a concubine,, having Ro
maintained peace and tranquillity in his dominions du- manSt
ring a reign of 21 years, died, and by bis will left
his kingdom to the Romans 5 and thus the Egyp¬
tian empire was confiderably reduced and ciicum-
feribed. * 4^
Lathyrus being now delivered from all competitors, City of
turned his arms againft the city of 1 hebes, which ruined*
revolted from him. The king marched in perfen
againft the rebels ; and, having defeated them in a
pitched battle, laid clofe fiege to their city, i.he in¬
habitants defended themfelves with great refolut.ipn for
three years. At laft, however, they were obliged to
fnbmit, and the city was given up to be plundered by
the foldiery. They left everywhere the moft melan-
g y r 603 i
for Phyfcon, a civil
t G Y
t 601 ]
E G Y
47,
ixander
; fucceeds
byrus.
rnes
opatra,
1 mur-
s her.
49 .
aves his
gdora
the Ro-
clioly monuments of their avarice and cruelty j fo that
Thebes, which till that time had been one of the moft
wealthy cities of Egypt, was now reduced fo low that
it never afterwards made any figure.
About 76 years before Chrift, Ptolemy Lathyrus
was fucceeded by Alexander II. He was the fon of
the Ptolemy Alexander for whom Lathyrus had been
driven out j and had met with many adventures. He
was firft fent by Cleopatra into the ifland of Cos, with
a great fum of money, and all her jewels j as thinking
that would be the fafeft place where they could be kept.
When Mithfidates king of Pontus made himfelf matter
of that Hland, the inhabitants delivered up to him the
young Egyptian prince, together with all the trea-
fures. Mithridates gave him an education fuitable to
his birth *, but he, not thinking himfelf fafe with a
prince who had fhed the blood of his own children,
fled to the camp of Sylla the Roman diftator, who
was then making war in Alia. From that time he li¬
ved in the family of the Roman general, till news was
brought to Rome of the death of Lathyrus. Sylla then
fent him to Egypt to take poflefllon of the throne.
But, before his arrival, the Alexandrians had chofen
Cleopatra for the fovereign. To compromife matters,
however, it was agreed, that Ptolemy ftiould marry her,
and take her for his partner in the throne. This was
accordingly done; and 19 days after marriage, the
unhappy queen was murdered by her hufband, who for
15 years afterwards fhowed himfelf fuch a monfter of
wickednefs, that a general infurre&ion at laft enfued
among his fubjefls, and he was obliged to fly to Pom*
pey the Great, who was then carrying on the war a-
gainft Mithridates king of Pontus. But Pompey
refufing to concern himfelf in the matter, he retired
to the city of Tyre, where he died feme months
after.
When he was forced to fhut himfelf up in the city
of Tyre, Alexander had fent ambafladors to Rome, in
order to influence the fenate in his favour. But, dy¬
ing before the negociation was finifhed, he made over
by his laft will all his rights to the Roman people, de¬
claring them heirs to his kingdom : not out of any af-
feftion to the republic ; but with a view to raife dif-
putes between the Romans and his rival Auletes, whom
the Egyptians had placed on the throne. The will
was brought to Rome, where it occafioned warm de¬
bates. Some were for taking immediate poflefllon of
the kingdom. Others thought that no notice (hould
be taken of fuch a will, becaufe Alexander had no
right to difpofe of his dominions in prejudice of his fuc-;
ceflfor, and to exclude from the crown thofe who were
of the royal family of Egypt. Cicero reprefented, that
fuch a notorious impofition would debafe the majefty of
the Roman people, and involve them in endlefs wars
and difputes ; that the fruitful fields of Egypt would
be a ftrong temptation to the avarice of the people,
who would infill on their being divided among them ;
and laftly, that by this means the bloody quarrels about
the Agrarian laws would be revived. Thefe reafons
had fome weight with the fenate; but what chiefly pre¬
vented them from feizing on Egypt at this time was,
that they had lately taken pofleflion of the kingdom of
Bithynia in virtue of the will of Nicomedes, and of
Cyrene and Libya by the will of Apion. They thought
therefore, that if they Ihould, on the like pretence,
VOL. VII. Part II.
taka pofleflion of the kingdom of Egypt, this might Egypt.
too much expofe their defign of fetting up a kind of v J
univerfal monarchy, and occafion a formidable combi¬
nation againft them. 50
Auletes, who was now raifed to the throne by the Giara<5ter
Egyptians, is faid to have furpafled all the kings that°^“^e1
went before him in the effeminacy of his manners. The
name Auletes, which fignifies the flute-player, was given
him becaufe he piqued himfelf on his Ikill in perform¬
ing upon that inttrument, and was not alhamed even to
contend for the prize in the public games. He took
great pleafure in imitating the manners of the Baccha¬
nals ; dancing in a female drefs, and in the fame mea-
fures that they ufed during the folemnities of their god
Bacchus} and hence he had the ftirname of the Neva
Dionyflus or Bacchus. As his title to the crown was
difputable (he being only the fon of a concubine),
the firft care of Auletes was to get himfelf acknow¬
ledged by the Romans, and declared their ally. This
was obtained by applying to Julius Caefar, who was atlsacknow-
this time conful, and immenfely in debt. Csefar beingh^ged by
glad of fuch an opportunity of raifing money, madet*ieK'°”
the king of Egypt pay pretty dear for his alliance.
Six thoufand talents, a fum equal to 1,162,5001. fter-
ling, were paid partly to Caefar himfelf, and partly
to Pompey, whofe intereft was neceffary for obtaining
the confent of the people. Though the revenue*:
of Egypt amounted to twice this fum, yet Auletes
found it impoflible for him to raife it without feverely
taxing his fubjefls. This occafioned a general dif-
content} and while the people were almoft ready to
take up arms, a moft unjuft decree paffed at Rome for
feizing the ifland of Cyprus. When the Alexandrians
heard of the intentions of the republic, they preffed
Auletes to demand that ifland as an ancient appendage
of Egypt; and, in cafe of a refufal, to declare war
againft that haughty and imperious people, who, they
now faw, though too late, aimed at nothing lefs than
the fovereignty of the world. With this requeft the
king refufed to comply ; upon which his fubje<5ls, al-
ready provoked beyond meafure at the taxes with which Ts driven
they were loaded, flew to arms, and furrounded the pa-fr°mthe
lace. The king had the good luck to efcape their fu-^irone’ inc*
ry, and immediately leaving Alexandria, fet fail for
Rome.
In his way to that city, he landed on the ifland of
Rhodes, where the famous Cato at that time was, be¬
ing on his way to Cyprus, to put the unjuft decree of
the fenate into execution. Auletes, defirous to confer
with a man of his prudence, immediately fent to ac¬
quaint him with his arrival. He imagined, that, up¬
on this notice, Cato would immediately come and wait
upon him } but the proud Roman told the meffenger,
that if the king of Egypt had any thing to fay to Ca¬
to, he might, if he thought proper, come to his houfe.
Accordingly the king went to pay him a vifit; but was
received with very little ceremony by Cato, who did
not even Vouchfafe to rife out of his feat when he came
into his prefence. When Auletes had laid his affairs Cate's ad-
before this haughty republican, he was blamed by him viceto him4
for leaving Egypt, the richeft kingdom in the world,
in order to expofe himfelf, as he faid, to the indigni¬
ties he would meet with at Rome. There Cato told
him, that nothing was in requeft but wealth and gran¬
deur. All the riches of Egypt, he faid, would not be
4 G fufficient
E G Y [602] E G Y
Egypt-
54
Infamous
condudt of
Auletes.
fufficient to fatisfy the avarice of the leading men in
liome. He therefore advifed him to return to Egypt ;
and drive, by a more equitable conduct, to regain the
affections ol his people. He even offered to reconduCt
him thither, and employ his good offices in his behalf.
But though Ptolemy was feniible of the propriety
of this advice, the friends he had with him diffuaded
him from following it, and accordingly he fet out for
Rome.
On his arrival in this metropolis, the king found, to
his great concern, that Caefar, in whom he placed his
greateft confidence, was then in Gaul. He was receiv¬
ed, however, by Pompey with great kindnefs. He
affigned him an apartment in his own houfe, and omitted
nothing that lay in his power to ferve him. But, not-
with(landing the protection of fo powerful a man, Au¬
letes was forced to go from houfe to houfe like a pri¬
vate perfon, foliciting the votes of the fenators. Af¬
ter he had fpent immenfe treafures in procuring a ftrong
party in the city, he was at laft permitted to lay his
complaints before the fenatej and at the fame time there
arrived an embaffy from the Alexandrians, confiding of
loo citizens, to acquaint the fenate with the reafon of
their revolt.
When Auletes firft fet out for Rome, the Alexan-
r:\ifed tothe drians, not knowing what was become of him, placed
55
Berenice
Egypt.
5*
on the throne his daughter Berenice j and fent an em¬
baffy into Syria to Antiochus Afiaticus, inviting him
into Egypt to marry the queen, and reign in partner-
ffiip with her. Antiochus was dead before the arrival
of the ambaffadors ; upon which the fame propofal was
57
Marries
Archelaus.
She marries made to his brother Seleucus, who readily accepted it.
Seleucu?, This Seleucus is deferibed by Strabo as monfiroufly de-
and mtn- formecJ Jn body, and (till more fo in mind. The E-
der- um. gyptjans nicknamed him Cybiofa&les, or the Scullion : a
name which feemed more fit for him than any other.
He was fcarce fettled on the throne, when he gave a
fignal inftance of his fordid and avaricious temper.
Ptolemy the firlt had caufed the body of Alexander the
Great to be depofited' in a coffin of maffy gold. This
the king feized upon ; and by that means provoked his
wife Berenice to fuch a degree, that Hie caufed him to
be murdered. She then married one Archelaus, high
prieft of Comana in Pontus, who pretended to be the
fon of Mithridates the Great ; but was, in faCt, only
the fon of that monarch’s general.
Auletes was not a little alarmed on hearing of thefe
tranfaCHons, efpecially when the ambaffadors arrived,
which he feared would overturn all the fchemes he had
laboured fo much to bring about. The embaffy was
headed by one Dion, a celebrated Academic philofopher
who had many powerful friends at Rome. But Ptolemy
murders the found means to get. both him and moft of his followers
Egyptian affaffinated ; and this intimidated the reft to fuch a de¬
gree, that they durft not execute their commiffion, or, for
fome time, even demand juftice for the murder of their
colleagues.
The report of fo many murders, however, at laft
fpread a general alarm. Auletes, fure of the protec¬
tion of Pompey, did not fcruple to own himfelf tfie
perpetrator of them. Nay, though an action was
commenced againft one Afcitius, an affaffin, who had
ftabbed Dion the chief of theembaffy above mentioned,
and the crime was fully proved j yet he was acquitted
58
Aule'es
ambaffa
dors.
by the venal judges, who had all been bribed by Pto- ^ypt
lemy. In a ihort time, the fenate paffed a decree, by —-y—L/
which it was enacted, that the king of Egypt (hould 59
be reftored by force of arms. All the great men inHhreftora.
Rome were ambitious of this commiffion ; which, they ^ont^ecree^
weli knew, would be attended with immenfe profit, fe*
Their contefts on this occafion took up a confiderable
time ; and at laft a prophecy of the Sybil was found
out, which forbade the affifting an Egyptian monarch
with an army. Ptolemy, therefore, wearied out with fo
long a delay, retired from Rome, where he had made
himfelf generally odious, to the temple of Diana at.
Ephefus, there to wait the decifion of his fate. Here
he remained a confiderable time : but as he faw that the
fenate came to no refolution, though he had folicited
them by letters fo to doj at laft, by Pompey’s advice, he
applied to Gabinius the proconful of Syria. This Gabi-
nius was a man of a moft infamous charafler, and ready
to undertake any thing for money. Therefore, though
it was contrary to an exprefs law for any governor to
go out of his province without pafitive orders from the
lenate and people of Rome, yet Gabinius ventured to
tranfgrefs this law, upon condition of being well paid 60
for his pains. As a recompenfe for his trouble, how-Gabinius
ever, he demanded 10,000 talents j that is, 1,937,500!.
fterling. Ptolemy, glad to be reftored on any terms,]jjmfora
agreed to pay the above-mentioned fum ; but Gabinius great fum.
would not ftir till he had received one half of it. This
obliged the king to borrow it from a Roman knight
named Caius Rabirius Rojihumius ; Pompey interpofing
his credit and authority for the payment of the capital
and intereft.
Gabinius now fet out for Egypt, attended by the
famous Mark Antony, who at this time ferved in the
army under him. He was met by Archelaus, who
fince the departure of Auletes had reigned in Egypt
jointly with Berenice, at the head of a numerous army.
The Egyptians were utterly defeated, and Archelaus
taken prifoner in the firft engagement. Thus Gabi¬
nius might have put an end to the war at once : but
his avarice prompted him to difmjfs Archelaus on his
paying a confiderable ranfom 5 after which, pretending
that he had made his efcape, frelh fums were demanded
from Ptolemy for defraying the expences of the war.
For thefe fums Ptolemy was again obliged to apply to
Rabirius, who lent him what money he wanted at a 6r
very high intereft. At laft, however, Archelaus wasv^^UJ
defeated and killed, and thus Ptolemy again becameang kljie(],
mafter of all Egypt. 6z
No fooner was Auletes firmly fettled 'on the throne, Berenice
than he put to death his daughter Berenice, and op-P^1®^
preffed his people with the moft cruel exactions, in °r-tkepe0ple
der to procure the money he had been obliged to bor-0ppreffed.
row while in a (fate of exile. Thefe oppreffions and
exaftions the cowardly Egyptians bore with great pa¬
tience, being intimidated by the garrifon which Gabi¬
nius had left in Alexandria. But neither the fear'of
the Romans, nor the authority of Ptolemy, could make
them put up an affront offered to their religion. A
Roman foldier happened to kill a cat, which was an
animal held facred and even worfhipped by the Egyp¬
tians 5 and no fooner was this fuppofed facrilege known,
than the Alexandrians made a general infurredlion,
and gathering together in crowds, made their way-
through
E G Y
[ 603 ]
E G Y
Egypt
*3
through the Roman guard?, dragged the foldier out of
his houfe, and, in fpite of all oppofition, tore him in
pieces.
Notwithftanding the heavy taxes, however, which
Ptolemy laid on his people, it doth not appear that
he had any defign of paying his debts. Rabirius, who,
as we have already obferved, had lent him immenfe
fums, finding that the king affected delays, took a
voyage to Egypt, in order to expoftulate with him in
rratitude perfon. Ptolemy paid very little regard to his expoflu-
Auletes. jatJons • but exeufed himfelf on account of the bad
flate of his finances. For this reafon he offered to
make Rabirius colle£tor general of his revenues, that
he might in that employment pay himfelf. The unfor¬
tunate creditor accepted the employment for fear of
lofing his debt. But Ptolemy foon after, upon fome
frivolous pretence or other, caufed him and all his fer-
vants to be clofely confined. This bafe conduft exaf-
perated Pompey as much as Rabirius ; for the former
had been in a manner fecurity for the debt, as the money
had been lent at his requeft, and the bufinefs tranfa£led
at a country houfe of his near Alba. However, as
Rabirius had reafon to fear the word, he took the firft
opportunity of making his efcape, glad to get off with
life from his cruel and faithlefs debtor. To complete
his misfortunes, he was profecuted at Rome as foon as
he returned, 1. For having enabled Ptolemy to corrupt
the fenate with fums lent him for that purpofe. 2. Fnf
having debafed and difhonoured the character of a
Roman knight, by farming the revenues, and becoming
the fervant of a foreign prince. 3. For having been
an accomplice with Gabinius, and (haring with him the
10,000 talents which that proconful had received for his
Egyptian expedition. By the eloquence of Cicero
he was acquitted ; and one of the beft orations to be
found in the writings of that author was compofed on
this occafion. Gabinius was alfo profecuted ; and, as
Cicero fpoke againft him, he very narrowly efcaped
death. He was, however, condemned to perpetual
banhhment, after having been dripped of all he was
worth. He lived in exile till the time of the civil wars,
when he was recalled by Caefar, in whofe fervice he loft
his life.
Auletes enjoyed the throne of Egypt about four
hildren to years after his re-eftabliftiment ; and at his death left
he care of children, a fon and two daughters, under the tui¬
tion of the Roman people. The name of the fon was
Ptolemy, thofe of the daughters Were Cleopatra and
Slrfmoe. This was the Cleopatra who afterwards be¬
came fo famous, and had fo great a (hare in the civil
wars of Rome. As the tranfaftions of the prefent
reign, however, are fo clofely connefted with the
affairs of Rome, that they cannot be well underftood
without knowing the fituation of the Romans at that
time, we refer for an account of them to the Hi/lory
65 of Rome.
State of E- With Clfcopatra ended the family of Ptolemy Lagus,
Jpt till its the founder of the Grecian empire in Egypt, aiter it
Kifi^had held that country in fubjection for the fpace of
I’fOairwan 294 years. From this time Egypt became a province
of the Roman empire, and continued fubjeft to the
emperors of Rome or Conftantinople. In the year
642, it was conquered by the Arabs under Amru Ebn
al As, one of the generals of the caliph Omar. In the
year 889, an independent government was fet up in
*4 .
.eaves his
he Ro
lans.
this kingdom by Ahmed Ebn Tolun, who rebelled Egypt.
againft Al Mokhadi caliph of Bagdad. It continued —y—^
to be governed by him and his fucceffors for 2*] years,
when it was again reduced by Al Mo61a(i caliph of
Bagdad. In about 30 years after, we find it again an
independent (late, being joined with Syria under Ma¬
homet Ebn Taj, who had been appointed governor of
thefe provinces. This government, however, was alfo
but (hurt-lived ; for in the year 698 it was conquered
by Jawhar,one of the generals of Moez Lediniilah, the
Fatemite caliph of Cairwan in Barbary. See Barbary,
N° 34. _ . (?
No fooner was Moez informed of the fuccefs of his VIotz takes
general, than he prepared with all expedition to go and pcfltffion of
take poffeffion of his new conqueft. Accordingly he
ordered all the vaft quantities of gold which he and 0
his predeceffors had amafled, to be call into ingots of
the fize and figure of the millftones ufed in hand-mills,
and conveyed on camels backs into Egypt. I o (how
that he was fully determined to abandon his dominions
in Barbary, and to make Egypt the refidence of him¬
felf and his fucceffors, he caufed the remains of the
three former princes of his race to be removed from
Cairwan in Barbary, and to be depofited in a (lately
mofque eredled for that purpofe in the city of Cairo in
Egypt. This was a mod effedlual method to induce
his fucceffors to refide in Egypt alfo, as it was become
an eftablifhed cuftom and duty among thofe princes fre¬
quently to pay their refpe£ltul vifits to the tombs of
their anceftors.
To eftablifh himfelf the more effe£lually in his new will not
dominions, Moez fuppreffed the ufual prayers made in fuffer pray
the mofques for the caliphs of Bagdad, and fubftituted ^ to be
his own name in their (lead. This was complied cahih'of &
not only in Egypt and Syria, but even throughout all
Arabia, the city of Mecca alone excepted. The con-
fequence was, a fchiftn in the Mahommedan faith,
which continued upwards of 200 years, and was at¬
tended with continual anathemas, and fometimes de-
ftru£live wars between the caliphs of Bagdad and of
fegypt.—Having fully eftablilhed himfelf in his king¬
dom, he died in the 45th year of his age, three years
after he had left his dominions in Barbary ; and was
fucceeded by his fon Abu Ai Manfur Barar, furnamed
Aziz Billah. gs
The new caliph fuccetded to the throne at the age Unfuccefs*
of 21 j and committed the management of affairs tn-iul e]iPedi*
tirely to the care of Jawhar, his father’s long-expe-^Ion. mt*
rienced general and prime minifter. In 978, he fent i
this famous warrior to drive out Al Aftekin, the emir
of Damafcus. The Egyptian general accordingly
formed the fiege of that place j but at the end of two
months, was obliged to raife it, on the approach of an
army of Karmatians under the command of Al Hakem.
As Jawhar was not ftrong enough to venture an en¬
gagement with thefe Karmatians, it was impoflible for
him to hinder them from effecting a jun£Hon with the
forces of Al Aftekin. He therefore retreated, or ra¬
ther (led, towards Egypt with the utmoft expedition ;
but being overtaken by the two confederate armies, he
was foon reduced to the laft extremity. He was, how¬
ever, permitted to refume his march, on condition that
he paffed under Al Aftekin’s fword and Al Hakem’s
lance •, and to this difgraceful condition Jawhar found
himfelf obliged to fubmit. On his arrival in Egypt,
4 G 2 Ji«
E G Y
t 604 ]
E G Y
Esypt-
69
Aleppo be-
fieged with¬
out fuccefs.
7°
Strange
madnefs of
the caliph
Al Hakem
he immediately advifed Al Aziz to undertake an expe¬
dition in perfon into the eaft, againft the combined ar¬
my of Turks, Karmatians, and Damafcenes, under the
command of Al Aftekin and Al Hakem. The caliph
followed his advice •, and advancing againft his enemies,
overthrew them with great flaughter. Al Aftekin
himfelf efcaped out of the battle ; but was afterwards
taken and brought to Al Aziz, who made him his
chamberlain, and treated him with great kindnefs.
Jawhar, in the mean time, was difgraced on account of
his bad fuccefs : and in his difgrace he continued till
his death, which happened in the year of our Lord 990,
and of the Hegira 381.
This year Al Aziz having received advice of the
death of SaadoMawla prince of Aleppo, fent a formi¬
dable army under the command of a general named
Manjubckirty to reduce that place. Lulu, who had
been appointed guardian to Saado’dawla’s fon, finding
himfelf preffed by the Egyptians, who carried on the
fiege with great vigour, demanded aflittance from the
Greek emperor. Accordingly, he ordered a body of
troops to advance to Lulu’s relief. Manjubekin, being
informed of their approach, immediately raifed the
fiege, and advanced to give them battle. An obfti-
nate engagement enfued, in which the Greeks were
at laft overthrown with great flaughter. After this
vi&ory, Manjubekin puftied on the fiege ef Aleppo
very brilkly j but finding the place capable of defend¬
ing itfelf much longer than he at firft imagined, and
his provifions beginning to fail, he raifed the fiege.
The caliph upon this fent him a very threatening letter,
and commanded him to return before Aleppo. He did
fo ; and continued the fiege for 13 months j during all
which time it was defended by Lulu with incredible
bravery. At laft, the Egyptians hearing that a numer¬
ous army of Greeks was on their way to relieve the
city,, they raifed the fiege, and fled with the utmoft
precipitation. I he Greeks then took and plundered
fome of the cities which Al Aziz poffeffed in Syria j
and Manjubekin made the beft of his way to Damafcus,
where he fet up for himfelf. Al Aziz being inform¬
ed of this revolt, marched in perfon againft him with
a confiderable army ; but being taken ill by the way,
he expired, in the 2ift year of his reign and 42d of his
age.
Al Aziz was fucceeded by his fon Abu Al Manfur,
furnamed Al Hakem ; who, being only 11 years of age,
was put under the tuition of a eunuch of approved inte-
grity..
This reign is remarkable for nothing fo much as the
madnefs with which the caliph was feized in the latter
part of it. This manifefted itfelf firrt by his ifluing
many prepofterous edifts ; but at length grew to fuch
a height, that he fancied himfelf a god, and found no
fewer than 16.000 perfons who owned him as fuch.
Thefe were moftly the Dararians, a new fe£l fprung
up about this time, who were fo called from their chief,
Mohammed Ebn Khmael, furnamed Darari. He is
fuppofed to have infpired the mad caliph with this im¬
pious notion •, and, as Darari fet up for a fecond Mo-
fes, he did not fcruple to aflert that Al Hakem was the
great Creator of the univerfe. For this reafon, a zea¬
lous Turk ftabbed him in the caliph’s chariot. His
death was followed by a three days uproar in the city
#£ Cairo j during which, Darari’s houfe was pulled
3
down, and many of his followers maffacred. The fe&,
however, did not expire with its author. He left be¬
hind him a difciple named Hamza, who, being encou¬
raged by the mad caliph, fpread it far and wide through
his dominions. This was quickly followed by an abro¬
gation of all the Mahommedan fafts, feftivals, and pil¬
grimages, the grand one to Mecca in particular; fo
that the zealous Mahometans w'ere now greatly alarm¬
ed, as juftly fuppofing that Al Hakem defigned entirely
to fupprefs the worlhip of the true God, and introduce
his own in its place. From this apprehenfion, however,
they were delivered by the death of the caliph ; who
was affaflinated, by a contrivance of his own lifter, in
the year 1020. ,
Al Hakem was fucceeded by his fon Al Thaher, who
reigned 15-years j and left the throne to a fon under
feven years of age, named Al Moftanfer Billah.—-In the
year 1041, a revolt happened in Syria; but Al Moftan¬
fer having fent a powerful army into that country, under
the command of Anufhtekiriy he not only reduced the
rebels, but confiderably enlarged the Egyptian domini¬
ons in Syria.
In 1054, a Turk named Al Baffafiri, having quar-Al Moftai
relied with the vizir of Ai Kayem caliph of Bagdad, tied ferattem]
to Egypt, and put himfelf under the protection oftlie(0n-
A1 Moftanfer. The latter, imagining this would be a
favourable opportunity for enlarging his dominions, and “
perhaps feizing on the city of Bagdad, fupplied Baffa¬
firi with money and troops. By this affiftance, he was
enabled to poffefs himfelf of Arabian Irak, and rava¬
ged that province to the very gates of Bagdad. On l aliph^f
this, Al Kayem wrote to Togrol Beg, or Tangroli-Bagdad a
pix, the Turkifh fultan, who poffeffed very extenfive l3? !
dominions in the eaft, to come to his aflillance. The £°8ro*
fultan immediately complied with his requeft, and foon15 ^
arrived at Bagdad with a formidable army and 18 ele¬
phants. Of this Baffafiri gave notice to Al Moftan¬
fer, and entreated him to exert himfelf further for his
fupport againft fo powerful an enemy. This was ac¬
cordingly done, but nothing worthy of notice happen¬
ed till the year 1058. At this time Baffafiri having
found meansf to excite Ibrahim the fultan’s brother to
a revolt, Togrol Beg was obliged to employ all his
force againft him. This gave Baffafiri an opportunity
of feizing on the city of Bagdad itfelf; and the unfor- B?gdad
tunate caliph, according to fome, was taken prifoner,tak6”'
or, according to others, fled out of the city. Baffafiri,
on his entry, caufed Al Moftanfer to be immediately
proclaimed caliph in all quarters of the city. Al Kay-
em’s vizir he caufed to be led on a camel through the
ftreets of Bagdad, dreffed in a woollen gown, with a
high red bonnet, and leathern collar about his neck ; a
man lafhing him all the way behind. Then being lewed
up in a bull’s hide, with the horns placed over his
head, and hung upon hooks, he was beaten without
ceafing till he died. The imperial palace was plun¬
dered, and the caliph himfelf detained a clofe pri-
foner 74
This fuccefs was but (hort lived ; for, in IO59, To-Xhecali]
grol Beg defeated his brother Ibrahim, took him pri-reftored.
foner, and ftrangled him with a bow firing. He then
inarched to Bagdad, which Baflafiri thought proper to
abandon at his approach. Here the caliph Al Kayem
was delivered up by Mahras, the governor of a city
called Hadithay who had the charge of him. Th®
caliph,
E G Y
caliph was immediately reftored to his dignity *, which
Baffafiri no fooner underftood, than he again advanced
towards the city. Againfl him Togrol Beg fent a
part of his army under feme of his generals, while he
himfelf followed with the reft. A battle enfued, in
which the army of Baffafiri was defeated, and he him¬
felf killed. His head was brought to Togrol Beg,
who caufed it to be brought on a pike through the
ftreets of Bagdad.
75 ^ Thus the hopes of A1 Moftanfer were entirely fru-
, Egyp- ftrated j and from this period we may date the declen-
aempire.fum 0f the Egyptian empire under the caliphs. They
had made themfelves mafters of almoft all Syria ; but
no fooner was Baffafiri’s bad fuccefs known, than the
younger part of the citizens of Aleppo revolted, and
fet up Mahmud Azzo’dawla, who immediately laid
fiege to the citadel. A1 Moftanfer fent a powerful ar¬
my again!! him, which Azzo’dawla entirely defeated,
and took the general himfelf prifoner *, and foon after
this, he made himfelf matter both of the city and cita¬
del, with all their dependencies. In his new domi¬
nions he behaved with the greateft cruelty, deltroying
every thing with fire and fword, and making frequent
incurfinns into the neighbouring provinces, which he
treated in the fame manner.
miHefa- This difailer was foon followed by others ftill more
ineand terrible. In ic66, a famine raged over all Egypt and
»gue. Syria, with fuch fury, that dogs and cats were fold tor
four or five Egyptian dinars each, and other provifions
in proportion. Multitudes of people died in Cairo for
want of food. Nay. fo great was the fcarcity, that
the vizir had but one fervantleft who was able to attend
him to the caliph’s palace, and to whom he gave the
care of his horfe when he alighted at the gate. But
at his return, he was furprifed to find that the horfe
had been carried off, killed and eaten by the famifiied
people. Of this he complained to the caliph ; who
caufed three of them who had carried off the horfe to
be hanged. Next day, however, he was ftill more fur¬
prifed to hear, that all the flefh had been picked off the
bones of the three unhappy criminals, fo that nothing
but the fkeletons were left. And to fuch a degree of
mifery were the inhabitants, not onlv in Cairo but
through all Egypt, reduced, that the carcafes of thofe
who died were fold for food at a great price, inftead of
being buried. All this time the^caliph (bowed the
greattft kindnefs and beneficence towards his unhappy
fubjedrls; infomuch that of to.ooo. horfes, mule-, and
camels, which he had in his ftables when the famine be¬
gan, he had only three left when it was removed.
Waded by Tl,e famine was followed by a plague; and this by
i* Turks an invafion of the Turks under Abu Ali A1 Hafan
Naferod’dawla, the very general who had been fent a
gain!! the rebel Azzo’dawla and defeated by him.
He began with befieging the caliph in his own palace ;
and the unhappy prince, being in no condition to make
refiftance, was obliged to buy himfeU oft at the ex¬
pence of ever,r thing valuable that was left in his ex-
haufted capital and treafury. 1 his, however, did not
hinder thofe mercilefs plunderers from ravaging all
the Lower Egypt from Cairo to Alexandria, and com¬
mitting the moft horrid cruelties through that whole
traft.—-This happened in the years 1067 an(l 1068 ;
and in 1069 and 1070, there happened two other re-
E G Y
volts in Syria : fo that this country was now almoft en- Egypt,
tirely loft. v ur
Iii 1095 died the caliph A1 Moftanfer, having reign¬
ed 60 years j and was fucceeded by his fon Abul Ka-
fem, furnamed A1 Moftali. The moft remarkable
tranfa&ion of this prince’s reign, was his taking the city
of Jeruialem from the Turks in 1098 j but this fuccefs Jerufalem
was only of ftiort duration j for it was the lame year taken,
taken by the crufaders.
From this time to the year 1164, t^ie Egyptian hi-
ftory affords little elfe than an account of the inteftine
broils and contefts between the vizirs or prime mini-
fters, who were now become fo powerful, that they
had in a great meafure ftripped the caliphs of their ci¬
vil power, and left them nothing but a lhadovv of fpi-
ritual dignity. Thefe contefts at lalt gave occafion to ^
a revolution, by which the race of Fatemite caliphs A revolu.
was totally extinguilhed. This revolution was accom-tl.on ,n ^
pliihed in the following manner. One Shawer, having^in^orB'
overcome all his competitors, became vizir to A1 A-
ded, the eleventh caliph of Egypt. He had not been
long in poffeflion of this office, when A1 Dargam, an
officer of rank, endeavoured to deprive him of it^
Both parties quickly had recourfe to arms ; and a battle
enfued, in which Shawer was defeated, and obliged
to fly to Nuroddin prince of Syria, by whom he was
gracioufly received, and who promifed to reinliate him
in his office of vizir. As an inducement to Nuroddin
to affift him more powerfully, Shawer told him that the
crufaders had landed in Egypt, and made a confiderable
progrefs in the conqueft of it. He promifed alfo, that,
in cafe he was reinftated in his office, he would pay Nu¬
roddin annually the third part of the revenues of Egypt j
and would, befides, defray the whole expence of the ex¬
pedition.
As Nuroddin bore an implacable hatred to the Chri-
ftians, he readily undertook an expedition againft them,
for which he was to be fo well paid. He therefore
fent an army into Egypt under the command of Shawer
and a general named Afadoddin. Dargam, in the mean
time, had cut off fo many generals whom he imagi¬
ned favourable to Shawer’s intereft, that he thereby
weakened the military force of the kingdom, and in a
great meafure deprived himfelf of the power of refift¬
ance. He was therefore eafily overthrown by Afa-
d<>ddin, and Shawer reinftated in the office of vizir.
The faithlefs minifter, however, no fooner faw himfelf
firmly eftablifhed in his office, than he refufed to fulfil
his engagements to Nuroddin by paying the ftipulated
fums. Upon this, Afadoddin feized Pelufium and fame
other cities. Shawer then entered into an alliance with,
the crufaders, and Afadoddin wasbefieged by their com¬
bined forces in Pelufium. Nuroddin, however, having
invaded the Chritlian dominions in Syria, and taken a
ftrong fortrefs called Harem, Shawer and his confede¬
rates thought proper to hearken to fame terms of ac¬
commodation,. and Afadoddin was permitted to depart
for Syria.
In" the mean time, Nuroddin, having fubdued the
greateft part of Syria and Mefopotamia, refalved to
make Shawer feel the weight of his refentment on
account of his perfidious condufl. He therefore fent
back Afadoddin into Egypt with a fufficient force,
to compel Shawer to fulfil his engagements ; but this
[ 605 ]
Egypt.
So
Conquefts
of the cru*
faders.
E G Y t ^ ]
the vizir took care to do before the arrival of Afadod- promifes.
din j and thus, for the prefent, avoided the danger.
It was not long, however, before he gave Nuroddin
fredi oecafion to fend this general againft him. I hat
prince had now driven the crufaders almoft entirely
out of Syria, but was greatly alarmed at their progrtfs
in Egypt ; and confequently offended at the alliance
which Shawer had concluded with them, and which
he dill perfifted in obferving. This treaty was alfo
thought to be contrived on purpofe to prevent Shawer
from being able to fulfil his promife to Nuroddin, of
fending him annually a third of the revenues of Egypt.
Nuroddin therefore again defpatched Afadoddin into
Egypt, in the year 1166, with a fufficient force, and
attended by the famous Salahaddin, or Saladin, his
own nephew. They entered the kingdom without op-
pofition, and totally defeated Shawer and the crufa¬
ders. They next made themfelves mailers of Alex¬
andria ; and, after that, overran all the Upper Egypt.
Saladin was left with a confiderable garrifon in Alexan¬
dria ; but Afadoddin was no fooner gone, than the
crufaders laid fiege to that city. This at laft obliged
Afadoddin to return to its relief. The great Ioffes he
had fuflained in this expedition probably occafioned
his agreeing to a treaty with Shawer, by which he
engaged to retire out of Egypt, upon being paid a fum
of money.
Afadoddin was no fooner gone, than Shawer enter¬
ed into a frefh treaty with the Franks. By this new
alliance he was to attack Nuroddiri in his own domi¬
nions, as he was at that time engaged in quelling fome
revolters, which would effe&ually prevent his fending
any more forces into Egypt. This treaty fo provoked
the Syrian prince, that he refolved to fufpend his other
conquefts for fome time, and exert his whole ftrength
in the conqueft of Egypt.
Bv this time the crufaders had reduced Pelufium,
and made a confiderable progrefs in the kingdom, as
well as in fome other countries, through the divifions
which reigned among the Mahometan princes. In
fuch places as they conquered, they put almoft every
body to the fword ; Chriftians as well as Mahometans;
felling their prifoners for {laves, and giving up the
towns to be plundered by the foldiers. From Pelu¬
fium they marched to Cairo •, which was then in no
porture of defence, and in the utmofl confufion, by
reafon of the divifions which reigned in it. Shawer,
therefore, as foon as he heard of their approach, cau-
fed the ancient quarter called Mefr to be fet on fire,
and the inhabitants to retire into the other parts. He
alfo prevailed upon the caliph to folicit the affiflance
of Nuroddin ; which the latter was indeed pretty much
inclined of himfelf to grant, as it gave him the fairell
opportunity he could have wiibed for, both of driving
the crufaders out of Egvpt, and of feizing the king¬
dom to himfelf. For this purpofe he had already raifed
an army of 60,000 horfe under his general Afadoddin;
and, on the receipt of Al Aded’s meffage, gave them
orders to fet out immediately. The crufaders were
now arrived at Cairo; and had fo clofely befieged that
place, that neither Shawer nor the caliph knew any
thing of the approach of the Modem army which was
haftening to their relief. The vizir, therefore, find¬
ing it impofiible to hold out long againft the enemy,
had recourfe to his old fubterfuge of treaties and high
%pt.
E G Y
He fent the enemy 100,000 dinars, and
promifed them 900,000 more, if they would raife the
fiege ; which they, dreading the approach of Afadod¬
din, very readily accepted. 8i
The army of Nuroddin now approached the capital They are
by bally marches, and were everywhere received withrePu|fed b
the greateft demonftrations of joy. Afadoddin, on his1*^ arm.Vl
arrival at Cairo, was invited by Al Aded to the royalQf1 [
palace, where he was entertained in the moft magnifi-Damafcus.
cent manner, and received feveral prefents nor were
Saladin and the other principal officers lefs magnificent¬
ly treated. Shawer alfo, confcious of his perfidious
condudl, was no lefs affiduous in attending pundlually
upon him. But having invited the general and fome
others to an entertainment, he had formed a fcheme of
having them feized and murdered. The plot, however,
being difcovered, Shawer himfelf had his head cut off,
and Afadoddin was made vizir in his Head. He did
not, however, long enjoy his new dignity j for he died
two months and five days after his inftalment, being
fucceeded in his office of vizir by his nephew Sala-Sahcfin b»
din. comes vizi
The new vizir was the youngeft of all the grandees°f Egypt,
who afpired to that office, but had already given fome
fignal proofs of his valour and conduft. What deter¬
mined the caliph to prefer him to all the reft is not
known; but it is certain that fome of them were highly
difpleafed with his promotion, and even publicly de¬
clared that they would not obey him. In order to gain
thefe to his intereft, therefore, Saladin found it necef-
fary to diftribute among the m part of the vaft treafures
left by his uncle ; by which means he foon governed
Egypt without controul, as bad been cuftomary with
the vizirs for fome time before. Soon after his being
inftalled into the office of vizir, he gave a total defeat
to the negroes who guarded the royal palace, and had
oppofed his eledlion ; by which means, and a ftrong
garrifon he had placed in the caftle of Cairo, his power
became firmly eftabliffied. Though he had not the
leaft intention of continuing in his allegiance to Nu¬
roddin, he did not think it prudent at firft to declare
himfelf. He fent for his father, however, and the reft
of his family, who were in Nuroddin’s dominions, in
order, as he faid, to makp them partakers of his gran¬
deur and happinefs. Nuroddin did not think proper
to deny this requert ; though, being already jealous of
the great power of Saladin, he infilled that his family
ffiould confider him only as one of his generals in E-
gypt-
A good underftanding fubfifted between Nuroddin
and Saladin for fome time, which did not a little con¬
tribute to raife the credit of the latter with the Egyp¬
tians. In 1169, Nuroddin fent him orders to omit
the name of Al Aded, the caliph of Egypt, in the pu¬
blic prayers, and fubftitute that of the caliph of Bagdad
in its place. This uas at any rate a dangerous at¬
tempt ; as it might very readily produce a revolt in fa¬
vour of Al Aded: or if it did not, it gave Saladin an
opportunity of engroffing even that fmall remnant of
power which was left to the caliph. Al Aded, how¬
ever, was not fenfible of his difgrace; for he was onSeizesAe
his deathbed, and part recovery, when Nuroddin’s or-effer
Paleftine. Ofman, the pacha of Damafcus, however,
no fooner heard of the invafion than he prepared for war
with the uttnoft diligence, while the troops of Ali Bey
held themfelves in readinefs to fty on the firft attack.
They were relieved from their embarraffment by Sheik
Daher, who haftened to their afliftance, Avhile Ofman
(led without even offering to make the leaft refillance ;
thus leaving the enemy mailers of all Paleftine without
ftriking a (troke. About the end of February 1771,
the grand army of Ali Bey arrived j which, by the re-
prefentation made of it in Europe, was luppofed to
confift of 60,000 men. M. Volney, however, informs Volney’s
us, that this army was far from containing 60,000 fol-account of
diers ; though he allows that there might be two-thirds 115 arm^•
of that number, who were claffed as iollows : 1. hive
thouland Mamlouks, conftituting the whole effedlive
part of the army. 2. Fifteen hundred Arabs from Bar¬
bary on foot, conftituting the whole infantry of the
army. Befides thefe, the fervants of the Mamlouks,
each of whom had two, would conilitute a body of
10,000 men. A number of other fervants would con-
ftitute a body of 2000 : and the reft of the number
would be made up by fullers and other ufual attendants
on armies. It was commanded by Mohammed Bey the
friend of Ali. “ But (fays our author^) as to order and
difeipline, thefe muft not be mentioned. The armies of
the Turks and Mamlouks are nothing but a confufed
multitude of horfemen, without uniforms, on horfes of
all colours and fizes, without either keeping their ranks
or obferving any regular order.” This rabble took the
road to Acre, leaving wherever they paffed fufficient
marks of their rapacity and want of difeipline. At
Acre a jun£lion was formed with the troops of Sheik
Daher, confiding of 1500 Safadians (the name of
Sheik Daher’s fubje&s, from Safad, a village of Gali¬
lee, originally under bis jurifdiftion). Thefe were on
horfeback, and accompanied by I 2C0 Motualis cavalry
under the command of Sheik Nafif, and about 1000
Mogrebian infantry. Thus they proceeded towards
Damafcus, while Ofman prepared to oppofe. them by
another army equally numerous and ill regulated : and
M. Volney gives the following defeription of their ope- ir-
rations : “ The reader muft not here figure to himfelf Their ab-
a number of complicated and artificial movements: fuch^rci, mfc_
as thofe which, within the laft century, have reducedQn
war with us to a feienee of fyftem and calculation. Thewar>
Afiatics are unacquainted with the firft elements of this
conduft. Their armies are mere mobs, their marches
ravages, their campaigns inroads, and their battles
bloody frays. The ftrongeft or the moft adventurous
party goes in queft of the other, which frequently dies
without making any refiftance. If they (land their
ground, they engage pell-mell, difeharge their carabines, .
break their fpears, and hack each other with their fabres; .
for.
E G Y '[ 614 ] E G Y
ij<5
Defection
■ Egypt, for they have feldorn any cannon, and when they have,
''““'■V' they are but of little fervice. A panic frequently dif-
fules itfelf without caufe ; one party flies, the other
fhouts vi£lory j the vanquithed fubmit to the will of the
conqueror, and the campaign often terminates without a
battle.
“ Such, in a great meafure, were the military opera¬
tions in Syria in the year I771* The combined army
of Ali Bey and Sheik Daher marched to Damafcus.
The pachas waited for them ; they approached, and, on
the 6th of June, a decifive action took place : the Mam-
louks and Safadians rufhed on the Turks with fuch fury,
that, terrified at their courage, they immediately took
to flight, and the pachas were not the laft in endeavour¬
ing to make their efcape. The allies became mailers of
the country, and took pofleflion of the city without op-
pofition, there being neither walls nor foldiers to defend
it. I he caftle alone refilled. Its ruined fortifications
had not a Angle cannon, much lefs gunners j but it was
furrounded by a muddy ditch, and behind the ruins
were polled a few mulketeers ; and thefe alone were
fufficient to check this army of cavalry. As the be-
fieged, however, were already conquered by their fears,
they capitulated the third day, and the place was to be
furrendered next morning, when, at day-break, a molt
extraordinary revolution took place.
I his was no lefs than the defe£lion of Mohammed
Ah Bey’s Bey himfelf, whom Ofrnan had gained over in a con-
genera . ference during the night. At the moment, therefore,
that the fignal of furrender was expe£led, this treache¬
rous general founded a retreat, and turned towards E-
gypt with all his cavalry, flying with as great precipi¬
tation as if he had been purfued by a fuperior army,
Mohammed continued his march with fuch celerity,
that the report of his arrival in Egypt reached Cairo
only fix hours before him. Thus Ali Bey found him¬
felf at once deprived of all his expectations of con-
quelt 5 and what was worfe, found a traitor whom he
durll not punifli at the head of his forces. A fudden
reverfe of fortune now took place. Several vefl'els laden
with corn for Sheik Daher were taken by a Ruflian
privateer 5 and Mohammed Bey, whom he defigned to
have put to death, not only made his efcape, but was fo
well attended that he could not be attacked. His fol¬
lowers continuing daily to increafein number, Moham¬
med foon became fafficiently flrong to march towards
Cairo; and, in the month of April 1772, having de-
117 feated the troops of Ali in a rencounter, entered the
He is driven city fword in hand, while the latter had fcarce time to
Cairo and ^ efcaPe 800 Mamlouks. With difficulty
he was enabled to get to Syria by the affiflance of
Sheik Daher, whom he immediately joined with the
troops he had with him. The Turks under Ofman
were at that time befieging Sidon, but raifed the fiege
on the approach of the allied army, confining of about
Defeats the 7000 cavalry. Though the Turkifti army w as at leaft
three tiraes their nuraber» the allies did not hefitate to
attack them, and gained a complete vi&ory. Their af¬
fairs now began to wear a more favourable afpetf ; but
the military operations were retarded by the fiege of
Yafa, a place which had revolted ; and which, though
defended .only by a garden wall, without any ditch, held
out for eight months. In the beginning of 1773 it
capitulated, and Ali Bey began to think of returning
to Cairo. For this purpofe Sheik Daher had promifed
with diffi
culty gets
into Syria.
11S
retrieves
his affairs.
to furnifh him with fuccours; and the Ruffian*, with E(ry .
whom he had now contrafted an alliance, made him a —-v^i.
promife of the like kind. Ali, however, ruined every
thing by his own impatience. Deceived by an aftro-He isruir
loger, who pretended that the aufpicious moment when e
ral inundation.” -- ^
Lower Egypt, according to M. Savary, compre¬
hends all the country between Cairo, the Mediterra¬
nean, the ifthrous of Suez and Libya. “ This itn-
menfe plain (fays he) prefents on the borders of its
parching fands a ftrip of lands cultivated along the
canals of the river, and in the middle a triangular ifland
to which the Greeks gave the name of Delta ; at the
top of the angle of which the baron de Tott informs
us the rocks of Libya and the coafts of Arabia open
and recede from each other towards the eaft and weft,
parallel to the Mediterranean. This great extent of
country, from the kingdom of Barca to Gaza, is ei¬
ther overflowed by the river, or capable of being fo $
■which thus fertilizes in a high degree a trafl of coun¬
try feemingiy devoted to perpetual barrennefs on ac¬
count of the want of rain and the heat of the cli¬
mate.’'
According to the teftimonxes of both Mr Bruce andfoaft 0f]|
M. Volney, the coaft of Egypt isfo extremely low, thatgyptex. J
it cannot be difeovered at fea till the mariners cornetreme*y
within a few leagues of it. In ancient times the failors*0"-
pretended to know when they approached this country,
by a kind of black mud brought up by their founding
line from the bottom of the fea j but this notion, though
as old as the days of Herodotus, has been difeovered to
be a miftake by Mr Bruce *, who found the mud in
queftion to arife while the veflel was oppofite to the de¬
ferts of Barca. All along the coaft of Egypt a ftrong
current fets to the eailward. ^
In former times Egypt was much celebrated for itsofthrfe
fertility ; and there is great reafon to believe, that were tility of;
the fame pains beftowed upon the cultivation of tlieCieritam
ground* and the diftribution of the waters of the Nile^°^e|n
in a proper manner, the fame fertility would ftill be '
found to remain. The caufe of decreafe in the produce
of Egypt we (hall deferibe in the words of M. Savary.
“ The canals,” fays he, fpeaking of the Delta, “ which
ufi d to convey fertility with their waters, are now filled.
The earth no longer watered, and continually expofed
to the burning ardour of the fun, is converted into a
barren land. In thofe places where formerly were feen
rich fields and flourilhing towns, on the Pelufiac, the
Tari&ic, and the Mendefian branches, which all ftrike
out from the canal of Damielta, nothing is to be found
at this day but a few miferable hamlets, furrounded by
date trees and by deferts. Thefe once navigable canals
are rtow no more than a vain refemblance ot what they
were: they have no communication with the lake Men-
zall, but what is merely temporary, on the fwelling of
the Nile ; they are dry the remainder of the year. By
deepening them by removing the mud depofited by the
river fince the Turks have made themfelves mafters of
Egypt, the country they pafs through would be again
fertilized, and the Delta recover a third of its great-
nefs.” np
Concerning this ifland it has been the opinion of aSavary’s
great many, even from very ancient times, that it wasacc0*^M
produced by the mud brought down by the inunda-jj^
tions of the Nile : and this opinion we find adopted in (jelta.
the flrongeft manner by M. Savary. His account of
the fuppofed rife of the. Delta, and indeed of the
greateft part of Egypt, is to the following purpofe.
In
E G Y [ 617 ] E G Y
t In thofe early ages where hiftory has not fixed any
epoch, a certain people defcended from the mountains
near the catarafts into the valley overflowed by the
Nile, and which w'as then an uninhabitable morafs
overgrown with reeds and canes. In what manner, or
from what motive, thefe people were induced to defcend
from their ancient habitations to fuch a place, or how
they found means to penetrate into a morafs which he
exprefsly tells us was impenetrable, we are not informed,
neither is it to our prefent purpofe to inquire. At
that time, however, the fea bathed the feet of thofe
mountains where the pyramids are built, and advanced
far into Libya. It covered alfo part of the ifthmus
of Suez, and every part of what we now call the Delta
formed a great gulf. After many ages the Egyptians,
by what means is unknown, at leait not fpecified by
our author (though they ought to have been fo, as the
country it feems was then overflowed not only by the
river but by the ocean), formed canals to carry off the
ftagnant waters of the Nile j oppofed ftrong dykes to
its ravages j and, tired of dwelling in the caverns of
rocks, built towns and cities upon (pots elevated either
by nature or art. Already the river was kept within
its bounds, the habitations of men were out of the reach
of its inundations, and experience had taught the peo¬
ple to forefee and announce them. One of the kings
of Egypt undertook to change the courfe of the river.
After running 250 leagues between the barriers already
mentioned, meeting with an unfarmountable obftacle to
the right, it turned fuddenly to the left j and taking
its courfe to the fouthward of Memphis, it fpread its
waters through the fands of Libya. The prince we
fpeak of caufed a new bed to be dug for it to the eaft of
Memphis; and by means of a large dyke obliged it to
return between the mountains, and difcharge itfelf into
the gulf that bathes the rock on which the caftle of
Cairo is built. The ancient bed of the river was flill
to be feen in the time of Herodotus, and may even be
traced at this day acrofs the deferts, pafling to the weft-
ward of the lakes of natrum. The Arabs ftill beftow
upon it the name of Bahr Be/ama, “ or fea without wa¬
ter,” and it is now almoft choked up. To the labours
of this monarch Egypt is indebted for the Delta. A
reflux of the fea was occafioned by the enormous weight
of the waters of the Nile, which precipitated themfelves
into the bottom of the gulf. Thus the fands and
mud carried along with them were colledled into heaps ;
and thus the Delta, at firft very inconfiderable, rofe
out of the fea, of which it repelled the limits. It was
a gift of the river, and it has fince been defended from
the attacks of the ocean by raifing dykes around it. Five
hundred years before the Trojan war, according to He¬
rodotus, the Delta was in its infancy ; eight cubits of
water being then fufficient to overflow it. Strabo tells
us, that boats paffed over it from one extremity to the
other; and that its towns, built upon artificial emi¬
nences, refembled the iflands of the Egean fea. At the
time that Herodotus vifited this country, 15 cubits
■were neceffary to cover all the Lower Egypt ; but the
Nile then overflowed the country for the fpace of two
days journey to the right and left of the ifland. Un¬
der the Roman empire 16 cubits performed the fame
effe6I. When the Arabs came to have the dominion,
17 cubits were requifite ; and at this day 18 are necef¬
fary to produce a plentiful crop ; but the inundation
Vol. VII. Part II.
ftops at Cairo and the neighbouring country, without Egypt,
being extended over the Lower Egypt. Sometimes, s—-y--—
however, the Nile rifes to 22 cubits ; and the caufe of
this phenomenon is the mud for fo many years accu¬
mulated on the ifland. Here, in the fpace of 3284
years, we fee the Delta elevated 14 cubits. Our author
wrote in 1777, and informs us that he twice made the
tour of the ifland during the time of the inundation.
“ The river (fays he) flowed in full ftreams in the great
branches of Rofetta and Damietta, as well as in thofe
which pafs through the interior part of the country ;
but it did not overflow the lands, except in the lower
parts, where the dykes were pierced for the purpofe of
watering the plantations of rice. We muft not, how¬
ever, imagine, as feveral travellers pretend, that this
ifland will continue to rife, and that it will become un¬
fruitful. As it owes its increafe to the annual fettling
of the mud conveyed thither by the Nile, when itceafes
to be overflowed it will no longer increafe in height,
for it is demonftrated that culture is not fufficient to
raife land. **
“ It is natural to imagine that the Delta has in-
creafed in length as well as in height; and of this we
may look upon the following faft to be a remarkable
proof. Under the reign of Pfammiticus, the Mile-
fians, with 30 veffels, landed at the mouth of the Bol-
bitine branch of the Nile, now called that of Rojetta,
where they fortified themfelves. There they built a
town called Metelis, the fame as Faoiie, which, in the
Coptic vocabularies, has preferved the name of MeJJil.
This town, formerly a fea-port, is now nine leagues
diftant from the fea ; all which fpace the Delta has in-
creafed in length from the time of Pfammiticus to the
prefent. Homer, in his Odyffey, puts the following
words in the mouth of Menelaus. ‘ In the ftormy fea
which wafhes Egypt there is an ifland called Pharos.
Its diftance from the ftiore is fuch, that a veffel with
a fair wind may make the paffage in a day.’ From the
way in which he fpeaks of this ifland in other places,
alfo, we may fuppofe that the ifland of Pharos, in his
time, was not lefs than 20 leagues diftant from the E-
gyptian coaft, though now it forms the port of Alexan¬
dria ; and this fentiment is confirmed by the moft an¬
cient writers.
“ What prodigious changes great rivers occafion on
the furface of the globe ! How they elevate, at their
mouths, iflands which become at length large portions
of the continent! It is thus that the Nile has formed
almoft all the Lower Egypt, and created out of the
waters the Delta, which is 90 leagues in circumfe¬
rence. It is thus that the Meander, conftantly repel¬
ling the waves of the Mediterranean, and gradually fill¬
ing up the gulf into which it falls, has placed in the
middle of the land the town of Miletus, formerly a ce¬
lebrated harbour. It is thus that the Tigris and the
Euphrates, let loofe from the Armenian hills, and
fweeping with them in their eourfe the fands of Me-
fopotamia, are imperceptibly filling up the Perfian
gulf.” 130
Thefe are the reafons afligned by M. Savary forBruce’s
thinking that the Delta, as well as the greateft part uf r®afon5
the Lower Egypt, had been produced by the Nile ;[r^rC<^j
but this opinion is violently contefted by othernion.
travellers, particularly Mr Bruce, who has given a
pretty long differtation upon it, as well as many occa-
4 I fional
E G Y [ 61
fional remarks through the courfe of his work. He
begins with obferving, i. That the country of Egypt
is entirely a valley bounded by rugged mountains ;
whence it might feem natural to imagine that the Nile,
overflowing a country of this kind, would be more
ready to wafli away the foil than add to it. 2. It is
obferved by Dr Shaw, and the fame is confirmed by
our author, that there is a gentle Hope from the mid¬
dle of the valley to the foot of the mountains on each
fide ; fo that the middle, in which is the channel of
the Nile, is really higher than any other part of the
valley. Large trenches are cut acrof- the country from
the channel of the river, and at right angles with it, to
the foot of the mountains. 3. As the river fwells, the
canals become filled with water, which naturally de-
fcending to the foot of the mountains, runs out at the
farther end, and overflows the adjacent level country.
4. When the water, having attained the lowed ground,
begins to ftagnate, it does not acquire any motion by
reafon of the canal’s being at right angles with the
channel of the Nile, unlefs in the cafe of exceflive rains
in Ethiopia, when the water by its regurgitation again
joins the dream. In this cafe, the motion of the cur¬
rent is communicated to the whole mafs of waters, and
every thing is fvvept away by them into the fea. 5. It
has been the opinion of feveral authors, that there was
a neceflity for meafuring the height of the inundation on
account of the quantity of mud brought down annually
by the waters, by which the landmarks were fo covered,
that the proprietors could not know their own grounds
after the river fubfided. But whatever might be the
reafon of this covering of the landmarks in ancient times,
it is certain that the mud left by the Nile could not be
fo in the time of Herodotus, or during any period of
time afligned by that hiftorian j for he afligns only
one foot of increafe of foil throughout Egypt in an
hundred years from the mud left by the river •, the in¬
creafe during one year, therefore, being only the hun¬
dredth part of a foot, could not cover any landmark
whatever. Befides, the Egyptian lands are at this day
parted by huge blocks of granite, which frequently
have gigantic heads at the end of them : and thefe
could not, at the rate mentioned by Herodotus, be
covered in feveral thoufand years. 6. The Nile does not
now bring down any great quantity of mud •, and it is
abfurd to fuppofe that it can at prefent bring down as
much as it did foon after the creation, or the ages imme¬
diately fucceeding the deluge. Throughout Abyflinia,
according to the teftimony of our author, the channel
of every torrent is now worn to the bare rock, and al-
moft every rivulet runs in a hard ftony bed, all the loofe
earth being long ago wafhed away ; fo that an annual
and equable increafe of the earth from the fediment of
the waters is impoffible. 7. Our author made a great
number of trials of the water of the Nile during the
time of its inundation in different places. At Baf-
boch, when juft coming down from the cultivated
parts of Abyflinia, and before it enters Sennaar, the
fediment is compofed of fat earth and fand, and its
quantity is exceedingly fmall. At the jumflion of the
Nile and Aflaboras the quantity of fediment is very
little augmented ; confiding ftill of the fame materials,
but now moftly fand. At Syene the quantity of fedi¬
ment was almoft nine times greater than before ; but
was now compofed almoft entirely of fand, with a very
8 ] E G Y
fmall quantity of black earth. The conclufion of our
author’s experiments, however, is different from what-
we fhould have been led to expett from thofe juft men¬
tioned. “ The experiment at Rofetta (fays he) was
not fo often repeated as the others : but the refult was,
that in the ftrength of the inundation the fediment con¬
fided moftly of fand •, and, towards the end, was much
the greater part earth. I think thefe experiments con-
clufive, as neither the Nile coming frefh from Abyflinia,
nor the Atbara, though joined by the Mareb, likewife
from the fame country, brought any great quantity of
foil from thence.”
8. Our author goes on to obferve, that had the Nile
brought down the.quantities of mud which it has been
faid to do, it ought to have been moft charged with it
at Syene j as there it contained the whole that was to
be conveyed by it into Egypt. Inftead of this, how¬
ever, the principal part of the fediment at this place
was fand j and this is very naturally accounted for from
the vaft quantities of fand taken up by the winds in the
deferts between Gooz and Syene. Here our traveller
frequently faw vaft pillars of this kind of fand, which
is fo fine and light as to form an impalpable powder,
traverfing the defect in various directions. Many of
thefe were driven upon the river $ and when it became
calm in the evening, fell down into it entirely ; thus
affording materials for the many fandy iflands to be met
with in the Nile.
9. Mr Bruce adopts the opinion of thofe who fup¬
pofe that there has been a continual decreafe of water
fince the creation of the wrorld. In this cafe, therefore,
if the land of Egypt had been continually increafing in
height while the water that was to cover it decreafed j
there muft have been frequent famines on account of
the want of a fufficient inundation. But fo far is this
from being the cafe, that, according to the teftimony
of feveral Arabian MSS. there had not, when Mr
Bruce was in Egypt, been one fcarce feafon from the
lownefs of the inundation for 34 years 5 though during
the fame fpace they had three times experienced a famine
by too great an abundance of water, which carried away
the millet.
10. If there had been fuch an increafe of land as He¬
rodotus and others fappofe, it muft now have been very
perceptible in fome of the moft ancient public monu¬
ments. This, however, is by no means the cafe. The
bafe of every obelifk in Upper Egypt is to this day
quite bare and vifible. Near Thebes there are ftill ex¬
tant two coloffd ftatues, plainly defigned for nilometers,
and which ought by this time to have been almoft co¬
vered w'ith earth } but notwithftanding the length of
time thefe have remained there, they are ftill bare to the
very bafe.
The ftrongeft arguments which the advocates for theopii
increafe of land in Egypt can make ufe of is, that venous-
the meafures by which the quantity of inundation i**j^jr“ie
determined are fmaller now than in former times ; and rife 0f 1
thefe fmall meafures are faid to have been introduced ir
by the Saracens. On this Mr Bruce very juftly ob-cientu
ferves, that fuch an expedient could not have anfwer-
ed any good purpofe •, as no decreafe of the meafure
could have augmented the quantity of corn produced
by the ground. M. Savary obferves, that, to render
his calculation concerning the growth of land in Egypt
abfolutely exatft, it would be necefiary to determine
- th©
Egypt.
E G Y [ 61
the precife length of the Greek, Roman, and Arabian
cubit •, and even to know the different alterations
which that meafure had undergone among thofe people:
But this nicety he thinks needlefs, looking upon the
general fa£t to be fully eftablidied by what he had faid
before. Mr Bruce, however, has treated the fubjedt
with much greater accuracy. He obferves, that from
the fituation of Canopus, the dillance betwixt Egypt
and Cyprus, and the extenfion of the land to the north¬
ward, it appears that no addition of any confequence
had been made to it for 3000 years part. The only
argument left for the increafe of land therefore muft be
taken from the nilometer. The ufe of this inftrument
was to determine the quantity of inundation, that fo it
might be known whether the crop would be fufficient
to enable the people to pay the taxes exadted of them
by the fovereign or not. The firft ftep was to know
what fpace of ground was overflowed in a given number
of years; and this being determined by menfuration, the
next thing was to afcertain the produce of the ground
upon an average. Thus becoming acquainted with the
greateft and leaft crops produced, together with the
exadl extent of ground overflowed, they were furnifh-
ed with all the neceflary principles for conftru&ing a
nilometer ; and nothing now remained but to eredl a
pillar in a proper place, and divide it exadfly into cu¬
bits. This was accordingly done ; the pillar was firft
divided into cubits, and thefe again were fubdivided
into digits. The firft divifion of this kind was un¬
doubtedly that mentioned in Scripture, and called the
cubit of a man ; being the length of the arm from the
middle of the round bone in the elbow to the point of
the middle finger ; a meafure ftill in ufe among all rude
nations. As no ftandard could be found by which this
meafure might be exa&ly determined, authors have dif¬
fered very much concerning the true length of the cubit
when reduced to our feet and inches. Dr Arbuthnot
reckons two cubits mentioned in Scripture; one of them
containing one foot nine inches and of an inch ;
the other one foot and of a foot ; but Mr Bruce
is of opinion' that both of thefe are too large. He
found, by menfuration, the Egyptian cubit to be ex¬
actly one foot five inches and three-fifths of an inch ;
and Herodotus mentions, that in his time the cubit ufed
for determining the increafe of the Nile was the Samian
cubit, about 18 of our inches. The latter alfo informs
us, that in the time of Moeris, the minimum of increafe
was 8 cubits, at which time all Egypt below the city
of Memphis was overflowed ; but that in his time 16
or at leaft 15 cubits were neceffary to produce the
fame eff-ft:. But to this account Mr Bruce obje&s,
that Herodotus could have no certain information con¬
cerning the nilometer, becaufe he himfelf fays that the
priefts, who alone had accefs to it, would tell him no¬
thing of the matter. Herodotus alfo informs us, that
in the time of Moeris, great lakes were dug to carry
off the waters of the inundation ; and this fuperfluous
quantity Mr Bruce fuppofes to have been conveyed in¬
to the defert for the ufe of the Arabs, and that by
fuch a vaft drain the rile of the water on the nilometer
would undoubtedly be diminilhed. But even granting
that there was fuch a difference between the rife of
the water in the time of Moeris and in that of Hero¬
dotus, it does not appear that anv thing like it has
appeared ever lince. Strabo, who travelled into Egypt
9 ] E G Y
400 years after the time of Herodotus, found that Egypt;
eight cubits were then the minimum, as well as in v
the time of Moeris. From fome paffages in Strabo,
however, it appears that it required a particular exer¬
tion of induftry to caufe this quantity of water pro¬
duce a plentiful crop ; but there is not the leaft reaion
to fuppofe, that the very fame induftry was not ne¬
ceffary in the time of Moeris ; fo that ftill there is not
any increafe of land indicated by the nilometer. About
100 years afterwards, when the emperor Adrian vifited
Egypt, we are informed from unqueftionable authority,
that 16 cubits were the minimum when the people were
able to pay their tribute; and in the fourth century,
under the emperor Julian, 15 cubits were the ftandard;
both which accounts correfpond with that of Herodo¬
tus. Laftly, Procopius, who lived in the time of Jul*
tinian, informs us, that 18 cubits were then requifite for
a minimum. # # 13a
From thefe accounts, fo various and difcordant, it is No increafe
obvious that no certain conclufion can be drawn. ^
is not indeed eafy to determine the reafon of this dif- ^eafon-
ference in point of fa£l. 1 he only conje&ure we can ^ fup*
offer is, that as it appears that by proper care a fmafter pofed;
quantity of water will anfwer the purpofe of producing
a plentiful crop, fo it is not unreafonable to fuppofe
that at different periods the induftry of the people has
varied fo much as to occafion the difagreement in que-
ftion. This would undoubtedly depend very much upon
their governor ; and indeed Strabo informs us that it
was by the care of the governor Petronius, that fuch a
final 1 quantity of water was made to anfwer the purpofe.
The conclufion drawn by Mr Bruce from the whole of
the accounts above related, is, that from them it is moft
probable that no increafe of land has been indicated by
the nilometer from the time of Moeris to that of Jufti-
nian. _ *35
On the conqueft of Egypt by the Saracens, their1™*111
barbarous and ftupid caliph deftroyed the nilometer,”
caufing another to be built in its ftead, and afterwards
fixed the ftandard of paying tribute confiderably below
what it had ufually been. The Egyptians were thus
kept in continual terror, and conftantly watched the
new nilometer to obferve the gradual increafe or de-
creafe of the water. On this he ordered the new nilo¬
meter to be deftroyed, and another to be conftru&ed,
and aft accefs to it to be denied to the people. Which
prohibition is ftill continued to Chriftians; though our
author found means to get over this obftacle, and has
given a figure of the inftrument itfelf. That the people
might not, however, be fuppofed to remain in total ig¬
norance of their fituation, he commanded a proclamation
to be daily made concerning the height of the water,
but in fuch an unintelligble manner that nobody was
made any wifer ; nor, according to our author, is the
proclamation underftood at this day. From his own ob-
fervations, however, Mr Bruce concludes, that 15 cubits
are now the minimum of inundation, and as this coin¬
cides with the accounts of it in the times of Herodotus
and Adrian, he fuppofes with great probability, that
the fame quantity of water has been neceffary to over¬
flow this country from the earlieft accounts to the pre¬
fect time.
It now remains only to take notice of what is faid
by M. Savary concerning the former diftance of the
ifland of Pharos from the land to which it is now joined.
4 I 2 With
more mo-
iern times.
E G Y [ 620 ] E G Y
Egypt. With regard to his other affertions concerning the city
'“"—■v—of Metelis having been once a fea port, M. Volney proves
M Sava ^aS Strabo unfairly, and consequently no
rv’s opinion ftrefs is to be laid uPon ^em. The principal, indeed
concerning the only, evidence which therefore remains, is the palfage
the ifle ot already quoted from Homer, viz. that “ the illand of
Pharos re- Pharos Js as far ditlant from one of the mouths of the
Volney 1 * as a ve^el can one ^ay before the wind.”
“ But (fays M. Volney) wThen Homer fpeaks of the
diftance of this ifland, he does not mean its diflance from
the (bore oppofite, as that traveller (M. Savary) has
tranflated him, but from the land of Egypt and the
river Nile. In the fecond place, by a day’s fail we mull
not underftand that indefinite fpace which the veffels,
or rather the boats of the ancient Greeks, could pafs
through in a day $ but an accurate and determined
meafure of 540 ftadia. This meafure is afcertained by
Herodotus, and is the precife diftance between Pharos
and the Nile, allowing, with M. d’Anville, 27,000
toifes to 540 Itadia. It is therefore far from being
proved, that the increafe of the Delta or of the continent
was fo rapid as has been reprefented ; and, if we were
difpofed to maintain it, we Humid Hill have to explain
how this fhore, which has not gained half a league from
the days of Alexander, (hould have gained eleven in the
far fhorter period from the time of Menelaus to that
conqueror. The utmoft extent of the encroachment of
this land upon the fea, however, may be learned from the
words of Herodotus ; who informs us, that “ the breadth
of Egypt, along the fea coall, from the gulf of Plin-
thine to the lake Serbonis near Mount Cafius, is 3600
ftadia ; and its length from the fea to Heliopolis 1500
ftadia.” Allowing therefore the ftadium of Herodotus
to be between 50 and 51 French toifes, the 1500 ftadia
juft mentioned are equal to 76,000 toifes j which, at the
rate of 57,000 to a degree, gives one degree and near 20
minutes and a half. But from the aftronomical obferva-
tions of M. Niebuhr, who travelled for the king of Den¬
mark in 1761, the difference of latitude between Helio¬
polis, now called Alatarea, and the fea, being one degree
29 minutes at Damietta, and one degree 24 minutes at
Rofetta, there is a difference on one fide of three minutes
and a half, or a league and a half encroachment; and
eight minutes and a half, or three leagues and a half, on
the other.”
Thus the difpute concerning the augmentation of the
land of Egypt by the Nile feems to be abfolutely decid¬
ed } and the encroachments of it on the fea fo trifling,
that we may juftly doubt whether they exift, or whether
we are not entirely to attribute the apparent differences
to thofe which certainly take place betwixt the ancient
and modern menfuration. M. Volney gives a very par¬
ticular defcription of the face of the country $ but takes
notice of the inconveniences under which travellers la¬
bour in this country, by which it is rendered extremely
difficult to fay any thing certain with regard to the na¬
ture of the foil or mineral produflions. Thefe arife
from the barbarity and fuperftition ©f the people, who
imagine all the Europeans to be magicians and forcerers,
who come by their magic art to difcover the treafures
which the genii have concealed under the ruins. So
deep rooted is this opinion, that no perfon dares walk
alone in the fields, nor can he find any one willing to
accompany him j by which means he is confined to the
banks of the river, and it is only by comparing the ac-
3
counts of various travellers that any
ledge can be acquired.
According to this author, the en
at Rofetta prefents a moft delightful profpeft, by the Voln€y’s
perpetual verdure of the palm trees on each fide, the^0^0^
orchards watered by the river, with orange, lemon, and the conn!
other fruit trees, which grow there in vaft abundance jtry.
and the fame beautiful appearance is continued all the
way to Cairo. As we proceed farther up the river, he
fays, that nothing can more refemble the appearance of
the country than the marfhes of the Lower Loire, or
the plains of Flanders : inftead, hovvever, of the numer- ;
ous trees and country houfes of the latter, we rouft
imagine fome thin woods of palms and fycamores, with
a few villages of mud-walled cottages built on artificial
mounds. All this part of Egypt is very low and flat,
the declivity of the river being fo gentle, that its wa¬
ters do not flow at a greater rate than one league in an
hour. Throughout the country nothing is to be feen
but palm trees, Angle or in clumps, which become more
rare in proportion as you advance j with wretched vil¬
lages compofed of huts with mud Avails, and a bound-
lefs plain, which at different feafons is an ocean of frefh
water, a miry morafs, a verdant field, or a dully defert y
and on every fide an extenfive and foggy horizon, where
the eye is wearied and difgufted. At length, towards
the junction of the two branches of the river, the moun¬
tains of Cairo are difcovered on the eaft ; and to the
fouth-weft three detached maffes appear, which from
their triangular form are known to be the pyramids.
We now enter a valley which turns to the fouthward,
between two chains of parallel eminences. That to the
eaft, which extends to the Red fea, merits the name of
a mountain from its fteepnefs and height, as well as that
of a defert from its naked and favage appearance. Its
name in the Arabic language is Mokattam, or the hewn
niountain. The weftern is nothing but a ridge of rock
covered with fand, which has been very properly term¬
ed a natural mound or caufeway. In fhort, that the read¬
er may at once form an idea of this country, let him
imagine on one fide a narrow fea and rocks j on the
other, immenfe plains of fand 5 and in the middle, a river,
floAving through a valley of 150 leagues in length and
from three to feven wide, which at the diftance of 30
leagues from the fea feparates into two arms j the
branches of which wander over a foil almoft free from
obftacles, and void of declivity.
From comparing his own obfervations with thofe of
other travellers, our author concludes, that the balls of
all Egypt from Afouan (the ancient Syene) to the Me--
diterranean, is a continued bed of calcareous ftone of
whitifh hue, and fomewhat foft, containing the fame
kind of (hells met with in the adjacent feas, and which
forms the imrnenfe quarries extending from Saouadi to
Manfalout for the fpace of more than 25 leagues, ac¬
cording to the teftimony of Father Sicard. ,36
As this country has been more recently vifited by Reynier’
men of eminent abilities and profound refearch, who
appear to have examined every obje£l that prefented
itfelf with a philofopher’s eye, we beg leave to add to
the teftimonies of the authors already mentioned, the
fubftance of the French general Reynier’s account of
the face of the country. He informs us, that the bar¬
riers by which Egypt is inclofed mull be ftrong, be-
caufe they have been planted by the hand of nature.
fatisfadlory know-
trance into Egvnt iu
L- • . . •
E .G Y f 621 ] E G Y
It is feparated from Afia by deferts of confiderable ex-
‘ ' tent; and fhould an hoftile army attempt to approach
it on^that fide, it would have to take its route through
marfhy grounds below its general level, and prefenting
to the traveller little elfe than brackilh water. Its
flat (hore towards the Mediterranean, and the mouths
of the Nile gorged up with mounds of fand, prefent to
an enemy very few places which will be found proper
for the debarkation of troops. Immenfe deferts confti-
tute its natural boundaries on the weft, on which ac-
H count it has nothing to dread but the incurfions of the
I ; ■ Arabs from Barbary. A defcrt alfo feparates Egypt
from the Red fea, which gives no flattering invitations
to an enemy to invade it from that quarter, the two
ports of that fea being deftitute of refources, and Egypt
itfelf being the only country from which a hoftile army
could procure provifions and camels, fufficient to enable
it to crofs the defert.
In Upper Egypt, a chain of mountains prefent them-
felves to the eye of the traveller on either fide of the
Nile. The valley between thefe mountains, through
which the courfe of the river is direct'd, is nearly five
leagues broad, which the periodical inundations of the
river completely cover. T his valley alone is inhabit¬
ed, and fufceptible of cultivation. The eaftern chain
of mountains, by which the Nile is feparated from the
Red fea, furpafles that on the weft in refpeft of height,
terminating by precipices towards the valley, affuming
in different places the appearance of an immenfe wall,
broken irregularly by narrow valleys, which have owed
their origin to the fudden and temporary torrents of
winter, and ferve for pafles over thefe ftupendous
mountains. The weftern chain, by which the valley
of the Nile is feparated from that of Ouafis, has in
general a gradual and gentle declivity,, although it
becomes more abrupt towards Siout, and is fteep from
the angle formed by the Nile towards Hennh, till it
reaches3Syene, at which place the mountains have a
more confiderable height, affording but a narrow paf-
fage to the river.
The diftance between thefe two chains of mountains
is increafed as you approach Cairo, the eaftern chain
terminating near the extremity of the Red fea, without
the appearance of any junction with the Arabian moun¬
tains, which have a fimilar termination. The weftern
chain declines towards Fayoum, taking a north-weft
dire&ion near Grand Cairo, and forming the Mediter¬
ranean eoaft in a direction to the weft. Lower Egypt
lies between thefe two great chains of mountains and
the fea, which has moft probably been formed, at lealt
in a great meafure, by the flime or mud which the ri¬
ver Nile depofits, as it is interfered by its branches,
and a vaft number of canals.
The feven branches by which the Nile anciently
emptied itfelf into the Mediterranean, are at prefent ic-
duced to two, viz. thofe of Damietta and Rofetta.
There are now no veftiges of the other five, except a
canal or two, which are only navigable during a part
of the year. It is not improbable, that when all the
branches of the Nile were entire and diftin£t, each of
them contained about the fame quantity. of water.
The cutting of canals to effer the equilibrium of the
water, the channels of which were afterwards neglected,
would diminifti the quantum of water in one branch
and increafe it in another. The fait water mingling
with the frefh, would deftroy the fecundity of the Egypt,
ground in fome places, and thus induce the inhabitants " » 1
to fearch for habitations where they might find the
earth more fertile.
It has already been obferved, that the principal part
of Lower Egypt owes its exiftence to the depofition of
mud or earth by the Nile, which alfo formed the banks
at the different mouth of that river. The mud of the
Nile would firft cover the low ground neareft to its
bed or channel, and the increafe of land from the de¬
pofition of mud would be more gradual in its progrels
in diftant parts, from which circumftance would arife
the formation of lake*. Thefe in their turn would be
gradually filled up by the land growing out of the de-
pofited mud of the river, which of confequence would
increafe the boundaries of Lower Egypt, by taking
from the fea j but as it is natural for the fea to refill
fuch encroachments, it is probable that the ground
formed by the depofited mud of the Nile will no longer
continue to increafe in one direflion without diminilh-
ing in another. The experience of centuries paft has
fully evinced, that the fea has aiftually taken more
from the extent of Egypt than has been compenfated
by the mud of the Nile. By the Ample operation of
natural caufes it may be fafely concluded, that if nature
and art do not co-operate •, if the water is permitted to
increafe, and the channels of the different branches are
allowed to be augmented, the fea will continue to fnatch
new lands from the inhabitants, which appears to be
the inevitable doom of Egypt, while it continues in
the hands of a people who are ignorant and unculti¬
vated.
A large proportion of the land formerly watered by
the branches of the Nile, anciently denoted the Pelu-
fiac, Tanitic, and Mendefian branches, is now the bed
of Lake Menzaleh. Lake Bourlos is not far from the
mouth of what was formerly called the Sebennitic
branch, and Lake Maadieh is near the mouth of the
ancient Canopic. Lake Mareotis was at. too great a
diftance from the Nile to be filled up with the mud
which it depofits, the waters of which were diverted
from the lake, by a canal which had been cut .for the
conveyance of water to the city of Alexandria j and
having no communication with the fea, its waters of
confequence were gradually evaporated. It ftill, how¬
ever, contained a moving fand and a brackifti mud,
which receiving the rain in winter, and a fmall portion
of the waters from the Nile by the canals of Bahireh,
it exhibits the appearance of a mar(h during the greater
part of the year. There are alfo a few lakes which owe
their origin to the redundant waters of the Nile, diffu-
fing themfelves over hollow places in which they are
confined, and only difappear by the gradual procefs of
evaporation.
In addition to the branches and chief canals already
mentioned, there are numerous canals in Lower Egypt
by which it is interfered. Thefe convey the waters
of the inundation, which dykes in different diftrifls
ferve to retain. By thefe waters the more elevated
grounds are fertilized, and other cantons in fucceflion,
after which they are poured into the lakes, or are loft
in the fea. The fwelling of this remarkable river com¬
mences about the fummer folftice, reaching its utmoft
extent in the autumnal equinox $ and after appearing
for a few days in all its native majefty, it gradually
begins -
Egypt.
E G Y [
begins to fubfide. In point of time there is a difference
of fifteen days, and fometimes twice that period, with
refpeft to the rife and fall of the Nile j but it may be
affirmed in general, that Lower Egypt cannot be fafe-
ly paffed during any more of the year than from the be¬
ginning of February to the end of Auguft. At this time
the great branches alone contain water, on which
paffage boats are always to be met with.
It is obvious, from this fuccinft account of the general
face of the country, that no invading army could carry
on any military operations in Lower Egypt during more
than feven months in the year. It may perhaps be ad¬
mitted with truth, that the confines of the defert might
be traverfed during the five remaining months ; but the
villages in that diredtion are ill qualified to grant thofe
neceffary fupplies to an army which, after croffing the
defert, muff be in want of every thing. No communi¬
cation could be kept open from the defert with the in¬
terior, from September to December inclufive. At
this period, therefore, an enemy could not carry on
any military operations in the interior but by water.
Nor would an army deftined to defend Egypt find it-
felf free from very confiderable embarraffment during
the continuance of the inundation j for as a confider¬
able part of its movements would unavoidably be made
on that element, they would be from the nature of
things both tedious and difficult.
Mr Bruce has given us a particular account of the
account of fources from whence were derived the vaft quantities
the deferts, Q£ raet Jn remains of ancient build¬
ings in this country. Thefe he difeovered during
his journey from Kenne to Coffeir on the Red fea,
before he took his expedition to Abyffinia. He
gives a moft difmal idea of the deferts through which
he paffed. What houfes he met with were conftrudted
like thofe M. Volney mentions, of clay, being no more
than fix feet in diameter, and about ten in height. The
mountains were the moft dreary and barren that can be
imagined : and the heat of the fun fo great, that two
Hicks rubbed together only for half a minute would
take fire and flame. In thefe burning regions no living
creature was to be met with, even the poifonous fer-
pents and fcorpions not being able to find fubfiftence.
The firft animal he faw was a fpecies of ants in a plain
called Hamfa from the purple colour of its fand j and
it was remarkable that thefe infedts were of the fame
colour with the fand itfelf. No W'ater was anywhere
to be met with on the furface j though at a place call¬
ed Legeta there were fome draw-wells, the water of
which was more bitter than foot itfelf. At Hamra the
porphyry mountains and quarries begin, the ftone of
which is at firft foft and brittle ; but the quantity is
immenfe, as a whole day was taken up in paffing by
them. Thefe porphyry mountains begin in the latitude
of nearly 24 degrees, and continue along the coaft of
the Red fea to about 22° 30', when they are fueceeded
by the marble mountains •, thefe again by others of ala-
bafter, and thefe laft by bafaltic mountains. From the
marble mountains our author feledled twelve kinds, of
different colours, which he brought along with him.
Some of the mountains appeared to be compofed en¬
tirely of red and others of green marble, and by their
different colours afforded an extraordinary fpedtacle.
Not far from the porphyry mountains the cold was fo
great, that his camels died on his return from Abyf-
622 ]
E G Y
137 ,
Mr Bruce s
marble
mountains.
See.
finia though the thermometer ftood no lower than 42
degrees.
Near to Coffeir he difeovered the quarries whence
the ancients obtained thofe immenfe quantities of mar¬
ble with which they conftru&ed fo many wonderful
works. The firft place where the marks of their ope¬
rations were very perceptible, was a mountain much
higher than any they had yet paffed, and where the
ftone was fo hard that it did not even yield to the
blows of a hammer. In this quarry he obferved that
fome du6ks or channels for conveying water termina¬
ted 5 which, according to him, (hows that water was
one of the means by which thefe hard ftones were cut.
In four days, during which our author travelled among
thefe mountains, he fays, that he had “ paffed more
granite, porphyry, marble, and jafper, than would build
Rome, Athens, Corinth, Syracufe, Memphis, Alex¬
andria, and half a dozen fuch cities.” It appeared to
him that the paffages between the mountains, and
which he calls defiles, were not natural but artificial
openings ; where even whole mountains had been cut
out, in order to preferve a gentle Hope towards the
river. This defeent our author fuppofes not to be
above one foot in 50 j fo that the carriages muft have
gone very eafily, and rather required fomething to re¬
tard their velocity than any force to pull them forward.
Concerning the mountains in general, he obferves, that
the porphyry is very beautiful to the eye, and is difeo¬
vered by a fine purple fand without any glofs. An
un variegated marble of a green colour is generally met
with in the fame mountain ; and where the two meet
the marble becomes foft for a few inches, but the por¬
phyry retains its hardnefs. The granite has a dirty
brown appearance, being covered with fand : but on
removing this, it appears of a gray colour with black
fpots, with a reddilh caft all over it. The granite
mountains lie nearer to the Red fea, and feem to have
afforded the materials for Pompey’s pillar. The red-
nefs above mentioned feems to go off on expofure to the
air } but re-appears on working or poliftiing the ftone
farther. The red marble is next to the granite, though
not met with in the fame mountain. There is alfo a
red kind with white veins, and vaft quantities of the
common green ferpentine. Some famples of that beau¬
tiful marble named Ifabella were likewife obferved j one
of them of that yellowifh caft called qualer colour, the
other of the bluifti kind named dove colour. The
moft valuable kind is that named verde antico, which is
found next to the Nile in the mountains of ferpentine.
It is covered by a kind of blue flaky ftone, fomewhat
lighter than a flate, more beautiful than rooft kinds of
marble, and when polifhed having the appearance of a
volcanic lava. In thefe quarters the verde antico had
been uncovered in patches of about 20 feet fquare.
There were fmall pieces of African marble fcatteied a-
bout in feveral places, but no rocks or mountains of it;
fo that our author conjeflures it to lie in the heart of
fome other kind. The whole is fituated on a ridge
with a defeent to the eaft and weft ; by which means it
might eafily be conveyed either to the Nile, or Red fea,
while the hard gravel and level ground would readily
allow the heavieft carriages to be moved with very lit¬
tle force. 138
Travellers have talked of an emerald mine in thefeOfafuj'
deferts; but from the refearches of Mr Bruce, it does^4-'1116
not
139 f
ones ot a
lious ap-
larance.
140
ilt lakes.
141
Vegetable
mould of
Egypt not
originally
derived
!fr.om
Ethiopia.
E G Y [623
not appear to have any exiftence. In the Red fea in¬
deed, in the latitude of 250 3', at a fmall dittance from
the fouth-weftern coaft, there is an ifland called the
Mountain of Emeralds; but none of thefe precious
{tones are to be met with there. Here, as well as on
the continent, there were found many pieces of a green
pellucid fubftance 5 but veined, and much fofter than
rock cryftal, though fomerwhat harder than glafs. A
few yards up the mountain he found three pits, which
are fuppofed to have been the mines whence the ancients
obtained the emeralds •, but though many pieces of the
green fubftance above mentioned were met with about
thefe pits, no figns of the true emerald could be per¬
ceived. This fubftance, however, he conjedtures to
have been the fmaragdus of the Romans. In the moun¬
tains of Coffeir, as well as in fome places of the deferts
of Nubia, our author found fome rocks exadtly refem-
bling petrified wood.
The only metal faid by the ancients to be produced
{n Egypt is copper. On the road to Suez are found
great numbers of thofe ftones called Egyptian flints and
pebbles, though the bottom is a hard, calcareous, and
fonorous ftone. Here alfo M. Volney tells us, that
the ftones above mentioned, and which refemble petri¬
fied wood, are to be met with. Thefe, he fays, are
in the form of fmall logs cut flanting at the ends, and
might eafily be taken for petrifadhons, though he is
convinced that they are real minerals.
F. Sicard mentions two lakes, from the water of
which is produced annually a great quantity of fait
containing much mineral alkali : and M. Volney in¬
forms us, that the whole foil of this country is impreg¬
nated with fait; fo that, upon digging to fome depth
in the ground we always meet with brackilh water im¬
pregnated in fome degree with the mineral alkali as
well as with common fait. The two lakes mentioned
by Sicard are fituated in the defert to the weft of the
Delta •, and are three or four leagues in length, and
about a quarter of a league in breadth, with a (olid and
ftony bottom. For nine months in the year they are
without water ; but in the winter time there oozes out
of the earth a reddith violet coloured water, which fills
the lakes to the height of five or fix feet. This being
evaporated by the return of the heat, there remains a
bed of fait two feet thick and very hard, which is bro¬
ken in pieces with iron bars ; and no lefs than 30,000
quintals are procured every year from thefe lakes. So
great is the propenfity of the Egyptian foil to produce
fait, that even when the gardens are overflowed for the
fake of watering them, the furface of the ground, af¬
ter the evaporation and abforption of the water, ap¬
pears glazed over with fait. I he water found in the
wells contains mineral alkali, marine fait, and a little
nitre. M. Volney is of opinion, that the fertile mould
of Egvpt, which is of a blackifh colour, differs effen-
tially from that of the other parts } and is derived frorn
the internal parts of Ethiopia along with the waters of
the Nile. This feema to contradift what he had before
advanced againft M. Savary concerning the increafe of
the land of Egypt by means of the w’aters of this
river: but there is no reafon at all to fuppofe this kind
of earth to be of a foreign origin •, it being always the
refult of vegetation and cultivation. Even the moft
barren and fandy fpots in the world, if properly water-
] E G Y
ed, and fuch vegetables planted in them as would grow Egypt,
there, in time would be covered with this black earth ' 'f~mm
as well as others : and of this kind of artificial formation
of foil, travellers give us a remarkable initance in the
garden of the monks at Mount Sinai, where the country
is naturally as barren as in any place of the world.
“ The monks of Sinai (fays Dr Shaw), in a long
procefs of time, have covered over with dung and the
{’weepings of their convent near four acres of naked
rocks : which produce as good cabbage, roots, lalad,
and all kinds of pot-herbs, as any foil and climate
whatfoever. They have likevvife raifed olive, plum,
almond, apple, and pear trees, not only in great num¬
bers, but of excellent kinds. The pears particularly
are in fuch efteem at Cairo, that there is is a prefent of
them fent every year to the baftiaw and perfons of the
firft quality. Neither are their grapes inferior in fize
and flavour to any whatfoever : it being fully demon-
ftrated, by what this little garden produces, how far an
indefatigable induftry can prevail over nature •, and
that feveral places are capable of culture and improve¬
ment which were intended by nature to be barren, and
which the lazy and llothful have always fuffered to be
fo.” 143
From this general account of the country, we may Natural
reafonably conclude, that the natural fertility of Egypt fertility of
• 1 1 .1 r _ EcrvDt not
is not diminilhed in modern times, provided the ^ame dimmiftied,
pains were taken in the cultivation of it as formerly j
but this is not to be expefted from the prefent degene¬
rate race of inhabitants. “ The Delta (fays M. Savary)
is at prefent in the moft favourable ftate for agriculture.
Waihed on the cart and weft by two rivers formed by
the divifion of the Nile, each of which is as large and
more deep than the Loire, interfered by innumerable
rivulet* •, it prefents to the eye an immenfe garden, all
the different compartments of which may be eafily
watered. During the three months that the Thebais
is under water, the Delta poffeffes fields covered with
rice, barley, vegetables, and winter fruits. It is alio
the only part of Egypt where the fame field produces
two crops of grain within the year, the one of rice, the
other of barley.”
The only caufe of all this fertility is the Nile, with¬
out which the whole country would foon become an un¬
inhabitable defert, as rain falls very feldom in this part
of the world. It flows with a very gentle ftream through
the flat country, and its waters are very muddy, fo that
they mult have time to fettle, or even require filtration ^
before they can be drunk. For purifying the water, tviett70a 0f
the Egyptians, according to M. Volney, ufe bitter purifying
almonds, with which they rub the veffel containing it, cooling
and then the water becomes light and good •, but on
what principle this ingredient aits we cannot pretend
to determine. Unglazed earthen veffels filled with wa¬
ter are kept in every apartment *, which by a continual
evaporation through their porous fubflance, render the
contained fluid very cool even in the greateft heats.
'['he river continues muddy for fix months : and during
the three which immediately precede the inundation,
the Itream being reduced to an inconfiderable depth,
become* heated, green, fetid, and full of worms. The
Egyptians in former time* paid divine honours to the
Nile, and ftill hold it in great veneration. They believe
its waters to be very nouriftiing, and that they are fupe*
rior
E G Y
L 624 ]
E G Y
-Egypt.
rior to any in the world 5 an opinion very excufable in
them, as they have no other, and large draughts of cold
J44 water are among their higheft luxuries,
ondatum of This river, fwelled by the rains which fall in Abyfli-
the Nile. nia> begins to rife in Egypt about the month of May ;
but the increafe is inconfiderable till towards the end of
June, when it is proclaimed by a public crier through
the ftreets of Cairo. About this time it has ufually rifen
five or fix cubits; and when it has rifen to 16, great
rejoicings are made, and the people cry out Woffah
Allah, that is, that God has given them abundance. This
commonly takes place about the latter end of July, or
at fartheft before the 20th of Augult ; and the fooner
it takes place, fo much the greater are the hopes of a
good crop. Sometimes, though rarely, the neceffary
increafe does not take place till later. In the year 1705,
it did not fwell to 16 cubits till the 19th of September ;
the confequence of which was that the country was de¬
populated by famine and pefiilence.
We may eafily imagine that the Nile cannot over¬
flow the whole country of itfelf in fuch a manner as to
render it fertile ; for which reafon there are innumer¬
able canals cut from it acrofs the country, it has al¬
ready been obferved, by which the water is convey¬
ed to diftant places, and almofl: every town or village
has one of thefe canals. In thofe parts of the country
where the inundation does not reach, and where more
water is required than it can furniftr, as for watering of
gardens, they muft have recourfe to artificial means for
raifing it from the river. In former times they made
ufe of Archimedes’s fcrew ; but that is now difufed,
and in place of it they have chofen the Perfian wheel.
This is a large wheel turned by oxen, having a rope
hung with feveral buckets which fill as it goes round,
and empty themfelves into a ciftern at the top. Where
the banks of the river are high, they frequently make
a bafon in the fide of them, near which they fix an up¬
right pole, and another with an axle acrofs the top of
that, at one end of which they hang a great ftone, and
at the other a leathern bucket; this bucket being drawn
down into the river by two men, is raifed by the defcent
of the ftone, and emptied into a ciftern placed at a pro¬
per height. This kind of machine is uftd chiefly in the
upper parts of the country, where the raifing of water
is more difficult than in places near the fea. When any
of the gardens or plantations want water, it is conveyed
from the cifterns into little trenches, and from thence
conduced all round the beds in various rills, which the
gardener eafily flops by raifing the mould againft them
with his foot, and diverts the current another way as he
fees occafion.
Nilometer r'^c t^ie inundation is meafured, as has alrea-
deforibed. dy been obferved, by an inftrument adapted for the
purpofe, and called mikeas, which we tranflate nilometer.
Mr Bruce informs us, that this is placed between Geeza
and Cairo, on the point of an ifland named Rhoda
about the middle of the river, but fomewhat nearer
to Geeza. It is a round tower with an apartment, in
the middle of which is a ciftern neatly lined with mar¬
ble. The bottom of this ciftern reaches to that of the
river, and there is a large opening by which the water
has free accefs to the infide. The rife of the water is
indicated by an o£Iagonal column of blue and white
marble, on which are marked 20 peeks or cubits of 22
inches each. The two lowermoft of thefe have no fub-
divifions ; but each of the reft is divided into 24 parts r
called digits ; the whole height of the pillar being 36-y!,
feet 8 inches.
When the river has attained its proper height, all theOfthfc
canals are opened, and the whole country laid under wa-naisby
ter. During the time of the inundation a certain vor-'''1’'051
tical motion of the waters takes place: but notwith-watens
Handing this, the Nile is fo eafily managed, that many
fields lower than the furface of its waters are preferved
from injury merely by a dam of moiftened earth not
more than eight or ten inches in thicknefs. This me¬
thod is made ufe of particularly in the Delta when it is
threatened with a flood.
As the Nile does not always rife to a height fuffi-
cient for the purpofes of agriculture, the former fove-
reigns of Egypt were at vaft pains to cut proper ca¬
nals in order to fupply the deficiency. Some of thefe
are ftill preferved, but great numbers are rendered ufe-
lefs through the indolence or barbarity of their fuccef-
fors. Thofe which convey the water to Cairo, into the
province of Fayoom, and to Alexandria, are bell taken
care of by government. The laft is watched by an
officer appointed for that purpofe, whofe office it is to
hinder the Arabs of Bachria, who receive this fuper-
fluous water, from turning it off before Alexandria be
provided for, or opening it before the proper time,
which would hinder the increafe of the river. In like
manner, that which conveys the water to Fayoom is
watched, and cannot be opened before that of Cairo,
which is called the Canal of Trajan. A number of
other canals, only taken care of by thofe who derive
advantage fiom them, proceed from that arm of the
Nile which runs to Damietta, and fertilize the pro¬
vince of Sharkia ; which, making part of the ifthmus
of Suez, is the molt confiderable of Egypt, and the
moft capable of a great increafe of cultivation. The
plains of Gaza which lie beyond, and are pofieffed by
the Arabs, would be no lefs fertile, were it not for the
exceffive inclination thefe people have to deftroy, fo that
they make war even with the fpontaneous prodtnftions
oftheeaith. A number of other canals run through
the Delta ; and the veftiges of thofe which watered the
provinces to the eaftward and weft ward, (how that in
former times thefe were the beft cultivated parts of
Egypt. “ We may alfo prefume (fays the baron de
Tott), from the extent of the ruins of Alexandria, the
conftru&ion of the canal, and the natural level of the
lands which encompafs the lake Mareotis, and extend
themfelves weft ward to the kingdom of Barca, that this
country, at prefent given up to the Arabs, and almoft
defert, was once fufficiently rich in productions of every
kind to furnifh the city of Alexander with its whole
fubfiftence.” I
The air and climate of Egypt are extremely hot,AjrXa^
not only from the height of the fun, which in fummerclimate
approaches to the zenith, but from the w'ant of rain and Egypt*
from the vicinity of thofe burning and fandy deferts
which lie to the fouthward. In the months of July and
Auguft, according to M. Volney, Reaumur’s thermo¬
meter (lands, even in the moft temperate apartments,
at the height of 24 or 25 degrees above the freezing
point ; and in the fouthern parts it is faid to rife ftill
higher. Hence, he fays, only two feafons (hould be
diftinguiftied in Egypt, the cool and the hot, or fpring
and fummer. The latter continues for the greateft part
of
E G Y
oF the year, viz. from March to November or even
■Monger : for by the end of February the fun is intoler¬
able to a European at nine o’clock in the morning.
During the whole of this feafon the air feems to be
inflamed, the tky fparkles, and every one fweats pro-
fufely, even without the lead: exercife, and when cover¬
ed with the lighted dref-o This heat is tempered by
the inundation of the Nile, the fall of the night dews
and the fubfequent evaporation ; fo that fome of the
European merchants, as well as the natives, complain of
the cold in winter. The dew we fpeak of does not fall
regularly throughout the fummer, as with us ; the
parched date of the country not affording a fufficient
quantity of vapour for this purpofe. It is fird obferv-
ed about St John’s day (June 24th), when the river has
begun to fvvell, and confequently a great quantity of
water is raifed from it by the heat of the fun, which
being foon condenfed by the cold of the night air, falls
down in copious dews.
It might naturally be imagined, that as for three
months in the year Egypt is in a wet and mardiy
fituation, the excedive evaporation and putrefaction of
the dagnating waters would render it Very unhealthy.
But this is by no means the cafe. The great drynefs
of the air makes itabforh vapours of all kinds with the
utmod avidity j and thefe rifing to a great height, are
carried off by the winds either to the fouthward or
northward, without having time to communicate anv
of their pernicious effe&s. This drynefs is fo remark¬
able in the internal parts of the country, that defn meat
expofed to the open air does not putrefy even in fum¬
mer, but foot) becomes hard and dry like wood. In the
deferts there are frequently dead carcafes thus dried in
filch a manner, and become fo light, that one may ea-
fny lift that of a camel with one hand. In the mari¬
time parts, however, this dryntfs of the air is not to be
expeCIed. They difcover the fame degree of moidure
which ufually attends fuch fituations. At Rofetta and
Alexandria, iron cannot be expofed to the air for 24
hours without ruding. According to M. Volnev, the
air of Egypt is alfo flrongly impregnated with falts:
for which opinion he gives the following reafon : “ The
dones are corroded by natrum (mineral alkali or foda),
and in moid places long crydallifcations of it are to be
found, which might be taken for faltpetre. The wall of
the lefuits garden at Cairo, built with earth and bricks,
is everywhere covered with a erud of this natrum as
thick as a crown piece : and when this garden has been
overflowed by the waters of the kalidj (canal), the
ground, after they have drained off, appears fparkling
on every fide with crydals, which certainly wete not
brought thither by the water, as it diows no fign of
fait either to the tade or by didillation.”—But what¬
ever may be the quantity of fait contained in the earth,
it is certain that M. Volney’s opinion of its coming thi¬
ther from the air cannot be jud. The fait in quedion
is excedively fixed, and cannot be didipated into the air
without the violent heat of a glafshoufe furnace •, and
even after this has been done, it will not remain diffuf-
ed through the atmofphere, but quickly falls back again.
No experiments have ever fhown that any fait was or
could be diffufed in the air, except volatile alkali, and
this is now known to be formed by the union of two
permanently eladic duids ; and it is certain that a fa-
li’ne air would quickly prove fatal to the animals who
Vol. VII, Part II.
f 625 1 E G Y
breathed it. The abundance of this kind of fait in
Egypt therefore only ihovvs, that by fome unknown
operation the heat of the fun form-> it from the two in¬
gredients of earth and Water, though we do not yet un¬
de rdand the manner, nor are able to imitate this natural
operation.
To this faline property of the earth M. Volney a- Why exotic
fcribes the excedive quicknefs of vegetation in Egypt,plan's will
Which is fo great, that a fpecies of gourd called karanor ,^mV8
will, in 24 hours, fend forth (boots of four inches
in Egypt.
length ; but for the fame reafon, in all probability, it is
that no exotic plant will thrive in Egypt. The mer¬
chants are obliged annually to fend to Malta for their
garden feeds; for though the plant" thrive very well at
fird, yet if the feed of them is preferved, and lovvn
a fecond year, they always come up too tall and
dender.
By reafon of the great drynefs of the air, Egypt is
exempted from the phenomena of rain, hail, fnow,
thunder, and lightning. Earthquakes are alfo feldom
heard of in this country; though fometimes they have
been very fatal and deltruflive, particularly one in the
year 1112. In the Delta it never rains in fummer,
and very feldom at any other time. In 1761, however,
fuch a quantity of rain unexpe&edly fell, that a great
number of houfes, built with mud walls, tumbled entire¬
ly down by being foaked with the water, to which
they were unaccudomed. In the Higher Egypt the
rain is dill led frequent ; but the people, fenfible of the
advantages which accrue from it, always rejoice when
any falls, however infufficient to anfwer the pur- 14a
pofe. This deficiency of rain is fupplied by the in-Gsuifeof
undation and dews already mentioned. The lalier'l” tlews *n
proceed, as has already been faid, partly from the fc^t’
waters of the inundation, and partly from the fea.
At Alexandria, after funfet, in the month of April,
the clothes expofed to the air on the terraces are
foaked with them as if it had rained. Thefe dews
are more or lefs copious according to the dir'(du n of
the wind. They are produced in the greated quantity
by the wederly or northerly wind", which blow from
the fea; but the fouth and fouth-eafl winds, blow¬
ing over the deferts of Africa and Arabia, produce
none.
The periodical return of winds from a certain quar- R- rn;irk-
ter is a very remarkable phenomenon in this country. le81'"
When the fun approaches the tropic of Cancer, they
fbift from the ead to the north; and, during the
month of June, they always blow from the north or
north-wed. They continue northerly all the month
of July, varying only fometimes towards the ead, and
fometimes the contrary way. About the end of this
month, and during the whole of Augud and Sep¬
tember, they blow direflly from the north, and are
but of a moderate drength, though fomewhat weaker
in the night than in the day. Towards the end f
September they return to the ead, though they do not
abfolutely fix on that point, but blow more regularly
from it than any other except the north. As the fun
approaches the fouthern tropic, they become more va¬
riable and tempeduous, blowing mod commonly from
the north, north-ead, and wed, which they continue to
do throughout the months of December, January, and
February ; and, during that feafon, the vapours raifed
from the Mediterranean condenfe into a mid, or even
1 4 K fometimes
E^ypt-
E G Y [ 626 ] E G Y
Towards the end of February, and foon takes place In the bodies of fuch as are deftroyed
by it. Its extreme drynefs is fuch, that water fprink-
led on the floor evaporates in a few minutes ;
. 151
Bains in
Abyffinia
and in Ar¬
menia oc
fometimes into rain.
in the fucceeding month, they more frequently blow
from the fouth than from any other quarter. During
fome part of the month of March and in that of April,
they blow from the fouth, fouth eatl, and fouth-weft 5
fometimes from the north and eaff, the latter becoming
molt prevalent about the end of that month, and conti¬
nuing during the whole of May.
It is to the long continuance of the north winds,
formerly called the Etejlan winds, that Egypt proba¬
bly owes it'- extreme drynefs, as well as part of the in-
cafior ed by undation by which it is fertilized. From the month
two oppo- 0f April to July, there appear to be two immenfe cur-
o^ea^l"c:itsrents in the atmofphere, the under one blowing from
the north, and the upper from the fouth. By the for¬
mer the vaoours are raifed from the Mediterranean and
foutbern parts of Europe, where they are carried over
Abyflinia, diflolving there in immenfe deluges of rain *,
while by the latter the fuperfluous vapours, or thofe
raifed from the country of Abyflinia itfelf, are carried
northward toward the fources of the Euphrates.
Here the clouds coming from the fouth, defcending
into the lower part of the atmofphere, diflolve in like
manner into rain, and produce an inundation of the
Euphrates fimilar to that of the Nile, and immediately
fucceeding it. Mr Bruce had an opportunity of afeer-
taining this fa£b in the month of June 1768 ; for at that
time, while on a vovag«- from Sidon to Alexandria, he
obferved great numbers of thin white clouds moving
rapidly from the fouth, and in diredl oppofition to the
Etefian winds.
Befides the ordinary winds here fpoken of, Egypt is
xnfefted with the deftrudtive blafts common to all warm
countries which have deferts in their neighbourhood.
Thefe have been diftinguilhed by various names, fuch
as poifonous winds, hot winds of the defert, Hamid, the
wind of Damafcus, K. infin, and Simoom. In Egypt they
are denominated “ winds of 50 days,” becaufe they
moft commonly prevail during the 50 days preced¬
ing and following the equinox; though, fhould they
blow conftantly during one half of that time, an uni-
verfal deftrudtion would be the confequence. Of thefe
travellers have given various deferiptions. M. Volney
fays, that the violence of their heat may be compared
to that of a large oven at the moment of drawing out
the bread. They always blow from the fouth ; and are
undoubtedly owing to the motion of the atmofphere
over fuch vaft trails of hot fand, where it cannot be
fupplied by a fufficient quantity of moiflure. When
they begin to blow, the Iky lofes its ufual ferenity, and
aflumes a dark, heavy, and alarming afpeft, the fun
himfelf laying afide his ufual fplendour, and becoming of
a violet colour. This terrific appearance feems not
to be occafioned by any real haze or cloud in the atmo¬
fphere at that time, but folely to the vaft quantity of
fine fand carried along by thofe winds, and which is fo
exceflively fubtile that it penetrates everywhere. The
motion of this wind is always rapid, but its heat is not
intolerable till after it has continued for fome time. Its
pernicious qualities are evidently occafioned by its ex-
ceflive avidity of moifture. Thus it dries and flirivels
up the fkin ; and by doing the fame to the lungs, will
in a ftiort time produce fuffocation and death. The dan¬
ger is greateft to thofe of a plethoric habit of body, or
who have been exhaufted by fatigue j and putrefaftion
Egypt.
152
Of h t
winds.
all the
plants are withered and ftripped of their leaves; and a
fever is inflantly produced in the human fpecies by the
fupprefiion of perfpiration. It ufually lafts three days,
but is altogether infupportable if it continue beyond that
time. The danger is greateft when the wind blows in.
fqualls, and to travellers who-happen to be expofed to
its fury without any {belter. The beft method in this
cafe is to flop the nofe and mouth with an handkerchief.
Camel1', by a natural inftindt, bury their nofes in the
fand, and keep them there till the fquall is over. The
inhabitants, who have an opportunity of retiring to
their houfes, inftantly fnut themfelves up in them, or go.
into pits made in the earth, till the deftrudfive blaft be
over.
The defeription of a blaft of this kind which over¬
took Mr Bruce in the defert of Nubia is ftill more ter¬
rible than that juft given from M. Volney. We have
already mentioned fomething of the pillars of moving
fand raifed by the winds in the defert. Thefe were ob¬
ferved by our traveller on this occafion in all their ter¬
rific majefty. Sometimes they appeared to move {low¬
ly ; at other times with incredible fwiftnefs, fo that
they could not have been avoided by the fleeteft horfe.
Sometimes they came fo near, that they threatened de-
ftrudtion to the whole company. Frequently the tops,
when arrived at an immenfe height, fo that they^
were loft in the clouds, fuddenly feparated from the
bodies, and difperfed themfelves in the air; and
fometimes the whole column broke off near the mid-.
die, as if it had received a cannon {hot ; and their
fize was fuch, that at the diftance of about three
miles, they appeared ten feet in diameter. Next day
they appeared of a fmaller fize, but more numerous,
and fometimes approached within two miles of the
company. The fun was now obfeured by them, and
the tranfmiflion of his rays gave them a dreadful ap¬
pearance refembling pillars of fire. This was pro¬
nounced by the guide to be a fign of the approaching
Simoom or hot wind ; and he dire&ed, that when it came,
the people ftiould fall upon their faces and keep their
mouths on the fand, to avoid the drawing in this per¬
nicious blaft with their breath. On his calling out
that the Simoom was coming, Mr Bruce turned for a
moment to the quarter from whence it came, which
was the fouth-eaft. It appeared like a haze or fog of
a purple colour, but lefs bright than the purple part of
the rainbow ; feemingly about 20 yards in breadth,
and about 12 feet high from the ground. It moved
with fuch rapidity, that before he could turn about and
fall upon his face, he felt the vehement heat of its cur¬
rent upon his face ; and even after it paffed over,,
which was very quickly, the air which followed was of
fuch a heat as to threaten fuffocation. Mr Bruce had
unfortunately infpired fome part of the pernicious
blaft ; by which means he almoft entirely loft his voice,
and became fubjedt to an afthmatic complaint, from
which he did not get free for two years. The fame pheno¬
menon occurred twice more on their journey through
this defert. The fecond time, it came from the feuth a
little to the eaft : but it now feemed to have a {hade of
blue" along with the purplfe, and its edges were lefs per-
fedtly defined ; refembling rather, a thin fmoke, and ha¬
ving
E G Y [ 627 ] E G Y
t ving about a yard in the middle tinged with blue and
purple. The third time, it was preceded by an appear¬
ance of fandy pillars more magnificent than any they
had yet obferved ; the fun fhining through them in
fuch a manner as to give thofe which were neareft a re-
femblance of being fpangled with liars of gold. The
fimoom which followed had the fame blue and purple
appearance as before, and was followed by a moll fuf-
focating wind for two hours, which reduced our travel¬
lers to the lowelf degree of weaknefs and defpondency.
It was remarkable that this wind always came from the
fouth call, while the fandy pillars, which prognollica-
ted its approach, affe&ed to keep to the wellward, and
to occupy the vail circular fpace inclofed by the Nile
to the weft of their route, going round by Chagre to¬
wards Dongola. The heaps of fand left by them
when they fell, or raifed by the whirlwinds which car¬
ried them up, were 12 or 13 feet high, exaflly coni¬
cal, tapering to a fine point, and their bales well pro-
portioned.
Df the in- The inhabitants of Egypt may now be diflinguifhed
nahitants of jnto four gifliniT races of people.
Sgypt* I. Xhe Arabs, who may be fubdivided into three
claffes. 1. The poiierity of thofe who fettled here
immediately after the conqueft of the country by
Amrou Ebn A1 As, the caliph Omar’s general. 2. The
Magrebians, or Weflern Arabs, who at different times
have migrated from the countries to the wellward of
Egypt, and are defcended from the Saracen con¬
querors of Mauritania. 3. The Bedouins, or Arabs
of the defert, known to the ancients by the name of
Scenites, or dwellers in tents. I he firfl of thefe claffes
are now found among the hufbandmen and artizans 5
and are diflinguifhed from the others by being of a
more rebuff habit of body, as well as of a larger 11a-
ture than the others. They are in general five feet
four inches high j and many of them attain two or three
inches more, and are mufcular without being tlelhy.
Their Countenances are almoll black, but their features
are not difagreeable j and as thofe of the country do not
ally themfeives in marriage but with the people of their
own tribe, their faces have all a ftrung rcfemblance to
each other. This is not the cafe with fuch as live in
towns, by reafon of their promifeuous marriages. I he
fecond clafs are more numerous in the Said, where they
have villages and even dithndf fovereigns of tneir own.
Like the former, they apply themfeives to agriculture
and mechanical occupations. The Bedouins pafs their
lives among the rocks, ruins, and fequeftrated places
where they can find water ; fometimes uniting in tribes
and living in low fmoky tents, and Hutting their ha¬
bitations from the defert to the banks of the river and
back again, as bell fuits their conveniency. Their
time of inhabiting the defert is the fnring ; but after the
inundation they take up their refidence in Egypt, in or¬
der to profit by the fertility of the country. Some farm
lands in the country, which they cultivate, but change
annually. In general, all thefe Bedouins are robbers,
and are a great terror to travellers as well as to the hul-
bandmen j but though their number is eftimated at
not lefs than 30,000, they are difperfed in fuch a
manner that they cannot attempt any thing of confe-
’quence.
II. The Copts are defeendants of thofe inhabitants of
Egypt whom the Arabs fubdued, and who were com-
pofed of original Egyptians, Periians and Greeks. M.
Volney is of opinion that their name of Copts is only
an abbreviation of the Greek word Aigouptios, an
Egyptian. They are principally to be met with in the
Said, though fome alfo inhabit the Delta. 1 hey have
all a yellowilh dufky complexion, puffed up vifage,
fwoln eyes, flat nofes, and thick lips j and in fail the
exadt countenance ot a mulatto. M. Volney, from a
view of the fphynx, and finding its features to be fuch
as is juft now deferibed, concludes, that the ancient E-
gyptians were real negroes j which he thinks is likewife
confirmed by a paffage in Herodotus, where he con¬
cludes, that the inhabitants of Colchis were defcended
from the Egyptians, “ on account of the blacknefs of
their fkins and frizzled hair.” M. Volney alfo re¬
marks, that the countenance of the negroes is fuch as
exadtly reprefents that ftate of contraction aflumed
by our faces when ftrongly affefted by heat. The
eye-brows are knit, the cheeks rile, the eye lids are
contracted, and the mouth diftorted; and this ftate
of contraction to which the features of the negroes
are perpetually expofed in the hot climates they in¬
habit, is become particularly charaCteriftic. Excef-
five cold and fnow produces the lame effcCt 5 and hence
this kind of countenance is alfo common among the
Tartars j while, in the temperate climates, the features
are proportionably lengthened, and the whole counte¬
nance expanded.
The Copts profefs the Chriftian religion, but follow
the herefy of the Eutychians, whence they have been
perfecuted by the Greeks ; but having at laft got the
better of their adverfaries, they are become the depofi-
taries of the regifters of the lands and tribes. At Cairo
they are called writers; and are the intendants, fecre-
taries, and collectors for government. The head of
their clafs is writer to the principal chief; but they are
all hated by the Turks, to whom they are Haves, as
well as by the peafants whom they opprefs. Iheir
language bears a great refemblance to the Greek •, but
they have five letters in their alphabet, as well as a
number of words in their language, which may be con-
fidertd as the remains of the ancient Egyptian. Thefe
are found to bear a near refemblance to the dialeCts of
fome of the neighbouring nations, as the Arabic, Ethio¬
pian, Syriac, &c. and even of thofe who lived on the
banks of the Euphrates. The language of the Copt',
however, lias fallen into difufe for upwards of 300 years.
On the conqueft of the country by the Saracens, the
latter obliged the people to learn their language ; and
about the year 722 the ufe of the Greek tongue was
prohibited throughout the whole of their empire : the
Arabic language then of courfe became univerfal ; while
the others, being only met with in books, foon became
totally negleCted. The true Coptic, therefore, though
there is a tranflation of the fcriplures and many books
of devotion written in it, is underftoqd by nobody, not
even the monks and priefts. <
III. The Turks, who have the title of being mailers
of Egypt, but are chiefly to be met with at Cairo, where
they poffefs the religious and military employments.
Formerly they pofleffed alfo the ports under govern¬
ment *, but thefe are now occupied by the fourth race of
inhabitants, viz.
IV. The Mamlouks. Of the origin of thefe we have
already given fome account: we have only, there-
4 K 2 fore,
t
*54
Abfurd
drefs and
accoutre¬
ments of
the Mam-
louks.
E G Y [ 628 1 E G Y
fore, to relate fotne of the moft remarkable particulars
concerning their conflitution and government, man¬
ners, &c.
T’hefe people, as has already been mentioned, are
the real matters of Egypt $ and in order to fecure them-
felves in the poffeffion of the country, they have taken
feveral precautions. One of the principal of thefe is
the degradation of the two military corps of azabs
and janizaries, both of which were formerly very for¬
midable. J hey have been able to effect this only in
confequence of the corrupt and wretched government
of the I urks; for before the revolt of Ibrahim Kiaya,
the J urkidr troops, which ought to have con fitted
of 40,000, were reduced to lefs than half that num¬
ber through the avarice and malverfation of their
officers. Their degradation was completed by Ali Bey j
who having firlt difplaced all the officers who gave him
any umbrage, left their places vacant, and fo reduced
the confequence of the whole, that the azabs and ja¬
nizaries are now only a rabble of vagabonds, who dread
the Mam looks as much as the meanett of the populace.
The principal body of the Mamlouks refide at Cairo j
but many of them are difperfed through the country, in
order to keep up their authority, coileft the tribute,
and opprefs the people : yet it ffiould feem very eafy
for'the Porte to difpoflefs them of this ufurped autho¬
rity, as their number is fuppofed not to exceed 8 500, in¬
cluding among thefe a great many youth under 20 years
of age.
The Mamlouks are all horfemen •, and as war is ac¬
counted the only honourable employment among them,
it is reckoned difgraceful to walk on foot, none but
cavalry being accounted foldiers. The other inha¬
bitants are allowed only the ufe of mules and alfes ;
and the fame mark of indignity is impofed upon Eu¬
ropeans •, though by proper management and liberal
prefents, this may be got over. In the year 1776
Lord Algernoun Percy, afterwards Lord Louvaine, and
the earl of Charlemount, obtained permiffion to ride up¬
on horfeback. The Mamlouks, however, are not incited
to this continual - appearance on horfeback merely by
their fuppofed fuperiority to the reft of the inhabitants;
it is rendered neceflary by their drefs, which is extreme-
ly unwieldy and cumberfome. It confifts of a wide
Ihirt of thin yellowith-coloured cotton ; over which is
a gown of Indian linen, or fome of the light fluffs of
Damafcus or Aleppo. Over this is a fecund covering
of the fame form and widenefs, with fleeves reaching
down to the ends of the fingers. The former covering
is called antari, and the latter caftan. The caftan is
ufually made of filk or fome finer fluff than the un¬
der garments ; and both of them are fattened by a
long belt, which divides the whole drefs into two
bundles. Over all thefe they have a third, named djon-
/ia, confiding of cloth without lining, and made
nearly fimilar to the others, but that the fleeves are
cut in the elbow. This coat is lined, fometimes even
in fummer, with fur ; and as if all this was not fufll-
cient, they have an outer covering called the beniche,
which is the cloak or robe of ceremony ; and fo com¬
pletely covers the body, that even the ends of the fingers
are not to be feen. Thus, when the beniche and other
accoutrements are on, the whole body appears like a
long fack, with a bare neck and bald head covered
«ith a turban thruft out of it. This turban is called
v"-
a kaouk; and is of a cylindrical form, yellow, and
turned up on the outfide with a roll of muflin artifici¬
ally folded up. On their feet they have a fuck of yel¬
low leather reaching up to the heeb, flippers without
any quarters, which confequently are always ready to be
left oehind in walking. Laftly, to complete this extra¬
ordinary drefs, they have a kind of pantaloon or trore¬
fers, long enough to reach up to the chin, and fo large
that each of the legs is big enough to contain the,whole
body •, but that they may walk more at their eafe un¬
der fuch a number of impediments, they tie all the
loofe parts of their drefs with a running fafti. “ Thus
Twaddled (fays M. Volney), we may imagine the Mam¬
louks are not very a6tive walkers ; and thofe who are
not acquainted by experience with the prejudices of dif¬
ferent countries, will find it fcarcely poffible to believe
that they look on this drefs as exceedingly commodi¬
ous. In vain we may objeft that it hinders them from
walking and encumbers them unneceffarily on horfe¬
back ; and that in battle a horfeman once difmounted
is a lort man. They reply, It is the cujlom, and. every
objection is anfwered.”
In the accoutrements of their horfes, the Mamlouks
are almoft equally abfurd. The faddle is a clumfy piece
of furniture, weighing with the faddle-cloths not lefs
than 25 pounds ; while the weight of the ftirrups is
never lefs than 9 or 10 pounds, nay, frequently ex¬
ceeds 13. On the back part of the iaddle rifes a truf-
fequin about eight inches in height, while a pummel
before proje&s four or five inches, in fuch a manner
as to endanger the breaft of the horfeman if he fhould
happen to ftoop. Inftead of a ftufted frame, they have
three thick woollen coverings below the faddle ; the
whole being faftened by a furcingle, which, inftead of
a buckle, is tied with leather thongs in very compli¬
cated knots, and liable to flip. Inftead of a crupper
they have a large martingale which throws them upon
the horfes ffioulders. The ftirrups are made of copper,
longer and wider than the foot, having circular edges
an inch high in the middle, and gradually declining to¬
ward each end. The edges are (harp, and ufed inftead
of fpurs, by which means the poor animal’s fides are
much wounded. 1 he weight of the furniture has al¬
ready been mentioned ; and is the more ridiculous as
the Egyptian horfes are very fmall. The bridle is
equally ill contrived, and greatly injures tie horfe’s
mouth, efpecially by reafon cf the violent method they
have of managing the animal. Their ufual way is to
put the horfe to a full gallop, and fuddenly flop him
when at full fpeed. Thus checked by the bit, he bends
in his hind legs, ttiffens the fore ones, and moves along
as if he fcarce had joints in his body: yet, notwithftand-
ing all thofe difadvantages, our author acknowledges
that they are vigorous horfemen, having a martial ap¬
pearance which pleafes even ftrangers.
In the choice of their arms they have fhown them-Their ar,
felvts more judicious. Their principal weapon is an educatiofl
Englifh carbine about 30 inches long ; but fo large in&c*
the bore, that it can difcharge 10 or 12 balls at a time,
which can fcarcely fail of doing great execution even
from the moft unfkilful hand. Befides two large pif-
tols carried in the belt, they have fometimes a heavy
mace at the bow of the faddle for knocking down their
enemy ; and by the (boulder belt they fufpend a crook¬
ed fabre meafuring 24 inches in a ftraight line from the.
hilt
E G Y
[ 629 ]
E G Y
[:§#•
is<>
re not
rmidable
1 war.
hilt to the point, but 30 at leaft in the curve. The
reafon of the preterenee given to the crooked blade is,
that the effect of a llraight one depends merely on the
force with which it tails, and is confined to a {'mall
fpace, but that of a crooked one is continued longer
by the aftion of the arm in retiring. The Mamlouks
commonly procure their labres trom Conftantinople,
or other parts of Europe*, but the beys rival each other
in thofe of Perfia, and fuch as are fabricated of the an¬
cient It tel of Damafcus. For thefe they frequently
pay as high as 40I. or 50I. iterling *, but though it
mult be allowed that the edge of thefe weapons is
exquifiiely keen, yet they have the defeat of being
almoft as brittle as glafs. The whole education and
employment of the Mamlouks confilts in the exercife
of thefe weapons, or what is conducive to it *, fo that
we {hould imagine they might at lalt become altoge¬
ther irrefiitible. Every morning the greater part of
them exercife themfelves in a plain near Cairo, by firing
their carbines and piftols in the moil expeditious man¬
ner, having an earthen velfel for a mark to (hoot at *,
and the perfon who breaks it is highly applauded by
the beys who attend in order to encourage them. Here
alfo they exercife themfelves in the ufe of the fabre, as
well as of the bow and arrows *, though they do not any
longer make ufe of thefe laft in their engagements.
Their favourite diverfion is throwing the Hjerid; a word
properly figuifying a reed, but which is generally made
ufe of to fignify any llaff thrown by the hand after the
manner of the Roman pilum. In thF exercife they
make ufe of the branches of the palm-tree frefli (h ipped.
Thefe branches, which have the form of the ftalk of an
artichoke, are about four feet long, and weigh five or
fix pounds. With thefe the cavaliers enter the lids,
riding full fpeed, and throwing them afterwards at
each other from a confiderable difiance. As foon
as the affailant has thrown his weapon, he turns his
horfe, and his antagonift purfues in his turn. The di¬
verfion, however, frequently turns out very ferious, as
fome. are capable of throwing thefe weapons with force
fufficient to wound their antagonifis mortally. Ali
Bey was particularly dexterous at this kind of fport,
and frequently killed thofe who oppofed him. All
thefe military exercifes, however, are by no means fuf¬
ficient to render the Mamlouk* formidable in the field.
In their engagements they have neither order, difci-
pline, nor even fubordination ; fo that their wars are
only fcenes of robbery, plunder, add. tumultuary en¬
counters, which begin very often fuddenly in the fireets
of Cairo without the leaft warning. If the contention
happens to be transferred to the country, it is ftill car¬
ried on in the fame manner. The ftrongeft or moft
daring party purfues the other. If they are equal in
courage, they will perhaps appoint a field of battle,
and that without the leaft regard to the advantages of
fituation, but fighting in platoons, with the boldeit
champions at the head of each. After mutual defian¬
ces, the attack begins, and every one ehoofes out his
man. After difcharging their fire-arms, if they have
an opportunity they attack with their fabres *, and
fuch as happen to be difmounted are helped up again
by their fervants *, but if nobody happens to be near,
the fervants will frequently kill them for the fake of the
money they carry about them. Of late, however,
ike ordinary Mamlouks, who are all Haves to the reft,.
feem convinced that their patrons are the perfons prin- Egypt,
cipally interefted j for which reafon they reafonably * ^
enough conclude that they ought to encounter the great-
eft dangers. Hence they generally leave them to carry
on the diJpute by themfelves ; and being always fare of
finding a mafter who will employ them, they generally
return quietly to Cairo until lome new revolution takes
place. . .157
The mode of living among the Mamlouks is exceed-Their ex-
ingly expenfive, as may eafily be conceived from whatp^five 'va7
has already been related. There is not one of them.0 ivin5“
who does not coft above look fterling annually, and
many of them upwards of 200I. At every return
of the faft of Ramadan, their mafters muft give
them a new fuit of French and Venetian clothes, with
fluff, from India and Damafcus. Frequently they re¬
quire new horfes and harntfs : they muft likewife have-
piftols and fabres from Damafcus, with gilt ftirrups, and
faddles and bridles plated with filver. I he chiefs are
diftinguilhed from the vulgar by the trinkets and pre¬
cious ftones they wear; by riding Arabian horfes of
200I. or 300I. value, wearing (bawls of Caftmiire in
value from 25I. to 50I. each, with a variety of pelifles,
the cheapeft ot which cofts above 20I. Even the Eu¬
ropean merchants have given into this kind of extra¬
vagance ; fo that not one of them looks upon his war¬
drobe to be decently furnilhed unlefs it be in value
500I. or 600I.
Anciently it was cuftomary for the women to adorn
their heads with fequins ; but this is now rejedled as
not fufficiently expenfive. Inftead of thefe, diamonds,
emerald*, and rubies, are now fubftiluted ; and to the(e
they add French ftuff* and laces. In other refpedls
the chara61er of the Mamlouks is almoft the word
that can be imagined. Without affection, tie, or Their bad
connexion with each other or with the reft of man-character,
kind, they give themfelves up without controul to the
moft enormous vices ; and, according to M. Volriey,
they are at once ferocious, perfidious, feditious, bale,
deceitful, and corrupted by every fpecies of debauch¬
ery, not excepting even the unnatural vice ; of which
he tells us not one is free, this being the very firft
leffon each of them receives from his mafter, all being
originally (laves, as has already been mentioned. ^
As thefe are the preferat governors of Egypt, we Miferable
may eafily judge that the condition of the common ftate of the
people cannot be very agreeable. The greater part^gJP1^115*
of the lands indeed are in the hands of the Mamlouks,
beys, and profeflbrs of the law, the property of all
others being verv precarious. Contributions are to be
paid, or damages repaired, every moment; and there
is neither right of fucceflion nor inheritance for real
property, but every thing muft be purchafed from go¬
vernment. The peafants are allowed nothing but what
is barely fufficient to fuflain life. They cultivate rice
and corn indeed, but are not at liberty to ufe either.
The only food allowed them is dora or Indian millet,
from which they make a kind of taftelefc bread ; and
of this, with water and raw onions, confifts all their
fare throughout the year. They efteem themfelves
happy, therefore, if along with thefe they can fometimes
procure a little honey, cheefe, four milk, or a few
dates. They are very fond of fleftr meat and fat ; nei¬
ther of which, however, they have an opportunity of •
tailing except at extraordinary feftivals. Their or-.-
dinaryy
Egypt.
160
Difenfes
prevalent
in this
country.
E G Y [6
cHnary drefs confifts of a ftiirt of coarfe blue linen, and
a clumfy black cloak 5 with a fort of black bonnet
over their heads ; and over all they wear a long red
woollen handkerchief. Their arms, legs, and breafts,
are naked, and moft of them do not even wear drawers.
They live in mud-walled huts of the molt rniferable
conftruflion, where they are expofed to the incon¬
veniences of fmoke, heat, and unwholefome air } to
all which are to be added the continual fears they live
in of being robbed by the Arabs, oppreffed by the
Mamlouks, or fome other grievous calamity. The
only converfation is concerning the inteftine troubles
and mifery of the country, murders, baftimadoes, and
executions. Here fentence of death is executed without
the lead delay or form of trial. The officers who go
the rounds in the flreets either by night or day, are
attended by executioners, who carry along with them
leathern bags for receiving the heads they cut off in
thefe expeditions. Even the appearance of guilt is
not neceffary to incur a capital puniffiment j for fre¬
quently nothing more is requifite than the poffeffion of
wealth, or being fuppofed to poffefs it. In this cafe
the unfortunate per fan is fummoned before fome bey 5
and when he makes his appearance, a fum of money
is demanded of him. If he denies that he pofftffes it,
he is thrown on his back, and receives two or three
hundred blows on the foies of the feet, nay perhaps is
put to death without any ceremony. The only fecurity
of thofe who poffefs any wealth in this country there¬
fore is, to preferve as great an appearance of poverty as
poffible.
Though the climate of Egypt is far from being un¬
healthy ; yet there arc not a few difeafes which feem to
be peculiar to it, and to have their origin either from
the conflitution of the atmofphere, or the manner of
living of the inhabitants. One of thefe till lately has
been fuppofed to be the plague j which opinion we
find fupported by Dr Mead, who has endeavoured to
affign a natural reafon why it fliould take its origin in
this country. But it is now univerfally agreed, that
the plague never originates in the interior parts of
Egypt, but always begins at Alexandria, paffing fuc-
ceffively from thence to Rofetta, Cairo, Damietta,
and the reft of the Delta. It is likewife obferved, that
its appearance is always preceded by the arrival of fome
veffel from Smyrna or Conftantinople j and that if the
plague has been very violent in either of thefe cities,
the danger of Egypt is the greater. On proper in¬
quiry, it is found to be really a native of Conftantinople j
from whence it is exported by the abfurd negligence
of the Turks, who refufe to take any care to prevent
the fpreading of the infeflion. As they fell even the
clothes of the dead without the lealt ceremony, and
fhips laden with this pernicious commodity are fent to
Alexandria, it is no wonder that it ffiould foon make
its appearance there. As foon as it has reached Cairo,
the European merchants ffiut themfelves up with their
families in their Mans or lodgings taking care to have
no further communication with the city. Their pro-
vifions are now depofited at the gate of the khan, and
are taken up by the porter with iron tongs ; who
plunges them into a barrel of water provided for the
purpofe. If they have occafion to fpeak to any per-
fon, they take care to keep at fuch a diftance as to
avoid touching or even breathing upon each other.
30 ] 'EG t
By thefe precautions they certainly efcape the general
calamity, except by accident j and it not long ago
happened that the difeafe was conveyed by a cat into
the dwellings of the French merchants in Cairo 5 by
which two were infe&ed, and one died. In this man¬
ner they are imprifoned for three or four months,
without any other amufement than walking on their
terraces in the evenings, cards, or converfation with
one another. There is a remarkable difference betwixt
the plague at Confxantinople and in Egypt. In the
former it is moil; violent in fummer; and in' the latter
in winter, ending there always in the month of June.
It is alio remarkable, that the. water-carriers of Egypt,
whofe backs are conftantly wet from the nature of
their occupation, never have the plague. It ap¬
pears in Egypt every fourth or fiith year, when it
makes fuch ravages as would depopulate the country,
were it not for the vaft concourfe of llrangers which
arrive here every year from all parts of the Turkiffi
empire.
A malady which feems in reality to be peculiar to
Egypt is blindnefs. This is fo common at Cairo, as
M. Volney informs us, that out of 10O people whom
he has met on the flreet, he might reckon 20 quite
blind j 10 without the fight of one eye j and 20
others with their eyes red, purulent, or blemifhed.
Almoft every one, fays he, wears a fillet, a, token of
an approaching or convalefcent ophthalmy. In confi-
dering the caufes of this diforder, he reckons the fleep-
ing upon ten-aces to be a principal one. The fouth
wind, he fays, cannot be the caufey otherwife the Be¬
douins would be equally fubjtdt to it with the Egyp¬
tians themfelves : but what is with the greateft proba¬
bility to be affignt'd as the caufe, according to our au¬
thor, is the very poor and little nutritive food which
the natives are obliged to ufe. The cheefe, four-
milk, honey, confeftion of grapes, green fruits, and
raw vegetables (fays he), which are the ordinary food
of the people,, produce in the ftomach a diforder which
phyficians have obferved to afftft the fight; the raw
onions, efpecially, which they devour in great quan¬
tities, have a peculiar heating quality, as the monks
of Syria made me remark on myfelf. Bodies thus
nourithed, abound in corrupted humours, which are
conftantly endeavouring a difeharge. Diverted from the
ordinary channels, by habitual perfpiration, thefe hu¬
mours fly to the exterior parts, and fix themfclves where
they find the leaft refiftance. 'They therefore naturally
attack the head, becaufe the Egyptians, by (having it
once a-week, and covering it with a prodigioufly hot
head-drefs, principally attraff to it the perfpiration j
and if the head receives ever fo flight an impreffion of
cold on being uncovered, this perfpiration is fupprefs-
ed, and falls upon the teeth, or flill more readily on
the eyes as being the tendereft part. It will appear
the more probable that the exceffive perfpiration of the
head is a principal caufe, when wre reflect that the an¬
cient Egyptians, who went bare-headed, are not men¬
tioned by phyficians as being fo much afflifted with
ophthalmies ; though we are informed by hiftorians
that fome of the Pharaohs died blind. The Arabs of
the defert alfo, who cover the head but little, elpe-
cially when young, are alfo very little fubjeft to them.”
In this country blindnefs is often the confequence of
the fmall-pox, a diforder very frequent and very fatal
among
E G Y > [63
among the Egyptians and no doubt the more dange¬
rous on account of their abfurd method of treating it,
of which it is needlefs to enter into any difcuflion in this
place. They are not unacquainted with inoculation j
but feem not to be fenfibie of its advantages, as they
verv feldom praclife it.
To the fame caufe,viz. unwholefome food, M. Volney
afcribes the. general deformity of the beggars, and the
miferable appearance of the children ; which he fays are
nowhere fo wretched. “ Their hollow eyes, pale and
puffed faces, fwollen bellies, meagre extremities, and
yellow fiiin^, make them always feem as it they had not
long to live. Their ignorant mothers pretend that this
is the effect of the evil eije of fome envious perfon, who
has bewitched them 5 and this ancient prejudice is Hill
general in Turkey : but the real caufe is the badnefs of
their food. In fpite of the talifmans, therefore, an
incredible number of them perifh •, nor is any city more
fatal to the population of the neighbouring country than
Grand Cairo.
The venereal difeafe, which, for reafons belt known
to themfelves,. the inhabitants call the bleffed evil, is fo
general at Cairo, that one half of the inhabitants are
infc&ed. It is extremely difficult to cure, though the
fymptoms are comparatively very mild, infomuch that
people who are infeided witlv it will frequently live to
the age of 80 ; but it is fatal to children born with the
infection, and exceedingly dangerous to fuch as emi¬
grate to a colder climate.
Befides thefe, there are two uncommon difeafes met
with in Egypt, viz. a cutaneous eruption which returns
annually ; and a fwelling of the tefticles, which often
degenerates into an enormous hydrocele. The former
comes on towards the end of June or beginning of July,
making its appearance in red fpots and pimples all over
the body, occafioning a very troublefome itching. The
caufe of this diilemper, in M. Volney’s opinion, is the
corruption of the waters of the Nile, which towards
the end of April become very putrid, as has already
been obferved. After this has been drunk for fome
time, the waters of the inundation, which are freffi and
wholeforae, tend to introduce fome change in the blood
and humours; when a cutaneous eruption is the natural
eonfequence.
The hydrocele mofl commonly attacks the Greeks
and Copts ; and is attributed to the quantity of oil
thev make ufe of, as well as to their frequent hot-
bathing. Our author remarks, that “ in Syria as
well as in Egypt, conftant experience has ffiown, that
brandy diftilled from common figs, or from the fruit
of the fycamore tree, as well as from dates and the
fruit of * the nopal, has a moft immediate effeft on
the tefticles, which it renders hard and painful the
third or fourth day after it has been drunk ; and if
the ufe of it be not difeontinued, the diforder degene¬
rates into a confirmed hydrocele. Brandy diftilled
from dried raifins has not the fame effeft : this is al-
wavs mixed with anifeeds ; and is very ftrong, being
diftilled three times. The Chriftians of Syria and
the Copts of Egypt make great ufe of it ; the latter
efpecially drink whole bottles of it at their (upper. I
imagined this an exaggeration ; but I have myfelf had
ocular proofs of its truth, though nothing could equal
Jfly aftonifliment that fuch exceffes do not produce in-
1 ] E G Y
ftant death, or at leaf! every fymptom of the moft; in- Egypt,
fenfibie drunkennefs.” ——.
In the fpring feafon malignant fevers prevail in this
country ; concerning which our author mentions no re¬
markable particular, but that eggs are a kind of poi-
fon, and that bleeding is very prejudicial. He re¬
commends a vegetable diet, and the bark in very large
quantity. . _ 161
Notwithftanding the oppreffion which the Egyptians Commerce
labour under, a very confiderable trade is carried on°fCa!ro
from Cairo. This flourifhing ftate of commerce in ^,^iaer“
the midft of the mofl; defperate barbarity and defpotifm
is owing to three caufes. 1. That all the commodities
confumed in Egypt are colledled within the walls of
that city. 2. That the Mamlouks and all the people
of property refide in that place, and there fpend their
whole revenues. 3. By the fituation of this city it is
a centre of circulation ; correfponding with Arabia
and India, by the Red lea ; with Abyffinia and the in¬
terior parts of Africa, by the Nile ; and with Europe
anfl the Turkiffi empire, by means of the Mediterra¬
nean. A caravan comes here annually from Abyffinia,
bringing from 1000 to 1200 (laves, with gum, ivory,
gold dull, oftrich-feathers, parrots, and monkeys.—
Another, which fets out from the extreme parts of Mo¬
rocco, takes in pilgrims for Mecca from all that
country as far fouth as the mouth of the river Senegal.
It confifts of no fewer than three or four thoufand ca¬
mels ; and, palling along the coafts of the Mediterra¬
nean, colleAs likewife the pilgrims from Algiers, Tri¬
poli, and Tunis, arriving at laft at Alexandria by the
way of the defeit. Proceeding thence to Cairo, it joins
the Egyptian caravan ; and then felling out both toge¬
ther, they take their journey toMecca, from whence they
return in one hundred days ; but the Morocco pilgrims,
who have ftill 600 leagues to go, are upwards of a year
in returning. The commodities they bring along with
them are, India fluffs, ffiawls, gums, perfume'-, pearls^
and principally coffee. Befides the piofits of this mer-
chandife, confiderable funis arife from the duties paid
by pilgrims, and the fums expended by them.
The caravans above-mentioned are not the onlv
means by which thefe commodities are brought to
Cairo. They arrive alfo at Suez, to which port the
foutherly winds bring in the month of May fix or eight
and twenty fail of veffels from Jedda. Small caravans
likewife arrive from time to time from Samafcus .with
filk and cotton fluffs, oils, and dried fruits. During
the proper feafon there are alfo a number of veffels in
the road of Damietta, unloading hogfheads of tobacco
from Latakia, vaft quantities of which are confumed
in this country. For this commodity rice is taken in,
exchange ; while other veffels bring clothing, arms,
furs, paffengers, and wrought filk from Conflantinople.
There are other veffels which come from Marftilles,
Leghorn, and Venice, with cloths, cochineal, Lyons
fluffs and laces, grocery ware, paper, iron, lead, Ve¬
netian fequins, and German dahlers. Thefe are con¬
veyed to Rofetta in barks called by M. Volney djermy
but which feem to be the fame mentioned by Mr Bruce
under the name of canja, and which are particularly de-
feribed by him. He informs us, that there is a pecu-whiCh na-
liarity in the form of this veffel which makes it ufeful vigate th©
for navigating the river Nile ; and that is, that the^'led©.
keellcrit*4
4
t
E G Y
r 632 ]
E G Y
EqvfY
1*3
Of cutting
keel is not ftfaight, but a portion of a parabola, tv hole
curve is alttioft infeniible to the eye. Hence, as fand-
banks are very common in the Nile, and veflels are apt
to itrike them when the water becomes low, the middle
of the canja will be aground while the extremities are
atloat, and thus by means of oars and other affillance,
it is always poflible to get clear ; but were the keel
flraight, this would be altogether impoflible, by reafon
of the vaft fails thofe veffels carry, which would urge
them on with too much force to be recovered. The
accommodation on board thefe velfels is much better
than what could be expefled : but they are liable to
the depredations of robbers, who either fwim under
water in the day-time, or upon goats fkins during the
night : though thefe feldom attack any boats where
there are Europeans, whom they dread on account of
their fkill in fire arms.
From fo many fources we need not wonder that the
commerce of Cairo fhould be in a very flourifhing date.
In 1783, according to the report of the commiffioner-
general of the cuftoms, it amounted to no lefs than
6,250,000!. ; but notwithllanding this (how of Wealth,
the trade carried on at Cairo contributes very little to
the enriching of the neople. This will readily appear,
when we confider, that great part of the coffee and
ether merchandife brought from India is exported to
foreign countries, the value being paid in goods from
Turkey and other European countries ; while the coun¬
try confumption confifts entirely, or moftiy, in articles
of luxury already finiffied, and the produce given in re¬
turn is moftiy in raw materials.
Schemes have frequently been proje£led of enlarging
Etyi
!l
164
through thet_]ie corTimerce Gf Egypt by cutting through the ifth-
' uesT" Tnus Suez> and thus joining the Mediterranean and
Red feas by a canal. This is looked upon by M.
Volney as impra£ticable» He owns, indeed, that no
objection can arife from the diftance, which is not
more than 18 or 19 leagues 5 neither does any ob-
ftacle arife from mountains, or the inequality of levels,
the whole being a fandy barren plain. The difficulty,
which he confiders as infuperable, proceeds from the
nature of the correfponding coafts of the Mediterra¬
nean and Red feas ; both of which are low and fandy,
where the waters form lakes, fhoals, and moraffes, fo
that fhips cannot come within a confiderable diflance
of either ; and it would be fcarce poffible to cut a per¬
manent canal amidft thefe fhifting fands ; not to men¬
tion, that the fhore is deftitute of harbours, which muff
be entirely the work of art. The country, befides, has
not a drop of frefh water, which it would therefore be
neceffary to bring as far as from the Nile. The btfl me¬
thod of effe&ing this junftion, therefore, is by means of
the river itfelf; and for this the ground is perfectly
well calculated. This has been already done by feveral
Egyptian princes, particularly Sefoftris $ and the canal
is faid to have been 170 feet wide, and deep enough for
large veffels. After the Grecian conqueft it was renewed
by the Ptolemies, then by Trajan, and laftly by the
Arabs. Part of it ftill remains, running from Cairo
to the north-eaft of the Berket-el-Hadj\ or Lake bf the
Pilgrims, where it lofes itfelf. At prefent the com¬
merce with Suer is only carried on by means of cara¬
vans, which fet out towards the end of April or begin¬
ning of May, or in the months of July and Auguft }
waiting the arrival of the veffds, and fetting out on
their departure. The caravans are very numerous ; that
with which M. Volney travelled confilting of 5000 or
6000 men and 3000 camels. The country is as defert
and barren as poffible, without a (ingle tree or the
fmalled fpot of verdure ; fo that every neceffary for
thofe who accompany the caravan mutt be carried
on the backs of the camels, wood and water not ex¬
cepted.
The cuftom-houfes of Egypt are in the hands of the
Chritlians of Syria. Formerly they were managed by
Jews ; but thefe were completely ruined by the extor¬
tions ot Ah Bey in 1769. The Syrian Chriilians came
from Damafcus fomewhat more than 50 years ago ; and
having by their economy and indultry gained poffeffion
of the mod important branches of commerce, they were
at length enabled to farm the cuftom-houfes, which is
an office of great confequence* There were at firft only
three or four families of them *, but their number has
fince increafed to more than 500, and they are reckon¬
ed very opulent*
From what has already been faid concerning the Low (b
fta-te of the Egyptians, we may naturally conclude, of the a
that the arts and all kinds of learning are at a very low an(^
ebb among them. Even the mod fimple^of the media-in^'
nica! profeffions are dill in a date of infancy. The
work of their cabinet-makers, gun-fmiths, and lock-
fmiths, is extremely clumfy. There are manufadures
of gunpowder and fugar ; but the quality of both is
very indifferent. The only thing in which they can be
faid to arrive at any degree of perfection is the manu¬
facture of filk duff'*, though even thefe are far lefs
highly finidicd than thofe of Europe, and likewife bear
a much higher price. One very extraordinary art in¬
deed is dill extant among the Egyptians, and appears
to have exided in that country from the mod remote
antiquity ; and that is, a power of enchanting the mod
deadly ferpents in fuch a manner, that they (hall allow
themfelves to be handled, nay even hurt in the fevered
manner, without offering to bite the perfon who injures
them. Thofe who have this art are named Psylli ;
to which article we refer for an account of what has
been faid on the fubjeCl by ancient and modern travel¬
lers.
The long and bloody war to which the revolution of War i
France gave rife, induced the government of that coun-Egypt,
try to leave no meafure unattempted, by which the
grandeur, independence, and commerce of Great Bri¬
tain might be as much injured as poffible, if not utter¬
ly dedroyed. The conqued of Egypt was therefore
projected, as a preparatory dep towards the fubjugation
of the Ead Indies, to be effeCted by reaching the In¬
dian ocean through the idhmus of Suez. This was a
daring, a defperate undertaking ; and no military cha¬
racter of which France could boad, was confidered as
equal to its fuccefsful execution but the hero of Maren¬
go. He accordingly embarked at Toulon, as com¬
mander in chief of the army of the ead, which amount¬
ed to about 40,000 men, and having compelled Malta
to furrender in the courfe of his voyage, he deered for j6(
the coad of Egypt, and arriving at Alexandria on tbeAlexari*
fird of July 1798, he carried it by affault on the even-taken aJJ
ing of the 5th. the Ft
It is well known that while Bonaparte continued in
Italy, he dridly prohibited his troops from committing
aCls of rapine and plunder, of which, however, they
were
E G Y [ 633 ] E G Y
were guilty at Alexandria, and confequently it is to be
1 prefumed that the commander in chief could not then
11 prevent it. If he could, he was unqueftionably blind
to his own intereft not to do fo, fince nothing was more
unlikely to conciliate the affedlions of the Egyptians.
Cairo next furrendered to the vigors on the 23d of the
fame month. The French general attacked one of the
enemy’s polls at Lambabe on the 25th, when 300 of the
enemy were killed ; but this was only a prelude to the
memorable battle of the Pyramids, which was fought on
the following day, and feemed for the prefent to decide
the fate of Egypt. The Mamlouks loft 2000 men 5
and 400 camels, together with their baggage and 50
pieces of cannon, fell into the hands of the conquerors.
Thus far Bonaparte appeared to be the favourite of for¬
tune, by whom he was never to be deferted j but he
foon found that the race is not always to the fwift, or
the battle to the ftrong. He experienced a reverfe of an
irreparable nature $ and as it does not appear that he en¬
tertained the fmalleft apprehenfion of it, it gave a trait
of ferocity to his fubfequent condudl which he had never
167 before exhibited.
tattle of Admiral Nelfon appeared off the mouth of the Nile
he Nile. on tlie jft of Auguft, with a naval force equal to that
of the French admiral ; and although the fleet of the
latter was fo ftationed and defended as to render an at¬
tack extremely hazardous, the Britifli hero was determin¬
ed to attempt it j and in this he fucceeded to the utmoft
of his willies. He captured nine fail of the line belonging
to the enemy, L’Orient, the admiral’s flag (hip of 120
guns, having blown up during the defperate and bloody
engagement. The lofs on the part of the French mull
have been immenfe, lince Gantheaume mentions 3100
made prifoners, whom the Britith commander returned:
of this number there were 800 wounded. The Britifli
had about 202 killed, befides fixteen officers, and 678
wounded.
After Grand Cairo furrendered to the French, Bona¬
parte formed his victorious army into three divilions,
one of which was commanded by General Defaix,
whofe deftination was Upper Egypt, in purfuit of the
flying Mamlouks j the fecond divifion he left for the
defence of Cairo, and marched in perfon at the head
of the third in purfuit of Ibrahim Bey, who had taken
his route towards Syria with a rich caravan. To ren¬
der abortive, if poffible, the defigns of Bonaparte, Bri¬
tain formed an alliance with the Sublime Porte, and the
chief preparations for carrying the concerted plan into
effeft, were made in Syria, under the care and direc¬
tion of the pacha Djezzar. The frontiers of Egypt to¬
wards Syria were to be attacked by an army from Alia
Minor, the operations of which were to be favoured by
making a ftrong diverfion towards the mouths of the
Nile, and by various affaults in Upper Egypt with th,e
remains of Mourad Bey’s army. Sir Sidney Smith left
Portfmouth to fuperintend the execution of this exten-
live plan, and grant every affiftancein his power by the
maritime force under his command.
In the mean time care was taken to block up the
harbour of Alexandria with four fail of the line and
five frigates, under the command of Commodore Hood,
as he had found it impraClicable to burn or deftroy the
French fleet of tranfports, without the affiftance of a
Jand force fufficient to attack Alexandria. Of the light
veffels which had been fent him by the combined fleet
Vol. VII. Part II.
of Turks and Ruffians the commodore had made no ufe j Egypt,
and he alfo found the report to be without foundation, * "•
that the veffels in the old port belonging to the french,
were burnt. It was in order to deftroy the preparations
of the pacha Djezzar, and difconcert the plans of Sir
Sidney Smith, that General Bonaparte thought of leav¬
ing Egypt and marching into Syria. The refultof this
expedition, as we have already hinted, was fatal to the
French intereft, although Bonaparte perhaps never un¬
dertook an enterprife with more rational expectations of
ultimate fuccefs.
The town of Jaffa, (anciently Joppa), was obftinate-
ly defended, but at laft furrendered to the fuperior tac¬
tics of European foldiers. From this place the French
general marched with his army in three divifions again!! i6J
St Jean d’Acre, which put an effeClual period to his \cre jg.
hitherto triumphant career. The pacha was powerful-fended by
ly encouraged by Sir Sidney Smith to make an obfli-Sir.Sldney
nate refiflance to the attack of Bonaparte ; and to ani-‘’tn^1‘
mate him ftill more with the hopes of being able to
hold out, and force the aflailants in the iffue to raife
the fiege, he fent him a French engineer of diftinguifli-
ed merit, by whofe inftrumentality Sir Sidney Smith
had been enabled to tffeft his efcape from prifon.
Although the fortrefs was completely repaired by
Colonel Philipeaux (the name of the engineer),
yet it is more than probable that it could not have
long held out again!! the fkill and intrepidity of
Bonaparte, if his heavy artillery had not been inter¬
cepted by the Britiffi on their way from Damietta and
Rofetta. After a defperate and bloody fiege of about
61 days continuance, the French commander was ob¬
liged to abandon the hope of making Acre furrender.
In the courfe of his retreat back again to Egypt, Bona¬
parte’s army ravaged the whole country, burnt the bar-
vefts, deftroyed the defences of the different ports, the
magazines, andevery refource of which the Turks might
have availed themfelves in approaching the frontiers of
Egypt. He reached Grand Cairo in 26 days after raff¬
ing the fiege of Acre.
Sir Sidney Smith, with indefatigable zeal and aflivi-
ty, continued to execute the remaining parts of the
plan of operations againft Egypt, which was feconded
by the increafing zeal of the Turks in the profecution
of the fame defign. The troops deftined to make an
attack upon Alexandria were affembled in the different
ports in the ifland of Rhodes, by Seid Muftapha Pacha,
the enterprife being conduced by European officers.
The combined fleet of Turkey and Britain only waited
the arrival of a convoy, previous to their failing for
Egypt, which the captain pacha, who then lay at an¬
chor in the Dardanelles, was to difpatch to Rhodes.
During the abfenceof General Bonaparte, no method had
been left unattempted, in order to ruin the intereft of
the French, and kindle a fpirit of rebellion in the minds
of the people. This plan fucceeded to a certain extent,
but the prefence of Bonaparte rellored tranquillity.
His army no doubt fuffered extremely in its march to Sy¬
ria j but with fuch zeal and a&ivity did he turn his at¬
tention to the re-eftabliftiment of its organization, that
it was in a condition to undertake a£live operations in
the fliort period of three weeks, although, according to
very high authority, it had been completely buried in
the burning fands of the defert.
While Bonaparte was in the vicin„‘y of the pyra-
4 L mids,
Egypt.
169
Bonaparte,
returns to
France.
E G Y [
mids, intended to purfue Mourad Bey in his retreat to
Fayoum, he received intelligence from Alexandria, that
a Turkilh fleet of 100 fail had come to anchor in the
bay of Aboukir, from which 3000 troops had landed
on the Ihore of the peninfula, and carried the fort of
Aboukir by affault. He accordingly gave direction
to his officers to march their forces towards the place
of landing, and the firft rendezvous of the army was
appointed to be at Rhamanieh, fituated on the left
flde of the Nile. The advanced guard under the
command of General Murat, took the the route to
Gizeh, and General Menou’s moveable column, to¬
gether with the park of artillery and the ftaff, form¬
ed a conjun£tion at Rhamanieh on the 20th of July.
After the French army quitted its port at the vil¬
lage of Birket, it affembled at the wells between Alex¬
andria and Aboukir $ and Bonaparte fixed his head
quarters at the former place.
The Turkifh army was about 15,000 ftrong, and
receiving daily reinforcements. When Bonaparte came
in fight of it, he inflantly formed his columns to attack
it, and General d’Ellaing carried the intrenched height
of the enemy, by which their right was fupported, at
the point of the bayonet. Their two wings were cut
off from retreating by General Murat, who marched
up to the centre of the enemy with a body of cavalry.
By this manoeuvre 2000 men periffied by water, or
were killed by the fire of the republicans. As Bona¬
parte found that the chief ftrength of the Turkifh ar¬
my was at the centre, he changed his pofition as the
nature of the ground rendered it neceflary. By a variety
of experienced movements, in which the French loft
feveral brave officers, the Turks were at length thrown
into the utmofl confufion, retreated in every dire£tion,
and threw themfelves into the fea. The majority of
them were at too great a diflance from the veffels, to
be faved in this manner from a watery grave. After
this battle, the fort of Aboukir was fummoned to fur-
render, which was defended with the moft defperate
fury, as the Turks had no idea of capitulating with
arms in their hands. General Menou conduced the
liege with great vigour and addrefs, and after bombard¬
ing it for eight days, till it exhibited nothing but a
heap of ruins, the fon of the pacha and 2000 men laid
down their arms, and were made prifoners of war. In
the fort the republicans found 1800 men killed, and
500 wounded. It is faid that Sir Sidney Smith wit-
neffed this melancholy reverfe of fortune on the part of
the Turks, without having it in his power, as at Acre, to
grant them relief, or to animate them by his courageous
example.
The next day Bonaparte returned to Alexandria where
he learnedthedifmalfituation of French affairs on the con¬
tinent of Europe, particularly in Italy and on the Rhine,
and the violent commotions which were agitating the in¬
terior of France. This determined him to quit Egypt,
and return to his own country, full of the idea of veil¬
ing in his own perlbn the fovereign authority, to which
he has at length attained, both in name and reality.
General Berthier alone was his confidential friend, to
whom he communicated his future defigns. Admiral
Gantheaume was ordered to get ready two frigates with
the utmoft expedition, without informing that officer
what was to be their deftination, and brought with him
634 1 E G Y
Generals Lafnes, Marmont, Murat, and Andreoffi, to¬
gether with Monge and Berthollet of the inftitute j ^
Beffieres and his guides received fealed notes, which
were not to be opened till a certain day, and certain
hour, and at a particular point of the fea-ffiore. They
were found to contain orders for immediate embarkation j
and another packet which was to be opened on the day
after the failing of the frigates, contained the nomina¬
tion of General Kleber to the chief command, and De-
faix to that of Upper Egypt.
By difpatches from General Kleber fubfequent to the
departure of Bonaparte, it appears that Mourad Bey
having dropt down the Nile to El-Ganayur, was repul-
fed by a divifion of the army of Upper Egypt, under
the command of General Morand. Being overtaken
in his flight by this divifion, his camp was furprifed at
Samahout, a vaft number of Mamlouks were entirely
cut off; 200 camels with fpoils, 100 horfes, and a pro¬
digious quantity of military implements, fell into the
hands of the republicans, and it was with the utmofl:
difficulty that the bey effefled his efcape. Thus fig-
nally defeated, Mourad wandered through the inhofpi-
table deferts of Upper Egypt, in fearch of an afylum
and the means of fubfiftence. As this man was fuch
an indefatigable enemy to the French, Defaix refolved
to exterminate him if poffible, and for this purpofe two
columns of infantry mounted on dromedaries were im¬
mediately organized, the one commanded by Defaik
in perfon, and the other by Adjutant-general Boyer,
who came up with Mourad on the 19th of Oftober in
the defert of Sediman, after a forced march of three
days. The Mamlouks fought with determined valour
and intrepidity, animated with the hopes of gaining
poffeffion of the dromedaries. Their attack was met
with fuch vigour on the part of the republicans, that
the Mamlouks and Arabs were foon put to flight, and
purfued back to the deferts by their intrepid conquer¬
ors.
On the 24th of September, a Turkiffi fleet of 18
veffels came to anchor before Damietta, which was fo
rapidly increafed by conflant reinforcements, that it
amounted to 53 about the end of the fubfequent month.
The naval commander of this fleet was Sir Sidney
Smith on board the Tyger. On the iff of November
4000 Turks effected a landing, who were attacked by
General Verdier at the head of 1000 men, and loft, in
this apparently unequal conteft, no fewer than :30O
men killed, 800 prifoners, including Ifmael Bey, the
fecond in command, 32 Hand of colours, and five pieces
of cannon. After a number of fubfequent battles and
inferior Ikirmilhes which the republicans fought with
various fuccefs, they feemed willing to evacuate Egypt
upon certain conditions, which met with the approba¬
tion of Sir Sidney Smith ; but they were afterwards re-
jefted by a fpeciefc of policy for which it is difficult to
account, and frelh obftacles were thrown in the way of
the propofed evacuation. This was an event much to
be defired by the republicans, according to the opinion
of fome, while the French denied that the neceffity of
fuch a meafure ever exifted. According to them, they
had flill 20,000 effective men in that quarter of the
globe, and liberally (hared in the affedlions of the inha¬
bitants, by whom they were affifted.
The gallant and experienced Kleber, who fucceeded
Bonaparte
%pt
E G Y [655] E H U
Bonaparte in the chief command of the armij of the
JUjLl-j Eafti was treacheroufly affaflinated by a janiflary, while
170 prefenting the general with a memorial for his perufal,
Mina- on which the chief command devolved on Menou, but
not till fome other generals, and Reynier in particular,
e e' had refufed to accept of it. Sufpicions fell heavily on
General Menou, who, it was fuppofed, had hired the af-
faflin, as it was well known that a variance fubfifled be¬
tween Kleber and Menoubut it is only doing juflice
to the latter to declare, that the dying affertions of the
murderer fufficiently evinced the contrary. He Was
mod probably hired by the grand vizier himfelf j but
who adviled the vizier to the adoption of fuch an in¬
famous, cowardly rtteafute, we muft leave to our readers
to find out. The afiaffin was impaled alive, his right
hand burnt off, and his body left to be devoured by
birds of prey. Three (heiks who were privy to his de-
figns, but did not divulge them, were beheaded.
Lieutenant Wright was difpatched to Cairo by Sir
Sidney Smith, with propofitions refpefting the evacua¬
tion of Egypt to General Menou, whofe anfwer the
combined powers expedled with anxiety, as the grand
vizier was determined to advance again!! the enemy at
the head of 30,000 men, fhuuld Menou evince himfelf
determined not to evacuate Egypt. He foon gave
them to underftand that no overtures of accommodation
which they could make to him would be received.
He accordingly recommenced hoflilities, and marched
again!! Syria with the principal part of his army j a mea-
fure which proved abortive under the aufpices of Bona¬
parte, by the prompt and gallant exertions of Sir Sid¬
ney Smith. The determination of Menou in fuch a
perilous fituation, was no doubt owing in a great mea-
iiire to the acceflkms of ftrength which he received from
the different beys who joined him, as the be!! means of
fecuring their independence, having been informed that
the Sublime Porte was determined on the conquefl of
Egypt, and the deftruftion of the Mamlouks. T he
aid of Mourad Bey was of fome importance to MenoU,
and it formed a jun&ion of a very Angular nature, ha¬
ving formerly been fuch a determined enemy of the
French. Menou flrongly fortified Alexandria, Dami-
mietta, and Rofetta, and not only finiftied the lines
which Colonel Bromley had begun at Aboukir, but
made to thefe feveral important additions, putting every
place into fuch a (fate of defence as feemed to bid de¬
fiance to any attack from the Turks.
In the mean time Britain was not idle, but affive in
the organization of an army deflined to invade Egypt,
and compel the French troops to evacuate that country,
which was too contiguous to her inettimable polfeulons
in the Eaft Indies 5 and the command of it was given to
that gallant and highly refpeftable officer, the late ge¬
neral Sir Ralph Abercromby, who appeared of! Abou¬
kir in the beginning of March, 1801. I he weather
proving unfavourable for fome days, Sir Ralph did not
begin to land his troops till the 8*h, at an early hour
1)1 in the morning. The French having marched from
fhe Britifh Alexandria, took their Ration on the heights of Abou-
^er kir, to prevent the landing of the Britifh forces. An
by adlion foon commenced between the hoflile armies,
3115 at a. which lafted for two hours, but the republicans were
boukir. obliged to retreat, having only 4000 men to oppofe to
three times that number. The lofs of the French on
this occafion was eftimated at 3000, and that of the
Britiffi about I coo men, in killed, wounded, and prii- tfgypl
foners. ... . Ei
After this, few a£lions of importance occurred till,
the memorable 2lft of March* on which day a battle
was fought about four miles from Alexandria. A falfe
attack on the left of the Britiffi army was the com¬
mencement of hoftilities, but the French were ftill more
anxious to turn the right of their opponents, which they
attempted in vain. With the fame fuccefs they made
an attack upon the central devifion. About 200 pri-
foners fell into the hands of the Britiffi ; but as their
cavalry was much inferior to that of the enemy, whofe
retreat was alfo covered by cannon on the oppofite
hills, they could not purfue their advantages. The lofs
of the Britiffi at this time was very confiderable, but
the mod irreparable part of it was the lofs of the com¬
mander in chief, who was mortally wounded on the
21 ft, and died on the 28th of the famevmonth. He
was fucceeded by General Hutchinfon, the fecond in
command, to whom w'as committed the completion of
the plans which his worthy predeceftbr had concerted.
He attacked the French on the 19th of May, near
Rhamanieh, and forced them to retire towards Cairo.
He had 4000 Britiffi troops under his command, and
an equal number of Turks under the captain pacha.
He then directed his route towards Cairo, from which
the army of the grand vizier was diftant only fout
leagues, in a north-eaft direftion. A reinforcement of
qooo Britiffi troops reached Aboukir about the 6th of
May.
By the advice of Colonel Murray and fome other
Britiffi officers then in the camp of the grand vizier,
his highnefs obtained a viftory over 4600 French,
with 9000 chofen troops, not encumbered with the
women and ufelefs attendants fo commonly met with
in the camps of eaftern generals. The whole of
Uamietta foon fell into the hands of the allies, and the
fucceflbr of Mourad Bey declared in favour of the Bri¬
tiffi, joining Sir J. Hutchinfon with 1500 cavalry, that
kind of force of which the Briti!h commander Rood in
greateft need. In a fliort time after, the French eva¬
cuated Cairo, which was taken pofltffion of by the
combined Turkiffi and Britiffi army. The republicans
were not made prifoners, but were, by ftipulation, to
be conveyed to the neareft ports belonging to France,
at the expence of Great Britain. Alexandria ftill he.ld
out, which Menou was determined to defend to the
laft, notwithftanding the idea of receiving reinforce¬
ments appeared altogether groundlefs. He was at
length, however, obliged to furrender, and thus the
whole of Egypt was in poffeflion of the allies. As the
joyful news of peace between Great Britain and France
had fpread over the country prior to this intelligence,
it did not excite half the intereft in the mind of Britons
which it would otherwife have done.
For a defcription of thefe ftupendous and almoft in-
deftru&ible monuments of human grandeur, the pyra¬
mids, fo often taken notice of and defcribed by travel¬
lers, fee the article PYRAMIDS.
EGYPTIANS, or Gypsies. See Gypsies.
EHRET1 A, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs. See Botany Index.
EHRHA RTA, a genus of plants belonging to the
hexandria clafs. See Botany Index.
EHUD, the fon of Gera, a Benjamite, a tnan left-
4 L 2 handed)
E J E [ 6j
EliuJ handed, who deliv ered Ifrael from the oppreflion of
I! Eglon king of Moab, under whom they ferved for 18
Ejection. years. See EGLON. It being cuftomary for the If-
raelites to fend a prefent or tribute to the king of
Moab ; in the year of the world 2579, being the laft
year of their fervitude, Ehud was appointed to carry
it, who having a delign either to free his country from
this oppreflion, or perifli in the attempt, had for this
purpofe provided himfelf with a dagger which had two
edges, and which he had concealed on his right fide,
(Judges iii. 15. &c.). After he had delivered the pre¬
fent, pretending he had fomething of great importance
to communicate to the king, he obtained a private au¬
dience of him ; when taking his opportunity, he flab-
bed him with the poniard to the heart, and fo (hut¬
ting the door after him, had time to make his efcape j
for as the king was a very corpulent man, his atten¬
dants fuppofed that he was either repofing or eafing
himfelf, and therefore forbore to enter his apartment
until Ehud was quite gone. As foon as he came to
Mount Ephraim, he gathered together the Ifraelites
that lay neareft him, acquainted them with what he had
done j and then fecuring the fords of Jordan that none
of them might efcape, he fell upon the Moabites, and
fubdued them.
El A, or Ey, in our old writers, is ufed for an
ifland. Hence the names of places ending in ey, de¬
note them to be iflands. Thus, Ramfey, the ifle of
rams •, Shepey, the ifle of (beep, &c.
Eia is alfo fometimes ufed for water ; and hence the
names of places near waters or lakes terminate in ey.
EJACULATOR, in Anatomy, a name applied to
two mufcles of the penis, from their office in the ejec¬
tion of the feed. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
EICET/E, called alfo HEICETiE and HlCETiE, here¬
tics of the feventh century, who made profeflion of the
monaftic life.—From that paffage in Exodus where
Mofes and the children of Ifrael are faid to have fung
a fong in praife of the Lord, after they had paffed the
Red fea, wherein their enemies had perifhed $ the Ei-
cetae concluded, that they murt fing and dance to praife
God aright : and as Mary the prophetefs, filter of
Mofes and Aaron, took a drum in her hand, on the
fame occafion, and all the women did the like, to
teflify their joy, by playing, beating, and dancing $
the Eicetse, the better to imitate their conduct herein,
endeavoured to draw women to them to make profeflion
of the monaftic life, and aflift in their mirth.
EICK. See Bruges.
EIDER duck. See Anas, Ornithology
ElBER Down, the down of the eider-duck. The
eider-duck plucks off the down from its bread for the
purpofe of making its neft, which, after being robbed
by thofe who colleft the down, is renewed by the bird
till its breatt is quite bare.
EJECTA, a term ufed by lawyers for a woman de¬
flowered or caft from the virtuous.
EJECTION, in the animal economy, the evacua¬
tion, or difcharging any thing through fome of the
emunftories, as by ftool, vomit, &c.
Ejection, in Scots Law, is the turning out the pof-
feffor of any heritable fubjeft by force; and is either
legal or illegal. Legal ejection is where a perfon ha¬
ving no title to poffefs, is turned out by the authority
of law. Illegal eje&ion is one perfon’s violently turn-
6 ] E K R
ing another out of poffeflion without lawful autho- Ejtftio!
riiy- . II
EJECTMENT, in Englijh Law, a writ or adtion Ekron.
which lies for the leffee for years, on his being ejedied '“wr-
or put out of his land, before the expiration of his term,
either by the leffor or a ftranger. It may alfo be
brought by the lefl'or againfl the It flee, for rent in ar¬
rears, or holding over his term, &.c. Ejedlment of
late years is become an adtion in the place of many real
adlions, as writs of right, formedons, &c. which are
very difficult, as well as tedious and expenfive j and this
is now the common adfion for trial of titles, and reco¬
vering of lands, &c. illegally held from the right own¬
er ; yet where entry is taken away by difcents, fines,
recoveries, diffeifins, &c. an ejedfment (hall not be
brought; whereby we find that all titles cannot be
tried by this adtion.
The method of proceeding in the adlion of ejedlrr.ent
is to draw up a declaration, and feign therein a leafe
for three, five, or feven years, to him that would try
the title *, and alfo feign a cafual ejedtor or defendant;
and then deliver the declaration to the ejedfor, who
ferves a copv of it on the tenant in poffefiion, and gives
notice at the bottom for him to appear and defend his
title; or that he the feigned defendant will fuffer
judgment by default whereby the true tenant will be
turned out of poffeflion : to this declaration the tenant
is to appear at the beginning of next term by ins attor¬
ney, and confent to a rule to be made defendant, in-
ftead of the cafual ejedlor, and take upon him the de¬
fence, in which he muft confefs leafe, judgment, entry,
and aufter, and at the trial (land upon the title only :
but in cafe the tenant in poffeflion does not appear,
and enter into the faid rule in time, after the declara¬
tion ferved, then, on affidavit being made of the fervice
of the declaration, with the notice to appear as afore-
faid, the court will order judgment to be entered againft
the cafual ejedfor by default \ and thereupon the te¬
nant in poffeflion, by writ habere facias pojfefjionem, is
turned out of his poffeflion. On the trial in ejedf¬
ment, the plaintiff’s title is to be fet forth from the
perfon laft feifed in fee of the lands in queftion, under
whom the leffor claims down to the plaintiff, proving
the deeds, &c. and the plaintiff (hall recover only ac¬
cording to the right which he has at the time of bring¬
ing his adfion. And here, another who hath title to
the land, upon a motion made for that purpofe, may
be defendant in the adfion with the tenant in pofleflion,
to detend his title y for the poffeflion of the lands is
primarily in queftion, and to be recovered, which con¬
cerns the tenant, and the title thereto is tried collate¬
rally, which may concern fome other.
EKRON, a city and government of the Philiftines.
It fell by lot to the tribe of Judah, in the firft divifion
made by Joftiua (xv. 45.), but afterwards it was given
to the tribe of Dan (/. See Botany Index.
EL/EOTHES1UM, in antiquity, the anointing
room, or place where thofe who were to wreftle or had
bathed anointed therafelves. See Gymnasium.
ELAiS, a genus of plants belonging to the natural
order of Palnue. See Botany Index.
ELAM, in Ancient Geography, a country frequently
mentioned in Scripture, and lying to the fouth-eaft of
Shinar. In the time of Daniel (viii. 2.) Sufiana feems
to have been part of it; and before the captivity, it
does not appear that the Jews called Perfia by any
other name. E'Umae and Elymais are often mentioned
by the ancients. Ptolemy, though he makes Elymais
a province of Media, yet he places the Elymae in Su¬
fiana, near the fea coaft. Stephanus takes it to be a
part of Aflyria ; but Pliny and Jofephus more properly
of Perfia, whofe inhabitants this latter tells us fprang
from the Elamites. The bell commentators agree,
that the Elamites, who were the anceftors of the Per-
fians, were defcended from Elam the fon of Shem. It
is likewife allowed that the moft ancient among the
infpired writers conftantly intend Perfia, when they
fpeak of Elam and the kingdom of Elam. Thus, not
to detain the reader with unneceffary quotations, when
the prophet Jeremiah (xlix. 39.), after denouncing
many judgments again!! this country, adds thefe words,
“ But it fhall come to pafs in the latter days, that I
will bring again the captivity of Elam, faith the
Lord,” he is always underftood to mean the reftora-
tion of the kingdom of the Perfians by Cyrus, who
fubdued the Babylonians, as they before had fubdued
the Perfians.
ELAPHEBOLI A, in Grecian antiquity, a feflival
in honour of Diana the huntrefs. In the celebration a
cake was made in the form of a deer (iXxQof), and of¬
fered to the goddefs. It owed its inllitution to the
following circumftance : When the Phoeians had been
feverely beaten by the Theffalians, they refolved, by
the perfuafion of one Deiphantus, to raife a pile of com-
buftible materials, and burn their wives, children, and
effects, rather than fubmit to the enemy. 1 his refolu-
tion was unanimoufly approved by the women, who de¬
creed Deiphantus a crown for his magnanimity. When
every thing was prepared, before they fired the pile,
they engaged their enemies, and fought with fuch def-
perate fury, that they totally routed them, and obtained
a complete vidlory. In commemoration of this unex¬
pected fuccefs, this feftival was inftituted to Diana, and
obferved with the greateft folemnity.
ELAPHEBOLIUM, in Grecian antiquity,
ninth month of the Athenian year, anfwering to
latter part of February and beginning of March,
confided of 30 days •, and took its name from
fefiival elaphebolia, kept in this month, in honour of
Diana the huntrefs, as mentioned in the preceding ar¬
ticle.
ELASMIS, in Natural Hi/lory, an old term applied
to talcs, compofed of fmall plates in form of fpangles *,
and either fingle, and not farther fiflile ; or, if complex,
only fiflile to a certain degree, and that in fomewhat
thick laminae.—Of thefe talcs there are feveral varie¬
r 6.17 1
E L A
the
the
It
the
Elaftic
\ a pours.
—-V—
ties, fome with large and others with fmall fpangles, Elafmis
which differ alfo in colour and other peculiarities.
ELASTIC, in Natural Philofophy, an appellation
given to all bodies endowed with the property of ela-
fticity. See ELASTICITY.
■Elastic Fluids. See Air, Electricity, Gas,
and ELASTIC Vapours below.
Elastic Rejin. See Caoutchouc.
Elastic Vapours are fuch as may, by any external
mechanical force, be comprefled into a fmaller fpace
than what they originally occupied ; reftoring them-
felves, when the preffure is taken off, to their former
date with a force exailly proportioned to that with
which they were at firfi compreffed. Of this kind are
all the aerial fluids without exception, and all kinds of
fumes raifed by means of heat, whether from folid or
fluid bodies.
Of thefe, fome retain their elaflicity only when a
confiderable degree of heat is applied to them or the
fubdance which produces them j while others remain
elaflic in every degree of cold, either natural or artifi¬
cial, that has yet been obferved. Of the former kind
are the vapours of water, fpirit of wine, mercury, fal
ammoniac, and all kinds of fubhmable fails • of the
latter, thofe of muriatic acid gas, hydrogen gas, nitrous
gas, common air, &c.
The elailic force with which any one of thefe fluids
is endowed has not yet been calculated, as being ulti¬
mately greater than any obdacle we can put in its
way. Thus, if we comprefs the atmofpherical air, we
(hall find that for fome little time it will eafily yield to
the force we apply } but every fucceeding moment the
refidance will become dronger, and a greater and great¬
er force mud be applied in order to comprefs it far¬
ther. As the compreflion goes on, the veffel contain¬
ing the air becomes hot j but no power whatever has
yet been able to deltroy the elaflicity of the contained
fluid in any degree j for upon removing the preffure,
it is always found to occupy the very lame fpace that
it did before. The cafe is the fame with aqueous
fleam, to which a fufficient heat is applied to keep it
from condenfing into water. This will yield to a cer¬
tain degree : but every moment the refiftance becomes
greater, until at lad it will overcome any obdacles
whatever. An example of the power of this kind of
fleam we have every day in the fleam engine 5 and the
vapours of other matters, both folid and fluid, have fre¬
quently manifefl-ed themfelves to be endowed with an
equal force. Thus the force of the vapours of fpirit
of wine has occafioned terrible accidents when the
worm has been flopped, and the head of the dill ab-
furdly tied down to prevent an explofion •, the vapours
of mercury have hurl! an iron box ; and thofe of fal
ammoniac, volatile falls, nitrous acid, marine acid,
phofphorus, &c. have all been known to burfl the che¬
mical veffels which confined them with great force, in
fuch a manner as to endanger thofe who flood near
them. In Ihort, from innumerable obfervations, it
may be lard down as an undoubted fad!, that there is
no fubdanee whatever capable of being reduced into a
ftate of vapour, but what in that ftate is endowed with
an elaftic force ultimately fuperior to any obftacle we
can throw in its way.
It hath been a kind of defideratum among philo-
fophers to give a fatisfa&ory reafon for this aflonilh-
1 ing
Klaftic
Vapours.
' ^
E L A [ 638 ] E L A
Jng po\Ver of elafticity in vapour, feemingly fo little ca¬
pable of accomplilhing any great purpofe when in an
unconfined date. As air is that fluid in which, from
the many experiments made upon it by the air-pump
and otherwife, the elaftic property has moll frequently
been obferved, the refearches of philofophers were at
firft principally directed towards it. The eaufes they
affigned, however, were very inadequate ; being found¬
ed upon an hypothefis concerning the form of the par¬
ticles of the atmofphere itfelf, which they fuppofed to
be either rolled up like the fprings of watches, or that
they confifted of a kind of elaftic flakes. This was
followed by another hypothefis concerning their fub-
ftance, which was imagined to be perfedlly elaftic, and
fo ftrong that they could not be broken by any me¬
chanical power whatever ; and thus they thought the
phenomenon of the elafticity of the air might be ex¬
plained. But an infuperable difficulty ftill attended
their fcheme, notwithftanding both thefe fuppofitions :
for it was obferved, that the elaftic power of the air was
augmented not only in proportion to the quantity of
preffure it was made to endure, but in proportion to
the degree of heat applied to it at the time. Sir Ifaac
Newton was aware of this difficulty ; and juftly con¬
cluded, that the phenomena of the air’s elafticity could
not be folved on any other fuppofition but that of a
repulfive power diffufed all around each of its parti¬
cles, which became ftronger as they approached, and
weaker as they removed from each other. Hence the
common phenomena of the air-pump and condenfing-
engine received a fatisfaftory explanation ; but ftill it
remained to account for the. power fhown in the pre-
fent cafe by heat, as it could not be denied that this
element had a very great ffiare in augmenting the ela-
fticity of the atmofphere, and feemed to be the only
caufe of elafticity in other vapours. It does not ap¬
pear that Sir Ifaac entered into this queftion, but con¬
tented himfelf with attributing to heat the property of
increafing repulfion, and afcribing this to another un¬
explored property called rarefahion. Thus matters
flood till the great difcovery made by Dr Black, that
fome bodies have the power of abforbing in an un¬
known manner the element in queftion, and parting
with it afterwards, fo that it flows out of the body
which had ablbrbed it with the very fame properties
that it had before abforption. Hence many pheno¬
mena of heat, vapour, and evaporation, were explained
in a manner much more fatisfaftory than had ever been
attempted or even expe&ed before. One of thefe w'as
that remarkable property of metals becoming hot by
hammering ; during which operation, in the Dolor’s
opinion, the element of heat is fqueezed out from be¬
tween the particles of the metal, as water is from the
pores of a fponge by preffing it between the fingers.
'Of the fame nature is the phenomenon above mention¬
ed, that air when violently compreffed becomes hot,
by reafon of the quantity of more fubtle element
fqueezed out from among the particles. In this man¬
ner it appears that heat and the repulfive power of Sir
Ifaac Newton are the very fame j that by diminifliing
the heat of any quantity of air, its elafticity is effec¬
tually diminiffied, and it will of itfelf flirink into a
fmaller fpace as effe!« j which may be reduced to thefe three points,
Vol. VII. Part II.
I. The qualifications of the eleftors. 2. The quali Eleftio*
fications of the eledted. 3. The proceedings at 1 '
elections.
(1.) As to the qualifications of the electors. The
true reafon of requiring any qualification, with regard
to property, in voters, is to exclude luch perfons as are
in fo mean a fituation, that they are elteenied to have
no will of their own. If thefe perfons had vote , they
would be tempted to difpofe of them under lome un¬
due infiuence or other. This would give a great, an
artful, or a wealthy man, a larger lhare in elections
than is confiftent with general liberty. If it were pro¬
bable that every man would give his vote freely, and
without infiuence of any kind ; then, upon the true
theory and genuine principles of liberty, every member
of the community, however poor, thouid have a vote in
elediing thofe delegates to whole charge is committed
the dilpolal of his property, his liberty, and his life.
But fince that can hardly be expected in perlons of
indigent fortunes, or fuch as are under the immediate
dominion of others, ail popular Hates have been obli¬
ged to eftabhfh certain qualifications *, wheieby fome,
who are fufpedted to have no will of their own, are ex¬
cluded from voting, in order to fet other individuals,
whole will may be fuppofed independent, more tho¬
roughly upon a level with each other.
And tins conftitution of fuffrages is framed upon a
wifer principle with us, than either of the methods'
of voting, by centuries, or by tribes, among the Ro¬
mans. In the method by centuries, inftituted by Ser-
vius Tullius, it was principally property, and not num¬
bers, that turned the fcale : in the method by tribes,
gradually introduced by the tribunes of the people,
numbers only were regarded, and propelty entirely
overlooked. Hence the laws paffed by the former me¬
thod had ufually too great a tendency to aggrandize
the patricians or rich nobles ; and thole by the latter
had too much ot a levelling principle. Our conftitu¬
tion fleers between the two extremes. Only fuch are
entirely excluded as can have no will of their own :
there is hardly a free agent to be found, but what is
entitled to a vote in fome kind or other in the king¬
dom. Nor is comparative wealth, or property, entire¬
ly difregarded in ele£lions; for though the richefl man
has only one vote at on? place, yet, if his property be
at all diffufed, he has probably a right to vote at more
places than one, and therefore has many reprefentatives.
This is the fpirit of our conftitution j not that we aflert
it is in fatrl quite fo perie£! as we have endeavoured to
deferibe it 5 for if any alteration might be willit d or
fuggefted in the prelent form of parliaments, it ihould
be in favour of a more complete reprefentation of the
people.
But'to return to thr qualifications j and fiift thofe
of eleftors for knights of the ftiire. r. By ftatutr
8 H en. VI. c. 7. and 10 Hen. VI. c. 2. (amended by
14 Geo. III. c. 58.) the knights of the (hire {hall be
chofen of people, whereof < very man fhall have free¬
hold to the value of forty (hillings by the year within
the county ; which (by fubfequent ftatutes) is to be
clear of all charges and deduftinns, except parliamen¬
tary and parochial taxes. The knights of (hires are
the reprefentatives of the landholders, or landrd inte-
reft of the kingdom : their ele£tors muft therefore haw
eftates in lands or tenements within the county repre-
4 (VI fenteeh
E L E [64
Elero re nata, the moft
flourifhing towns to fend reprefentatives to parliament.
So that as towns increafed in trade, and grew popu¬
lous, they were admitted to a (hare in the legiflature.
But the misfortune is, that the deferted boroughs con¬
tinued to be fummoned, as well as thofe to whom their
2 ] E L E
trade and inhabitants were transferred ; except a few Eie&ie-
which petitioned to be eafed of the expence, then ufual, 1
of maintaining their members : four (hillings a-dav
being allowed for a knight of the (hire, and two {hil¬
lings for a citizen or burgefs; which was the rate of
wages eftablfthed in the reign of Edward III. Hence
the members for boroughs now bear above a qradruple
proportion to thofe for counties ; and the number of
parliament men is increafed fince Fortefcue’s times, in
the reign of Henry VI. from 300 to upwards of 500,
exclufive of thofe for Scotland. The univerfities were,
in general, not empowered to fend burgeffes to parlia¬
ment; though once, 28 Edw. I. when a parliament
was fummoned to confider of the king’s right to Scot¬
land, there were ilfued writs, which required the uni-
verfity of Oxford to fend up four or five, and that of
Cambridge two or three, of their moft difcreet and
learned lawyers for that purpofe. But it was King
James I. who indulged them with the permanent pri¬
vilege to fend conftantly two of their own body ; to
ferve for thofe ftudents who, though ufeful members
of the community, were neither concerned in the land¬
ed nor the trading intereft : and to protect in the le-
gidature the rights of the republic of letters. The
right of eleftion in boroughs is various, depending en¬
tirely on the feveral charters, cuftoms, and conftitu-
tions of the refpeftive places ; which has occafioned
infinite difputes ; though now, by ftatute 2 Geo. II.
c. 24?’the right of voting for the future (hall be allowed
according to the laft determination of the houfe of com¬
mons concerning it; and, by ftatute 3 Geo. III. c. 15.
no freeman of any city or borough (other than fuch as
claim by birth, marriage, or fervitude) (hall be intitled
to vote therein, unlefs he hath been admitted to his
freedom 12 kalendar months before.
(2.) Next, as to the qualifications of perfons to be
eleSied members of the houfe of commons. Some of
thefe depend upon the law and euftom of parliaments,
declared by the houfe of commons ; others upon cer¬
tain ftatutes. And from thefe it appears, 1. That
they muft not be aliens born or minors. 2. That they
muft not be any of the 12 judges, becaufe they fit in
the lords’ houfe ; nor of the clergy, for they fit in the
convocation ; nor perfons attainted of treafon, or fe¬
lony, for they are unfit to fit anywhere. 3. That (he-
riiE of counties, and mayors and bailiffs of boroughs,
are not eligible in their refpe£!ive jurifdiftions, as be¬
ing returning officers ; but that (htriffs of one coun¬
ty are eligible to be knights of another. 4. That,
in ftridlnefs, all members ought to have been inhabi¬
tants of the places for which they are chofen ; but this,
having been long difregarded, was at length entirely
repealed by ftatute 14 Geo. III. c. 58. 5. That no
perfons concerned in the management of any duties or
taxes created fince 1692, except the commiffioners of
the treafury, nor any of the officers following (viz.
commiffioners of prizes, tranfports, fick and wounded,
wine licen(es, navy, and viftualling ; fecretaries or re¬
ceivers of prizes ; comptrollers of the army accounts;
agents for regiments ; governors of plantations, and
their
(a) 7 and 8 Will, III. c. 25. 10 Ann. c. 23. 2 Geo. II. c. 21. 18 Geo. II. c. 18. 31 Geo. II. c. 14-
3 Geo. III. c. 24.
4
• E L E
Je&ion. their deputies*, officers of Minorca or Gibraltar j offi-
cers of the excife and cuftoms *, clerks or deputies in
the feveral offices of the treafury, exchequer, navy,
victualling, admiralty, pay of the army or navy, fecre-
taries of ftate, fait, ftamps, appeals, wine-licenfes,
hackney-coaches, hawkers, and pedlars), nor any per-
fons that hold any new office under the crown created
fince 1705, are capable of being elefted or fitting as
members. 6. That no perfon having a penfion under
the crown during pleafure, or for any term of years,
is capable of being defied or fitting. 7. That if any
member accepts an office under the crown, except an
officer in the army or navy accepting a new commiffion,
his feat is void ; but fuch member is capable of being
re-elected. 8. That all knights of the fhire (hall be
Kaflual knights, or fuch notable efquires and gentlemen
as have eftates fufficient to be knights, and by no means
of the degree of yeomen. This is reduced to a flill
greater certainty, by ordaining, 9. That every knight
of a fhire ffiall have a clear eftate of freehold or copy-
hold to the value of 600I. per annum, and every citi¬
zen and burgefs to the value of 300I. : except the eld-
eft fons of peers and of perfons qualified to be knights
of (hires, and except the members for the two univer-
fities j which fomewhat balances the afeendant which
the boroughs have gained over the counties, by obli¬
ging the trading intereft to make choice of landed
men : and of this qualification the member muft make
oath, and give in the particulars in writing, at the time
of his taking his feat. But, fubjeef to thefe handing
reftriflions and difqualifications, every fubjefl of the
realm is eligible of common right : though there are
inftances, wherein perfons in particular circumftances
have forfeited that common right, and have been de¬
clared ineligible for that parliament, by a vote of the
houfe of commons, or for ever, by an ad of the legif-
lature. But it was an unconftitutional prohibition
which was grounded on an ordinance of the houfe of
lords, aud inferted in the king's writs, for the parlia¬
ment holden at Coventry, 6 Hen. IV. that no appren¬
tice or other man of the law fhould be eleded a knight
for the (hire therein : in return for which, our law¬
books and biftorians have branded this parliament with
the name ofparliamentum indoBum, or the lack-learning
parliament j and Sir Edward Coke obferves with fotne
fpleen, that there was never a good law made thereat.
(3.) The third point, regarding eledions, is the
method of proceeding therein. This is alfo regulated
by the law of parliament, and the feveral ftatutes re¬
ferred to in the margin below (b) ; all which we (hall
blend together, and extrad out of them a fummary ac¬
count of the method of proceeding to eledions.
As foon as the parliament is fummoned, the lord
chancellor (or if a vacancy happens during the fitting
of parliament, the fpeaker, by order of the houfe, and
without fuch order if a vacancy happens by death in
the time of a recefs for upwards of 2© day*) fends his
warrant to the clerk of the crown in chancery \ who
E L E
thereupon ifiues out writs to the (heriff of every county Eledioa.
for the eledion of all the members to ferve for that —v-~-
county, and every city and borough therein. Within
three days after the receipt of this writ, the (heriff is to
fend his precept, under his feal, to the proper return¬
ing officers of the cities and boroughs, commanding
them to eled their members : and the faid returning
officers are to proceed to eledion within eight days
from the receipt of the precept, giving four days notice
of the fame 5 and to return the perfons chofen, together
with the precept, to the (heriff.
But eledions of knights of the (hire muff be pro¬
ceeded to by the (herilfi themfelves in perfon, at the
next county-court that (hall happen after the delivery
of the writ. The county-court is a court held every
month or oftener by the (heriff, intended to try little
caufes not exceeding the value of 40s. in what part of
the county he pleafes to appoint for that purpofe : but
for the eledion of knights of the (hire, it muft be held
at the mod ufual place. If the county-court falls up¬
on the day of delivering the writ, or within fix days
after, the (heriff may adjourn the court and eledion
to fome other convenient time, not longer than 16
days, nor (hotter than 10 : but he cannot alter the
place, without the confent of all the candidates j and,
in all fuch cafes, 10 days public notice muff be given of
the time and place of the eledion.
And, as it is eflential to the very being of parlia¬
ment that eledions fhould be abfolutely free, therefore
all undue influences upon the eledors are illegal, and
ftrongly prohibited. For Mr Locke ranks it among
thofe breaches of truft in the executive magiftrate,
which, according to his notions, amount to a diffolu-
tion of the government, “ if he employs the force,
treafure, and offices of the fociety to corrupt the re-
prefentatives, or openly to pre-engage the eledors, and
preferibe what manner of perfons (hall be chofen : For
thus to regulate candidates and eledors, and new model
the ways of eledion, what is it (fays he) but to cut up
the government by the roots, and poifon the very foun¬
tain of public fecurity ?” As foon, therefore, as the
time and place of eledion, either in counties or
boroughs, are fixed, all foldiers quartered in the place
are to remove, at lead one day before the eledion, to
the diflance of two miles or more ; and not to return
till one day after the poll is ended. Riots likewife
have been frequently determined to make an eledion
void. By vote alfo of the houfe of commons, to whom
alone belongs the power of determining contefted
eledions, no lord of parliament, or lord-lieutenant of
a county, hath any right to interfere in the eledion
of commoners; and, by ftatute, the lord warden of
the cinque-ports (hall not recommend any members
there. If any officer of the excife, cuftoms, ftamps, or
certain other branches of the revenue, prefumes to in¬
termeddle in eledions, by perfuading any voter or
difluading him, he forfeits 100I. and is difabled to hold
any office.
4 M 2 Thus
[ 643 ]
(B) 7 Hen. IV. c. 15. 8 Hen. VI. c. 7. 23 Hen. VI. c. 14. I W. & M. ft. 1. c. 2. 2 W. & M. ft. I. c. 7.
5and 6 W. & M.c. 20. 7W.III.C. 4 7 and 8 W. III. c. 7. and c. 25. 10 and 11 W.III.c.7. 12 and isW.IH.
c. 10. 6 Ann. c. 23. 9 Ann. c. 5. 10 Ann. c. 19. and c. 33. 2 Geo. II. c. 24. 8 Geo. II. c. 30. 18 Geo. II.
c. 18. 19 Geo. II. c. 28. 10 Geo. III. c. 16. 11 Geo. III. c. 42. 14 Geo. III. c. 15.
E L E [ 644 ] E L E
^jeA'ton. Thus are the ele£lors of one branch of the legifla-
s——v——— tore fecured from any undue influence from either of
the other two, and from all external violence and com¬
panion. But the greateii danger is that in which
tbemfelves co-operate, by the infamous praftice of
bribery and corruption. To prevent which it is en¬
abled, that no candidate (hall, ■ after the date (ufually
ealled the tejie') of the writs,, or after the vacancy,
give any money or entertainment to his ele&ors, or
promife to give any, either to particular perfons, or
to the place in general, in order to his being elected *,
on pain of being incapable to ferve for that place in
parliament. And if any money, gift, office, employ¬
ment, or reward be given, or promifed to be given,
to any voter, at any time, in order to influence him
to give or withhold his vote, as well he that takes as
he that offers fuch bribe forfeits 500I. and is for ever
difabled from voting and bolding any office in any
corporation ; unlef», before convi&ion, he will dif-
cover fome other offender of the fame kind, and
then he is indemnified for his own offence. The firft
inflanee that occurs of ele&ion bribery, was fo early
as 13 Eliz. when one Thomas Longe (being a fimple
man, and of fmall capacity to ferve in parliament) ac¬
knowledged that he had given the returning officer
and others of the borough for which he was chofen
four pounds to be returned member, and was for that
premium eleeffed. But for this offence the borough
was amerced, the member was removed, and the officer
fined and imprifoned. But as this pra&ice hath fince
taken much deeper and more univerfal root, it hath
occafioned the making of thefe wholefome ftatutes j
to complete the efficacy of which, there is nothing
wanting but refolution and integrity to put them in
ftrift execution.
Undue influence being thus guarded againft, the
ele&ion is to be proceeded to on the day appointed j
the fheriff or other returning officer firft taking an oath
againft bribery, and for the due execution of his office.
The candidates likewife, if required, tnuft fwear to their
qualification, and the ele&ors in counties to theirs ; and
the eleflors both in counties and boroughs are aHb com¬
pellable to take the oath of abjuration, and that againft
bribery and corruption. And it might not be amifs, if
the members, elefted were bound to take the latter oath
as well as the former •, which, in all probability, would
be much more effectual than adminiftering it only to
the electors.
The ele&ion being clofed, the returning officer in
boroughs returns bus precept to the fheriff, with the
perfons ele&ed by the majority : and the fheriff re¬
turns the whole, together with the writ for the county
and the knights elected thereupon, to the clerk of the
crown in chancery j before the day of meeting, if it
be a new parliament, or within 14 days after the elec¬
tion, if it be an occafional vacancy ; and this under
penalty of 590!. If the fheriff does not return fuch
knights only as are duly eltfted, he forfeits, by the
old ftatutes of Henry VI. look; and the returning
officer in boroughs, for a like falfe return, 40I.; and
they are befides liable to an a&ion, in which double
damages fhall be recovered, by the latter ftatutes of
King William : and any perfon bribing the returning
officer fhall alfo forfeit 300k But the members re¬
turned by him are the fitting members, until the houfe
, A
of commons, upon petition, fhall adjudge the return E|e^
to be talfe and illegal. The form and manner of pro- |j
ceeding upon fuch petition are now regulated by ila- kledf
tute 10 Geo. III. c. 16. (amended by 11 Geo. HI, 1
c. 42. and made perpetual by 14.Geo. TIL c. 15.),
which directs the method of choofing by lot a feleft
committee of 15 members, who are fworn well and
truly to try the fame, and a true judgment to give, ac¬
cording to the evidence.
Election of Scots Peers. See Lords.
ELECTION oj F.cclejiajlical Perfons. Ele£lions for
the dignities of the church ought to be free, according
to the ftat. 9 Ed. II. cap. 14. If any perfons, that have
a voice in eledtions, take any reward for an eledtion in
any church, college, fchool, &.c. the election fball be
void. And if any perfons of fuch focieties refign their
places to others for reward, they incur a forfeiture of
double the fum ; and both the parties are rendered in¬
capable of the place., Stat. 31 Eliz. cap. 6.
ELECTION of a Verderor of the Forefl [eleclione viri-
duriorum foreflcey, in Law, a writ that lies for the choice
of a verderor, where any of the verderors of the foreft
are dead, or removed from their offices. This writ if
diredted to the ffieriff, and the verderor is to be elec¬
ted by the freeholders of the county in the fame naan-
ner as coroners. New. Nat. Brev. 366.
Election is alio the ftate of a perfon who is left to
his own free will, to take «r do either one thing or an¬
other, which he pleafes. See Liberty.
Election, in Theology, fignifies the choice which
God, of his good pleafure, makes of angels or men, for
the objedts of mercy and grace.
The tledlion of the Jews was the choice God made
of that people to be more immediately attached to his
worlhip and fervice, and for the Meffiah to be born
of them.. And thus particular nations were eledled to
the participation of the outward bleffings of Chriftia-
nitc.
Election alfo, in the language of fome divines, fig¬
nifies a predtftination to grace and glory, and fometimes
to glory only. And it has been enjoined as an article
of faith, that predeftination to grace is gratuitous, mere¬
ly and limply, fo ; gratia, quia gratis data. But the
divines are much divided as to the point, whether elec¬
tion to glory be gratuitous, or whether it fuppofes obe¬
dience and good works, i. e» whether it be before or
after the provifion of our obedience. See Grace and
Reprobation.
ELECTIVE, fomething that is done, or paffes, by
eledlion. See Elector.
Some benefices are elediive, others collative. Mu¬
nicipal offices in England are generally eledtive ; in
Spain, venal. Poland is an eledlive kingdom.
Elective Attrattion. See Chemistry Index.
ELECTOR, a perfon who has a right to eledl or
choofe another to an office, honour, &c. See ELEC¬
TION.
Eledior is.particularly, and by way of eminence, ap¬
plied to thofe princes of Germany in whom lies the right
of eledling the emperor ; being all fovereign princes,
and the principal members of the empire.
The eledWal college, confifting of all the^eledtprs of
the empire, is the moft illuftrious and auguft body in
Europe. Bellarmine and Baronius attribute the infti-
tution of it to Pope Gregory V. and the emperor O-
tka
flttfor.
I
General
idea of elec¬
tricity.
J
Kledhics.
E L E [ 645 ] E L E
tho III- in the tenth century *, of which opinion are
the generality of hiliorians, and particularly the ca-
nonills : however, the number of ele&ors was unfet¬
tled, at leaft, till the 1 3th century. In 1356 Charles IV.
by the golden bull, fixed the number of ele&ors to
feven ; three ecclefiattics, viz. the archbilhops of Mentz,
Treves, and Cologne ; and four feeular, viz. the king
of Bohemia, count Palatine of the Rhine, duke of
Saxony, and marquis of Brandenburg. In 1648 this
order was changed, the duke of Bavaria being put in
the place of the count Palatine, who having accepted
the crown of Bohemia, was outlawed by the emperor ;
but being at length reftored, an eighth ele&orate was
ere&ed for the duke of Bavaria. In 1692, a ninth e-
ledlorate was created, by the emperor Leopold, in fa¬
vour of the duke of Hanover, of the houfe of Brunfvvic
Lunenburg.
There is this difference between the fecular and ec-
clefiaftical ele&ors, that the firft have an afiive and
paflive voice, that is, may choofe and be chofen j the
laft an adtive only. The three archbifhops are to be
30 years old before they can be advanced to the dig¬
nity ; the feculars 18, before they can perform the of¬
fice themfi-lves. Thefe laft have each their vicars, who
officiate in their abfence.
Be.fides the power of choofing an emperor, the elec¬
tors have alfo that of capitulating with and deputing
him ; fo that, if there be one fuffrage wanting, a pro-
teft may be entered againft the proceedings. By the
right of capitulation, they attribute to themfrlves great
privileges, as making of war, coining, and taking care
of the public intereft and fecurity of the ftates j and the
emperor promifes, upon oath, to receive the empire up- Ele
ley. Vid. Priejlley's Hiflory of EleBricity, Part viii. fe&. 4.
itrod.
E L E C T tt I
leneral
6
illation.
falls, when deprived of their water of cryftallization,
become non-conduflors. The conducing power of
cryftallized falls is therefore probably owing to the wa¬
ter which they contain.
Ele&rics are called non-conduSIors, as they do not
readily tranfmit eleBric power; they may hence be
employed to check the paffage of this power, or to con¬
fine its influence. When a body communicates with a
conducing fubtlance, as the earth, a table, the human
body, &c. the ele&ric power eafily palres off 5 but when
it is fupported by an ele&rie, the power may be retain¬
ed for a confiderable time. In this latter cafe the body
is faid to be infulated.
We have feen (1, 3), that fire or light appears to
iffue from an excited eleftric j and this appearance is
ftronger in proportion to the fize of the eledtric, and the
degree of friction which it has undergone. When a
rounded body, as the knuckle or a metallic ball,
prefented to the excited ele&ric, the fire appears to
dart from it in a fpark j but if the prefented body be
pointed, the fire will appear to ifllie in a ftream com-
pofed of luminous rays. Thefe rays will take a dif¬
ferent direction, according to the fubftance with which
the ele&ric is rubbed, and other eircumftances which
will be explained hereafter. In the cafe of the glafs
tube rubbed with the hand, when a pointed body, as a
needle, or wire, is prefented to the tube, the luminous
rays will appear like a Jiar around the point. The
fame appearance will take place on prefenting a point
to a flick of fealing-wax rubbed with any metallic body,
as a piece of tinfoil ; but when the fealing-wax is rub¬
bed with a piece of woollen cloth, the rays will appear
to iflue from the point in a pencil diverging towards the
wax. In forae experiments which will afterwards be
deferibed, the ftream of fire appears in an evident cur¬
rent in a direction from the electric in fome cafes, as in
the tube excited as above, and towards the eleftric in
others, as in the wax rubbed with the woollen cloth,
ofitive and Thefe different appearances have been fuppofed owing
egativee- to two different ftates of the eleBric power, and thefe
driuty, ftates have been called the two electricities. As in the
former cafe, the fire feems to flow from the glafs into
the metallic body, as if there was an excefs in the for¬
mer, the glafs is faid to be eleftrified plus, or poftive/y,
and this is called pofitive eleBricity. In the latter cafe,
as the ftream appears to flow from the point into the
fealing-wax, as if there were a deficiency in the latter, the
8 fealing-wrax is faid to be eleilrified minus, or negatively,
r vitreous an[} this is called the negative eleBricity: As when glafs
"edlricity *is rubbed with moft fubftances, poftive ele&ricity is
excited, and negative when refinous bodies are rubbed
with moft fubftances, the former is often called vitreous,
and the latter ref nous ele&ricity..
The difference of thefe two ftates of the ele<51ric
power may be further illuftrated by the following fimple
experiment.
Let a ftem of glafs (A, B, fig. 1.) be fixed in a
wooden pedeftal C. Through the upper extremity A,
pafs a wire A, D, with a rounded end at D, and from
this end fufpend two very fine filken threads a, b.
Thefe threads in the ufual ftate of the inftrument will
hang in the parallel pofition a, b, but if the end of the
Plate
itxxxvn.
fig. I.
C.I T Y. 647
wire to which they are attached be prefented to the ex- General
cited tube, the threads will diverge from each other, Principles,
and take a pofition as at c, d. If in this diverging ftate ' v ,LI
they are prefented to an excited flick of fealing-wax,
they will collapfe into their original pofition. Again,
the threads prefented firft to the excited fealing-wax
will diverge, but prefented in this ftate to the excited
tube will collapfe, thus ftiowing that thefe two ftates are
oppofite to each other, each deftroying the effe£t pro¬
duced by the other.
The following table fhows what kind of ele&ricity
will be excited by rubbing various electrics with differ¬
ent bodies.
The back of a
cat
is Smooth glafs
Rough glafs
Tourmalin
Hare’s fkin
White filk
Black filk
$ r, r ■ V Every fubftanee with which
(_ 0 1^ive it has been hitherto tried,
f r Every fubftance hitherto
< Pofitive < tried, except the back oL
C (.a cat.
f Pofitive £ Dry °iled filk’ flllPhur’ me"
| \ tals.
4 xr • f Woollen cloth,quills,wood.
Negative \ paperifeaiing;wax>wi,ite-
(. wax, the human hand.
Pofitive Amber, air.
Negative^ Diamond, the human hand.
f Metals, filks, loadftone, lea-
Pofitive ther, hand, paper, baked
< L wood.
NegativeOther finer furs.
black.
„ - . T Black filk, metals
. cloth.
^ xt r Paper, hand, hares and wea-
Negative | ’
Pofitive 1 Sealing, wax.
< f Hares, weafels, and ferrets
| Negative 4 fkin, loadftone, brafs, fil-
L ver, iron, hand.
f
Sealing-wax ^
Pofitive Metals.
f Hares, weafels, and ferrets
Baked wood
Negative ^
Pofitive
fkin, hand, leather, wool¬
len cloth, paper.
Silk.
L
Negative Flannel.
It appears from (3.) that the power of producing elec-jr]e(c^jge^
trical appearances mav be communicated from an excit- bodies,
ed elt£iric to a condu&or. The more perfeft the con-
du£h>r, the more eaiily does it receive the ele61ric power.
Eleflrics may alfo be made to receive this power from
excited ele&rics, but it is communicated to thefe with
more difficulty than to condu&ors. When any body,
whether eledlric or conductor, is made to exhibit elec¬
trical phenomena, either by being excited, or by com¬
munication, it is faid to be eleBrified.
PART
ELECTRICITY,
64$
Fart ]
PART I.
OF THE GENERAL PHENOMENA OF EXCITED ELECTRICITY.
Genera WHEN an eleftric is once excited, it will retain
. iet^inena ele&ric power for a longer-or Ihorter time accord¬
ing to its fituation and nature. If it communicates
freely with conductors, it will lofe it fooner in propor¬
tion as thefe are more perfeCt j but if it be infulated, it
will continue in an eleCtrified ftate for a conliderable
time.
EleCtrics may be excited in various modes j the
greateft number of them by friCtion, as glafs, precious
{tones, filk, fulphur, fealing-wax, amber, &c. •, fome by
melting, and being allowed to cool, as fulphur, wax ; or
fimply by heating and cooling, as the tourmalin. We
Ihall here give an account of the general appearances
exhibited by the principal electrics when excited in
thefe feveral modes.
FriCtion, as we have obferved, is the more ufual me¬
thod of exciting eleCtrics. Thefe may be rubbed either
by other eleCtrics, or by conductors ; but in fome cafes
they are belt excited by being rubbed with the moft
perfeCt conductors. Thus glafs rubbed with filk, ex¬
hibits figns of eleCtricity ; but thefe are much ftronger,
if the filk be covered with fome metallic fubflance, as
an amalgam of zinc. Duft or moiflure is found very
much to diminilh the excitability of eleCtrics $ but oil
or any fat fubftance increafes it. The appearances Ihown
by eleCtrics excited by friCtion, differ'fomewhat accord¬
ing to the nature of the eleCtric, .and the fubflance em¬
ployed as a rubber ; weihall defcribe the moft remark¬
able of them, as they will ferve hereafter to illuftrate
and explain the experiments which are to be introduced
in the following parts of this article.
10
Modes of
exciting e
ledtrics.
11
FriClion.
Chap. I. Of the Phenomena produced by excited glafs.
ia
Phenomena p)r William Gilbert, a native of Colchefter in Ef-
"d giafs " an^ a phyfician in London, who publiftied, in the
year 1600, a valuable treat! fe “ De Magnete” was the
firft, we believe, who obferved the eleftrical property
of glafs when rubbed 5 but he difcovered little more
than that like amber it attraCled and repelled light
bodies. He found that the moft tranfparent glafs was
^Gilbertde the beft eleCtric *. In the beginning of the eighteenth
Magnete, century, Mr Hawkefbee, to whom eleCtricity is in-
I3 debted for many improvements, made the firft rational
Mr Hawke- experiments on the eleCtric power of glafs. He con-
tbceN expe. trived to fix a hollow globe of glafs in a wooden frame,
riments. fo that it could be whirled round while he rubbed it by
applying his dry hand to the furface. He obferved
that when the air within the globe was confiderably
rarefied, a ftrong light appeared in the infide on apply¬
ing his hand to the globe, and when the air was reftor-
ed to its natural denfity, a light appeared alfo on the
eutfide, appearing as if flicking to his fingers or other
bodies held near the globe.
Having exhausted another globe of glafs, he obferv-
•d, that on bringing this near his excited globe, a
liglst appeared within the former, and became very
brilliant if the exhaufted globe was kept in motion, but
died away in a fhort time if it was fuffered to remain at General
j-gfl. Pfcenomer
He coated more than half of the infide of a globe ' '' ~
with fealing-wax of various thicknefs, and after exhauft-
ing the globe, he fet it in motion. On applying his
hand as a rubber, he was furprifed to fee the exaCt
ftiape of his hand appearing on the concave furface of
the wax, and that even where the coating of wax was
interpofed between his hand and the oppofite fide,
though the wax was in fome places an eighth of an
inch in thicknefs.
Pitch or common fulphur melted anfwered as well a*
wax, but he could not produce thele appearances by
ufing melted flowers of fulphur. When he employed
a very thick coating of common fulphur, he obferved
that there was a much greater light within the globe-,
but he could not fo eafily diltinguilh the figure of his
bands.
On admitting a fmall quantity of air into the globe,
the light diminilhed, and on the coating of fealing wax
it entirely difappoared. While the globe continued ex-
haufled, the coated part of it ftiovved fome attraftion for
light bodies, but if there was no wax, the globe would
not attrafl at all j on admitting the air, the power of
attraffion was greater on the coated than on the uncoat¬
ed part. * * Phyjico-
Glafs in any form is capable of excitation, but it is ™ecl>anica
more eafy, as well as more convenient, to employ a vtffel Meuts\>
or plate of glafs than a folid rod or mafs of that iub-65. ’
ftance} and the thinner the veffel or plate is, the more
eafily is it excited. When a tube, plate, or veflel of
glafs is excited, it is found that one fide is eleftrified
pofitively and the other negatively. Both fmooth and
rough glafs may be employed to produce eie&rieal phe¬
nomena, but they require different rubbers. The beft
rubber for fmooth glafs is black oiled filk fpread with an
amalgam of zinc, made in the proportion of four or five
parts of mercury to one of zinc. The beft rubber for
rough glafs is foft new flannel. The amalgam of zinc
may be moft conveniently made in the following man¬
ner. Place the zinc over the fire in an iron ladls; and
when the ladle is red hot, put a fmall quantity of tal¬
low or fuel on the zinc, which will immediately melt.
It is beft not to allow the zinc to melt without the ad¬
dition of fome fatty matter, as this metal is very tafily
oxydated or calcined, and thus a great part of it would
be rendered unfit for the required purpofe ; this in¬
convenience is prevented by the fat which covers the
furface of the melted metal, and prote6fs it from the
aAion of the air. When the zinc is melted, add the
mercury, previoufly heated to the degree of boiling wa¬
ter j ftir the mixture a little, and allow it to cool. Laft-
ly, rub it well in a glafs mortar, Fo as to unite the
fat with it, which will prevent it from becoming bard
by keeping, and will alfo preferve it longer from oxi¬
dation.
Mr Canton, who was the firft perfon that employed
an amalgam to increafe the effeft of fn&ion on glafs
tubes,
Chap. I. ELECTRICITY.
General tubes, ufed an amalgam of two parts of mercury and excited, it retains the eleflric power for fome time. General
phenomenaone of tin-foil, with the addition of a little chalk. Mr Glafs is one of the mold remarkable ele£trics in this Phenomena
— v ,n'1 Wilcke found that a piece of woollen cloth fpread with
a little wax formed a very powerful rubber for fmooth
glafs. The beft rubber for rough glafs is foft new
tlannel.
Mercurial It had been obferved by Mr Hawkelbee, that on
phafphorus. (baking mercury in a glafs veffel, in the dark, a con-
fiderable light was produced, and that this was much
more remarkable when the air in the veffel was con-
liderably rarefied. He called the light which he con¬
ceived to be emitted from the mercury, mercurialphof-
phorus.
Mr Cavallo found that, by fhaking mercury in a glafs
tube hermetically fealed, and in which the air was
pretty much rarefied, the tube w’as fenfibly electrified
on the outfide ; but the eleftricity produced was not con-
flant, nor in proportion to the agitation. From this
obfervation he was led to make fome experiments, the
refults of which are very curious.
He prepared feveral tubes fuch as are reprefented at
experiments fig. 2. Plate CLXXXVII. about 31 inches long, and
with glafs fomewhat lefs than half an inch in diameter and about
i tubes. one-twentieth of an inch thick,
hg. They were clofed at one end, and contained each
three-fourths of an ounce of mercury, which being made
I to boil, the air within the tube was rarefied and the o-
pen end was then hermetically fealed. Having made
the tube clean and a little warm, he caufed the mercury
to flow from the one end to the other, by gently eleva¬
ting and deprefling either end, alternately, while the
tube was held nearly in a horizontal pofition. The
tube was thus rendered ele&rical, but fo that the end
where the mercury flood was eledtrified pofitively (d)
and all the remaining part of the tube negatively. If
the mercury was made to flow from the pofitive end to
the negative, by elevating the former, the end to which
it flowed became pofitive, while the reft of the tube ac¬
quired a negative electricity j but if in elevating the
pofitive end where the mercury flood, that end were
not touched with the hand, it became negative only in a
flight degree, and if the mercury was made to flow back
to it, and again retire from it, ftill without touching it,
it became pofitive ; whereas by touching it while eleva¬
ting it, it was rendered ftrongly negative. The eledtric
power was always ftrongeft at the pofitive end. The
eledlric power at either end was made much more ap¬
parent by coating each end for about two inches with
* C,alSa//o’jtin-foil, as reprefented in the figure, fo that the tubes
Elearicity, wou]^ fometimes emit fparks on being brought near a
TOL,IU5Mi’'condua„r*.
Durability We have feen (6.) that when an eledlric is once
of the elec- VoL. VII. Part II.
tricity of
I glafs,
refpedl. I~—y-
Mr Canton procured fome very thin glafs balls, about
an inch and a half in diameter, with flender tubular
ftems of eight or nine inches in length. He eledlrified
thefe balls in the infide, or femi-pofitively, and then
fealed the ftems hermetically. On examining them af¬
ter fome time, he found that they (howed no figns of
eledlricity $ but on holding them at a fmall diftance from
the fire, they became ftrongly eledtrieal, and ftill more
fo as they cooled. On repeatedly heating them, he
found that the eledlric power diminilhed, but it was not
impaired by keeping them for a week under water.
One of them which he had heated feveral times be¬
fore immerfing it in water, and again feveral times after
lying for a week in water, ftill retained a confider-
able degree of eledlric power at the end of above a
month j and even at the end of fix years they had not
entirely loft it,
Mr Henley having eledlrified a fmall bottle, obferved
that it (bowed figns of eledlricity feventy days after,
though it had flood all that time in a cupboard.
On the 5th of February he excited a glafs cylinder j
and from that time till the 10th of March following,
various methods were employed to deftroy its eledlrici¬
ty. Thefe always fucceeded at the time, and the cylin¬
der loft all figns of eledlricity ; but thefe figns returned
again without any frefti excitation, and on the 10th of
March the cylinder ftill retained confiderable eledlric
power. The marks of eledlricity fometimes became
ftronger or weaker, or even quite difappeared and re¬
turned, without any evident caufe. The eledlricity was
generally ftrongeft when the wind was northerly, or
when it had returned after having been deftroyed by
flame 5 it was generally weakeft when there Avas a fire
in the room Avhere it was kept, or when the door Avas
left open. He repeated the excitation, but not al-
Avays with the fame fuccefs ; for fomethues the cylin¬
der Avould lofe all figns of eledlricity in a fortnight,
and at others in tAvelve hours, till it was again excited *. * Phft.
Tran/.
Chap. II. Of the Phenomena produced by excitedlxviu
Silk.
Silk Avas firft difcovered to be an eledlric in the year
1729 by Mr Stephen Grey, Avhile making experiments
with his friend Mr Wheeler. Thefe gentlemen at¬
tempted to condudl the eledlric poAver to a great di¬
ftance by means of filk lines, as Mr Grey had done be¬
fore by means of packthread j but they Avere difap-
pointed, as they found that the filk refufed to condudl,
4 N but
(d) The method of diftinguiftdng between pofitive and negative eledlricity will be more fully explained here¬
after/as well as the modes in which either may be produced at pleafure. But it may be proper here to fliow a
Ample mode of diftinguiftiing thefe two Hates of the eledtric power, which may be done by means of the inflrument
defcribed in (8.). The eledlricity (hoAvn by excited poliflied glafs was faid to be pofitive ; and it appeared that the
threads of the inftrument feparated when brought near an excited tube, as alfo when brought near excited fealing-
wax, the elearicity of which is negative. If, therefore, when the threads are made to diverge by excited glafs,
they diverge ftill farther, or remain ftationary, on being made to approach any other eleftrified body, the ekancity
of this laft is pojttive ; but if they collapfe, it is negative. Again, if the threads, when made to diverge by excited
fealing-Avax, diverge ftill farther, or remain ftationary, on being made to approach another ekarified body, the
ekaricity of this is negative ; but if they collapfe, it is pojitive.
650
General
Phenomena
*7
Strong at¬
traction
and repul-
fion be¬
tween elec¬
trified
ftockings.
ELECTS.
bat feemed rather to retain the electric power ; no
experiments of any confequence were however made on
this fubftance, till 1759, w*ien Symmer prefented
to the Royal Society a feries of obiervations which he
had made on filk ftockings.
He had been accuftomed to wear two pairs of lilk
ftockings $ a black and a white. When thefe were put
off both together, no figns of electricity appeared ; but
on pulling off the black ones from the white, he heard
a fnapping or crackling noife, and in the dark per¬
ceived fparks of fire between them. To produce this
and the following appearances in great perledlion, it
was only neceffary to draw his hands feveral times
backward and forward over his leg with the flocking
upon it.
When the ftockings were feparated and held at a di-
ftance from each other, both of them appeared to be
highly excited ; the Avhite flocking pofitively, and the
black negatively. When they were kept at a diftance
from each other, both of them appeared inflated to
fuch a degree, that they exhibited the entire fhape of
the leg. When two black or two white ftockings were
held in one hand, they would repel one another with
confiderable force, making an angle feemingly of 30 or
35 degrees. When a white and black flocking were
prefented to each other, they were mutually attrafled $
and if permitted, would rulh together with furprifing
violence. As they approached, the inflation gradually
fubfided, and their attraction of foreign objeCts dimi-
nithed, but their attraction of one another increafed ;
when they actually met, they became flat and joined
clofe together like as many folds of filk. When fepa¬
rated again, their eleCtric virtue did not feem to be in
the leaft impaired for having once met; and the fame
appearances would be exhibited by them for a confi¬
derable time. When the experiment was made with
two black ftockings in one hand, and two white ones in
the other, they were thrown into a ftrange agitation,
OAving to the attraClion betAveen thofe of different co¬
lours, and the repulfion between thofe of the fame co¬
lour. This mixture of attractions and repulfions made
the ftockings catch at each other at greater diftances
than otherAvife they AVould have done, and afforded a
very curious fpeCtacle.
When the ftockings Avere fuffered to meet, they
ftuek together Avith confiderable force. At firft Mr
Symmer found they required from one to 1 2 ounces to
feparate them. Another time they raifed 17 ounces,
which Avas 20 times the Aveight of the flocking that
fupported them •, and this in a direction parallel to its
furface. When one of the ftockings was turned infide
out, and put within the other, it required 20 ounces to
feparate them j though at that time ten ounces Avere
fufficient Avhen applied externally. Getting the black
ftockings neAV dyed, and the Avhite ones Avaftied, and
whitened in the fumes of fulphur, and then putting
them one Avithin the other, Avith the rough fides toge¬
ther, it required three pounds three ounces to feparate
them. With ftockings of a more fubftantial make, the
cohefion Avas ftill greater. When the Avhite flocking
Avas put within the black one, fo that the outfide of
the Avhite Avas contiguous to the infide of the black,
they raifed nine pounds wanting a few ounces j and
when the two rough furfaces were contiguous, they
xaifed 15 pounds one pennyweight and a half. Cut-
I C I T Y. Parti
ting off the ends of the thread and the tufts of filk General
which had been left in the infide of the ftockings, Phenomen
was found to be very unfavourable to thefe experi- ' V ““
ments.
Mr Symmer alfo obferved, that pieces of white and.
black filk, when highly eleCtrified, not only cohered
with each other, but would alfo adhere to bodies with
broad and even polilhed lurfaces, though thefe bodies
Avere not eleCtrified. This he difcovered accidentally ;
having, without defign, thrown a flocking out of his
hand, Avhich ftuck to the paper-hangings of the room.
He repeated the experiment, and found it would con¬
tinue hanging near an hour. Having ftuck up the
black and white ftoekings in this manner, he came with
another pair highly eleftrified j and applying the Avhite
to the black, and the black to the Avhite, he carried
them off from the Avail, each of them hanging to that
which had been brought to it. The lame experi¬
ments held with the painted boards of the room, and
likewife Avith the looking-glafs, to the fmooth furface #
of Avhich both the white and the black filk appear- TmnJ. volj
ed to adhere more tenacioully than to either of the*i•Part‘•
former*. 54°'i8
Similar experiments, but Avith a greater variety ofExperi-
circumftances, were afterwards made by Mr Cigna of ments on
Turin, upon white and black ribbons. He took two h^01?5 by
white filk ribbons juft dried at the fire, and extended lV*r ^na‘
them upon _a fmooth plain, Avhether a conducing or
ele&ric fubftance was a matter of indifference. He
then dreAV over them the ftiarp edge of an ivory ruler,
and found that both ribbons had acquired electricity
enough to adhere to the plain j though while they con¬
tinued there, they ftioAved no other fign of it. When
taken up feparately, they Avere both negatively electri¬
fied, and Would repel each other. In their reparation,
eleCtric fparks were perceived between them j but Avhen
again put on the plain, or forced together, no light
was perceived without another friCtion. When by the
operation juft poav mentioned they had acquired the ne¬
gative eleCtricity, if they Avere placed not upon the
fmooth body on which they had been rubbed, but on a
rough conducting fubftanee, they would, on their repa¬
ration, IhoAV contrary eleCtriciti^s, Avhich Avould again
difappear on their being joined together. If they had
been made to repel each other, and Avere afterwards
forced together, and placed on the rough furface above
mentioned, they Avould in a few minutes be mutually
attracted j the loAvermoft being pofitively and the up-
permoft negatively eleCtrified.
If the tAvo Avhite ribbons received their friCtion up¬
on the rough furface, they always acquired contrary
eleCtricities. The upper one was negatively, and the
loAver one pofitively eleCtrified, in whatever manner
they Avere taken off. The fame change Avas inftanta-
neoufty produced by any pointed conductor. If Iavo
ribbons, for inftance, Avere made to repel, and the
point of a needle drawn oppofite to one of them a-
long its Avhole length, they would immediately rufti to¬
gether.
I he fame means which produced a change of elec¬
tricity in a ribbon already eleCtrified, Avould commu¬
nicate eleCtricity to one which had not as yet received
it ; viz. laying the uneleCtrified ribbon upon a rough
furface, and putting the other upon itj or by holding
it parallel to an eleCtrified ribbon, and prefenting a
pointed
Chap- IT»
General pointed conduftor to it. He placed a ribbon that was
phenomena not quite dry under another that was well dried at the
fire, upon a fmooth plain •, and when he had given
them the ufual fridlion with his ruler, he found, that
in what manner foever they were removed from the
plain, the upper one was negatively and the lower
one pofitively electrified.—If both ribbons were black,
all thefe experiments fucceeded in the fame manner as
with the white. If, inftead of the ivory ruler, he
made ufe of any fkin, or a piece of fmooth glafs, the
event was the fame ; but if he made ufe of a flick of
fulphur, the electricities were in all cafes the reverfe of
what they had been before the ribbons were rubbed, ha¬
ving always acquired the pofitive eledtricity. When
. he rubbed them with paper either gilt or not gilt, the
refults were uncertain. When the ribbons were wrap¬
ped in paper gilt or not gilt, and the friCtion was made
upon the paper laid on the plain above mentioned, the
ribbons acquired both of them the negative eleCtrici*
ty. If the ribbons were one black and the other
white, whichever of them was laid uppermoft, and in
whatever manner the friction was made, the black ge¬
nerally acquired the negative and the white the pofitive
eleCtricity.
He alfo obferved, that when the texture of the up¬
per piece of filk was loofe, yielding, and retiform like
that of a flocking, fo that it could move and be rub¬
bed againft the lower one, and the rubber was of fuch
a nature as could communicate but little eleCtricity to
glafs, the eleCtricity which the upper piece of filk ac¬
quired did not depend upon the rubber, but upon
the body on which it was laid. In this cafe, the black
was always negative and the white pofitive. But
when the filk was hard, rigid, and of a dole tex¬
ture, and the rubber of fuch a nature as Would have
imparted a great degree of eleCtricity to glafs, the
eleCtricity of the upper piece depended on the rub¬
ber. Thus, a white filk flocking rubbed with gilt
paper upon glafs became negatively, and the glafs po¬
fitively, eleCtrified. But if-a piece of filk of a firmer
texture was laid upon a plate of glafs, it was^ always
eleCtrified pofitively, and the glafs negatively, if it was
rubbed with fulphur, and for the moft part if it was
rubbed with gilt paper.
If an eleCtrified ribbon was brought near an infulated
plate of lead, it was attracted, but very feebly. On
bringing the finger near the lead, a fpark was obferved
between them, the ribbon was vigoroufly attracted,
and both together (bowed no figns of eleCtricity. On
the feparation of the ribbon, they were again eleCtri¬
fied, and a fpark was perceived between the plate and
the finger.
When a number of ribbons of the fame colour were
laid upon a fmooth conducting fubftance, and the ruler
was drawn over them, he found, that when they were
taken up fingly, each of them gave fparks at the place
where it was feparated from the other, as did alfo the
laft one with the conduftor ; and all of them were ne¬
gatively eleCtrified. If they were all taken from the
plate together, they cohered in one mafs, which was
ttegatively eleCtrified on both fides. If they were laid
Upon the rough condudor, and then feparated fingly,
beginning with the lowermofl, fparks appeared as be¬
fore, but all the ribbons were eleCtrified pofitively, ex¬
cept the uppermoft.-—If they received the friCtion upon
651
the rough conductor, and were all taken Up at once, General
all the intermediate ribbons acquired the eleCtricity, Phenomena
either of the higheft or lowed, according as the fepa-
ration was begun with the higheft or the loweft. If
two ribbons were feparated from the bundle at the fame
time, they clung together, and in that ftate (howed no
fign of eleCtrieity, as one of them alone would have
done. When they were feparated, the outermoft one had
acquired an eleCtricity oppofite to that of the bundle, but
much weaker.
A number of ribbons were placed upon a plate of
metal to which eleCtricity was communicated by means
of a glafs globe, and a pointed conduClor held to the
other fide of the ribbons. The confequence was, that
all of them became pofftfied of the eleCtricity oppo¬
fite to that of the plate, or of the fame, accord¬
ing as they were taken off; except the molt remote,
wliich always kept an eleCtricity oppofite to that of the
plate *. * Mem. of
the Arad, of
Chap. III. Of the Phenomena produced by excited^
Paper.
. l9
1. When a fingle leaf of writing paper, after being Experi-
Warmed, is laid on a table, and rubbed brifkly with a ments on
piece of caoutchouc, (elallic gum or India rubber) itPaPer*
becomes ftrongly eleCtrical; on attempting to remove
it from the table, it is found to adhere a^ if it were be-
fmeared with fome gluey fubftance 5 and if, before it is
quite feparated, it be fuft'ered to return to the table, it
will fly back with confiderable force, and will adhere al-
moft as ftrongly as at fiift.
2. On feparating it from the table immediately after
rubbing, it will be ftrongly attrafled by the table or
any fubftance prefented to it, and remain in contaCl for
a confiderable time.
3. When the knuckle is prefented to the paper on its
being firft taken from the table, a fnapping noife is
heard, which is more perceptible if the knuckle be made
to pafs fuccelfively over different parts of the paper. If
this experiment is made in the dark, fparks will be feen
to accompany the fnapping noife.
4. On employing a double piece, or two pieces of
paper, thefe appearances will be increafed. On at¬
tempting to feparate the two pieces of paper, they are
found to adhere clofely together, and their feparation
is accompanied with a crackling noife, fimilar to that
produced by the application of the knuckle, but not fo
loud. When quite feparated, on being brought again
.within fome inches of each other they are ftrongly and
mutually attrafled, and if, while feparated, one of them
be held between the other and fome contiguous fub¬
ftance, it will be alternately attrafled by that fubftance,
and the other piece, according as it is nearer the one or
the other.
5. Placing a piece of clean new flannel between the
paper and the table, or between the folds of the paper,
does not appear to diminifli the eleftrical appearances
produced ; but rubbing the paper with flannel produces
no remarkable figm of ele&ricity.
6. It is not neceffary that the paper be rubbed ort A
table to produce thefe appearances; a book will anfwer
as well, but with this difference, that if the book be in
boards, the paper will produce no crackling when the
knuckle is applied to it 5 but when the paper is double,
4 N 2 th©
ELECTRICITY.
652 E
General the feparatlon of the folds will be attended with the
Phenomena fame crackling as before j whereas when the book is
v bound in leather, a fingle fheet when rubbed will pro¬
duce the crackling on the application of the knuckle,
while the double piece will produce it only when its
folds are feparated. The adhefion of the paper to the
books is in both cafes much flighter than its adhefion to
the table, and in the cafe of the book in boards it is
fcarcely perceptible.
7. White paper of all kinds feems capable of produ¬
cing thefe appearances, when rubbed with caoutchouc ;
but blotting paper whether white or red produces them
in a very inferior degree, probably on account of the
weaknefs of its texture not allowing it to be rubbed with
fufficient force.
In general, the ftouter the texture of the paper, the
ftronger will be the fparks and the attraction.
8. Paper does not appear to retain its eleCtricity for
any great length of time $ in general, it ceafes to (how
any remarkable figns of electric power about 10 or 15
minutes after being excited.
9. Other fubftances befides caoutchouc may be em¬
ployed as rubbers for the excitation of paper, efpe-
cially the dry hand, but none fucceed fo well as caout¬
chouc.
The eleCtric property of paper was firft difcovered by
Mr Grey. The paper employed by him was the kind
called white prejjing paper, which is of the fame nature
with card paper. Not only did this paper, when made
as hot as his fingers could bear, produce a light when
drawn hrifkly through his fingers; but when his fingers
were held near it, a light ifiued from them alfo, attend¬
ed with a crackling noife
L E C T R I C I T Y.
Part
* pbu.
Tranf Ain
vii. 9.
Chap. IV. Phenomena produced by the Tourmalin.
20
Tourmalin
Xpiahtirun
um of the
andeiits.
The eledrical power of this (tone, fo far at leaft as
refpeCts its attraction of light bodies, was known to the
ancients ; as Theophraltus fpeaks of a (tone, by him
called lyncurium, which agrees in all refpeCts with the
tourmalin, and which he fays attracted draws, afhes, and
even fmall cuttings of iron and copper.
Nothing more feems to have been known of this (tone
till the year 1756, when M. ^Epinus made a fet of ex¬
periments on this (tone, which were printed in the Hi-
(tory of the Academy of Sciences and Belles Lettres of
Berlin for that year.
In 1758, the due de Noya, in conjunction with M.
Daubenton and Adamfon, made fome experiments on
the tourmalin, but they do not feem to have been fo ac¬
curate as thofe of M. iEpinus.
Soon after this (tone was introduced to the notice of
^ the Englilh, bv Dr Heberden, who procured from Hol-
Mr CantorJanc* Several, with which TEpinus’s experiments were
24 repeated by Meffrs Wilfon and Canton.
Dr Prieft- But the mod complete feries of experiments on the
ley* tourmalin were made by Dr Priedley, and of thefe we
(hall here give a detailed account, as they comprife
nearly all that is known on the fubjeCt.
21
Experi¬
ments by
iEpinus;
22
by the due
de Noya;
1. To afeertain the kind of eleClricity produced, he Gerei-
had always at hand a dand of baked vmod with fourPhenomej
arms projecting from it. Three of thefe were of glafs, *"■—y*
having threads of fine (ilk as it comes from the worm
fadened to them, and at the end of each thread a fmall
piece of down. From the other arm hung a fine thread
about 9 or 10 inches long, while a brafs arm fufpend-
ed a pair of pith-balls. At the other extremity c£
this arm, which was pointed, a jar could be placed, to
receive the eleClricity, and by the repulfive power of
it keep the balls equally diverging with pofitive or ne¬
gative eleClricity ; or fometimes he fufpended the balls
in an uninfulated date within the influence of large
charged jars: and ladly, he had always a fine thread of
trial at hand, by which he could difeover whether the
done was eleClrical or not before he began his experi¬
ments (e).
2. Before he began any experiments on the done;,
alfo, he never failed to try how long the fine threads,
which he ufed as eleClrometers, would retain their vir¬
tue ; and found this to be various in various cafes.
When the threads would retain their eleClric virtue for
a few minutes, he preferred them ; but when this was
not the cafe, he had recourfe to the feathers, which
never failed to retain it for feveral hours. They might
be touched without any fenfible lofs of power, though
they received their virtue very flowly. In the experi¬
ments now to be related, he made ufe of Dr Heberden’s
large tourmalin, whofe convex fide became pofitive and
the flat fide negative in cooling ; and in all of them,
when the pofitive or negative fide of the tourmalin is
mentioned, it is to be underdood that which is pofitive
or negative in cooling.
3. From Mr Wilcke’s experiments on the produc¬
tion of fpontaneous eleClricity, by melting one fub-
dance within another, he fird conjedured that the
tourmalin might colleCl its eleClricity from the neigh¬
bouring air : To determine which the following experi¬
ment was made. Part of a pane of glafs was laid on
the dandard bar of an excellent pyrometer, and upon
that glafs the tourmalin was placed. This bar w7as
heated by a fpirit lamp, fo that the increafe or de-
creafe of heat in the tourmalin could thus be exaClly
determined. In this fituation he obferved, that when¬
ever he examined the tourmalin, the glafs had acquired
an eleClricity contrary to that fide of the done which
lay upon it, and equally drong with it. If, for ex¬
ample, the flat fide of the done had been prefented to a
feather eleClrified pofitively, as the heat was increa-
fing, it would repel it at the didance of about two inch¬
es, and the glafs would attraCl it at the fame or a
greater difiance ; and when the heat was decreafing,
the done would attraCl, and the glafs repel it at the
didance of four or five inches. The cafe was the fame
whichever of the fides was prefented, as well as when
a diilling was fadened with fealing-jvax upon the glafs;
the eleClricity both of the fliilling and glafs being al¬
ways oppofite to that of the done. When it came to
the turn, the eleClricity was very quickly reverfed; fo
that
ParlMII^ ^r*e^e^,S met^0^ 'lv*^ ke better underdood, after the reader has perufed Chap. I. III. and XIII. of
Chap. IV. ELECT
General that in lefs than a minute the ele$ricity weuld be con-
phenomena trary to what it was before. In fome cafes, however,
viz. where the convex furface of the tourmalin was laid
upon the glafs or {hilling, both of thefe became pofitive
as well as the ftone. This he fuppofed to be owing to
the ftone touching the furface on which it lay only in
a few points, and that its eleflricity was collected from
the air; which fuppofition was verified : for, getting a
mould of Paris ptafter made for the tourmalin, and heat¬
ing it in the mould, faftened to a flip of glafs, he always
found the mould and glafs pofieffed of an ele6lricity con¬
trary to that of the ftone, and equally ftrong with it.
During the time of cooling, the mould feemed to be
fometimes more ftrongly negative than the (lone was
pofitive ; for once, when the ftone repelled the thread
at the diftance of three inches, the mould attradled it at
the diftance of nearly fix.
4. On fubftituting another tourmalin inftead of the
piece of glafs; it was obferved, that when one of the
tourmalins was heated, both of them were eleflrified as
much as the tourmalin and glafs had been. If the ne¬
gative fide of a hot tourmalin was laid upon the nega¬
tive fide of a cold one, the latter became pofitive, as
would have been the cafe with a piece of glafs. On
heating both the tourmalins, though faftened together
by cement, they acquired the fame power that they
would have done in the open air.
5. As the tourmalins could not in this cafe touch in
a fufficient number of points, it was now thought pro¬
per to vary the experiment by cooling the tourmalin
in contafl with fealing-wax, which would fit it with
the utmoft exa&nefs. On turning the ftone, when cold,
out of its waxen cell, it was found pofitive, and the
wax negative ; the eleftricity of the ftone being thus
contrary to what would have happened in the open air.
The other fide, which was not in contafl with the wax,
acquired the fame ele&ricity that it would have done
though the ftone had been heated in the open air ; fo
that both fides now became pofitive. In like manner
the pofitive fide of the ftone, on being cooled in wax,
became negative.
6. On attempting to afcertain the ftate of the dif¬
ferent fides of the tourmalin during the time it was
heating in wax, many difficulties occurred. It was
found impoflible in thefe cafes to know exaflly when
the ftone begins to cool ; befides, that in this me¬
thod of treatment it muft neceflarily be fome time in
the open air before it can be prefented to the elec¬
trometer ; and the eleflricity of the fides in heating
Is by no means fo remarkable as in cooling. In the
experiments made with the tourmalin, when its pofitive
fide was buried in wax, it was generally found nega¬
tive, though once or twice it feemed to be pofitive.
On cooling it in quickfilver contained in a china cup,
it always came out pofitive, and left the quickfilver
negative ; but this effedl could not be concluded to be
the confequence of applying the one to the other, be-
caufe it is almoft impoflible to touch quickfilver with¬
out fome degree of fsiftion, which never fails to make
both fides ftrongly pofitive though it be quite cold,
and efpecially if the ftone be dipped deep into it. At
laft, fuppofing that the ftone would not be apt to re¬
ceive any fri£lion by fimple preflure againft the palm
of the hand, he was induced to make the experi-
Hient, and found it fully to anfvver his expeditions;
3
R I C 1 T Y. 653
for thus, each fide of the ftone was affe&ed in a man- General
ner dire&ly contrary to what would have happened in Phenomena
the open air. *
7. Faitening the convex fide of the large tourmalin
to the end of a flick of fealing wax, and prefling it
againft the palm of the hand, it acquired a ftrong ne¬
gative eledricity, contrary to what would have hap¬
pened in the open air. Thus it continued till it had
acquired all the power it could receive by means of the
heat of the hand ; after which it began to decreafe,
though it continued fenfibly negative to the very laft.
On allowing the ftone to cool in the open air, its ne¬
gative power conftantly increafed till it became quite
cold.
8. On heating the fame flat fide by means of a hot
poker held near it, and then juft touching it with the
palm of the hand when fo hot that it could not be borne
for any length of time, it became pofitive. Letting it
cool in the air it became negative, and on touching it
again with the hand it became pofitive; and thus it
might be made alternatt ly pofitive and negative for a
conliderable time. At laft, when it became fo cool
that the hand could bear it, it acquired a ftrong pofitive
electricity, which continued till it came to the fame de¬
gree of heat.
9. The wax was removed from the convex, and faf¬
tened to the flat fide of the ftone; in which circumftances
it became weakly pofitive after receiving all the heat the
hand could give it. On letting it cool in the open air
it grew more ftrongly pofitive, and continued fo till it
was quite cold ; and thus the fame fide became pofitive
both with heating and cooling.
10. On heating the convex fide by means of a poker,
and prefling it againft the palm of the hand as foon as
it could be borne, it became pretty ftrongly negative ;
though it is extremely difficult to procure any appear¬
ance of negative eleftneity from this fide ; and caro
muft be taken that a flight atttaflion of the eleflrified
feather, by a body not electrified, be not miftaken for
negative eleClricity.
11. On covering the tourmalin when hot with oil
and tallow, no new appearances were produced ; nor
did the heating of it in boiling oil produce any other
effeCl than leflening the eleftricity a little; and the
event was the fame when the tourmalin was covered with
cement made of bees-wax and turpentine. On making
a fmall tourmalin very hot, and dropping melted feal¬
ing-wax upon it, fo as to cover it all over to the thick-
nefs of a crown piece, it was found to aft through this
coating nearly, if not quite, as well as if it had been ex-
pofed to the open air. Thus a pretty deception may¬
be made : for if a tourmalin be inclofed in a (lick of
wax, the latter will feem to have acquired the properties
of the ftone.
12. On letting the ftone cool in the vacuum of an
air-pump, its virtue feemed to be diminiftied about one
half, owing no doubt to the vacuum not being fufficient-
ly perfeft.
13. On fixing a thin piece of glafs oppofite and pa¬
rallel to the flat fide of the tourmalin, and about a quar¬
ter of an inch diftance from it, in an exhaufted re¬
ceiver, the, glafs was fo {lightly eleftrified, that it
could not be diftinguifhed whether it was pofitive or ne¬
gative.
14. On laying the ftone upon the ftandard bar of
the
654 ELECT
General the pyrometer, and communicating the heat to it by
Phenomena, means of a fpirit lamp, it was extremely difficult to
v '' - determine the nature of the eleftricity while the heat
was increafing to 700} during which time the index of
the pyrometer moved about one 7200th part of an inch.
But if the (lone was taken off the bar, and an electri¬
fied thread or feather prefented to that fide which had
lain next it, the convex fide was always negative, and
the fiat one pofitive.
14. To determine what would be the effeCt of keep¬
ing the tourmalin in the very fame degree of heat for a
confiderable time together, it was laid upon the middle
of the bar, to which heat was communicated by two
fpirit lamps, one at each extremity ; and making the
index move 45 degrees, it was kept in the fame degree
for half an hour without the leaf! fenfible variation •, and
it was obferved, that the upper fide, which happened
to be the convex one, was always eleftrified in a fmall
degree, attracting a fine thread at the diftance of about
a quarter of an inch. If in that time it was taken off
the bar, though ever fo quick, and an eleCtrified feather
prefented to it, the flat fide, which lay upon the bar,
was negative, and the upper fide very (lightly pofitive,
which appeared only by its not attracting the feather.
On putting a piece of glafs between the (tone and ftan-
dard bar, keeping it likewife in the fame degree of heat,
and for the fame fpace of time as before, the refult was
the fame ; the glafis was (lightly eleCtrified, and of a kind
oppofite to that of the (tone itfelf. To avoid the in¬
convenience of making one fide of the (tone hotter than
another, which neceffarily took place when it was heat¬
ed on the pyrometer, the following method was ufed.
By means of two rough places which happened to be
in the (tone, it was tied with a filk thread which
touched only the extreme edge of it j and thus being
perfeClly infulated, it might be held at any difiance from
a candle, and heated to what degree was thought
neceffary j while, by twifting the firing, it was made
to prefent its fides alternately, and thus the heat was
rendered very equal in both. After being made in
this manner fo hot that the hand could fcarce bear it,
it was kept in that fituation for a quarter of an hour.
Then, with a bundle of fine thread held for fome time
before in the fame heat, the eleCIricity which it had
acquired by heating was taken off, and it was found
to acquire very little, if any ; whence appeared the
juftnefs of an obfervation of Mr Canton’s, that it is
the change of heat, and not the degree of it, that pro¬
duces the ele&ric property of this done.
15. On heating the (tone fuddenly, it may fometimes
be handled and preffed with the fingers feveral times
before any change takes place in the eleCtricity which
it acquires by heating, though it begins to cool the
moment it is removed from the fire. In this cafe,
however, the done muft be heated only to a fmall de¬
gree. When the heat is three or four times as great
as is fufficient to change the eleCIricity of the two fides,
the virtue of the done is the dronged, and appears to
be fo when it is tried in the very neighbourhood of the
fire. In the very centre of the fire the done never
fails to cover itfelf with aflies attracted to it from every
quarter j whence it acquired its name in Dutch.
16. The tourmalin often changes its eleCtricity very
(lowly $ and that which it acquires in cooling never
fails to remain many hours upon it with very little di-
2
RICITY. PartIi
minution. It is even poffible, that in fome cafes the General
electricity acquired by heating may be fo drong as to Phenomena,
overpower that which is acquired by boiling ; fo that y—
both fides may (how the fame power in the whole ope¬
ration. “ I am very certain (fays the doCtor), that in
my hands both the fides of Dr Heberden’s large tourma¬
lin have frequently been pofitive for feveral hours toge¬
ther, without any appearance of either of them having
been negative at all. At this time I generally heated
the tourmalin, by prefenting each fide alternately to a red
hot poker, or a piece of hot glafs, held at the didance
of about half an inch, and fometimes I held it in the
focus of a burning mirror ; but I have fince found the
fame appearance when I heated it in the middle of an
iron hoop made red hot. The done in all thefe cafes
was fadened by its edge to a dick of fealing-wax. This
appearance I have obferved to happen the oftened when
the iron hoop has been exceedingly hot, fo that the
outfide of the done mud have been heated fome time
before the infide j and alfo I think there is the greated
chance of producing this appearance, when the convex
fide of the done is made the hotter of the two. When
I heat the large tourmalin in this manner, I feldom fail
to make both fides of the done pofitive till it be about
blood-warm. I then generally obferve a ragged part
of the fiat fide towards one end of the done become
negative fird, and by degrees the red of the flat fide j
but very often one part of the flat fide will, in this me¬
thod of treatment, be flrongly pofitive half an hour af¬
ter the other part is become negative*. * Pricjllefc
Hut. EUR.
Chap. V. Phenomena produced by excited Sulphur, fea. n'.*
25
Sulphur is one of thofe eleflrics which may be madeExpen-
to exhibit eleddrical appearances by being melted and11161115on
fuffered to cool again. Dr Gilbert had fhown that fill -
phur might be rendered elecdric by friction $ but the fird1
perfon who demondrated its excitability by melting,
was Mr Wilcke, of Rodoch in Lower Saxony, who fird
called this fpontaneous electricity.
He melted fome crude fulphur in an earthen veffel,
and left it to cool after placing the veffel on a conduc¬
ing fubdance. On taking out the fulphur when cool,
he found it drongly eledtrical, but this was not the
cafe when the veffel was placed on an eleCric.
He then melted fulphur in glafs veffels, and found
that both the glafs and the fulphur became eleCrical,
but the former acquired a pofitive, and the latter a ne¬
gative eleCricity. When glafs veffels were employed,
it did not matter whether they were placed on eleCrics
or conduCors, except that the eleCricity produced was
fironger in the former cafe, and dill dronger when the
glafs was coated with fome metallic fubdance. The
eleCricity of the fulphur was not produced till it began
to contraC, and was the dronged when the greated de¬
gree of contraCion had taken place. The eleCricity of
the glafs was always vveaked when that of the fulphur
was dronged, and the former was the dronged poffible
when the fulphur was llraken out before it had begun
to contraC.
He found that when melted fulphur was poured into
veffels of rough glafs, or into hollowed cakes of fulphur,
no eleCricity was produced.
Mr Wilcke alfo made experiments of the fame kind
with melted fealing-wax, and found that when this
was
'Epini
at amen*
bap. V.
;eneral was left to cool in veffels of fmooth glafs or of wood,
jnomena. the fealing-wax acquired a negative, and the glafs or
wood a pofitive eleflricity ; but when it was cooled in
cups of fulphur, the fealing-wax became electrified pofi-
tively, and the fulphur negativelyf.
./Epinus made fome experiments on melted fulphur
which he cooled in metal cups. On examining them
after the fulphur was cold, he found that while the
fulphur remained in the cups neither of them (bowed
any figns of eleCtrieity ; but the moment they were fe-
parated, both appeared (trongly eleftrical. The marks
of eleClricity difappeared however on replacing the ful¬
phur in the cups, and returned on their being again fe-
parated. When feparated, the fulphur was eleCtrified
pofitively, and the cups negatively j but if, before re¬
placing the fulphur in the cups, the eleCtricity of either
was taken off, the fulphur and cups, when together,
would (how figns of that eleCtricity that had not been
taken off
It mult be remarked here that though the eleCtricity
of the fulphur, fealing-wax, &c. in the above experi¬
ments appears to be the confequence of their cooling
after being melted, it is in faCt excited by a degree of
friClion which thefe fubftances undergo by their con¬
traction while cooling in the cups, or by being touched
with the hand in making the experiment j for it is found
that if they are cooled under circumltances that pre¬
vent all friCtion, a very fmall degree of which is fuffi-
cient to excite thefe bodies, no eleCtricity is produced.
This appears from experiments made by M. M. Van
Marum and Van Trooltwryck, for the purpofe of af-
certaining this point, an account of which is contained
in the 33d volume of Rozier’s Journal, to which we
muft refer our readers.
The durability of the eleCtric power in excited ful¬
phur is fo remarkable, that Mr Grey, from fome expe¬
riments which he made on this and fimilar fubftances,
was led to fuppofe it perpetual. In particular, he pour¬
ed melted fulphur into a conical drinking-glafs, and
when it was cold he found, that on taking off the glafs
the fulphur never failed to attraCl light bodies, and
that in every date of the atmofphere } and in fair wea¬
ther the glafs would alfo attraft.
Mr Henley, who repeated Mr Gray’s experiments,
fays, he has never known the fulphur fail of (bowing
figns of eleClricity on the removal of the glafs.
Although it be true that fulphur, as well as rofin,
fealing-wax, amber, and filk, retain the eleClric power
for a confiderable time, this is, however, continually
diminithing, and at length difappears altogether.
Other fubftances, as well as fulphur and fealing-wax,
become eleClrical by cooling after being melted. Mr
Henley obferved that chocolate, when firft from the
mill, as it cools in the tin pans into which it is re¬
ceived, becomes ftrongly eleClrical, and retains this pro¬
perty for fome time after being taken out of the pans,
but lofes it by handling. If melted again, and left to
cool as before, its eleClricity returns, though in a lefs
degree; and thus it may be renewed once or twice, but
dill in a much fmaller degree than before. But it be¬
fore pouring it into the pan, it be well mixed with a
ax excit- little olive oil, it becomes again ftrongly eleClrical.
1 by be- When a (lick of fealing-wax is broken acrofs, each
£ r°ken pjece kecomes eie(^ri£ec} at the extremities that were
27
irability
the elec-
c power
fulphur.
28
e&ricity
choco-
e.
*9
:alin
ELECTRICITY. 655
contiguous, the one pofitively and the other negative- General
jy< Phenomena.
When wood that is hard and pretty dry, is cut or 'r“"J
(haved, the (havings are rendered eleClrical, This faCl Eie(qricity
was firft obferved by Mr William Wilfon, who, from of wood
a number of experiments, draws the following conclu-(havings,
(ions.
From thefe experiments it appears, that when very
dry wood is feraped with a piece of window glafs, the'
(havings are always pofitively eleClrified. And if chip¬
ped with a knife, the chips are pofitively eleClrified if
the wood is hot, the edge of the knife not very (harp,
and negatively eleClrified if the wood is quite cold.
But if the edge of the knife is very keen, the chips
will be negatively eleCtrified whether the wood is hot
or cold.
The greateft number of trials was made with the in-
fulated knife, which was always eleClrified contrarily
to the chips ; but the furface of the wood where the
cliips were cut from was very feldom eleClrified, and
when it was, it was always but weakly fo, and of the
fame denomination as that of the weakeft of the other
two. Mr Wilfon repeatedly found that if a piece of
dry and warm wood is fuddenly fplit afunder, the two
furfaces which were contiguous are eleClrified, one fide
pofitive and the other negative. f
Powders, either of eleClrics or conduClors, are ren-Eje(qrjc^y
dered eleClrical by dropping them on an infulated me-of powders,
tallic plate.
The method, as deferibed by Mr Cavallo, is as fol¬
lows :
“ Infulate a metal plate upon an eleClric (land, fuch
as a wine glafs, and conneCl with it a cork-ball eleClro-
meter ; then the powder required to be tried, being
held in a fpoon, or other thing, at about fix inches
above the plate, is to be let fall gradually upon it. In
this manner, the eleClricity acquired by the powder, be¬
ing communicated to the metal plate, and to the elec¬
trometer, is rendered manifeft by the divergence of the
threads; and its quality may be afeertained in the ufual
manner ; to be hereafter deferibed.
“ It muft be obferved, that if the powder is of a con-
duCling nature, like the amalgam of metals, fand, &c..
it muft; be held in fome eleClric fubftance, as a glafs
phial, a plate of fealing-wax, or the like. Sometimes
the fpoon that holds the powder may be infulated ; in
which cafe, after the experiment, the fpoon will be
found pofleffed of an eleClricity contrary to that of
the powder.
“ In performing thefe experiments, eare mud be
taken to render the powders, and whatever they are
held in, as free from moifture as pofiible ; fometimes
it being neceffary to make them very warm, otherwife
the experiment is apt to fail. The following are the
particulars which have been obferved with this method,
which, however, are neither numerous, nor often re¬
peated ; but they may fuffice to excite the curiofity of
thofe perfons, who have leifure and the opportunity of
repeating them more at large and in a greater variety.
“ Powder of rofin, whether it be let fall from paper,
glafs, or a metal fpoon, eleClrifies the plate ftrongly
negative ; the fpoon, if infulated, remaining ftrongly
pofitive. Flower of fulphur produces the fame effeCl,
but in a little lefs degree. Pounded glafs, let fall
from
65 <5
Electrical
Apparatus.
ELECTRICITY.
32 .
Eleftricity
fliown by
vapour.
33.
Galvanic
electricity.
from a piece of paper, made dry and warm, eleflrifies
the plate negatively, but not in fo ftrong a degree as
rofin. If it be let fall from a brafs cup, it electrifies the
plate pofitively, but in a very fmall degree.
“ Steel-filings let fall either from a glafs phial or
paper, eleCtrify the plate negatively j but brafs filings,
treated in the fame manner, eleCtrify the plate pofitive¬
ly. The amalgam of tin-foil and mercury, gunpowder,
or very fine emery, eleCtrify the plate negatively, rvhen
they are let fall upon it from a glafs phial. Quitk-
filver, from a glafs phial, eleCtrifies the plate pofitively.
“ Soot from the chimney, or the afhes of common
pit-coal mixed with fmall cinders, eleClrify the plate
negatively, when let fall from a piece of paper.”
M, Volta difcovefed, that when W’ater and fome
other fluids are reduced to a Hate of vapour, by
throwing the fluid on fome lighted coals placed in an
infulated crucible, the vapour fliews figns of pofitive
eleCtricity, while the coals it is leaving are negatively
eleCtrified ; and hence it is concluded, that all fluids in
the aCt of evaporation became eleCtrical, the vapour be¬
ing eleCtrified pofitively, and the body which it is
leaving negatively ; and again, that when vapour be¬
comes condenfed into a fluid, it becomes negatively elec¬
trified, leaving the bodies with which it was laft in con-
taCt in a Hate of negative eleCtricity.
Some conductors arranged in certain wrays will pro¬
duce eleCtrical appearances without friCtion, or commu¬
nication with any eleCtric except the air.
Thus if a plate of zinc, a plate of filver, or of cop¬
per, and a piece of woollen cloth moiftened with fome
Part II.
faline folution, as of muriate of ammonia, be arranged in Evadcal
the order we have mentioned one above another, they Apparatus,
will manifeft figns of eleCtricity, -which will be the
ftronger in proportion as the fets of metal and cloth are
more numerous.
The fame appearances will be more manifeft if the
metallic plates joined together be fixed in a trough at
fmall diftances, while the intermediate fpaces are filled
with the faline folution.
As the appearances produced by conductors arranged
in this way are of a peculiar nature, we (hall not treat
of them in this article, but refer the confideration of
them till we come to Galvanism.
Under the fame article will alfo be confidered the
eleCtrical phenomena which are produced by certain
animals, as the torpedo, &c.
The glafs tube and the dry hand, mentioned in (i.),
conftitute the moft fimple electrical apparatus of which
the effential parts are the eleBric and the rubber. But
for the purpofe of experiment it is neceflary to have the
eleCtric of confiderable fize, furnifhed with fome pro¬
per fubftance which can always perform the office of a
rubber, and fo firmly fixed as not to be eafily difturbed
from its fituation in the courfe of our experiment. We
ffiall then have what is called an eleBrical machine.
As much of the fuccefs of eleCtrical experiments de¬
pends on the proper conftruCtion and management of
the machine and its attendant apparatus, we lhall here
give a pretty full account of the ufual apparatus, be¬
fore we proceed in explaining the principles of the
fcience.
PART II.
OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS.
Chap. I. Of the ConJlruBion of EleBrical Ma¬
chines.
34 . .
Conftmc- WE ffiall firft lay down the general principles on
tion of el®c- which the conftruCtion of an eleCtrical machine and the
chinesm " adjufting of its feveral parts depends $ and ffiall after¬
wards defcribe fome of the more important machines
> which are now in ufe.
The principal parts in an eleCtrical machine are the
eleBric, the engine by which it is to be fet in motion,
35 the rubber, and prime conduBor.
•fcledtric. Several fubftances have, at various times, been em¬
ployed as eleCtrics, as fulphur (f), rojin, polifhedglafs,
and rough glafs; and they have been ufed of various
forms as globes, fpheraids, cylinders, &c. The reafon of
this variety of form feems to be that experience had not
fliown what form was the moft convenient; but the
different fubftances were employed for the purpefe of
producing a pofitive or negative eleCtricity, as the nature
of the experiment or the fancy of the operator might re¬
quire.
But as this purpofe is better anfwered by infulating
the rubber, or allowing it to communicate freely with
conductors, poliftied glafs is almoft the only fubftance
at prefent employed as the eleCtric of a machine.
Globes of glafs are fometimes ufed, but the moft con¬
venient forms are cylinders and plates. ^
The moft convenient fize for globes is from nine to Cylinder. !
twelve inches diameter. They are made with one
neck which is cemented to a ftrong brafs cap, in order
to adapt them to a proper frame. The moil conveni¬
ent cement for holding together the parts of eleCtrical
apparatus is made by melting together, over a gentle
fire, two parts of rofin, two of bees-wax, and one of 37
powdered red ochre. The cement is much better than
rofin alone, as it ferves the purpofes of infulation^e j
equally well, and is much lefs brittle. Globes were
formerly
(f) The firft. perfon who conftruCted any thing like an eleCtrical machine was Otto Guericke, burgomafter of
Magdebourg, who lived in the latter end of the lyth century. He formed a globe of fulphur by melting this
fubftance in a glafs globe, which he then broke away from it, little imagining that the glafs itfelf would have an¬
fwered his purpofe much better. Vid, Experimenta Magdtburgica.
isp. 1. ELECT
ftrical formerly much more ufed than at prefent j their great
laratus. advantage appears to be, that by making the ele&ric re-
volve on an axis nearly perpendicular, the upper part is
more completely infulated ; but one great diladvantage
'attends this motion, namely, that as the preffure is ap¬
plied at a diftance from the fulcrum, it in time loofens
g the ad he (ion of the ftrongeft cement,
esof Plates of glafs are much in fafliion on the continent;
i. and they feem to attribute to this form much of the
wonderful power of their machines, as of that at Haar¬
lem, to be hereafter mentioned. Perhaps the greateft
advantage of plates is that the fri&ion may be applied
to both furfaces at once ) but it may be doubted*
whether this be not an imaginary advantage, and this
form is attended with feveral material inconveniences j
as, i ft, Plates cannot bear any great preffure of the
rubber j 2d, They cannot be infulated without very
complicated machinery j 3d, As they are fixed by the
centre, and the fri&ion is applied towards the circum¬
ference, if much force be employed, there will be great
danger of breaking the plate, or at leaft of loofening
it, and thus difturbing the equability of its motions •,
and 4thly, They are much more expenfive than any
other form, and hence, as they are much expofed to
injury, the replacing of them becomes a very furious
objeft.
The. ingenious Mr Cuthbertfon has contrived to ob¬
viate fome of thefe difadvantages, and his plate machines
are very conveniently managed, as Well as very power-
ful in their effe£l.
linders On the whole, the cylindrical form feems preferable
1)6 Pre' to any other, and this is now almoft univerfally em-
rt!
ever yet invented f.” 48
A very powerful machine, in which plates of glafs Machine in
are employed, is that in Teyler’s mufeum at Haarlem, lt7lers
conftruited by Mr John Cuthbertfon. It confifts ofp^arleni.
two circular plates of glals, each 65 inches in diame¬
ter, and made to turn upon the fame horizontal axis,,
at the diftance of inches from one another. Thefe
plates are excited by eight rubbers, each 15^ inches
long. Both fides of the plates are covered with a re-
finous fubftance to the dillance of 16I inches from the
centre, both to render the plates ftronger, and likewife
to prevent any of the eleftricity being carried off" by
the axis. The prime conductor confiffs of feveral
pieces, and is fupported by three glals pillars 57 inches
in length. The plates are made of French glafs, as
this is found beft next to the Fngliffi flint which could
not be procured of fufficient fize. The conductor is
divided into branches which enter between the plates,
but colltdl the fluid by means of points only from one
fide of the plate. The force of two men is required to
work this machine; but when it is required to be
put in adlion for any length of time, four are necef-
fary.
By this machine Van Marum made his experiments
on metals, See. which will be mentioned hereafter. ^
Within thefe few years, Di Van Marum has con- Van Ma-
ftru£ted a new machine, ot fmaller dimenfions, but of rum’s new
much greater proportional power than the preceding, machine.
It is thus deferibed in Nicholfon’s Journal. Fig. 75. Plate
PI. CXCIII. exhibits a perfpedlive view of the machine, CXCI1L
and fig. 76, 77, 78, 79, a feftion, exclufive of the
culhions. In the view it may be obferved that the
culhions are each feparately infulated upon pillars of
glafs, and are applied nearly in the dirt&ion of the ho¬
rizontal diameter of the plate, inftead of the vertical
diameter as heretofore. The ball diametrically oppo¬
fite to the handle is the prime condu&or, and the femi-
circular piece with two cylindrical ends, ferves, in the
pofition of the drawing, to receive the eleftricity from
the plate. By the happy contrivance of altering the
pofition of this femicircular branch from vertical to
nearly horizontal, the cylindrical ends may be placed
in contact with the culhions, and the prime condu&or
inflantly exhibits negative ele&ricky. But as it is ne-
ceflary that the culhions Ihuuld communicate with
the ground when the pofitive power is wanted, and that
they fliould be infulated when the negative power is
required, there is another femicircular branch applied
to the oppofite fide of the plate nearly at right angles to
the firft. That is to fay, when pofitive electricity is
wanted, this fecond branch denoted by I, I in the fee
tion fig. 76. is placed nearly horizontal, and forms a com¬
munication from the cufhioiiS to the ground through a
metallic rod from K behind the mahogany pillar which
fupports the axis; but when, on the contrary, the nega¬
tive power is wanted, and the branch from the prime
conductor is placed in contact with the culhions, this
other branch from the axis is put into the vertical fitua-
tion, and carries oft" the electricity emitted from th* *
plate of glafs.
Th s ~
662
E!e<5h-ical
Apparatus.
ELECTRICITY. Part IT,
Tlie axis of the plate B //, fig. 76. is fupported by a
fingle column A, which for that purpofe is provided
with a bearing-piece K, on which two brafs collar-pie¬
ces DD, reprefented more at large and in face in fig.
78. are fixed, and carry the axis itfelf. The whole of
fig. 76. is reduced to one-16th of its real dimenfions,
unlefs contradled by the Ihrinking of the paper alter
printing j to obviate which, it may be remarked that
the diameter of the plate is 31 ‘Englilh inches. The
axis has a counterpoife O, of lead, to prevent too great
fridfion in the collar D neareft the handle. The arc
of the conduftor EE,' which carries the two fmall re¬
ceiving conductors FF, is fixed to the axis G, which
turns in the ball H. On the other fide of the plate is
feen the other arc II, of brafs wire, half an inch in
diameter, fixed to the extremity of the bearing-piece
K, fo that it may be turned in the fame manner as the
arc EE. The two receiving conductors FF are fix
inches long, and two and a half inches in diameter.
The double line P reprefents a copper tube termina¬
ting in a ball Q. It moves like a radiu' upon the Item
R of the ball S, which being fcrewed into the conduc¬
tor H, ferves to confine the arm P in any pofition
which may be required The diameter of the ball S is
only two inches, which, together with certain other
lefs rounded parts of this apparatus, may ferve to thow
that the confiderable eleftricity from this machine is
lefs difpofed to efcape than if it had proceeded from a
cylinder. The difiipation of eleClricity along the glafs
fupports is prevented by a kind of cap T, ol mahoga¬
ny, which affords an eleftrical well or cavity under¬
neath, and likevvife effeClualiy covers the metallic caps
into which the glafs is cemented. The lower extremi¬
ty of the cap is guarded in the fame manner by a hol¬
low piece or ring V, of mahogany, which covers the
metallic focket into which the glafs is cemented. The
three glafs pillars are fet in Hiding-pieces, as marked
on the platform of fig. 75. which are nine inches
long.
The rubbers of this machine differ in no effential
particular from thofe deferibed by the inventor in the
Journal de Phyfique for February 1791 ; and the ap¬
paratus for applying them is deferibed in the fame work
for April 1789. Fig. 77. reprefents a fedlion of this
judicious piece of mechanifm feen from above, and one-
fourth of the real fize. A metallic Hiding-piece bb, is Hid¬
ed into a correfpondent face, on the ball Z, which is one
of thofe fixed on the top of the giafs pillars near the
circumference of the glafs plate in fig. 75. To this is
affixed the piece aV, which terminates in two hinges
gg, that allow the fprings e e \.o move in the plane of
the horizon. The pieces gg reprefent the wood-work
of the cuHnons attached to the extremities of the fprings
by the hinges hh. The fprings are regulated by the
bolt and ferew i i. The two cufliions are thus made to
apply to the plate, equally through their whole length ;
the a&ions on the oppofite fides of the plate are accu¬
rately the fame ; and the play of the hinges gg, pre¬
vents the plate from being endangered by any ftrain in
the direction of its axis. It is certain that, before this
adequate provifion was made to fecure thofe effential
requifites, it was impracticable to apply the cufliions to
a plate with the fame fafety and effeCl as to cylinders,
which poffefs much ftrength from their figure. An in¬
genious workman will probably find little difficulty in
conftruCting thofe rubbers from tins defeription and Eiedrica!
drawing; but the muff precife information refpeClingApparatus,
every circumftance and dimenfions is to be found in the
letters above quoted.
The inner extremities of the cuthions are defended
by the plates of gum lac YY, which cover the three
fides or edges, and prevent their attracting the eleCtric
power from the ends of the receiving conductor.
The part of the axis which moves between the col¬
lars is made of Heel. The middle of the non-conduCt-
ing part of the axis is a cylinder of walnut-tree a a a a,
baked until its infulating power is equal to that of glafs,
and then foaked in amber varnith, while the wood Hill
remains hot. The two extremities of this cylinder,
which are of a lefs diameter, are forced, by flrong
blows, with a mallet, into the flout brafs caps b and c,
in which they are retained by three iron ferews d d.
The cylinder a a, and the brafs caps, are covered with
a layer of gum-lac eeee, to preferve the infulating
Hate of the wooden cylinder more perfeCIiy, and to
prevent the cap b from throwing flaihes to the rubbers.
The bottom of the cap b is fcrewed home on the cap¬
ped extremity of the Heel axis b. The bafe of the cap
c, which is four inches in diameter, terminates in an
axis one'inch thick, and two in length; the extremity
of which is formed into a ferew. The glafs plate is
put on this projeCfing part, and fecured in its place by
a nut of box-wood, forced home by a key, applied in
the holes ii. Two rings of felt are applied on each
fide of the glafs, to defend its furface from the contaft
of the wood and the metal ; and the central hole in the
glafs, which is two inches in diameter, contains a ring of
box-wood, which prevents its immediate application to
the axis.
As it is neceffary that the axis G fliould be parallel
to the axis of the plate, in order that the conductors
FF may move parallel to the plate itfelf, the pillar M
is rendered adjuitable by three bearing ferews RR at
the bottom, which re-aCt againfl the flrong central
ferew T, and this is drawn downwards by its nut. The
conductors FF are aifo adjuftable by the Hiding-pieces
v v, and the binding-ferews ww, which alfo afford an
adjuftment to bring the axis of each fmall conductor
parallel to the face of the glafs plate. A fimiiar ad¬
juftment may be obferved at the extremities of the
arc II.
Fig. 79. reprefents a feCtion of the moving part of
the branch II, one-half of its real fize. A brafs plate
«cs is ferewed to the face of the capital K by three iron
ferews (i. To this is fcrewed another ring which
affords a groove for the moveable ring yy, into which
the arms II are fixed. This is accordingly applied in
its place before the ring ^ is fixed.
The wooden part of the rubbers GG, fig. 77. is
covered with thin plates of iron, excepting the furfac©
nearefl. to the glafs. The intention of this is to main¬
tain a more perfeCI communication between the rubbed
part of the cufliion and the earth or negative conduCior,
as the cafe may be.
The plates of gum-lac YY, are applied to the rub¬
bers, each by means of a thin plate of brafs, to which
they are affixed by heat. There are two wires rAetted
in the plates, which are thruft into correfpondent holes
in the wooden part of the cufhion.
The mahogany column A ends in a fquare upon
which
lhap. H.
leflricsl which the piece K is fitted and firmly applied, by means
jparatus. of the fcrevv and nut exhibited in the feidion*.
The follovanq; defcription of a ufeful machine is la-
Nickol- j,ien from Mr Cavallo, who confiders it as one of the
moll complete with which he. is acquainted.
The frame of this machine confills of the bottom
I'late board ABC, fig. 7. which when the machine is to be
;XXXVHufed, is fattened to the table by two iron clamps, one of
fig- 7< which appears in the figure near C. Upon the bottom
board are perpendicularly railed two itrong wooden
pillars KL, and AH, which fupport the cylinder, and
the wheel. From one of the brats caps of the cylinder
FF, an axle of fteel proceeds, which paffes quite through
a hole in the pillar KL, and has on this fide of the
pillar a pulley I, fixed upon its fquare extremity. Up¬
on the circumference of this pulley there are three or
Tour grooves, in order to fuit the variable length of the
firing «£, which goes round one of them, and round
the groove of the wheel D. The other cap of the cy-
litider has a fmall cavity, which fits the conical extre¬
mity of a ftrong fcrew, that proceeds from the pillar
H. The wheel D, which is moved by the handle E,
turns round a fining axle, proceeding irurn almolt the
middle part of the pillar KL.
The rubber G of this machine is on each end two or
three inches fhorter than the cylinder (i. e. the cylinder
exclufive of the necks), and it is made to rub about
one-tenth part of the cylinder’s circumference, or ra¬
ther lefs ; it confifts of a thin quilted culhion of filk,
fluff'd with air, and faftened by filk firings upon a
piece of wood which is properly adapted to the furface
of the cylinder. And to the lower extremity of the
culhion, or rather of the piece of wood to which the
culhion is tied, a piece of leather is faflened, which is
turned over the cufliion, i. e. Hands between it and the
furface of the cylinder, and to the extremity of which
a piece of filk, or oiled lilk is fafiened, which covers
almoft all the upper part of the cylinder. Upon this
leather, which reaches from the lower to almoft the up¬
per extremity of the culhion, fome of the amalgam is to
be worked, fo as to be forced as much as poflible into
its fubftance : if mofaic gold is to be tried, then the
leather fhould be new, and whereon no other amalgam
has been put. This rubber is fupported by twofprings,
fere ved to its back, and from which it may be eafily
unferewed, when occafion requires it. The twofprings
proceed from the wooden cap of a ftrong glafs pillar,
perpendicular to the bottom board of the machine.
This pillar has a fquare wooden balls, that Hides in two
grooves in the bottom board ABC, upon which it is
fafiened bv a fcrevv. In this manner the glafs pillar
may be faftened at any required difiance, and in c.-nfe-
quence the rubber may be made to prefs harder or
lighter upon the cylinder. The rubber in thL manner
is perfe&lv infulated ; and, when infulation is not re¬
quired, a chain with a fmall hook may be hanged to
it, fo as to have a regular communication with the
piece of leather j the chain then falling upon the table,
renders the rubber uninfulated.
AB reprefents the prime conduflor belonging to this
machine. This is of hollow brafs, and is fupported by
two glafs pifiars varniihed, that by two brafs fockets
are fixed in the board CC. This condutl >r receives
the elefiric power through the points of the colletflor
4 '
ELECTRICITY.
6(5
L, which are fet at about half an inch diftance from the Eletfhical
furface of the cylinder of the machine. Apparatus.
If the handle E of the wheel be turned, (and on ac-
count of the rubber it fhould be turned always in the
direction of the letters a b c) this machine Handing in
the lituation that is reprefented in the figure, will give
politive electricity, i. e. the prime conductor will be
eleClrified politively. But if a negative electricity be
required, then the chain mult be removed from the rub¬
ber and hung to the prime condu&or ; for in this cafe
the eleCtricity of the prime conductor will be communi¬
cated to the ground, and the rubber remaining infula¬
ted, will appear ttrongly negative. Another conduc¬
tor, equal to the conductor AB, may be connected
with the infulated rubber, and then the operator may
obtain as ttrong negative eleCtncity from this, as he can
pofitive from the conductor AB. 50
The next machine which we (hall mention is one in-MrNairne’s
vented by Mr Nairne, which is chiefly employed for mavhmc.
medical purpofes ; but a modification of which, to be
prefently deferibed, will anfwer for molt purpofes of
eleCtrical experiment better than any other.
The cylinder in Mr Nairne’s machine is about twelve
inches long and feven in diameter; it turns upon two
wooden pieces cemented on the top of two ftrong glafs
pillars, BB. Thefe pillars are made fall into the bot¬
tom board of the machine, which is fattened to the ta¬
ble by means of a crank. There are grooves made in
the under part of the bottom of the crank, through
which the pieces FE Hide. On thefe pieces the pillars
Hand by which the two conductors are lupported j and
in order to place thefe .conductors nearer to the cylin¬
der, or remove them farther from it, the pieces on
which they Hand are moveable inwards or outwards,
and may be fixed by the two fcrew nuts LL. The
rubber is faftened to the conductor tt ■, and confilts of
a culhion of leather fluffed, having a piece of filk glued
to its under part. This lait being turned over the fur¬
face of the cufliion, and thus interpofed between it and
the glafs, goes over the cylinder, and almoft touches
the pointed wires which are lituated on the other conduc¬
tors. The conductors are of tin covered with black
lacquer, each of them containing a large coated glafs
jar, and likewife a fmaller one, or a coated tube, which
are vilible when the caps NN are removed. To each
conduCtor is fixed a knob G, for the occafional fufpen-
fion of a chain to produce pofitive or negative elec¬
tricity. The part of the winch C, which aCts as a le¬
ver in turning the cylinder, is of glafs. Thus every
part of the machine is infulated, the cylinder itfelf and
its brafs caps not excepted. And to this the inventor
has adapted fome flexible conducting joints, a difeharg-
ing eleCtrometer, and other utenfils neceffary for the
praCtice of medical eleCtricity.
A modification of this machine is reprefented at
fig. 9. Ug. 9.
a, the handle of the cylinder.
b, the negative, and c, the pojitive conduCtor.
d, the filk flap of the rubber.
Mr Reid’s portable machine, as improved by Mr Mr Raul’s
Lane, is the lalt which we Ihall deferibe, and is repre-port bie
fented at fig. 10. A is the glafs cylinder, moved Ver-machine*
tically by means of the pulley at the lower end of the I0’
axis.
664.
ELECT
Electrical axis. This pulley is turntd by a large wheel B, which
Apparatus. ljes parallel to the table. There are three pulleys of
1 ^ different dimenfions marked in the figure j one of which
revolves four times for every revolution of the large
wheel B. The conductor C, is furnifhed with points to
colle6l the fluid, and is fere wed to the wire of a coated
jar D, which ffands in a focket between the cylinder
and the wheel. This figure alfo (hews how Mr Lane’s
ele&rometer, to be afterwards deferibed, may be adapt¬
ed to this machine.
A great many other machines have been deferibed in
the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, Journal de Phyfique, and
in various books on eledlricity j but thofe of which we
have given an account are the moft material.
Chap. III. General directions for ujing the Electri¬
cal Machine*
-53 It is of the greateft conftquence that the machine,
as well as the table on which it (lands, and every thing
in its neighbourhood, be perfe&ly free from dull ; it is
therefore neceffary to begin by wiping every part of
the machine, &c. with a clean, dry, foft linen cloth.
If the weather is not warm and dry, it will be proper
alfo to place the machine for fome time before the fire,
that it may be perfectly free from moifture. The cy¬
linder if ufed lately and not cleaned, may have con-
trafted fpots of dirt and greafe 5 in which cafe it muft
be rubbed with a foft rag dipped in fpirit of wine. In
fhort, very much depends on the machine being quite
free from dirt and moifture.
53 The condu&ors are now to be fixed in a proper fitua-
tion, fo that the rubber of the negative condudftor may
pre.fs clofely to the cylinder on one fide, and the points
of the pofitive conduftor may approach on the other as
near to it as poflible, without touching. Then while
the cylinder is made to revolve, the amalgam is to be
applied to it, where it is not covered with the filk ;
this is beft done by means of a piece of leather to
which the amalgam has been previoufly faflened, which
is a better method than by fpreading it on the rubber.
As the amalgam is liable to oxidation from expofure to
the air, it is proper to ferape the furface of it before it
is applied to the cylinder ; and if any old amalgam has
been left on the cufhion of the rubber, this fhould alfo
be feraped before ufing the new.
After having made thefe arrangements, on whirling
the cylinder in contact with the rubber, without bring¬
ing any conducing body near the former, or infulating
the latter, we will perceive in the dark a ftream of fire
iffuing from the place of contaft between the rubber
and the cylinder, and adapting itfelf to the form of the
cylinder, fo as to involve it in a blue flame mixed with
bright, fparks; the whole making a very perceptible
whizzing and fnapping noife. If the finger is brought
near the cylinder in this fituation, the flame and fparks
will leave the cylinder and ftrike the finger ; and this
phenomenon will continue as long as the globe con¬
tinues to be whirled round.
. On applying the prime condu&or, the light will va-
nifh, and be perceptible only upon the points prefented
to it by the cylinder j bnt if the finger is now brought
near the condu&or, a very fmart fpark will ftrike^it,
and that at a greater or fmaller diflance, according to
the ftrength of the machine. This fpark, when the
pparut
55
R I C I T Y. Pan ]
electricity is not very ftrong, appears like a ftraight line ]v]eftr
of fire ; but if the machine adts very powerfully, it will Ap
put on the appearance ot zig-zag lightning, throwing
out other fparks from the corners, and ftrike with fueh
force as to give confiderable pain to thofe who receive
it.
If thtfe appearances do not take place, or if they
take place only in a flight degree, foon atter the apply¬
ing the amalgam, fpread a little oil on the palm of
your hand, and let it (lightly touch the cylinder as it
moves round ; in general this is inftantly followed by a
copious emiflion of fparks, numerous torrents of which
will now pafs from the edge of the filk to the knuckles.
Sometimes, however, after ufing all thefe precautions,
the machine does not adt well, and in this cale the rub¬
ber fhould be examined, to fee if fomething is not
wrong there. The rubber fhould be removed from the
glafs pillar or the negative condudfor, to which it is
faftened, by taking out the ferews by which it is ufually
fecured ; it is then to be brought near the fire fo that
the filk may be perfedlly dried, after which a little tal¬
low or fuel Ihould be rubbed upon the cufhion, and it
fhould then be replaced in its fituation. It the fiik of
the rubber is fitted to the cufhion by means of a wire
as deferibed in (42.) it will only be neceflary to take
out this wire, in order to dry the filk.
While both condudtors remain infulated, the machine
will not continue to adt long, or at lealt its adtion will
be much lefs powerful } but if the negative condudfor
or rubber be made to communicate with the floor or a
moift wall, it will in general continue its adtion for any
length of time required.
The weather is found to have confiderable influence
on the adtion of an eledtrical machine ; in wet weather
it will neither adt fo powerfully, nor for fo long a time
as when the weather is moderately warm and dry, un-
lefs perpetual care be taken to keep every part of it
warm and clean. Very hot dry weather is alfo unfa¬
vourable to the adtion of the machine, and when this
happens, even the floor of the room may be too dry to
ferve as a condudtor ; it is then neceffary to connedt the
rubber by a chain which communicates with fome moift
furface, as a cellar, a pump, or the like.
Mr Nicholfon lays down the following diredtions forjfrNic
preparing the machine for experiment. fon’sdirl
Clean the cylinder, and wipe the filk. fi°nb||,r'
Greafe the cylinder, by turning it againft a greafed^ep0W
leather till it is uniformly obfeured. I ufe the tallow „f the c;
of a candle. linder.
Turn the cylinder till the filk flap has wiped off fo
much of the greafe as to render it femitranfparent.
Put fome amalgam on a piece of leather, and fpread
it well fo that it may be uniformly bright. Apply
this againft the turning cylinder. The fridlion will im¬
mediately increafe, and the leather muft not be remov¬
ed until it ceafes to become greater.
Remove the leather, and the adtion of the machine
will be very ftrong *. * Fhil.
Tranf. I
Chap. IV. An Enumeration of fome other Parts of1^^
an EleCirical Apparatus to Le deferibed hereafter.
There are many other parts of the eledtrical appara¬
tus •, but thefe we can only enumerate here, as their de-
feription and ufe will come more properly to be ex¬
plained
57
58
lUp •
nciplesof plained under the principles on which they are con-
eftricity ftru£ted.
jftrated Fig. 12. and 13. reprefent different forms of coated
mentII* jarS or ^,ey ^orm ^hem out of the dry pith of el-
^ment.ri c^t‘r> or rulhes, and lay them on the lower plate. On
v—— working the machine the figures will rife from the lower
plate, and move perpetually from the one plaie to the
other as reprefented in the figure.
Plate Exper. 3.—Let a folid rod of glafs, as a, fig. 21. be
clxxxviii-mage t0 paps through a bell b, perforated for the pur-
21, pofe, and let one end of the rod be fixed in a wooden
foot, while the other fupports two metallic arms, c,d, e,f
crofling each other, and knobbed at their extremities.
From each extremity let a fmall bell without a clapper
be fufpended by a metallic wire, and from each arm, at
a little diftance from the extremities, let the clappers of
thefe bells be fufpended by filken threads. On con-
nefting the top of the ftand with the prime conductor,
and fetting the machine in motion, the clappers will be¬
gin to move between the central bell and the other four
fo as to ring the whole five.
Here the bells receive the eleflric power from the
prime conductor, and being electrified, attraft and re¬
pel the clappers which hang freely between them.
Exper. 4.—Tie a fmall body, as for inftance a light
piece of cork, to a filk thread about eight inches long,
and holding the thread by its end, let the fmall body
hang at the diftance of about eight inches from the fide
of the prime conduftor electrified. This fame body, if
the eleCtrization of the conductor is not ftmng, will not
be attracted. But if a finger or any conducting fub-
ftance be prefented to that fide of the fmall body which
is fart heft from the prime conductor, then the fmall
body will immediately move toward the prime conduc¬
tor ; and when this body has touched the prime con¬
ductor, it will be inftantly repelled from it, on account
of the repulfion exifting between bodies pofiefled of the
fame kind of eleCtricity.
Indeed, if this infulated body be very near to the
prime conductor, or the prime conductor ftrongly elec¬
trified, then the fmall body will be attracted without
prefenting to it any conducting fubltance j or the. natu¬
ral fluid belonging to that body will be all crowd¬
ed on that fide of it which is neareft to the prime con¬
ductor.
If th is fmall bodv, inftead of the filk, be fufpended
by a linen thread, it will be attracted at a much great¬
er diftance, than in the other cafe.
Bodies in the fame ft ate of ele&r icily, i. e. which
are all eleRrifed po/itivehj, or all negatively, have a ten¬
dency to repel each other.
Exper. I.—-Stick a downy feather into one of the
holes of the prime conductor. When the cylinder is
moved the feather will begin to fwell, and its plumes
will feparate to a confiderable diftance from each
other.
This experiment may be varied, by placing the re-
prefentation of a human head upon the prime conduc¬
tor. When the cylinder is moved, the hair of the
head will brittle up and ftand ereCt as reprefented in
fig. 22.
Exper. 2.—Let fmall balls made of cork or the pith
of elder well dried, be fufpended from the prime con¬
ductor by threads of an equal length. While the cylin¬
der continues at reft, the balls will touch each other,
but as foon as the machine is fet in motion they will
3
62
Fl>. 22.
ELECTRICITY. Part H
repel each other to a greater or lefs diftance, accord-princjpie,
ing as the eleCtric power produced is ftronger or Elect 1 id
weaker. - illuilrate
It is not neceffary that the threads be in contaCt with expcij
the prime condudor, for if the balls be brought near mt^
the conduClor while the machine is in motion, they will I
recede from each other as before.
The fame effeCt will be produced whether the
balls are hung from the pofitive or the negative con¬
ductor.
From the circumftance obferved in the above ex¬
periments we deduce the following important eorol-
lary* .. . 63 1
ObjeRs brought near an eleRrifed body are eleRrifcd Corollary
by pojition.
The communication of eleCtricity from an eleCtrified
body, to another which is not in contaCt with it, but
is only in its vicinity, may for the prefent be conceived
by remarking that ihefe bodies are furrounded with air.
Air, although an eleCtric, is not a very perfeCt eleCtric,
but is more or lefs alfo a conductor, Specially when it is
moift. When a body is eleCtrified it communicates to
the air in contaCt with it a portion of its eleCtric power,
and thus the air becomes eleCtrified, and of courfe im¬
parts to the bodies, which are iurrounded by it a degree
of eleCtrieity ; and this the more eafily as it is in a bet¬
ter conducting ftate.
The apparent aCtion of the air in communicating
eleCtricity to a body which is furrounded by it, may be
illuitrated by the following experiments.
Infulate in a horizontal petition a metallic rod about
two feet long, having blunt ends, and at one of its ends
fufpend aneleCtrometer, likethat reprefented in fig. 116.;
then bring within three or four inches diftance of its
other end an excited glafs tube. On the approach of
the tube, the balls of the eleCtrometer will open, and if
you prefent towards them a body pofitively eleCtrified,
you will perceive that they diverge with pofitive elec¬
tricity. If ihe tube be removed, the balls come together
again, and no eleCtricity remains in them, or in the me¬
tallic rod. But if while the tube is near one end of the
rod, and the ball diverge with pofitive eleCtricity, the
other end of the rod, viz. that from which the eleCtro¬
meter hangs, be touched with fome conductor, the cork
balls will come immediately together, and they will re¬
main fo when the conduClor has been removed re¬
move now the excited glafs tube, and the balls will im¬
mediately diverge with negative eleCtricity : which
fhows that the rod remains eleCtrified negatively.
If the above experiment be made with an eleCtric ne¬
gatively eleCtrified (for inftance, a rod of fealing-wax
inftead of the excited glafs tube) then the apparent elec¬
tricities in the rod will be juft the reverfe of what they
were before *, for in this cafe, that end of the rod to
which the eleCtric has been prefented, will be pofitive,
and the oppofite end negative ; which oppofite end, if
touched in this flate with fome conducting fubftance,
w7ill acquire fome eleCtric pow'er from that fubftanc&j
and when, after that fubftance has been removed, the ex¬
cited eleCtric is alfo removed, the rod will remain pofitive.
In making this experiment, care muft be taken that
the end of the rod be very blunt, and that the eleCtric
be not very powerfully excited j otherwife a fpark may
pafs from this to the rod, which renders the experiment
precarious,
. ' Take
hap.
I.
nCip!es of Take two rods of metal, each about a foot long, fur-
eftricity niflied with knobs at both ends ; and, either by filk
uftrated ijnes or by infulating {tools, infulate them, fo that they
^ten‘ may ftand horizontally in one diredtion, and about a
quarter of an inch diftance from -one another. To the
middle of each of thefe rods hang an eledlrometer, like
that reprefented in fig. 16. This done, take an excited
glafs tube, and bring it to about three inches diftance
from the knob of one of the rods j on doing which, the
electrometers of both rods will appear eledtrified : keep
the tube in that fituation for about two feconds, then
remove it. The rods now will remain eledtrified, as
appears by the eledtrometers 5 the firft, viz. that to which
the excited tube had been prefented remaining negative,
and the other pofitive.
In this experiment, if, inftead of the glafs tube, an
eledtric, negatively excited, be brought near the end
of one rod, then that rod will be eledlrified pofitively,
and the other negatively.
This is all that we can properly explain at prefent
with refpedt to the agency of the air in the produdlion
of eledlrical phenomena. We {ball take occafion to
confider this fubjedt more fully in a future part of this
article, when we {hall fee that a variety in the ftate
of the air produces confiderable diverfity in the pheno-
On the principle of eledlric repulfion, and the above
corollary, depend the adfion of feveral inftruments which
are of great ufe in eledlrical experiments, and which we
(hall now defcribe.
Inftrume-nts which are employed to afcertain the pre¬
fence of eledlricity are called eleBrofcvpes. As they
are generally employed to meafure the degree of elec¬
tricity produced, they are alfo called eleSirometers, and
by this name we (hall in future diftinguifh them.
The firft eledlrometer appears to have been conftrudl-
ed by the abbe Nollet ; it confifted of two threads of
filk, which, as has been ftiown, recede from each other
on the approach of an eledlrified body. He obferved
the angle of their divergency by its fhadow call on
board placed behind them. Mr Waitz improved
ELECTRICITY. 667
ters, two of which, DD, are filk threads about eight Principlesof
inches long, fufpending each a fmall downy feather at Electricity
64
edtro-
)pes or
idrorae-
65
bbe Nol¬
l’s.
it.
66
tr Gan¬
n’s elec
ometer.
Hil.
-cinf.
)1. xlix.
300.
Plate
by experi¬
ment
.111
Plate
crxxxvm
Histoire a . . . r , ,
/’E/eSn-this eledlrometer by appending Imall weights to the
threads*.
Mr Canton contrived an eledlrometer which is the
foundation of thofe which are now in common ufe. He
got a pair of balls turned in a lathe out of the dry pith
of elder ; thefe he hung by threads of the fineft linen,
and kept them in a narrow box with a Aiding cover,
where they were fo difpofed that the threads could lie
ftraight. When he was to ufe it, he held the box by
the extremity of the cover, and allowed the balls to hang
freely from a pin to which they were fixed-f.
Fig. 15. reprefents a ftand fupporting the eledlrome-
'■xxxviii ters DD, CC. B is the bafis of it, made of common
^ 1S' wood. A is a pillar of wax, glafs, or baked wood.
To the top of the pillar, if it be of wax or glafs, a cir¬
cular piece of wood is fixed 5 but if the pillar be of ba¬
ked wood, that may conftitute the whole. From this
circular piece of wood proceed four arms of glafs, or
baked wood, fufpending at their ends four ele£lrome-
its end. The other two ele£lrometers, CC, are thofe
with very fmall balls of cork, or of the pith of elder ;
and they are conftrufled in the following manner :—a b
is a ftick of glafs about fix inches long, covered with
fealing-wax, and ftiaped at top in a ring : from the
lower extremity of this ftick of glafs proceed two fine
linen threads (m) c c, about five inches long, each fuf¬
pending a cork or pith-ball d, about one-eighth of an
inch in diameter. When this electrometer is not elec¬
trified, the threads c c hang parallel to each other, and
the cork-balls are in contaCl ; but when eleClrified, they
repel one another, as reprefented in the figure. The
glafs ftick a b ferves for an infulating handle, by which
the eleClrometer may be fupported, when it is ufed with¬
out the ftand AB.
Another fpecies of the above eledrometer is repre¬
fented in fig. 16. j which confifts of a linen thread, hav- l6>
ing at each end a fmall cork-ball. The eleClrometer is * Cavallo't
fufpended by the middle of the thread on any conduClor
proper for the purpofe, and ferves to ftiew the kind and vo^' ^
quantity of its eledlricity*. ^
Fig. 17. reprefents the quadrant eledlrometer of Mr Mr Hen-
Henley, one of the mod ufeful inflruments of the kind ley’s qua-
yet difcovered, as well for meafuring the degree of elec-^rant eleG'
tricity of any body, as to afcertain the quantity of a p[gm
charge before an explofion ; and to difcover the exadl &
time the eledlricity of a jar changes, when without
making an explofion, it is difcharged by giving it a
quantity of the contrary eledlricity. The pillar LM is
generally made of wood, the graduated arch NOP of
ivory, the rod RS is made of very light wood, with a
pith ball at the extremity ; it turns upon the centre of
the femicircle, fo as always to keep near its furface ; the
extremity of the ftem LM may either be fitted to the
condudlor or the knob of a jar. When the apparatus
is eledlrified, the rod is repelled by the ftem, and moves
along the graduated arch of the femicircle, fo as to
mark the degree to which the condudlor is eledlrified,
or the height to which the charge of the jar is ad¬
vanced.
Beccaria recommends fixing the index between two
femicircles, becaufe when it is placed over one only, the
eledlricity of this repels and counteradls the motion of
the index. Other improvements and variations have
been made in this inftrument, which will be defcribed
hereafter.
The firft account of Mr Henley’s eledlrometer was
given in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixii. by Dr Prieftley, who
{peaks of it in very high terms in a letter to Dr Frank¬
lin. He confiders it as a perfedl inftrument for meafur¬
ing degrees of eledlricity, but it will appear hereafter
that this is not the cafe.
The fcale in Mr Henley’s quadrant is divided into e- M Ac_
qual parts; but M. Achard has already {hewn that hard’s ob-
when this is the cafe, the angle at which the index isfervations
held fufpended by the eledlric repulfion is not a true
meafure of the repulfive force ; to eftimate which lruly* fcale.
he demonftrates that the arc of the eledlrometer fhould
4 P 2 be
(m) Thefe threads ftiould be wetted in a weak folution of fait-.
668
illultrateil
by experi¬
ment.
69
Mr Ben-
net’s elec¬
trometer.
Plate
Principles of be divided according to a fc.ale of arcs, the tangents of
Electricity which are in arithmetical progreffion.
’ The balls of the ordinary electrometer may be made
of pit/i or of cork, but the latter mult be very fmooth and
well polilhed. They are belt made in a turner’s lathe.
They may be made of any Ihape, provided they are
regular and free from edges. A very convenient elec¬
trometer is made of two long, flender pieces of rulh pith,
made and appended to fhort threads of flax. Thefe
may eafily be hung parallel to each other, whereas in
the ufual ball-ele6trometers the threads to which the
balls are hung form an angle with each other. This
parallelifm of the threads is of advantage, and was con-
lidered of fo much confequence by Lord Stanhope
(better known to electricians by the title of Lord Ma¬
hon) that he was at great pains to fufpend his balls in a
parallel pofition.
Of all the inflruments by which it has been attempt¬
ed to meafure eledtricity, none have been found to an-
fwer the purpofe better than that invented by Mr Ben-
CLxxxvin.net) and which is reprefented in fig. 18. It confifts of
%• 18. two flips of gold leaf a a, fufpended in a glafs cylinder
b. The foot, c, may be made of wood or metal, and
the cap, d, fhould be of metal j the latter being made
flat at top for the convenience of putting any thing up¬
on it that is to be eledlrified. The cap is about an inch
wider than the diameter of the glafs, and its rim about
three quarters of an inch broad, hanging parallel to the
glafs to keep it fufficiently infulated, and to turn off
the rain, when the inftrurnent is employed in experi¬
ments on atrnofpherical electricity. Within this is an¬
other circular rim about half as broad as the former,
lined with filk or velvet, fo that it may be made to fit
the outfide of the glafs exadtly, while the cap may be
eafily taken off- to repair any damage done to the gold
leaf. From the centre of the cap hangs a tin tube
fomewhat longer than the depth of the inner rim, in
which a fmall peg, f is placed, which may be taken
out occafionally. To this peg, which is rounded at one
end and flat at the other, two flips of gold leaf are fatt¬
ened with pafte, gum water, or varnitti. They are a-
bout a fifth part of an inch broad and two inches long,
and are generally made tapering to a point. In one fide
of the cap is a fmall tube, g, to place wires in 5 h, h, are
two long pieces of tin-foil fattened with varnitti on op-
pofite fides of the internal furface of the glals, where the
flips of gold leaf may be expedled to ftrike, and in con¬
nexion with the foot of the inftrument. The upper end
of the glafs is covered and lined with fealing-wax as low
as the outer rim, in order to make the infulation more
complete.
Improve- An improvement on this eledlrometer is to make the
mentof this cylinder pretty long, and to have a fmall additional tube
inftrument. nf gUra ]ac on the end of it. The flips of tinfoil reach
almoft to the edge of the outer rim, and are (harp point¬
ed at the top, widening in the middle and decreafing in
breadth again as they defcend.
Advantages The great advantage of this inftrument over the elec-
of this in- trometers which we have defcribed above is its extreme
fenfibility, which will appear from the following exam¬
ples.
1. On putting powdered chalk into a pair of bellows,
fenfibility. and blowing it upon the cap, this was eledlrified pofi-
tively when the nozzle of the bellows was about fix
inches from it; but at the dittance of three feet from the
ELECTRICITY. Part II]
nozzle, the fame ftream eleftrified the cap negatively. princip|t
Thus it appears that the eledlricity may be changed from Eleftridt
pofitive to negative merely from the circumftance of this '‘lultratec
ftrument.
T 72
Its extreme
ttream of chalk being more widely dift'ufed in the air. ^ experi
It may alfo be changed by placing a bunch of fine wire, ment^
filk, or feathers, in the nozzle of the bellows : and it is
like wife negative when the air is blown from a pair of
bellows wanting the iron pipe, fo that it may come out
in a large ftream •, but this laft experiment fucceeded
beft when the air was damp. There is likewife a re¬
markable difference between the experiments in which
the ele£lricity is pofitive and that in which it is nega¬
tive, the former being communicated to the cap with
fome degree of permanency, fo that the flips of gold leaf
continue for fome time to diverge j but the latter being
only momentary, and the flips collapfing as foon as the
cloud of chalk is difperfed. The greater permanency of
the electricity in the former cafe is owing to fome of the
chalk flicking to the cap when the nozzle of the bellows
is very near it.
2. A piece of chalk drawn over a brufti, or pow¬
dered chalk put into the brufti, and projected upon the
cap, eleCtrifies it negatively $ but its eleCtricity is not
communicated.
3. Powdered chalk blown with the mouth or bellows
from a metal plate placed upon the cap, communicates
to the cap a permanent pofitive eleCtricity. If the chalk
is blown from the plate either infulated or not, fo that
the powder may pafs over the cap, if not too far off, the
eleCtricity communicated is alfj pofitive j or if a bruih
be placed upon the cap and a piece of chalk be drawn
over it, the flips of gold-leaf when the hand is withdrawn
gradually open with pofitive eleCtricity as the cloud of.
chalk difperfes.
4. Powdered chalk falling from one plate to an¬
other placed upon the inttrument eleCtrifies it nega¬
tively.
Other methods of producing eleCtricity with chalk
and other powders have been tried ; as projecting chalk
from a goofe Aving, chalking the edges of books and
clapping the leaves of the book fuddenly together, alfo
fitting the powder upon the cap, all which eleCtrified it
negatively ; but the inttrument being placed in a dufty
road, and the dull ftruck up with a flick near it, elec¬
trified it pofitively. Breaking \\\zglafs-tear upon a book
eleCtrified it negatively, but when broke in water it did
not eleCtrify it.
Wheat flour and red lead produced a ftrong negative
eleCtricity in all cafes where the chalk produced a pofi¬
tive eleCtricity. The following powders were like chalk :
red ochre, yellow rofin, coal afhes, powdered crocus
metallorum, aurum mofaicum, black-lead, lamp-black
(Avhich Avas only fenfible in the two firft methods), poAV-
dered quick-lime, umber, lapis calaminaris, Spanifh
brown, poAvdered fulphur, floivers offulphur, iron filings
ruft of iron, fand. Rofin and chalk, feparately alike,
were changed by mixture ; this Avas often tried” in dry
weather, but did not fucceed in damp \ white-lead alfo
fometimes produced pofitive and fometimes negative elec¬
tricity Avhen bloAvn from a place.
If a metal cup be placed upon the cap Avith a red hot
coal in it, and a fpoonful of Avater be throAvn in, it
eleCtrifies it negatively j and if a bent Avire be placed
in the cap, with a piece of paper fattened to it to in-
creafe its furface, the pofitive eleCtricity of the attend-
ing
Jhap. I. ELECTRICITY.
rincipiesofing vapour may be tried by introducing the paper into
.le&ricity it.
Uuftrated The fenflbility of this elefrrometer may be confider-
,y expen- increafed by placing a candle on the cap. By
m^nt‘ . this means, a cloud of chalk, which in the other cafe
73 only juft opens the gold-leaf, will caufe it to ftrike the
s fenfibili-fides for a long time together ; and the electricity, which
'n"e^ed vvas not before communicated, now paffes into the elec-
[ candle." trometer, caufing the gold-leaf to repel after it is car¬
ried away. Even fealing-wax by this means communi¬
cates its eleClricity at the diftance of 12 inches at leaft,
which it would fcarcely otherwife do by rubbing upon
the cap.
A cloud of chalk or wheat flour may be made in one
room, and the eleCtrometer with its candle be afterwards
leifurely brought from another room, and the cloud
will eleCtrify it before it comes very near. The air of
a room adjoining to that wherein the eleCtrical ma¬
chine was ufed, vvas very fenflbly eleCtrified, which was
perceived by carrying the inftrument through it with its
candle.
No fenlible eleCtricity is produced by blowing pure
air, by projecting water, by fmoke, flame, or explofions
of gun-powder.
A book was placed upon the cap, and ftruck with
filk, linen, woollen, cotton, parchment, and paper, all
which produced negative repulfion ; but when the other
fide of the book was ftruck with filk, it became pofitive 5
this fide, ftruck at right angles with the former, was a-
gain negative ; and by continuing the ftrokes which
produced pofitive, it changed to negative for a little
while ; and by ftoppinj. again, became pofitive. No
other book would do the fame, though the fides were
fcraped and chalked, upon a fuppofition that altering
the furface would produce it. At laft, one fide of a
book was moiftened, which changed it j whence it was
concluded, that one edge of the book had lain in a
damp place •, which conjeCture was farther confirmed
by all the books becoming pofitive in damp weather,
and one of them being dried at the fire again became
negative.
When the cap is approached with excited fealing-
wax, the gold-leaf may be made to ftrike the fides of
the glafs more than twelve times •, and as the fealing-
wax recedes, it ftrikes nearly as often ; but if it ap¬
proaches much quicker than it recedes, the fecond num¬
ber vvill fometimes be greater.
The quantity of eleftricity neceffary to caufe a re¬
pulfion of the gold-leaf is fo fmall, that the (harpeft
points or edges do not draw it off without touching 5
hence it is unneceffary to avoid points or edges in the
conftruftion of this inftrument.
To the experiments on blowing powders from a pair
of bellows, it may be added, that if the powder is blown
at about the diftance of three inches upon a plate which
is moiftened or oiled, its ele&ricity is contrary to that
produced by blowing upon a dry plate. i his (hews
that the ele£lricity of the ftreams of powder illuirg out
of the bellows is only contrary to the more expanded
part, beeaufe it is within the influence of its own at-
mofphere ; for when this is deftroyed by the adhefion
of the powder to the moiftened place, it is negative
when the bellows are pofitive, as it was before pofitive
when the more expanded cloud was negative.
This inftrument is alfo free from an inconvenience
66g
which attends the ele&rometers in which cork or pith Principles of
balls are employed. In thefe, when the balls are elec- Eleftricity
trified, they are very apt to adhere together for fome hluftrated
time before the repullion takes place, and then they
often feparate with a jerk fo as to recede from each
other farther than they ought to do, and thus make
the ele&ricity produced appear greater than it really
is } whereas the flips of gold-leaf in Bennet’s ele£lr(£
meter do not adhere together, and feparate equally and
gradually. 74
This inftrument is, however, not without its defedls, Its defeats,
as the delicate texture of the gold-leaf renders it very
difficult to fatten the flips, fo as to keep them entire,
and alfo prevent the inftrument from being eafily re- ^
moved from one place to another. Mr Cavallo pro- Cavallo’s
pofes to remedy thefe defefls in the following manner : mode of re«
When the flips are cut and are lying upon paper, or “^7^5
on the leather cuftiion upon which they are cut, make^® t“
them equal in length, by meafuring them with a pair
of compafles, and cutting off a fuitable portion from
the longeit j then cut two bits of very fine gilt paper,
each about half an inch long, and a quarter of an inch
broad, and by means of a little wax, flick one of them
to one extremity of each flip of gold-leaf, fo as to form a
kind of letter T. This done, hold up in the fingers of
one hand, one of thofe pieces of paper with gold-leaf
fufpended to it, and hold the other with the fingers of
the other hand j then bringing them near to each other,
and having adjufted them properly, viz. fo as to let them
hang parallel and fmooth, force the pieces of paper, which
now touch each other, between the two fides of a fort
of pincers made of brafs-wire, or of very thin and
hammered brafs plate, which pincers are fattened to the
under part of that piece which forms the top or cover
of the glafs veffel. As thefe gold flips are very apt to
be fpoiled, we Ihould keep feveral of them ready cut
in a book, each having a crois piece of paper fattened
to one extremity, fo that, in cafe of accident, a new
pair of gold flips may be foon put between the aperture
of the above defcribed pincers; and by this means
the ele&rometer is rendered, in a certain manner, por¬
table. 75
Mr Cavallo defcribes an eleflrometer which is nearly Mr Caval-
as fenfible as Mr Bennet’s, and is not liable to the in-Pocket
conveniences above mentioned. It is reprefented ate!e this done, eleCtrify the mug,
by giving it a fpark with an excited ele£ric or other-
wife, and you will fee that the eleCtrometer, whilft it
78
79
EleCtrical
well.
R I C I T Y. Part III,
remains in that infulated fituation, even if it be made principies 1
to touch the fides of the mug, it is not attrafted by it, Electricity
nor does it acquire any eleCtricity j but if, whilft it dluftrated
(lands fufpended within the mug, a conductor (landing by exl)eri'
out of the mug be made to communicate with, or only < raent'
prefented to it, then the eleCtrometer acquires an elec¬
tricity contrary to that of the mug, and a quantity of
it, which is proportionable to the body with which it
has been made to communicate 5 and it is then immedi¬
ately attracted by the mug.
“ If, by raifing the filk thread a little, part of the
eleCtrometer, i. e. of its linen threads, be lifted juft a-
bove the mouth of the mug, the balls will be immedi¬
ately attracted; for then, by the aCtion of the eleCtri¬
city of the mug, it will acquire a contrary eleCtricity,
by giving to, or receiving the eleCtric power from, the
air, above the cavity of the mug.”
This experiment may be made in greater perfection
by employing a globular glafs veflel, with a narrow
neck juft fufficient to admit the eleCtrometer, which
(hould be faftened to a crooked glafs rod, fo that it
may be prefented to any part of the cavity. The out-
fide of the veflel (hould be fmeared with fome clammy
fubftance, as fyrup or treacle, and may be infulated
by placing it on a wine glafs. The balls prefented to
the outfide when the veffel is eleCtrified, will be repel¬
led ; but prefented to any part of the infide, they will
(l)ow no figns of eleCtricity, unlefs touched with fome
fubftance, as a wire, while within the cavity j when, on
being taken out, they will repel each other.
This experiment was invented by Dr Franklin, and
is called by him the eleBrical cup.
Chap. II. Of the diverfities exhibited by the eleBric
power in its paffage from pointed fur faces, and
from obtufe furfaces.
When the eleBric power pajfes between an eleBrifled So
body and a pointed conduBor, a luminous flream is
produced, attended with a current of air from the
point.
Exper. 1.—Fix a metallic point in the prime
conductor, and fet the machine in motion. No crack¬
ling, but rather a hiding noife, will be heard, and a
light will appear as if ifluing from the point, and on
holding the hand near it, a ftrong blaft of air will be
found to proceed from it. On holding another point
at the diftance of about half an inch from the point in
the prime conductor, a ftream of light will be feen paf-
fing between them, attended with a crackling noife.
This current of air will be fufliciently ftrong to turn
any light bodies which are freely fufpended, and in
this way the following pleading experiments may be
made.
Exper. 2.—Cut a round flat piece of cork,
with the edges very fmootb, and flick a number of
fmall crow quills into the circumference, with the fea¬
ther ends as reprefented in fig. 23. ; pafs a needle Pl,at*in
through the centre of the cork, and fufpend this needle
by a fmall magnet m: on holding the cork near the
point,
i n ^Inftead 0^e electrometer, there may be ufed any other kind of fmall conduding body ; but that feems
©eft adapted to fuch experiments. ” J 7
8i
leftrical
jrfe-race.
ig. 25-
82
;le&rical
rrery.
•ig. 26.
lap. IT. ELECT
.jncipiesofpoint, the current of air will make it move round with
jeftruiity grea? fwiftnefs.
Iluftrateii Exper. 3.—Let four arms of wire, with their ex-
,y expen- trernitjes pointed and turned all in the fame direction,
. be Ituck in the circumference of a fmail circular piece
plate of light wood, fupported on a pointed wire, as repre-
.xxxvm.fented in fig, 24. On bringing the wires near the
24‘ point in the conductor, while the machine is in motion,
they will move fwiftly round as before, and in the
dark, a beautiful circle of fire will be produced by the
light iffuing from the points. If figures of dogs, horfes,
&c. formed of elder pith, be ftuck on the points, they
will appear as if purfuing each other, thus forming what
Mr Kinnerfly called the electrical horfe-race.
Exper. 4.—Fix eight bells near the edge of a
circular board fupported on four feet, as reprefented
fig. 25. having a glafs pillar e in the centre terminat¬
ed by a point g. On this point place the pointed wires
ufed in the latt experiment, hanging from one of them
as i/, a fmall glafs clapper by a filken thread j and con-
nefting the apparatus by a chain proceeding from
the prime conductor. On fetting the machine in mo¬
tion, the wire will move round, and the clapper ring
the bells.
Exper. 5.—By this motion of circulating points, we
may in feme meafure imitate the revolutions of the hea¬
venly bodies, forming what is called the eleEirical orre¬
ry. Let a fingle wire, with the extremities pointed
and turned as before, be nicely balanced on a point j
fix a fmall glafs ball over its centre, as o, fig. 26. to re-
prefent the fun. At one extremity of the wire, let a
fmall wire be foldered perpendicularly, and on this ba¬
lance another fmall wire with its ends pointed and turn¬
ed, and having a fmall pith ball w in its centre to re-
prefent the earth, and a fmaller ball of the fame kind
at one of the angles for the moon. Let the whole be
fupported upon a glafs pillar, and be conducted by a
chain proceeding from the prime conduftor to the wire
fupporting the glafs ball. Now, when the machine is
put in motion, the wires will turn round, fo that the
ball reprefenting the earth will move round the central
ball, and the little ball at the angle of the fmaller wire
will at the fame time revolve about the earth.
Exper. 6.—The power exerted by eledlricity upon
elifted by points, may under fome circumftances be made to coun-
heaflion tera(c^ the power of gravitation. Let an inclined plane
be formed of two parallel wires fattened by their extre¬
mities to four pillars of folid glafs, M, N, O, P, fig.
27. fixed in a board, fo that the two at one end (hall
be higher than the other two. Then fix a wire with
its ends pointed and turned in the fame dire£1 ion, at
right angles upon a wire axis. When this axis is laid
upon the inclined plane, it will of courfe roll to the
bottom, but if, when it has nearly arrived there, the
machine be put in motion, the wire will return up the
plane, revolving on its axis.
Exper. 7.— Take a fmall lock of cotton, extended
in every direflion as much as can conveniently be
done, and by a linen thread about five or fix inches
long, or by a thread drawn out of the fame cotton, tie
it to the end of the prime conductor •, then fet the ma¬
chine in motion, and the lock of cotton on being elec¬
trified, will immediately fwell, by repelling its fila¬
ments from one another, and will (Iretch itielf towards
the neareft conduftor. In this fituation let the cylin-
*3
jravitation
>f points.
'ig. 27.
The elec-
•fified CQt_
pn.
ment.
SS
86
R I C I T Y. 671
der be kept in motion, and prefent the end of your fin- principles of
ger, or the knob of a wire, towards the lock of cotton, Eledtricity
which will then immediately move towards the finger, illuftrated
and endeavour to touch it j but take with the other by exP®n"
hand a pointed needle, and prefent its point towards v
the cotton, a little above the end of the finger, and the
cotton will be obferved immediately to (brink upwards,
and move towards the prime condu£tor. Remove the
needle, and the cotton will come again towards the
finger. Prefent the needle, and the cotton will (brink
again.
When the eleClric power pajfes between an elecirijied
body and a conductor whofe furface is obtufe, a luminous
fpark is produced^ attended with an cxplojion, and thefe
appearances are more or lefs Jlrong in proportion as the
furfaces are more or lefs obtufe.
Exper. I.—When the prime condu£tor is fituated in Drawing
its proper place, and eleclrified by whirling the cylin-lparks.
der, if a metallic wire, with a ball at its extremity, or
the knuckle of a finger, be prefented to the prime con-
duftor, a fpark will be feen to iffue between them,
which will be more vivid, and will be attended with a
greater or lefs explofion, according as the ball is lar¬
ger. The ftrongefi and mod vivid fparks are drawn
from that end or fide of the prime condudfor which
is fartheft from the cylinder. The fparks have the
fame appearance whether they be taken from the pofi-
tive or the negative conductor ; they fometimes appear
like a long line of fire reaching from the prime con-
du£lor to the oppofed body, and often (particularly
when the fpark is long, and different conducting fub-
(lances in the line of its direction) it will have the ap¬
pearance of being bent to (harp angles in different
places, exadtly refembling a flafh of lightning.
The figure of the fpark varies with the fuperficial di- Figure of
menfions of the part from which it is taken. If it be the electric
drawn from a ball of two or three inches in diameter,h)ark-
it will have the appearance of a (traight line $ but if
the ball from which it is drawn be much fmaller, as
half an inch in diameter, it will affume the zig-zag ap¬
pearance above mentioned.
We have juft feen that when the eleCtric power paf-
fes from a point to a point, there are no fparks, but a
luminous dream appears; but if the point be obliterat¬
ed, by being thruft back fo as to been a level with the
furface of the conduClor, by being held between the
fingers, 8ic. the fparks will appear as before. gs
'I he length of the fpark, or the diftance through the Length of
air which it ftrikes from the conductor, depends on fe-the fpark.
veral circumftances ; as, the length and diameter of
the conductor; the termination of the furface from
which, or to which, the fpark paffes ; the dimenfipns
of the cylinder ; and the pofition of the conductor.
1. If the conducting body be increafed in length
only, the diftance of the fpark will be (hortened. This
faCt was very eafily obferved by Dr Prieftley. He
found that a fpark from the end of a wire feveral yards
in length, and about one-fourth of an inch in diameter,
was not longer than one taken from a condudor two
feet in length, and two inches in diameter. Signior
Volta found, that when he connected feveral rods, eight
feet long, and half an inch in diameter, fufpended at
the diftance of eight inches from each other, the fpark
drawn from them was not fo long as one drawn from
a conduClor of the fame length, but of twelve inches
diameter.
672
ELECT
Principlesofdiameter. Mr Brook of Norwich eonnefted nearly
Eiedhicity twenty rods of wood covered with tin-foil, near feven
illu ft rated £eet iong^ and three-fourths of an inch in diameter, at
^menT/1" about a foo!; frora eEtcI1 other, fo that the whole appa¬
ratus refembled a large gridiron, which was fufpended
from the ceiling by glafs rods. From fo large an ex¬
tent of conducting furface no fpark exceeding fix inches
could be drawn ; whereas from a conductor eight feet
long, and five inches in diameter, fparks may often be
drawn above nine inches long, with the fame cylinder.
2. If the diameter of the condudtor be increafed in
proportion to its length, the fpark is notfo long as when
it is fiiortened, while the diameter is increafed. A con¬
ductor twelve feet long, and eight inches in diameter,
does not yield a fpark above half the length that may
be drawn from a conductor of the fame diameter, only
fix feet long.
3. The fpark will (trike to a greater diftance, accord¬
ing as the cylinder is fmaller in proportion to the con¬
ductor. A much longer and more violent fpark was
drawn from Mr Brook’s gridiron conductor with a cy¬
linder only four inches in diameter, than from a conduc¬
tor five feet long, and fix inches in diameter, with the
fame cylinder.
4. The length of the fpark is greater from a ball of
moderate dimenfions than from the furface of the prime
coJiduCtor. '
5. The fpark will be longer when the conductor is
placed parallel to the cylinder, than when it is at right
angles with the cylinder.
The found of the fpark varies according as the fur-
faces between which it (trikes are more or lefs obtufe. It
is louder when the fpark is taken from the prime con¬
ductor, than when taken from a ball annexed to it ;
and it is loudeft of all when the fpark (trikes from one
flat furface to another : a ftraight fpark is always louder
than one of the zig-zag appearance. If the fpark be
made to pafs from one end of a glafs tube (clofed at both
ends and very dry) to the other, the found is entirely
huflied,
When the fpark is received by the knuckle, it pro¬
duces a fenfation which is more or lefs painful. It is
more pungent when received from the prime condudor
than from a ball attached to it. The fpark produces
a more painful fenfation in proportion as it is fhor-
ter.
The moft remarkablecircumflance attending the elec*
trie fpark is the light (o) produced in its paflage through
the air. The fparks which ufually pafs between the
rubber of the negative conduftor, through the cylinder
to the points of the pofitive conduCInr, are of a beauti¬
ful light blue colour \ but when the fpark pafles be¬
tween the prime conduftor and a ball of the diameter
of an inch, its edges are purplith, and from thefe diverge
feveral ramifications of a purple or indigo colour. If
the balls between which the fpark paffes are not more
than half an inch diftance from each other, a continued
dream of the moft brilliant light will be produced, at¬
tended with a whizzing noife. If the diftance of the
m CITY. Part II:
balls from each other be increafed, fparks equally bril-prjncj ,1
liant will be produced ; but their fucceflion will be lefsEIeantiij
quick, and no continued dream will appear. illuUrate 1
The light emitted from ele&rified condu&ors is more ^ exPer
copious and brilliant in proportion as their furfaces are ment‘
more extended. If a perfon (landing on an infulating
ftool, and connefted with the prime conductor of a ma¬
chine in motion, hold a flat plate of metal, as a pew¬
ter plate, while another perfon (landing on the floor
holds another plate, large flafties of vivid light will
appear between the plates, fo as to illuminate a dark
room. -
Soon after the cylinder is fet in motion, and fparks Peculiar 1
begin to iflue, a peculiar odour may be perceived ; and0^ourat*j
if the machine a£ls well, this is very powerful. Itisr611^1
difficult to deferibe this odour, but it feems to referable
that of phofphorus.
Chap. III. Of charging and dfcharging the Leyden
Phial; with directions for the conjtruffian of Jars
and Batteries.
fpark.
93
S9
Sound of
the fpark
90
Force of
the fpark.
‘SI 1
Light of the
fpark.
THE eleffric power is communicated to eleffrics with
difficulty, unlefs their furfaces be covered with fame con-
duffing fubjlance ; but it may be accumulated on them in
a much greater degree than on conduffors. ^
Exper. I.—Take a common tumbler or glafs jar, Dancing
and having placed a brafs ball in one of the holes of the halls,
prime condudlor, fet the machine in motion, and let
the balls touch the infide of the tumbler j while the ball
touches only one point, no more of the furface of the
glafs will be eledlrified, but by moving the tumblers
about fo as to make the ball touch many points fuecef-
fively, all thefe points will be eleftrified, as will appear
by turning down the tumbler over a number of pith or
cork balls placed on a table. Thefe balls will immedi¬
ately begin to fly about, thus (bowing the eleftric at-
■ traftion and repulfion illuftrated in (61.). This experi¬
ment is commonly called the experiment of the dancing
balls, and is reprefented at fig. 28. ^ I
Exper. 2.—Let a glafs jar, either cylindrical, fuch asConflruc-
is reprefented at fig, 12. Plate CLXXXVIII. or with t‘on
as wide a mouth as pofiible, be covered on both its in- ^7jen
fide and outfide furfaces to within two inches of the top, p]’ate
with tinfoil faftened on by means of gum water. Theclxxxvi|
jar is then faid to be coated. Fit to the mouth of the % J2,
jar a piece of baked wood, through the centre of which
pafs a wire, whofe lower extremity is terminated by a
number of other wires, which muft be made to touch
the infide coating, while its upper extremity pro¬
jects an inch or two above the mouth of the jar, and
terminates in a metallic ball a. This ball (hould be
perforated fo as to receive a wire fupporting a quadrant
eleClrometer. 96
The jar being thus prepared, let the knob rt com-Method J
municate with the prime conductor, and let it remain
while the cylinder is in motion till the ball £• of the ^arging
eleClrometer (lands nearly horizontal ; the jar is then
faid to be charged. It may be removed from the con¬
ductor
(o) The firft perfon who feems to have obferved the eleCtric light was Otto Guericke. He appears indeed on¬
ly to have had a glimpfe of it *, and the firft who perceived it in any great degree was Dr Wall, on rubbing a
pretty large piece of amber. Yid, Philof. Tranf abridged^ vol, ii.
aap. HI* ELECT
•cplesofdaflor without any effed bting produced lb long as
.ftricity the infide coating has no communication with the out-
jiuatcd
espen- t|iere provided a curved brafs rod, termina-
^nt' , ting at each end in a knob, and furnithed wilh a glafs
handle, (uch as D e f; if now one of the knobs, as e,
be made to approach the ball a of the jar, while the
other knob f touches the outfide coating, a confider-
able explofion will take place, and the jar will lofe
its electricity, as will appear by the ball of the electro¬
meter falling into a perpendicular fituation.
The jar is then faid to be difcharged, and the rod
d e f'm called a difcharging rod.
Ajar or phial of glafs thus conltruCted is, fora reafon
which will prefently appear, called a Leyden jar ox phial.
In this experiment, the jar is not charged to its ut-
moft height. If, inftead of itopping when the index of
the quadrant is nearly at right angles, we periiit in
charging, there will foon appear feveral luminous
ftreams palling from the prime conductor acrofs the
cylinder to the cufhion. Prefently an explofion will
, take place from the phial, and this is called its fpon-
taneous difcharge. If the phial is not very ftrong,
it will probably either be broken, or on examination
will be found perforated in fome part. If the glafs
be very thin, a fpontaneous difcharge will foon take
place, attended with a harfh crackling noife, and the
phial will certainly be cracked. A fpontaneous dif¬
charge happens much more readily when the neck of
the phial is very fmall, and confequently the wire comes
very near the uncoated part of the glafs.
if the uncoated part of the glais be moifl or dully,
the jar will not receive a charge, fo that it is necefiary
to be very careful in cleaning the jar before ufing it.
When the uncoated part is made very hot, the fpon¬
taneous difcharge is much accelerated.
The appearance of the uncoated part of the ^ar, when
the difcharge is made in the dark, is very curious. A
great number of luminous ftreams will be feen pouring
over the edge of the jar from the infide to the outfide.
The force of the explofion depends very much on
the termination of the extremity of the difcharging rod.
If this be terminated by a large ball, the noifi? will be
much greater than when the bali is fmall j if it be ter¬
minated by a fmall obtufe furface, a hilling noife is
heard before the explofion, and this is faint. But if
the rod terminate in a point, no explofion will take
place, but the jar will be filantly difcbarged.
In the above experiment the jar is charged pofitively,
it having been in contaft with the pofitive conduftor ;
but if it be connefted with the negative conduflor, the
jar will be charged negatively. This will be more
fully iiluftrated by and by.
As the accumulation of the ele6lric power by means
of coated jars forms one of the moft important difcove-
ries which have been made in this fcience, we (hall here
relate the method in which the difcovery was made.
Cctmiry -Thi5 difcovery was accidental, and was the refult of
:tie Ley. an experiment made in the end of the year 1745 by
> phial M. Van K’ei ft, dean of the cathedral in Cammin, who
!'h Van fent the following account of it to Dr Lieberkuhn at
Berlin.
When a nail or a piece of thick brafs-wire, &c. is
put into a fmall apothecary's phial, and electrified, re¬
markable effeCts follow *, but the phial mutt be very dry
Vol. VII. Part II.
R I C 1 T Y. ()73
or warm. I commonly rub it once beforehand with a Principles of
finger, on which I put fome pounded chalk. It a little Electricity
mercury, ur a few drops of Ipirit of wine, be put into ihultrated
it, the experiment fucceeds the better. A* loon as ' x,3en*
this phial and nail are removed from the eleCtritying ^ .
glafs, or the prime conductor to which it has been ex-
poled, is taken away, it throws out a pencil of flame fo
long, that with this burning machine in my hand, I
have taken about fixty iteps in walking about mv room.
When it is eleCIrified ftrongly, I can take it into ano¬
ther room, and there fire fpirits of wine with it. If,
while it is eleCtrifying, I put my finger, or a piece of
gold which I hold in my hand, to the nail, I receive a
ftiock which ftuns my arms and Iboulders.
A tin tube, or a man placed upon ele&rics, is elec¬
trified much ftronger by this means than in the com¬
mon way. When I prefcnt this phial and nail to a tin
tube, which I have, fifteen feet long, nothing but ex¬
perience can make a perfon believe how ftrongly it is
eleClrified. Two thin glaffes have been broken by the
fhock of it. It appears to me extraordinary, that when
this phial and nail are in eontaCl with either conduChng
or non-condu&ing matter, the ftrong ftiock does not
follow. I have cemented it to wood, metal, glafs,
fealing-wax, &c, when J have eleClrified without any
great effeCl.
M. Van Kleift communicated this experiment to fe^
veral of his acquaintances, but they all for fome time
failed in their attempts to repeat it. gt
An experiment ot a fimilar kind was foon after made Experi-
at Leyden by Mr Cuneus. Making an attempt ton,e:Dt l)jr
• ^ id- ° . r , . Air cuneus
communicate the eleCtnc power to water, contained in
a phial, in which was a nail, happening to hold his
glafs in one hand, while he difengaged it from the
prime conduClor with the other, when he imagined
that the water had received as much ele&ricity as it
was capable of acquiring, he was furprifed with a fud-
den ftiock in his arms and breaft, which he had not in
the leaft expeCIed,
This experiment was afterwards repeated in the pre¬
fence of M. M. Allamand and Mufchenbroeck with
fimilar refults ; and as it was at Leyden that the expe¬
riment was made with the greateft fuccefs, and after¬
wards improved, it obtained the name of the Leyden
experiment, and a phial fo conftrufted as to exhibit fi¬
milar phenomena, has been ever fince called a Leyden
phial. _ 99
Indeed the pbilofophers of Leyden feem to have Views
fome merit in this difcovery, which with them doeswhlt^
not appear to have been merely accidental. The views1 ”
which are faid to have led to it were as follow. Pro-
feffor Mufchenbroeck and his friends, obferving that
ekCtrified bodies, expofed to the common atmofphere,
which is always replete with conducting particles ot
various kinds, foon loft their eleCtricity, and were
capable of retaining but a fmall quantity of it,
imagined, that were the eleCtric bodies terminated
on all fides by original eleCtrics, they might be
capable of receiving a ftronger power, and retaining * pnVy?/fy
it a longer time. Glafs being the moft convenient EtyE Etec.
eleCtric for this purpofe, and water the moft conve- iOC>
nient non-eleCtric, they firft made thefe experiments1
. . . . rii 1 nripiove-
with water in dole bottles . a,..rjt 0t
For along time water and fpirit of wine were tbei-ejden
only conductors employed in this experiment j but itPhiid*
4 Q. vas
674 E L E
Principles of was fonn found by Dr Watfon, that the experiment fuc-
Eledlricity ceeded better when the outfide of the glals was coated
dhiftr ted fome metallic leaf, as fheet-lead, or tin-foil, while
ij’Vment1 *' t‘ie contained fome water within •, and after this
» t there was a natural tranfition to the ufe of an internal
as well as external metallic coating, and thus the Ley-
I0T den phial was completed in its prefent form (p).
Electrical A number of coated jars having their internal coat-
battery de- ings connected together by metallic wires, conflitute
fen bed. yy}^ js caHe(J a battery. Fig. 14. reprefents an elec¬
trical battery of the moll approved form, containing
nine jars. The bottom of the box is covered with tin-
foil to conneft the exterior coatings ; the infide coat¬
ings of the jars are connected by the wires a b c, d e
g h i, which meet in the large ball A ; a ball B pro¬
ceeds from the infide, by which the circuit maybe con¬
veniently completed. In one fide, of the box, near the
bottom, is a hole through which a brafs hook paffes,
and which communicates with the metallic lining of the
box, and confequently with the outfide coating of the
jars. To this a wire or chain is occafionally connected
when a difeharge is made ; and for the more conveni¬
ent making of this difeharge, a ball and wire, B, pro¬
ceed to a convenient diftance from the centre of the ball
A. When the whole force of the battery is not re¬
quired, one, trvo, or three jars may be removed, only
by preffing down the wires belonging to them, until
their extremities can flip out of their refpeflive holes
in the brafs ball, and then turning them into fuch a
poflure that they cannot have any communication with
the battery. The number of jars reprefented in this
figure is rather fmall for fome purpofss 5 but it is better
to join two or three fmall batteries, rather than have a
fingle large one, which is inconvenient on account of
io2 its weight and unwieldinefs.
.Directions As coated jars form one of the moft expenfive parts
7r co’‘1’°f an eleftrical apparatus, it is of confequence that the
prs anT ° e^e<^rician fhould himfelf be able to adjuft them for
experiment, and repair the coating, &c. when injured.
We (hall therefore give particular directions for the
preparation of jars and batteries. The circumftances
neceflary to be attended to, refpeCt principally the
form of the coated eleCtric, the fubftance employed
as an electric, and the conductor employed as a coat-
ing.
For molt experiments the belt form is that of a cy¬
lindrical jar, in which the mouth is large enough to
admit the introduction of the hand. A phial of this
form is much more eafily coated, cleaned, or repaired^
than one of any other form. Mr Cuthbertfon ufed to
make his jars cylindrical, but now he is of opinion
that it is better to have the mouth a little contracted,
and he has of late always made his jars of this latter
form. For illuftrating the theory of coated eleCtrics,
as we (hall fee hereafter, plates are the moft conveni¬
ent, and they are alfo ufeful in fome experiments.
Dr Robifon prefers bottles of a globular form to any
other, and he commonly employed the balloons ufed in
C T R I C 1 T Y.
batteries.
103
Form of
jars, See.
Part 1!
diftillation, which he fays make excellent jars. The PiinGIpie,
bottles employed for holding mineral acids alfo make Elediici:
very good jars, but they are rather inferior to the bal- ‘l|uftrate
loons, as having very thick bottoms. For ordinary ^-v exl)er'
purpofes, where a glafs houfe is at a great diftance, , ment'
common green glafs bottles or apothecary’s phials
with the mouths as wide as poffible, will anfner very
well.
With refpeCI to the eleCtric employed for this pur-Ele&rics
pofe, glafs is to be preferred on many accounts, and of employed
this the beft kind, as flint or cryftal: but the expence
here becomes a very confiderable objeCI, efpecially as
the jars of a battery are very apt to break by reafon of
the inequality of their ftrength j for it fhould feem that
the force of the eleChic power in a battery is equally
diftributed among all the bottles, without any regard
to their capacities of receiving a charge fingly conlider-
ed. Thus if we exprefs the quantity of charge which
one jar can eafily receive, by the number 10, we ought
not to conned: fuch a jar in a battery with one whofe
capacity is only 8 ; becaufe the whole force of eledricity
exprefted by 10 will be direded alio againft that whofe
capacity is only 8, fo that the latter will be in danger
of being broken. It will be proper, therefore, to
compare the bottles with one another in this refped be¬
fore putting them together in a battery. Befides the
confideration of the abfolutq capacity which each bottle
has of receiving a charge, the time which is taken up
in charging it muft alfo be attended to, and the jars of
a battery ought to be as equal as poffible in this refped
as well as the former. The thinner a glafs is, the more
readily it receives a charge, and vice verfa; but it
does not follow from thence, as was formerly imagined,
that on account of its thinnefs it is capable of contaln-
ing a greater charge than a thicker one. The revtrfe
is adually the cafe j and though a thick glafs cannot
be charged in fuch a ftiort time as a thin one, it is
neverthelefs capable of containing a greater degree
of eledfric power. In fad, if the glafs be thinner
than one-eighth of an inch, the phial will not bear any
confiderable charge. If the thicknefs of the glafs be
very great, no charge can indeed be given it; but ex¬
periments have not yet determined how great the
thicknefs mnft be which will prevent any charge. In¬
deed it is obferved, that though a thick glafs cannot be
charged by a weak eledrical machine, it may be fo by
a more powerful one, whence it feems reafonable to fup-
pofe that there is no real limit of this kind; but that if
a machine could be made fufficiently powerful, glaffes
of any thicknefs might be charged.
Glafs is attended with one confiderable inconveni¬
ence j that it is very apt to attrad moifture, and there¬
fore the jars require perpetual care in wiping before
they are ufed j and this, when a large battery is em¬
ployed, becomes a very troublefome operation. It is
the uncoated part of the jar which is injured by the
moifture, for it is found, that if the coating be moift,
the jar is more eafily and more completely charged.
Eledricians
(p) Dr Watfon was indebted for the hint of a metallic coating to Dr Bevis, who was alfo the firft eledrician
that employed a plate of glafs coated on both fides in performing the experiments with coated eledrics. Hence
the coated plate is often called, efpecially by the continental eledricians, Bevis’s plate, or fquare, le carrea t
de Bevis.
xana.
hap. III. ELECT
nciplesof Eleflricians have ofien endeavoured to find fome
eclticity other eledlric which might anfwer better than glafs for
uftrated purpofe, at leatt be cheaper ; but except Father
expert- geccarja’s tnethod, which may be ufed very well, no
remarkable difcovery has been made relating to this
[0S point. He took equal quantities of very pure colopho-
jftitute nium and powder of marble lifted exceeding fine, and
glats by j^ept them in a hot place a confiderable time, where
they became perfectly free from moiilure j he then
mixed them, and melted the compofition in a proper
veflel over the fire, and when melted poured it upon
a table, upon which he had previoufly (tuck a piece of
tin-foil, within two or three inches of the edge of the
table. This done, he endeavoured with a hot iron
to fpread the mixture as equally as poffible, and to
the thicknefs of one-tenth of an inch all over the table ;
he afterwards coated it with another piece of tin-foil,
reaching within about two inches of the edge of the
mixture in Ihort he coated a plate of this mixture as
he would a plate of glafs. This coated plate feems,
from what he fays, to have had a greater power than a
glafs plate of the fame dimenfions : even when the
weather was not very dry, and if it is not liable
to be eafily broken by a fpontaneous difcharge, it may
be conveniently employed in place of glafs 5 for it does
not very readily attra& moifture, and confequently may
hold a charge better and longer than glafs, befides
when broken, it may be again repaired by means of a
hot iron, whereas a broken plate or veffel of glafs can
feldom be employed agin.
lea very Talc, or Mufcovy glafs, is one of the mod convenient
Dd elec- eleflrics for the purpofes of coating. It is not very
apt to contra# moifture, and will retain a charge for a
very confiderable time.
A very convenient portable phial may be conftru#ed
of fealing wax in the following manner : Procure a
phial made of tin plate, or white-iron (as it is called
in Scotland), with a long neck ; cover the outfide of
this phial with fealing wax as far as the neck, and coat
the lealing wax to within a little of the neck with tin-
foil. In this phial it is evident that the fealing wax is
the electric, of which the tin-foil forms the outer and
the tin-plate the inner coating.
When plates or jars having a fufficiently large open¬
ing are to be coated, the beft method is to coat them
with tin-foil on both fides, which may be fixed upon
the glafs with varnifh, gum water, bees wax, &e. ; but
in cafe the jars have not an aperture wide enough to
admit the tin-foil, and an indrument to adapt it to the
furface of the glafs, brafs-filings, fuch as are (old by
the pin-makers, may be advantageoufly ufed , and thefe
may be duck on with gum water, bees wax, &c. but
not with varnidi, for this is apt to be fet on fire by the
difeharge. Care mud be taken that the coating do not
come very near the mouth of the jar, for that will
caufe the jar to difcharge itfelf. It the coating is about
two inches below the ton, it will in general do very
well ; but there are f >me kinds of glafs, efpecially tin¬
ged glafs, that when coated and charged have the
property of difeharging themfelves more eafilv than
others, even when the coating is five or fix inches be¬
low the edge.
It is much more difficult to coat veflcls of a globular
torm than plates or cylindrical jars j but the former may
-be coated with tolerable eafe by attending to the method
R 1 c 1 t y.
675
: for
iting.
107
sthod of
iting
ites and
s.
of cutting the tin-foil. This ffiould be cut into the pr;ncjpieii 0f
form of guffets, as in covering a globe or in making LltAriaty
a balloon 5 and they thould be patded on, lo as to over- “ uttrated
lap each other about half an inch. After having coat-
ed the fides ot a balloon in this manner, the bottom is <
to be covered with a circular piece of tin-foil. The
thinner the foil, the better it is adapted for the infide
coating j and it may readily be applied by firft palling
it upon paper, and then palling either the paper or the
foil next the glafs.
In coating plates of glafs it is better to cut the tin-
foil into circular pieces, as it is found that a circular
fpace is capable of giving as great a charge to the glafs,
as a fquare coating of the lame breadth, and a ipon-
taneous difcharge does not fo readily take place from
the circular edge, as from the edges of a fquare coat-
ing. iqS
Mr Brooke difeovered, that when jars were coated Mr
with tin-foil firit palled upon paper, they were render-Biooke’s
ed much lefs liable to be broken by the difcharge. As™0^?
the trials which led to this difcovery afford a ufet'ul lef-coat*nlU’
fon to the young electrician, we ffiall relate them in his
own words.
“ In making eleCtrical experiments, and in particular
thofe in which the Leyden phial is concerned, a me¬
thod of preferving the bottles or jars from being (truck
through by the eleCtric power, is very defirable ; but I
do not know that it has hitherto been accomplilhed.
The number of them that have been deilroyed in many
of my experiments, have led me to various conjectures
to preferve them : at the fame time I have been obliged
to make ufe of bottles inltead of open-mouthed jars*
And as coating the former withinfide is very trouble-
fome, it has put me on thinking of fome method more
ealiy, quicker, and equally firm and good, as with tin-
foil. With refpe# to the new method of coating, I
failed ; though fomething elfe prefented itfelf rather in
favour of the former : therefore, introducing the pro-
cefs here will not be of very great ufe ; unlefs in
faving another the trouble of making ufe of the fame
method, or giving a hint towards the former fo as to
fucceed with certainty. My aim was to find fomething
that ffiould be quick and clean, and not eafy to come
eff with the rubbing of wires againft it, and yet a good
conduClor. My firit effay was with a cement of pitch,
rofin, and wax, melted together j into which, to make
it a good conductor, I put a large proportion of finelv
lifted brafs filings. When this mixture was cold, I
put broken pieces of it into the bottle, and warmed
the bottle till it was hot enough to melt the cement in
it fo as to run, and cover the bottle withinfide 5 then I
coated the outfide with tin-foil, aS is commonly done,
and now it was fit for ufe or ready to be charged, to
which I next proceeded j and I believe I had not
made more than four or five turns of the winch, before
it fpontaneoully llruck through the glafs with a very
fmall charge. I then took off the outfide coating, and
Hopped the fraClure with fome of my common cement,
after which I put the coating on again ; and in as little
time as before, it was llruck through again in a differ¬
ent place ; and thus I did with this bottle five or fix
times ; iometimes it ftruek through the glafs in four
diff rent places. This made me conlider what it might
be that facilitated the fpontaneous (hiking through the
glafs, and likewile what might retard it. I had, long
4^2 before,
67 ^
elect
Principles of before, thought that jars or bottles appeared to be
Eie^liiLity ftruck. through with a much lefs charge, jutt after their
illu’tiated coated, or before they were dry, than when they
been coated long enough for the moifture to be
y- ^—„ evaporated from the pafte, with which I moftly lay on
the tinfoil, and could only confider the dry paile as a
kind of mediator between the tinfoil and the glafs, or,
ip other words, that the moifture in the pafte was a bet¬
ter condu&or and more in i&ual con tail: with the glafs
than the pafte itfelf when dry. And the coating the
bottles with the heated cement, though long afterward,
did not alter my former idea : for it appeared as if the
hot cement, with the conducing fubftance in it, might
be ftiil more in ailual contadt with the glafs than the
moifture in the pafte. On thefe probabilities I had to
confider what'might ail a^ a kind of mediator more
effecfually than the dry pafte, between the glafs and
the tinfoil. It occurred, that common writing paper,
as being neither a good conductor nor infulator, might
be ferviceable bv being firft parted fmoothly to the tin-
foil, and left to dry. The paper then being palled on
one fide, having the tinfoil on the other, I put them
on the glafs together with the tinfoil outward, and
rubbed them down fmooth. This fucceeded fo well
that I have never fince had any ftruck through that
were thus done, either common phials or large bottles,
which contain near three gallons each, though fome of
the latter have flood in the battery in common ufe
with the others for a long time. And as I have
never had one ftruck through that has been prepared
in this way, I am much lefs able at prefent to tell
* Brooke's ^0W §reat a charge they will bear before they are
Mifcella- ftrutk through, or whether they will be ftruck through
xeous Expe-&1 all*.”
rintents and The mineral acids ferve very well for an infide coat-
Qbftrva- ;ng to j3rs . their ufe is attended with fome rifk,
from their corrofive quality.
The wire through which the charge is made, fhould
not be lels than the fourth of an inch in diameter y it
fhould be terminated by a metallic ball, at leaf! one inch
in diameter.
If the phials be intended to be frequently removed
from one place to another, the charging wire muft be
fattened fo as to be always fteady in the centre of the
phial. For this purpofe, fome employ a piece of wood,
to fit the mouth of the phial like a lid, but the length
of infolation which feparates the coating from the
phial is thus diminifhed, and confequently, as we fhall
fee hereafter, the phial is more liable to a gradual
fpontaneous difcharge, fo that it is much more diffi¬
cult to charge it. The wire is belt faftened below the
edge of the inner coating, and in this way Mr Cuth-
bertfon copflrufts his jars, the mouth being left entirely
open.
When the phial is not to be removed from the fitua-
tion in which it is charged, the wire may be faftened
to the conductor.
Batteries may be formed either of plates or jars.
A very compendious battery may be made in the fol¬
lowing manner.^ Select a number of plates of the belt
crown glafs that are very flat and thin ; coat them on
each fide with a circular piece of tinfoil parted in
the middle of the plate, fo as to leave a margin fuf-
fieitntlv wide to prevent a fpontaneous difcharge; let
st narrow flip of tinfoil pafs from the circumference of
I
tions.
109
Directions
for fixing
the wire,
310
€onftruc-
tion oi bat
Series.
R I C I T Y. Part I]
the coating on each fide, and lay the plates upon each Pnncipk
other fo that thefe flips may coincide. Let the flips be kleftrk
connected at their ends by a wire which touches
them all ; then if one of thefe flips be connefted bjrtxPe
with the prime coadu6lor, and the other with the > -r- ^ _
ground, the whole may be charged or difcharged to¬
gether. If we wifh to have a number of thefe plates
connected fo as to form a perpetual battery, they
may be cemented by covering the tin-coated margins
with melted pitch, and prefling the plates down on each
other while the pitch is foft till the coatings touch
each other. But if we defire to make ule only of a few
of the plates at a time, and to vary their number, they
may be placed upon their edges in an open frame ; and
when \ye wifli to make a break in the chain of plates,
this may eafily be done by placing one of them at right
angles to the reft.
A very convenient battery may be formed in this
way with coated plates of Mufcovy glafs ; but great
caution is necefiary in the ule of fuch plates, as they
are very eafiiy broken by a fpontaneous difcharge, and
it is not eafy to difeover where the crack has happen-
e^’ . . . . . IIr
Mr Brooke of Norwich conftru&ed his batteries,Mr
which appear to have been very powerful, of green Brooke’s
glafs bottles. Some of them, like that reprefented
the figure, had only nine of thefe bottles ; but when a;
conftruft
ing his bi
»teries.
greater power was wanted, more were added. Jars
would have been preferred to bottles, on account of
their being more eafily coated by reafon of their wida
mouths ; but being lels eafily procured, he was content
to put up with this inconvenience. The mean fize
of thefe bottles was about eight inches in diameter;
they were coated 10 inches high, and made of the
thickeft and llrongeft glafs that could be procured,
weighing from five pounds and a half to feven pounds
each. In the conftruflion of a battery of 27 bottles,
he difpofed of them in three rows ; nine of the ftoutefl:
and belt compofing the firft row, nine of the next
in ftrength being difpofed in the fecond, and the third
containing the nine weakeft. All of thefe were of
green glafs, but not of the fame kind. Some of thofe
which flood in the foremoft row, were compofed of a
kind very much like that of which Frontigniac wine
bottles are made ; and our author remarks, that this
kind of glafs feems to be by much the belt, as being
both harder and ftronger, and lefs liable to break by
a high charge. The fecond and third rows of the bat¬
tery confifted of bottles whofe diameter was from fix
and a half to ten inches, and which were coated from
eight and a half to eleven inches high ; none of their
mouths being larger than an inch and a half, nor lefs
than three quarters of an inch.
All the bottles of this battery, as well as the fingle
ones which he commonly made ufe of in his experiments,
were coated both on the infide and outfide with flips of
tinfoil from three-eighths tothree-fourths of an inch wide,
laid on with pafte of flour and water, at the diftance of
about a flip between each. m
Mr G. Morgan lays down the following requifites, as Mi Mor-
effential in the conftrucUon of a battery. for'tbe^t
1. Its connefting wires Ihould be perfefUy free fromftru(^jon
all points and edges. batteries.
2. The connecting wires fliould be eafily moveable,
fo that when accident has leffened the number of phials*
the
.. „ .
"hap. HI. ELECT
•inciplesofthe number of wires may be reduced fo as to correfpond
;le' "
any particular fubdance, AB is a flat board fifteen fig. 2g.
inches long, four broad, and one thick, and forming
the bafis of the inftrument. DC are two glafs pillars
cemented in two holes upon the board AB, and fur-
nidied at their tops with brafs caps; each of which has
a turning joint, and fupports a fpring tube, through
which the wires EF and ET Aide. Each of thefe caps
is compofed of three pieces of brafs, connect'd with
each other in fuch a manner, that the wire EF, befides
iisr’ *
678
Principles of its Hiding through the focket, has two other motions,
Eledlneity vjz< a horizontal one, and a vertical one. Each of the
by'ex- >erf 'v*res ‘s furnitlied with an open ring at one end, and at
menu the other has a brafs ball 5 which, by a thort fpring
u—~v—focket is Hipped upon its pointed extremity, and may
be removed from it at pleafure. HG is a circular piece
of wood five inches diameter, having a Hip of ivory in¬
laid on its furface, and furnilhed with a ftrong cylindri¬
cal foot, which fits the cavity of the focket I. This
focket is fixed in the middle of the bottom board, and
has a ferew at K ; by which the foot of the circular
Plate board is made tall at any required height.
CLXXXIX Fig. 30. is a fmall prels belonging to this inftrument.
fS- 3°- It confifts of two oblong pieces of wood, which are
forced together by the two ferews, a, a. The lower
end has a circular foot equal to that of the circular ta¬
ble H. When this prefs is to be ufed, it mull be fixed
into the focket I, in place of the circular board HG ;
which in that cafe is to be removed.
Mr G. Morgan gives the following rules for the
confiru&ion and ufe of difeharging inftruments.
1. They fliould be conftru61ed fo as to allow no other
ELECTRICITY. palt j,
for the whole apparatus will be otherwife loofened and Principle
11S
Mr Mor¬
gan’s rule
for con-
ftrudting a
difeharging paflage to the eledlric power, than that of the intended
rod.
119
His difehar
ging rod.
Fig. 31.
circuit.
2. The conducing wires of the inftrument thould be
made to come into contadl with the inner furface of the
coated ele£fric as fpeedily as poflible ; for when ap¬
proaching gradually, part of the charge is taken off pre¬
vious to the explofion, the power of which is thus
greatly diminilht d.
3. The operator fliould not be within the atmofphere
of the conductor at the time of making the difeharge.
4. The difeharging inftrument and the infide of the
charged furface fhould be feparated as rapidly as they
were conne&ed.
On thefe principles the inftrument employed by Mr
Morgan, in his experiments on the conducing power
of various fubftances, is conflrufted, and is thus deferi-
bed by him.
A and B, fig. 31. are two brafs wheels, whofe dia¬
meter is four or five inches; they are conneffed by an
axis, which is made to turn eafily in a collar, fixed up¬
on the glafs ftem DM. The wires DC, and EF, are
ferewed into the circumference of the wheels, but on
fides direftly oppofite to each other. The length of
thefe wires is regulated by the diftances at which the
difeharging rod is fixed from the conducing body, and
their diredlion is perpendicular to the axis of the wheels.
Two other wires are to be fixed perpendicularly to the
planes of the wheels, to the circumference of which
they are ferewed as nearly as poflible, but at oppofite
points, fo that they may ftrike objefls lying in the fame
line, parallel to the axis at the diftance of half a revo¬
lution from each other. The length of thefe laft wires
is regulated by the diftances at which they join the
metallic or other connexion that is formed with the
outfide of the coated phial.
The mode of ufmg this difeharging rod is as follows.
When C is brought into contact with the conductor, it
receives the eleftric power, and conveys it through G
into the outfide of the coated furface. The motion of
C is not flopped by the contact, but the continuance of
it brings E into the fame contafl by which the refidue
of the jar is conveyed through K to the outfide. The
glafs ftem Ihould penetrate deeply into each of the caps,
4
put out of order, by the neceffary rapidity ot the mo- LUa!
tion and the conquaffation of parts attending it. illuftrat
If C, in its circumvolutions, ftrike agamft an im- by txPe
moveable body in connexion with the conductor, it is mei t'
frequently flopped, and then its ball is injured, or a
change unfavourable to the accuracy of the experiment
takes place.
To prevent thefe inconveniences, C, fig. 32. ftrikespj^ j
the ball A which is connected with the brals tube that
penetrates into the conducing fubftance, with an elaf-
tic wire bent into the form of a fpring. The points
and edges of this, inftrument are rendered impotent by
faftening a box to the brafs tube, fo that the ball A
may move backwards and forwards in the hollow of it,
when ftruck by C. The box ftiould be made of hard
wood, and its edge carefully turned and well polilhtd. I20
When a coated jar has been difeharged, either Cautions !
fpontaneoufly, or by a difchargtr, there is ft ill a por¬
tion of the charge remaining, iufficient to give a flight
fliock, as will be found by grafping the outiide with
one hand, and with the other touching the ball of the
wire. As this remaining charge, efpecially in large
jars or batteries, is often fo confiderable as to give a
pretty fevere fhock, it is therefore proper to caution the
experimenter, not to touch the outfide of the jar or
battery, or any conduflor which communicates with the
infide at the fame time.
Every machine will not charge jars equally well, but
the power of charging will depend much on the good-
nefs of the cylinder.
In a battery it fometimes happens, that one or more
of the jars is more apt than the reft to undergo a fpon-
taneous difeharge, and in this cafe, the whole of the
battery will be difeharged at the lame time, although
the other jars, without this accident, would have con¬
tained a much higher charge. I2I
To remedy the inconvenience of fome of the jars in MrNairr
a battery burfting at the time of the difeharge, Mr rn0(*e ^
Nairne propofed that the difeharge Ihould not be madej'j^”1"!
through a perfe£t conductor of a ftiorter circuit than a hatterv
five feet ; and this method he found fo effedtual, thatfrem beii
after he adopted it, he wras able to difeharge a battery bri ken b
for a hundred times without breaking a fingle jar,a ^llcliar
which before was continually happening. It muft be
obftrved, however, as will appear foon, that when the
circuit through which the difeharge is made, is confi-
derably lengthened, the force of the difeharge is alfo
proportionably diminiftied. Hence in many experi¬
ments, where it is neceffary to employ the higheft pof-
fible charge, this method of diminilhing the rifle of
breaking the jars is inadnnflible.
If a Leyden phial, or any other coated elefiric, he in- An infuli
fulated or placed Jo that its external coating has no com- ted phialj
munication with condufting bodies, it cannot be charged. CA,!l 0t |)<
Place a Leyden phial on the infulating ftool, or onchar£e
a wine glafs turned mouth downwards; conned! the
knob of the jar, or its outfide coating, with the prime
condudtor, by means of a chain, and fet the machine in
motion. It will then be obferved that the quadrant
eledlrometer on the knob will foon rife to 90°, feem-
ing to indicate that the jar is charged. On taking off
the connedlion between the jar and the prime conduc¬
tor, and endeavouring to difeharge the jar by means of
the difeharging rod, or by the hands, it will however
appear
lhap.
III.
ELEC T
incipjgs0fappear ihat the jar has received only a very flight
IfCtricity charge, as no confiderable {park will Itrike the ball of
luftratcd tiie difcharging rod, and no remarkable ihock will be
y expei'i- £ejj. gy hand.
_meJlt‘ , If now the outfide of the jar, flill {landing on the
infulator, be connefled with the floor, table, &c. by a
chain, and then charged, the refult will be very differ¬
ent as the jar will then receive its ufual charge.
If ajar be infulated, and one fide of it, inftead of
being conneSed with the earth, be connedted with the
infulated rubber, while the other fide communicates with
the prime conduclor, the, jar will be charged, and per¬
haps in a more expeditious manner.
To make the above experiment in a clearer and more
fatisfadlory manner, place the jar upon the ftool as be¬
fore, and with its wire not in contact, but at about half
an inch diflance from the prime condudlor } hold the
knob of another wire at fuch a diflance from the out¬
fide coating of the jar, as the knob of the jar is from the
prime condudlor, then let the winch of the machine be
turned, and it will be obferved, that whenever a fpark
comes from the prime condudlor to the wire of the jar,
another fpark paffes from the outfide coating of the jar
to the knob of the wire prefented towards it. In this
manner the jar becomes charged.
If inftead of the knobbed wire, a pointed wire be
prefented to the outfide of the jar, the point will ap¬
pear illuminated with a ftar ; and if inftead of pre-
fenting any wire to the jar, a point be connefled with
its coating, the point will appear illuminated with a
brufh of rays which will laft as long as the jar is charg-
123
Hit charge
if a coated
ledric re-
ides in the
deftric.
If the knob of another jar be prefented to the outfide
coating of the infulated jar in the above experiment, it
will alfo be charged.
The charge of a coated jar, or any coated eleBric, re-
fides in the jar, or eleBric, and not in the coating.
Take an uncoated phial, and, for a coating on the
outfide, flick a piece of tinfoil with a little tallow or
bees wax, fo that it can juft adhere to the glafs 3 and
for an infide coating put into the jar a quantity of fmall
(hot or mercury : flop the mouth of the jar with a
perforated cork, through which infert a knobbed wire,
fo as to communicate with the fhot or the mercury.
Then hold the phial thus coated, by its outfide coating,
and charge it by prefenting the knob of the wire to
the prime condu&or. When it is charged turn it up-
fide down, fo that the wire, and the mercury or fhot
within the jar, may fall into a dry glafs veffel 3 then
remove alfo the outfide coating. During this operation
the phial does not lofe its charge } and if the ftiot or
mercury be examined, it will be found that they are not
more ele£lrified than would happen to any other imula-
ted body of equal conducing power, after having been
in contaft with the prime conductor. Now replace the
outfide coating on the phial, and pour into it the fhot
or mercury ; then touch with one hand the outfide coat¬
ing, and with the other introduce a knobbed wire witn-
in the phial fo as to touch the infide non-ele6tric, and
you will feel a (hock, which will prove that the jar
has loft very little of its charge by removing tne
coatings.
The fame experiment may be more conveniently
made by laying a pane of glafs upon a metal plate, and
II I C 1 T Y.
679
covering an equal part of the upper furface with tin-Principles of
foil, having a lilk thread faftened to one of its fides, by Eledliicity
which it may be eafiiy taken off when the glafs is charg- ilamrated
ed, and as eafiiy replaced when required. nient.
This important faft, that the charge in a coated elec- -u
trie r fides in the ekftric, and not in the coating, was 124
afeertained by Dr Franklin. Difcovered
When he firft began his experiments upon the Ley-^^.^
den phial, he imagined that the eh £lric power was all''
accumulated in the fubftance of the non-eleclric in con-
tadl with the.glafs j but he afterwards found by the fol¬
lowing ingenious analyfis of the bottle, that the power
of giving a ftiock lay in the glafs itfelf, and not in the
coating.
In order to find where the ftrength of the charged
bottle lay, he placed it upon glafs j then firrt took out
the cork and the wire, and finding the virtue was not
in them, he touched the outfide coating with one hand,
and put the finger of the other into the mouth of the
bottle, when the (hock was felt quite as ftrong as if the
cork and the wire had been in it. He then charged
the phial again, and pouring out the water into an emp¬
ty bottle infulated, expected that if the force refided
in the water it would give the fliock, but he found it
gave none. He then judged that the eleflric fire muft
either have been loft in decanting, or muft remain in
the bottle, and the latter he found to be true 3 for fill¬
ing the charged bottle with frefh water, he found the
ftiock, and was fatisfied that the power of giving it re¬
fided in the glafs itfelf.
He made the fame experiment with panes of glafs,
laying the coating on lightly, and changing it as he
had before changed the water in the bottle, and the
refult was the fame in both. This experiment is more
fatisfa&ory than the former j becaufe when the water
is poured out of the phial, there ftill remains a thin
coating of the fluid, which might be thought to contain
the power of giving a ftiock.
A charged jar may be gradually difeharged by making 125
a conduBing body communicate alternately with the out-
Jide and the injide coating. I2(j
Experiment 1.—Fig. 33. reprefents an eleftric jar,The elec¬
having a wire, CDEf faftened on its outfide, which is trifled fpi-
bended fo as to have its knob E as high as the knob A.deipiate
B is the figure of a fpider formed out of a piece of cork CLXxxix.
flightly burned, with a few fhort threads run through fig. 33.
it to reprefent its legs. This fpider is to be faftened at
the end of a filk thread, proceeding from the ceiling of
the room, or any other fupport, fo that the fpider may
hang midway between the two knobs AE, when the
jar is not charged. Let the place of the jar upon the
table be marked ; then charge the jar, by bringing its
knob A in conta£f with the prime conduftor, and re¬
place it in its marked place. The fpider will now
begin to move from knob to knob, and continue this
motion for a confiderable time, fometimes for feveral
hours.
This experiment is one of the earlieft that were made
by Dr Franklin and his friends, and is deferibed by Dr
Franklin in one of his letters to Collinfon.
Exper. 2.—Let a coated jar be infulated by pafling
it through a ring fixed upon a glafs ftand, as reprefent-
ed at fig. 34. From the ball a of the wire which com-Fig. 34^
municates with the infide coating fufpend a wire to
which,
CSo ' E L E G T
Principles of which are hung three bells ami two clappers, and fuf-
Elearicity pend a fmiilar wire with the faaie number of bells and
ill aft rated dappers from the ball, b, of a wire, which is made to
by expen- coran3ui}jea(.e tjie oU!f]cle coating. Hang the
■ me'n', chain q to the wire fo that it does not touch the
table, and charge the jar by holding the knob a to me
prime condudfor. While the jar is charging, the bells
hanging from b will ring. When the jar is charged,
remove it from the prime condudtor, and unhook the
chain by means of a wire fattened to a glafs handle,
jand let it lie on the table. If new the ball b be touch¬
ed, the bells which are fufpended from it will ceafe
ringing, and the bells fufpended from a will nug, and
will continue to ring for a confiderable time il not
touched. But, now again, if a be touched, thefe bells
will ceafe, and thofe at b will begin to ring, and thus
each fet may be made to ring alternately, but never
I27 both fets at once till the bottle is difeharged.
Lateral ex- If a jar be difeharged with a dilcharging rod that
plolion. J-jas no eleftric handle, the hand that holds it, in making
the difeharge, feels fome kind of thock, efpeciahy
when the charge is contiderable.—In other words : A
perfon, or any conducting fubttance, that is connected
with one fide of a jar, but forms no part of the circuit,
will feel a kind of fhock, i. e. fome effeft of the dif¬
eharge. This may be rendered vifible in the following
manner. Conned with the outfide of a charged jar
a piece of chain ; then difeharge the jar through
another circuit, as for inttance, with a difeharging rod
in the common way, and the chain that communicates
with the outfide of the jar, and which makes no part
of the circuit, will appear lucid in the dark, i. e. fparks
will appear between the links. I his chain will alfo
appear luminous, when it is not in contad with the
outfide of the jar, but only very near it \ and on
making the difeharge, a fpark will be feen between the
jar and the end of the chain near it. i his eledrical
appearance out of the circuit of a difeharging jar is
that which we call the lateral explqfion : and to make
it appear in the moft confpicuous manner, obferve the
.following method, which is that of Dr Prieftley.
When ajar is charged, and ftands upon the table as
ufual, infulate a thick metallic rod, and place it fo
that one of its ends may be contiguous to the outfide
coating of the jar 5 and within about half an inch of
its other end, place a body of about fix or feven teet in
length, and a few inches in breadth *, then put a chain
upon the table, fo that one of its ends may be about
one inch and a half diftant from the coating of the jar ;
to the other end of the chain apply one knob of the
difeharging rod, and bring the other knob to the wire
of the jar in order to make the explofion. On making
the difeharge in this manner, a flrong fpark will be
feen between the infulated rod, which communicates
with the coating of the jar, and the body near its ex¬
tremity, which fpark does not alter the ftate of that
body in refpeft to ele&ricity ; hence it is imagined,
that this lateral fpark flies from the coating of the jar,
and returns to it at the fame inflant, allowing no per¬
ceptible fpace of time, in which an ele&rometer can
be affefled. Whether this lateral explofion is received
on flat and fmooth furfaces, or upon fharp points, the
fpark is always equally long and vivid.
f
R I C I T Y,
Part II-
Chap. IV.
Principles
Of the method of diftingwjhing Pofitive Eletfncii
and Negative Electricity. iliuitra,6
These ftates of eleftricity are ufually diftinguUhed by :
means of the common pith-ball electrometer. I2j
Experiment.—Set the machh.e in motion, while Pofitive aj
both conductors are infulated, or without connecting'je!;-.t,Ve
either the prime conductor or the rubber with contigu-
ous bodies. We have before remarked (44.), that theed i)y\he
prime conductor was called the pojitivt^ and that toeleftrome
which the rubber is adapted the negative conductor jter-'
that they are fo in theie circumltances may be de-
monflrated according to the explanation given in
note (d).
Oh prefenting a pith ball electrometer to the cylin¬
der whole electricity we have agreed to call pojitive, the
balls will diverge, and will continue to diverge when
brought near that fide of the prime conductor which is
moll remote from the cylinder ; but being carried to
the other conductor, they will inilantiy collapfe j thus
fhowing that the electricity of the rubber is oppofite to
that of the other conductor or of the cylinder, i. e. that
it is negative. This may be Ihown in another way.
The balls prefented to the rubber will diverge with ne¬
gative electricity, but being brought near the other con¬
ductor in this divergent ftate, they will collapfe.
But fliould a more precife method be required to
determine the quality of the ele&rieity of an ele&rified p,ate
body, the following may be uled :—hirft, eledlrify oneCLXXXVi;
of the eleflremeters C, placed upon the ftand fig. 15. fis-15-f
either pofitively, or negatively, at pleafure : touch it,
for inftance, with an excited glafs tube, fo that its balls
may repel, and ftand about two inches diftance from one
another ; then touch the other eleftrometer C with the
eleftrified body, that you defire to examine, fo that it
may be poffeffed of the fame degree of eleftricity : laft-
ly, take either of the two eleflrometers by the top of
the glafs handle, difengage it from the arm of the ftand,
and bring it near the other electrometer-, if then the
balls of one eledlrometer repel thofe of the other, you
may conclude that they are poffeffed ot the fame kind
of electricity $ but if they attract each other, you may
conclude that they have been eleCtrified vyith contrary
eleClricities .and as you know the eleClricity of that
electrometer, which was firft electrified, you will ‘of
courfe know the .electricity of the other electrome¬
ter, i. e. of the electrified body, with which it was
touched.
The above experiment may be alfo made with the
fingle thread electrometers for if they are brought
near to one another, when their feathers are electrified,
they will, if poffeffed of the fame electricity, repel each
other, or, if poffeffed of contrary eleChicities, they will
attract each other. _ 119
While the conductors are thus infulated, if a pointed 9y the
body (as foHnftance, the point of a needle or pin), behSht'
prefented to the back of the rubber, at the diftance of
about two inches, a lucid pencil of rays will appear to
proceed from the point prefented, and diverge towards
the rubber.
If another pointed body be prefented to the prime
conductor it will appear illuminated with a ftar $ but
if
tetp- IV. ELECT
ineiplesofif a pointed wire, or other pointed conducing body,
ledricity be connetfled with the prime condudlor, it will throw
llultrated ouj. a pencjl 0f rays.
)meeX1^n‘ F. Beccaria remarks, that if two equally (harp points
are approached to a prime conductor, they will appear
luminous at only half the diftance at which one of them
would have done.
From this experiment may be learned the method of
diftinguifhing the quality of the eledlricity of an electri¬
fied body, by the appearance of the eleCtric light * for
if a needle, or any other pointed body, be prefented in
the dark, with the point towards a body Itrongly elec¬
trified, it will appear illuminated with a ftar, when that
body is eledtrified pofitively, and with a pencil or brulh,
when it is eledtrified negatively (Q^).
Here it is proper to remark, that when two points
(one of which is connedted with the prime condudtor,
or the rubber) are oppofed to one another, the appear¬
ance of light in both is pretty much the fame. Mr
Wilcke remarks, that when a point not eledtrified, is
oppofed to another point eledtrified pofitively, the cones
of light, which otherwife would appear upon them, dif-
appear $ but that if a pofitive cone be oppofed to a nega¬
tive cone, they both preferve their own charadlerifiic
properties f.
Mr Nicholfon has given us fome valuable obferva-
tions on the different appearances of the eledfric light,
when proceeding from bodies eledtrified or
gatively.
“ The efcape of negative eledlricity from a ball,”
fays Mr Nicholfon, “ is attended with the appearance of
ftraight fharp fparks, with a hoarfe or chirping noife.
When the ball was lefs than two inches in diameter, it
wasufually covered with Ihort flames of this kind, which
were very numerous.
rNichol U When two equal balls were prefented to each
i’s expe-" °^*ier’ an^ one them was rendered flrongly pofitive,
nentson while the other remained in connedtion with the earth,
e light the pofitive brulh or ramified fpark was feen to pafs
oduced from the eledtrified ball: when the other ball was elec-
'dnega-6 *r*hed negatively, and the ball, which before had been
/eelec- P°fitive, was connedted with the ground, the eledlricity
city, exhibited the negative flame, or denfe, ftraight, and more
luminous fparks from the negative ball ; and when the
one ball was eledtrified plus and the other minus, the
figns of both eledtricities appeared. If the interval was
not too great, the long zig-zag fpark of the plus ball
ftruck the ftraight plane of the minus ball, ufually at
the diftance of about one-third of the length of the lat¬
ter from its point, rendering the other two-thirds very
bright : fometimes, however, the pofitive fpark ftruck
the ball at a diftance from the negative flame. Thefe
effedts are reprefented in Plate CLXXX1X. figs. 35,
Plate 36, and 37.
^XXXIX 44 Two condudlors of three quarters of an inch dia¬
meter, with fpherical ends of the fame diameter, were
laid parallel to each other, at the diftance of about two
inches, in fuck a manner as that the ends pointed in
«ppofite diredlions, and were fix or eight inches afunder.
Thefe, which may be diftinguifhed by the letters P and
Vol. VII. Part II.
Wilcke,
340.
R I C I T Y. 681
M, were fucceflively eledlrified, as the balls were in prinoplesof
the laft paragraph. When one condudlor P was poll- Electricity
live, fig. 39. it exhibited the fparks of that eledlricity ‘Huftrated
at its extremity, and ftruck the fide of the other con-
dudior M. When the laft -mentioned condudlor M v 1
was eledlrified negatively, fig. 38. the former being in
its turn connedled with the eaith, the fparks ceafed to
ftrike as before, and the extremity of the eledlrified
conductor M exhibited negative figns, and flruck the
fide of the other conductor. And when one conductor
was electrified plus and the other minus, fig. 40. both
figns appeared at the fame time, and continual ftreams
of electricity palled between the extremities of each
conductor, to the fide of the other conductor oppofed
to it.
“ In drawing the long fpark from a ball of four
inches diameter, I found it of fome confequence that
the ftem Ihould not be too fliort, becaufe the vicinity of
the large prime conductor altered the difpofition of the
electricity to efcape : I therefore made a fet of experi¬
ments, the refult of which Ihowed, that the difpofition
of balls to receive or emit electricity, is greater when
they Hand remote from other furfaces in the fame ftate ;
and that between this greateft difpofition in any ball,
whatever may be its diameter, every poflible lefs degree
may be obtained by withdrawing the ball towards the
broader or lefs convex furface out of which its ftt m pro¬
jects, until at length the ball, being wholly deprtffed be¬
neath that furface, lofes the difpofition entirely. From
thefe experiments it follows, that a variety of balls is un-
neceffary in electricity : becaufe any fmall ball, if near
the prime conductor, will be equivalent to a larger ball
whofe ftem is longer.
44 From comparing fome experiments made by myfelfMr Nichol-
many years ago with the prefent fet, I confidered a point fon’Sk®PPa"
as a ball of an indefinitely fmall diameter, and conftructed The
an inftrument confifting of a brafs ball of fix inches dia-adtion of
meter, through the axis of which a ftem, carrying a fine points is
point, was fcrewed. When this flem is fixed in thellluftrate^'
prime conductor, if the ball be moved on its axis in every
direction, it caufes the fine point either to protrude
through a fmall hole in its external furface, or to with¬
draw itfelf; becaufe by this means the ball runs along
the ftem. The difpofition of the point to tranfmit elec¬
tricity may thus be made equal to that of any ball
whatever, from the minuted fize to the diameter of fix
inches. See fig. 41. A.
“ The effect of a pofitive furface appears to extend
farther than that of a negative; for the point acts like f TW.
a ball, when confiderably more prominent, if it be pofi- TraJ1f- fo,:
tive, than it will if negativef.”
Fig. 42. reprefents an inftrument invented by Mr Mr Nichol-
Nicholfon for diftinguifliing pojitive from negative fon’s inftru-
electricity. It confifts of two metallic balls, A, B, j161.11
which may be placed at a greater or lefs diftance from ing'nlgju "
each other, by means of a jpint at C, on which the tive from”
two branches CA, CB move. Thefe branches are of pofitive
glafs covered with varnilh. A fliort point proceeds ele^ricit-r‘
from one of the balls B towards the other A. If the
two balls be placed near the body which is electrified, fo £„ 4J*j
4 R that
(Q_) The pencil of light exhibited by a point pofitively eleftrified was firft feen by Mr Grey, though the dif¬
ference of the two ftates was not in his time correflly afeertained.
682
ELECTRICITY.
Principles of that the ele&ric power may pafs through them, it may
Eleftiicity be known whether it is pofitive or negative, that is,
illultrated ^vhether it is proceeding_/i'ow* ov towards eleftritied
br)dy. For, fuppofing that the electricity pafles from
A to B, there will be a certain diftance of the balls at
which a (park will pafs between the balls; but this dif¬
tance will be much fhorter when the eleCtricity is paf-
fing from B to A. It is evident that this inltrument
will be of ufe only when the eleClricity to be examined
133 is fufficiently flrong to give (parks.
Appearance The appearances of pofitive and negative eleCtricity
of the light are fufbcj'entiy diftinft in almoft every experiment
on paper, can ^ made wJth the exhibition of eleCtric light.
Paper is a good fubftance for obferving the vifible paf-
fage of the eleftric power. If a ftrong pofitive eleftric
Hream be let fall on the flat fide of an uninfulated ftieet
of paper, it will form a beautiful Jiar about four inches
in diameter, confifting of very diftinCl radii not ramifi¬
ed. Negative ele&ricity, in perfeCUy fimilar circum-
itances, throws many pointed bruflies to the paper, but
forms no ftar upon it. This experiment is by Mr
Nicholfon, and the cylinder of the machine employed
in making it was feven inches in diameter *.
* NichoU
fort's Phil
‘Journal,
vol. ii.
p. 438.
Chap. V. Of the differentJJates of electricity poffffed
by the two furfaces of a charged electric.
THE oppofte furfaces of a charged eleSlric are in op-
134 pofite /tales, i. e. one poftive, and the other negative.
Pofitive and Exper. I.—Infulate a coated phial, fuch as is defcrib-
negative ed in fig. 34. without the bells, and charge it by hold-
ftates of a jng ^ J^nob a to the pofitive conduClor, while the
knob b communicates with the table. When the phial
the ball- is charged, Fold a pith-ball eleCfrometer to the knob
eledtrome- a, and the balls will diverge with pofitive eleftricity, as
ter> will appear by prefenting them in their diverging ftate
Fig- 34- to excited fealing wax, when they will collapfe. Now
hold the balls to the knob b, which communicates with
the outer coating of the phial, and they will diverge
with negative eleClricity, as will appear by prefenting
them to an excited glafs tube.
If the jar be charged at the negative conduftor,
thefe appearances will be reverfed ; the balls prefented
to the knob a will diverge with negative eleftricity,
and prefented to b, they will diverge with poftive elec-
135 tria5ty-
by the ap- Exper. 7.—Fix a pointed wire into a hole in the knob
pearance of£ 0f tbe infulated phial, and fix another wire in the po-
the light. ppjve condu&or. Hold the knob a to the point in the
pofitive conduftor, and on turning the cylinder in the
dark, a pencil of luminous rays will be feen diverging
from the point in the conducdor to the knob a, while a
fimilar pencil of rays, diverges from the wire fixed in
the knoll b.
If the wire is fixed in the negative eondu&or, a lu¬
minous far will appear at each point.
Exper. 3.—Fix a pointed wire into a hole in the
knob a, while another pointed wire is fixed in b, as in
the laft experiment. Prefent the wire in the knob a in
the dark, to the pofitive conductor, and a luminous
far will appear at the point a, while the point at b
throws out a pencil of luminous rays.
If the point at a be prefented to the negative con-
3
136
Part II]
du&or, the luminous pencil will appear at a and the lu- Principles
minousfar at b. Eledfricit
Exper. 4.—Fig. 43. is an ele£lric jar which ferves to ‘Nutate
illuftrate the contrary dates of the fides of a Leyden by^ter'
phial while charging : BB is the tinfoil coating ; C, a
Hand which fuppofts the jar; D, a focketof metal, carry¬
ing the glafs rod EF, a bent brafs wire pointed at each
end, and fixed at the end of the rod G ; this rod is
moveable in the fpring tube N at pleafure : that tube
being fixed by a focket on the top of the glafs rod E,
the jar is charged by the infide wire, which communi¬
cates with the different divilions of the infide coating
by horizontal wires.
Place the jar at the condudlor as ufual; and when
charging, a luminous ftar will appear upon the upper
point of the wire at F, clearly fhowing, according to
the commonly received opinion, that the point is then
receiving the eleftric power. From the upper ring of
the coating B, on the outfide of the jar, a ftream or
pencil of rays, will at the fame time fly off, beautifully
diverging from the lower point of the wire E upon the
bottom ring of tbe coating of the jar. W hen the ap¬
pearances ceafe, which they do when the jar is charged,
let a pointed wire be prefented to the conductor : this
will foon difcharge the jar filently ; during which the
point will be illuminated with a fniall fpark, while the
upper point of the wire will throw off a pencil of rays
diverging towards the upper ring of the coating.
When a charged elettnc is difcharged, the eledlric Courfe of
power paffes from the poftive to the negative furface. the elefl|
Exper. 1.—WTen a jar has been charged at the pofi-
tive conduftor, take a difcharged rod, furnifhed with charge
pointed extremities, and hold it in fuch a pofition, thatfhewn
one point {hall be at the diftance of about an inch from by
the knob of the jar, while the other point fhall be at tj
nearly the fame diftance from the outfide coating. In
this way the jar will be filently difcharged, and if the
experiment be made in the dark, a luminousyPar will
appear at that point which is held to the knob of the
jar, and a luminous pencil at the point which is held to
the outer coating.
If the jar has been charged at the negative conductor,
the appearance of the light at the points will be reverfed ;
a luminous pencil will now appear at the point which is
held to the knob of the jar, and a luminousat that
which is held at the outer coating.
Exper. 2-—Remove the circular piece of wood GH,^^
from the univerfal difeharger, fig. 29.; fix the wires EF, given to
ET, fo that their knobs FT may be about two inches the flam
diftant from one another. Then fix upon the focket of a^tapt
from which the board was removed, a fmall lighted wax- CLXXaxv£
taper fo that its flame may be juft in the middle between ^
the knobs FT. When the apparatus is thus difpofed,
if the outfide of a charged jar be connedled, by means of
a chain or other conducing fubftance, w'ith one of the
wires, and the knob of tbe jar be brought to the other
wire, it will be obferved, that, on making the difcharge
which muft pafs between the knobs FT, the flame of the
taper will be driven in the diredtion of the ele&ric
power, i. e. it will be blown towards the knob of that
wire which communicates with that furface of the jar
which is negatively eleflrified. • . J
Exper. 3.—Fig. 44. and 45. of Plate CXC. repre-
fent a fnaall phial coated on the outfide, about three ^.^.l
inches
:hap. V. _ ^ ELECT
I'rinciplesofincl163 up, with tin-foil ; at the top of the neck of this
ile&rieity phial, is cemented a brafs cap, having a hole with a
illuftrated valve, and from the cap a wire proceeds a few inches
by expert- wjt]1jn phial, terminating in a blunt point. When
this ph:al is exhaufted of air, a brafs ball is to be fcrew-
138 ed on the brafs cap, fo as to defend the valve, and pre-
y the vent any air from getting into the exhaufted glafs. This
.eyden va- phial exhibits clearly the direftion of the eletftric power,
ttUin’ both in charging and difcharging j for if it be held by
its bottom, and its brafs knob be prefented to the prime
conduftor pofitively eledfrified, you will fee that the
eleftric power caufes a pencil of rays to proceed from
the wire within the phial, as reprefented fig. 45. and
when it is difcharged, ftar will appear in the place of
the pencil, as reprefented in fig. 44. But if the phial
be held by the brafs cap, and its bottom be touched
with the prime conductor, then the point of the wire,
on its infide, will appear illuminated with a Jiar when
charging, and with a pencil when difcharging^ If it be
prefented to a prime conduflor eleftrified negatively, all
thefe appearances, both in charging and difcharging,
will be referved.
This experiment of the Leyden vacuum, as it is call¬
ed, is an invention of the late Mr Henley.
Exper. 4—Fig. 46. reprefents an elesftric jar, whofe
exterior coating is made up of fmall pieces of tin-foil
placed at a fmall diftance from each other. This jar
is to be charged in the ufual manner, when fmall fparks
will pafs from one piece of tin-foil to the other, in vari¬
ous directions, forming a very pleafing fpeftacle. The
feparation of the tin-foil is thecaufe of this vifible paffage,
from the outfide to the table ; and the experiment is fi-
m'dar in appearance to that mentioned. If the jar be
difcharged by bringing a pointed wire gradually to the
knob T, the unfealed part of the glafs between the
wire and knob will be agreeably illuminated, attend¬
ed by a crackling noife of the fparks. If the jar be
fuddenly difcharged, the whole outfide will be illumi¬
nated. The jar, ufed in thefe experiments, muft be very
139 dry.
Exper. 5.—Fig. 47. reprefents two jars, or Leyden
ouble jar. placed one over the other, by which various ex¬
periments maybe made in order to elucidate the theory
of eleftricity. Bring the outfide coating of the bottle
A in contaft with the prime condu£tor, and turn the
machine till the bottle is charged j then place one ball
of the difcharging rod upon the coating of B, and with
the other touch the knob of the jar A, an explofion
will follow *, now place one ball of the difcharger
on the knob A, and bring the other ball to its coat¬
ing, and you have a fecond difcharge. Again, ap¬
ply one ball of the difcharger to the coating of B, and
carry the other to the coating of A, and it will pro¬
duce a third difcharge. A fourth is obtained by ap¬
plying the difcharger from the coating of A to its
knob.
The outer coating of the upper jar communicating
with the infide of the under one, conveys the eleftric
power from the condu£tor to the large jar which is
therefore charged pofitively : the upper jar does not
charge, but when a communication is formed from the
outfide of A to the infide of B, part of the ele&ric
power on the infide of A will be conveyed to the nega¬
tive coating of B, and the jar will be difcharged. 1 he
R I C I T Y. 683
fecond explofion is occafioned by the difcharge ol the Principles of
jar A ; but as the outfide of this communicates by con- Electricity
dueling fubftances with the pofitive infide of the jar B,
if the ball of the difcharging rod remains for a little ment-
time after the difcharge on the knob of A, part of the -y—-.J
eleCtric power of the infide of A will efcape, and be re¬
placed by an equal quantity on the outfide from the jar
B, by which means A is charged a fecond time j the
difcharge of this produces the third, and of B the fourth
explofion. 140
Mr Brooke of Norwich brings the following experi- MrBrooke s
ments to prove that the oppofite furfaces of an eleftric,
while charging, are not neceffarily in oppofite ftates of
eleftricity.
“ 1. Let two pound phials be coated with tin-foil on
their outfides, and filled to convenient height with com¬
mon (hot, to ferve as a coating withinfide, as well as to
keep a wire fteady in the phials without a ftopple in the
mouth of them. Let each phial be furniftied with a
wire about the fize of a goofe quill, and about ten
inches long, and let each wire be (harpened a little at
one end, that it may the more eafily be thruft down in¬
to the Ihot, fo as not to touch the glafs anywhere at the
mouth of the phials, yet fo as to ftand fteadily in them.
Let a metallic ball about fix or feven eighths of an inch
diameter be fere wed on at the other end of each wire :
alio let there be in readinefs a third wire, fitted up like
thofe for the phials, except that another ball of nearly
the fame fize as the former may occafionally beferewed
on at the ftiarpened end of it. I fay, inftead of fuf-
pending the phials from the prime conduClor, let one of
thofe above deferibed be charged at the prime conduc¬
tor, and then fet it afide, but let it be in readinefs in
its charged ftate ; then let the other be placed upon a
good infulating ftand, and let the third wire alfo be laid
upon the ftand, fo that its ball, or fome part of the wire,
may touch the coating of the phial. Let the ftiarpen¬
ed end of this wire projedl five or fix inches over the
edge of the ftand : all of thefe being now placed clofe
to the edge of a table, hang a pair of cork balls on the
ftiarpened end of the wire, and make a communication
from the prime condu&or to the ball on the wire on the
bottle : on working the machine, the fliarpened end of
the wire will permit the bottle to be charged although
it be infulated j and if the wire be very finely pointed,
the bottle may be charged nearly as well as if it were
not infulated : I fay, on working the machine, the phial
will charge, and the cork balls will immediately repel
each other j but whilft this phial is charging, take the
firft phial, which having been previoufly charged at the
fame prime conductor in the hand, and while the fecond
phial is charging, prefent the ball of the firft to the
cork balls, and they will all repel each other. This
plainly proves that the outfide of the fecond bottle is
ele&rified plus at the time that it is charging, the fame
as the infide of the firft ; and the infide of both the bot¬
tles will readily be allowed to charge alike, that is plus
or pojitive.
“ 2. Let the fecond bottle in the laft experiment be
wholly difcharged, and charge it again as before (the
firft bottle yet remainingcharged) ; and whilft it is charg¬
ing, let the ball of the firft approach the cork balls con¬
tiguous with the fecond, and they will, as before, all re¬
pel each other ; withdraw the ball of the firft, and fo
4 R 2 long
684 ELECT
Principles of long as the machine continues to charge the fecond bot-
Eleclricity tie higher, the cork balls will continue to repel each
illuftrated 0tJier . [jyj- ceafe working the machine, and the cork
^menTn* balls ceafe to repel each other till they touch, and
* ^ will then very foon repel each other again j then let the
ball in the firft phial approach the cork balls, and they
will now be attracted by it, inftead of being repelled as
above, as in the laft experiment. This alfo plainly
fhows, that both {ides of a Leyden phial are alike at the
time it is charging j and at the fame time evidently
{hows, that the difference of the two Tides does not take
place till after the bottle is charged, or till the machine
ceafes to charge it higher.
“ 3. In this experiment, let both of the former bot¬
tles be difcharged, then let one of them be placed upon
the infulating Hand. Let a ball be put on over the
{harpened end of the third wire, and let it be laid on the
Hand as before, fo as to touch the coating of the phial:
place the other phial on the table, fo that its ball or
wire may touch the ball on the third wire, or any part
of the wire itfelf: make a communication from the ball
on the wire of the firft phial to the prime conduftor :
then, by working the machine, both bottles will foon
become charged. As foon as they are pretty well char¬
ged, and before the machine ceafe working, remove the
fecond phial from the third wire; after the fecond
phial is removed, ceafe working the machine as foon
as poffible ; take the third wire, with its two balls, off
the Hand with the hand, and lay it on the table, fo that
one of its balls may touch the outfide coating of the fe¬
cond phial: remove the firft: phial off the ftand, and
place it on the table fo as to touch the ball at the
other end of the third wire j then with an infulated dif-
charging rod, make a communication from the ball in
one bottle to the ball in the other. If the outfide of
the firft phial be negative at the time it is charging, the
infide of the fecond will be the fame, and making the
above communication would produce an explofion, and
both bottles would be difcharged j but the contrary
will happen, for there will be no explofion, nor will ei¬
ther of the bottles be difcharged, although there be a
complete communication between their outfides, becaufe
the infide of them both will be pofitive. This is a proof,
that confidering one fide of a phial to be pofitive and
the other negative at the time they are charging is a
sniftake j as well as that, if any number of bottles be
fufpended at the tail of each other, all the intermediate
furfaces or fides do not continue fo.
“ 4. Here alfo let the apparatus be difpofed as in the
laft experiment, till the bottles are highly charged ;
then with a clean ftiek of glafs, or the like, remove the
communication between the balls of the firft phial and
the prime conductor, before the machine ceafes work¬
ing : then, with an infulated difcharging rod, make a
communication from the outfide to the infide of the firft
phial } a ftrong explofion will take place on account of
the excefs withinfide, notwithftanding they are both
pofitive.
“ 5. This experiment being fomething of a continua¬
tion of the preceding one, immediately after the laft ex¬
plofion takes place, difcharge the prime condu&or of its
eleflricity and atmofphere ; then touch the ball in the
firft phial with the hand, or any conducing fubftance
that is not ijffulated j then will the infide coating of the
5
R I C I T Y. PartlR.
firft phial, which at firft was fo ftrongly pofitive,„ be in-.pr;nci ,
the fame ftate as the outfide coating of the fecond, hav- Elefldci^.
ing a communication by the hand,, the floor, &.c. with illuftrated
each other $ that is negative,.if any thing can properly ^ experi.
be called negative or pofitive that has a communication. ment'
with the common flock : but a pair of cork-balls that ' ^
are eledlrified either p/us or minus will no more be at¬
tracted by either the infide coating of the firft phial or
the outfide coating of the fecond, than they will by the
table on which they ftand, or a common chair in the
room, while they continue in that fituation. Remove
the aforefaid communication from the ball of the firft
phial j touch the ball in the fecond, as before in the
firft, or difcharge the bottle with the difcharging rod,
and the ball in the firft bottle will immediately become
negative ; with a pair of cork balls eleClrified negative¬
ly, approach the ball in the firft phial, and they will all
repel each other, or if the cork balls be eleCtrified pofi-
tively, they will be attra&ed. All thefe circumftances
together ferve fully to prove what has already been faid,
not only that the infide of the firft phial, which was fo
ftrongly pofitive, may be altered fo as to become.in the
fame ftate as the outfide of the fecond, without dif¬
charging the phial, or any more vvorking the machine;
but that it may be fairly changed from being pofitively
charged to being negatively charged. If a pair of cork
balls are now hung on to the ball of the wire in this
phial, by the help of a flick of glafs, they will repel each
other, being negatively ele&ritied. Make a communn.
cation from the outfide of the bottle to the table, and
replace the communication from the prime conductor to
the ball in the bottle ; then, upon moderately working
the machine to charge the bottle, the cork balls will
ceafe to repel each other till they touch, and will .foon* I
repel each other again by being eltdrified pofitively. MifceUcme*
Here the working the machine anew, plainly {hows thal ouj Expert*
the infide of the firft bottle, which was pofitive, wasmentst
likewife changed to negative *.,r c^aP‘ 3*
The following obfervations and experiments on the Milner's
Leyden phial, are taken from a little work by Dr Tho-obfem,
mas Milner- tions and
An ele&ric power communicated to any infulated
conducing fubftance has been named fimple eledlrifica-^e Leydei
tion, in order to diftinguifli this particular date from phial
that of the charged phial : but it will appear whether
this diftinftion ought to be retained or not, by taking
a comparative view of both thefe cafes. And, if the
changes which an electrical power in general is capable
of making in the eleCtrical ftate of any fubftance con¬
tained within the fphere of its influence, be taken into
confideration, and compared with thofe which have
been obferved in the charged phial, it is apprehended
that they will not appear to be different in any material
circumflance.
I. In the charged phial, when the infide has either ^
kind of eleClricity communicated to it, the outfide is
found to poffefs a contrary power., it appears alfo that
either kind of eleCtricity always produces the other on
any conducting fubitance placed within the fphere of
influence. And as the fame effect is alfo produced on
eleCtrics themfelves, in the fame fituation, and as feme
portion of the air, fuppofing no other fubftance. to be
near enough, muft be unavoidably expofed to fuch in¬
fluence, it necefiarily follows, that neither power can
exift
nap. V.
i lesofexift without the other j and, therefore, in every pofli-
] ftncity ble cafe, poiitive and negative eleftricity are infeparably
iftrated united.
expen- ^ phial cannot be fully charged in any way by
, ■ which the outfide acquires a contrary eleftricity, unlefs
the external coating has a communication by fome con¬
ductor with the earth. In the fame manner a full charge
of the contrary eleftricity cannot readily be procured
without a fimilar communication.
III. In both cafes the interpofition of an eleftric bo¬
dy between the contrary powers is abfolutely necef-
fary. In one cafe that body is glafs, in the other it is
air j and the experiment will not fucceed in either, un¬
lefs both the glafs and the air be tolerably free from
moitlure.
IV. It appears that the influence of eleCIricity aCls in
the fame manner through glafs as it does through the
air, and produces a contrary power in both cafes.
V. A communication of the eledtric power is more
eafily made through the fluid yielding fubftance of the
air than through glafs, which is fo hard and folid a bo¬
dy, as to require a very confiderable degree of power to
feparate its component particles: this, however, fome-
times happens, and a hole is made through the glafs it-
felf, without defign, in attempting to charge a very thin
phial as high as poflible, in the moft favourable flate of
the atmofphere.
VI. A conducing body receives the ftrongeft charge
of the contrary eleCIricity, when it is brought as near
as poflible to the eleClric power, without being in the
communicating diflance. And it is well known that the
thinneft phial, if it be ftrong enough to prevent a com¬
munication between the two iurfaces, will always receive
the higheft charge.
VII. The ele&ricity of the external furface of the
charged phial cannot be deftroyed; fo long as the inter¬
nal furface remains in force, and continues to exert its
influence through the glafs •, becaufe this influence was
the caufe of the contrary eleftricity on the external fur¬
face, and muft therefore preferve it.
VIII. If part of the courfe which the ele&ric power
takes in difcharging a phial be through the air, a fmall
part of the charge will always remain •, becaufe the whole
of the redundancy on one furface is not capable of for¬
cing a paflage through the refilling medium of the air,
in order to fupply the deficiency on the other furface.
But if every part of the circuit, from the internal to the
external coating, confifts of the bell eondu6tors, and if
the coated furfaces be nearly equal, and dire&ly oppo¬
site to each other, the phial will then appear to have re¬
tained no part of the charge*, fo far as it is covered with
tin-foil *, but the parts of it above the coating on both
fides will, however, Hill retain the contrary ele&ricities,
after the circuit has been completed. A refidue of the
charge may alfo be obferved in every other inftance of
ele&rification, in which the degree of ele&iicity is
fufficient to force a communication between the elec¬
trified body and a condu&or not infulated, through a
fmall portion of the air : and if the experiment be care¬
fully made, it will appear, that the whole of the re¬
dundancy is not capable of palling through the refilling
intermediate air, in any cafe, and therefore a part of the
charge mud always remain. But here it will be pro¬
per to examine-more particularly the nature of the
charged glafs.
685
When a plate of coated glafs has been charged, and prindplesof
the circuit between the coatings has been completed, Electricity
by the mediation of a good conducing fubftance, no dluftrated
part of the coated furface is fuppofed to retain any part
of the charge j but, according to the commonly receiv- ■
ed dodlrine, the whole of it is faid to be difcharged j or 143
in other words, to be brought into its natural Hate,
This, however, is not really the cafe, as will evidently
appear from tbe following experiment j the defign of
which is to Ihow the eflfefts produced by charging and
difcharging a plate of glafs.
Let the middle of a piece of crown window glafs,.
feven inchesfquare, be placed between two circular plates
of brafs, about the 16th part of an inch thick, and five
inches in diameter. In order to enable thefe plates to
retain a greater degree of power, it will be proper to
terminate each of them with a round bead the third part
of an inch thick ; and the whole of the head Should
be formed on one fide of the plate, that the other fide
may remain quite flat, and apply well to the furface of
the glafs. Let the whole be infulated about four inches
above the table, and in a horizontal pofition, by fatten¬
ing one end of a cylindrical piece of fome good infula-
ting fubftance to the middle of the under plate, the
other end of it being fixed in any convenient ftand. Let
a like infulating ftem be fattened to the middle of the
upper plate. Let a brafs chain, which may eafily be re¬
moved, reach from the under plate to the table. In the
laft place bend a piece of brafs wire into fuch a ftiape,
that it may ftand perpendicularly on the upper plate j
and let the upper extremity of this wire be formed into
a hook, that it may be removed at any time by the aflift-
ance of a filk ftring, without deftroying the infulationof
the plate.
The glafs being thus coated with metal on both fides,
and having alfo a proper communication with the table,
will admit of being charged ; and both coatings may
be feparated from the glafs, and examined apart, with¬
out deftroying the infulation of either : for the upper
coating may be feparated by the means of its own pro¬
per ftem *, and the under coating may be feparated by
taking hold of the corners of the glafs, and lifting the
glafs itfelf. As glafs readily attradls moifture from the
atmofphere, it will therefore be neceflary to warm it in
the beginning, and to repeat it feveral times in the
courfe of the experiment, unlefs the air (hould be very
dry.
Excite a fmooth glafs tube, of the common fize, by 144
rubbing it with filk, and apply it repeatedly to the bent
wire, until the glafs be well charged. Then remove the
chain, which reaches from the lower plate to the table,
and alfo the* charging wire from the upper plate, by lay¬
ing hold of its hook with a filk ftring. It neceflarily
follows, from confidering the quality of the power em¬
ployed in the prefent cafe, that the upper furface of the
glafs, together with the upper coating, muft be electri¬
fied pofitively • and that the under furface and coating
muft be electrified negatively ; but as it is defigned in
this experiment to examine the powers of charged glafs,
that no virtue may be imputed to the glafs but what
really belongs to it, let both coatings be ieparated from
it ; and after they have been brought to their natural
ftate, by touching them with a conducting body not in-
fulated, let the glafs be replaced between them; and
whatever effects may be now produced muft be afcribed
folely
ELECTRICITY,
686
ELECTRICITY.
MS
Principlesof folely to the powers o£ the charged glafs. On bring-
Eledh'icity Jng a finger near the upper coating, a fmall eleftrical
illuftrated appear between the coating and the finger,
attended with a fnapping noife. Apply a finger in the
t...—v-», i fame manner to the under coating, and the fame thing
will happen. This effect cannot be produced twice,
by two fucceeding applications to the fame coating $
but it may be repeated feveral hundred times over, in
a favourable ftate of the atmofphere, by alternate ap¬
plications to the two coatings; and the powers of the
glafs will be thus gradually weakened.
This part of the experiment may be explained, by
obferving that the contrary eleflricities have a natural
tendency to produce and to preferve each other, on the
oppofito fides of a plate of glafs j and therefore, the in-
creafe or decreafe of power, on the other fide : and as
in charging a plate of glafs pofitively, no gradual addi¬
tion of eledhic matter can be made on the upper furface,
without a proper conveyance for a proportionable part
to pafs away from the lower furface ; fo in this method
of difcharging it, theeleflric power cannot be gradually
taken away from the upper furface, without adding a
proportionable part to the under furface : one operation
is the reverfe of the other, and fo are the effeils ; one
cafe being attended with an increafe and the other with
a decreafe of power.
Let the glafs be again fully charged, and after bring¬
ing both coatings to their natural ftate, as before, let
the glafs be replaced between them ; and on touching
the upper coating with a finger, and then feparating it
from the upper and pofitive furface of the glafs by the
infulating item, this coating will require a weak nega¬
tive power, which will be fufficient to produce a fmall
fpark while the glafs is in full force, though after the
power of the glafs has been reduced, it will give little
or no fpark : but in both cafes, on touching the coat¬
ings alternately two or three times, the negative power
of this coating, when feparated from the pofitive furface
of the glafs, will be fo confiderably increafsd, as to pro¬
duce ftrong negative fparks.—This effeft may now be
repeated feveral times, by only touching the upper coat¬
ing, but the fparks will grow weaker every time $ and
they may be reftored again to nearly their former
ftrength, by alternate applications to both coatings, as
before. The fame things will alfo happen to the under
coating, in the fame circumftances j but with this differ¬
ence, that the power of the under coating, on being
feparated from the under and negative furface of the
glafs, will be pofitive. And thus a long fucceflion of
both pofitive and negative fparks may be produced in
favourable weather, or at any time by keeping the glafs
moderately warm.
It appears from this part of the experiment, that each
of the furfaces of the charged glafs has a power of pro¬
ducing a contrary electricity in the coating in contact
■with it, by a momentary interruption of the infulation.
It neceffarily follows, in producing thefe effeCts, that
more'eleCtrical matter muft have paffed away from the
upper coating, at the time of touching it, than the fame
coating could receive from the upper furface of the glafs;
and therefore the upper coating, by lofing fome of its
natural quantity, will be negatively eledlrified; and alfo
that more eleCtric matter muft have been' added to the
under coating at the time of touching it, than the under
Jurface of the glafs could receive from it; and therefore
Part III
the under coating, by receiving fome addition to its na-pr;nci, 1
tural quantity, will be pofitively eleftrified. It appears Eledtriciti
further, that the greateft degree of this influential power, Muftrated
which may be confiftent with the circumftances of the by exPeri'
cafe, will be produced in either coating by taking care. mw‘
at the fame time to bring the oppofite coating into a ^
like ftate of influential eledricity: and thus it is evident,
that the influential powers of the two coatings have the
fame relation to each other, as the contrary powers of the
glafs itfelf, and will therefore always increafe or decreafe
together.
The glafs being again well charged, as at firft, let a 146
brafs wire bent in the form of a ftaple be brought in¬
to contad with the upper and lower coating at the
fame time. By this the common difcharge will be
made: but the equilibrium of the coated glafs will be
only reftored in part ; for a conliderable degree of at-
tradion will happen at the fame time between the up¬
per coating and the glafs, which has frequently been
ftrong enough to lift a piece of plate glafs weighing
ten ounces. Neither coating will now fhow the leaft
external fign of eledricity while it is in contad with
the glafs: but on feparating either of them from
it, if care be taken to preferve their infulations, the
upper coating will be ftrongly eledrified negatively^
and the under coating will be ftrongly eledrified pofi¬
tively. Let then both coatings be brought to their
natural ftate, by touching them when feparated from
the glafs, with a conduding body not infulated, and
let the glafs be replaced between them as before. In
this ftate of things, on touching the upper coating only,
and feparating it from the glafs, it will not be capable
of giving any fpark; but on touching the coatings alter¬
nately five or fix times, it will then give a weak fpark:
and this may now be repeated feveral times by' only
touching the upper coating: but on a fecond applica¬
tion of the bent wire to both coatings at the fame time,
a fecond difcharge may be perceived, though much
weaker than the firft, and the coatings will be again
brought into the fame eledrical ftate as immediately
after the firft difcharge. This may frequently be re¬
peated ; and a confiderable number of ftrong negative
fparks may be taken from the coating when it is fe¬
parated from the pofitive furface of the glafs. If the
glafs in replacing it between the two plates be turn¬
ed upfide down, the eledrical powers of both coatings
will be changed by the next application of the dif¬
charging wire to complete the circuit; and a fucceflion
of ftrong pofitive fparks may be taken from the coat¬
ing when it is feparated from the negative furface of
the glafs.
It appears from this part of the experiment, that
the coated part of the charged glafs was not brought
into its natural ftate by completing the circuit be¬
tween the coatings, but that it ftill retained a degree
of permanent eledricity ; that the powers of both coat¬
ings were adually changed at the time of the firft dif¬
charge ; and that a fucceftion of the fame powers may
be produced in the coatings, without renewing the leaft
application of eledricity to the glafs itfelf.
The whole quantity of eledric power added to the 147
glafs in charging it, is evidently diftinguifhed into two
parts in this experiment. The firft part, which is by
far the moft confiderable, appears to have been readily
communicated from one furface of the glafs to the
other,
lent.
(iap. V. ELECT
f ciplesof0^iei*» along the bent wire, when it was firft brought
j ftncity into contaft with both coatings at the fame time. The
j urated feC0nd part of the charge appears to be more perma-
s*P*rI' nent, and remains ftill united with the glafs, notwith-
llanding the circuit has been completed (r). This
permanent eledlricity, as well as the other, muft be po-
fitive on the upper furface, and negative on the lower
furface : becaufe, in the prefent experiment, the charge
was given by a fmooth glafs tube excited with a filk.
rubber. Now, the influence of the oppofite and per¬
manent powers on the different fides of the glafs (each
fide having a tendency to bring the coating in con¬
tact with it into a flate of eleftricity contrary to its
own) muff aflill each other, in caufing part of the elec¬
tric matter naturally belonging to the upper coating to
pafs away from it to the under coating, along the dif-
charging wire, and at the fame time the furcharge to
pafs the fame way. The upper coating, therefore, by
lofing fome part of its natural quantity, muff be nega¬
tively eleftrified $ and the under coating, by receiving
an addition to its natural quantity, muff be pofitively
ele&rified. The whole quantity of eleftric matter,
which the influence of the permanent ele
foon iflue from the ball and fet fire to the fpirtts. ——v ■
This experiment fucceeds in the very lame manner,
whether the condudlor is electrified pofuively or nega¬
tively, i. e. whether the (park be made to come trotii
the conductor or from the fpoon ; it being only in ton-
fequence of the rapid motion of the fpark that the Ipirits
are kindled.
It will be perhaps fcarcely neceffary to remark, that
the more inflammable the Ipirits are, the more proper
they will be for this experiment, as a fmaller fpark will
be fufficient to inflame them ; therefore re&ified fpirit
of wine is better than common proof fpirit, and aether
is better than either.
This experiment may be varied different ways, and
may be rendered very agreeable to a company of fpec-
tators. A perfon, for inftance, ttanding upon an elec¬
tric ftool, and communicating with the prime conduc¬
tor, may hold the fpoon with the fpirits in his hand,
and another perfon, {landing upon the floor, may fet
the fpirits on fire, by bringing his finger within a fmall
diftance of it. Inftead of his finger he may fire tha
fpirits with a piece of ice ; when the experiment will
feem much more furprifing. If the fpoon is held by
the perfon Handing upon the floor, and the infulated
perfon brings fome conducing fubttance over the fur¬
face of the fpirit, the experiment fucceeds as well.
Mr Winekler fays, that oil, pitch, and fealing-wax,
might be lighted by ele&ric fparks, provided thofe
fubftances were firft heated to a degree next to kind¬
ling. To thefe it mull be added, that Mr Gralath
fired the fmoke of a candle jutt blown out, and light¬
ed it again j and that Mr Boze fired gunpowder, melt-
imr it in a fpoon, and fired the vapour that rofe trom
•j. * * PriefUeJ)
This experiment will fucceed better with a charged
jar. > 160
Exper. 3. To fire hydrogenous gas.— Provide a bot- fire hy¬
lic of ftrong glafs with two necks, as a, fig. 48. Let a drogetioiis
brafs cap be fitted to each neck c, d; one of which
is furnilhed with a cock, and through the other c, . XG#
a glafs tube j x is parted, containing a wire projecting fig. 4i.
beyond the tube at one end, which is terminated by a
knob //, while the other paffiqg within the bottle turns
round fo as to come within an inch of the brafs through
which the glafs tube partes. The bottle being thus
prepared, fill it with water, and throw up into it equal
parts of hydrogen gas and common air, or three parts
of hydrogen and one of oxygen gas ; fix in the cork,
and {hake the bottle fo as to mix the gafes well toge¬
ther. Then bring the knob #, near the knob of a
charged jar, or a ball of the prime conduClor, and the
hydrogen will be inflamed with a loud report.
In general the cork will be forced out by the explo-
fion ; but if this ftiould not be the cafe, an opportunity
is afforded of proving that the gafes have difappeared,
and water has been produced by the experim- nt. On
taking out the cork below the furface of water, the
water will rufli in, and fill the bottle, thus {hewing that
the gafes have difappeared.
To prove the produClion of water, it is neceffary
that the bottle ffiould have been filled with mercury
48a befer*
ELECTRICITY.
692
ELECTRICITY.
Principlesofbefore the gafes were introduced. In both cafes drops
Electricity of water will appear within the bottle after the report j
illuftiatecl kut wiiere Water has been enaployed in introducing the
^inenT.H ga^es> this teftimony is more equivocal than when no
«—n,—i water has been ufed.
* Phil. The firlt perfon who fired inflammable bodies by the
Tranf.Ah,^ fpark, was Dr Ludolf of Berlin, in 1774, who,
+°Njllet's fparks excited by the friftion of a glafs tube, kin-
Refearches,^^- the ethereal fpirits of Frobenius *. Mr Gordon
98.
161
Inflamma¬
ble air
lamp.
Plate
cxo.
fig. 49.
162
To fire gun¬
powder.
Fig- 5°*
oi Erturd, produced fo ftrong a fpark from the back
of a cat, as to fire fpirit of wine -f-.
Exper. 4. —It has been propofed by Sig. Volta to
apply the burning of hydrogen gas to economical pur-
pofes, in what he called the inflammable air lamp.
A, fig. 49. is a glafs globe for containing the gas $
B a glafs bafon or refer voir for holding water j D a
cock to form a communication between the water and
the gas. The water pafles into the globe through the
metal pipe^j-, which is fixed to the upper part of the
refervoir A j at r is a cock to cut off or open a com¬
munication between the air and the jar K. N is a
fmall pipe to hold a piece of wax taper ; L a brafs
pillar, on the top of which is a ball of the fame metal j
o, is a pillar of glafs with a focket at the top, in which
Aides the wire b, having a ball fcrewed on the end of
it. F, is-a cock by which the globe is filled with hy¬
drogen gas, and which afterwards ferves to confine the
gas and what water falls from B into A.
To ufe this inftrument, having filled the globe with
gas, and the refervoir A with water, turn the cocks D
and j, and water will fall into the globe, forcing up a
quantity of gas, which will rife through the pipe K.
If now an eleftric fpark be made to pafs from the ball
m to that marked tf, it will fet fire to the inflammable
gas which paffes through the pipe K. To extinguilh
the lamp, firft Ihut the cock r, and then D.
The gas is obtained in the ufual way from diluted
fulphuric acid and iron filings, and the globe is to be
filled in the following manner. Having previoufly fil¬
led it with water, place tire foot A in a tub of water
fo that it may be covered, and that the bent glafs tube
through which the gas is to be introduced, may pafs
commodioufly below the foot. When the gas has dri¬
ven out nearly all the water, turn the cock F, and the
lamp is ready for ufe.
Exper. 5. To flre gunpowder.—Fix a fmall cartridge
on a metallic wire whit h is fitted to a glafs or wooden
handle ; make a communication between the wire and
the ground ; then prefent the cartridge to the knob of
a charged Leyden phial, and the gunpowder will be
fired.
Fig. 50. reprefents a fmall cannon, with an ivory touch-
hole fitted with a brafs pin furniflied with a round head.
Gunpowder may be fired from this cannon by the elec¬
tric fhock, in the following manner. Charge the can¬
non uith gunpowder as ufual j then fill the touch-hole
with powder, ram it well down, and pufli into it the
brafs pin fo that its end may be near the bottom of the
hole. Now mak a communication between the outfide
of a large charged jar, or a battery, and the body of the
cannon ; then, placing one ball of a difeharging rod
on the head of the pin, \Vhich paffes down the touch-
hole of the cannon, and bring the other to the knob of
the jar, and the difcharge will fire the cannon.'
The ele£lric fpark decompofes mofl of the compound
4 «
Part II]
gafes, and forms new compounds with their component Principles
principles. _ Elearich
The firft who examined the a£lion of ele&ricity on dluftratei
the gafes, was Dr Prieftley. In the courfe of his ex- by exPer
periments on air, he found that by means of the elec- m^nt^
trie fpark, he could convert the blue colour of a vege- 163
table infufion into red. The inftrument ufed in this ex- Adtionofj
periment, was a glafs tube about four or five inchesthe ele reprefented in fig. 53. con-
fifting of a tube AB of a fmall bore, a ball C, and a
tube DE of a larger bore. This apparatus^ was firft
filled with quickfilver, and then the baft C and the
tube AB were filled with air, by introducing the end
A under a glafs inverted into water, which contained
the proper kind of air, and drawing out the quickfilver
from the leg ED by a fiphon. After being thus fur-
niftied with air, the apparatus was weighed, and the
end A introduced into one end of the tube M, and
I CIT Y. 693
kept there during the experiment; the way of forcing principles of
air out of this apparatus into the tube, being by thruft- EleAricity
ing down the tube ED a wooden cylinder, of fuch a
fize as almoft to fill up the whole bore, and by occa- ment.
fionally pouring quickfilver into the fame tube, to fup-
ply the place of that puftied into the ball C. After
the experiment was finiftied, the apparatus was weighed
again, which {hewed exa&ly how much air had been
forced into the tube M, during the whole experiment j
it being equal in bulk to a quantity of quickfilver,
whofe weight was equal to the increafeof weight of the
apparatus.
The bore of the tube M ufed in moft of the follow¬
ing experiments, was about one-tenth of an inch $ and
the length of the column of air, occupying the upper
part of the tube, was in general from one and a half
to three quarters of an inch.
In order to force an ele&rical fpark through the
tube, it was neceffary, not to make a communication
between the tube and the conductor, but to place an
infulated ball at fuch a diftance from the conductor, as
to receive a fpark from it, and to make a communica¬
tion between that ball and the quickfilver in one of the
glafies, while the quickfilver in the other glafs commu¬
nicated with the ground.
When the eledfric fpark was made to pafs through
common air, included between ftrort columns of a folu-
tion of litmus, the folution acquired a red colour, and
the air was diminilhed conformably to what was ob-
ferved by Dr Pneftley. When lime-water was ufed in-
ftead of the folution of litmus, and the fpark was con¬
tinued till the air could be no farther diminiftied, not
the leaft cloud could be perceived in the lime-water j
but the air was reduced to two thirds of its original
bulk ; which is a greater diminution than it could have
futfered by mere phlogiftication, as that is very little
more than one-fifth ot the whole.
The experiment was next repeated with fome impure
oxygen gas. The gas was very much diminiftied, but
without the leaft cloud being produced in the lime-
Avater, nor tvas any cloud produced Avhen carbonic
acid gas Avas let up to it j but on the further addition
of a little cauftic ammonia, a brown fediment Avas im¬
mediately perceived.
Hence Ave may conclude that the lime-Avater was
faturated by fome acid formed during the operation $
as in this cafe it is evident that no earth could have
been precipitated by the carbonic acid gas alone,
but that the cauftic ammonia, on being added, would
unite with the carbonic acid, and thus becoming a car¬
bonate Avould precipitate the lime by double affinity j
Avhereas, if the lime had not been faturated with an
acid, it Avould have been precipitated on the addition
of carbonic acid gas. As to the brotvn colour of the
fediment, it Avas probably mving to fome of the mer¬
cury having been diffolved.
When the impure oxygen gas was confined by foap
lees, the diminution proceeded rather fatter than when
it was confined by lime-water ; for which reafon, as
well as on account of the lixivium eontaining a large
quantity of alkali in proportion to its bulk, it feemed
better adapted than lime-water for experiments defign-
ed to inveftigate the nature of the acid produced. Ac¬
cordingly fome experiments Avere made lo determine
of what degree of purity the oxygen gas fhould be, in
order
694
principles of order to be diminiflied moft readily and in the greateft
Electricity degree ; and it was found that when good oxygen gas
b ^x^erf WaS emPloyed> diminution was but fmall j when
\nent. ' Perfe&ty Pure azotic gas was ufed, no fenfible diminu-
t.... tion took place ; but when five parts of pure oxygen
gas and three of common air were employed, almoft
the whole of the gafes were made to dilappeaf. It muft
be confidered that common air confifts of one part of
oxygen gas mixed with between three and four of azo¬
tic gas, fo that a mixture of five parts of pure oxygen
gas and three of common air, was nearly the fame
thing as feven parts of oxygen gas and three of azotic
gas-
Having made thefe previous trials, Mr Cavendilh
introduced into the tube a little foap lees, and then let
up fome oxygen gas and common air, tnixed in the
above proportions, which riling to the top of the tube
M, diftributed the foap lees in the two legs of the tube,
as fall as the air contained in it was djminifhed by the
eleftric fpark j continuing to add more of the fame
mixture till no further diminution took place j after
which a little pure oxygen gas, and then a little com¬
mon air were added, in order to fee whether ceffation
of diminution was not owing to fome imperfeflion of
the proportion of the two kinds of air to each other,
but without eflfeft. The lixivium being then poured
out of the tub§, and feparated from the mercury, feem-
ed to be perfectly neutralized, as it produced no change
on the colour of paper tinged with the juice of blue
flowers. Being evaporated to drynefs, a fmall quantity
of fait was left, which was evidently nitre, as appeared
by the manner in which paper impregnated with a fo-
lution of it burned.
For more fatisfa&ion, he tried this experiment over
again, on a larger fcale. About five times the former
quantity of foap lees were now let up into a tube of a
larger bore ; and a mixture of oxygen gas and common
air, in the fame proportions as before, being introduced
by the apparatus reprefented in fig. 53. the fpark was
continued till no more air could be made to difappear.
The liquor when poured out of the tube, fmelled
evidently of nitrous acid. This fait was found, by the
manner in which paper, dipped into a folution of it,
burned, to be true nitre. It appeared, by the teft of
muriate of baryta, to contain no more lulphuric acid
than the foap lees themfelves often contain, which is in
general very little ; and there is no reafon to think
that any other acid entered into it, except the ni¬
tric.
Part II]
By thefe beautiful experiments was demonftrated prinri ,
one of the moll important fads in modern chemiitry, Eleflfiatl
viz. that the nitric acid is compofed ol oxygen and iliuiirateJ
azote. b> expert !
The above experiments of Prieftley and Cavendilh,, ment
were repeated on a large fcalfc by Dr Van Marum, t66
with the powerful machine in Teyler’s mufeum. Van Ma.
For this purpofe he ufed a cylindrical glals receiverrum,> e*p<
five inches long and an inch and a quarter in diameter, 00 j
into which different forts of gafes were lucceflively in-
ferted, and were confined by quickfilver or water. To
a hole made in the bottom of the inverted glafs re¬
ceiver, an iron wire was fattened, the external part of
which communicated with a condudlor, which being
prefented to the prime conductor of the machine, re¬
ceived the fparks from it. In this difpofition of th#
apparatus it evidently appears, that the fparks patted
through the gas contained in the receiver, by going
from the inner extremity of the wire to the quicklilver
or water in which the receiver was inverted. With
this apparatus it was found, that oxygen gas, obtained
from mercurial red precipitate, loft one-twentieth of its
hulk } but its quality was not fenfibly altered, as ap¬
peared from examining it with the eudiometer. This
experiment being repeated when the receiver was in¬
verted in lime water, and likewife in the infufion of
turnfole, there enfued no precipitation, nor change of
colour. On pouring out this air, the ulual fmell of the
eleelric fpark was very fenfibly perceived.
Nitrous gas was diminilhed to more than the half of
its original bulk ; and in that diminilhed ftate, being
mixed with common air, it occaiioned no red colour,
nor any fenfible diminution. It had loft its ufual fmell,
and it extinguilhed a candle. In palling the iparks
through the nitrous gas, a powder was formed on the
furface of the quickfilver, which is a part of that me¬
tallic fubftance diffolved by the nitrous acid.
Hydrogen gas, obtained from iron and diluted ful-
phuric acid, communicated a little rednefs to the tine,
ture of turnfole. The ftream of eledlricity through
this air appeared more red, and much larger, than in
common air, being everywhere furrounded by a faint
blue light.
The inflammable gas, obtained from alcohol and
fulphuric acid, was increafed to about three times its
original bulk, and loft a little of its inflammability.
Carbonic acid gas, from chalk and fulphuric acid,
was a little increafed in bulk by the action of eleflrici-
ty j but it was rendered lefs ablorbable by water (t).
The
ELECTRICITY,
(t) It was found by C. Monge, who carefully examined the gas produced by patting eleflric fparks through
«arb nic acid gas, that it had been rendered inflammable ; and that the mercury employed to coniine the gas,
as well as the wires between which the fparks patted, were oxidated. C. Monge fuppofed that the carbonic acid
employed had undergone no change, but that the water held in folution by it had been decompofed j thus ac¬
counting for the oxidation of the metals, and the generation of inflammable gas.
M. J heodore de Sauffure, not confidering C. Monge’s experiments as decifive, repeated them on a larger fcale.
He caufed to circulate for 18 hours, ele£Iric fparks in the bulb of a matrafs which contained 13 cubic inches of
pure carbonic acid gas, and without any mixture of water fuperabundant to that which it might naturally hold
in fdution. J he mercury in which the inverted matrafs was immerfed rofe to about the half of its neck. After
electrization the metallic fluid was found oxidated black, as had been obferved by Monge and Prieftley j but his
condudors, which were of copper, were not fenfibly altered. The elaltic fluid had experienced a fmall dilatation,
which appeared-to him not to exceed the tenth part of a cubic inch. He then made about a grain of water to
pafs in contaCt with the aeritorm gas contained in the matrafs. He let it remain there for feveral days, without
perceiving
hap. VII.
ELECTRICITY.
<>95
Rciplesof The gas obtained from fulphutic acid and char-
liftricity coal was diminifhed a little, and black fpots were
jaftrated forrned on the infide of the glafs receiver. Afterwards
mentT'* ^ vvas 0bferved, that only one-eighth part of the ele&ri-
^ ' t fied gas was abforbed by water. It extinguilhed a
! candle, and had very little fmell.
Muriatic acid gas feemed to oppofe in great meafure
the paffage of the ele£tric fparks, fince they would not
pafs through a greater length than 2^th inches of this
air. It was confiderably diminifhed, but the reft was
readily abforbed by water.
Fluoric acid gas was neither diminilhed, nor any
other way fenfibly altered, by the ele&ric fparks.
Ammoniacal gas, extrafted from pure ammonia, was
at firft almoft doubled in bulk j then it was diminiibed
a little $ after which it remained without any aug¬
mentation or diminution. It became unabforbable
by water *, and by the contaft of flame it exploded,
like a mixture of hydrogen gas and a good deal of com¬
mon air.
Common air was laftly tried, and it was found to
give a little faint rednefs to the tin£lure of turnfole j
becoming at the fame time fenfibly deoxidized. The
experiment was repeated thrice at different times, and
in each time after the eledlrification it was examin¬
ed by the admixture of nitrous gas in Mr Fontana’s
eudiometer, and it was compared with the fame gas not
electrified 5 the latter always fuffering the greateft di¬
minution. In the firft experiment the diminutions
were fand ; in the fecond, and ^4 i a«d
in the laft, and
On attempting to repeat Mr Cavendifh’s experi¬
ment defcribed above, in which he produced the nitric
acid by a mixture of oxygen with azotic gas j inftead
of a fyphon, the DoCtor made ufe of a glafs tube one-
fixth part of an inch in diameter, clof«d at one end, in¬
to which an iron wire, of an inch in diameter,
had been inferted: into this tube, filled with mercury,
and fixed in a vertical pofition, was introduced the air
with which the experiment was to be tried. The oxy¬
gen gas was obtained from red precipitate, and had
been thoroughly purified by alkaline falts, from any
acid it might have contained. With a mixture of five
parts of this and three of common air, the tube was Principles of
filled to the height of three inches, to which was add- Electricity
ed five-twelfths of an inch of lixivium, of the fame kind ‘lluftfotcd
with that ufed by Mr Cavendifli. The refult was, raent.
that, after tranfmitting through the tube a continued u—y—
ftream of the eleftric fparks during 15 minutes, two
inches of the air were abforbed by the lixivium : more
air being introduced into the tube till it was filled to the
height of three inches, when it was again ele&rified.
This procefs was repeated till 8^th inches of air had
been abforbed by the lixivium : this was now examined,
and found to be, in fome degree, impregnated with the *
nitric acid j but it was very far from being faturated.
With the fame lixivium, of which a quarter of an inch
remained in the tube, the experiment was continued
till 14 inches more of air had been abforbed j but its
diminution was not perceived to decreafe, though the
lixivium had now abforbed 77 meafures of air, each
equal to its own *, whereas, in the experiment related
by Mr Cavendifh, only 38 meafures of air were ab¬
forbed by the alkali. But notwithftanding this great¬
er abforption, the lixivium was yet far from being fa¬
turated.
The experiment was repeated with oxygen gas, ob¬
tained from minium, moiftened with the fulphuric
acid j fe.ven parts of this were mixed with three of
azotic gas, and lixivium added to the height of one-
eighth of an inch. Here, as in the former experi¬
ment, the diminution continued without any decreafe j
and the lixivium, after it had abforbed 22^th inches,
and confequently 178 times its own mealure of air,
was very far from being faturated with the nitric acid.
On this Dr Van Marum wrote to Mr Cavendifti j
and finding, by his anfwer, that this gentleman had
ufed oxygen gas, obtained from a black powder pro¬
duced by (baking mercury with lead, he requefted to
be informed of the procefs by which it is generated
but Mr Cavendifti, not choofing to communicate thi*
at prefent, he determined to deter the repetition of the
experiment till this ingenious philofopher (hould have
publiftied his mode of obtaining the oxygen gas ufed in
it.
Our author then goes on to fome experiments
made
perceiving any dilatation in the volume of the gafes, the refidue of the operation. He then moiftened with a
drop of water, which he introduced, the whole infide of the matrafs 5 but in vain : the mercury conftantly re¬
mained at the fame height. He, however, found, on abforbing by potalh the refiduum of the acid gas, that a
cubic inch of carbonic acid gas had difappeared, and had been replaced by a quantity nearly equal, or rather
fuperior, to the inflammable gas. The 20 cubic centimetres occupied, in the neck of the matrafs, a column four
inches in length ; and the acid gas, had the fuppofed explanation been juft, would have been dilated through all
that fpace. He then thought that this inflammable gas did not arife from the decompofition of the water, but
from that of the carbonic acid itfelf, by the metal. He indeed found that this gas was not hydrogen gas, but
carbonous gas perfe&ly pure. He burnt 100 parts of it on mercury with about a third of oxygen gas. He did
not perceive water after this combuftion, which left for refiduum 77 Par^s of carbonic acid gas.
The dilatation which the latter experiences by eleclrization may be explained by the different denfities of the
carbonous gas and the carbonic acid gas. He was not able to verify the obfervation of C. Monge refpefting the
dilatation experienced by the carbonic acid gas, after eleflrization over mercury.
If it was not poflible to reduce entirely the acid gas into carbonous gas by thefe proceffes, it was becaufe the
firft ftrata of metallic oxidation prefented an obftacle to further oxidation, by preventing the points of contaft. -
The developement of the carbonous gas produced therefore an analogous effe£I.
It refults then from his obfervations, that the change which carbonic acid gas undergoes by elearization does
not arife from the decompofition of the water, but from the partial decompofition ot the carbonic acid gas, which
becomes carbonous gas, giving up a part of its oxygen to the metal introduced in thole experiments.
6g6
ELECTRICITY.
Principles of ma^e ^7 Offering the eleftric fpark to pafs in a con-
Eledtricity tinued itream through various kinds of air, enclofed for
illuftrated tJj;s purpofe in the little glafs tube ufed in the laft ex-
^rnenT*' periment.
Oxygen gas obtained the week before from red pre¬
cipitate, being placed over mercury, and eledfrified for
30 minutes, was diminilhed by one-fifth, the lurface of
the quickfilver foon began to be oxidated, and to¬
wards the end of the experiment the glafs tube was fo
lined with the oxide as to ceafe to be tranfparent. By
introducing a piece of iron, the eledtric ftream was
made to pals through the air without immediately
touching the mercury : yet this was equally oxidated.
Two inches and three quarters of the fame kind of gas
being placed over water, and eledtrified in the fame
manner during half an hour, loft a quarter of an inch ;
and being fuffered to ftand 1 2 hours in the tube, was
found to have loft one-eighth'of an inch more. This
was very nearly the fame diminution of the gas that
had taken place when it was electrified over mercury ;
but, in this cafe, the procefs appears to have been more
flow. The gas remaining after thefe experiment!!, be¬
ing tried by the eudiometer, did not differ from un-
oledtrified oxygen gas taken from the fame receiver.
To determine whether the gas retained any of the
acid employed in its produdtion, the Dodtor repeated
the experiment with gas obtained from red precipitate,
confined by an infufion of turnfole, but could not per¬
ceive in it the leaft change of colour. He alfo elec¬
trified gas obtained from minium and the fulphuric
acid, placed over fome diluted acetate of lead j but
this was not rendered at all turbid.
Three inches of azotic gas being eledlrified, during
the firft five minutes were augmented to 3^th inches,/
and in the next 10 minutes to 3^th inches : fome
lixivium was then introduced to try whether this would
abforb it j but upon being eledtrified 15 minutes, the
column rofe to the height of 3-|th inches. It was fuf¬
fered to ftand in the tube till the next day, when it
was found to have funk to its original dimenfions.
Nitrous gas, confined by lixivium, being eledtrified
during half an hour, loft three quarters of its bulk ; the
lixivium appeared to have abforbed a great deal of ni¬
tric acid ; and the gas remaining in the tube did not
feem to differ from common azotic gas. Some of the
fame nitrous gas, confined by lixivium, was, by {land¬
ing three weeks, diminifhed to half its bulk, and this
refiduum alfo proved to be azotic gas.
Hydrogen gas obtained from fteel filings and the
diluted fulphuric acid, being confined by an infufion of
turnfole, was eledtrified for 10 minutes without any
change of colour in the infufion, or any alteration
in the bulk of the air. The tube being filled with
the fame air to the height of 2^- inches, and placed
in diluted acetate of lead, was expofed to the eledtric
ftream during 12 minutes, in which time the enclofed
gas rofe to five inches j but the acetate remained per-
fedlly clear. Three inches of inriammable gas obtain¬
ed from a mixture of alcohol and fulphuric acid, on be¬
ing eledtrified for 15 minutes, rofe to 10 inches ; thus
diluted, it loft all its inflammability, and when nitrous
gas was added, no diminution enfued.
A column of ammoniacal gas obtained by heat from
pure ammonia, three inches high, was eledirified
four minutes, and rofe to fix inches, but did not rife
i6j
1 wo Curious er<
cxc.
fig. 54,
Part III
higher when eltdtrified ten minutes longer. It appearspr;ncip]esc
that this air is not expanded more by the powerful elec- Eketricitj!
trie ftream from this machine than by the common fpark. i^iftrated
Water would not abforb this eledtrified air, which was exPerH
in part inflammable. |
The tuba, being filled to the height of an inch with
ammoniacal gas, and inverted in mercury, was elediri¬
fied four minutes; in which time the tube was filled
with eight inches of gas, which proved to be equally
inflammable, and as little abforbed by water as the am¬
moniacal gas.
The following experiment is very curious,
balloons, made of the allantoides of a calf, were filled periment
with hydrogen gas, of which -each contained about two 7’,lh bal'
cubic feet. To each of thefe was fufpended, by a
filken thread about eight feet long, fuch a weight asgen gas, °
was juft fufficient to prevent it from rifing higher in
the air; they were connedled, the one with the pofitive,
the other with the negative condudtor, by fmall wires
about 30 feet in length ; and being kept near 20 feet
afunder, were placed as far from the machine as the
length of the wires would admit. On being elediri¬
fied, thefe balloons rofe up in the air as high as the
wire allowed, attradfed each other, and uniting as it
were into one cloud, gently defeended. jgg
The rarefadtion of air by the eledlric explofion, is Ele&rical
well illuftrated by an experiment of Mr Kinnerfley,air t^ermi'
thus deferibed by Mr Cavallo. Fig. 54. PI. CXC.
reprefents an inftrument. which the inventor, Mr Kin-
nerfley, calls the electrical air thermometer, it being
very ufeful to obferve the effedts of the eledlric explo¬
fion upon air. The body of this thermometer confifts
of a glafs tube AB, about ten inches long, and nearly
two inches in diameter, and clofed air-tight at both ends
by two brafs caps. Through a hole in the upper cap,
a fmall tube HA, open at both ends, is introduced in
fome water at the bottom B of the large tube. Through
the middle of each of the brafs caps, a wire FG, El, is
introduced, having a brafs knob within the glafs tube,
and by Aiding through the caps, they may be fet at any
diflance from one another. This inftrument is, by a
brafs ring C, faftened to the pillar of the wooden ftand
CD, that fupports it. When the air within the tube
AB is rarefied, it will prefs upon the water at the.bot¬
tom of the tube, which will confequently rife in the
cavity of the fmall tube ; and as this water rifes higher
or lower, fo it fliows the greater or lefs rarefadlion of
the air within the tube AB, which has no communica¬
tion with the external air.
If the water, when this inftrument is to be ufed, is
all at the bottom of the large tube, (i. e. none of it is
in the cavity of the fmall tube) it will be proper to
blow with the mouth into the fmall lube, and thus
caule the water to rife a little in it; where, for better
regulation, a mark may be fixed.
Bring the knobs GI of the wires IE, FG, into con-
tadl with one another, then conned! the ring E or F,
with one fide of a charged jar, and the other ring with
the other fide, by which operation a fhock will be
made to pafs through the wires FG, IE, i. e. between
the knobs El. In this cafe you will bbferve, that the
water in the fmall tube is not all moved from the
mark.
Put the knobs GI, a little diftant from one another,
and fend a fhock through them as before, and you will
fee
hap. VII. ELECT
Lciplesoffee that the fpark between the two knobs, not only dif-
baricity places, but rarefies confiderably the air 5 for the water
ultmed w;n be fuddenly pulhed almoft to the top of the fmall
JxpeH- tube? and jmmediately Jt will fobfide a little, as for
^ inflance as far as H ; which is occafioned by the fud-
den difplacing and replacing of the air about the place,
where the fpark appeared within the tube AB. After
that the water has fubfided fuddenly from the firft
rifing, it will then gradually and fiowly come down tfiT
the mark at which it flood before the explofion ; which
is the effeft of the air that was rarefied, and which gra¬
dually returns to its former temperature.
If this experiment be made in a room, where the de¬
gree of heat is variable, then proper allowance muft be
made for this circumflance, in eflimating the event of
the experiment; for the ele&rical air thermometer is
affe&ed by heat or cold in general, as well as by that
i(j9 caufed by an electric fpark.
:ompo- I" the year 1789, Meffrs Pacts, Van Trooftwyk, and
m of Deiman, the three aflbciated Dutch chemifts, as they
er> are.generally called, fent a letter to M. de la Methrie,
giving an account of fume experiments, which they,
affifted by Mr Cuthbertfon, had made on the effect of
palling a ftream of electricity for a confiderable time
through water. Their letter was printed in the Jour-
nal de Physique, for that year ; but the account is too
long to be inferted here ; we lhal], therefore, copy the
following fuccinct account of the experiment by Dr
Pearfon.
The apparatus employed was a tube 12 inches in
length, and its bore was one-eighth of an inch in diame¬
ter, Englilh meafure ; which was hermetically fealed at
one end, and, while it was fealing, an inch and a half
of gold or platina wire was introduced within the tube,
and fixed into the clofed end, by melting the glafs a-
round the extremity of the wire. Another wire of
platina, or of gold, with platina wire at its extremity,
itfimerfed in quickfilver, was introduced at the open
end of the tube, which extended to within five-eighths
of an inch of the upper wire, which, as was juft faid, was
fixed into the fealed extremity (u).
The tube was filled with diftilled water, which had
been freed from air by means of Cuthbertfon’s laft im¬
proved air-pump, of the greateft rarefying power. As
the open end of the tube was immerfed in a cup of
quickfilver, a little common air was let into the con¬
vex part of the curved end of the tube, with the
view of preventing fracture from the electrical dif-
charges.
The wire which palled through the lealed extremity
VOL. VII. Part II.
R 1 C I T Y. 697
was fet in contact with a brafs infulated ball • and this principles of
infulated ball was placed at a little diftance from the Eleftricity
prime conductor of the electrical machine. The wire ifiuftrate.d
of the lower or open extremity, immerfed in quickfilver,
communicated by a wire or chain with the exterior ■
coated furface of a Leyden jar, which contained about
a Iquare foot of coating ; and the ball of the jar was
in contact with the prime conductor. f
I he electrical machine confifted of two plates of 31
inches in diameter, and fimilar to that of Teyler. It
poflefled the power of caufing the jar to difeharge itfelf
25 times in 15 revolutions. When the brafs ball and
that of the prime conductor were in contact, no air or
gas was difengaged from the water by the electrical dif-
charges; but on gradually increafing their diftance
from one another, the pofition was found in which gas
was djfengaged, and which afeended immediately to the
top or the tube. By continuing the difcharg^s, gas con¬
tinued to be difengaged, and afeend, till it reached near¬
ly to the lower extremity of the upper wire ; and then
a difeharge occafioned the whole of the gas to difappear,
a fmall portion excepted, and its place was confequent-
ly fupplied by water.
T he refiduary portion of gas being let out after each
experiment, and the difeharges being continued in the
fame water, this refiduary gas was left in fmaller and
fmaller quantity ; fo that after four experiments, proba¬
bly made on the fame day, it did not amount to more
loan l-8oth of tire bulk of gas which had been produ¬
ced. If it had been poflible to pafs eledlric fparks
through this very fmall quantity of gas a fecond time,
or oftener, it was fuppoftd it would have been dimi-
mftied ftill more. But when the tube had been left
for a night only filled with water, t'he refiduary gas
was in greater quantity than after the laft experiment
the preceding day (x).
It was concluded that the gas produced by the elec¬
trical difeharges was oxygen and hydrogen gas, from
decompounded water :
1. Becaufe no other gas hitherto known inftantly
difappears on paffing through it an electric fpark.
2. The gas obtained muft have been the oxygen and
hydrogen of decompounded water, becaufe they were in
exactly tbofe proportions in which by combination they
reproduce water ; the trifling refidue being confidercd
to be merely a portion of air which had been diflolved
in the water.
3. Liquids which are not compounded of hydrogen
and oxygen, as fulphuric and nitric acids, afforded gas
by the electric difeharges, but which did not difappear
4 I on
(u) In another part of Mr Van Trooftwyk’s memoir it is ftated that the diftance was an inch and a quarter
from the end of the upper wire to the top of the lower wire; and that the diftance between the infulated ball
aod prime conductor was at firft three-fourths of an inch, but that afterwards it was increafed to an inch. Al¬
though the wire faftened into the top of the tube was faid to be an inch and a half in length, it is obferved that
when a column of three-eighths of an inch of air was collected, it was almoft at the extremity of the upper wire.
From tbeie and other inaccuracies, it Xvill be made appear, that no one, from the account publiftied has been
able to repeat the experiment.
(x) Tn at leaft fifty experiments I have never Teen the refidue of gas lefs than one-fortieth of the gas produced
although the water had been freed from air by the moft effectual means. But Mr Schurer (Annalesde Chimie,
tom. v. p. 276.) teftifies that he faw Mr Van Trooftwyk make the experiment; and that after it was repeated
rnany times, on the fame parcel of water, there was no refidue at all. I have very good grounds for believing,
I bat this is one of the number of inaccuracies in the account publiftied of this fubject.
170
Dr Pear
698 ELEC T
Principlesofon pafling tlirough it an ele<5lric fpark *, but which did
Electricity difappear on adding to it nitrous gas over water. Mr
illuftrated Schurer alfo afferts, on the authority of Mr Van frooft-
r*" 'vyk> that even liquid muriatic acid, which contains a
■ very large proportion of water, affords hydrogen gas
only, the oxygen being abforbed by the muriatic acid,
and becoming oxymuriatic acid.
, Dr Pearfon repeated the above experiments 5 and has
riments!36 given an ample detail of the manner in which he con¬
ducted his experiments, and of their refult. Our limits
will not permit us to give the paper of this ingenious
chemift at length: we lhall therefore prefent our readers
•with a brief abftract of it, referring them for the origi¬
nal to Nicholfon’s Journal for September, October, and
November 1797, or the Philofophical Tranfactions for
the fame year.
Dr Pearfon remarks that electric difcharges may be
employed in two manners to decompound water, viz. by
what has been termed the interrupted explofion, which
was Mr Van Trooftwyk’s method, and the uninterrupted
or complete explofion.
The Doctor lays down the following requifites for
fucceeding in this experiment by the interrupted ex¬
plofion.
1. The e/eclrical machine mujl pojfefs fufficient power.
Dr Pearfon employed a plate machine, conftructed by
Cuthbertfon, which he confiders as preferable to a cy¬
lindrical machine.
2. The Leyden jar mujl have a fufficient quantity of
coaledfurface. The Doctor found by experience that
the proper quantity was about 150 or 160 fquare inches,
with a proportional prime conductor.
3. The difance between the infulated ball and the prime
conduclor mujl always be lefs than the dijlunce between
the extremities of the wires.
4. The extremities of the upper and under wire within
the tube mujl be at a certain djlance from one another.
The diflance which the Doctor generally found to
anfwer beft, was about five-eighths or (even-eighths of
an inch.
5. The upper wire fixed into the clofed extremity of the
• tube mujl be of a proper length and thicknefs. The dia¬
meter of the upper wire cannot perhaps be too fmall,
and the fmaller the diameter of the tube, the longer this
wire may be.
6. The tubes mujl be of a proper length and diame¬
ter. The Doctor found the proper length to be nine
or ten inches, exclufive of the curved part. The dia¬
meter fhould not be more than one-eighth, or lefs than
one-twelfth of an inch.
To fucceed by the complete or uninterrupted explofion,
Dr Pearfon ufed the following apparatus.
1. A tube about four or five inches in length, and
one-fifth or one-fixlh of an incli in diameter j one end
of which was mounted with a brafs cap, and into the
other, which was hermetically fealed, was fitted a pla-
tina wire of about i-qoth of an inch in diameter, extend¬
ing into the brafs cap, fo as to be altnojl in contact
with it.
2. He alfo employed a tube five inches long and half
an inch wide, either blown into a funnel at one end, or
having a brafs funnel fitted to it, and inverted in a brafs
di(h $ a wire, fuch as the laft, is fealed into the other
and, and nearly touches the brafs dith.
The proper diftance between the wire and dilh muft
3
R I C I T Y.
Part III,
be found by trials. In the Do&or’s experiments it wasprincjpje30d
about one-twentieth of an inch. Electricity
3. The Leyden jar employed mufl; contain about 150 dlultraM ;
fquare inches of coating.
4. The diftance between the infulated ball and the
prime conduclor was about half an inch.
From his experiments Dr Pearfon draws the (ollow-
ing conclufions.
The mere concuflion by the eleftric difcharges, ap¬
pears to extricate not only the air diffolved in water,
which can be feparated from it by boiling and the air
pump, but alfo that which remains in water, notwith-
ftanding thefe means of extricating it have been em¬
ployed.
The quantity of this air varies in the fame, and in
different waters, according to circumftances. New-River
water from the ciftern yielded one-fifth of its bulk of
air, when placed by Mr Cuthbertfon under the receiver
of his moft powerful air-pump; but in the fame fituation.
New-River water taken from a tub expofed to the at-
mofphere for fome time yielded its own bulk of air.
Hence the gas procured by the firft one, two, or even
three hundred explofions in water containing its natural
quantity of air, dirainiihed very little by an electric
fpark.
The gas thus feparated from water, like atmofpheri-
cal air, confifts of'oxygen and nitrogen, or azotic gas ;
which may be in exadtly the fame proportions as in at-
mofpherical air : for the water may retain one kind of
gas more tenacioufly than the other; and on this account
the air feparated may be better or worfe than atmofphe-
rical air at different periods of the procefs for extrica¬
ting it.
With regard t* the gas, which inftantly difappears on
palling through it an eleflric fpark, its nature is Ihewn
by (a) this very property of thus dirainilhing; and by
the following properties:
(7>) certain quantity of nitrous gas inftantly difap-
peared, apparently compofing nitrous acid, on being
added to the gas \aj.
Oxygen gas being added to the refidue after fatura-
tion with nitrous gas, and an electric fpark being ap¬
plied to the mixture of gaffes, well dried, a confiderable
diminution immediately took place, and water was pro¬
duced.
(c) Combuftion from hydrogen and oxygen gas took
place when the tube was about three-fourths full of gas,
which was confirmed by palling an eledric difeharge,
under the fame circumftances, through a mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen gas.
{dj Combuftion from hydrogen and oxygen gas took
place when the points of the compaffes were accidental¬
ly applied to the part of the tube containing gas; which
was confirmed by palling a difeharge, under the fame
circumftances, through a mixture of hydrogen and oxy¬
gen gas, while the points of the compaffes were applied
to the tube.
(e') The obfervations made of the kindling of gas, in
fmall quantities, from time to time, during the procefs
of obtaining it, particularly while it was afeending in
chains of bubbles, or was adhering to the funnel of the
tube, confirm the evidence in favour of this gas being 171
hydrogen and oxygen gas. Fufkmoi
The eleBric fpark fifes, and oxidates metals. . The^ew^
firft experiment to afeertain the action of electricity on- rk<
metals
;hap. VII
inciplesofmeta^s was» xve believe, made by Dr Franklin. The me-
leftricity thod in which he made the fpark fufe metals was by
luftrated putting thin pieces of them between two panes of glafs
y expert- j30Uncl faft together, and fending anele&ric fhock through
S meI>t' . them. Sometimes the piece of glafs by which they
were confined, would be (battered to pieces by the dif-
charge, and be broken into a kind of coarfe fand, which
once happened with pieces of thick looking-glafs j but
if they remained whole, the piece of metal would be
miffing in feveral places where it had lain between them,
and inftead of it, a metallic (lain would be feen on
both the glafies, the flains on the under and upper
glafs being exaftly fimilar in the minuted; droke.
A piece of gold-leaf ufed in this manner appeared
not only to have been melted, but even vitrified, as the
Doftor thought, or otherwife fo driven into the pores of
the glafs, as to be protc&ed by it from the action of the
dronged aqua-regia. Sometimes he obfervtd that the
metallic dains would fpread a little wider than the
breadth of the thin pieces of metal. True gold, he ob-
ferved, made a darker dain, fomewhat reddidi, and fil-
ver a greeniffi dain.
Mr Cavallo gives the following dire]S
To illumi¬
nate eggs.
Plate
CXC.
fig- 5<>-
702
Principles of the lable. Place the end of another piece of chain at
Electricity the diftance of about a quarter of an inch from the
by'experi- ^ormer 5 ant^ a decanter of water on thefe fepa-
ment. rated ends. On making the difcharge, the water will
*• y--"- appear perfectly luminous.
The eleftric fpark may be rendered vifible in water,
in the following manner. Take a glafs tube of about
half an inch in diameter, and fix inches long *, fill it
with water, and to each extremity of the tube adapt a
cork, which may confine the water j through each cork
. infert a blunt wire, fo that the extremities of the wires
within the tube may be very near one another; then on
Connecting one of thefe wires with the coating of a fmall
charged phial, and touching the other wife with the
knob of it 5 by which means the (hock will pafs through
the wires, and caufe a vivid fpark to appear between
their extremities within the tube. The charge in this
experiment muft be very weak, or there will be danger
of burfiing the tube.
Exper. 2.—Fig. 56. reprefents a mahogany Hand, fo
confti’u&ed as to hold three eggs at greater or fmaller
diftance, according to the pofition of the Hiding pieces.
A chain C is placed at the bottom, in fuch a manner
as to touch the bottom of the egg at B with one end,
and with its other, the outlide coating of a charged jar.
The Aiding wire A at top is made to touch the upper
egg ; and the diftance of the eggs afunder Ihould not
exceed the quarter or eighth part of an inch. The
eleflric fpark, being made to pafs down by means of
the difcharging rod through the wire and ball at A,
will in a darkened room render the eggs very luminous
and tranfparent.
Exper. 3.—Place an ivory ball on the prime con-
du61or of the machine, and take a ftrong fpark, or fend
the charge of a Leyden phial through its centre, and
the ball will appear perfectly luminous: but if the
charge be not pafled through the centre, it will pafs
over the furface of the ball and finge it. A fpark
made to pafs through a ball of boxwood, not only illu¬
minates the whole, but makes it appear of a beautiful
crimfon, or rather fine fcarlet colour.
Exper. 4.—Gold-leaf or Dutch metal may be ren¬
dered luminous by difcharging a fmall Leyden phial
through it. A ftrip of gold-leaf, one-eighth of an inch
in breadth, and a yard long, will frequently be illumi¬
nated throughout its whole extent, by the explofion of
a jar containing two gallons. This experiment may be
beautifully diverfified, by laying the gold or filver leaf
on a piece of glafs, and then placing the glafs in wa¬
ter ; for the whole gold-leaf will appear moft brilliant¬
ly luminous in the water, by expofing it thus circum-
ftanced to the explofion of a battery.
Exper. 5.—The natural, or what anfwers better, the
artificial Bolognian ftone reduced to powder, (common¬
ly called Canton's phofphorus') may be illuminated by
the eleftric fpark in a more perfeft manner than by the
rays of the fun. The method of making this experi¬
ment is thus related by Mr Cavallo.
Put fome of this powder in a clear glafs phial, and
flop it with a glafs ftopper, or a cork and fealing-wax.
If this phial be kept in a darkened room (which for
this experiment mufi: be very dark) it will give no
light j but let two or three ftrong fparks be drawn
from the prime conduftor, when the phial is kept at
jabout two inches diftant from the fparks, fo that it may
ELECTRICITY#
177
178
To illumi¬
nate Can-
ton’s phof¬
phorus.
Rart II]
be expofed to that light, and this phial will receive thepr;nci ,,
light, and afterwards will appear illuminated for a con- Eleftfidi
fiderable time. illuftratei
This powder may be ftuck upon a board by means by exPeri
of the white of an egg, fo as to reprefent figures ofi ment‘
planets, letters, or any thing elfe, at the pleafure of
the operator, and thefe figures may be illuminated in
the dark, in the fame manner as the above-defcribed
phial.
A beautiful method of exprefling geometrical figures
with the above powder, is to bend fmall glafs tubes, of
about the tenth part of an inch diameter, in the ftiape
of the figure defired, and then to fill them with the
phofphoric powder. Thefe may be illuminated in the
manner defcribed ; and they are not fo fubjeft to be
fpoiled, as the figures reprefented upon the board fre¬
quently are.
I he beft method of illuminating this phofphorus, and
that Mr W. Canton generally ufed, is to difcharge
a fmall cleftric jar near it.
Paper, after being made dry and rather hot, marble,
oyrter (hells, and muft calcareous fubftances, efpecially
when burned to lime, have the property of bein^ il¬
luminated by the light given by the difcharge of a jar,
though not fo much as the above-mentioned powder.
Put the extremities of two wires upon the furface of
a card, or other body of an ele&rie nature, fo that they
may be in one diredlion, and about one inch diftance
from one another *, then, by connedling one of the
wires with the outfide of a charged jar, and the other
wire with the knob of the jar, the fhock will be made
to pafs over the card or other body. If the card be
made very dry, the lucid track between the wires will
be vifible upon the card for a confiderable time after
the explofion. If a piece of common writing paper
be ufed inftead of the card, it will be torn by the ex¬
plofion into very fmall bits.
When the ele£lric difcharge is pafled through a lump
of fugar, the fugar is rendered perfedly luminous, and
will retain the light for a confiderable time.
Exper. 6.—But the moft remarkable inftance of the
penetrability of the ekaric light, is that related by
Dr Prieftley. “ I laid a chain (fays he), which was in
contaft with the outfide of ajar, lightly on my finger,
and fometimes kept it at a fmall diftance by means of
a thin piece of glafs. If I made the difcharge at the
diftance of about three inches, the ele£lric fire was vi¬
fible on the furface of the finger, giving it a fudden
concuflion, which feemed to make it vibrate to the very
bone ; and when it happened to pafs on that fide of the
finger that was oppofite the eye, the whole feemed, in
the dark, perfectly tranfparent.”
The following is Mr Cavallo’s method of making
this curious experiment.
Let the extremities of two wires, one of which pro¬
ceeds from the outfide of a charged jar, and another
from one branch of the difcharging rod, be laid on a
table at the diftance of one-tenth of an inch from each
other j then put the thumb juft upon that interruption,
prefling it flat down. This done, bring the difcharg¬
ing rod in contact with the knob of the jar, and on
making the difcharge, the fpark which neceflarily hap¬
pens under the thumb will illuminate it in fuch a man¬
ner that the bone and the principal blood-veifels may
be eafily difeerned in it.
In
m
hap.
ig- ss.
VII. ELECT
nCip!esof In experiment the operator need not be afraid of
edricity receiving a ihock ; for the difcharge of the jar paffes
uftrated £rorn wJre to wire, and only affetts the thumb with a
rexpen- £orj. ()f tremor, which is far from being painful,
rc ^ We have before related Mr Havvkefbee’s experi¬
ment by which he rendered fealing-wax tranfparent.
Signior Beccaria effedted the fame by making an elec¬
tric explofion pafs between two plates of fealing-wax,
on which fotne brafs-duft was fprinkled. The whole
1S0 was rendered perfedlly luminous and tranfparent.
iral tube. Exper. 7.—Fig. 57. reprefents an inftrument corn¬
s'^' pofed of two glafs tubes CD, one within another, and
clofed with two knobbed brafs caps A and B. Thein-
nermoft of thefe has a fpiral row of fmall round pieces
of tin-foil fluck upon its outfide furface, and lying at
about one-thirtieth of an inch from each other. If
this inftrument be held by one of the extremities, and
its other extremity be prefented to the prime conductor,
every fpark that it receives from the prime conductor
will caufe fmall fparks to appear between all the round
pieces of tin-foil ftuck upon the innermoft tube; which
in the dark affords a pleafing fpedtacle, the tube ap¬
pearing encompaffed by a fpiral line of fire.
Fig. 58.,reprefents feveral fpiral tubes placed round
a board, in the middle of which is fcrewed a glafs pil¬
lar, and on the top of this pillar is cemented a brafs
cap with a fine fteel point. In this a brafs wire turns
having a brafs ball at each end, nicely balanced on
the wire. To make ufe of this apparatus, place the
middle of the turning wire under a ball proceeding from
the condudlor, fo that it may receive a fucceftion of
fparks from the ball; then pufh the wire gently, round ;
and the balls in their relative motions will give a fpark
to each tube, and thereby illuminate them down to the
board, which from its brilliancy and rapid motion, af¬
fords a moft beautiful and pleafing fight.
Exper. 8.—The fmall pieces of tin-foil may be ftuck
on a flat piece of glafs ABCD, fig. 59. fo as to repre-
fent various fanciful figures. Upon the fame principle
is the word Light produced, in luminous charaflers.
It is formed by the fmall feparations of the tin-foil
parted on a piece of glafs fixed in a frame of baked
wood, as reprefented fig. 60. To ufe this, the frame
muft be held in the hand, and the ball G prefented to
the condu&or. The fpark then will be exhibited in
the intervals compoling the word ; from whence it
paffes to the hook at h, and thence to the ground by a
chain. The brilliancy of this is equal to that of the
fpiral tubes.
Though many of the following experiments on elec¬
tric light, may not with ftrifl propriety belong to this
chapter, we (hall relate them here for the fake of uni¬
formity.
Mr G. Morgan, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for
Iropofnions 1758, has given a feries of propofitions refpe&ing the
neledtric eleftric light, and illuftrated them by experiments ; we
'"kt- frail here give the fubftance of his paper nearly in his
own words.
I. There is no fluid or folid body, in its paffage
through which the eledlric light may not be rendered
luminous.
This propofition has been fully illuftrated by the fore¬
going experiments.
iSj n. The difficulty of making any quantity of the elec-
R I C I T Y.
7°3
ISI
uminous
wd.
‘S- 59-
60.
182
Morgan’s
trical light vifible in anybody, increafes as the eon-Principles of
du&ing power of that body increafes. Eledlricity
Exper. 1.— In order to make the contents of a jar flluftrated
luminous in boiling water, a much higher charge is
neceffary, than would be fufficient to make it luminous t •
in cold water, which is univerfally allowed to be the
worft condudtor.
Exper. 2.—There are various reafons for believing
the acids to be very good conductors ; if, therefore,
into a tube filled with water, and circumftanced as has
been already defcribed, a few drops of either of the mi¬
neral acids are poured, it will be almoft impoffible to
make the light vifible in its paffage through the tube.
Exper. 3.—If a firing, whofe diameter is one-eighth
of an inch, and whofe length is fix or eight inches, is
moiftened with water, the contents of a jar will pafs
through it luminoufly; but no fuch appearance can be
produced by any charge of the fame jar, provided the
fame firing be moiftened with one of the mineral acids.
To the preceding inftance we may add the various
inftances of metals which will conduCl the eleClric
power without any appearance of light, in circum-
ftances the fame with thofe in which the fame force
would have appeared luminous in palling through other
bodies, whofe conduCling power is lefs.
III. That the eafe with which the eleClric light is 184
rendered vifible in any particular body, is increafed by
increafing the rarity of the body. The appearance of
a fpark, or of the difcharge of a Leyden phial, in rare¬
fied air, is well known. But we need not reft the
truth of the preceding obfervation on the feveral varie¬
ties of this fadl ; fimilar phenomena attend the rarefac¬
tion of ether, of fpirits of wine, and of water.
Exper. 4.—Into the orifice of a tube, 48 inches
long, and two-thirds of an inch in diameter, cement an
iron ball, fo as to bear the weight which prefles upon it
when the tube is filled with quickfilver, leaving only
an interval at the open end, which contained a few
drops of water. Having inverted the tube, and plun¬
ged the open end of it into a bafon of mercury, the mer¬
cury in the tube flood nearly half an inch lower than it
did in a barometer at the fame inftant, owing to
the vapour which was formed by the water. But
through this rarefied water, the electrical fpark parted
as luminoufly as it does through air equally rarefied.
Exper. 5.—If, inltead of water, a few drops of fpi¬
rits of wine are placed on the furface of the mercury,
phenomena, fimilar to thofe of the preceding experi¬
ment, will be difcovered, with this difterence only, that
as the vapour in this cafe is more denfe, the eleClrical
fpark, in its paflage through it, is not quite fo luminous
as it is in the vapour of water.
Exper. 6.—Good ether, fnbfiituted in the room of
the fpirits of wine, will prefs the mercury down fo low
as the height of l6 or 17 inches. The eleClric fpark,
in parting through this vapour, (unlefs the force be very
great indeed), is fcarcely luminous ; but if the preffuro
on the furface of the mercury in the bafon, be gradual¬
ly leffened by the aid of an air-pump, the vapour will
become more and more rare, and the eleClric fpark, in
parting through it, more and more luminous. 4 '
Exper. 7.—It has not been difcovered, that any
vapour does efcape from the mineral acids when ex-
pofed in vacuo. To give them, therefore, greater ra-
rl tv
7°4
Principles of rity or tenuity, different methods are found neceffary.
niuitra?! a ^ne camel-hair pencil, dipped in the fulphuric,
by ex peri- ^ie n*tr*c» or muriatic acid, draw upon a piece of
ment. ghffs a line, about one-eighth of an inch broad. In
^—y--.—1 fome inftances, you mult extend this line to the length
of 27 inches, and you will find that the contents of an
eletffric battery, confiding of ten pint phials coated,
will pafs over the whole length of this line with the
greateft brilliancy. If, by widening the line, or by
■laying on a drop of the acid, its quantity be increafed
in any particular part, the charge, in palling through
that part, will not appear luminous. Water, fpirits of
wine, circumllanced fimilarly to the acids in the pre¬
ceding experiments, will be attended with fimilar, but
not equal effecls j becaufe, in confequence of the infe¬
riority of their conducing power, it will be neceffary
to make the line, through which the charge paffes, con-
fiderably Ihorter.
**5 . ^ie brilliancy or fplendour of the eleflric light,
in its paffage through any body, is always increafed by
leffening the dimenfions of that body j that is, a fpark,
or the difcharge of a battery, which we might fuppofe
equal to a fphere one quarter of an inch in diameter,
will appear much more brilliant, if the fame quantity is
compreffed into a fphere one-eighth of an inch in dia¬
meter. 1 his obfervation is the obvious confequence of
many known fadts j if the machine be large enough to
afford a fpark, whofe length is nine or ten inches, this
fpark may be feen fometimes forming itfelf into a brulh,
in which Hate it occupies more room, but appears very
faintly luminous : at other times, the fame fpark may
be feen dividing itfelf into a variety of ramifications,
which (hoot into the furrounding air. A fpark, which
in the open air cannot exceed one quarter of an inch in
diameter, will appear to fill the whole of an exhaufted
1 receiver, four inches wide and eight inches long : but
in the former cafe it is brilliant, and in the latter it
grows fainter and fainter, as the fize of the receiver
increafes. I his obfervation is further proved by the
following experiments.
Exper. 8.— 1 o an infulated ball, four inches in dia¬
meter, fix a hlver thread, about four yards long. This
thread, at the end which is remoteft from the ball, muff
be fixed to another infulated fubftance. Bring the ball
within the linking diftance of a condudlor, and the
fpark, in palling from the conduttor to the ball, will
appear very brilliant; the whole length of the filver
thread will appear faintly luminous at the fame inllant.
When the fpark is confined within the dimenfions of a
fphere, one-eighth of an inch in diameter, it will be
bright; but when diffufed over the furface of air which
received it from the thread, its light will be fo faint as
to be feen only in a dark room. If you leffen the fur-
face of air which receives the fpark, by Ihortening the
thread, it will not fail to increafe the brightnefs of the
appearance.
Exper. 9.—To prove that the faintnefs of the elec¬
tric light in vacuo, depends on the enlarged dimenfions
of toe fpace through which it is diffufed j we have no¬
thing more to do than to introduce two pointed wires
into the vacuum, fo that the fluid may pafs from the
point of the one to the point of the other ; when the
difiance between them is not more than the one-tenth
of an inch, in this cafe we {hall find a brilliancy as
great as in the open air. J
Part III
Exper. 10.—Into a Torricellian vacuum, 36 inchespr;nciple
long, convey as much air as will fill two inches only of EleaS
the exhaufted tube if it were inverted in water j this ftluftrateij
quantity of air will afford refiftance enough to con- exPe“-
denfe the light, as it paffes through the tube, into a <, ment‘
fpark 38 inches in length. The brilliancy of the
fpark in condenfed air, in water, and in all fubftances
through which it paffes with difficulty, depends on prin¬
ciples fimilar to thofe which account for the preceding
fa6Is.
V. That in the appearances of ele&ricity, as well as j8g
in thofe of burning bodies, there are cafes in which all
the rays of light do not efcape ; and that the moft re¬
frangible rays are thofe which efcape firif or moft eafily.
The eledlrical brufh is always of a purple or bluifhhue.
If you convey a fpark through a Torricellian vacuum,
made without boiling the mercury in the tube, the
brufti will difplay the indigo rays. The fpark, how¬
ever, may be divided and weakened, even in the open
air, fo as to yield the moft; refrangible rays only.
Exper. 11.—To an infulated metallic ball, four
inches in diameter, fix a wire a foot and a half long ;
this wire fhould terminate in four ramifications, each of
which muft be fixed to a metallic ball half an inch in
diameter, and placed at an equal diftance from a metal¬
lic plate, which muft be communicated by metallic
conductors with the ground. A powerful fpark, after
falling on the large ball at one extremity of the wire,
will be divided in its paffage from the four fmall balls
to the metallic plate. When you examine the divifion
of the fpark in a dark room, you will difeover fome lit¬
tle ramifications, which will yield the indigo rays only:
indeed at the edges of all weak fparks the fame purple
appearance may be difeovered. You may likewife ob-
ferve, that the nearer you approach the centre of the
fpark, the greater is the brilliancy of its colour.
VI. I hat the influence of different media on electri¬
cal light, is analogous to their influence on folar light, ^
and will help us to account for fome very lingular ap¬
pearances.
Exper. 12.—Let a pointed wire, having a metal¬
lic ball fixed to one of its extremities, be forced ob¬
liquely into a piece of wood, fo as to make a fmall angle
with the furface of the wood, and to make the point lie
above one-eighth of an inch below the furface. Let an¬
other pointed wire, which communicates with the ground,
be forced in the fame manner into the fame wood, fo
that its point likewife may lie about one-eighth of an
inch below the furface, and about two inches diftant
from the point of the firft wire. Let the wood be infu-
lated, and a ftrong fpark, which ftrikes on the metallic
ball will force its paffage through the interval of wood
which lies between the points, and appear as red as
blood. To prove that this appearance depends on the
wood’s abforption of all the rays but the red ; when
thefe points were deepeft below the furface, the red
only came to the eye through a prifm 5 when they were
raifed a little nearer the furface, the red and orange
appeared •, when nearer ftill, the yellow ; and fo bn,
till, by making the fpark pafs through the wood very
near its furface, all the rays were at length able to reach
the eye. If the points be only one eighth of an inch
below the furface of foft deal wood, the red, the
orange, and the yellow rays will appear as the fpark
paffes through it j but when the points are at an equal
depth
ELECTRICITY.
hap. VII. ELECT
ndples of depth in a harder piece of wood (fuch as box), the yel-
edncity low, and perhaps the orange will difappear. As a far-
uftrated proof that the phenomena, thus defcribed, are
ment”" oW'nS to ^ie interpofition of the wood, as a medium
t which abforbs fome of the rays, and fuffers others to
efcape ; it may be obferved, that when the fpark ftrikes
very brilliantly on one fide of the piece of deal, on the
other fide it will appear very red. In like manner,
a red appearance may be given to a fpark which Itrikes
brilliantly over the infide of a tube, merely by fpread-
-ing fome pitch very thinly over the outfide of the fame
tube.
Exper. 13.—If into a Torricellian vacuum, of any
length, a few drops of ether are conveyed, and both
ends of the vacuum are flopped up with metallic con-
dudtors, fo that a fpark may pafs through it $ the fpark
in its paffage will affume the following appearances.
When the eye is placed clofe to the tube, the fpark will
appear perfeiflly white 5 if the eye is removed to the
diftance of fix or feven yards, the colour of the fpark
will be reddifli. Thefe changes evidently depend on
the quantity of medium through which the light pafles,
and the red light of a diflant candle, or a beclouded
fun.
Exper. 14.—Dr Prieftley long ago obferved the red
appearance of the fpark when palling through hydrogen
gas ; but this appearance is very much diverfified by
the quantity of medium, through which you look at
the fpark. When at a very confiderable diftance, the
red comes to the eye unmixed $ but if the eye is placed
clofe to the tube, the fpark appears white and brilliant.
In confirmation, however, of fome of thefe conclufions,
you muft obferve, that by increafing the quantity of
fparks which are conveyed through any portion of hy¬
drogen gas, or by condenfing that gas, the fpark may
be entirely deprived of its red appearance, and made
perfectly brilliant. All weak explofions and fparks,
when viewed at a diftaace, bear a reddifh hue. Such
are the explofions which have palled through water,
fpirits of wine, or any bad conductor, when confined in
a tube whofe diameter is not more than an inch. The
reafon of thefe appearances feems to be, that tire, weaker
the fpark or explofion is, the lefs is the light which
efcapes •, and the more vilible the effect of any medium,
which has a power to abforb fome of that light.
Chalk, oyfter-fhells, together with thofe phofphoric
bodies, whofe goodnefs has been very much impaired by
long keeping, when finely powdered, and placed within
the circuit of an eleftrical battery, will exhibit, by
their fcattered particles, a fliower ot light *, but thefe
particles will appear reddilh, or their phofphoric power
will be fufficient only to detain the yellow, orange, and
red rays. When fpirits of wine are in a fimilar manner
brought within the circuit of a battery, a fimilar effer*
eighteen inches long, and three or four inches in dia- CXC.
meter. To both ends of this tube the hollow brafs Fig. 61.
pieces FD, BE, are cemented air-tight, one of which
has a point C, by which it receives the eledtric power,
when fet near the excited cylinder of the elettrical
machine, and the other has a knobbed wire G, from
which a ftrong fpark may be drawn ; and from each of
the pieces FD, BE, a knobbed wire proceeds, within
the cavity of the glafs tube. The brafs piece FD, or
BE, is compofed of two parts, i.e. a cap F cemented
to the glafs tube, and having a hole with a valve, by
which the cavity of the glafs tube may be exhaufted of
air 5 and fhe ball D, which is ferewed upon the cap
F. The fupporters of this inftrument are two glafs
pillars faftened in the bottom board H, like the prime
conduflor reprefented fig. 61. When the glafs tube
of this conductor is exhaufted of air by means of an
air-pump, and the brafs ball is ferewed on, as repre-
fented in the figure, then it is fit for ufe, and may
ferve for a prime condudtor to an ele&rical machine.
If the point C of this conduftor is fet near the ex¬
cited cylinder of the machine, it will appear illuminat¬
ed with a ftar 5 at the fame time the glafs tube will ap¬
pear all illuminated with a weak light j but from the
knobbed wire, that proceeds within the glafs from the
piece FD, a lucid pencil will iffue out, and the oppo-
fite knob will appear illuminated with a ftar or round
body of light, which, as well as the pencil of rays, is
very clear, and difcernible among the other light, that
occupies the greateft part of the cavity of the tube.
If the point C, inftead of being prefented to the cy¬
linder, be conne&ed with the rubber of the machine,
the appearance of light within the tube will be rever-
fed *, the knob which communicates with the piece FD
appearing illuminated with a ftar, and the oppofite
with a pencil of rays.
If the wires within the tube EF, inftead of being
furnilhed with knobs, be pointed, the appearance of
light is the fame, but it feems not fo ftrong in this, as
in the other cafe.
Exper. 2.—Take a glafs tube of about two inches cont]u^jnff
diameter, and about two feet long; fix to one of its glafs tube,
ends a brafs cap, and to the other a ftop-cotk, or a
valve ; then by means of an air-pump exhauft it of air.
If this tube be held by one end, and its other end be
brought near the eledlrified prime condudfor, it will
appear to be full of light, whenever a fpark is taken
by it from the prime conduftor ; and much more fo,
if an elefiric jar be difeharged through it.
This experiment may alfo be made with the receiver
of an air-pump. Take, for inftance, a tall receiver,
clean and dry, and through a hole at its top infert a
4 U wire,
(V) An inftrument much like this conduftor was fome years ago invented by Dr Watfon, with which he
made feveral original experiments upon the ele&ric light.
706
ELECTRICITY.
Frinciplesof
E!efiri<;ity
illuft/ated
by experi-
meiit.
190
Aurora bo-
reabs
Plate
CXdl.
fig. <5 3.
191
Vifible e-
ledlric at-
mofphere.
Fig. 63.
wire, which muft be cemented air-tight. The end of
the wire, that is within the tube, muft be pointed, but
not very tharp ; and the other end muft be furniftied
with a knob. Put this receiver upon the plate of the
air-pump, and exhauft it. If now the knob of the
wire at the top of the receiver be touched with the
prime conductor, every fpark will pafs through the re¬
ceiver in a denfe and large body of light, from the wire
to the plate of the air-pump.
It muft be obferved, that when the air is very much
rarefied, the eleftric light in it is lefs denfe, though
more diffufed ; and contrary wife.
Exper. 3.—Take a phial nearly of the fhape and
fize of a Florence flafk, fuch as is reprefented at fig.
62.
Fix a ftop-cock or a valve to its neck, and exhauft
it of air as much as it is poftible with a good air-pump.
If this glafs be rubbed in the common manner ufed to
excite eleflrics, it will appear luminous within, being
full of a flafhing light, which plainly refembles the au¬
rora borealis, or northern light. This phial may alfo
be made luminous by holding it by either end, and
bringing the other end to the prime conduftor ; in this
cafe all the cavity of the glafs will inftantly appear full
of flaftiing light, which remains in it for a confider-
able time after it has been removed from the prime
conduflor.
Inftead of the above-defcribed glafs veffel, a glafs
tube, exhaufted of air and hermetically fealed, may be
ufed, and perhaps with greater advantage. The moft
remarkable circumftance of this experiment is, that if
the phial or tube, after it has been removed from the
prime condu&or (and even feveral hours after its flafti¬
ing light hath ceafed to appear) be grafped with the
hand, ftrong flafties of light will immediately appear
within the glafs, which often reach from one of its ends
to the other.
Exper. 4.—GI, fig. 63. reprefents the receiver with
the plate of an air-pump. In the middle of the plate
IF, a ftiort rod is fixed, having at its top a metal ball
B nicely poliftied, whofe diameter is nearly two inches.
From the top of the receiver another rod AD with a
like ball A proceeds, and is cemented air-tight in the
neck C ; the diftance of the balls from one another
being about four inches, or rather more. If, when
the receiver is exhaufted of air, the ball A be ele&ri-
fied pofitively, by touching the top D of the rod AD
with the prime conduftor or an excited glafs tube, a
lucid atmofphere appears about it, which, although it
confifts of a feeble light, is yet very confpicuous, and
very well defined j at the fame time the ball B has not
the leaft light. The atmofphere does not exift all
round the ball A, but reaches from about the middle
of it, to a fmall diftance beyond that fide of its furface,
which is towards the oppofite ball B. If the rod with
the ball A be eleftrified negatively, then a lucid at¬
mofphere, like the above defcribed, will appear upon
the ball B, reaching from its middle to a fmall diftance
beyond that fide of it that is towards the ball A ;
at the fame time the negatively ele&rified ball A re¬
mains without any light.
The operator in this experiment muft take care not
to eleftrify the ball A too much, as, in that cafe, a
fpark will pafs from one ball to the other, and the de-
fired effeft -will uet be produced. A little pra&ice,
Part II
however, will render the experiment very eafy and fa- ^rinci , (
miliar. _ _ Ekadcn
This elegant experiment is the invention of Sig. Bee- hluftme
caria. ky exper
Fig. 64. and 65. reprefent a curious appearance of me^
the eledtnc light. In fig. 65. the light is feen ftream- ip2
ing from a wire within the exhaufted receiver of an air-Fig. 64.
pump. If in this ftate of things, the hand or a finger an^651
be applied to the external part of the receiver, part of
the light will approach the finger, as reprefented in
fig. 64.
The cleEiric fpark produces changes on mojl artificial
colours. I
Mr Cavallo made feveral experiments on fubftances Mr Cava
painted with various colours. They were occafioned lo’* expei
by his having obftrved that an ele&ric fpark lent Over"^nt!,on
the furface of a card, made a black ftioke upon a red
fpot, from which he was induced to try the eft'edl of
fending ftiocks over cards painted with different water
colours. The force employed was generally about one
foot and a half of charged furta»_e j and the thocks
were fent over the cards while the latter were in a
very dry ftate.
“ Vermilion was marked with a ftrong black track,
about one-tenth of an inch wide. This itroke is ge¬
nerally fingle, as reprefented by AB, fig. 66. Some-Fig. 65,
times it is divided in two towards the middle, like
EF; and fometimes, particularly when the wires are
fet very diftant from one another, the ftroke is not
continued, but interrupted in the middle, like GH.
It often, although not always happens, that the ;m-
prtflion is marked ftronger at the extremity of that
wire from which the eleftric Iparks iffue, as it appears
at E, fuppofing that the wire C communicates with the
pofitive fide of the jar j whereas the extremity of the
ftroke, contiguous to the point of the wire D, is nei¬
ther fo ftrongly marked, nor furrounds the wire fo
much, as the other extremity E.
“ Carmine received a faint and flender impreffion of
a purple colour.
“ Verdigrife was ftiaken off from the furface of the
card j except when it had been mixed with ftrong
gum-water, in which cafe it received a very faint im-
preflion.
“ White lead was marked by a long black track, not
fo broad as that on vermilion.
“ Red lead was marked with a faint mark much like
carmine.,
“ The other colours I tried were orpiment, gamboge,
fap green, red ink, ultramarine, Pruffian blue, and a
few others which were compounds of the above 5 but
they received no imprefiion.
“ It having been infinuated, that the ftrong black
mark, which vermilion receives from the ele£tric (hock,
might poflibly be owing to the great quantity of ful-
phur contained in that mineral, I was induced to make
the following experiment. I mixed together equal
quantities of orpiment and flower of fulphur $ and with
this mixture, by the help, as ui’ual, of very diluted
gum-water, I painted a card ; but the eledlric (hock
fent over it left not the leaft impreflion.
“ Defirous of carrying this inveftigation on colours
a little farther, with a particular view to determine
fomething relative to the properties of lamp black and
oil,. I procured fonte pieces of paper painted on both
fides
i hap. VIII.
nci lesoffides with oil colours and fending the charge of two
ertncity feet of coated glafs over each of them, by making the
uftrated interruption of the circuit upon their furfaces, I obferv-
f expert-ecl tjiat tke pieces 0f paper painted wit^i lamp black,
m^nt' , Pruflian blue, vermilion, and purple brown, were torn
by the explofion j but white lead, Naples yellow, Eng-
lilh ochre, and verdigrife, remained unhurt.
“ The fame (hock fent over a piece of paper paint¬
ed very thickly with lamp black and oil left not the
lead impreflion. I fent the (hock alfo over a piece of
paper unequally painted with purple brown, and the
paper was torn where the paint lay very thin, but re¬
mained unhurt where the paint lay evidently thicker.
Thefe experiments I repeated feveral times, and with
fome very little variation, which naturally produced
different effeds •, however, they all feem to point out
the following propofitions.
“ i. A coat of oil paint over any fubflanee, defends
it from the effed of fuch a (hock as would other wife
injure it j but by ne means defends it from any eledric
fhock whatever.
“ 2. No one colour feems preferable to the others, if
they are equal in fubflanee, and equally well mixed
with oil ; but a thick coating does certainly afford a
better defence than a thinner one.
“ By rubbing the above mentioned pieces of paper,
I find that the paper painted with lamp-black and oil
is more eafily excited, and acquires a ftronger eledri-
clty, than the papers painted with the other colours ;
and perhaps on this account it may be, that lamp black
and oil might refift the fhock fome what better than the
other paints.
“ It is remarkable that vermilion receives the black
impreflion when painted with linfeed oil nearly as well
as when painted with water. I he paper painted with
white lead and oil receives alfo a black mark j but its na¬
ture is very lingular. Jfhe track when firfi made, is al-
moft as dark as that marked on white lead painted with
water ; but it lofes its blacknefs, and in about an hour’s
time (or longer, if the paint is not frefh) it appears
without any darknefs $ and when the painted paper^ is
laid in a proper light appears only marked with
a colourlefs track, as if made by a finger nail. I fent
the fhock alfo over a piece of board, which had been
painted with white lead and oil four years before, and
the explofion marked the black track upon this alfo
this track, however, was not fo flrong, nor vanifhed
fo foon, as that marked upon the painted paper } but in
about two days time it alfo vanifhed entirely.
Chap. VIII. Of the Mechanical Ejfecls oftheEkBric
Power.
The eleSlric power in its paffage through the air,
i94 drives light bodies before it. _
I idf&ric S'g. Beccaria put a narrow piece of filver lear be-
I fwer tween two plates of wax, laying it acrofs them, but
"IT !ght fo that it did not quite reach one of the Tides. I he
I -ore it. 6 difcharge being made through this ftrip of metal, by
bringing a wire oppofite to the filver at the place where
it was difcontinued ; the filver was found melted, and
part of it difperfed all along the track that the eledtnc
fpark took between the plates of wax, from the filver
to the wire.
The following experiment fhows the force of the elcc-
7°7
trie explofion in driving the particles of a metal into Principlesof
the pores of glafs. Electricity
Take two flips of common window glafs, about three .
inches long, and half an inch wide ; put a fmall flip mert>
of gold, filver or brafs leaf, between them, and tie J
them together, or prefs them together between the
boards of the prefs H, belonging to the univerfal dif-
eharger, leaving a little of the metallic leaf out between
the glaffes at each end; then fend a flioek through this
metallic leaf, and the force of the explofion will drive
part of the metal into fo clofe a contact with the glafs,
that it cannot be wiped off, or even be affefled by the
common menftrua which otherwife would diffolve it.
In this experiment the glaffes are often fhattered to
pieces j but whether they are broken or not, the inde¬
lible metallic tinge will always be found in feveral
places, and fometimes through the whole length of both
glaffes.
Dr Prkftley made the following experiments to af-
certain this remarkable property of the eledlric power.
He difeharged frequent fliocks both of a common
jar, and another of three fquare feet, through trains of
brafs duft, laid on a ftool of baked wood, making in¬
terruptions in various parts of the train ; and he al¬
ways found the brafs duft fcattered in the intervals, f».
as to conne£l the two disjoined ends of the train j but
then it was likewife fcattered nearly as much from al-
moft all other parts of the train, and in all direc-
tipns.
When fmall trains were laid, the difperfion was the
moft confiderable, and a light was very vifible in the
dark, illuminating the whole circuit. It made no dif¬
ference, in any of thefe experiments, which way the
fhock was difeharged.
When he laid a confiderable quantity of the duft at
the ends of two pieces of chain, through which the
fhock pafled at the diftance of about three inches from
one another, the duft was always difperfed over the
whole interval, but chiefly laterally *, fo that the great-
eft quantity of it lay in arches, extending both ways,
and leaving very little of it in the middle of the
path.
The Doftor then infulated a jar of three fquare feet,
and upon an adjoining glafs ftand laid a heap of brafs
duft ; and at the diftance of feven or eight inches, a
brafs rod communicating with the outfide of the jar.
Upon bringing another rod communicating with the
infide, upon the heap of duft, the heap was difperfed
in a beautiful manner, but not one way more than the
other. It, howrever, prefently reached the rod commu¬
nicating with the outfide.
Making two heaps, about eight inches afunder, he
brought one rod communicating with the infide upon
one of them, and another rod communicating with the
outfide upon the other. Both the heaps were difperfed
in all diredlions, and foon met j prefently after which
the jar was difeharged by means of this difperfed duft,
in one full explofion. ' When the two heaps were too
far afunder to promote a full difcharge at once, a gra¬
dual difcharge was made through the fcattered particles
of the duft.
When one heap of duft was laid in the centre of the
ftand, and the two rods were made to approach on each
fide of it, they each attra&ed the duft from the fide of
the heap next to them, and repelled it again in all di-
4 U 2 regions.
ELECTRICITY.
yo3
Principles of regions. When they came very near the heap, the
iUunrated ^^c*iar8e was ma^e through it, without giving it any
b/e/peri- P^ticular motion.
ment. An experiment given by Mr Cavallo to prove the
-- direftion of the eleflric power in the difeharge of a
*95 Leyden phial, will afford a good illuRration of our pre¬
fen t pofition.
Bend a card, length-ways, over a round ruler, fo as
to form a channel, or fenoicircular groove (B): lay
th is card upon the circular board E of the univerfal
difcharger, and in the middle of it put a pith-ball of
about half an inch diameter j then at equal diftances,
about half or three quarters of an inch from the pith-
bnll, lay the two brafs knobs DD. The card being
perfectly dry, and rather hot, if you connect, by means
of a chain or otherwife, the outfide of a charged jar
with one of the wires C, and bring the knob of the jar
to the other wire C, you will obferve, that on making
the difeharge, which mull; pafs between the knobs DD,
and over the card, &c. the pith-ball is always driven
in the direction of the eltftric power ; i. e. it is pulhed
towards that knob which communicates with the nega¬
tive fide of the jar.
It mull be obferved, that in this experiment the
charge of the jar mull be jufl: fufficient to pafs through
the interval in the circuit •, the card, or piece of baked
wood, muff be very dry and clean ; and, in Ihort, the
difpofition of the apparatus, and the performance of
this curious experiment, require a degree of nicety that
can only be obtained by praftice. Without great pre¬
caution, it fometimes fails •, but when the operator has
once got it to fucceed, and follows exaflly the fame
method of operating, he may be fure that the event of
the experiment will be conftantly as above deferib-
ed.
By the eleBric exp/q/ion, paper, pajlehoard, card, thin
glafs, and other non-conduBing fubjlances, may be per¬
forated or broken.
Exper. i.—Take a card, a quire of paper, or the
cover of a book, and keep it clofe to the outfide coat¬
ing of a charged jar ; put one knob of the difebarging
rod upon the card, quire of paper, &c. fo that between
the knob and coating of the jar the thicknefs of that
card or quire of paper only is interpofed ; laftly, by
bringing the other knob of the difeharging rod near
the knob of the jar, make the difeharge, and the elec¬
tric fpark will pierce a hole (or perhaps feveral) quite
through the card or quire of paper. This hole has a
bur raifed on each fide, except the card, &c. be preffed
hard between the difeharging rod and the jar. If this
•xperiment be made with two cards inllead of one,
which however muff be kept very little diftant from
one another, each of the cards, after the explofion, will
be found pierced with one or more holes, and each hole
will have burs on both furfaces of each card. The
hole, or holes,, are larger or fmaller, according as the
card, S^c. is more damp or more dry. It is remark¬
able, that if the nofirils are presented to it, they will
Part III
be affe&ed with a fulphureous, or rather a phofpho- Principif5f)
real ftnell, juft like that produced by an excited elec- lieelrinty
trie. illultrated
If, inftead of paper, a very thin plate of glafs, rofin, by eKpei‘*
fealing wax, or the like, be interpofed between the -
knob of the difeharging rod and the outfide coating
of the. jar, on making the difeharge, this will be bro¬
ken in feveral pieces.
If the explofion is fent over the furface of a piece of
glafs, this will be marked with an indelible track,,
which generally reaches from the extremity of one of
the wires to the extremity of the other. In this man¬
ner, the piece of glafs is very feldom broken by the
explofion. But Mr Henley difeovered a very remark¬
able method to increafe the effeft of the explofion upon
the glafs •, w’hich is by preffing with weights that part
of the glafs which lies between the two wires (i.e. that
part over which the ftiock is to pafs). He put firft a
thick piece of ivory upon the glafs, and placed upon
that ivory a weight at pleafure, from one quarter of an
ounce to fix pounds : the glafs in this manner is gene¬
rally broken by the explofion into innumerable frag¬
ments, and fome of it is abfolutely reduced into
an impalpable powder. If the glafs is very thick,
and refifts the force of the explofion, fo as not to be
broken by it, it will be found marked with the moft
lively prifmatic colours, which are thought to be oc-
cafioned by very thin laminae of the glafs, in part fe-
parated from it by the ftiock. The weight laid upon
the glafs is always ftiook by the explofion, and fome¬
times it is thrown quite off from the ivory. This ex¬
periment maybe moft conveniently made with the uni¬
verfal difcharger.
Exper. 2.—Place the extremities of two wires, one
above and the other below a card, fo as to be about an
inch diftance from each other, taking care that the
card be kept fteady. Then, make the charge of a
Leyden phial pafs from one wire to the other, and it
will be found, that a luminous track will pafs from the
end of that wire which is connefted with the pofitive
furface of the phial, to the extremity of the other
wire, where a hole will be perforated through the
card.
This experiment, to which we fhall have occafios
to refer hereafter, is by Mr Lullin of Geneva.
Mr Symmer made feme experiments on the perfora¬
tion of paper, which we {hall mention here, as on them
he grounded a principal argument in favour of that
theory which he adopted, and of which we fliall give
an account hereafter.
Exper. 3.—A piece of paper covered on one fide
with Dutch gilding, and which had been left acciden¬
tally between two leaves in a quire of paper, in which
a former experiment had been made,,was found to have
the, impreffion of two ftrokes upon it, about a quarter
of an inch from each other y the gilding was ftripped
off, and the paper left bare for a little fpace in both
places. In the centre of, one of thefe places was a lit¬
tle
ELECTRICITY.
(B) Inftead of the card, a piece of baked wood may be cut in that ftiape, and painted over with lamp-black
apd oi ; which will anfwer better than the card, it being much more fteady, and not fo liable to attra£
nap. Vlir. ELECTRICITY.
■ ici pies of tie round hole, in the other only an indenture or im*
;dtficity preffion, fuch as might have been made with the point
jftrated a hocj^Jn,
F.xper. 4.—In the middle of a paper book, of the
-Y-— thieknefs of a quire, Dr Symmer put a flip of tinfoil ;
and in another of the fame thieknefs, he put two flips
of the fame fort of foil, including the two middle leaves
of the book between them. On paffing the explofion
through the tAvo different books, the following effefts
Avere produced. In the firft, the leaves on each fide
of the tinfoil were pierced, while the foil ftfelf remain¬
ed unpierced ; but at the fame time, it might be per¬
ceived that an impreffion had been made on each of its
furfaces, at a little diflance from one another ; and
fueh impreffions were ftill more vifible on the paper,
and might be traced, as pointing different ways. In
the fecond, all the leaves of the book were pierced,
excepting the two that were included between the
flips of tinfoil ; and in thefe two, inftead of holes, the
two impreflions in contrary diredtions were vifible.
The following experiment (hows how eafiiy fo hard a
fubftance as glafs, may be pierced by the eledlric fpark.
It is thus related by Mr Cavallo.
Exf>er. 5.—Let a glafs tube of any diameter, and
about five or fix inches in length, be clofed hermetical¬
ly, or by means of fealing-wax, at one end, and fill
about half of it with olive oil ; then flop the aperture
of it with a cork, and let a wire pafs through the
cork, and come fo far within the tube, as to have its
extremity below the furface of the oil. This end of
the wire muft touch the furface of the glafs, for which
purpofe it muft be bent nearly at right angles, which
may be eafiiy done before the cork is put upon the
tube. Things being thus prepared, bend into a ring
the other extremity of the wire, and fufpend it, with
the tube hanging to it, to the wire at the end of the
condudfor. Then work the machine, and bring the
knuckle of a finger or the knob of a wire near the out-
fide of the tube, juft oppofite to the extremity of the
wire ; the confequence of which will be, that a fpark
will happen between the wire and the knuckle, which
makes a hole through the glafs.—By turning the wire
about, or raifing and lowering it, many holes may be
fucceflively made in the fame tube, after the manner
above defcribed.
Exper. 6.—Roll up a piece of foft tobacco-pipe clay
in a fmall cylinder, and infert in it two wires, fo that
their ends without the clay may be about a fifth part of
an inch from one another. If a (hock be fent through
this clay, by connedting one of the wires with the out-
fide of a charged jar, and the other with the infide, it
will be inflated by the (hock, i. e. by the fpark, that
pafies between the two wires, and, after the explofion,
will appear fwelled in the middle. If the (hock fent
through it is too ftrong, and the clay not very moift, it
will be broken by the explofion, and its fragments fcat-
tered in every diredtion. To make this experiment with
a little variation, take a piece of the tube of a tobac¬
co-pipe, about one inch long, and fill its bore with
moift clay ; then infert in it two wires, as in the above
rolled clay ; and fend a (hock through it. This tube
will not fail to burft by the force of the explofion, and
its fragments will be fcattered about to a great diftance.
If, inftead of the clay, the above-mentioned tube of the
tobacco-pipe, or a glafs tube (which will anfwer as
7°9
well), be filled with any other fubftance, either eledlric Prinriplesof
or non-eledtric, inferior to metal, on making the dif- Electricity
charge, it will be broken in pieces with nearly the j|'u^rate.^
fame force. This experiment is the invention of Mr
Lane, F. R. S. ---y—.«
Exper. 7.—Place within a common drinking-glafs,
nearly full of water, two knobbed wires, bent in fuch a
manner, as that their knobs may be within a little dif¬
tance of each other in the water. Conned! one of
thefe wires with the outfide coating of a pretty large
jar, and touch the other wire with the knob of it j on
making the difcharge, the explofion which mud pafs
through the water between the two knobs, will difperfe
the water, and break the glafs with a furprifing vio¬
lence. This experiment requires great caution.
Sig. Becearia contrived a (mail mortar, into which a
d^op of water was put, between the extremities of two
wires which went through the fides of the mortar, and
a wooden ball was applied over the drop of water j
then a charged jar being difcharged through the wires
of the mortar, and confequently through the drop of
water, rarefied the latter, and drove the ball out with
confiderable force. Mr Lullin produced a greater
effedf by making the difcbarge through oil inftead of
water.
Chap. IX. Of the Methods of ejlimating the De¬
gree of Accumulated EleElricity in Jars and Bat¬
teries.
The only method of afcertaining the charge of a
Leyden phial or of a battery, which we have hitherto
mentioned, is that of obferving the repuifive force of
the charge on the ball of Henley’s quadrant eleftrome-
ter. But it was found {Vide 112.) that this was not
always a juft criterion of the amount of the charge ;
as, even when the jar was infulated, and confequently
could receive no charge, the index of the electrometer
ftill rofe as high as if the jar was fully charged. We
(hall now proceed to defcribe two methods, which, par¬
ticularly the laft, are much lefs liable to error. The
firft depends on the following principle.
The diflance of the ball of a difcharged rod from the tpt'i
knob of a charged phial or battery neceffary to produce
an explojiotiy will be greater in proportion to the degree
of accumulated eleBricity which the jar or battery has
received.
Exper.—Take a Leyden phial, into the knob of
which is fixed a quadrant eleClrometer ; communicate
to it a fmall charge, fo that the index of the eledlrome-
ter may point, we (hall fuppofe, at io°. In making
the difcharge, it evil! be found neceffary to bring the
ball of the difebarging rod almoft in contadl with the
knob of the jar. Now charge the jar to 20®, and it
will be found that the explofion will take place, when
the ball of the difeharging rod is at a greater diftance
from the knob of the jar, than before j and thus, by
repeating the experiment with greater charges, it will
be obferved, that the diftance neceffary to produce an
explofion will increafe nearly in proportion to the •
char£e- ... iP9
On this principle Mr Lane conftrufted an eleftro- Lane’i elec-
meter, which has been found extremely ufeful, when trometer.
it was required to difoharge a jar or battery a number
of times fiicceflively, with the fame charge. This in-
ftrumenfc
710
? rinciplesofftnunent has been called Mr Lane’s difcharging elec~
Mw!nCit:i tromet£r'
bv^ex^ri- The principal part of it confided originally of a brafs
ment. ball about an inch and a half in diameter, fcrevved to a
y—•' graduated brafs rod, and adapted to a proper frame, fo
that it might be fet at any required diftance from the
prime conductor of the knob of a Leyden phial. The
chief ufe of this inflrument is to allow a jar to difcharge
fpontanedufly through any proper circuit, without em¬
ploying a difcharging rod, or moving any part of the
apparatus, and alfo to produce fuccelfive explofions
nearly of the fame -ftrength, as obferved above. If, for
example, the brafs ball be placed at the difiance of
about half an inch from the prime condudlor, and a
Leyden phial be fo fituated as to have its knob in con-
ta£l with the prime conductor, while its outfide coat¬
ing communicates with the ball of the ele£lrometer, it
is evident that the communication between the outfide
and infide of the jar, is interrupted only between the
prime conduftor and the brafs ball, which are half an
inch afunder j therefore, in charging the jar, when the
charge is become fo high as to ftrike through half an
inch of air, the jar will difcharge fpontaneoufly, and by
keeping the brafs ball at the fame diftance from the
prime conduftor, and charging the jar fucceflively, the
fhocks will be nearly of the fame ftrength.
An electrometer of this’ kind, though not exactly
like the original one, is now commonly ufed by the
practitioners of medical electricity, and is delineated
Plate in fig. 67. of Plate CXCI. It confifts of a glafs arm
CXCl. which proceeds from the wire of the jar F, and to
^‘^7' the extremity E of which a fpring focket is cement¬
ed, through which a wire palfes, which is furniflied
with a knob B, towards the knob A of the jar, and
with an open ring C at its other extremity. Now, as
this wire may be Aid backwards and forwards, the knob
B may be put at any required diftance from the knob
A, as far as the conftruction of the inftrument will al¬
low. The wire BC is generally marked with divifions
which ftiow the diftance of the two knobs, when the
wire is fo fituated, as that the required divifion coincides
with the edge of the fpring focket; as, for inftance,
one-tenth, or one quarter of an inch, &c. When the
jar F is fet againft the prime conductor G, as repre-
fented in the figure, fuppofe that the ball B is fet at
the diftance-of one-tenth of an inch from the ball A,
and that a wire be fixed from the electrometer’s ring,
to the outfide coating of the jar, as (hewn by the dotted
line CK ; then, when the machine is put in motion,
the difcharge of the jar, as foon as this becomes fuffici-
ently charged, will be made between the knobs AB,
and through the wire CK ; and it is evident that thefe
difcharges will be of the fame ftrength, as long as the
diftance between AB remains the fame.
This inftrument is fubject to the following inconve¬
nience, viz. that the force of the explofion, after a time,
roughens the furface of the brafs ball, and thus, for a
reafon to be explained hereafter, the inftrument is ufe-
lefs unlefs the polifti of the ball be again renewed. It
is alfo found that this inftrument is not accurate in
(hewing the exact charge of a jar.
200 The charge of a jar or battery may be mojl accurate¬
ly determined by the weight which the repuifwt force of
the accumulated eleffricity is able to raife.
Upon this principle Mr Brooke of Norwich conftruct-
4
Part III
ed a very valuable eleftromeler, of which he has given pr;nti lest
a long and accurate account in his Mifcellaneous Expe- Eieftricitj
rimcnts. illuftrated
Our limits will not permit us to copy this long de-
fcription, for which we muft therefore refer our readers . m^nt^
to Mr Brooke’s work. We have, however, the lefs
reafon to regret this omiflion, becaule we (hall prefent-
ly defcribe an inftrument invented by the late Profeffor
Robifon, which appears to us fuperior to Mr Brooke’s
both in fimplicity and utility.
Mr G. Adams has defcribed an ele&rometer very
fimilar in principle to that of Mr Brooke, and we (hall
here copy his defcription.
“ Fig. 68. and 69. reprefent an eleflrometer, near-Eledbome. |
ly fimilar to that contrived by Mr Brooke. The tvvoter fimiiar”
inftruments are fometimes combined in one, or ufed fe-toMr
parately, as in thefe figures. The arms FH fk, fig. 69. p™0^’8’
when in ufe, are to be placed as much as poflible out and 63,’
of the atmofphere of a jar, battery, prime condu&or,
&c. The arm FH and the ball K are made of cop¬
per, and as light as poflible. The divifions on the arm
FH are each of them exatftly a grain. They are as¬
certained at firft by placing grain weights on a brafs
ball which is within the ball L, (this ball is an exadl
counterbalance to the arm FH and the ball K when
the fmall Aide r is at the firft divifion) and then re¬
moving the Hide r, till it, together with the ball K,
counterbalances the ball L and the weight laid on it.
A, fig. 69. is a dial plate, divided into 90 equal
parts. The index of this plate is carried once round,
when the arm BC has moved through 90 degrees, or
a quarter of a circle. That motion is given to the in¬
dex by the repulfive power of the charge afting between
the ball D and the ball B.
The arm BC being repelled, (hews W'hen the charge
is increafing, and the arm FH (hews what this repulfive
power is between two balls of this fize in grains, ac¬
cording to the number the weight refts at when lifted
up by the repulfive power of the charge : at the fame
time the arm BC points out the number of degrees to
which the ball B is repelled ; fo that by repeated trials,
the number of degrees anfwering to a given number of
grains, may be afcertained, and a table formed from
thefe experiments, by which means the eledlromeler,
fig. 69. may be ufed without that of fig. 68.
Mr Brooke thinks that no glafs, charged (as we call
it) with eleftricity, will bear a greater force, than that
whofe repulfive power, between two balls of the fize he
ufed, is equal to fixty grains j that in very few inftances
it will (land fixty grains weight ; and he thinks it ha¬
zardous to go more than 45 grains.
Hence, by knowing the quantity of coated furface,
and the diameter of the balls, we maybe enabled to fay,
fo much coated furface, with a repulfion between balls
of fo many grains, will melt a wire of fuch a fize, or
kill fuch an animal, &c.
Mr Brooke thinks, that he is not acquainted with all
the advantages of his eleftrcmeter ; but that it is
clear, it fpeaks a language which may be univerfally
underftood, which no other will doj for though other
ele&rometers will drew whether a charge is greater or
lefs, by an index being repelled to greater or fmaller
diftances, or by the charge exploding at different di-
ftances, yet the power of the charge is by no means
alcertained; but this ele&rometer (hews the force of
the
E LECTRICITY.
hap.
ment.
20Z
r
ooke’s
jeri-
mts on
IX, E L E C T
nciplesof the repulfive power in grains j and the accuracy of the
eftricity intlrument is eafily proved, by placing the weights on
uftrated Internal ball, and feeing that they coincide with
r expen- tjie (jivjflons on tiie arra f'H, when the Hide is removed
to them.
With his ele&rometer, Mr Brooke made a fet of ex¬
periments, with a view to determine exactly the force
of batteries of an inferior power, in melting fine metal¬
lic wires of different kinds. The following is the fub-
,"force offtance of thefe experiments.
tteries. j. With a battery of nine bottles, containing about
j6 fquare feet of coated furface, and charged to 32
grains of repulfion, a {hock was eleven times fent
through a piece of fteel wire twelve inches long and
T~th of an inch thick $ the wire was (hortened an
inch and a half, being then about ten inches and a
half long ; by a twelfth (hock, the wire was melted to
pieces.
2. A. (hock from the fame nine bottles charged to
the fame, degree of repulfion, being fent through a
piece of fteel wire, 12 inches long and TToth of an
inch thick, the firft time melted the whole of it into
fmall globules.
3. A (hock from the fame nine bottles charged to
the fame degree, being fent through a piece of brafs
wire twelve inches long, and of an inch thick,
melted the whole of it, with much fmoke, refembling
that from gunpowder ; but the metallic part formed it-
felf, in cooling, chiefly into concave hemifpherical
figures of various fizes.
4. A Ihock from only eight of the bottles charged to
the fame degree, did but juft melt twelve inches of rteel
wire T-^h of an inch thick, fo as to fall into feveral
pieces j thefe pieces in cooling formed themfelves into
oblong lumps, joining themfelves to each other by a
very fmall part of the wire between each lump which
was not melted enough to feparate, but appeared like
oblong beads on a thread at different diftances.
5. A fhock from the fame eight bottles, charged to
the fame degree, fo perfeffly heated twelve inches of
brafs wire about °f an inch in diameter, as to
melt it, or at lead foften it fo far as to make it fall
down by its own weight, from the forceps by which it
was held at each end, upon a ftieet of paper placed be¬
low to catch it, and when it fell down it was fo per-
fe ' /
inch in diameter ; which is about double the quantity
of metal in the fame length as in that of ^yth of an
inch in diameter. Thus, it is eafy to find what differ¬
ent refiftance a wire of any of the preceding metals,
of equal fize and length, will make to the eledhical
ftroke.
The length of the eledlric circuit, in which the dif¬
ferent wires were placed, in the foregoing experiments,
from the neared part of the infide to the neared part *
of the outfide of the battery, exclufive of the length of
the faid wires, was about eight feet.
41. Two gentlemen coming to fee a piece of wire
melted by eledlricity, Mr Brooke proceeded to (hew it
them, by fixing twelve inches of fteel wire T^th of
an inch in diameter, and then (fuppofing the eleftro-
meter, and all other things ready placed), to charge the
battery, but the eledlrometer did not move : neverthe-
lefs, he continued charging as he fuppofed j but (till
the eledlrometer remained as it was, although he had
been charging much longer than would have been ne-
eeffary, contrary to his defign, which was to take a
fmall wire, that a fmaller charge might be fufficient.
Having been charging a long time, Mr Brooke left off
to look about the apparatus, in order to fee if all was
right: as he was looking, he found there was no com¬
munication between the battery and the eledlrometer,
and he heard a flight crackling in the battery which
convinced him that it was charged. Accordingly he
made the difcharge, expe&ing nothing unufual ; but
the wire was difperfed feemingly in a very violent man¬
ner. The report was fo very loud that their ears were
dunned, and the flafli of light fo very great, that Mr
Brooke’s fight was quite confufed for a few feconds.
Mr Cuthbertfon has lately contrived an eleftrometer, Cuthbert-
which poffeffes all the advantages of Mr Brooke’s, add-Con’* corn¬
ed to thole of Lane and Henley, with which he has in-Pouml elec-
genioufly combined it. trometer.
This valuable inftrument is thus defcribed by the in¬
ventor.
The ele&romeier is reprefented in Plate CXCI. Plate
fig. 7°. GH is a long fquare piece of wood, about
18 inches long, and fix inches broad, in which are fix- 7°'
ed three glafs fupports, DEF, mounted with brafs balls,
a be. Under the brafs ball a, is a long brafs hook ; the
ball c is made of two hemifpheres, the under one being
fixed to the brafs mounting, and the upper turned with
a groove to (hut upon it, fo that it can be taken off at
pleafure. The ball b has a brafs tube fixed to it, about
three inches long, cemented on to the top of F ; and the
fame ball has a hole at the top, of about one-half inch
diameter, correfponding with the infide of the tube.
AB is a ftraight brafs wire, with a knife-edged centre
in the middle, placed a little below the centre of gra¬
vity, and equally balanced with a hollow brafs ball at
each end, the centre, or axis, refting upon a proper
dipped piece of brafs fixed in the infide of the ball c ;
that fide of the hemifphere towards c is cut open, to
permit the end A of the balance to defeend till
it touches the ball a, and the upper henaifphere C
714. ELECT
Principles of is alfo cut open to permit the end c B to afcend j z is a
Electricity weigiit, weighing a certain number of grains, and made
illuttrated t]ie form 0f a pin with a broad head ; the ball B has
^ment™ two holes, one at the top, and the other at the bottom ;
ti ^ - the upper hole is fo wide, as to let the head of the pin
pafs through it, but to flop at the under one, with its
fliank hanging freely \r\ b ; a number of fuch pins are
commonly made to each ele£lrometer of different
weights (c) ; £ is a common Henley’s quadrant elec¬
trometer, and when in ufe, it is ferewed upon the top
of c.
It is evident, from the conftru£!ion, that if the foot
ftand horizontal, and the ball B be made to touch b, it
will remain in that pofition without the help of the
weight i; and if it fhould by any means receive a very
low charge of electric fluid, the two balls b, B, will re¬
pel each other; B will begin to afcend, and, on ac¬
count of the centre of gravity being above the centre
of motion, the afeenfion will continue till A reft upon
a. If the balance be fet again horizontal, and a pin z,
of any fmall weight, be put into its place in B, it will
caufe B to reft upon with a preflure equal to that
weight, fo that more ele£hic fluid muft be communi¬
cated than before, before the balls will feparate ; and
as the weight in B is increafed or diminifhed, a greater
or lefs quantity of cle£lric fluid will be required to ef¬
fect a feparation.
When this inftrument is to be applied to a jar, or
battery, for which purpofe it was invented, one end of
a wire L, rouft be inferted into a hole in b, and the o-
ther end into a hole of at y ball proceeding from the in-
fide of a battery, as M ('Dj): £ muft be ferewed upon r,
with its index towards A ; the reafonof this inftrument
being added, is to (hew, by the index continuing to rite,
that the charge of the ball ery is increafing, becaufe the
other part of the inftrument does not aft till the battery
has received its required charge.
If this inftrument be examined with attention, it will
be found to confift of three eleftrometers *, and anfwers
three different purpofes, namely, a Henley’s electrome¬
ter, Lane’s difeharging eleftrometer, and Brooke’s fteel-
yard eleftrometer ; the firft not improved, but the two
laft, which were very defeftive when firft invented, I
flatter myfelf are here brought to perfeftion. As the
only ufe of Henley’s eleftrometer to this inftrument is,
as I have faid before, to (hew, by its continuing to in-
creafe in divergency, that the battery continues to re¬
ceive a (till ftronger charge,it required no improvement;
but Lane’s eleftrometer, in its primitive ftate, could by
•no means anfwer the required purpofe for batteries, be¬
caufe the ball intended to difeharge the battery, was
neceffarily placed fo near to the ball of the battery, that
duft and fibrous particles were always attrafted by and
adhered between the two balls, fo as to retard the charg¬
ing, and often render a high charge impoffible: where-
R I C I T Y. Part III.
as, in this, they are placed at four inches afunder ; and Principles of
when the defired height of charge is obtained, and not Electricity
before, the ball of the eleftrometer moves of itfelf near- illuftrated
er to the ball which is connefted with the outfide of the exPeri'
battery, and caufesa difeharge. The defefts in Brooke’s , ^ ' j
fteelyard eleftrometer were, ift, that it could not caufe
a difeharge ; and, 2dly, the difficulty of obferving the
firft feparation of the balls caufed great error. If it
were not placed in an advantageous light (which the
nature of the experiments could not always permit),
it would not be feen, without the attention of an
affiftant, which is fometimes unpleafant, and cannot
always be commanded. But the inftrument which I
have deferibed, requires no attention or afliftance;
for as foon as the feparation takes place between B and
b, the ball A defeends, and difeharges the battery of
itfelf.
By this combination and improvements, we poffefs
in the prefent inftrument all that can ever be required
of an eleftrometei ; namely, by k, we fee the progrefs
of the charge; by the feparation of B, b, we have the ^^icbol.
repulfive power in weight ; and by the ball A, the dif-yb»’ Journ.
charge is caufed, when the charge has acquired the4t0
ftrength propofed *. ^
With this eleftrometer Lieutenant Colonel Haldane^
has made fome very ingenious experiments to determine dime’s
the exafl charge of a battery required to produce cer-medeof
tain changes in wires of the fame kind. Hi' method of®®11^"^
eftima’ing the force of the charge is by the number ofot abat“
explofions that it is capable of producing in a jar con-tery.
nefted with the outfidt coating of the battery. Tims,
if the battery while charging produces three explofions
of the jar, he fays, it has received three meafures of
eleftricity.
Mr Cuthbertfon having obferved that when he breath¬
ed into a jar, it was thus rendered capable of teceiving
a higher charge, made the following experiments to af-
certain the tffeft of fuch increafed charge. J0S
Exper. i.—Prepare the eleftrometer in the manner Brt.athing
(hewn in the plate, with the jar M annexed, which con- into a jar
tains about 168 fquare inches of coating (e): put intojnjkesit
B the pin, marked 15 ; take two inches of watch-pen-
dulum wire, fix to each end a pair of Ipring tongs, aschargfc
is reprefenttd at G hook one end to m, and the other
to the wire N, communicating with the outfide of the
jar; let the uncoated part of the jar be made very clean
and dry ; and let the prime conduftor of an eleftrical
machine, or a wire proceeding from it, touch the wire
L ; then, if the machine be put in motion, the jar and
eleftrometer will charge, as will be feen by the nfing
of the index of k, and when charged high enough, B
will be repelled by b, and A will dtfeend and dif¬
eharge the jar through the wire, which was confined
in the tongs, and the wire will be fufed and run into
balls.
Exper.
(c) Inftead of the pins, which were found inconvenient, Mr Cuthbertfon has lately conftrufted his eleftroraeter
with a Aiding piece of brafs, fo adapted to the arm of the balanced wire, as by Aiding nearer to, or farther from,
the centre of gravity to denote proportional weights.
("d) A chain, or wire, or any body through which the charge is to pafs, muft be hung to the hook at m, and
carried fmm thence to the outfide of the battery, as is reprefented by the line N.
(e) Take out the pin in B, and obferve whether the ball B will remain at reft upon b; if not turn the ad*
jufting ferew at C, till it juft remains upon A.
Chap. IX. ELECT
’rinciplesof Exper. 2.—Put into the tongs eight inches of the
Electricity fame fort of wire as before, hang one pair of tongs to the
iHuftrated hook and apply the other to the wire which forms
by experi. ^ 0utfide communication : take out the pin in B, and
^ * put in its ftead one marked 30 } all the other part of the
apparatus remaining as before, and the uncoated part of
the jar being previoufly cleaned and dried : the machine
being then put in motion, the jar and eleftrometer will
charge, as is (hewn by the rifing of the index as before j
but as foon as the jar has received a greater quantity of
ele£tric power than before, a fpontaneous explofion will
happen without affe£ting the balls B£, becaufe the dif-
charge will have pafled along the uncoated part of the
jar from the infide coating to the outfide : whence it
follows, that, while that jar remains in that clean date,
it is incapable of receiving a charge high enough to af-
fe£t the balls, or even a higher charge than it had re¬
ceived in the firft experiment. Let the uncoated part
of the jar be therefore rendered, in a (light degree,
damp •, which is eafily done, by breathing into the in¬
fide, through a glafs tubej put the machine in motion,
and no fpontaneous explofion will happen, but the balls
B£ will repel, as in the firfi; experiment, and the dif-
charge will happen from A to a, and pafs through the
wire placed in the circuit •, and though it was eight
inches, it will be fufed in the fame degree as two in¬
ches in the laft experiment, namely, the wire feen red
hot the whole length, and then fall into balls.
Very different degrees of fufion are caufed by elec¬
tric dilcharges, which may caufe great miftakes, if not
well attended to. It is proper to adhere to the degree
above mentioned, and particular care ought to be taken
to lay the wire, intended for fufion, ftraight, without
any bendings or angles in it. The wire ufed in the two
laft experiments, was that which is commonly called
watch-pendulum wire, which is flatted ; and as it ap¬
proaches very near to fuch a (harp edge as might be
fuppofed to affeft the experiment, by permitting a difli-
pation of the ele&ric fluid in its paffage, round wires
4o6 were tried, and the refult wras the fame.
Robifon’s The iate £)r Robifon contrived an ele&rometer on fi-
m‘lar with that of Mr Brooke, but much fil¬
ter r°me* perior to it in fimplicity of conftru&ion, and not infe¬
rior to any which have been invented in point of accu-
. racy.
CXC? Fig. 71. exhibits a front view of this inftrument,
fig. 71. which is thus conftrufled. A polifhed brafs ball A,
a quarter of an inch in diameter, is fixed on the point
of a common needle about three inches long, and
as (lender as can be procured of that length. On the
other end of the needle is fixed a ball of amber, glafs, or
other folid non-condu&ing fubftance, of about half an
inch or three quarters of an inch in diameter. This ball
is fixed in fuch a way as that the needle does not quite
reach to its furface, though the ball F muft be com¬
pletely perforated. From the eleftric ball there paffes
a (lender glafs rod, F, E, L, bent at right angles at E,
fo that the part FE is about three inches long, and
the other extremity L is immediately oppofite to the
centre of the ball A. A piece of amber C, cut fo as to
have two parallel cheeks, is fixed on the extremity L
of the glafs rod. For the principal part of the inftru¬
ment, a ftrong dry filk thread is to be prepared by holding
it perpendicular in melted fealing-wax, till it (hall be fully
penetrated by the wax^ fo as to retain a thin coating of
R I C I T Y.
it. The thread, thus coated, muft be kept extended, Principlesof
fo that it may be quite ftraight, and it mutt be made £!edtr;city
perfectly fraooth by holding it before a clear fire and en¬
rolling it on a fmooth plane. It is then to be paffed jnent.
through a fmall cube of amber, that has two holes drill- *-——'
ed in two of its oppofite faces, perpendicularly about
half way to the (talk. By thefe holes the cube is fuf-
pended, fo as to move readily, on two fine brafs pins,
between the cheeks of the piece of amber at L. The
waxed thread is about fix inches long, and is equally
divided by the amber cube. To one end of it, B, is
fixed a ball of fome conducing fubftance, as of very
thin poliflied metal, or gilt or burniflied cork, a quarter
of an inch in diameter. The other extremity, D,
paffes through a cork ball, fo as to move with fome
friftion.
This part of the inftrument is fo eonftru£led, that
when FE is perpendicular to the horizon, and the (talk
BD, with its balls, is allowed to hang freely, the ball B
juft touches the ball A. This pofition is reprefented in
fig. 72.
The ball F is fixed to one end of a glafs rod FI Fig. 7?.
made to pafs perpendicularly through the centre of a
graduated circle GHO, and furnilhed at its other ex¬
tremity I with a knobbed handle of boxwood. HK is
the (land of the ele&rometer, in the head of which is a
hole in which the rod FI moves fmoothly but not eafi¬
ly. Farther, there is adapted to the glafs rod FI an in¬
dex NH that turns round it. This index is fo placed
as to be parallel to a line LA drawn through the centre
of the ball A. Now, as the circle is divided into 360
degrees, o being marked above and 90 on the right
hand •, the index will point out the angle which the
line LA makes with the vertical line. It is conveni¬
ent to have another index on the rod FI turning ftiffly
round it, and extending confiderably beyond the
circle.
The method of ufing this inftrument will be (hewn
when we fpeak of the law of ele6tric aftion in the next
part.
Chap. X. Of the EleElrophorus.
207
The ele&rophorus is an inftrument invented by Defcription
Signior Volta of Como. It generally confifts of two ^‘‘•eo
parts $ a round plate of metal, or of wood, made perfe£t-UoP ou,s’
ly free from points and edges, and covered with tin-
foil } as A, fig. 73: and another circular plate of any
conducing fubftance covered with a coating of fome
refinous eleftric, generally of lac diffolved in alcohol*
melted fealing-wax, pitch, or of fulphur 5 as B. The
firft plate is furniftied with a glafs handle, or with filk
firings, fo that it may be occafionally infulated : to this
plate Volta has given the name of Scudo.
Sometimes the apparatus is made in three parts, i. e.
the refinous eleftric is formed into a cake independent
of the plate B, and [this is the moft convenient method
for experiment. To thefe three parts Dr Robifon has
given the following names; viz. the refinouseledlric he
calls the cait, the plate B they/, and the plate A the
cover ; and thefe names we (hall adopt for the fake of
convenience. For the purpofe of exhibiting the appear¬
ances which we are about to defcribe in the moft bril¬
liant manner, the feveral parts may be made very thin i/i
proportion to their circumference; but for illuftrating the
4X2 theory
716 ELECT
Principles of theory of the inftrument, which we (hall explain in the
Electricity following part, they ftiould be made of confiderable
illuftrated thicknefs. The Cole fliould be provided with an infula-
by expen- . n , ^ r
ment. t,nS ftand‘
i v The general appearances which have been obferved
with this apparatus may be reduced to the following
heads.
1. If the cate, after being juft formed, be fuffered to
remain on the Jb/e, till it be perfeflly cool and hard,
while the foie is infulated; on examination, the whole
will be found negatively eleftric, and on applying the
finger to any part of it, efpecially the foie, a fpark is
produced. If the apparatus be now fuffered to remain
at reft, its eleftricity gradually becomes weaker, and at
length entirely difappears. It may, however, be again
produced by rubbing the cate with a piece of new flan¬
nel, or, what is better, a piece of hare or mole (kin with
the fur on, made dry and warm. If after the cake has
been thus excited, the cover be placed on it, by means
of its inlulating handle, and if it be again lifted off,
■without being touched, no electricity whatever can be
obferved in the cover.
2. If, however, the cover while in contact with the
cake, be touched with the finger, a fmart pungent fpark
will be obtained from the cover : and if, while the
finger touches the cover, the thumb is placed upon the
foie, a fenfible (hock will be felt between the finger
and thumb.
3. After the above fpark or (hock has been obtain¬
ed, the eleftricity of the eleflrophorus difappears, and
the apparatus is faid to be dead $ no figns of*ele£lricity
appearing in either foie or cover, fo long as the latter
remains in contaft with the cake.
4. But if the cover be raifed to feme diftance from
the cake, and in a direftion parallel to it, and if the
cover be touched while held in this pofition, a fmart
fpark will appear between it and the finger, and will
even ftrike at fome. diftance. This fpark will be more
remarkable, if obtained from the upper furface of the
cover, efpecially from its edge, which, if it has not been
well rounded, will even throw off fparks into the air.
The fpark received from the cover under thefe circum-
ftances is, however, not fo pungent as that mentioned
ih N° 2. refembling a. fpark from any, eleftrified con-
duftor.
5. When the cover is thus raifedffrom the cake, the
former is found pofitively eleftrified, and the latter, as
before, negatively.
6. But the ele&ricity of both cover and cake, while
in contaft, is negative.
7. The appearances above defcribed may be repeated
for a confiderable time, with apparently undiminiftied
vivacity, without re-exciting the cake by friftion j the
apparatus has been obferved to retain its eleflric power,
even for feveral months. Hence it ferves as a kind of
ele&rical magazine, and may be repeatedly employed
for charging jars, either pof lively, by imparting to the
jar the ele&ric fpark from the cover while raifed from
the cake ; or negatively, by receiving the fparks from
the cover in contadl with the cake. From this pro¬
perty of retaining the ele&ric power for fo long a
time, Signior Volta denominated the apparatus elec-
trophorus, or elettroforo perpetuo.
8. If, before placing the cover, on the cake, the foie
2-
R I C I T Y. Part III,
has been infulated, the fame fpark may be obtained Principle^
from the cover, and the fame (hock may be felt on Eleftricity
touching both cake and cover at the fame time ; but dluftrated
the fpark, in this cafe, is by no means fo pungent exl,e«*
as that obtained when the foie has not been infu- ■ , m^nt'
la.ted,
9. If, when the foie has been infulated, the cover
be again lifted to a confiderable diftance from the
cake, the foie will be found electrical, and its elec¬
tricity will be the fame as that of the cake, or nega¬
tive.
10. If, after touching both foie and cover, the cover
be raifed from the cake, by its infulating handle, and
again replaced upon the cake, without being touched
while feparate, the whole apparatus is found to pofl'efs
no eleftricity.
11. If both foie and cover be inactive after being
joined, they will, when feparated, (how oppofite elec¬
tricities ; the cover being electrified pof lively, and the
foie negatively.
12. If both cover and foie be rendered inaCtive
while feparate, they will, when placed in contaCt, be
found to poffefs the eleCtricity oppofite to that of the
cake, i. e. they will together be in a flate of pofitive
eleCtricity.^ Jog
It is of little confequence what fubftance forms the Mr Caval-
bafis to which the eleCtric coating is applied j. formerly k>’s experi-
a glafs plate was employed, and this was coated 'vffh"j!|gnt|e0^rc
various refinous electrics. Mr Cavallo, who made fe- ^orus
veral experiments on the conftruction and phenomena
of the edectrophorus, found that the mod convenient
electric was made with the fecond fort of fealing-wax
fpread upon a, thick glafs plate. A plate made by
him after this manner, the diameter of which was no
more than fix inches, was, when once, excited, capable
of charging a coated phial fo ftrongly, that by the ex-
plofion, a card could be perforated j this phial might
be charged feveral times fucceflively, without again ex¬
citing the plate. Sometimes the cover, when feparated
from the plate, was fo ftrongly electrified, that it dart¬
ed ftrong flalhes towards the table on which the elec¬
tric plate was laid, and even into the air. k‘ The
power of fome of my plates,” fays Mr Cavallo, “ is fo
ftrong, that fometimes the electric, plate adheres to the
metal when this is lifted up j nor ivill they feparate
even when the metal plate is touched with the finger,
or other conductor.
“ If, after having excited the fealing-wax,” conti¬
nues he, “ I lay the plate with the wax upon the table,.
and the glafs uppermoft, i. e. contrary to the common
method, then, on making tlie ufual experiment of put¬
ting the metal plate on it, and taking the fpark, &c;
Lobferve it to be attended with the contrary electrici¬
ty } that is, if I lay the metal plate upon the electric
one, and while in that fituation touch it with an infu¬
lated body, that body acquires the pof live electricity,
and the metallic, removed from the electric plate,
appears ta be negative j . whereas it would become pofi¬
tive if laid upon the excited wax. This experiment, I
find, anfvvers in the fame manner, if an electric, plate
is ufed which has the fealing-wax coating on both
fides, or one of Mr Adams’s, which has no. gl^fs
plate.
“ If the brafs plate, after being feparated from, be
prefen ted.
Plate
CXCI.
&£• 73-
lavnllo’.
hap. X. E L E C T
nciplesof prefented with the edge towards the wax, lightly
e&ricity touching it, and thus be drawn over its furface, I find
nitrated tjie ele£ricjty 0f the metal is abforbed by the feal-
” ing-wax, and thus the ele&ric plate lofes part of its
power j and if this operation be repeated five or fix
times, the electric plate lofes its power entirely, fo that
a new excitation is neceflary to revive it.”
There is one part of Mr Cavallo’s experiments upon
the eledtrophorus, which by no means accords with the
account of the phenomena given by us in Nos. 8, 9,
10, 11, 12.
“ If,” fays he,“ inftead of laying the eleftric plate up¬
on a table, it be placed upon an eledtric ftand fo as to
be accurately infulated, then the metal plate fet on it
acquires fo little eledlricity, that it can only be difcover-
ed by an eledlrometer.
“ Upon aneledfric ftand E, fig.73,1 placed a circular
tin plate, nearly fix inches in diameter, which, by a
fiender wire H, communicated with an eledlrometer of
pith-balls G, which was alfo infulated upon the elec¬
tric ftand F. I then placed the excited eledtric plate
D, of fix inches and a quarter in diameter upon the tin
plate with the wax uppermoft, and on removing my
hand from it, the eledlrometer G, which communi¬
cated with the tin plate, i. e. with the under fide of the
, eledtric plate, immediately opened with negative elec-
^tricity,’-&c.».
|. ii. It is fomewhat extraordinary that fo expert an elec¬
trician as Mr Cavallo, (hould affert that an infulated
eledtrophorus fhows weaker figns of eledlricity than one
uninfulated ; whereas, in fadt, the eledlricity in the for¬
mer cafe is generally ftronger than in the latter, and
always fo ftrong as to afford fparks from fome part of
the apparatus.
rMor- G. Morgan has given us fome valuable experi-
n’s expe-mental obfervations on the Infulated Eleclrophorus.
wnts. His apparatus confifts of a rounded piece of wood, AB
fig. 74. with fmooth edges and covered with tin-foil,
placed on an infulating ftand CD. On this board or
foie is placed the eledlric plate or cake ; a is a wire
with a brafs ball from which are hung the eledlrome¬
ter ballsy h. G reprefents thefcudo or cover. After
relating the ufual appearances produced by fridlion,
he proceeds to defcribe thofe which arife from con-
nedting the cake with oppofite fides of a Leyden
phial.
“ When the negative furface of a charged phial is
placed on the excited furface, by bringing the hand
into contadl with the oppofite fide of the phial, a fpark
is inftantly communicated, and the pith-balls and >$,
feparate negatively.
If the phial be taken off, and the fcudo placed in
its room, no change is obfervable on the fubfequent re¬
moval of the fcudo, provided that, no communication
has been formed between it and the ground. When fuch
a communication is formed, a charge is communicated,
and the fcudo and the balls are in oppofite ftates of
eledlricity.
If the pofitive fide of a Leyden phial be placed on
the excited furface, the pith-balls feparate pofitively.
It muft be obferved that thefe experiments are made
with a refinous fubftance.
The appearances of the pith-balls and fcudo are
siaterjally varied, if the Leyden phial be applied to the
l- 74-
R I C I T Y. 717
eledlrophorus ivhile the feudo is in contact with its ex-Principlssof
cited furface. If the negative fide of the phial be ap- Electricity
plied, and a fpark be taken from the pofitive, the pith- ‘1Iuftrate^
balls immediately feparate negatively j but on taking ^mentV"
up the fcudo, they immediately clofe, and as rapidly - f *
feparate again pofitively.
If after the phial is removed, the hand be applied to
the fcudo before it is raifed, a fmall fpark ftrikes into
the hand ; but on raifing the fcudo, the balls clofe and
feparate inftantaneoufly, and give figns of pofitive elec¬
tricity.—If the fcudo and the brafs plate be connected,
either by an infulated or uninfulated difcharging rod,
the balls clofe and feparate again, and the fcudo, upon
being raifed, receives a vigorous negative fpark.
It is obvious that in all the preceding experiments,
the brafs plate continues unchangeably adherent to the
lower furface, while the fcudo only, or the conducing
fubftance in connexion with the upper furface, is im¬
moveable. It is of importance that we Ihould know
the confequences of making both the metallic furfaces
moveable.
But this is not an eafy matter j it is very difficult to
get a refinous fubftance thin enough, and at the fame
time firm enough, for the purpofe. The perfe£l laminae
of talc, which I have been able to procure, are too
fmall to be ufed with any fatisfaeftion; I have therefore
had recourfe to glafs for the purpofe. The refult' of
my repeated trials is the following.
Having fubftituted a glafs plate, about twelve inches
in diameter, and one-fourth of an inch thick, in the
room of the refinous fubftance, and having refted it on
a ground metallic plate, five inches in diameter, and
well connected with the pith-balls g and h, I expofed it
to the fparks of a condu6lor charged pofitively, and
kept my hand at the fame time in connexion with the
wireaZf. The plate took a confiderable charge; its
upper fide was unequivocally pofitive, and its lower
fide negative. I placed the fcudo on the glafs thus
charged, and approaching it with my hand, I received
a fpark. I then approached a b with my hand, and
received another. By alternate approaches of this kind,
four or five times repeated, the fparks became weaker
and weaker till they difappeared ; the feudo was then
raifed, and was ftrongly negative ; but the pith-ball,
on the removal of the fcudo, clofed and feparated pofi¬
tively.
I then made the lower the upper furface; and placing
the fcudo upon it, formed the communication, as in the
preceding part of the experiment ; but upon being
raifed, the fcudo was ftrongly pofitive, and the balls
negative.
But if, previous to the placing the fcudo on the
glafs, the pith-balls be carefully difebarged of all ad¬
herent electricity,, both the upper and lower fides of
the glafs will be charged with pofitive eleClricity, or
will give figns of their being in the fame ftate at the
fame time.
It is obfervable that the fucceffion of eleClrics, in.
the preceding experiments feems to vary according to
the priority of contadl given to the wire or the fcudo.
But though this happens moft frequently, yet fuch
anomalies take place as not to juftify us in confidering
this Angular connexion of diverfities■ as by any means#Morgan's
certain*”. Leaurett,
CHAP.voh »•
yi8 ELECT
^le&rieitjfCHAP. XI. Obfervations and Experiments on Excita-
illuftrated tion and Electrical Machines^ with the defcription
by experi- an ^lectr\cal Machine in which Silk is employ-
. me>nt:' . ed injlead of Glafs.
Mr Nicholson publifhed in the Phil. Tranf. for
1789, fome valuable obfervations on the beft means of
2IO excitation, which we (hall here extraft.
Nicholfon’s 1. A glafs cylinder wras mounted, and a cufhion ap-
experi- plied with a filk flap, proceeding from the edge of the
excitation over its furface, and thence half round the cy¬
linder. The cylinder was then excited by applying an
amalgamed leather in the ufual manner. The eleflri-
city was received by a conduftor, and paffed off in
fparks to Lane’s eleftrometer. By the frequency of
thefe fparks, or by the number of turns required to
.caufe fnontaneous explofion of a jar, the flrength of the
excitation was afcertained.
2. The cufhion was withdrawn about one inch from
the cylinder, and the excitation performed by the filk
only. A ftream of fire was feen between the cufhion
and the filk ; and much fewer fparks paffed between,
the balls of the ele&rometer.
3. A roll of dry filk was interpofed, to prevent the
ftream from pafling between the cufliion and the filk.
Very few fparks then appeared at the eleftrometer.
4. A metallic rod, not infulated, was then interpofed
inftead of the roll of filk, fo as not to touch any part
of the apparatus. A denfe ftream of eleftricity ap.
peared between the rod and the filk, and the condudlor
gave very many fparks.
5. The knob of ajar being fubftituted in the place
of the metallic rod, it became charged negatively.
6. The filk alone, with a piece of tin-foil applied
behind it, afforded much ele&ricity, though lefs than
when the cufhion was applied with a light preffure.
The hand being applied to the filk as a cufhion, pro¬
duced a degree of excitation feldom equalled by any
other cufhion.
7. The edge of the hand anfwered as well as the
palm.
8. When the excitation by a cufhion was weak, a
line of light appeared at the anterior part of the cufhion,
and the filk was ftrongly difpofed to receive ele&ricity
from any uninfulated conductor. Thefe appearances
did not obtain when the excitation was by any means
made very ftrong.
9. A thick filk, or two or more folds of filk, ex¬
cited worfe than a fingle very thin flap. I ufe the filk
which the milliners call Perfian.
10. When the filk was feparated from the cylin¬
der, fparks paffed between them •, the filk was found
to be a weak negative, and the cylinder in a pofitive
a” ftate.
fla the foreg°ing experiments fhow that the office of
principal ^ not merety to prevent the return of eleftri-
caufe of ex-city from the cylinder to the cufhion, but that it is the
citation. chief agent in the excitation ; while the cufhion ferves
only to fupply the ele&ricity, and perhaps increafe the
preffure at the entering part. There likewife feems to
be little reafon to doubt but that the difpofition of the
eleClricity to efcape from the furface of the cylinder is
not prevented by the interpofition of the filk, but by a
.compenfation after the manner of a charge $ the filk
R I C I T Y. Part II
being then as ftrongly negative as the cylinder is poll-princip]e j
tive j and, laftly, that the line of light between the Lleftricil
filk and cufhion in weak excitations does not confift of
returning ele&ricity, but of eleClricity which paffes to 1,y exPei
the cylinder, in confequence of its not having been 1
fufficiently fupplied during its contact with the rubbing
furface.
11. When the excitation was very ftrong in a cy¬
linder newly mounted, flafhes of light were ften to fly
acrofs its infide, from the receiving furface to the fur¬
face in contaft with the cufhion, as indicated by the
brufh figure. Thefe made the cylinder ring as if ftruck
with a bundle of fmall twigs. They feem to have arifen
from part of the eleftricity of the cylinder taking the
form of a charge. This appearance was obferved in a
9-inch and a 1 2-inch cylinder, and the property went
off in a few weeks. Whence it appears to have been
chiefly occafioned by the rarity of the internal air pro- I
duced by handling, and probably reftored by gradual
leaking of the cement.
12. With a view to determine what happens in theStateoft
infide of the cylinder, recourfe was had to a plate ma-Jnfideof
chine. One cufhion was applied with its filken flap, cylinder
The plate was 9 inches in diameter and i^-ths of an^™?6’
inch thick. During the excitation, the furface 0PP°‘termined*
file to the cufhion ftrongly attracted ele&ricity, which
it gave out when it arrived oppofite to the extremity of
the flap : fo that a continual liream of electricity paffed
through an infulated metallic bow terminating in balls,
which were oppofed, the one to the furface oppofite
the extremity of the filk, and the other oppofite to the
cufhion ; the former ball (bowing pofitive and the lat¬
ter negative figns. The knobs of two jars being fub¬
ftituted in the place of thefe balls, the jar applied to
the furface oppofed to the cufliion was charged nega¬
tively, and the other pofitively. This difpofition of
the back furface feemed, by a few trials, to be weaker,
the ftronger the aClion of the cufhion, as judged by the
eleClricity on the cufliion fide.
Hence it follows, that the internal furface of a cy¬
linder is fo far from being difpofed to give out eleftri-
city during the friftion by which the external furface
acquires it, that it even greedily attracts it.
13. A plate of glafs was applied to the revolving
plate, and thruft under the cufliion in fuch a manner
as to fupply the place of the filk flap. It rendered the
eleClricity ftronger, and appears to be an improvement
of the plate machine.
14. Two cufhions were then applied on the oppofite
furfaces with their filk flaps, fo as to clafp the plate be¬
tween them. The eleClricity was received from both
by applying the finger and thumb to the oppofite fur-
faces of the plate. When the finger was advanced a
little towards its correfpondent cufhions, fo that its dif-
tance was lefs than between the thumb and its cufhion,
the finger received ftrong eledlricity, and the thumb
none j and, contrary wife, if the thumb were advanced
beyond the finger, it received all the eledlricity, and
none paffed to the finger. This eleflricity was not
ftronger than was produced by the good adtion of one
cufliion applied fingly.
15. The cufhion in experiment 12. gave moft elec¬
tricity when the back furface was fupplied, provided
that furface was fuffered to retain its electricity till the
rubbed furface had given out its eleftricity.
From
Cip
XI.
E L E C T R
ft de-
J ex-
ion.
pie? of From the two laft paragraphs it appears, that no
fjcitv advantage is gained by rubbing both furfaces; but that
il r ted a Well managed friftion on one fmface will accumulate
blEPerl" as much eleftricity as the prefent methods of excitation
u ■ feem capable of collefHng j but that, when the exci-
^ tation is weak, on account of the eledlric matter not
$ Ivan- palling with fufficient facility to the rubbed furface,
tJ Tamed the fri&ion enables the oppofite furface to attrad! or
^ ules ^ receive it, and if it be fuppHed, both furfaces will pafs
of plate off in the pofitive Hate j and either furface will give out
m ine. more eledlricity than is really induced upon it, becaufe
the eleflricity of the oppofite furface forms a charge.
It may be neceffary to obferve, that I am fpeaking of
the fafts or effe&s produced by fri&ion ; but how the
rubbing furfaces aft upon each other to produce them,
whether by attraftion or otherwife, we do not here in¬
quire.
16. When a cylinder is weakly excited, the appear¬
ances mentiontd (par. 8.) are more evident the more
rapid the turning. In this cafe, the aviditv of the fur¬
face of the cylinder beneath the fiik is partly fupplied
from he edge of the filk, which throws back a broad
cafcade of fire, fometimes-to the dilfance of above 12
^ inches. From thefe caufes it is that there is a de-
nlTary to terminate velocity of turning required to produce the
p the rngxjjnufn 0f intenfity in the conduftor. The ftronger
the excitation, the quicker may be the velocity ; but
it rarely exceeds five feet of the glafs to pafs the cufhion
in a fecord.
jy. If a piece of filk be applied to a cylinder, by
drawing down the ends fo that it may touch half the
circumference, and the cylinder be then turned and ex¬
cited by applying the amalgamed leather, it will be¬
come very greedy of eleftricity during the time it paffes
unde the filk. And if the entering furface of the
glafr be fupplied with eleftricity, it will give it out at
the other extremity of contaft ; that is to fay, if infu-
lated conduftors be applied at the touching ends of the
filk, the one will give, and the other receive, ekftri-
citv, until the intenfities of their oppofite dates are as
high as the power of the apparatus can bring them ;
and thefe dates will be indantly reverfed by turning
the cylinder in the oppofite direftion.
As this difcovery prnmifes to be of the greated
ufe ineleftrical experiments, becaufe it affords the means
of producing either the p/t/s or minus dates in one and
the fame conduftor. and of indantly repeating experi-
meats with either power, and without any change of
pofition or adjudment cf the apparatus, it evidently de-
ferved the mod minute examination.
18. There was little hope (par. 6.) that cufhions
could be difpenfed with. They were therefore added;
and it was then feen, that the eleftrified conduftors
were fupplied by the difference between the aftion of
the cufhton which had the advantage of the fiik, and
that which had not; fo that the naked face of the cy¬
linder was always in a drong eleftric date. Methods
were ufed for taking off the preffure of the receiving
cufhion ; but the extremity of the filk, by the con-
ftruftion, not being immediately under that cufhion,
gave out large flafhes of eleftricity with the power that
Was ufed. Neither did it appear practicable to prefent
a row of points or other apparatus to intercept the
eleftricity which flew round the cylinder; becaufe
fuch an addition would have materially diminifhed the
I'l
p uce
t elec-
t ties in
t i fame
*Jlu£lor.
hy experi¬
ment.
216
I C I T Y. 719
intenfity of the conduftor, which in the ufual way was Prirciplesof
fuch as to flafh into the air from rounded extn mities Electricity
of four inches diameter, and made an inch and half ball
become luminous and blow like a point. But the great¬
ed inconvenience was, that the two dates with the
backward and forward turn were feldom equal ; becaufe
the difpofition of the amalgam on the filk, produced
by applying the leather to the cylinder in one diieftion
of turning, was the reverfe of what mud take place
when the contrary operation was performed.
Notwithdanding all this, as the intenfity with the
two cufhions was fuch as mod operators would have
called drong, the method may be of ufe, and I dill
mean to make more experiments when I get pofftflion
of a very large machine which is now in hand.
19. The more immediate advantage of this difco-
very is, that it fuggeded the idea of two fixed cushionsexcjtatjon
with a moveable filk dap and rubber. Upon this prin-
ciph, which is fo fimplt and obvious, that it is wonder¬
ful it diould have been fo long overlooked, I have con-
drnfted a machine with one conduftor, in which the
two oppofite and equal dates are produced by the fimple
procefs of loofi;ning the leather rubber, and letting it
pafs round with the cylinder (to which it adheres)
until it arrives at the oppofite fide, where it is again
fadened. A widi to avoid prolixity prevents ray defcrib-
ing the rnechanifm by which it is let go and fadened
in an indant, at the fame time that the cufhion is made
either to prefs or is withdrawn, as occafion requires.
20. Although the foregoing feries of experiments
naturally lead us to confider the filk as the chief agent
in excitation ; yet as this bufinefs was originally per¬
formed by a cufhion only, it becomes an obj ft of in¬
quiry to determine what happens in this cafe. 217
21. The great Beccaria inferred, that in a fimplevv^at
cufhion, the line of fire, which is feen at the extremity citatl0n js
of contaft from which the furface of the glaf-> recedes, performed
confids of returning eleftricity ; and Dr Nooth ground-by a limple
ed his happy invention of the filk flap upon the fameru^^er
fuppofition. The former afferts, that the lines of light
both at the entering and departing parts of the furface
are abfolutely fimdar; and thence infers, that the cufliicn
receives on the one fide, as it certainly does on the
other. I find, however, that the faft is direftly con¬
trary to this aflVrtion ; and that the oppofite inference
ought to be made, as far as this indication can be reck¬
oned conclufive : for the entering furface exhibits ma¬
ny luminous perpendiculars to the cufhion, and the de¬
parting furface exhibits a neat uniform line of light.
This circumdance, together with the confideration that
the line of light behind the filk in par. 8. could not
confid of returning eleftricity, flrowed the neceflity of
farther examination. I therefore applied the edge of
the hand as a rubber, and by occafionally bringing for¬
ward the palm, I varied the quantity of eleftricity
which paffed near the departing furface. When this was
the greated, the fparks at the eleftrometer were the
mod numerous. But as the experiment was liable to the
objeftion that the rubbing furface was variable, I paded
a piece of leather upon a thin dat piece of wood, then
amalgamed its whole furface, and cut its extremity off
in a neat right line clofe to the wood. This being ap¬
plied by the condant aftion of a fpring againd the cy¬
linder, produced a weak excitation ; and the line where
the contaft of the cylinder and leather ceafed (as abrupt¬
ly
■experi¬
ments.
7i>o ELECTS
Principles of ly as poflible') exliibited a very narrow fringe of light.
Electricity Another piece of wood was prepared of the fame width
illuftrated as rubber, but one quarter of an inch thick, with
^ment.ri_ *ts ec^^es rounded^ and its whole furface covered with
— .. tin-foil. This was laid on the back of the rubber, and
was there held by a fmall fpring, in fuch a manner as
that it could be Hided onward, fo as occafionally to
prujeft beyond the rubber, and cover the departing and
excited furface of the cylinder without touching it.
The fparks at the ele&rometer werd four times as nu¬
merous when this metallic piece was thus projefted $
but no ele6lricity was obferved to pafs between it and
the cylinder. The metallic piece was then held in the
hand to regulate its diftance from the glafs : and it was
found, that the fparks at the ele&rometer increafed in
number as it was brought nearer, until light appeared
between the metal and the cylinder j at which time
they became fewer the nearer it was brought, and at
sit laft ceafed when it was in contact.
Conclufions Xhe following conclufions appear to be deducible
from thefe fr0ni experiments. I. The line of light on a cy¬
linder departing from a Ample culhion confifts of re¬
turning eleftricity : 2. The projecting part of the cu-
fhion compenfates the eleftricity upon the cylinder, and
by diminifhing its intenfity prevents it ftriking back in
fuch large quantities as it would otherwife do : 3. That
if there was no fuch compenfation, very little of the
excited eleCtricity would be carried off: And, 4. That
the compenfation is diminilhed, or the intenfity increa¬
fed, in a higher ratio than that of the diftance of the
compenfating fubftance j becaufe, if it were not, the
eleCtricity which has been carried off from an indefi¬
nitely fmall diftance, would never fly back from a
greater diftance and form the edge of light.
How to in- 22. I hope the cotifiderable intenfity I fhall fpeak
intenfit^of w'^ ^ an aP0l°gy f°r defcribing the manner in
•ledlridty which 'I produce it. I wifh the theory of this very
to a great obfcure procefs were better known, but no conjee-
degree. ture of mine is worth mentioning. The method is as
follows':
Clean the cylinder, and wipe the filk.
Greafe the cylinder by turning it againft a greafed
leather till it is uniformly obfeured. I ufe the tallow
of a candle.
Turn the cylinder till the filk flap has wiped off fo
much of the greafe as to render it femitranfparent.
Put fome amalgam on a piece of leather, and fpread
it well, fo that it may be uniformly bright. Apply
this againft the turning cylinder. The fridion will
immediately increafe, and the leather muft not be re¬
moved until it-ceafes to become greater.
Remove the leather, and the aCtion of the machine
will be very ftrong.
My rubber, as before obferved, confifts of the filk
flap parted to a leather, and the cufhion is preffed againft
the filk by a (lender fpiral fpring in the middle of its
back. i be cufhion is loofely retained in a groove,
and refts againft the fpring only, in firch a manner that
by a fort of libration upon it as a fulcrum, it adapts
itfelf to all the irregularities of the cylinder, and never
foils to touch it in its whole length. There is no ad-
juftment to vary the preffure, becaufe the preffure can¬
not be too fmall when the^excitation is properly made.
Indeed the aClual withdrawing of the -cufhion to the
I C 1 T Y.
Part III
315
diftance of x^th of an inch from the filk, as In par. 2. Principle
will not materially affedt a good excitation. Elpflrioit)
The amalgam is that of Dr Higgins, compofed of
zinc and mercury. If a little mercury be added to
melted zinc, it renders it eafily pulverable, and more
mercury may be added to the powder, to make a very
foft amalgam. It is apt to cryftallize by repole, which
feems in fome meafure to be prevented by triturating it
with a fmall proportion of greafe j and it is always of
advantage to triturate it before ufing.
A very ftrong excitation may be produced by ap¬
plying the amalgamed leather to a clean cylinder with
a clean filk : but it foon goes off, and is not fo ftrong
as the foregoing, which lafts feveral days. 220
23. To give fome diftinftive criterions by which Effedts of
other eleftricians may determine whether the intenfity d'fEefem;
they produce exceeds or falls fhort of that which this6*j”
, , 1 t n 11 • r rr, excited 11
method affords, 1 fhall mention a few facts. thisman.
With a cylinder 7 inches diameter and cufhion 8ner.
inches long, three brufhes at a time conftantly flew out
of a 3-inch ball in a fucceflion too quick to be count¬
ed, and a ball of 14 inch diameter was rendered lumi¬
nous, and produced a ftrong wind like a point. A
9-inch cylinder with an 8-inch cufhion occafioned fre¬
quent flafhes from the round end of a conductor 4 inches
diameter : with a ball of 2-4 inches in diameter the
flafhes ceafed now and then, and it began to appear lu¬
minous: a ball of 14 inch diameter firft gave the ufual
flafhes : then, by quicker turning, it became luminous
with a bright fpeck moving about on its furface, while
a conftant ftream of air rufhed from it: and, laftly,
when the intenfity was greateft, brufhes of a different
kind from the former appeared. Thefe were lefs lumi¬
nous, but better defined in the branches j many ftarted
out at once with a hoarfe found. They were reddifti at
the ftem, fooner divided, and were greenifti at the point
next the ball, which was brafs. A ball of T^ths of an
inch in diameter was furrounded by a fteady faint light,
enveloping its exterior hemifphere, and fometimes a
flafh ftruck out at top. When the excitation was
ftrongeft, a few flafties ftruck out fidewife. The hori¬
zontal diameter of the light was longeft, and might
meafure one inch, the ftem of the ball being vertical.
With a 12-inch cylinder and rubber of 74 inches,
a 5-inch ball gave frequent flafties, upwards of 14
inches long, and fometimes a 6-inch ball would flafh.
I do not mention the long fpark, becaufe I was not
provided with a favourable apparatus for the two lar¬
ger cylinders. The 7-inch cylinder affords a fpark of
104 inches at heft. The 9-inch cylinder, not having
its condu61or infulated on a fupport fufficiently high,
afforded flafties to the table which was 14 inches di-
ftant. And the 1 2-inch cylinder, being mounted on¬
ly as a model or trial for conftrudting a larger appara¬
tus, is defeffive in feveral refpe&s, which I have not
thought fit to alter. When the five-inch ball gives
flafhes, the cylinder is enveloped on all fides with fire,
which rufhes from the receiving part of the conductor.”
It is of confequence that ele£lricians ftiould employ ^
fome common method of eftimating the power of their^^of
machines, fo as to admit of comparing thofe of differ-eilitnatinj
ent fizes or conftru6fions. This is ufually done by de-iheC0“’’
feribing the length and appearance of the fimple fparkp"^!er 0f
drawn from the prime conduct or 5 or the diftance to^^jcal
which machines.
;haf>. XI. ELECT
jnciplesofwhicli tlie attra&ive power of the prime conduftor is
ledricity rendered perceptible on a thread or other pendulous
!uftrated . or^ the explofion produced from a certain
extent coatt1^ furface. The firft of thefe methods is
fubje^f to confiderable variation from the circumftances
mentioned in (88.), and the fecond is fubje6f to modi¬
fication both from the ftruiflure of the lefs effential parts
of the machine, and from the dimenfions and figure of
the apartment in which the. experiments are made.
The laft method is therefore moft generally employed,
and according to this, Mr Nicholfon gives the follow¬
ing eftimate of the comparative power of Van Marum’s
222 two machines defcribed in N° 48, 49.
mpara- gv j ,-q tunis ()f bis new machine, 00 iafs, each con-
Van Ma-tamln& uP'vard3 of a fquare foot of coated glafs, were
n’t ma- charged fo that the battery difcharged itfelf. The
nes. great Teylerian machine, with two plates of fixty-five
inches diameter, in its original ftate, before Dr Van
Marum’s improved rubbers were applied to it, never
•charged the fame battery, in the moft favourable cir¬
cumftances, in lefs than 66 turns. It follo'ws, there¬
fore, that this fmall and fimple machine exhibited
rrlyths, or about 4th* the power of that great ma¬
chine in its firft ftate} and probably, if the circum-
flances had been alike favourable in each, it would
have amounted to one half. The doftor has grounded
a calculation upon thefe fa61s ; but as he ftates the rub¬
bed furfaces of thefe two machines, probably by fome
- x miftake in calculation, to be 1243 an^ 9^3^ fquare
Inches refpe&ively, I ftrall repeat the calculation in this
|)laee.
Tire diameter of the plate is 31 inches, and the
length of the cuftiion 9 inches. Then 31.7854—
31—I S'.yS 94“ }22 fquare inches rubbed by one cu-
fhion on one fide. And 522 X 4—2088 fquare inches
rubbed by the four cufliions. Again, in the great ma¬
chine, the two plates having a diameter of 65 inches,
and eight cuftiions of 154 inches long, 6j}’.7854—
65—3i}*.7854=24io.4. And 2410.4 x8;rr 19283
fquare inches rubbed. But the intenfity of the eleart com¬
municating with the infide.
It was at the beginning of 1784, that M. Walckiers
de St Amand undertook to conltruift a machine, in
which a piece of filk was made to revolve inceffantly,
and pafs between two pair of rubbers. Fie made one
of fmall dimenfions, and afterwards a larger one, in
which the filk was twenty five feet in length, and five . ,
feet broad. In the following year M. Rouland, fro-(nde'?*
feffor of natural philofophy in the univerfity of Paris,
conftrufted a machine of the fame kind f. As the ad- efaflrigue
vantages and effects of thefe machines appear to bi ^ 'uffctas
confiderable, we ftiall here infert the defcription of the4 \u at d
latter from Nicholfon’s Journal for December 1798. 22<5*
A, B, fig. 80. is a wooden table four feet and a half Def. r ption
long, two feet nine inches wide, and fomewhat mere01 a hlk.
than an inch and a half thick : its feet are 18 inches
long. Upon this table are faftened by ftrong wooden <;xt',IV.
fcrews, abed, two crofs pieces, each nine inches broad, fig. 60,
which carry the uprights C, D, E, F, which laft are 27
inches in height. At about two-thirds or more of the height
of thefe uprights, there are cut notches of an inch iquare
each, in which the axes of the two cylinders G and H
turn freely. Thefe axes are parallel to the table and to
each other, and are kept in their place by clamps of
wood fcrewed over them. The cylinders G and H are
formed of light wood glued together, and covered at
the ends by a circular piece, whofe rounded edges arife
half an inch above the furface of the cylinders them-
fidves. Their diameter is eight inches ; the axes are of
box-wood, and are left than an inch in diameter, bav¬
ins; a (boulder which prevents the ends of the cylinders
4 Y from
722 ELECT
Principles of from touching the uprights when turned round j and
Electricity laitly, the cylinders are covered with ferge.
ilinitiated }ian(jie is copper, its radius being fix inches
by expen- . ri » o
ruent. long.
—y—/ K, L, is a piece of tafFety covered with oily and re-
finous matter, of the fame kind as is ufed in France in
the confiruftion of air-balloons, which M. Rouland
fays, renders the filk very eleftrical: the breadth of the
filk is nearly one inch lefs than the length of the cy¬
linders, and it is wrapped round them with its ends
fevved together.
The whole breadth of the filk is taken hold of or
pinched between two flattened tin tubes oppofite each
other at M, and two of the fame kind at N: thefe are
the rubbers, and may be made to prefs againft each
other, more or lefs ftrongly,by means of fcrews. They
are retained by firings of filk faftened to the four up¬
rights of the machine, v v are two brafs chains hook¬
ed upon the rubbers, and communicating with the earth ;
op and q r are four pieces of taffety, prepared in the
fame manner as the principal piece, fewed in the direc¬
tion of their length to the rubbers, and faftened to
each other by their correfponding corners by means of
threads of filk. The metallic tubes or rubbers are co¬
vered with cat’s fkin.
S reprefents the conductor. It is a cylinder of brafs
three inches in diameter, 36 inches in length, including
the balls at the end, whole diameters are four inches :
one of thefe balls has a ring, /, above it, which ferves
to form a communication between the conduftor S and
any other condu£tor.
The upper and lower parts of this cylindrical prime
conduftor are armed with two plates of brafs 3/y, whofe
length is equal and eorrefpondent to the breadth of the
taffety, which is 26 inches, and 132 inches or II feet
long : the edges of the plates are about half an inch
diftant from the filk, and ferve inftead of the metallic
points that were ufed by M. Walckiers, but rejected
by M. Rouland, becaufe they were apt to flick into the
filk and damage it.
The conduflor S isfufpended by filk firings, faftened
to the uprights of the machine by the hooks and rings
in its fituation is parallel to the cylinders G, H, and
equidiflant from each. The a6lion of this machine is
as follows : The cylinder H is moved rapidly on its
axis by means of the handle, and the cylinder G moves
of courfe in the fame diredlion on the two extremities
of its axis, provided the taffety K, L, be properly
flretched. This tenfion is eafily obtained $ becaufe the
crofs pieces to which the uprights C, D, and E, F, are
fixed, may be moved nearer or further from each other,
and faftened by means of the fcrews a b and c d, which
pafs through holes cut in the direction of the table.
The rotation of the cylinders neceffarily producing
a circulation of the taffety, it mull confequently be
rubbed in its paffage between the tin tubes covered
with cat’s fkin at M and N; and by this fridlion it ob¬
tains what is called the negative ele&ricity, which is
communicated from both parts of the filk to the com¬
mon condu£lor S. But it may be made to ele£lrify
pofitively, by removing the rubbers to the middle of
the filk, fo that the prime conduftor may communicate
with them : or, if the two eufhions be removed to half
the diftance between the revolving cylinders and the
prime conduflor, pofitive and negative ele&ricity may
4-
R I C I T V. Partin,
be had at the fame time, the rubbers being in a nega- Principles0|
live flate, and the prime conductor in a pofitive flate. Elelate, which on that acco»nt will not dart any fpark
to the inferior plane (except its eleCtricity were very
powerful, or its edges not well rounded) and svill
rather retain its eleCtricity ; fo that, being removed
from the inferior plane, its eleCtrometer will nearly re¬
cover its former height. Befides, the electrified plate
may even come to touch the imperfectly conducting
plane, and may remain in that fituation for fome time :
in which cafe the intenfity being reduced almoft to
nothing, the electricity will pafs to the inferior plane
exceedingly flow.
But the qafe will not be the fame, if, in performing
the experiment, the electrified metal plate be made to
touch the inferior plane edgewife ; for then its intenfity
being greater than when laid flat, as it appears by
the electrometer, the electricity eafily overcomes the
fmall refiftance, and pafles to the inferior plane, even
acrofs a thin electric ftratum.; becaufe the electricity
of one plane-is, balanced by that of the other, only in
proportion to the.quantity of furface which they oppofe
to each other within a given diftance ; whereby, when
the metal plate touches the other plane in flat and am¬
ple contact, its electricity is riot diflipated.
tHitherto wc have confidered in what manner the
R I c 1 T Y. Partin
action of electric atmofpheres muft modify the electri-princjpies
city of the metal plate in various fituations. We muft Hledricitl
now confider the effects which take place when the ll*u^rite!
electricity is communicated to the metal plate whilft e*pen
Handing upon the imperfectly conducting plane ; how- —
ever the explanation of this eafily follows from what
has been faid above. Suppofe, for inftance, that a
Leyden phial or a conductor were fo weakly electrified,
that the intenfity of its electricity were only of half a
degree, or even lefs ; if the metal plate, when Hand¬
ing upon the proper plane, were touched with that
phial or conductor, it is evident that either of them
would impart to it a quantity of its electricity, propor¬
tional to the plate’s capacity, viz. fo much of it as
would make the intenfity of the electricity of the plate
equal to that of the electricity in the conductor of
phial, fuppofed of half a degree ; but the plate’s capa¬
city, now that it lies upon the proper plane, is above
100 times greater than if it flood infulated in the air ;
or, which is the fame thing, it requires xoo times more
electricity in order to fhew the fame intenfity ; there¬
fore, in this cafe, it muft acquire upwards of a hundred
times more electricity from the phial or conductor. It
naturally follows, that when the metal plate is after¬
wards removed from the proper plane, its capacity be¬
ing leflened fo as to remain equal to the hundredth
part of what it was before, the intenfity of its electri¬
city muft become of 50°; fince, agreeably to the fuppo-
fition, the intenfity of the electricity in the phial or
conductor was of half a degree *. * Cavalh1
Having premifed thus much refpecting the capacity
of conductors, we fliall now proceed to defcribe Signi-
or Volta’s method of rendering fenfible minute degrees
of electricity. ^5
His method, in fhort, is to communicate the other-Defcriptioi
wife unobfervable quantity of electricity to the metallic
plate of an electrophorus, while Handing on an imper¬
fectly infulating plane ; for the capacity of the metallic
plate being thus augmented, it will acquire a much
greater quantity of electricity than if it flood complete¬
ly infulated in the air, and when it is again feparated
from the plane its capacity will be diminilhed ; confe-
quently, its electricity increafing at the fame time, the
intenfity of this will be rendered manifeft either by
fparks or by means of a delicate electrometer.
The particulars neceflary to be kept in view in this
method, are the following. The metal plate muft be
at leaft fix inches in diameter, with the edge well
rounded, and having a varniflied glafs handle, or, in¬
ftead of the glafs, three filken firings. The inferior
plane muft; be of a very imperfedl conducing nature, as
dry marble, very dry and {lightly varniflied wood, a
common piece of wood covered with oiled filk, or fueh
like fubftance ; but let the fubftance be what it will, its
furface muft be very fmooth, and fuch as to coincide as
well as poflxble with the furface of the metal plate ; on
which account, if a marble flab be chofen for the infe¬
rior plane, it will be proper to fit the metal plate to
that of the iron, by grinding one againft the other.
What Mr Cavallo found to be very fit for this purpofe
was a paper drum, confifting of a common wooden
hoop, fuch as are ufed for barrels, over which a piece
of thick writing paper was pafted, and on the back of
which he pafted a piece of tin-foil. The upper fur¬
face of the paper was varniflied only once with ftiell-lac
diffolved
imp.
ment
XIII. ELECT
ncjpiesof diffolved In alcohol or fplrit of wine. This fort of
j&ricity plane has many advantages, viz. it is eafily made, and
jftrated fr0m its lightnefs is very portable ; its furface is per-
expen- £e^.jy plane, excepting when the hoop is not very ftrong,
, for then the contraction of the paper has power fufficient
to warp it j and laftly, as the thicknefs of the paper and
of the varnilli may be varied at pleafure, and very eafily,
the plane may be rendered of any required degree of
conducting power.
Having fuch a femi-conduCting plane and metallic
plate properly conftruCted, the former is to be laid upon
a table, and the latter is to be placed upon it, taking
care that the inferior plane be not excited by any de¬
gree of friCtion. If the furface of the inferior plane
(hould have acquired any eleCtricity by accidentally
rubbing it, &c. the belt way of freeing it of that elec¬
tricity is to pafs it two or three times over the flame of
a candle. Now the metallic plate is to be {truck five
or fix times with the corner of a dry handkerchief, a
piece of dry flannel ot paper, Sec. 5 then it is to be
railed from the inferior plane by means of its infulating
handle, and prefented to an electrometer, when it will
be found fenfibly electrified. If the metallic plate be
{truck while it is not in contaCt with the femi-conduCt-
jng plane, it will be found either to poffefs no eleCtri¬
city or an incomparably fmaller degree than it acquires
in the other mode.
By this means eleCtricity may be obtained from fub-
ftances which could hardly be fuppofed eleCtrified, and
that not only in fufficient quantity to afeertain its qua¬
lity, but even fufficient to afford fparks. Signior Volta
has given to this apparatus the name of condenjtng ap¬
paratus.
Mr Cavallo, obferving that in ftroking the metallic
plate, in order to obtain eleCtricity from various fub-
ftances, and efpecially from the hand, the plate was
often moved fo as to occafion feme friCtion on the infe¬
rior plane, whereby this was excited, and conlequently
the refult of the experiment rendered precarious,
thought of the following method of preventing fuch
motion.
Upon a varnifhed glafs handle he cemented a brafs
tube about fix inches long and three-fourths of an inch
in diameter, from the extremity of which proceeded a
fine flexible wire about 14 inches long. Now, when
the metallic plate was fituated upon the inferior plane,
he held the glafs handle of the brafs tube with his left
hand, in fuch a manner as that the end of the wire
might touch the plate, the reft remaining in the air.
Sometimes, in order to make a better contaCf, the end
of the above-mentioned wire was put into a hole pur-
pofely made in the edge of the plate. In this difpofi-
tion of the apparatus, the fubftances to be tried are
ftroked upon the brafs tube, and the eleftricity pro¬
duced by them is conveyed to the metallic plate by the
wire, which being fine and flexible, communicates no
motion to the plate.
Another improvement of Mr Cavallo’s confiffs in
rendering fenfible degrees of eledricity fiill more mi¬
nute than thofe which may be difeovered by the con-
denfing apparatus.
Notwithffanding the great fenfibility of Volta''s con-
rlenfer, yet fometimes the eleClricity acquired by the
metallic plate from fome fubftances was fo fmall as not
to affeCl an eleClrometer fufficiently to afeertain its qua¬
lity, or even its exiftence j hence it naturally occurred
Vol. VII. Part II.
146
■ Uaval-
; im-
vement
:he con¬
ifer.
R I C I T Y. 729
to Mr Cavallo, that for the fame reafon for which the principles of
metallic plate of the condenjing apparatus manifefted Electricity
fuch minute degrees of elefiricity as could not be dhn'trate
otherwife obferved, another fmaller plate, or fmall con-
denfing apparatus, might be employed to render the
weak electricity of the large metallic plate fenfible.
Accordingly, he conftrudted a fmall plate of about the
fize of a Hulling, having a glafs handle covered with
fealing-wax ; and wjjen the large metallic plate feemed
to be fo weakly electrified as not to affeCt an electrome¬
ter fenfibly, he placed the fmall plate upon the inferior
plane, and touched it with the edge of the large plate ;
then, after removing the fmall plate, he took up the
fmall one from the plane, holding it by the extremity
of the glafs handle, and prefented it to the eledrome-
ter, which was generally fo much affeCled by it as to
diverge to its utmoff limits.
In this manner Mr Cavallo often obtained eleClrici¬
ty more than fufficient for afeertaining its quality, from
a fingle ftroke of the corner of a handkerchief; viz.
the large plate being placed upon the proper plane, was
ftroked once ; then being moved and prefented to an
eleClrometer, it appeared not eleCtrified $ but by touch¬
ing the fmall plate with the edge of it, that fmall plate
acquired thereby eleCtricity fufficient to make an elec¬
trometer diverge.
When this fecondary condenfing apparatus is ufed,
care muff be taken to hold the large plate almoft ver¬
tically while the fmall plate is touched by it. There
is no need of having another inferior plane for the
fmall plate, the large one being fufficient for both ; for
immediately after taking up the large plate, weakly
eleClrified, with one hand, you lay down the fmall
plate, &c.
The fmall quantity of eleCtricity that can be difeover¬
ed by this means is really furprifing, and there is hard¬
ly any fubftance, excepting the metals, or thofe which
cannot be fubjeCted to trial, as water and other fluids,
which will not produce fome eleCtricity when rubbed
or ftroked againff the large plate of the condenfing ap¬
paratus, and that eleCtricity is afterwards condenfed by
being communicated to the fmall plate.
The difeovery of Volta’s condenfer led to a difeovery Benner’s
no lefs important, the doubler, for which we were firftdoubler,
indebted to the Reverend Abraham Btnnet of Wirkf-
worth, though the inftrument has been much improved
by Mr Nicholfon and Mr Read.
The doubler in its firlt and fimpleft form confiffed
of three parts, which are reprefented at fig. 85. Plate
CXCIV. viz. a polifhed brafs plate A, with an in¬
fulating handle fixed in its centre j a fimilar plate B
with an infulating handle fixed in its periphery, and
the cap of B< nnet’s gold-leaf eleftrometer C, which
ferves as a third plate. The two plates A and B are
varniftied on the under fide, and the handles are made
of mahogany, fixed to the plates by means of glafs nuts
covered with fealing-wax.
The method of demonftrating the prefence ofManipula-
eleClriclty by means of this apparatus is as follows.
Suppofe that we have to examine the elc&ricity of the °U
plate C.
1. Place B upon C, and communicate fome eleClrici¬
ty to the latter, while the plate B is touched with the
finger. The confequence will be that C will receive a
greater degree of eleClricity than it would have been
capable of acquiring if B had not been prefent.
4 Z 2. Remove
347
Plat*
CXCIV.
fig. 85.
348
730
Principlesof 2. Remove the communication from C, and take
Electricity the finger from off B, then raife this latter by its infu-
iliuftrated ]atjng handle, and B and C will exhibit the oppofite
^ates eledtricity more ftrongly than when they are
t —y . in contaft.
3. Place A upon B, and touch A with the finger.
The confequence will be that A will receive a portion
of ele&ricity of a ftate oppofite to that of B, or A will
be in the fame ftate of electricity with C.
4. Place B upon C, and touch B with the finger as
before, and at the fame time apply A edgeways to C.
In this fituation, A will communicate the greateft part
of its ele&ricity to C.
5. Remove A, take the finger from B. and raife B
from C. The oppofite ftates of electricity in B and C,
will now be ftronger than before, on account of the ad¬
ditional eleCtricity afforded by A.
6. Place A upon B again, as in the third ftage of
the procefs, and repeat the fubfequent manipulations.
In each of them the intenfity of the eleCtricity is fup-
pofed to be doubled, and by proceeding in this manner
for a certain time, the eleCtricity originally communi¬
cated to C, though at firft too fmall to affeCt the (trips
of gold leaf, will at laft become fufficiently fenfible to
249 produce a confiderable divergence of them.
Moveable Though the above procefs is fufficiently fimple and
DrDarwin ev^ent> yet refluires to be learned, and takes up a
certain time for its performance. It was therefore de-
firable that an inftrument fhould be formed which
might complete this feries of operations by a very fimple
mechanical movement. The firft inftrument conftruCted
with this view was contrived by Dr Darwin, and was
fhown to Mr Nicholfon in the month of December
1787. This inftrument confifted of four metallic plates,
two of which were moveable by wheel-work into pofi-
tions which required them to be touched by the hand
in order to produce the effeCf. It appeared to Mr
Nicholfon that the whole operation, including the
touching, might be done by a fimple combination with¬
out wheel-work, by the direCt rotation of a winch.
Tl his was foon afterwards effedfed, and communicated
by him to the Royal Society in 1788. Mr Nichol-
fon’s defcription of his revolving doubler, was firft print¬
ed in the 78th volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, and has been reprinted by Mr Nicholfon in his
Philofophical Journal for May 1800, from which we
2.0 have copied it.'
Nichoifon’s Fig. 86. reprefents the apparatus of the doubler fup-
revolv.ng ported on a glafs pillar 64 inches long. It confifts of
^Viate Allowing parts. Two fixed plates of brafs, A and
CX( V. C, are feparately infulated and difpofed in the fame
fig. 86. place, fo that a revolving plate B may pafs very near
them, without touching., Each of thefe plates is two
inches in diameter ; and they have adjufting pieces
behind, which ferve to place them accurately in the re¬
quired pofition. D is a brafs ball, likewife of two
Inches diameter, fixed on the extremity of an axis that
carries the plate B. Befides the more effential purpofe
this ball is intended to anfwer, it is fo loaded within
on one fide, that it ferves as a counterpoife to the re¬
volving plate, and enables the axis to remain at reft in
any pofition. The other parts may be diflinflly feen
Fig. 87. in %• 87. The (haded parts reprefent metal, and the
white reprefent varniftied glafs. ON is a brafs axis,
palling through the piece M, which laft fuftains the
Part 11
plates A and C. At one extremity is the ball D al-prjnci leJ
ready mentioned ; and the other is prolonged by the Eledrici
addition of a glafs (lick, which fuftains the handle L ' hdfiate
and the piece GH feparately infulated. E, F, are pins exl'er
rifing out of the fixed plates A and C, at unequal di- ment,|
ftances from the axis. The crofs-piece GH, and the * 'r*"
piece K, lie in one plane, and have their ends armed
with fmall pieces of harpfichord-wire, that they may
perfectly touch the pins EF in certain points of the
revolution. There is likewife a pin I, in the piece M,
which intercepts a fmall wire proceeding from the re¬
volving plate B.
The touching wires are fo adjufted, by bending, that
when the revolving plate B is immediately oppofite the
fixed plate A, the crofs-piece GH connects the two
fixed plates, at the fame time that the wire and pin at
I form a communication between the revolving plate
and the ball. On the other hand, when the revolving
plate is immediately oppofite the fixed plate C, the ball
becomes connected with this laft plate, by the touching
of the piece K againft F j the two plates, A and B,
have then no connection with any part of the appara¬
tus. In every other pofition the three plates and the
ball will be perfectly unconnected with each other.
Mr Bennet and Mr Cavallo obferved, foon after the
difeovery of the doubler, that it never fails to exhibit the(ioubi
an eleCtric ftate by the mere operation, without any
communication of eleCtricity being previoufly made.
Mr Bennet endeavoured to find out a method of de¬
priving the doubler of this inherent eleCtricity, and
after a number of trials, he confidered the following as
the beft mode of anfwering this purpofe.
He connected the plates A and C together by a Mr Ben-
wire hooked at each end upon two fmall knobs on the11®1’"mo(!
backs of the plates, the middle of the fame wire touch-^gfc,”tl|
ing the pillar which fupports the doubler. Another
wire was hooked at one end upon the back of the plate
B, and at the other end, to the brafs ball which coun¬
terbalances this plate. Thus all the plates were con¬
nected with the earth, and by turning the handle of
the doubler, it might be difeharged of eleCtricity in
every part of its revolution.
After often trying this method of depriving the
doubler, Mr Bennet obferved, that its fpontaneous
difeharge was almoft always negative. He then touch¬
ed A and C with a pofitively charged bottle, and turn¬
ed the doubler till it produced fparks for a long time
together; and after this ftrong pofitive charge he hook¬
ed on the wires as above, and revolved the plate B
about a hundred times, which fo deprived the doubler
of its pofitive eleCtricity, that when the wires were
taken oft', it produced a negative charge at about the
fame number of revolutions which it required be¬
fore.
The pofitively charged bottle was again applied, and
the wires being hooked upon the plates as before, B
was revolved only fifty times, yet this was found fuffi-
eient to deprive it of its pofitive charge, and in many
experiments five or fix revolutions were fufficient; but
he never thought it fafe to flop at fo few, and therefore
he generally turned the handle 40 or 50 times between
every experiment.
Left eleftricity adhering to the eleftrometer (hould
obftruCt the above experiments, Mr Bennet did not
let it (land in contaCl with the doubler during its revo¬
lutions,
ELECTRICITY.
errors
he
libler.
»54
rallo’s
[iap. XIII. ELECT
nciplesoflutions, but touched the plate A with the cap of the
j&ricity eleftrometer, after he fuppofed its ele&ricity was be-
uftrated corne fufficiently fenfible j but left even this contadl
^tW1* ftiould communicate any eledricity, he made a cap of
(hell lac for his elettrometer having a fmall tin tube
in the centre, to which the gold leaf was fufpended
within the glafs, and a bent wire was fixed to the top
which might eafily be joined to the plate A of the
doubler, and thus the gold leaf was more perfe&ly in-
fulated, and the eleflricity could not be diffufed over
Rennet's fo large a furface. The glafs which infulates the plates
u/£^-and crofs piece of the doubler was alfo covered with
tents. (hell lac *.
bifon’s Dr R°hif°n conceived that Mr Bennet’s original
pofal for doubler might be freed from error as far as was poflible,
riating by employing a thin ftratum of air as the intermedium
between the three plates. The method which he pro¬
poses for effe&ing this is very ingenious. Stick on
one of the plates three very fmall fpherules, made from
a capillary tube of glafs or from a thread of fealing-
wax. The other plate being laid on them, refts on mere
points, and can fcarcely receive any friftion, which may
difturb the experiment.
Mr Cavallo, finding that Mr Bennet’s mode of ob-
^ector of via ting the inconveniences of the doubler did not fuc-
1CIJ‘ ceed with him, conftru£led a new inftrument, which he
calls a colleBor of eleBricity, and a defcription of which
was inferted in the 78th volume of the Pbilofophical
Tranfaftions. It confifts of a plate of tin, fiipported by
two upright fticks of glafs ; on each fide of which plate
are two frames of wood covered with gilt paper, which
do not touch the tin-plate, but ftand parallel to it at a
little diftance. Thefe frames are fattened to the plat¬
form of the inftrument by hinges *, fo that if eleftricity
be communicated to the plate, it will receive a large
quantity without any confiderable intenfity, becaufe its
capacity is much augmented by the vicinity of the
plane of gilt paper on each fide. But if thefe planes
be thrown back into the horizontal pofition, which is
eafily done by means of their hinges, the ele&ricity,
which before was compenfated in the plate will have
its intenfity greatly increafed. An electrometer con¬
nected with this plate will therefore (how figns of elec¬
tricity by means of a communication made between a
large flock of eleCtricity, and the tin-plate in its firft
pofition, though the intenlity of that flock may have
been too fmall to have affeCted the eleCtrometer without
this contrivance.
It does not appear, in the author’s defcription of this
inftrument, that it removes the equivocal effeCt of the
doubler j for it is evident that it does not in its fimple
procefs, enter the province of the doubler in which this
effeCt takes place. The doubler requires fix or feven
turns before it will exhibit fpontaneous eleCtricity $ at
which period the firft charge is magnified above twelve
thoufand times j but his fimple inftrument will fcarcely
exceed one hundred times, and therefore requires the
eleCtricity to be one hundred and twenty times as ftrong
as that which caufes the uncertainty of the doubler.
WrW- Whence it may be inferred, that the doubler would
have aCted unequivocally with all fuch electricities as
255 ^1's inftrument is capable of exhibiting *.
vallo’s Mr Cavallo has fince conftruCted another inftrument,
Itiplier which he calls a multiplier of eleBricity, and which he
ee nci-confiders as quite free from equivocal refults.
R 1 C 1 T Y.
731
“ The figs. 88. and 89. reprefent this hew inftru-principle*of
ment, and they are about two-thirds of the real fize. Eleftricity
QIIS is the bottom board, upon which are fteadily fix- illuftrated
ed on the glafs fticks H, G, two flat brafs plates A and
C.—B is a fimilar brafs plate fupported by a glafs flick ■ '
I, which is cemented in a hole made in the wooden Fig. 88.
lever KL, which moves round a fteady pin K, that isand 89.
fcrewed tight in the bottom board. By moving this
lever backwards and forwards, the plate B may be al¬
ternately put in the two fituations reprefented by the
figures. N is a thick brafs wire fixed tight into the
bottom board. There is a fourth brafs plate D, fimi¬
lar to the other three, which is fupported not by glafs,
but a wire 5 and this wire is fcrewed faft to an oblong
piece of brafs FP, that Aides in a groove made for the
purpofe in the bottom board QRS $ fo that by apply¬
ing a finger’s nail to the notch on the end F, the Aid¬
ing piece FP may be drawn out either entirely or to a
certain length, and of courfe the plate D will be re¬
moved to any required diftance from the fixed plate C.
I need not fay any thing particular refpe&ing the
fockets of thofe brafs plates, they being clearly indicat¬
ed in the figures, excepting only that the focket of the
plate A reaches as high as the top of it, and ferves to
receive a wire, or other apparatus, on certain occa-
fions.
The parts of this inftrument are fo adjufted, as that
when the lever is in the fituation of fig. 88. viz. is puff¬
ed as far toward as it can go, the plate B comes pa¬
rallel to the plate A, and about one-twentieth of an
inch diftant. At the fame time the extremity of the
wire OM juft touches the fixed wire N, and of courfe
renders the plate B uninfulated. But as foon as the
lever begins to be moved towards S, the communica¬
tion of the plate B with the wire N, or with the
ground, becomes interrupted, and B remains infulated.
And when the lever has been moved as far as it can
go towards S, the wire M comes in contact with the
plate C, as ffown in fig. 89. Then the two plates B
and C communicate with each other, though they are
otherwife infulated. The fourth plate D being fup¬
ported by a wire, communicates with the ground •, and
when the Aiding piece PF is puffed home, it Hands
parallel to, and at about one-twentieth of an inch from
the plate C.
When the inftrument is fituated as in fig. 88. if an
eleftrified body be brought into contadV with the plate
A, this plate will imbibe a great deal more of that
ele&ricity than it would otherwife, becaufe its capacity
is increafed by the vicinity of the uninfulated plate B,
and therefore, if after the communication of that elec¬
tricity, the plate B, by moving the lever, be removed
from that fituation, and A be made to touch an elec¬
trometer, this will be electrified more fenfibly by it,
than it would have been by the contaft of the original
eleCtrified body itfelf. So far the plate A aCts like a
condenfer, or collector of eleCtricity. But let us now
confider the inftrument as a multiplier.
When the plate A has received a fmall quantity of
eleCtricity by the contaCt of any eleCtrified body what¬
ever, and that body is removed, the plate B being un¬
infulated and oppofed to the eleCtrified plate A, will,
like the metal plate of an eleCtrophorus, acquire the
contrary eleCtricity, by either receiving from, nr giv¬
ing to, the ground fume eleCtric fluid, according as
4 Z 2 the
iHuftrated
by expen.
ment.
732 ELECT
Principles of the plate A happens to be ele&rified. Thus, fuppofe
Electricity that A has been eleftrified pofitively, B will become
negative, and vice verfa. If now the lever be pulhed
towards S, the plate B will remain electrified negative¬
ly, the communication with the ground being cut off j
and when B comes into the fituation reprelented by
fig. 4th, at which time the wire M touches the plate
C, the negative electricity of B will go to C, becaufe
the capacity of C fur holding electricity is confiderably
augmented by the vicinity of the unintulated plate D.
If after this the lever be moved back again to its firft
fituation, B will be made negative a fecond time in
the fame manner as before : and by pulhing the lever
again towards S, that fecond charge of negative elec¬
tricity will be communicated from B to C 5 and thus,
by repeating the operation, which confifts in merely
moving the lever backwards and forwards, a confider-
able quantity of negative electricity will be accumula¬
ted upon C.
In fait, the ation of this inftrument refembles very
much that of an eletrophorus ; for the plate A may re-
prefent the excited rtfinous plate, B may reprefent the
metal plate of the eletrophorus, and C is a kind of
refervoir, into which the fueceffive charges of the plate
B are colleted.—When a number of thofe charges or
portions of eletricity has been communicated to C, if
the Aiding piece FP be drawn out about an inch, and
of courfe the plate D be removed to the like difiance
from the plate C, the capacity of the plate C will
thereby be much diminifhed : and therefore if an elec¬
trometer be brought into contact with it, the electricity
will be manifefied : whereas the electricity originally
communicated to the plate A, could not have affected
an elefrrometer in any fenfible degree.
In ufing this inftrument, 30 or 40 additions of elec¬
tricity are the utmofi: number practicable *, for after
that number the augmentation of the charge upon C
will not go any farther j the limit of which is, when
the charge of C is increafed to fuch a degree, as to
leave a portion of eleCtricity upon B, equal to that
portion which B can receive from the aCtion of A.
In this cafe, let C touch an eleftrometer as mention¬
ed above, and if the eleCIrometer does not diverge,
proceed to a fecond procefs ; for though its pendulums
do not diverge, yet fome eleCIricity remains in them,
which muft not be difiurbed, as it will help the effeft
of the fecond operations, which is as follows : Pufh in
the Aider FP, and go on moving the lever backwards
and forwards as before, by which means, after a cer¬
tain number of additions, the plate C will acquire a
fecond charge, about as high as the former: and if
then the Aider FP be pulled out, and C brought into
contaCI with the fame eleClrometer, the divergency of
the pendulums, which before was either not at all or
hardly perceptible, will thereby be rendered more eon-
fpicuous: and thus it may be increafed ftill farther by
a third and a fourth operation. But if, notwithftanding
thofe repeated operations, the eleftrometer ftiould be
found not to diverge, the quantity of eleftricity may
ftill be augmented by another method, which is, by
* Cavallo’s communicating that little electricity of C to the plate
Elettnaty, of another inftrument of the fame fort, and proceed-
ing with that in the manner defcribed
In Nicholfon’s Journal for September 1804) is a
Plats
excv.
fig. pc.
R I c I T Y. Part III
paper by Mr W. Wilfon, containing a defcription of Prineip!es
an inftrument which Mr Wilfon calls a compound con- Eleftricit
denfer of eleBricity, and which he confiders as an im- filuftrate(
provement on Mr Cavallo’s multiplier, anfwering the exPeri
purpofe of a condenfer, a fingle and double multiplier,1
and a doubter. The inftrument is very complicated,
containing no lefs than fix plates. Like all complicated
inftruments of this kind, it is of courfe fubjeft to er¬
ror from its own fpontaneous eleCtricity.
Mr Nicholfon has conftruCled an inftrument for af-Nichdfon
certaining fmall degrees of eleClricity, without, as hefpinning
fays, a pofiibility of equivocal refult. This inftrument condenfer,
he calls the /pinning condenfer, and it is thus defcribed
in his Journal for April 1797.
“ Fig. 90. reprefents a vertical feflion of the inftru¬
ment. A is a metallic vafe, having a long Heel axis
which pafies through a hole in the Hand H at K, and
refts on its pointed end in an adjuftable focket at C.
The ufe of the vafe is, by its weight, to preferve, for
a eonfiderable time, the motion of fpinning which is
given by the finger and thumb, applied to the knob at
the top of the inftrument. The {haded parts D and L
reprefent two circular plates of glafs nearly inch in
diameter. The upper plate is fixed to the vafe, and
revolves with it ; the lower is fixed to the (land. In
the lower plate are inferted two metallic hooks, diame¬
trically oppofite each other, at F and G, They are
cemented into holes drilled in the edge of the glafs,
which is near two-tenths of an inch thick. In the up¬
per plate are inferted in the fame manner two fmall
tails of the fine flatted wire ufed in making filver lace.
Thefe tails are bended down fo as to ftrike the hooks
in the revolution, but in all other pofitions they remain
freely in the air without touching any part of the ap¬
paratus. At C is a fcrew, which by railing or lower¬
ing the vafe keeps the faces of the glafs plates from
each other at whatever diftance may be required. The
faces of the glafs plates which are oppofed to each other
are coated with fegments of tin-foil, as reprefented, fig.
91. and 92. the latter of which reprefents the upper
plate. Each of the tails communicates with the tin-
foil coating to which it is contiguous, as does aito the-
hook F with that coating of the lower plate neareft to
it. But the hook G is entirely infulated from the
whole apparatus, and is intended to communicate only
with the eleflrified body or atmofpherical condudlor L.
The lower coating neareft to G is made to communicate
permanently with the ftand H, and confequently with
the earth.
“ In this fituation, fuppofe the motion of fpinning to
be given to the apparatus, and the effefls will be thefe :
One of the tails will ftrike the hook G, by which
means the upper coating annexed to that tail will af-
fume the eledlric ftate of L by communication. But
this ftate, on account of the proximity of the lower un-
infulated plate to which it is, at that inftant, dire&ly
oppofed, will be as much ftronger than that of L, as a
charge exceeds fimple elefrrization. The tail G with
its plate or coating proceeds onward, and after half a
revolution arrives at the fituation to touch the hook Ff
The upper coating, the lower on the fide of F, the
hook F itfelf, and the tail V, muft then conftitute one
jointly infulated metallic mafs, in which no charge fub-
fifts, but which is limply eledbrified by the whole charge
received
Plate
cxcvr
fig. 91.
and 91-
lap
. XIII. ELECT
nciples of received at G. And of this mafs thd furfaces of the
ftricity plates tbemfelves, conftituting the eleftric well of
uftrated Franklin, will throw out all their eledfricity to the
experi- jioojc an(j tajj_ gut COating and its tail inftantly
mfnt' pafs round, leaving F eledlrified, and proceed to bring
another charge from G and depofit it as before. The
balls at F are therefore very fpeedily made to diverge.
It is fcarcely necefl'ary to remark, that the two upper
coatings do nothing more than double the fpeed of the
operation ; one of the tails being employed in colledl-
ing, while the other is depofiting j and that the gold-
leaf ele&rometer may be advantageoufly fubftituted for
the cork-balls.
“ The inftrument I caufed to be made was five inches
high. The receiving fide G was connedled with a
coated jar of four fquare feet coating, and the giving
fide F was connedled with Bennet’s gold-leaf eledlro-
xneter. The 'eledlrometer was rendered as ftrongly
pofitive as it was capable of being, and the jar was
rendered negative, by giving it as much of that power
as was produced by drawing a common (lick of feal-
ing-wax once through the hand. In this flate the jar
was incapable of attra&ing the fineft thread. The vafe
was then made to fpin j and the eifeft was, that the
leaves of the ele&rometer firlt gradually eollapfed, and
then in the fame manner gradually opened, and ftruck
the fides of the glafs of the eleflrometer with negative
elettricity. The experiment was renewed and repeated
with every requifite variation.”
To conclude, the methods of afcertaining minute de¬
grees of ele&ricity may be reduced to three.
1. If the abfolute quantity of eleflricity be fmall and
pretty much condenfed, as that produced by a fmall
eesoi tourmalin when heated, or by a hair when rubbed, the
:6tricity; only effe&ual method of manifefting its prefence, and
259 afcertaining its quality, is to communicate it to a very
delicate electrometer, i. e. one that is very light and has
no great extent of conducting furface.
2. When we with to afcertain the prefence of a con
R I C I T Y.
733
15s
iree ge-
ral me¬
nds of af-
mining
;iall de-
ees of
’ a deii-
.te eiec-
meter;
260
-the col- fiderable quantity of eleClricity, which is difpeifed, or
ftor, mul-eXpan(je4j into a great fpace, and is little condenfed, fuch
: )!ier, or
ndeafer;
’ one of
e plates
the
as the conllant eleCtricity of the atmofphere in clear
weather, or fuch as the eleCtricity which remains in a
large Leyden phial after the firft or fecond difcharge ;
this may be belt afcertained by means ot Cavallo s co/~
leBor or multiplier, or by the condenfer with Cavallo s
improvement of the fmall plate.
3. When the eleCtricity to be afcertained is neither
very confiderable in quantity nor much condenfed, fuch
, as the electricity of the hair of certain animals, of the
delicate" furface chocolate, when cooling, &c. In this cafe
edtrome- the belt method is to apply a metallic plate furnilhed
r‘ with an infulating handle, fuch as one of the piates of
the doubler, to the electrified body, and to touch the
plate with a finger while it remains forfome time in this
fituation j which done, the plate is to be removed and
brought near a fenfible electrometer j or its electricity
may be communicated to the plate of a fmall conden¬
fer, by which it will be rendered more confpicuous. In
this operation care muft be taken not to bring the plate
too near the body whofe electricity is to be examined,
left the friction, likely to happen between the plate
and the body, ftiould produce fome electricity, the
origin of which might be attributed to fome other
csmfes.
Chap. XIV. Mifcellaneous and additional Experi
tnents and Obfervations. illuftrated
Mr Nicholson, in his Journal for September i79_7> byi^^ri"
propofes what appears to be a valuable improvement in , v j
Bennet’s electrometer. _ 362
“ There are, (fays he) two particulars in which thisNicholfon’s
excellent inftrument appears capable of improvement
the firft, to render it portable, without danger to the gganet>g
gold-leaf, and the fecond to exprefs its various degreese]e(q.rome,
of electrization by a fcale of divifions. ter.
I have reflected much on the probable means of fe-
curing the gold-leaf from fraCture by carriage, but
hitherto with little profpeCt of fuccefs. rI here was fome
hope that a Angle flip of this gold might be preferved
in a {heath or box, with its fides very nearly in contaCt;
but when I placed fuch a flip upon a gilded piece of
wood of the fame fuperficial dimenfions, to which it was
fattened at one end, its flexibility was fuch that the leaf
very readily Aided along the furface of the wood, and
became full of folds, by inclining the faftened end a very
few degrees lower than the other extremity. There
was ftill lefs immediate expectation that the flips could
be aCtually and repeatedly confined between two leaves
or cufhions, as in the book of the gold-beaters, without
their being broke by continual agitation. To this,
however, my attention will probably be direCted when
I may again refume this objeCt. In the mean time, I
recommend it to other philofophers, as a very defir-
able improvement in the mineralogical apparatus, and
fhould rejoice to be anticipated by their fuccefsful re-
fearches.
The weight of one flip of gold-leaf, in the eleCtro-
meter of Bennet, is about i-6ooth part of a grain $ but
this, as well as the fenfibility of the inftrument, muft
vary not only from the figure and dimenfions of the
piece, but the nature and thicknefs of the gold itfelf Phil,
It feemed, therefore unneceflary to endeavour to render Journ.
two of thefe inftruments comparable with each other.1- 233*
All that could be done was, to diftinguifti the different
intenfities as (hewn by the divergencies of the leaf ; or,
as I have taken it, the diftanees at which they ftrike a
pair of uninfulated metallic bars. In Plate CXCVI.
fig. 93. A reprefents the infulated metallic cap, from
which, at C, depend the two narrow pointed flips of
gold-leaf. BB is the glafs (hade, which ferves to fupport
the cap, and defend the leaves from the motion of the
furrounding air. T)D are two flat radii of brafs, which
open and Ihut by means of one common axis, like a pair
of compaffes. By a contrivance of fprings, they are.
difpofed to open when left at liberty j but the micro¬
meter fcrew E ferves to draw a nut, which has two fteeL
bars, with a claw at the end of each, that enters into a
correfpondent flit, in two fmall cylindrical pieces to
which the radii are fixed refpedtively. This apparatus
is feen in another pofition in fig. 94. KL reprefents aFig.94.
piece of brafs, which ferves as the frame for the work,
and fits the lower focket of the elearometer, FF, fig. 3.
In this the letters IH indicate the cylindrical pieces
which carry the radii, and are feen from beneath. On
the fide of the nut G, one of the fteel drawing pieces
is feen ; the other being on the oppofite fide, and con-
fequently not vifible. Towards L appear the two re-ac¬
tion fprings. The other parts require no verbal de-
fcription. ^
. 2^3
His obfer-
vations on
the glafs
cafe of this
734 ELECT
Frinciplesof In the common conftru£tion of the gold-leaf elec-
Elede
iftin-
i thing
; twy
drici-
5,
hap. XIV. ELECT
nciplesofmayjiilt touch the knob of an eleflric jar, the outlide
eflncity of which communicates with the ground. On the firft
uftrated conta6l it will be repelled to a confiderable diftance, and
inentn* a^ter ma^'nS ^veral vibrations will remain ftationary j
-- but if a candle is placed at forae diftance behind it, fo
that the ball may be between it and the bottle, the ball
will inftantly begin to move, and will turn round the
knob of the jar, moving in a kind of ellipfis as long
as there is any eleflricity in the bottle. This ex¬
periment is very ftriking, though the motions are
far from being regular -, but it is remarkable that
they always affeft the elliptical rather than the circu¬
lar form.
In the table of condu&ors we have placed Jlame,
frnoke, and the vapour of hot water. That thele va¬
pours are conductors may be (hewn from the following
experiment1--.
Exper. i.—Bring the knobs of two metallic dif-
charging rods, communicating the one with the outfide,
and the other with the infide of a charged phial, oppo-
fite each other, each within an inch of the flame of a
candle, fo that the flame may be in the middle between
them. The flame will be feen to fpread on each fide
towards the knobs, and will produce the difcharge of
tho ]ar.
Mr Cuthbertfon has propofed a method of diftinguifti-
ing pofitive from negative eleCtricity by the flame of a
candle. He places the flame of a candle exaClly in the
middle between two metallic balls at the diftance of
four inches from each other, fo that the centre of the
flame is in a line with that of the balls. The balls are
about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and commu¬
nicate by infulated wires, the one with thzpojitive and
the other with the negative conduClor. If the machine
be then put in motion, the flame will waver very much,
but will feem to incline rather to the negative than the
pofitive ball. After turning the machine for about 50
revolutions (if the glafs be a plate of two feet diame¬
ter), the negative ball will begin to grow warm, while
the pofitive ftill remains cold. After 200 revolutions,
the negative ball will become too hot to be touch¬
ed, while the pofitive will continue as cold as at
firft *.
A charged phial may be gradually difcbarged by
pafliog it for fome time backwards and forwards
through the flame of a large candle, fo that the flame
may aft alternately on the knob and the outfide
coating.
Exper. 2—Sufpend a cork-ball eleftrometer about
four or five feet above the prime conduftor of an elec¬
trical machine ; then turn the winch very gently, and
it will be found that the balls do not diverge. Now
place a green wax taper juft blown out in the prime
conduftor, fo that its fmoke may afcend towards the
balls, and thefe will diverge a little with the fame de¬
gree of motion communicated to the machine.
The fame effeft, but in a lefs degree, will be pro¬
duced, if, inftead of the taper, a veflel of hot water is
placed below the balls, thus (hewing that fieam is a
conduftor, though inferior to fmoke in its condufting
power.
Thefeexperiments are by Mr Henley, and are among
feveral others related by him in the 64th volume of the
Philofophical Tranfaftions. His reafon for employing
3
R I C I T Y.
735
Niciil-
i’i Jour.
3V. lS02.
iC-j
ioke and
am con¬
dors.
a green taper, was, that on account of the verdigris which pr;nc;pies of
it contained, it occafioned much fmoke with little Eledlricity
heat. illuftrated
It has been remarked in the Introduftion, that glafs,
though one of the moft perfeft eleftrics when cold, be- m^n * f
comes a conduftor when heated red hot. This is 268
proved by the following experiment, which alfo fhewsGWs and
that other eleftrics change their nature when heated,
Fake a fmall glafs tube of about one-twentieth ofceo”n-
an inch in diameter, and above a foot long ; clofe it atdudtors
one end, and introduce a wire into it, fo that it may be when much
extended through its whole length : let two or three ^eate^*
inches of this wire projeft above the open end of the
tube, and there fatten it with a bit of cork j tie round
the cloied end of the tube another wire, which will
be feparated from the wire within the tube only by the
glafs interpofed between them. In thefe circumftances
endeavour to fend a thock through the two wires ; i. e.
the wire inferted in the glafs tube, and that tied on its
outhde, by connefting one of them with the outfide, and
touching the other with the knob of a charged jar, and
you will find that the difcharge cannot be made, unlefs
the tube be broken j becaufe the circuit is interrupted
by the glafs at the end of the tube, which is interpofed
between the two wires. But put that end of the tube
to which the wire is tied into the fire, fo that it may
become juft red hot, then endeavour to difcharge the
jar again through the wires, and you will find that the
explofion will be eafily tranfmitted from wire to wire,
through the fubftance of the glafs, which, by being made
red hot, is become a conduftor.
In order to afcertain the condufting quality of hot
refinous fubftances, oils, &c. bend a glafs tube in the
form of an arch CEFD, fig. 95. and tie a filk firing Fig. $5.
GCH to it, which ferves to hold it by when it is to be
fet near the fire j fill the middle part of this tube with
rofin, fealing-wax, &c. then introduce two wires, AE,
BF, through its ends, fo that they may touch the rofin,
or penetrate a little way in it. This done, let a perfon
hold the tube over a clear fire, fo as to melt the rofin
within it 5 at the fame time, by connefting one of the
wires, A or B, with the outfide of a charged jar, and
touching the other with the knob of the jar, endeavour
to make the diicharge through the rofin, and you will
obferve that, while the rofin is cold, no (hocks can be
tranfmitted through it: but it becomes a conduftor ac¬
cording as it melts, and when totally melted, the (hocks
will pafs through it very freely.
The eleftric power of glafs may alfo be deftroyed by Glafs a*d
reducing the glais to powder. This was afcertained byot^ere^ec"
M. Wilcke f, and Dr Prieftley J j but it has been moft powdered1
fatisfaftorily proved by M. Van Svvinden, in the follow-ijecome
ing experiments. conductors.
Exper. 1.—He covered a cafe of white iron with pow-1 Mem. de
dered glafs, fo as to form a cake about an inch thick, a^X**t*xx
foot long, and eight inches broad, and he placed above j/fry/
this cake, another plate of iron fo as to form a coating. Elettricity,
He then attempted to charge this coated plate, but with- P* vdi- 4^
out fuecefs; he could produce no (hock.
Exper. 2.-:-Suppofing that the condufting power of
the glafs in the above experiment might arife from
fome humidity which it had contrafted, he dried it in a
crucible, and repeated the experiment. In this cale, it
appeared {lightly eleftric, fo long as the machine was
worked,
-73<5
ELECTRICITY.
Principlesof worked, but when this was flopped the plate of powder-
Eledlricity ed glafs no longer affe£led the ele£lrometer.
illuftrated Exper. 3.—Into ajar, coated on the outfide, he put
^rnent ^ a °f powdered glafs, and having furnifhed it
t—v—> in other refpefts like a Leyden phial, he proceeded to
* Van examine whether it would receive a charge. He found
Sivinden t]iat Jt COuld be completely charged, a proof that the
ie d™' P°wdered glafs a£ted the part of a conduftor *.
VEleElri- -^7 fitnilar experiments M. Van Swinden found that
cite et de flowers of fulphur a6!ed as a conductor, though moi'e
Magne- imperfeftly than powdered glafs.
Soon after the difcovery of the Leyden phial and
0 270 43 fhock produced by it, it became a defirable object with
Velocity ofeleftricians to afcertain how far the fhock might be
the eledtric conveyed, and how long a time would be required to
^10C^’ convey it to any confiderable diftance.
The French philofophers were the firfl: to appear in
this field, but they did little more than excite the Eng-
lifh to go far beyond them in thefe great undertakings.
A circuit was made by the former of 900 toifes, con-
fifting of men holding iron wires betwixt each two,
through which the ele&ric fhock was fenfibly felt. At
another time they made the fhock pafs through a wire
two thoufand toifes in length, that is, near a Paris
league, or about two Englifh miles and a half; though
part of the wires dragged upon wet grafs, went over
chafms, hedges, or palifades, and over ground newly
ploughed up. Into another chain they took the water
of the bafon in the Thuilleries, the furface of which
was about an acre, and the phial was difcharged
through it.
Mr Monnier the younger, endeavoured to deter¬
mine the velocity of the ele&ric power j and for this
purpofe made the fhock pafs through an iron wire of
950 toifes in length, but he could not obferve that it
fpent a quarter of a fecond in palling it. He alfo
found, that when a wire of 1319 feet, with its extremi¬
ties brought near together, was eleflrified, that the
de&ricity xeafed at one end the moment it was taken
off at the other.
But all thefe attempts of the French would fcarcely
•have deferved to be mentioned, but that they preceded
the greater, the more numerous, and more accurate ex-
Watfon periments of the Englifh. The names of the Englifh
and his af- gentlemen, animated with a truly philofophical fpirit,
fociates. an(j were indefatigable in this bufinefs, deferve to
be tranfmitted to pofterity.
The principal agent in this fcene was Dr Watfon.
He planned and direfted all the operations, and never
failed to be prefent at every experiment. His chief
afliflants were Martin Folkes, Efq. prefident of the
Royal Society, Lord Charles Cavendifh, Dr Bevis,
Mr Graham, Dr Birch, Mr Peter Daval, Mr Tremb-
ley, Mr Elliot, Mr Robins, and Mr Short. Many
other perfons, and feme of diftin£Uon, gave their attend¬
ance occafionally.
Dr Watfon, who wrote the hiftory of their proceed¬
ings, in order to lay them before the Royal Society,
begins by obferving (what was verified in all their ex¬
periments) that the eleftric fhock is not, ftriflly fpeak-
ing, conduced in the fliorteft manner poflible, unlefs
the bodies through which it paffes, eonduft equally
well •, for that, if they condu6f unequally, the circuit is
always formed through the beft conduftors, though the
length of it be ever fo great.
271
Experi¬
ments on
Part II]
The firft attempt thefe gentlemen made, Was to cott-princjp]es J
vey the eleftric fhock acrofs the river Thames, making Ele&ricitj
ufe of the water of the river for one part of the chain of ‘Nuftrate
communication. This they accomplifhed on the 14th experi
and 18th of July of 1747, by faftening a wire all along ,. ^
Weftminfter bridge, at a confiderable height above the
■water. One end of this wire communicated with the
coating of a charged phial, the other being held by an
obferver, who in his other hand held an iron rod,
which he dipped into the river. On the oppofite fide
of the river flood a gentleman who likevvife dipped an
iron rod in the river with one hand, and in the other
held a wire, the extremity of which might be brought
into contafl with the wire of the phial.
Upon making the difeharge, the .fhock was felt by
the obfervers on both fides of the river, but more fenfi¬
bly by thofe who were Rationed on the fame fide with
the machine *, part of the eledlric fire having gone
from the wire down the moift ftones of the bridge,
thereby making feveral fhorter circuits to the phial,
but ftill all pafling through the gentlemen who were
ftationed on the fame fide with the machine. This was,
in a manner demonftrated by feme perfons feeling a
fenfible fhock in their arms and feet, who only happen¬
ed to touch the wire at the time of one of the dif-
charges, when they were {landing upon wet fteps which
led to the river *. * Wil.
Upon this and the fubfequent occafions, the gentle-Tra*/.df
men made ufe of wires in preference to chains, for this,vu^ x‘
among other reafons, that the eledlricity which wasP’
condudled by chains, was not fo llrong as that conduc¬
ed by wires. This, as they well obferved, wasoccafion-
ed by the junctures of the links not being fufficiently
clofe, as appeared by the flafhing and fnapping at every
jun&ure, where there was the lead feparation. Thefe
leffer fnappings being numerous in the whole length of
a chain, very fenfibly leffened the great difeharge at
the prime conductor.
Their next attempt was to force the eleCrical (hock
to make a circuit of two miles, at the New river at
Stoke Newington. This they performed on the 24th
of July 1747, at two places; at one of which, the
diflance by land was 800 feet, and by water 2CC0 : in
the other the diftance by land was 2800 feet, and by
water 8cOO. The difpofition of the apparatus was fimi-
lar to what they before ufed at Weftminfter bridge,
and the efftcl anfwered their utmoft expeCations.
But, as in both cafe«, the obfervers at both extremities
of the chain, which terminated in the water, felt the
(hock, as well when they flood with their rods fixed in¬
to the earth 20 feet from the water, as when they were
put into the river ; it oecafioned a doubt, whether the
(hock was formed through the windings of the river,
or a much fhorter way by the ground of the meadow :
for the experiment plainly (hewed, that the meadow
ground, wfith the grafs on it, conduCed the eleCricity
very well.
By fubfequent experiments, they were fully convin¬
ced, that the eleCricity had not in this cafe been con¬
veyed by the water of the river, which was two mites
in length, but by land, where the diftance was only one
mile; in which fpace, however, the eleftric power
muft neceflarily have pafled over the New-river twice,
have gone through feveral gravel pits, and a large
ftubble field f. 173, pjt
On
hap. XIV. ELECT
nciplesof 0° l^e July they repeated the experiment
ictricity at the fame place, with tlie fallowing variation of cir-
uftrated cutn(tances. The iron wire was, in its whole length,
expen. pUpj)0rt;ed by dry flicks, and the obfervers Hood upon
I m^nt' original eleblrics ; the effect of which was, that they
| felt the fliock much more fenfibly than when the con-
diufling wire had lain upon the ground, and when the
obfervers had flood likewife upon the ground, as in the
former experiment.
Afterwards, every thing remaining as before, the ob¬
fervers were diredled, infltad of dipping their rods into
the water, to put them into the ground, each 150 feet
from the water. They were both fmartly Hruck,
though they were diilant from each other above 500
feet.
The fame gentlemen, pleafed with the fuccefs of
their former experiments, undertook another, the ob-
je£! of which was to determine, whether the eledlric
power could be conveyed through dry.ground ; and at
the fame time to carry it through water to a greater
diflanee than they had done before. For this purpofe
they pitched upon Highbury-barn, beyond Iflington,
where they carried it into execution on the 5th of Au-
guft 1747. They chofe a ftation for their machine
almoft equally diftant from two other llations for obfer¬
vers, upon the Nevv-river, which were fomewhat more
than a mile afunder by land, and two miles by urater.
They had found the ftreets of London, when dry, to
conduct very llrongly, for about 40 yards; and the dry
road at Newington about the fame diflance. The event
of this trial anfwered their expectations. The eleCtric
fire made the circuit of the water when both the wires
and the obfervers were fupported on original eleCtrics,
and the rods dipped into the river. They alfo both felt
■ the Ihock, when one of the obfervers was placed in a
dry gravelly pit, about 300 yards nearer the machine
than the former llation, and 100 yards diilant from the
river ; from which the gentlemen were fatisfied, that
the dry gravelly ground had condufted the electricity
as Itrongly as water.
The lalt attempt of this kind which thefe gentlemen
made, and which required all their fagacity and addrefs
in the conduct of it, was to try whether the eledtric
fliock was perceptible at twice the diflance to which
they had before carried it, in ground perfectly dry, and
where no water was near, and alio to diftinguiih, if
poflible, the comparative velocity of electricity, and of
found.
For this purpofe they fixed upon Shpoter’s-hill, and
made their firit experiment on the 14th of Auguit
1747, a time, when, as it happened, but one thower
of rain had fallen during five preceding weeks. I he
wire communicating with the iron rod, which made
the difcharge, was 6732 feet in length, and V'as lup-
ported all the way upon baked flicks ; as was alio the
wire which communicated with the coating of the phial,
which was 3868 feet long, and the obfervers were
diflant from each other two miles. The refult of the
explofion demonflrated, to the iaiisfaCtion of the gentle¬
men prefent, that the circuit performed by tne< elec-
ricity was four miles, viz. two miles of wire,
and two of dry ground, the fpace between the ex¬
tremities of the wires, a diftance which, without trial,
as they juftly obferved, was too great to be credited.
A gun was difcharged at the inflant of the explolion,
Vol. VII. Part II.
R I C I T Y. 737
and the obfervers had flop watches in their hands, to Princi-plesof
note the moment when they felt the fliock ; but as far Ekdlricity
as they could diitinguilh,, the time in which the eleCtric 'Ikutrate
power periormed that vafl circuit was inltantaneous. meut.
In all the explofions where the circuit was made of—y . <
any confiderable length, it was obferved, that though
the phial was very well charged, yet that the fnap at
the gun-barrel made by the explofion was not near
fo loud as when the circuit was formed in a room ; lo
that a byftander, fays Dr Watfon, would not imagine*
from feting the Haiti and hearing the report, that the
ftroke at the extremity of the conducing wire would
have been confiderable, the contrary of which, when
the wires were properly managed, he fays, always hap*-
pened.
Still the gentlemen, unwearied in thefe purfuits,
were defirous of afcertaining, if poflible, the abfolute
velocity of electricity through a certain fpace ; becaufe*
though in the lafl experiment, the time of its progrefs
was certainly very fmall, they were defirous of knowing*
fmall as that time might be, whether it was meafurable,
and Dr Watfon had contrived an excellent method for
that purpofe.
Accordingly, on the 5th of Auguft 1748, the gentle¬
men met for the laft time at Shooter’s-hill ; when it
was agreed to make an elettric circuit ot two miles, by
feveral turnings of the wire* in the fame field. 1 he
middle of this circuit they contrived to be in the fame
room with the machine, where an obferver took in each
hand one of the extremities of the wires, each of which
was a mile in length. In this excellent difpofition of
the apparatus, in which the time between the explofion
and the fliock could be obferved with the greateft ex-
aCtnets, the phial was difcharged feveral times ; but the
obferver always felt himfelf fliocked at the very inflant
of making the explofion. Upon this the gentlemen
were fully fatisfied, that through the whole length of ^
this wire, which was 12,276 feet in length, the velo- V(^p ^
city of the eleftric power was inftanfaneous *.
We have noticed the increafed evaporation from li-How to
quids by means of electricity. The following experi-f'J,n ,eaJ-
ment, which is commonly exhibited by lecturers °n tobtlll.eadSii
electricity, is ufually confidercd of the fame kind.
Stick a fmall piece of fealing-wax on the end of a
W’ire, and fet fire to it. Then put an eleCtrical ma¬
chine in motion, and prefent the wax juft blown out at
the diftance of fome inches from the prime conductor.
A number of extremely fine filaments will immediate¬
ly dart from the fealing-wax to the conductor, on which
they will be condenfed into a kind of net-work, refem-
bling wool.
If the wire with the fealing-wax be ftruck into one
of the holes of the conductor, and a piece of paper be
prefented at a moderate diftance to the wax, juft after
it has been ignited, on fettingthe machine in motion, a
net-work of wax will be formed on the paper. The
fame effeCt, but in a {lighter degree, will be produced,
if the paper be brilkly rubbed with a piece of elaflic
gum* and the melting fealing-wax be held pretty near
the paper immediately after rubbing.
If the paper thus painted, as it were, with fealing-
wax, be gently warmed by holding the back of it to the
fire,* the wax will adhere to it, and the refult of the
experiment will thus be rendered permanent.
A beautiful experiment of the fame nature is made
5 A 'witfe
ELECTRICIT Y.
ment.
273
To make
camphor
fhoot into
ramifica¬
tions.
Lichten
her?.
738
Principlesofw^k camP^or> A fpoon holding a piece of lighted
Eledricity camphor is made to communicate with an electrified
illuitrated body, as the prime conductor of a machine *, while the
by expert- conductor continues eledlrified by keenino the machine
in motion, the camphor will throw out ramifications,
and appear to fhoot like a vegetable.
Soon after the difcovery of the eleftrophorus by
Signior Volta, an experiment was made with that in-
ftrument by ProfelTor Lichtenberg of Gottingen, that
attracted confiderable notice. It is thus defcribed by
274 Mr Cavallo.
Curious ex- The eledlrophorus, that is, a plate of fome refinous
I™of fubtfance, as fulphur, rofin, gum-lac, &c. is firft ex¬
cited, either by rubbing or otherwife; then a piece of
metal of any fliape, at pleafure, as for inftance, a three-
legged compafs, a piece of brafs tube, or the like, is
fet upon the eleftrophorus, and to this piece of metal,
fo placed, .a fpark is given, of the eledlricity contrary
to that of the plate j this done, the piece of metal is
removed, by means of a flick of fealing-wax or other
eledlric, and fume powder of rofin, kept in a linen bag,
is fliaken upon the eleftrophorus : this powder will be
found to fall about thofe points upon the plate, which
the piece of metal touched, forming fome radiated ap¬
pearances, much like the common ’'eprefentations of
liars ; at the fame time, upon the greateft part of the
plate, that is, befides thofe ftars, there is hardly any
powder at all. Now, it is to be remarked, that if the
plate be excited negatively, and the fpark given to the
metal fet upon it is pofitive, the appearance will be as
above deferibed j but if, on the contrary, the plate is
pofitive and the fpark is negative, then the powder of
rofin will be found to fall upon thofe parts of the plate
which in the other cafe is left uncovered, and to leave
the ftars clean : in ftiort, it will do juft the reverfe of
what it did in the other cafe j or, in other words, the
powder of rofin will be attracted by thofe parts only
of the ele&rophorus which are ele&rified pofitively.
1 he configurations produced in the above experi-
vlnouTcor.. ment of ^ Li^tenberg appeared fo curious that they
iigurHtions* vvtre foot’ imitated by various elearicians, particularly
by eletftri- by Mr Cavallo and the Reverend Abraham Rennet,
city. inventor of the doubler. The diredions given by this
laft gentleman are as follows.
To make red figures, take a pound of rafped Brazil
wood : put it into a kettle with as much water as will
cover it, or rather more; alfo put in about an ounce of
gum arabic and a lump of alum about as big as a large
nut ; let it boil about two hours, or till the water is
ftrongly coloured ; itrain off the extraft into a broad
did), and fet it in an iron oven, where it is to remain
till all the water be evaporated, which with me was
effected in about twelve hours ; but this depends on the
heat of the oven, which fliould not be i'o hot as to en¬
danger its burning. Sometimes I have boiled the
ftrained extrad till it was confiderably infpiffated before
it was placed in the oven, that it might be fooner dry.
When it is quite dry but not burnt, fcrape it out of
the difti, and grind it in a mortar till it be finely pul¬
verized. In doing this, it is proper to cover the mor¬
tar with a cloth, having a hole through, to prevent the
powder from flying away and offending the nofe, and
alfo to do it out of doors if the weather be dry and calm,
that he air may carry away the powder neceffarily
ticap ng, and which other wife is very dilagreeahle.
a75 „
Method of
Part III,
When ground fine, let it be fifted through muflin or a{>rinci ,
fine hair-fieve, returning the coarfer part into the mor- ledndiv
tar to be ground again. When the grinding and lift- illuftiated
ing are finiflied, tlie powder is ready for ufe. The re- exPeri-
finous plate I have moftly ufed was compofed of five “*nt‘
pounds of rofin, half a pound of bees-wax, and two
ounces of lamp-black, melted together, and poured up¬
on a board fixteen inches fquare, with ribs upon the
edges at leaft half an inch high, to confine the com-
poiition whilft fluid : thus the refinous plate was half
an inch thick, which is better than a thinner plate, the
figures being more diflind:. After the compofition is
cold, it will be found covered with fmall blifters
which may be taken out by holding the plates before
the fire, till the furface be melted ; then let it cool
again, and upon holding it a fecond time to the fire,
more blifters will appear ; but by thus repeatedly heat¬
ing and cooling the iurface, it will at laft become per-
feftly fmooth. Some plates were made fmaller, and
the refinous compofition confined to the form of an el-
lipfis, a circle, or efcutcheon, by a rim of tin half an
inch broad, and fixed upon a board.
1 he next thing to be done is to prepare the paper,
which is to be foftened in water, either by laying the
pieces upon each other in a veffel of cold water, or firft
pouring a little hot water upon the bottom of a large
difti, then laying upon it a piece of paper, fo that one
edge of the paper may lie over the edge of the difli, to
remain dry, that it may afterwards be more conve¬
niently taken up. Then pour more hot water upon its
upper furfacc. Upon this place another piece in the
fame manner, again pouring on more water, and thus
proceed till all the pieces are laid in. By ufing hot
water, the paper will be more foftened in a few mi¬
nutes than if it remains in cold water a whole day.
When the figures are to be made, the refinous plate
muft lie horizontally, whilft the eleftrieity is communi¬
cated, if the experiment requires any thing to be placed
upon the plate : but it is convenient afterwards to hang
it up in a vertical pofition whilft the powder is project¬
ed, left too much powder ftiould fall where it is not re¬
quired.
A little of the powder may be taken between a
finger and thumb, and projeCled by drawing it over a
brulh ; or, which is better, a quantity of powder may be
put into the bellows and blown towards the plate.
When the figure is fufficiently covered with powder,
let the plate be again laid horizontally upon a table;
then take one of the foftened papers out of the water
by its dry edge, and lay it carefully between the leaves
of a book, preffing the leaves together, and let it lie in
this fituation about half a minute. Then remove the
paper to a dry place in the book, and prefs it again
about the fame time, which will generally be fufficient
to take off the fuperfluous moifture. Then take up the
paper by the two corners of its dry edge, and place the
wet edge a little beyond the figure on the refinous plate,
lowering the reft of the piece gradually till it covers
the figure without Aiding ; then lay over it a piece of
clean dry paper, and preis it gently ; let it remain a
ftiort time, and then rub it clofer to the plate with a
cloth, or, which is better, prefs it down by means of a
wooden roller covered with cloth, taking care that the
paper be not moved from its firft pofition. When the
paper is fufficiently preffed, let it be taken up -by its
dry
ents.
iiap. XIV. ELECT
-icinle-of dry edge, and laid upon the fmface of a veffel of water
jrtricity with the printed fide downwards; by this means the
utrated fUperfiuous powder will fink in the water, and the
nientT" %ure wiI1 not he fo liable afterwards to fpread in the
^ paper. Alter the paper has remained on the water
during a few minutes, take it up and place it between
the leaves of a book, removing it frequently to a dry
place. If it be defired that the paper Ihould be fpeedi-
ly dry, let the book leaves in which it is to be placed
be previoufly warmed, and by removing it to feveral
places it will be dry much fooner than by holding it
near a fire, and without drawing the paper crooked.
By the above procefs, it is obvious, that leather, cali¬
co, or linen, as well as paper, may be printed with
thefe figures, and the effefts of the diffufion of eledlri-
city upon a refinous plate be exhibited to thofe who
have not leifure or inclination to perform the experi-
ennefs ments-J'.
w Expe- The figures reprefented in Plate CXCII. were form¬
ed much after Mr Bennet’s method.
The apparatus ufed for making them confifted only
of a common Leyden phial, and a plate of glafs 15
inches fquare, covered on one fide with a varnilh of
gum lac diffolved in fpirit of wine, and feveral times
laid over. The other fide is covered with tin-foil laid
on with common pafle. When it is to be ufed, the
glafs plate is put upon a metallic ftand, with the tin-
foiled fide laid undermoff ; the phial is to be charged,
and the knob drawn over the varnilhed fide. Thus any
kind of figure may be drawn, or letters made, as repre¬
fented in the plate ; and from every figure beautiful
ramifications will proceed, longer or fhorter according
to the flrength of the charge. On feme occafions,
however, the charge may be too ftrong, particularly
where we wifh to represent letters, fo that the whole
will be blended into one confufed mafs. The. round
figures are formed by placing metallic rings or plates
upon the eleflrical plate; and then giving them a fpark
from the electrified bottle, or fending a fhock through
them. The figures may be rendered permanent by
blowing off the loofe chalk, and clapping on a piece of
black fized paper upon them ; or if they are wanted
t)f another colour, they may eafily be obtained by
means of lake, vermilion, rofe pink, or any of the ordi¬
nary colours ground very fine. The eafieff way of ap¬
plying them feems to be by a barber’s puff bellows.
We (hall conclude this part of our article with no¬
ticing the effeCts produced by eleCtricity on magnetic
needles.
Thefe may be ftated in the following propofition.
ele&ric Jhock communicates a magnetic power
to needles, andfrequently reverfes or defrays that pola¬
rity.
By eleCtricity Dr Franklin frequently gave polarity
to needles and reverfed them at pleafure. A fhock
from four large jars, fent through a fine fewing needle,
he fays, gave it polarity, fo that it would traverfe when
laid on water. What is moft remarkable in thefe elec¬
trical experiments upon magnets is, that if the needle,
when it was (truck, lay eaft and weft, the end which
was entered by the eleCtric blaft pointed north; but
2)6
iiieri
I its on
' effedt
I lured
IjileCtri-
othefis Early in the 18th century, M. du Fay difeovered
»f Du Fay. that there were two ftates of electricity, or, as he fup¬
pofed, two different kinds of eleCtricity, produced when
different eleCtrics were excited. “ Chance (fays he)
has thrown in my way a principle, which cafts a new
light upon the fubjeCt of eleCtricity. The principle is,
that there are two diftinCt kinds of eleCtricity, very dif¬
ferent from one another ; one of which I call vitreous,
the other refinous eleCtricity. The fir ft is that of glafs,
rock cryftal, precious (tones, hairs of animals, rvool, and
many other bodies. The fecond is that of amber,
copal, gum lac, filk, thread, paper, and a vaft number
of other fuhftances. The charaCteriftics of thefe two
electricities are, that they repel themfelves, and attraCt
each other. Thus a body poffeffed of the vitreous elec¬
tricity, repels all other bodies poffeffed of the vitreous,
and on the contrary, attraCts all thofe poffeffed of the
refinous eleCtricity. The refinous alfo repels the re¬
finous, and attraCts the vitreous. From this principle
one may eafily deduce the explanation of a great num¬
ber of other phenomena 5 and it is probable that this
truth will lead us to the difeovery of many other
things.”
This difeovery of M. du Fay was the origin of a
theory of eleCtricity, which is commonly called the
I
theory of tivo fluids, and which we ftiall prefently con.
fider more at length.
Hitherto attraction and repulfion were the only elec-
trical phenomena which had been obferved; and to the
explanation of thefe, the above general theories ap¬
peared fufficiently competent. But when eleCtricity
began to fflew itfelf in a greater variety of appearances,
and to make itfelf fenfible to the fmell, the fight, the
touch and the hearing; when bodies were not only at¬
tracted and repelled, but made to emit ftrong fparks of
fire, attended with a confiderable noife, a painful fen-
fation, and a ftrong phofphorieal fmell, eleCtricians
were obliged to make their fyItems more complex, in
proportion as the faCts accumulated. It was then ge¬
nerally fuppofed that the eleCtric power, which now
began to aflume the name of the eleBric fluid, was the
fame with the chemical principle of fire ; though fome
thought it was a fluid fuigeneris, which very much re-
fembled that of fite ; and others, with M. Boulanger at
their head, thought that the eleCIric fluid was nothing
more than the finer parts of the atmofphere, which
crowded upon the furfaces of eleftric bodies, when the
gruffer parts had been driven away by the fridion of
the rubber. jSi
During this time, it was imagined, that the ele&ric Ele&nc
matter was produced from the ele&ric body by fric-niatter,t*1^
tion ; but by a difeovery of Dr Watfon’s, it becameconiefrom
univerfally believed, that the glafs globes and tubes the eartk.
ferved only to fet the fluid in motion, and by no means
to produce it. He was led to this difeovery by ob-
ferving, that, upon rubbing the glafs tube, while he
was ftanding upon cakes of wax or rofin (in order, as
he expe&ed, to prevent any difeharge of the eleCtric
matter upon the floor), the power was, contrary to his
expectation, fo much leffened, that no fnapping could
be obferved upon another perfoirs touching any part
of his body ; but that, if a perfon not eleCtrified held
his hand near the tube while it was rubbed, the fnap¬
ping was very fenfible.. The event was the fame when
the globe was whirled in fimilar circumftances. For,
if the man who turned the wheel, and who, together
with the machine, wTas fufpended upon filk, touched
the floor with one foot, the eleCtric fire appeared upon
the conduCtor ; but if he kept himfelf free from any
communication with the floor, little or no fire was pro¬
duced.—He obferved, that only a fpark or two would
appear between his hand and the infulated machine,
unlefs he at the fame time formed a communication
between the conduCtor-and the floor; but that then
there *was a conftant and copious flow of the eleCtric
matter obferved between them. From thefe, and fome
other experiments of a fimilar kind, the DoCtor dif«
covered what he called the complete circulation of the
eleCtric matter. When he found, that by cutting off
the communication of the glafs globe with the floor,
all eleCtric operations were flopped, he concluded that
the eleCtric fluid was conveyed from the floor to the
rubber.
lap.
I.
E L E C T R I C I T Y.
|.e0ryof rubber, and from tbence to the globe. For the fame
] flricity- reafon, feeing the rubber, or the man who had a eom-
-v munication with it, gave no fparks but when the con-
duftor was conne&ed with the floor, he as naturally-
concluded, that the globe was fupplied from the con-
du£ior, as he had before concluded that it was fupplied
rubber. From all this he was at laft led to
74 r
2S3
Wat-
from the
a new theory of eledlricity, namely,
that
6 theory forrn
ele^rjc operations, there was both an afflux of ele&ric
matter to the globe and the conduflor, and likewife an
efflux of the fame electric matter from them. Finding
that a piece of leaf filver was lufpended between a plate
eleflrified by the conduflor, and another communi¬
cating with the floor, he reafons from it in the follow¬
ing manner : “ No body can be fufpended in equili-
brio but by the joint aftion of two different dire&ions
of power ; fo here the blafl: of eledlric ether from the
floor fetting through it, drives the filver towards the
plate eledlrified. We find from hence, likewife, that
the draught of eleclric ether from the floor is always
in proportion to the quantity thrown by the globe
over the gun barrel (the prime conductor at tliat time
made ufe of), or the equilibrium by which the filver is
fufpended could not be maintained.,’ Some time af¬
ter, however, the Doctor retraced this opinion con¬
cerning the afflux and efflux, and fuppofed that all the
ele£tric phenomena might be accounted for from the ex-
cefs or diminution of the quantity of eledlrie matter con¬
tained in different bodies. This is the theory that was
more fully explained by Franklin. It has been difputed
whether Dr Watfon or Franklin was the original con¬
triver of this theory. It is poflible .that Watfon may
have formed the idea independently of Franklin •, but
certainly to this latter able and acute philofopher is due
the merit of having framed and applied the hypothefis
of pofitive and negative ele6lrieity, which, with fome
modification, has been fince almoff univerfally adopted.
One great difficulty with which the firft ele&ricians
ceming were embarraffed was to afcertain the direction of the
/ofthe eleftric powers, as we have already
obferved, were fuppofed to refide in the excited globe
or glafs tube. The eleiffric fpark therefore was imagin¬
ed to proceed from the ele&rified body towards any
conduftor that was prefented tp it. It was never
imagined that there could be any difference in this re-
fpeft, whether it was amber, glafs, fealing wax, or
any thing elfe that was excited. The progrefs of the
ele&ric matter was thought to be quite evident to the
fenfes \ and therefore the obfervation of eledtric ap¬
pearances at an infulated rubber occafioned the greateff
aftonifhment.—In this cafe the current could not be
fuppofed to flow both from the rubber and the con¬
ductor, and yet the firff appearances were the fame.
To provide a fupply of the eledtric matter, therefore,
philofophers were obliged to fuppofe, that, notwith-
flanding appearances were in both cafes much the
fame, the electric fluid w’as really emitted in one cafe
by the eledtrified body, and received by it in the other.
But now being obliged to give up the evidence from
fight for the manner of its progrefs, they were at a lofs,
whether, in the ufual method of eledtrifying by excited
glafs, the fluid proceeded from the rubber to the con¬
ductor, or from the condudtor to the rubber. It was,
however, foon found, that the eledtricity of the rubber
was the reverfe of that, at the condudltir, and in all re-
184
ificulty
itric
Id.
fpects the fame with that which had before been pro- Theory of
duced by the friction of lealing wax, fulplmr, roiin,Electricity..
&c. Seeing, therefore, that both the electricities ~ v
were produced at the fame time, by one ^nd the fame
electric, and by the fame friction, all philofophers were
naturally led to conclude, that both were modifications
of one fluid ; though in what manner that fluid was
modified throughout the immenfe. variety of electric
phenomena, was a matter not eafy to be determined. aS5
On this fubject the Abbe Nollet adopted the doc-JA^be,Nol_
trine of afflux and efflux already mentioned. Fie fup- ast e°iy*
pofed, that, in all electrical operations, the fluid is
thrown into two oppofite motions; that the afflux of
this matter drives all light bodies before it by impulfe
upon the electrified body, and its efflux carries them
back again. He was, however, very much embarrafled
in accounting for facts where both thefe currents muff
be confidered ; as in the quick alternate attraction and
repulfion of light bodies by an excited glafs tube, or
other excited electric. To obviate this difficulty, he
fuppofes that every excited electric, and likewife every
body to which electricity is communicated, has two
orders of pores, one for the etniflion of the effluvia, and
another for the reception of them. M. de Tour im¬
proved upon Nollet’s hypothefis, and fuppofed that
there is a difference between the affluent and effluent
current 5 and that the particles of the fluid are thrown
into vibrations of different qualities, which makes one
of thefe currents more copious than the other, accord¬
ing as fulphur or glafs is ufed. It is impoffible, how¬
ever, that fuppofitions fo very arbitrary could be at all
fatisfactory, or received as proper explanations of the
electric phenomena.
About this time the Leyden phial was difcovered j
and the extraordinary effects of it rendered the in¬
quiries into the nature of the electric fluid much more
general than before. It would be tedious, and indeed
impoflible, to give an account of all the theories which 286-
were now invented. One of the moft remarkable was^1 Wil-
tbat of Mr Wilfon. According to this gentleman, thefon’stfieorT?
chief agent in all the operations of electricity, is Sir
Ifaac Newton’s ether j which is more or lefs denfe in
all bodies in proportion to the fmallnefs of their pores,
except that it is much denfer in fulphureous and unctu¬
ous bodies. To this ether are afcribed the principal
phenomena of attraction and repulfion : the light, the
fulphureous or rather phofphoreal fmell with which
violent electricity is always attended, and other fenfi-
ble qualities, are afcribed to the groffer particles of
bodies driven from them by the forcible action of this
ether. He alfo endeavours to explain many electrical
phenomena by means of a fubtile medium at the fur-
face of all bodies; which is the caufe of the refraction
and reflection of the rays of light, and alfo refifts the
entrance and exit of this ether. This medium, he fays,
extends to a fmall diftance from the body, and is of the
fame nature with what is called the electric fluid. On
the furface of conductors this medium is rare, and eafily
admits the paflage of the electric fluid; whereas, on
the furface of electrics, it is denfe and refills it. The
fame medium is rarefied by heat, which thus changes •
conductors intfl non-conductors. By far the greater
number of philofophers, however, rejected the opinion
of Mr Wilfon ; and as they neither chofe to allow the
electric fluid to be fire nor ether^ they were obliged to
own »
742
ELECT
Theory of own that it was a fluid fuigeneris, i. e.
Eleifti icity. nature they were totally ignorant.
one of whofe
SECT. II. Of the Theory of Poftive and Negative
EleEincity,
2S7
Dr Frank- According to this theory, all the operations of elec-
lin’s theory, tricity depend upon one thud faigeneris, extremely fub-
tile and elaflic. Between the particles of this fluid
there fubfifts a very ftrong repulfion with regard to
each other, and as ftrong an attradlion with regard to
other matter. Thus, according to Dr Franklin’s hy-
pothefis, one quantity of eleftric matter will repel ano¬
ther quantity of the fame, but will attradl and be at¬
tracted by any terreftrial matter that happens to be near
it. The pores of all bodies are fuppofed to be lull of
this fubtile fluid ; and when its equilibiium is not efif-
turbed, that is, when there is in any body neither more
nor lefs than its natural (hare, or than that quantity
■which it is capable of retaining by its own attraction,
the fluid does not maniteft itfelf to our fenfes. The ac¬
tion of the rubber upon an eleChic-diiturbs this equili¬
brium, occafioning a deficiency of the fluid in one place,
and a redundancy of it in another. This equilibrium
being forcibly ditturbed, the mutual repulfion of the
particles of the fluid is neceffarily exerted to reftore it.
If two bodies be both of them overcharged, the eleClric
atmofpheres repel each other, and both the bodies re¬
cede from one another to places where the fluid is lefs
denfe. For as there is fuppofed to be a mutual at-
-tra&ion betw'een all bodies and tile eleCtric fluid, fuch
bodies as are eleClrified mult go along with their at-
mofpheres. If both the bodies are exhaufted of their
natural fhare of this fluid, they are both attraCled by
the denfer fluid exilling either in the atmofphere con¬
tiguous to them, or in other neighbouring bodies ;
which occafions them ftill to recede from one another
as if they were overcharged.
This is the Franklinian dodrine concerning the caufe
concerning of eleClric attraction and repulfion but it is evident,
!vh 'Tod*11 Lhe reafon juft now given why bodies negatively
negatively at-tra&ed ought to repel one another, is by no means
electrified fatisfaftory. Dr Franklin himfelf had framed his hy-
pothefis before he knew that bodies negatively eleCtri-
fied would repel one another 5 and when he came af¬
terwards to learn it, he was furprifed, and acknow¬
ledged that he could not fatisfactonly account for it *.
Other philofophers therefore invented different folu-
tions of this difficulty, of which that above mentioned
is one. But by fome this was rejected. They faid,
that as the denfer electric fluid, furrounding two bo¬
dies negatively electrified, acts equally on all fides of
thofe bodies, it cannot occafion their repulfion. The
repulfion, according to them, is owing rather to an
accumulation of the electric on the furfaces of the two
bodies 5 which accumulation is produced by the at¬
traction, and the difficulty the fluid finds in entering
them. This difficulty is fuppofed chiefly to be owing
to the air on the furface of bodies, which Dr Prieftley
fays is probably a little condenftd there. This he de¬
duces from an experiment of Mr Wilfon, corrected by
Mr Canton. The experiment was made in order to
oblerve the courfe of the electric light through a Tor¬
ricellian vacuum. A Angular appearance of light was
obferved upon the furface of the quickfilver, at which
4S8
Difficulty
repel one
another.
* Frank¬
lin's Let¬
ter!
289
Different
folutions
of this dif¬
ficulty.
It I C I T Y. Part IV.
the fluid was fuppofed to enter, Mr Wilfon fuppofed Theory0f
that this was owing to a fubtile medium fpread overEk&ricit°y.
the furface of the quickfilver, and which prevented
the eafy entrance of the electric fluid. But this was
afterwards difeovered by Mr Canton to be owing to
a fmall quantity of air which had been left in the tube.
It is plain, however, that as the attraction is equal
all round, and likewife the difficulty with which the
fluid penetrates the air, bodies negatively electrified
ought not to repel one another on this fuppofition
more than the former. Nay, they ought to attract
each other *, becaufe, in the place of contact, the refift-
ance of the air would be taken off, and the ele&ric
fluid could come from all other quarters by the attrac¬
tion of the bodies.
This theory is evidently no folution of the difficul- Inefficient,
ty j feeing it is only explaining one fad by another,
which requires explanation at leaft as much as the firft.
We ftiall fee hereafter how this difficulty may be ex-
plained.
* r 2 p I
What gave the greateft reputation to Dr Franklin’s Dr Frank,
theory, was the eafy folution which it afforded of thR1‘n’.v exPia‘
phenomena of the Leyden phial. The fluid is fuppofed nhat'°” 0f
to move with the greateft eafe in bodies which are con-mTn’ToTL
dudfors, but with extreme difficulty in eleEirics per y^-Leyden
infomuch that glafs is abfolutely impermeable to it. It phial
is moreover fuppofed, that all eledfrics, and particular¬
ly glafs, on account of the fmallnefs of their pores, do
at all times contain an exceeding great, and always an
equal quantity of this fluid ; fo that no more can be
thrown into any one part of any eleftric fubftance, ex¬
cept the fame quantity go out at another, and the gain
be exactly equal to the loff. Thefe things being pre-
vioufly fuppofed, the phenomena of charging and dif-
cbarging a plate of glafs admit of an eafy folution. In
the ulual manner of electrifying by a fmooth glafs globe,
all the eleCtric matter is fupplied by the rubber from
all the bodies which communicate with it. If it be
made to communicate with nothing but one of the coat¬
ings of a plate of glafs, while the conductor communi¬
cates with the other, that fide of the glafs which com¬
municates with the rubber muft neceffarily be exhauft¬
ed in order to fupply the conductor, which muff con¬
vey the wnole of it to the fide with which it commu¬
nicates. By this operation, therefore, the electric fluid
becomes almoft entirely exhaufled on one fide of the
plate, while it is as much accumulated on the other ;
and the difeharge is made by the electric fi nd ruthing,
as foon as an opportunity is given it by means of proper
conductors, from the fide which was overloaded to that
which is exhaufled.
It is not, however, neceffary to this theory, that the
very fame individual particles of electric matter which
were thrown upon one fide of the plate, fliould make
the whole circuit of the intervening conductors, efpe-
cially in very great diftances, fo as actually to arrive
at the exhaufted fide. It may be fufficient to fuppofe,
that the additional quantity of fluid difplaces and occu¬
pies tlie fpaee of an equal portion of the natural quan¬
tity of fluid belonging to thofe conductors in the cir¬
cuit which lay contiguous to the charged fide of the
glafs. This difplaced fluid may drive forwards an
equal quantity of the fame matter in the next conduc¬
tor ; and thus the progrefs may continue till the ex¬
haufted fide of the glafs is fupplied by the fluid nafu-
rally
/
imp* !•
heory of rally exlfling in the condudors contiguous to it. In
(fcricity. this cafe, the motion of the eleftric fluid, in an explo-
flon, will rather referable the vibration of the air in
founds, than a current of it in winds.
It will foon be acknowledged (fays Dr Prieflley),
that while the fubftance of the glafs is fuppofed to
contain as much as it can poflibly hold of the eleftric
fluid, no part of it can be forced into one of the
Aides, without obliging an equal quantity to quit the
other fide : but it may be thought a difficulty, upon
this hypothefis, that one of the fides of a glafs plate
cannot be exhaufted, without the other receiving
more than its natural (hare ; particularly, as the par¬
ticles of this fluid are fuppofed to be repulfive of one
another. But it mufi: be confidered, that the attrac¬
tion of the glals is fufficient to retain even the large
quantity of eleftrie fluid which is natural to it, againft
all attempts to withdraw it, unlefs that eager attrac¬
tion can be fatisfied by the admiffion of an equal
quantity from fome other quarter.. When this oppor¬
tunity of a fupply is given, by conne&ing one of the
coatings with the rubber, and the other with the con-
duftor, the two attempts to introduce more of the
fluids into one of the fides are made, in a manner, at
the fame inflant. The a&ion of the rubber tends to
diflurb the equilibrium of the fluid in the glafs; and no
fooner has a fpark quilted one of the fides, to go to
the rubber, than it is fupplied by the conductor on the
other ; and the difficulty with which thefe additional
particles move in the fubflance of the glafs, effedually
prevents its reaching the oppofite exhaufled fide. It is
not faid, however, but that either fide of the glafs may
give or receive a fmall quantity of the ele&ric fluid,
without altering the quantity of the oppofite fide. It
is only a very confiderable part of the charge that is
meant, when one fide is faid to be filled while the other
is exhaufted.
/ It is a little remarkable, adds Dr Prieftley, that the
eledlric fluid, in this and in every other hypothefis,
fhould fo much referable the ether of Sir Ifaac Newton
in iome refpefts, and yet differ from it fo effentially in
others. The elediric fluid is fuppofed to be, like
ether, extremely fubtile and elaftic, that is, repulfive of
itfelf; but inftead of being, like the ether, repelled by
all other matter, it is ftrongly attradled by it : fo that,
far from being, like the ether, rarer in the fmall than
in the large pores of bodies, rarer within the bodies
than at their furfaces, and rarer at their furfaces than
at any diftance from them ; it muft be denfer in fmall
than in large pores, denfer within the fubrtance of
bodies than at their furfaces, and denfer at their fur-
29I faces than at a diftance from them,
radion To account for the attradlion of light bodies, and
1 repul- other eledlrical appearances, in air of the fame denfity
(.though with the common atmolphere, when glafs (which is
rnted fuppofed to be impermeable to eledtricity) is interpo-
fed ; it is conceived, that the addition or fubtrac-
tion of the eledlrie fluid, by the adtion of the excited
eledtrie on one fide of the glafs, occafions, as in the
experiment of the Leyden phial, a fubtradlion or addi¬
tion of the fluid on the oppofite fide. The flate of the
fluid, therefore, on the oppofite fide being altered, all
light bodies within the fphere of its adfion muft be af-
fedted in the very fame manner as if the effluvia of the
excited eledlric had adiually penetrated the glafs, ac-
ELECTRICITY.
cording to the opinions of all eledlricians before Dr
Franklin.
I his hypothefis has been greatly improved by M.
iEpinus of St Pcterfburgh, and by the Hon. Henry
Cavendilh ; and we ftiall now proceed to. an illuftration
of the theory as given by thefe gentlemen.
Theonj of JEpinus.
Eledtrical phenomena are prodticed by a fluid of a
peculiar nature, which we call the Electric Fluid ;
which has the following properties.
1. Its particles repel each other with a force increaf-
ing as the diftances decreale.
2. Its particles attradl the particles of all other mat¬
ter with a force increafing as the diftances decreafe,
and this attradlion is mutual.
3. T. he Electric Fluid by reafon of its extreme
fubtility is capable of penetrating other bodies, but all
bodies are not penetrated by it with equal facility. In
thofe bodies which we call non-e/ettrics, fuch as metals
and water, it moves very readily ; but in thofe bodies
which have been called per fe, fueh as glafs,
&c. it either does not move at all, or moves with
great difficulty.
4. Every body has a certain quantity of cleRric fluid
which is proper to it, and may therefore be called its
natural quantity : this quantity is proportional to the
mafs.
5. We fay that a body is eledlrifled pofltively when
the quantity of eledlric fluid which it has in any way
received is greater than its natural quantity ; and when
that quantity is leis than its natural quantity, we fay
that the body is eledfrified negatively.
6. The phenomena which depend on the adlion of
the e/eflric fluid may be reduced to two claffes ; the fir ft
comprehending the cafes in which the fluid removes
from one body into another which has lefs of it; the
other thofe in which the bodies containing the fluid are
in motion, fo as to approach or recede from each other,
or fo as to attradi and repel each other.
Such is the hypothefis of M. iEpinus; let us now in¬
quire what confequences may be drawn from it.
Let us fuppofe a body to contain a certain quantity
of the eledtric fluid, and let us examine the flate of a
particle of the fluid, as P, near the furface of the body.
There is a mutual attradlion between the particle P,
and the particles of matter in the body ; and there is a
mutual repulfion between it and the other particles
of eledlric fluid in the body. The whole attradling
force may be equal or unequal to the whole repulfive
force. If they be equal, P is in equilibrio, and has no
tendency to motion.
Now let us fuppofe the body to have received a
quantity of fluid over and above its natural quantity ;
i. e. let the body be eledlrified pojitivelq. As, while the
body vvas in its natural date, the attradfive and repul¬
five forces were in equilibrio, the increafe of Arid will
augment the repulfive force, which will now exceed
the attradlive force, and the particle P will be repelled
towards that furface to which it is neareft, till it at
length quits the body. The repulfive power will con¬
tinue to adt upon other particles, which will be fuccef-
fiyely pufhed nearer the furface, fo as to produce a con-
ftant efllux of the fluid tiil the equilibrium is re-eflablith-
ed?
7'4.3
Theory of
Eleiftricity.
293
Iruorove-
ment of
Franklin’s
theory by
LEpimis
and Caven-
diih.
294
Hypothefis
of JEpinus,
2i>5
296
297
29S
299
300
744
electricity.
Part IV
301
Saturation
defined.
3°*
Theory of ed, or till the body contains no more than its natural
Elea ricity. quantity.
Let us now conceive that the body has loft a quan¬
tity of ele&ric fluid, or that it is eleiftrified negatively.
The repulfive force of the fluid upon the particle P
will then be lefs than the attradlive force ot the mat¬
ter contained in the body or the fame particle, this at-
traiftion will begin to aft, and the particle will move
nearer the centre. The attraftion continuing to aft,
particles near the furface, and thofe of contiguous bo-
di es, will fucceflively move towards the centre of the
body or a continual influx of fluid will take place till
the equilibrium is reftored.
DEFINITION.—When a body contains its natural
quantity of eleftric fluid, we (hall fay that it is fa-
turuted.
It will be convenient for us to have general expref-
fions for thefe feveral ftates of a body, in order the bet¬
ter to eftimate the forces.
Let O reprefent the natural quantity of fluid,
a, the attradlive force of the other matter in the
body, which we (hall hereafter call Amply the
matter.
r, the repulfive force of the fluid j and
f the redundant or deficient fluid.
Then in the cafe in which a body is faturated, a—~r
will reprefent the degree of force with which the par¬
ticle P is attrafted •, and r—a the force with which it
is repelled. But here a^ezr ; confequently a—r and
r—a—o.
But let the quantity fht added to £), arid uniformly
diftributed through the body j the fluid will now be
Q.+7^ As we muft admit the repulfive force to be
proportional to the quantity of fluid, we (hall have
0.0 , r_... (&+/)Xr Qr fr fr
P • P, + J—r • g > IP + P’ + P*
This quantity will reprefent the force with which P is
repelled by the whole fluid of the body. But it is alfo
attrafted by the matter of the body, with the force a ,•
the whole force exerted on P will therefore be a—r—
fr
j but a—mo ; the whole aftion exerted on P is
fr
therefore or the force with which the particle P is
3©3
O
repelled, is1^-.
To conceive this more readily, we are to remember
that when the quantity of fluid =0, P is in equili-
brio j it will therefore be neceflary only to confider the
aftion of the fuperabundant fluid f. Then to find the
repulfive force of this, we fay P : f=zr
- as before
P
but to this we muft affix the fign —, as we muft confi¬
der repulfive forces as negative, and attraftive as poji-
tive. The particle P then being repelled with this
Jr
force-—, it will quit the body unlefs it be oppofed by
fome obftacle, and the repelling force continuing to aft
on other particles, an efflux of fluid will be produced.
fr
O. The
cp-nxr
p
r — — will reprefent the I
(£ V Ele&ricity. ;
force with which P is repelled. But it is attrafted "v^-^
with the force a ; the whole aftion therefore exerted 304
fr
on P is a—r -1-pr : ^ut a—7 =0 * t^ere^ore t^ie wh°le
ft .
force —, which reprefents the force with which P
P
is attrafted.
P
.W7
The forcewill however be continually diminiffiing,
but will not entirely ceafe till f—o.
Now let the quantity of fluid/be fubtrafted from
When there is a deficiency of fluid there is a pro¬
portional redundancy of matter, and vice verfa. Hence
we may deduce the following inference.
The produtlion of e/cBricalphenomena depends entire- £!eft°nca[
ly on a redundancy of fluid or a redundancy of matter, phetomenj
There are two caufes which obftruft or prevent the depend on
effefts which we have been deferibing 5 the one depend-|
ing on the nature of the body itfelf, the other on that fluidyor of
of the furrounding bodies. The firft caufe of obftruc-matter,
lion takes place when the bodies themfelves are thofe 3c6
which are called elcBrics per fe, in which the fluid ^“^sob.
moving with confiderable difficulty, its in the firft
cafe, and its itifux in the fecond, will be alike retarded.feits.
The fecond caufe afts when the furrounding bodies am
‘eletlrics per fe, as very dry air ; as the refiftance which
thefe oppofe to the motion of the fluid, will produce
in the efflux, or the influx, a retardation fimilar to that
which arifes from the eleftric nature of the eleftrified
body. We may hence conclude that a body will con*-
tirme to exhibit eleftrical phenomena for a longer time,
■cecteris paribus, according as the body itfelf, or the
bodies by which it is furrounded, approach nearefl to
the nature of eleSlrics per fe, whence we fee how elec¬
trics are uftful in confining the eleftric fluid, or in in-
fulating eleftrified bodies.
The conduftors of an eleftric machine will afford a Iduftratii
familiar illuftration of the above principles as far as they
relate to non e/e&rics. In the ordinary machine, in
which a cylinder is employed, the cufhion and (ilk by
which the cylinder is rubbed communicate to it a por¬
tion of the fluid which they contain, the lofs of which
they fupply from the neighbouring bodies with which
they communicate, when the chain connefts the rubbet
with the earth, &c. The fluid is then communicated
from the cylinder to the prime conduftor by the points
placed on the fide of it, and the conduftor becomes
eleftrified pofitively. The glafs pillar by which the
conduftor is fupported, and which is an eleBnc per fe,
oppofes the farther propagation of the fluid, and pre¬
vents its efcape on one fide, while the furrounding air,
if it be Very dry, oppofes its efcape on the other ; fo
that the conduftor will retain for a moment the extf fs
of fluid which it has received. Now, if we prefent a
fine metallic point to the prime conduftor, a Imall lu¬
minous ftar will appear at the point ; indicating, as we
have bdfore feen, a pofitive eleftricity. This ftar is
produced by the efflux of the eleftric fluid from the
conduftor, the particles of the fluid being impelled
by their mutual repulfion, and by the attraftion of the
point to approach and penetrate this, as we ffiall more
fully fee hereafter.
When the rubber is infulated, as it is perpetually
communicating a portion of its fluid to the cylinder
without being able to procure a freffi fupply from the
furrounding bodies, it is continually acquiring a nega-
tiv«
hap. I. ELECT
heory of tive ele&ricity. There Will now be a continual efflux
^(ftiicity. of fluid from the condu&or towards the cufliion, and
the condudlor will, in its turn, be electrified negatively.
In this cafe, if we prefent a fine metallic point to the
conduCtor, there will iffue from the point a luminous
pencil, which is produced by the efflux of fluid from
the point to the conduCtor, in order to reftore the equi-
308
'eft of an
librium.
We have hitherto confidered the fluid as uniformly
equal diffufed through the body. But it will often happen,
fluid11011 ^at t^iere be a redundancy of fluid in one part of
the body, while there is at the fame time a deficiency
in another part. In order to Amplify our formula, we
pjate (hall fuppofe the body BC (fig. 96.) divided into two
XCVI. equal parts, AB, AC, and that the fluid in AB exceeds
96. its natural quantity, while that in AC is lefs than the
fame quantity, the preportion of the fluid acquired on
one fide to that loft .on the other being variable at
pleafure. Let us examine the fituation of two particles
P, f, placed towards the two extremities.
Let £) re prefent the quantity of fluid neceflary for
the faturation of AB or AC,
a — the attraction of the whole matter in AB
for the particle P or p,
f — the repulfion of the whole fluid uniformly
diftributed in AB on the fame particle,
r1 — the repulfion of an equal qUantitij of fluid
in AC on the fame particle,
f — the quantity of redundant fluid in AB,
and j 1= the deficient quantity in AC.
ft ion on Now the force by which the pafticle P or /? is at-
ternal traCted by the matter of BC when faturated, will be
1(h a—r—r*, which when the body is in its natural ftate
will be equal to 0. But AB contains the redundant
fluidand AC the deficient fluid (§r. The whole ac¬
tion exerted mull therefore be a- —
£
j . But a—r—r'ztoi therefore the whole
Q
aCtion is
gffl—fr
Q.
, or rather, fince r is greater than r\
—, which will reprefent the force by which the
gr—fr'
particle P is repelled. In the fame manner, ^—-
of ^ in the formula
as before, and the refult
,I0 will reprefent the force by which p is attraCled.
•bon on Now, let us fuppofe a particle p' in the middle of * rn—ri\
ernal the body BC j while the body is faturated, it will be /X (“qT-Wl11 exPrefs the rePelhllg at B.
in equilibrio ; but as the one half of the body AB con¬
tains the redundant fluid fy and the half AC the defi¬
cient fluid g) the particle p' will be repelled in the di¬
rection AC by the force"jy. But it is repelled in the
direction AB by the force yy; therefore the whole re-
pulfive force by which it is impelled in the direflion
3„ AC will beA+iZ, or,
ffufion From what we have faid above, it appears that fo
11 be pro-long as there is a redundancy of fluid in AB, and a
ced if deficiency in AC, the redundant fluid has a tendency
ti-r v n° fl°w from A to C j and if the body be a perfeft:
• Vol. VII. Part II.
In order, the better to conceive the relative effe&s in
each of the above cafes, we muft obferve that the re*
pulfion of the part AB on the particle P muft increafe
in proportion as the quantity of additional fluid acquired
by AB is greater. On the other hand, the attradlion of
the part AC for the fame particle will increafe accord*-
ing as the quantity of fluid fubtra^led from AC is
greater. Now, as we have fuppofed the quantities of
fluid in the two parts variable, we may fuppofe a cafe
to happen, in which, for inftance, the quantity loft by
AC may be fuch that the excefs of its attraction on
P, thence refulting, may exaCtly counterbalance the
diminilhed attraction arifing from its great diftance,
compared to the repulfion of the part AB on the
5 B fame
313
R I C I T Y. 745
conductor, or fuch as is perfneable to the fluid, its ftate Theory of
cannot be permanent till the fluid is uniformly diftribu-Eledtncity.
ted between the two halves, unlefs it is a&ed on by *
fome external force. But in a non-conduCtor, or per¬
fect eleCtric, this ftate may fubfifl, and it will be con¬
tinued for a longer or a ftiorter time, in proportion as
the eleCtric may be more or lefs perfeCt.
If we had fuppofed the part AC to be overcharged,
inttead of AB, P would have been repelled with a
ftronger force, which would be reprefented by
which is evidently greater than"^—^y^—, the repulfive
force in the firft cafe» The particle p is alfo lefs at¬
tracted than before, when AB is undercharged inftead
of AC.
1 he above remarks will equally apply to the cafe of
two conducting bodies AB and CD, fig. 99. feparated Fig. 95.
by an eleCtric, Z.
It is proper; to obferve that the quantities f and g^
were indefinite in the above reafoning. Their value
may be fuch that the tendency to influx or efflux may
ceafe, or may be reverfed j for fuppofing^r'—-frz=.oy
fr
ox g\f—r \ r* i and we (hall have p-r^*7 ,. In this
r
cafe the attraction of the redundant matter balances
the fepulfion of the redundant fluid, and P is neither
attracted nor repelled. Hence we have this important
faCt, that a body may be neutral, even where it is re¬
dundant or deficient.
When one extremity of the body is thus rendered
inaCtive, the date of the other extremity is changed.
To find this ftate we muft put J~, in place of its
cr f j
equal g, in the formula -—^—$ and we (hall have
(^>
Again the forces may be fo balanced, that there 314
(hall be no tendency to influx at C, fig. 96. Make g '~
ft*.
—, which expreffes the aCtion at C. The aCtion at B,
fr .
the other end, will be obtained by putting -y, in place
3*5
746 ELECT
T heory of fame particles. In this cafe, P will remain immove-
Eledtricity. able.
* If, on the contrary, the quantity of fluid loft by
AC be not fufticient to compenfate for the greater di-
ftance, the repulfion of AB will prevail over the
attraflion of AC, and the particle P will quit the
body.
The particle p will alfo undergo certain changes in
thefe different cafes. If the particle P- remain im¬
moveable, for inftance, the particle p will have a
progreffive motion towards the body A, fince this is
near the part AC of which the attra&ive force in
this cafe exceeds the repulfive force of AB. If the
particle P has already a tendency towards the body A,
the particle p will for a ftill ftronger reafon be attract¬
ed towards A.
In general, according to the different degrees of force
exerted by the two parts of the body, it will happen
that the fluid will be attracted and repelled on both tides
by turns, or it will be attracted on one fide, while it is
repelled on the other, and v. v.; or, lartly, it may remain
immoveable on one fide, while it is attracted or repelled
on the other.
If we fuppofe that the redundancy of fluid in AB is
exadtly equal to the deficiency in AC, then the particle
p will have a tendency to penetrate the body A, while
the particle P will be repelled by it.
To prove this, let us fuppofe that the parts AB, AC
a£l by turns on the particle p placed at a determinate
diftance*, and let us conceive the repulfive force of the
part AB to be concentrated in a determinate point,
while the attractive force of the part AC muft be fup-
pofed concentrated in a correfponding point on the other
fide. For, whatever be the law, in proportion to the
diftance which the repulfion of the particles of the elec¬
tric fluid follows •, the attraction of the particles of mat¬
ter in the eleCtrified body ought to follow the fame
law : fince, without this, there could be no counterpoife
between the attraction and repulfion of the particles in
the natural ftate of the body. It follows then, that
the attraction exerted by AC upon the particle p muft
be equal, in the prefent cafe, to the repulfion of AB
on the fame particle. Since, on one fide, the particle is
repelled by A B by reafon of the ex,cefs of fluid in that
part, and on the other it is attrafied by AC by reafon
of the quantity of matter in that part, and which is pro¬
portional to the quantity of fluid which is fuppofed to
have palled into AB. In the prefent cafe, therefore,
where the particle p is nearer to AC than to AB,, the
attraCIion will prevail over the repulfion, and the par¬
ticle will penetrate to AB, and pafi> through it ta the
body A.
In the fame manner we might prove that the particle
P would be repelled from A.
The equilibrium between the forces of the parts AB,
AC being difturbed, it is clear that there will be an
attempt to reftore it, fo that a portion of the redundant
fluiS in AB will pafs into AC, till the body be brought
back to its natural ftate.. The return to this ftate will
be more or lefs How, according as the body is a more or
lefs perfeCt eleCtric ; but if it is a conduClor, the fluid
- will pervade it in an inftant, and an equal diftribution
ihe obftruc-will immediately take place.
tions con- It has been ftated that the fluid does not move with
Sdqred. . equal facility through all bodies, but that in moving
316
31?
3!7
Nature of
R I C I T Y. Part IV.
through eleCtries it meets with more or lefs rtfiftance. Theory 0f
It will be proper, before we proceed farther, to con-Eledhicity
fider the nature of this refiftance. It may either arife
folely from the inertia of the particles of the fluid, which
is the cafe in a perfeCI fluid ; or it may referable the
refiftance oppofed by a parcel of grain to the defcent of
fmall fhot through it, or the refiftance of a plaftic or
duClile body, fuch as clay or lead, to the motion of a
body through its pores. In the firft cafe, any inequality-
of force, however fmall, is capable of producing a uni¬
form diftribution of the fluid, or at leaft fuch a diftribu¬
tion as will make the excefs of the mutual attractions
and repulfions equal to the degree of external force by.
which an unequal diftribution may be kept up. But in
the two laft cafes, before a particle of fluid can change
its place, it muft overcome the tenacity of the adjoining
particles of the body, and, confequently, when an un¬
equal diftribution has been produced by an external
force, it will not be rendered equable by a removal or
alteration of that force, but there will remain fuch an
inequality of diftribution, as will caufe the want of
equilibrium between the attraClions andrepulfions to be
counterbalanced by the tenacity of the body.
From the different ftates of the particles P, p, as de-
fcribed in the above cafes, we may conclude, that, du¬
ring the return of a body to its natural ftate, the readi-
nefs with which the fluid flows from AB into AC muft
depend much on the nature of the furrounding bodies,
and the greater or lefs facility with which thefe are
pervaded by the eleflric fluid.
If the fluid is not uniformly diftributed throughout
every part of the body, or if, though there be a uniform
diftribution, the two parts of the body are unequal, we
(hall always obtain refults analogous to thofe which have
been given. There is an infinity of cafes fuppofable,
relative to the different ftates of AB and AC j but as
each, of thefe cafes has a determinate relation to the
moft fimple cafe, which we have been confidering, it
may always be reduced to this.
Let us fuppofe, for example, that the part AB is
double, triple, &c. the part AC, and that the portion
of fluid, which is fuperabundant in AB, is equal to that
which is deficient in AC : If we conceive the particle
fituated between thefe two parts, the point in which
we muft fuppofe the repulfive force of xkB to be con¬
centrated, will not be the fame as that given in (315.) J
but the point in which p muft be placed that it may be
attradled by AC and repelled by AB, will be between,
the centres of a •z,',
but it is attraded by AB with the force F'm' %'; on
the whole, therefore, D avIII be attraded or repelled by
BC, according as F' rri sj is greater or lefs than F'/' z-',
or (becaufe F is common to both) as m' %' is greater or
lefs than f' %. But this will depend on the proportion
that f bears to m', or z to z'. Now, the former of
thefe is regulated by many external circumltances
which may tend to produce a greater or lefs redundancy
or deficiency of fluid j and the latter depends on the
law of eleClric aCtion. Without inquiring at prefent
into this law, it is fufficient to recoiled that the action
decreafes with every increafe of diftance, and that the
attraction and repulfion at the fame diftance are equal.
Both, therefore, vary according to the fame law, and
z is always greater than z'.
But the fenfible action of BC on £), and (as action
and reaction are equal and contrary) of D on BC, may
vary with every new pofition of BC, and even in the
fame pofition.
1. Bet us fuppofe that BC contains on the whole its
natural quantity of fluid, but that part of it is taken
from AB, and crowded into AC.. This, which is a very
common cafe in electricity, may be exprefled in our
fymbolic manner by making/'rrw'. Now, in this cafe,
25 greater than F; m' , as z is greater than .
A mutual repulfion will therefore take place between
BC and H, and this may be exprefled by F^y^x
(Z «').
2. If D were placed on the redundant fide of BC, it
is evident that the action would be reverfed, and the
above fymbols will exprefs the attra&ion between BC
and D.
Again, if inftead of fuppofing D to be overcharged,
we make jt undercharged, the actions Avill again be
changed : in its prefent fituation it will be repelled ;
on the oppofite fide of BC it will be attracted.
3. No action may be exerted between them j for the
I
Part IV,
redundancy and deficiency in BC may be inverfely pro- xhw
pnrtional to the forces, or Ave may have f m' : ~z': z. Elefldri^
Now, multiplying extreme and mean terras^ we have v—^
f' %
f z—ni and again tn'——-. In this cafe the ac-
tions counterbalance each other, and Avhen D is at the
prefent diftance from the overcharged part AC, it is
neither attracted nor repelled. D, and that part of
BC that is contiguous to it, may both be overcharged,
and yet BC may exert no action on D, or may be neu¬
tral Avith refpect to it.
Now fuppofe D on the oppofite fide of BC ; the ef- 33*
f *
fects Avill be different ; for as m'
-,and m' z' is now
become m' z, and f z is changed into f 55', ihe action
on D will be exprefled by F' X {^~T—f'td^—^'f*
2;* £;'*
X 7— ; of courfe D will be attracted.
z'
Again, avc may have f and m' fo proportioned as
that Avhen D, which avc fuppofe overcharged, is placed
at the undercharged end of BC, it (hall be neither at¬
tracted nor repelled, or that at this exact diftance BC
But if D
333
/V
In this cafe, m'— .
z
(hall be neutral.
be on the oppofite fide of BC, it will be ftrongly re¬
pelled with the force Y'f x
334
Hence we fee that Avhen the overcharged end of an Bodies reu.
electrified body becomes neutral Avith refpect to anothertral atone
body that is alfo overcharged,, the undercharged end
ftrongly attracts that body j and when the underchar-
ged end becomes neutral to the body, this is ftrongly other in-
repelled by the overcharged end, as we may deducecreafed*
from this reafoning the following general conclu-
fion.
When an eleBrifed body is neutral at one end, it is
rendered more afiive at the other.
One circumftance merits particular attention. In the 335
above paragraphs, the neutrality of BC has been con¬
fined to a particular diftance of the body D, it being
required that rd ftiould = — j let D be placed nearer
to BC, and both 25 and z' are increafed. Their in¬
creafe may be in the fame proportion ; or one may in¬
creafe fafter than another: in the former cafe, the value
of ^ remains the fame, and the neutrality continues j
in the latter, if 2; increafes farter than z',f' z becomes
greater than rd z\ and D will be repelled : on the
other hand, if z' increafes fafter than z, D Avill be at¬
tracted, Bet 13 be carried farther from the overcharged
end of BC, and the effects Avill be reverfed. 3-6
We have been fuppofing that D is overcharged Effed of
throughout, but let us take two bodies AB, and CD,ure(lual
fig. 78. AB being overcharged in & B, and underchar-
ged in « A ; and CD being overcharged in 'y D, and bodies,
undercharged in v C. Fig. ^3.
In the firft place, let us have the overcharged end
of AB oppofite the undercharged end of CD as in the
figure. Bet F andy'be the fluid natural to each, F^
and/'the redundant fluid in «B and D, and M;
and m' the deficient fluid in « A and v C. Bet Z and
zr
hap.
ieory of
; dticity.
I.
ELECTRICITY.
337
333
339
Z' denote the intenfity of a£Uon exerted by a particle
in // B on a particle in ^ D and v C •, and let 2 and
in like manner exprefs the int-^nfity of action of a par¬
ticle in « A on a particle in vT) and in ttC.
It will eafily appear from the former examples that
the aftion of CD on AB will be
F m' Z — F/' Z' — M'2 + M'/' 2'
F/
in which for¬
mula the attradlions are denoted by and the repul-
fions by —.
The attraftive or repulfive power will prevail ac¬
cording as the fum of the firft and laft terms in the nu¬
merator of the above fra&ion is greater or lefs than the
fum of the two middle terms. Again the value of
each term will vary with the quantity of redundant
fluid or of redundant matter, and with the intenfity of
the eleftric adlion. As it would lead us into too long
a difcuflion were we to notice the numerous varieties
of effe£t, we (hall only ftate the moft fimple cafe, as
being the moft frequent and moft ufefuL
Let us fuppofe that the overcharged part of each
body is as much redundant in fluid as the undercharged
part is deficient $ in which cafe we have F—M' and f
—m'. The a&ion will now be expreffed by the formu-
F/' (Z —Z') —s-f-s;'
la
F/
It is evident that the
98.
I- 100.
be reprefented by F'f'
340
external eflFeft produced on AB muft depend on the
law of aftion ; if Z-J-2' be greater than Z'-j-z, AB
will be attrafled, but if Z-J-2' be lefs than Z'~\-z, it
will be repelled.
It will be a confiderable relief to the imagination to
exprefs thefe abftradl values by fome fenfible quantities,
fuch as lines, and this may be conveniently done in
the following manner. From a fixed point in a ftraight
line, meafure off portions refpeftively equal to BC, BD,
AC and AD, between thofe points of the bodies AB,
CD, fig. 98. in which we fuppofe the forces of the re¬
dundant fluid and matter to be concentrated, and at the
extremities of thefe portions ere6I ordinates proportion¬
al to thefe forces. Though the law of a£tion be but
imperfectly known, it will readily be feen of what kind
the movements of the bodies will be. 1 hus in fig. 100.
from C in the line CZ, make C/>:rzBC r C ^~BD :
C r=AC, and C /= AD ; and ereCt the ordinates P/>,
R r, and T /. If the aCtion of eleCtricity be like
other attractive and repulfive forces with which we
are acquainted, that is, decreafing with an increafe of
diftance, and more {lowly as that diftarsce becomes
greater, the ordinates will be bounded by fuch a curve
as PQRTZ, that will have its convexity towards the
axis C 2.
In our conftruction, the pair of ordinates F p, Qq
are evidently equidiftant with the pair Rr, 1 / ; as are
P /?, R r, with Q y, T /. It is alfo clear that the fum of
Pp and T / is greater than the fum of (^<7 and R r.
BifeCl C 2 and v, and draw V v perpendicular to it,
cutting PT and OR in x and y. Then a??; is the half
of P /?+T t, and^y v is the half of £7-j-Rr.. Again,
Ora and Tn being drawn parallel to C 2, it is evident
that P w is greater than R r, and in general, if any pair
of ordinates be brought nearer to C, their difference in-
creales; and if two pairs be brought nearer to C, the
difference of the nearer pair will increafe fafter than
that of the more remote.
To apply what has been ftated»
1. When the overcharged end of AB is towards the Theory of
undercharged end of CD, AB is attracted, as P/-J-T/ Ele&ricity,
is greater than O y-|_R r. —y——*
2. The nearer the bodies are brought, the more the
attraction will increafe, as the difference between P rn
and R r is thus made greater.
3. The greater the length of AB or CD, the dif¬
tance BC being the fame, the more the attraction will
increafe : for p r or q t, (which reprefent the length of
AB) being increafed, R r is diminifhed more than
T t.
But if the overcharged end of CD be oppofite to the
overcharged end of AB, their mutual aCtion will*
Py+Q? + to—
i/ / ’
and AB will be repelled ■, the repulfion becoming
greater or lefs, as the attractions, by every change of
diftance.
Having thus examined at fome length the refults of
a redundancy or deficiency of fluid, fuppofing it to be
immoveable, we muft now proceed to eonfider the con-
fequences of its mobility. 34j*
Let D, fig. 97. contain redundant fluid while BC isEffedtof
fuppofed in its natural ftate, and let the fluid in D be1*16 mobili--
fixed, but that in BC moveable. The redundant fluid1 e
in D will exert its repulfive power, and will drive the Fig. 97.
fluid of BC from the proximate end B towards the re¬
mote end C, fo that the fluid will be rarefied in AB,
and conftipated in AC. Without examining here the
mutual aCtions of the redundant fluid and matter, it is
clear that we have a cafe fimilar to that defcribed in
N° 309. and asf'zzm' and 2 is greater than 2', D will
be attraCIed by BC, with the force F' f' X (is—sO-
We may now folve the difficulty mentioned in N°
317. and perceive that the hypothefis agrees with the
faCt even in the cafe in which it appeared fo oppofite.
Had the fluid been immoveable, no attraction would
indeed have taken place : but as it is fuppofed move-
able, the redundant matter in the vicinity of D pre¬
vails, and a mutual attraction enfues.
For the fake of greater fimplicity, we have fuppofed 34* 1
the fluid in D immoveable, but let us fuppofe it move-
able. In that cafe, as foon as the uniform diftribu-
tion on BC is difturbed, and it becomes overcharged in
AC, and undercharged in AB, certain forces begin
to aft on D, tending to difturb its uniformity. The
redundant matter towards B attrafts the fluid in D, -
more than the redundant fluid toward C, which is more
remote, repels it $ 2' being lefs than 2. By this at¬
traction the fluid of D tends to be conflipated in the
proximate extremity, and thus again AB is more un¬
dercharged, and AC more overcharged than before.
Thus the mutual aftion between the bodies is ftill more
increafed. But it is ftill of the fame kind j for however
fmall the redundancy in D may be, it can never be
made deficient in its remote extremity by the irregular
difpofition of the fluid in BC, unlefs BC contain more
or lefs than its natural quantity. By the change in the
difpofition of fluid in D, it is clear that the fimilar
change in BC muft be increafed •, the fluid will be ftill
more rarefied at B and condenfed at C, and this will
go on till all is in equilibria. There are feveral forces
combining to hold in equilibria a particle in BC. The
redundant fluid in D impels it towards C ; but the re¬
dundant fluid here again impels it towards B, while the
redundant
343
. 344
Induced
^750 ELEC
Theory cf redundant matter at B attrafls It the fame way
Eleftncity. thefe two forces of BC muft be fuppofed to balance the
v'"'adlion of D.
We may here conclude that the denfity of the fluid
in BC increafes gradually from B to C j at B it muft
be Ids, and at C greater than the natural denfity, and
there will confequently be fome point between Band C
where it is of the natural denfity. This point may be
called a neutral point $ though we do not mean to im¬
ply by this term that a particle fituated at this point
is neither attra£led nor repelled.
We have fuppofed the fluid in D redundant; but let
it be deficient. Then the attraftion of the redundant
matter in D will change the difpofition of the move-
able fluid in BC, and will conftipate it in B, and ra¬
refy it in C. Again, the redundant fluid at B will
act more ftrongly on the moveable fluid in D, and tend
to impel it towards the remote extremity 5 and D will
thus become undercharged in its proximate extremity,
and lefs undercharged at its remote end than if BC were
away. The unequal dirtribution of fluid in BC will
thus be increafed j but though both BC and D will be
farther from their natural ftate, the remote end of D
can never be overcharged.
It is clear, that when things are in the ftate which
we have defcribed, D and BC will attradl each other
with the fame force as when D was equally under¬
charged.
Let a body, A, (fig. 101.) that is overcharged, be
lc<£tricity. placed near the extremities of two oblong parallel con-
Fig. xoi. du&ors, B and C, that are in their natural ftate. By
the action of A, the fluid in B and C will be repelled to¬
wards their remoteendsNand», where it willbe conden-
fed, while at their proximate ends, S and j, it will be
rarefied. Both B will attrafl and be attrafted by A.
Now the redundant fluid in NB repels the redundant
fluid in « C, and in like manner the redundant matter
in SB repels the redundant matter in r C $ the bodies
B and C therefore repel each other, and will feparate j
but they ought to approach each other, for SB attrafts
n C, and NB attrafts s C ; but the repelling parts be¬
ing nearer each other than the attracting parts, the
forces of the former will prevail. If the body A were
undercharged, it is clear that the fame fenjible appear¬
ances would take place, though the internal motions of
the bodies would be the reverfe of the former.
If another body in the fame ftate with A be placed
wear the oppofite ends of B and C, their internal mo¬
tions will be diminifhed or prevented, and of courle the
fenfible appearances ftmuld diminifh alfo.
If another conduClor, as E, be placed near r, oppofite
to A, it will be affeCled in the fame manner with C,
and its proximate extremity ^ tvill repel s ; but if it be
placed at the remote end, or in the pofition of F, this
remote end will be attracted. As the body A, when
redundant or deficient, afteCts every other body in its
•vicinity, while thefe do not by themfelves affeCt each
other, A is called the eleCtrified body, and the others
are faid to be eleCtrified by it. The eleCtrichy of thefe
bodies is called Induced EleBricily.
We have hitherto fuppofed the fluid moveable, ex¬
cept at firft in A j but let us fuppofe that there is fome
obftruCtion to its mobility, and let us examine what
will be the confequences. We may ftate the ebftruCtion
T R I C I T Y.
and
,345
Eftedt of
ob ft ruc¬
tions.
Part IV,
as uniform, and as being fuch that fome fmall force is Theory «f
required to enable a particle of fluid to pafs between Eledhicky,
two particles of matter. '
When an overcharged body is placed near an imper¬
fect conduClor, it is clear that the fluid cannot be pro¬
pelled to the remote extremity of the conductor in fo
great a quantity. We may conceive the diftribution
of the fluid, by taking a contlant quantity from the in-
tenfity of the force of the overcharged body at every
point of the conductor. This (hows that the diftribu¬
tion will not be fo unequable between imperfect, as be¬
tween perfect conductors, and hence that the attraction
between the former will not be fo ftrong as between
the latter. It will alio be much longer before an equi¬
librium can be brought about. This leads us to an im¬
portant confequence j viz. that the neutral point will
not be fo far from the other body when the fluid is of
its natural denfity, as it would be, were there no ob-
ftructions. The advance of this point along the imper¬
fect conductor will alfo be very flow 5 and it is clear,
that the final accumulation at the remote extremity of
an imperfect conductor will be lefs than if the conduc¬
tor were perfect, and the neutral point will be nearer
to the other extremity.
The obftructicn we are confidering will be attended 34®
with another remarkable effect. The conftipation of the
fluid at the commencement of the action will always be
greateft at a place much nearer to the dilturbing caufe
than the remote end of the conductor, and beyond that
point it will diminifti. In the time thatelapfes during
the progrefs of this change, the condenfed fluid tends
to repel the fluid beyond it, and thus fome of this re¬
mote fluid may be difplaced, and a part of the imper¬
fect conductor made deficient, while there is a fmaH
condenfation beyond it, By this again a rarefaction
and condenfation may be produced in another part, thus
caufing a very irregular diftribution of the fluid.
The effect of fuch a mode of action will be that there
may be feveral neutral points in an imperfect conduc¬
tor, and feveral overcharged and undercharged por¬
tions, and hence its action on diftant bodies may be
f*r—pv* -4- h — i
extremely various. Tbeformula 1 —-r—
where^^-, f, exprefs the different portions in oppo¬
fite ftates, and T, r', r" r"\ the repulfion at different
diftances, may be conveniently employed to denote th&
action in fuch circumftances. Hence, if another body
be placeid in the direction of the axis, it will be at¬
tracted at one diftance, repelled at a greater, again at¬
tracted at a ftill greater diftance, and fo alternately.
The obfiTuction may not be confiderable, and thefi
the action of the neighbouring overcharged body will
produce a deficiency in the proximate part of the con¬
ductor, a redundancy farther on, then a deficiency,
and fo on. Prefently thefe will drift, and fucceflively
dilappear at the farther end, and the body will remain
with only one neutral point. A greater obftruction
will leave the body with more than one neutral point,
and the number of thefe will be in proportion to the 347
obftruction. Induced
The removal of an overcharged body from the vici-
nity of conductors will have different refults according per.
as the conductors are perfect or imperfect, that is, ac- raanent in
cording as there is obftruction or not. In the former imperfect
cafe, condudars.
hap. I. ' ELECT
‘"v—of the body. Bat where there is an obftruftion add¬
ing, though, on the removal of the body, the forces
that tend to reflore the equilibrium in the condu&or
begin to adt, and reftore it in part, they can never do
this completely ; for when the force by which a par¬
ticle is propelled from an overcharged part to one un¬
dercharged, is juft fufficient to balance the obftrudlion,
it will remain in that ftate of diftribution at which it
had arrived. We may expedl then, that imperfeft
conductors will retain a part of their induced electri¬
city.
On the removal of the electrifying body, the elec¬
tric appearances induced by it in the conductor will
difappear in a contrary order to that in which they
were produced, and they will be left in a ftate of un¬
equal diftribution, or with a degree of electric power
proportionate to their imperfection as conductors.
We have now given an account of tire principal con-
fequences of the theory of JEpinus, a theory which till
of late was little known in Britain, owing probably to
the very lame and imperfedt account given of it by Dr
Prieftley in his popular work on electricity. More juf-
tice has been done to this theory by Mr Cavendifh, who
before he faw M. iEpinus’s work had framed an hypo-
thefis of his own upon very fimilar principles. Mr Ca-
vendilh’s paper, in which he has treated this fubjedt
in a very able and learned manner, appeared in the 6ift
vol. of the Phil. Tranf.
To this paper we (hall be much indebted prefently *,
but in the mean time we (hall only extradl from it the
348 hypothelis, which is as follows.
vendifli’s There is a fubftance which we call the eledtric fluid,
?°thefis. the particles of which repel each other, and attradl the
particles of1 all other matter, with a force inverfely as
fome lefs power of the diflance than the cube 3 the par¬
ticles of all other matter alfo repel each other, and at-
tradl thofe of the electric fluid, with a force varying
according to the fame power of the diftances. Or, to
exprefs it more concifely, if you look upon the eledtric
fluid as a matter of a contrary kind to other matter,
the particles of all matter, both thofe of the eledtric
fluid and of other matter, repel particles of the fame
kind, and attradl thofe of a contrary kind, with a
force inverfely as fome lefs power of the diftance than
the cube.
For the future, he would be underftood never to com¬
prehend the eledtric fluid under the word matter, but
only fome other fort of matter.
It is indifferent whether we fuppofe all forts of mat¬
ter to be endued in an equal degree with the foregoing
altradtion and repulfion, or whether you fuppofe foroe
forts to be endued with it in a greater degree than
others ; but it is likely that the eledlrie fluid is endued
with this property in a much greater degree than other
matter; for in all probability, the weight of the elec¬
tric fluid in any body bears but a very fmall proportion
to the weight of the matter 3 but yet the force with
which the eledtric fluid therein attradls any particle of
matter muft be equal to the force with which the matter
therein repels that particle 3 otherways the body would
appear eledtrical, as will be (hown hereafter*
To explain this hypothefis more tully, fuppofe that
*ne grain of eledtric fluid attradts a particle of matter
4
R I C I T Y. 751
at a given diftance with as much force as n grains of Theory of
any^matter, lead for inftance, repel it: then will oneEIectncity.
grain of eledtric fluid repel a particle of electric fluid 1 n v
with as much force as n grains of lead attract it 3 and
one grain of electric fluid will repel one grain ofelectrics
fluid with as much force as n grains of lead repel n
grains of lead.
All bodies, in their natural ftate with regard to elec¬
tricity, contain fuch a quantity of electric fluid inter-
fperfed between their particles, that the attraction of
the electric fluid in any fmall part of the body in a gi¬
ven particle of matter, (hall be equal to the repulfion of
the matter in the lame fmall part, in the fame parti¬
cle.
A body in this ftate is faid to be faturated with elec¬
tric fluid ; if the body contains more than this quantity
of electric fluid, he calls it overcharged) if lefs, he calls
it undercharged.
Sect. III. Of the Theory of two Fluids.
This theory originated, as we have faid, in M. du 345
Fay’s difcovery of the different electricities produced
by rubbing glafs and fealing-wax*
Let us fuppofe that there are two electric fluids,
which have a ftrong affinity for each other, while, at
the fame time, the particles of each are ftrongly repul-
five of each other. Let us fuppofe thefe two fluids in
fome meafure equally attracted by all bodies, and ex-
ifting in intimate union in their pores 3 and while they
continue in this manner to exhibit no mark of their ex~
iftence, let us fuppofe that the friction of an electric
produces a feparation of thefe two fluids, caufing (in
the ufual method of electrifying) the vitreous electri¬
city of the rubber to be conveyed to the conductor,
and the refinous electricity of the conductor to be con¬
veyed to the rubber. The rubber will then have a
double fhare of the refinous electricityr and the conduc¬
tor a double (hare of the vitreous 3 fo that, upon this
hypothefis, no fubftance whatever can have a greater
or lefs quantity of electric fluid at different times 5 the
quality of it only can be changed> .
The two electric fluids being thus feparated, will
begin to flmw their refpective powers, and their eager-
ne(s to rufh into re-union with each other. With
whichever of thefe fluids a number of bodies are
charged, they will repel one another: they will be at¬
tracted by all bodies, which have a lefs (hare of that
particular fluid with which they are loaded ; but will
be much more ftrongly attracted by bodies which are
wholly deftitute of it, and loaded with the other. In
this cafe, they will rufh together with great violence.
On this theory, the electric fpark confifts of both
the fluids rufhing in contrary directions, and making a
double current. When, for inftance, the finger is pre-_
fented to a conductor loaded with vitreous electricity, it
difeharges it of part of the vitreous, and returns fo
much of the refinous, which is fupplied to the body
from the earth. Thus both the bodies are unelectrified,
the balance of the two powers being reftored.
When the Leyden phial is prefented to be charged,
and confequently the coating of one of its fides is con¬
nected with the rubber and that of the other with the
conductor 3 the vitreous electricity of that fide which is
connected with the conductor is tranfmitted to that
which
752
E I, E C T
Theory of wl>icli is connected with the rubber, which returns an
Electricity, equal quantity of its refinous eledivicity ; fo that all the
J vitreous eleftricity is conveyed to one of the fides, and
all the relino&s to the other, ihefe two fluids being
thus feparated, attraft each other very ilrongly through
the thin fubftance of the intervening glafs, and rufli
together with great violence, whenever an opportunity
is prefented, by means of proper conductors. Some¬
times they will force a paffage through the fubftance of
the glafs itfelf j and in the mean time, their mutual at¬
traction is itronger than any force that can be applied
to take away either of the fluids feparately.
Dr Prieftley gives the following view of the compa¬
rative merits of this theory and that of Dr Franklin.
“ In the firft place (fays he), the fuppofition itfelf
of two fluids, is not quite fo eafy as that of one, though
it is far from being difagreeable to the analogy of na¬
ture, which abounds with affinities, and in which we
fee innumerable inftances of fubftances formed, as it
were, t© unite and eounteraC! one another.
“ The two fluids being fuppoled, the double curferit
from the rubber to the conduClor, and from the con¬
ductor to the rubber, is an eafy and neceffary confe-
quence. For if, on the common fuppofition, the aCtion
of the rubber puts a fingle fluid into motion in one di¬
rection, we might expeCt, that if there were two fluids,
which counteracted each other, they would, by the
fame operation, be made to move in cmttrary directions.
And a perfon that has been ufed to conceive that a
Angle fluid may be made to move either way, viz. from
the rubber to the conductor, or from the conductor to
the rubber at pleafure, according as a rough or a fmooth
globe is ufed, can have mueh lefs objection to this part
of the hypothefis.
“ Admitting then this different aCtion of the rubber
and the eleCtric upon the two different fluids, the man¬
ner of conveying eleCtric atmolpheres, or powers, to
bodies is tbe fame on this as on any other theory ; and
it is apprehended that the phenomena of negative elec¬
tricity are more eafily conceived by the help of a real
fluid, than by no fluid at all. Indeed Dr Franklin
himfelf ingenuously acknowledges, that he was a long
time puzzled to account for bodies that were negative¬
ly eleCtrified, repelling one another j whereas M. du
Fay, who obferved the fame fact, had no difficulty
about it, fuppofing that he had difcovered another elec¬
tricity, fimiiar, with refpect to the properties of elafti-
eity and repulfi«n, to the former.
“ By this double action of the rubber, the method of
charging a plate of glafs is exceeding eafy to conceive.
Upon this hypothefis, all the vitreous electricity quits
its union with the refinous on the fide communicating
with the conductor, and is brought over to the fide
communicating with the rubber; which, by the fame
operation, had been made to part with its refinous elec¬
tricity in return.
“ All the vitreous electricity being thus brought to
one fide of the plate of glafs, and all the refinous to the
other, the phenomena of tbe plate while (landing
charged, or difcharged, are perhaps more free from all
difficulty than upon any other hypotjiefis. When one
of the fides of the glafs is conceived to be loaded with
one kind of electricity, and the other with the other
kind $ the ftrong affinity between them, whereby they
attract each other with a force proporfloned to their
R I € I T Y. Part IV,
nearnefs, immediately fupplies a fatisfa&ory reafun, t heory of
why fo little of either of the fluids can be drawn from Electricity
one of the fides without communicating as much to the
other. Upon this fuppofition, that confequence is per¬
haps more obvious, than upon the fuppofition of one
half of the glafs being crowded with the electric mat¬
ter, and the other half exhaufted. In the former cafe,
every attempt to withdraw the fluid from one of the
fides, is oppofed by the more powerful attraction of the
other fluid on the oppofite fide. On the other hypothe¬
fis, it is only oppofed by the attraction of the empty
pores of the glafs.
“ Laftly, The explofion upon the difeharge of the
glafs has as much the appearance of two fluids ruffling
into union, in two oppofite directions, as of one fluid
proceeding only in one diredtion. The fame may be
laid of the appearance of every eleftric fpark, in which,
upon this hypothelis, there is always fuppofed to be two
currents, one from the electric, or the eledtrified body,
and the other to it.
“ I do not fay, continues t)r Prieftley, that the bur
Which is ufually feen on both (ides of a quire of paper
pierced by an eledtric explofion^ and the current of air
flowing from the points of all bodies eledtrified negative¬
ly as well as pofitively, are material objedtions to the
dodtrine of a fingle fluid. But upon the fuppofition of
two fluids and two currents, the difficulty of account¬
ing for tliefe fadls would hardly have occurred.
“ It. is almoft needlefs to obferve, that the influence
of points is attended with exadlly the fame difficulty up¬
on this theory, as upon the other. It is equally eafy*
or equally difficult, to fuppofe one fluid to enter and go
out at the point of an eledtrified condudtor at different
times* as to fuppofe, that, of two fluids, one goes out,
and the other goes in, at the fame time.
“ That bodies immerged in eledlric atmofpheres muff
acquire the contrary eledtricity, is quite as eafy to fup¬
pofe upon this, as upon any other hypothefis. For, in
this cafe, fuppofe the eledtrified body to be poffeffed of
the vitreous eledtricity, all the vitreous electricity of
the body which is brought near it will be driven back¬
wards to the more diftant parts, and all the refinous
electricity will be drawn forwards. And, when the
attraction between the two electricities in thefe differ¬
ent bodies is fo great as to overcome the oppofition to
their union occafioned by the attraction of the bodies
that contained them, the form of their furfaces, and
the refiftance of the interpofing medium, they will rufh
together ■$ an electric fpark will be vifible between
them; and the electricity of both will appear to be dif¬
charged ; the prevailing electricity of each being fatu-
rated with an equal quantity of the oppofite kind, from
the other body.
“ This hypothefis will likewife eafily account for tha
difficulty of charging a very thick plate of glafs, and
the impoffibility of charging it beyond a certain thick-
nefs ; for thefe fluids, at a greater diftance, will attract
one another lefs forcibly, and at a certain full greater
diftance will not attract at all.”
Dr Prieftley makes the following anfwer to the
principal objection that may be urged againft this
theory.
“ If it be afked (fays he), why the two fluids meet¬
ing on the furface of the globe, or in the electric ex-
plofion, do not unite by means of their ftrong affinity,
and
Iiap. T. * ELECT
heory of and no ^rther progrefs ; it may be anfwered,
^ricity. that the attraflion between all other bodies and the
-V—' particles of both thefe fluids, may be fuppofed to be
at lead: as flrong as the affinity between the fluids
themfelves j fo that the moment any body is difpoffefled
of one, it may recruit itfelf to its ufual point of fatu-
ration from the other.
“ Befidesj in whatever manner it be that one of the
ele&ric fluids is diflodged from any body (fmce upon
every theory the two eleffricities are produced at the
fame time) the oppofite eledlricity will, by the fame
adlion, be diflodged from the other fubftance. And
whatever it be that diflodges the fluid from any fub¬
ftance, it will be fufficient to prevent its return •, con-
fequently, fuppofing both the fubrtances neceffarily to
have a certain proportion of ele&ric matter, each may
be immediately fupplied from that which was diflodged
from the other.
“ The rubber, therefore, at the time of excitation,
gives its vitreous ele£lricity to that part of the fmooth
glafs againft which it has been prefled, and takes an
equal quantity of the refinous in return* The glafs be¬
ing a non-conduftor, does not allow this additional quan¬
tity of eledlricity to enter its fubftance. It is there¬
fore diffufed upon the furface, and, in the revolution of
the globe, is carried to the prime condu£ior. There it
repels the vitreous, and violently attra&s the refinous
eledlricity ; (and the points of the conductor favouring
the mutual tranfition), the vitreous, which abounds up¬
on the globe, pafTes to the conductor ; and the refinous,
which abounds upon the neareft parts of the condudfor,
ruffies upon the globe. There it mixes with, and fatu-
rates what remained of the vitreous electricity on the
part on which it flows, and thereby reduces it to the
fame ftate in which it was before it was excited. Every
part of the furface of the globe performs the fame of¬
fice, firft exchanging eledtricities with the rubber and
then with the condudtor.
“ The folution of this difficulty will alfo folve that of
the eledtric explofion, in which there is a collifion, as it
were, of the two fluids, while yet they completely pafs
one another. For ftill each furface of the glafs may be
fuppofed to require its certain portion of eledtric mat¬
ter, and therefore cannot part with one fort without re¬
ceiving an equal quantity of the other. It muft be con-
fidered alfo, that the air through which the fluids pafs,
has already its natural quantity of electricity, fo that
being fully faturated, it can contain no more, and that
the two fluids only ruffi to the places from which they
had been forcibly difiodged, and where the greater
body of the oppofite fluid waits to embrace them.”
Although, in our explanation of eledtrical phenome¬
na, we fhall adopt the theory of iEpinus and Caven-
diffi, it is proper to obferve that this theory does not
univerfally prevail among the eledtricians of the pre-
fent day. The hypothefis of Du Fay, or the theory of
two fluids, is ftill maintained by feveral, efpecially on
the continent. This theory has lately found two ftre-
nuous advocates in France, M. M. Hauy and Tremery.
Their principal objedlion to the theory of ^Epinus
feems to be founded on that part of his hypothefis with
which uEpinus himfelf was not perfedlly fatisfied, but
which (in M° 321.) we have attempted to defend, viz.
his introdudlion of a repulfive force among the particles
of matter in a body.
'Vol. VII. Part II.
R I C I T Y.
753
fence of
:theory
two
ids by
Tre-
0.
“ In fadt, (fay they), the fuppofitidn of a fmgle fluid Theory of
of which the particles mutually repel each other, and are Electricity,
attradled by the particles of matter in all known bodies, ' ' »'
gives rife to many diftindt forces which cannot be in
equilibrio, and which, by their mode of adting, are
fuch, that two bodies which are in their natural ftate,
and which are not attradled by any other force befides
that of eledlricity, muft tend towards each other.
“ 1 he fuppofition of a repulfive force among the par¬
ticles of matter in folid bodies becomes unneceftary if
we conceive the eledfric fluid as compofed of two
fluids, of which one poffeffes the property which Abpinus
attributes to the particles of matter in the body. It is
much better to admit a repulfion at a diftance among
the particles of two peculiar fluids, which, like all
others, repel each other, even in contadl, than to con¬
ceive fuch a repulfion to exift among the particles of
bodies that are in their nature fulid. Thofe philofo-
phers who endeavour to explain all the phenomena on
the principle of a fingle fluid, believed themfelves that
its particles repelled each other at a diftance, as from
one furface of the Leyden phial to the other ; and as
what we call aBion at a dijlance, is properly no more
than a fadt on which we ground a theory, without in¬
quiring what is the caufe which furniffies the point of
difference, it is fufficient that the manner in which we
conceive this fadt enables us to adapt it to our theory.
“ ^Tipinus, who does not conceal his reludtance to ad¬
mit that fuch a force as that which we have mentioned
can take place, would doubtlefs, (fay thefe gentlemen),
have adopted the hypothefis of two fluids, if in his time
the nature of the eledtrieal phenomena had been bet¬
ter underftood. But at that period, the means of ob-
fervation not being fo perfedl, experiments had not been
made with that precifion which charadterize thofe which
we owe to M. Coulomb, and which have formed the
foundation of thofe important difcoveries, by means of
which this celebrated philofopher, far exceeding the
point at which vTipinus relied, has carried the fcience
to a high degree of perfedtion, in that beautiful feries
of memoirs, in which we muft admire the addrefs with
which he has availed himfelf both of experiment and
calculation.
“ Almoft all the phenomena of eledlricity, then, feem
to depend on the action of two peculiar fluids, which
adt in fuch a manner, that the particles of each mutual¬
ly repel each other at a dj/latice, with a force which is
inverfely as the fqttare of this dj/iance, and attradl the
particles of the other fluid with the fame force.
“ It is of confequence not to confound thefe two fluids
•with the two currents, the one of influent and the other
of cflluent matter, by which Nollet attempted to explain
the phenomena. Thefe two currents belong to the
fame matter, and proceed, one from the condudlor to¬
wards furrounding bodies, the other from thefe towards
the condudlor.
“ We (hall now endeavour to apply the hypothefis
of two fluids to the explanation of fome phenomena
which do not appear to agree with it, and which, by
the manner in which we are accuftomed to view them,
feem to indicate that vitreous and reflnous eledlricity
are only modifications of the fame fluid.
“ The experiments which feem to militate againft our
theory are very few, and may be reduced to the fol¬
lowing.
5C
“ Etc per.
754 ELECTRICITY.
Theory of “ Exper. I.—If upon a cake of rofin we trace various
Electricity- defigns with the point of a conducing fubftance, which
J is at one time electrified pojitively, or by vitreous elec-
Experf-2 tricity, and at another negatively, or by rejinous elec-
mentsthat tricity j and if on this furface, thus eleCtrified, we let
feem to mi-fall a powder (g) properly difpofed ; the deligns thus
tl‘ rencier€<^ vifible will prefent characters peculiar to each
theory1**S ipecies eleCtricity j thus {hewing, according to the
followers of Franklin and ./Epinus, a fuperabundance of
eleCtric fluid on one fide and a deficiency on the other.
“ Exper. 2.—When a conducting body terminating in
a point, is eleCtrified pojitively or by vitreous eleCtricity,
we perceive at the point a luminous brufh. And if, all
other things being equal, we fubftitute negative or re¬
jinous eleCtricity, the point is illuminated with a Jlar or
luminous point.
“ According to the theory of pofitive and negative
eleCtricity, the brujh indicates the tranfmiflion of eleCtric
fluidfromlbz body which is eleCtrified pofitively, and the
Jlar its entrance into the body which is negatively elec¬
trified.
“ Exper. 3.—When an eleCtric explofion takes place,
all the eleCtric fluid appears conitantly to pafs from the
body eleCtrified pojitively to that which is eleCtrified
negatively.'1'1
Here they cite the method of proving this, by pierc¬
ing a card placed between the conducting balls of the
univerfal difcharger. (Vid. N° 196. Exp. 2.)
Explained Thefe experiments, to which the theory of pofitive
by M. Ire- and negative eleCtricity is happily applied, feem at firft
mery. fight inexplicable, according to the hypothefis of two
fluids. In faCt, the particles of thefe two fluids being
fubjtCt to the fame laws, it feems,
1. That the defigns traced on a cake of rofin, or o-
ther tdeo-eleiiric fubftance, with the point of a conduc¬
tor, eleCtrified at one time pofitively and at another ne¬
gatively, ftiould on the whole be fimilar.
2. That the luminous appearance obferved at the
fummit of a pointed conductor, ought always to be the
fame, whatever be the eleblricalfate of the body.
3. That when an eleCtric difcharge has taken place,
the vitreous and refinous eleCtricities, which mutually
attraCt each other, ought to form a luminous train on
each furface of the card, and the card ought to be per¬
forated in a point equally diftant from the two extremi¬
ties of the balls of the difcharger.
Mr Tre- f0U0Wing is the manner in which M. Tremery
mery’s ex- undertakes to explain thefe appearances,
planation, “ The matter, (fays he), to the aCtion of which we
attribute the eleCtrical phenomena, being confidered as
compounded of two peculiar fluids, we may conclude
that all bodies, confidered in the relation which they
bear to thefe fluids, do not poflefs the fame properties $
it is poflible that vitreous and rejinous eleCtricity may be
of fuch a nature, that, on the one hand, certain bodies,
whether eleCtrics or conductors, may have with refpeCt
to them different conducting powers ; and on the other
hand, that the coercive power (h) of ideo-eleRrics may
Part IV
vary according as they are oppofed to the motion of Theory 0f
particles proper to vitreous eleCtricity, or to the-motion Eleftncity
of particles proper to t'efnous eleCtricity. —y—
“ If, forinftance, the air of the atmofphere, in which
eleCtrical phenomena ufually take place, has an incom¬
parably greater coercive power with refpeCt to the re¬
finous eleCtricity than it has to the vitreous, it would be
very eafy to explain the experiments that we have
quoted. In this cafe, the refinous eleCtricity, becaufe
of the almoft infinite refiftance that the air would op-
pofe to the motion of its particles, might be regarded
as inherent in the furface of the bodies ; whence it fol¬
lows, that the fame circumftances would take place, as
if the body eleCtrified refnoujly had the property of
exercifing by itfelf an attraction for the vitreous or
poftive eleCtricity j a property which bodies in the ne¬
gative ftate are fuppofed to have, according to the theo-
ry of Franklin.
“ If now, the coercive power that we have fuppofed
the air to have with refpeCt to the refinous eleCtricity,
could diminifti fo as to become equal to that which it
has with refpeCt to the vitreous, it would happen that
the figns which induce us to regard the vitreous elec¬
tricity as pofitive, and the refinous as negative, would
difappear, fo that all the phenomena would feem to de¬
pend equally on the aCtion of the two fluids that would
be fubjeCt to the fame law. In this new circumftance,
we fhould obferve a luminous pencil at the fummit of a
pointed conductor eleCtrified refnoujly or negatively,
and when an eleCtric difcharge took place, the vitreous
and refinous eleCtricities would appear to approach each
other.
“ If, under thefe circumftance?, the coercive power of
the air with refpeCt to the vitreous eleCtricity ftiould in-
creafe, fo as in its turn to become incomparably greater
than what it had with refpeCt to the refinous eleCtricity,
it is evident, that the eleCtric matter, aCting in the midft
of fuch a fubftance, would produce phenomena exaCtly
fimilar to thofe with which we are acquainted ; but, in
this cafe, the vitreous or pofitive eleCtricity would per¬
form the office of the refinous or negative, and vice
verfa, and they would mutually exchange figns. A
luminous pencil would appear at a point eleCtrified ne¬
gatively or refinoufly, and a luminous ftar at a pofi¬
tive or vitreoufly eleCtrified point; and when two
conducting bodies, eleCtrified differently, were placed
at a convenient diftance, all the eleCtric matter would
appear to move from the negative body towards the
pofitive * JourHtii
Phyftque,
Chap. II. A theoretical Explanation of the Phenome-p_
na of Electricity.
Sect. I. Of the Nature and Di/lribution of the EleElric
Fluid.
355
Before we enter on a theoretical explanation of the Nature of
phenomena of eleCtricity, it will not be improper to in-d^ele&nc
This povyder (hould be compofed of two fubftances, which, by their mutual friCtion again each other, are
capable of receiving oppofite eleCtricities.
% coercive power our author underftands that which ideo-eleCtricp or conductors oppofe to the motion of
the particles that are proper to each of the two fluids, that, according to this hypothefis, are fuppofed to form by
their union the elettric fluid.
I lap. II*
eory of quire fomewhat more at large into the nature of that
I tricity, fubtile agent which we have diftinguifhed by the
‘ -v name of the ele£tric fluid, and to notice fome of the
more plaufible opinions that have been hazarded on the
fubjeft.
One of the firft queftions that naturally arifes from
the very name of fluid is, What proofs have we of the
materiality of this power ?
Befides the properties of attraction and repulfion,
which are properties of matter, we have many other
evidences that are very perfuafive, as being more dif-
356 tinflly the objects of our fenfes.
1 afs of its it The fpark that appears when the eleCtric power
i eriality. pa{Tes fuJjen]y through the air or any other refitting
medium, and the fnap^ by which it is accompanied, are
ftrong evidences in favour of the materiality of the
power, by which they are produced. The noife of the
fpark is occafioned by the fudden impreflion made on
the air, or fome other etafiic fluid, through which the
fpark pafles. When the air is confined in clofe Vetfels,
as in a tube above water, no very durable effeCt is in*
deed produced on the water in the tube. But this is
owing to the rapidity with which the expanfion and fub-
fequent condenfation take place. Again, it is objeCted,
that it is impoflible to communicate motion to a very
delicate lever, nicely balanced, by throwing on it any
quantity of eledricUy. Some pretend to have done
this; but, however, the impoflibility of doing it is no
argument againft the materiality of the eleClric fluid ;
and we might juft as well fay, that a mulket ball is not
material, becaufe it may be fired through a paper or
thin board delicately fufpended, without imparting to
them any part of its motion.
2. The light and heat accompanying the fpark, are
proofs of the materiality of the eleftric power. Thefe
are chemical phenomena ; and whether we confider
them as effefts of the fluid as a Ample, or as refulting
from its decompofition, we conceive that they prove the
materiality of the eleftric power, as completely as the
materiality of caloric and light have been proved.
We are aware that this reafoning will not fatisfy
thofe philofophers who deny the materiality of caloric
and light; we know that much ftrefs is laid on the ex¬
periments of Count Rumford, as completely fubverfive
of the materiality of heat, experiments that could even
flagger the opinion of a Robifon. Without defiring in
the lead; to detract from the merit of that ingenious and
able experimentalift, for whom we entertain a very high
efteem, we muft confels, that we do not confider his ex¬
periments as warranting the conclufions that have been
drawn from them, and we are ftill difpofed to think the
materiality of caloric and light as fully proved as can be
expected, with refpedl to matter that is not abfolutely
357 tangible.
dricity From the fimilarity of the chemical effefts of the
aofed to eleftric fluid with thofe of elementary fire or caloric,
h cahT6 ^ was ^on£ aS° (as we have ihewn in the beginning of
if ° this Part) fuppofed, that they were the fame, and this
is ftill the opinion of fome eleftricians. We cannot
here pretend to enter on a full difcuflion of this quef-
tion, but we {hall briefly ftate the arguments in favour
of the identity of caloric, and the objeftions that we
have to make to them.
Eleftricity is the fame with caloric (fay the advo¬
cates for their identity) becaufe,
755
1. Both produce the fame chemical effefts, expanftoh, Theory of
fluidity, inflammation, oxidation, &c. Eleftricity.
2. Thofe bodies that are the beft conductors of ca- —v"*"’"-'
loric, as the metals, are alfo the beft conductors of elec¬
tricity ; and glafs, which is a very bad conductor of
caloric, is one of the moft perfect non-conductors of
electricity.
To the firft argument for their identity, we {hall re-Argument*
ply in the words of M. Berthollet, who once confider-aga‘nft dds
ed them as the fame, but from experiments was falls- fappofitiom
fied that their effects were different.
“ A wire of platina wasfubmitted to {hocks which were
nearly ftrong enough to effect its combuftion ; and to be
fatisfied of this, a (hock was excited, by which a great
part of the wire was melted and difperfed ; afterwards
the {hocks employed were a little weaker, and im¬
mediately after each, the wire was touched to judge of
the temparature it had acquired ; a heat was felt, which
was diflipated in a few minutes, and which, at the ut-
moft, was eftimated to refemble that of the boiling
point of water. If electricity liquefied metals, and
brought them into combuttion by the heat it excites,
the platina wire muft after a fhock, which differed but
little from that which would have produced its difperfion
and its combuftion, have approached the degree of tem¬
perature which occafions its liquefaction : Now this de¬
gree, which is the moft elevated that can be obtained,
would, according to the valuation, more or lefs accurate,
of Wedgwood, be 32277° of Fahrenheit.
“ When the {hock is fufficiently ftrong to deflroy the
aggregation of the platina wire, it begins by detaching
moleculae from its furface, which exhale like fmoke ; if
it is ftrong enough to produce combuftion, the remains
of the wire appear to be torn into filaments.
“ A thermofcope blackened with ink, and placed in
the fleam of a ftrong electric fpark, only experienced a
dilatation which was nearly equal to one degree of
Reaumur’s thermometer, and this flight effeft might de¬
pend on the oxidation of the iron of the ink ; placed be-
fide the current, it did not {how any dilatation, although
the air was neceffarily affected by the electric action :
it was the fame when it was placed in contact with a
metallic conductor, which received a ftream lefs power¬
ful than in the preceding experiment/.
“ A cylinder of glafs filled with air, with an exciter
at each of its extremities, to one of Avhich was fixed a
tube communicating with another cylinder filled with
water, produced an impulfe at each flvoek, which raif-
ed the water more than a diameter above its level, but
its effect was inftantaneous.
“ Thefe experiments feem to me to prove that elec¬
tricity does not act on fubftances, and on their combina¬
tions, by an elevation of temperature, but by a dilata¬
tion which feparates the moleculae of bodies. The flight
heat obferved in the platina wire, is only the effect of
the compreflion produced by the moleculas which firft
experience the electric action, or which experience it
in a greater degree; it muft, therefore, be compared
to that excited by percuflion or compreffion.
“ If the dilatation was the effect of heat, that ex¬
perienced by a gas, in the experiment related above,
would not have been inftantaneous ; it would only have
experienced a progreflive diminution by cooling, as
when its expanfion is owing to heat.
“ In the experiment by which ammoniacal gas is de-
5 C 2 compofed,
ELECTRICITY.
756 ELECT
Theory of compofed, the gas undoubtedly receives the eleflric ac-
Eledlricity. tion, and neverthelefs it is not heated j and as foon as
v—' the decompofition is finidied, its volume remains un¬
changed, becaufe the eleftric action which is employed
in this experiment, is not fufficiently energetic to caufe
a perceptible dilatation. No fenlible dilatation is pro¬
duced by a gas in a {hock which is not very ftrong, be¬
caufe the impulfe not being gradual like the expaniion
arifing from caloric, and being excited infbntaneoufly,
the refiftance of the liquid becomes too great, and
cannot be overcome unlefs the dilatation has great
energy.
“ An experiment of Dieman and his learned aflociates
confirm this explanation ; they caufed a (bock to pafs
through lead placed in a vefiel filled with azotic gas,
which could not oxidate it j it was reduced into powder
retaining all its metallic properties : if it had ex¬
perienced a liquefaction fimilar to the action of heat,
it would have cooled gradually, and would have con¬
gealed into one, or at lead into feveral mafi'es.
u When a metal is fubmitted to the ele&ric adlion,
the effecta produced immediately by the eleftricity muit
be diftinguifhed from thofe which are owing to its oxi¬
dation : the firft are limited to the diminution or deftruc-
tion of the effects of the force of cohefion, to removing
and difperfing the muleculae (if by this a little heat is
difengaged, it is only owing to the compreflion fuftain-
ed by feme of the parts) ; but thofe which are occafion-
ed by the oxidation, produce a high degree of heat, and
then the eifedfs aflutne all the appearances of an ordinary
combuftion : hence it arifes that the moft oxidable
metals are thofe which become red with the greatefl
facility, and which muft fliew the properties of a metal
liquefied by heat.
“ Electricity favours this oxidation in as much as it
diminifhes the force of cohefion : It is thus that an alkali
renders the action of fulphur on oxygen much more
powerful, by deftroying the force of cohefion oppofed
to it, and that a metal diflblved in an amalgam, is oxidar
ted much more eafily than when it is in a folid ftate.
It is only by deftroying the efiedts of the force of cohe¬
fion that heat itfelf produces the oxidation of metals ;
but the expanfive adtion of eledtricity will have a great
advantage over that of caloric, becaufe its adtion is
confined to the folid which it encounters in its courfe,
fo that the gas itfelf will not experience a dilatation in
oppofition to the condenfation which accompanies the
combination: To this circumftance may be applied
what is obferved in the adtion of hydrogen gas, which
is capable of completely reducing an oxide of iron pla¬
ced in the focus of a burning glafs, although water,
whofe two elements receive the heat equally, is decom-
* Nichol- pofed by this metal
/eH’j Jour. ' To the fecond argument we (hall anfwer, that though
in the inftance of metals it is corredt, in fo far as that
thefe bodies are the belt condudtors, both of caloric and
eledtricity, there are, however, bodies that conduct ca¬
loric very well, but either do not conduSi electricity, or
do it very imperfectly.
Even in the cafe of metallic bodies, fo far as can be
inferred from the imperfect experiments that have been
made on their comparative conducting power, it ftrould
appear that the order of their conducting power, with
refpect to caloric, is not the fame as that with refpect
to electricity.
R I CITY. partlv
Farther, caloric takes fome time to pafs through the ju
beft conductors, while the electric fluid pervades theEleflnoitr
longeft with inconceivable velocity.
Again, if electricity were the fame with caloric,
they ftiould mutually produce the fame effects, and
(hould exift fimultaneoully. But this is by no means the
cafe ; a body may be ftrongly electrified without being
fenfibly increafed in temperature, and fo far is heat
from producing electricity (except in a few inftances),
that where the former is prefent in any confiderable de¬
gree, the latter is deftroyed.
Laftly, the mode in which electricity and caloric
pafs along conductors is, we think different. Caloric
feems undoubtedly to penetrate their JubJlance, while
electricity appears not to extend beyond the furface,
except it meet with fome refiftance. The following
experiment is ufually adduced to prove that electricity
pervades the fubftance of conductors.
Take a wire of any kind of metal, and cover part Whether
of it with fome electric fubftance, as rofin, fealing-the eledrii
wax, &c. then difeharge ajar through it, and it vviil^uic* Per*
be found that it conducts as well as without the elec-ra^5t!ie
trie coating. This, fays Mr Cavallo, proves thatConduftors,
the electric matter paffes through the fubftance of
the metal, and not over its furface. A wire, adds
he, continued through a vacuum, is alfo a convincing
proof of the truth of this affertion. Even here, however,
the proof, if impartially confidered, will be found very
defective. It is a fact agreed upon by all philofophers,
that bodies which to us are apparently in contact,
do neverthelefs require a very confiderable degree of
force to make them actually touch one another. Dr
Prieftley found that a weight of fix pounds was necef-
fary to prefs 20 {hillings into clofe contact, when lying
upon one another on a table. A much greater weight
was neceffary to bring the links of a chain into con¬
tact with each other. It cannot be at all incredible,
therefore, that a wire, though covered with fealing-
wax or rofin, {hould ft ill remain at fome little diftance
from the fubftance which covers it.
M. Coulomb proves that in an overcharged conduct¬
ing body, the fluid does not penetrate into its fub¬
ftance, but diffufes itfelf merely over the furface.
By means of a very delicate electrofcope, he examin¬
ed pits made in a conducting body of various depths,
and found that in the Ihalloweft of them there was no
fenfible electricity $ whence he naturally draws the
conclufion, that the electricity in fuch bodies does not
extend beyond the furface. The reader may fee a de-
feription of the electrofcope employed, and a detail of
the experiments, in the Memoirs of the French Acade¬
my for 1786, p. 72, or the Journal de Physique, vol. ii.
(of the feries by Delametherie), p. 236.
Dr Robifon repeated Coulomb’s experiments with
the fame refults.
Another opinion that has been maintained with re-Eieflricity
gard to electricity, is that it is the fame with /zg/6/. differs froro
The principal argument for the identity of electricityI'gh1,
and light feems to be that bodies are impregnated with
the latter by means of the former, and indeed that light
commonly appears when the electric fluid paffes in any
quantity from one body to another.
Another reafon given for their identity is, that both
move with inconceivable velocity.
A ftrong argument againft the identity of light and
electricity3
hap. IT*
beoryof electricity, is that the former pafles through glafs and
Sicily.other tranfparent eleftrics, which feem to be imper-
meable to the eleftric fluid.
As to the impregnation of opaque bodies with light
by means of eledricity, this is the effeft of chemical de-
compofition, as will prefently appear, and is really pro-
duced by light itfelf.
.flrie What has been now faid is, we think, fufficient to
d proba-prove, that the ele£lric fluid is neither caloric nor light,
acorn- the appearance of caloric and light, in many cafes,
lIK*' fliews that there is an intimate connexion between them
and the ele&ric fluid. In ftiort, they feem to form part
of its compofition ; and we are inclined to confider it as
a compound, containing caloric and light, and probably
fome peculiar conflituent, to which we give the name
of electricity. This opinion is not new ; it was the hy-
pothelis of Mr James Ruffel, who filled the natural
philofophy chair at Edinburgh, above thirty years
363 as°-
pothefis Mr Ruffel confidered the eleCtric fluid as a compound
ProtelTor 0f feveral others, containing particularly elementary
fire, from which it derived its great elafticity or power
of repulfion. The elafticity of the eleCtric fluid he fup-
pofed to differ from that of air, in acting at a diftance j
whereas the a£ti«n of the air is only on adjoining par¬
ticles. Hence bodies that contain more ele£tric fluid
than the fpaces around them, have a tendency to repel
each other.
Mr Ruffel confidered the charaCleriftic ingredient of
the compound, i. e. the electricity, as united to the
other conftituents by chemical affinity, or, as it
was then called, K/e£hve AttraBion. This attraction
a-Cts at all diltances, but not exaCtly according to the
fame law, as the repulfive power of the elaftic fluid j
and in general, while in this (tate ot compofition, coun¬
teracts the repulfion of the eleCtric particles. Again,
the eleCtricity attraCts the particles of other bodies, but
with different degrees of affinity. Non-eleCtrics or
conductors are attracted by it at all diftances, but elec¬
trics only at very fmall and imperceptible diftanoes,.
and at fuch diftances only its own particles attraCt each
other.
Hence this eompound fluid repels its own particles at
all confiderable diftances, but attraCts them when very
near. It alfo attraCts conductors at all diftances, but
eleCtrics only when very near. 1 he appearances of
light and heat were confidered by Mr Ruffel as proofs
of a partial decompofition, and as evincing the prefence
of elementary fire : the peculiar odour of the eleCtric
fpark, and the effeCt produced in certain inftances on
the organ of tafte, were alfo regarded as proofs of chemi¬
cal decompofition, and of the compound nature of the
eleCtric fluid.
Again, conducting bodies containing eleCtric fluid,
if forced very near, attraCt each other; otherwife
they repel each other. EleCtrics contain the eleCtric
fluid in confequence of the eleCtricity exifting in the
compound : a part of this muft be attached to the furface
of the eltCtric, but not in its elaftic ftate, fince when
brought fo near as to be attracted, its particles are fub-
jeCted to their own mutual aCtion, and hence the re¬
pulfion occafioned by its combination with the other in¬
gredient of the fluid is overcome by the redoubled at¬
traction $ the eleCtric fluid is thus partially decompofed,
757
and the eleCtricity attaches itfelf to the furface of the Theory of
eleCtric. Thus the eleCtric fluid may appear in two Eledrieity.
ftates 3 elaftic when entire, and unelaftic when partial- ‘ » J
ly decompofed.
The electricity may be rendered unelaftic in feveral
ways, as by friction, by which the electric fluid con¬
tained in the air is forced into clofer contact, thus pro¬
ducing a decompofition of the fluid, and caufing its
electricity to unite with the furface of the rubbed body.
This operation may be compared to the forcible wet¬
ting of a dry fponge, or of fome powder, as that of the
puff ball, which, when dry, does not eafily imbibe moif-
ture 5 but when wetted by mechanical compreflion, re¬
tains it very forcibly. The electricity unites with bo¬
dies in this way during feveral operations of nature, as
in the melting and cooling of fome fubftances in con¬
tact with electrics 3 and it may be thus forcibly united
to the furface of electrics by means of metallic coatings*
into which the fluid is forced by the fkilful manage¬
ment of its mutual repulfions. This operation, again,
was compared by Mr Ruffel to the condenfation of the
moifture of humid air on a cold pane of glafs 5 and the
evacuation of fluids from the other fide of the coated
pane he compared to the evaporation of the moifture
from the other fide of the cold pane, in confequence of
the heat that was extricated from the condenfed va¬
pour.
The analogy that exifts between electricity and ca¬
loric, has induced fome to apply to the former the
doctrine of capacity, fo ingenioufly applied to caloric
by Dr Crawford. This doctrine feems to be one of
the fundamental principles of Mr Wilkinfon’s theory
of electricity 3 the fubftance of which is contained in
the following extract. ^
“ From fome experiments, I am induced to fuppofe, Mr Wiikin-
tbat electricity is univerfally diffufed, but not equally 3 Con’shypo-
that thofe bodies are the beft conductors which contain thefis.
the greateft quantity, and' thofe the beft non-conduc-
tiws which contain the leaft.—Thus metallic bodies are
the beft conductors 3 all fluids, except air and oil, are
alfo conductors. The difpofition in the body to retain
electricity may be termed its ca[ acity.
When conducting bodies undergo any change, if by
fuch change their capacities become altered, then figns
of electricity are evinced.
If the change thould be of fuch a nature, that their
capacity for electricity becomes increafed, the fubftance
will be in a ftate of abiiracting it from furrounding
bodies, and therefore will evince negative figns 3 the
fame as frigorific mixtures produce negative- figns of
heat.
If, in the change it undergoes, the capacity of the
fubftance for electricity is diminiftied, it gives out a
portion of its natural quantity, and evinces pofttivo>
figns, or a ftate of fuperabundance.
" When any fubftance, in the change it undergoes,
gives out electricity, it becomes proportionally dirni-.
niftied in its conducting powers 3 fo, on the contrary,
when it acquires an increafe, it increales alfo its powers
as a conductor.
Thus a metallic fubftance, which is a good con¬
ductor, when oxidated is a very imperfect one.. In
the change from its reguline ftate to ,a calx, electricity
is given ouU
ELECTRICITY.
75§
ELECTRICITY.
Theory of This capacity for electricity is not regulated by any
Electricity, known laws, fuch as the denfities or the fpecific gravi-
Vl" '' ties of the bodies.
In many fubftances, the conducting power feems to
depend on the addition of other principles j thus wood,
when a conductor, is fo in confequence of the moifture
it contains $ when deprived of it by drying, it refills
the palfage of electricity.
What this peculiar change may be, is difficult to
conceive; but when electric bodies become partial
conductors, it feems to be effected by the agency of
heat.
When the preffing action is very confiderable, as in
the ca(e of metallic bodies, great quantities of heat are
extricated. Thus a nail, when ftruck violently, foon
exhibits figns of confiderable warmth j the caloric in-
fufed in its interftices is exuded on the furface, in con¬
fequence of the approximation of the conftituent par¬
ticles of the iron.
Whether the caloric diffufed in the interftices, or
combined with the body, is, given out by preflure, is a
fact difficult to determine. Thofe fubftances which are
non-conductors, and confequently capable, from ex¬
citation, of giving out figns of ele&ricity, do not all of
them lofe their power, when freed from the rubbing
aftion. Thofe bodies which are ufually termed refi-
* Wilkin cont‘nue f°r a certain fpace of time in their con-
fon's Ele- du<^‘ng ^ate» until they are equalized with the fur-
ments of rounding air *, and, continuing in a difpofition to ab-
Galvanifm, ftra6t electricity from furrounding bodies, will there-
vol. h. fore evince negative figns (/)
Obferva. do&rine of bodies having different capacities
tions by Mr f°r electricity was ingenioufty employed by Mr G.
G. Morgan. Morgan to account for the effects produced on electrics
by friction.
“ If (fays he) we admit the corporeal nature of that
which is hence with accuracy called the electric fluid,
let us attend to the neceffary tonfequences of what we
admit:—ift, That the electric fluid, like all other cor¬
poreal fubftances, is capable of attracting, and of being
attracted. 2d, That in confequence of this capacity,
it enters into an union with other bodies, and that as
the nature of the fubftances to which it is united may
vary, fo the degree of force by which it is united may
fhow an equal variety. 3d, That when the electric
fluid is feparated from any body, this feparation muft
be the effect of leflening the force by which it was
united to that body, and thus giving the attractive
force of another body the fuperiority ; or it muft be the
effect of very much increafing the force of the third bo¬
dy, and thus deftroying the equilibrium.
Suppofe that any body A, fliould be capable of unit¬
ing to itfelf, or fuppofe the law of its conftitution were
fuch as to admit of its attaching, fifty particles of the
electric fluid to itfelf, when near or in contact with
Part IV.
another body, B, which like wife has ah attraction to Theor
thofe particles; now, in cafe any fuch change thouldEledh/ciJy
take place as would add twenty particles to B, and
leave thirty only in A, this change, it is evident, muft
proceed either from a diminution of A’s attracting
force, or from an adequate increafe of force in B.
Having deduced, from the corporeal nature of the elec¬
tric fluid, fuch confequences as (how that when it is fe¬
parated from a body, it muft proceed from a diminu¬
tion of attractive force in the body that yields, or an
increafe of the fame force in the body that takes ; let
us now examine how friction is likely to be the caufe
of fuch changes.
By attending to the nature of friction, we ffiall find
it to be nothing more than a fucceffion of preffure or
contacts of the different parts of different fubftances
againft each other: and the queftion in the prefent
cafe is this;—whether contact is neceffarily attended
with a change of attra&ive force in the different fub¬
ftances which are brought together? or whether the
clofe union of a particle of lilk, hair, leather, &c. to
a particle of glafs, may be attended with a change of
capacity in thofe bodies to retain the eleCtric fluid ?—
If this queftion be admitted, I think the particular
mode in which friClion operates is eafily difcovered.
Briefly my idea of the manner in which friifion ope¬
rates, is this : when two eleCtrics are preffid clofely to¬
gether, while they continue together, they become ca¬
pable of taking more, or retaining lefs; and if this be
allowed, I think the various appearances of bodies in a
ftate of excitation are eafily accounted for.
However, it may be alked, if the change produced
in the furfaces of two bodies be the effedl merely of
bringing the bodies nearer together; why does not
contaCt alone produce the fame effeCt ? I muft anfwer,
that the feveral inftances of fpontaneous eleClricity enu¬
merated by Wilcke, JEpinus, and others, appear to me
to be fo many evidences of the preceding theory. In
thefe inftances we fee the excitation of furfaces take-
place in fuch circumftances as will not rationally admit
of any other caufe than fimple contaCt.
It is evident, I think, that contaCl alone is adequate
to the produftion of eleClricity. I would add, that in
the only cafe where contaCl may be applied moft com¬
pletely, eleClricity is produced in a moft remarkable
degree.—By Bennet’s new eleCtrofcope, we find that
the flighteft evaporation (which is certainly the union
of watery with aerial particles) produces immediate figns
of eleClricity. How rationally all the eleCtrical appear¬
ances of our atmofphere may be afcribed to the fame
fource, will be ffiown more fully hereafter,
Before I quit this fubjeCl, I would explain to you
the reafons why, in many cafes, agreeably to the pre¬
ceding hypothefis, friClion is neceffarily much more
powerful in its effeCls than preffure.
Suppofe
(7) Mr Coulomb endeavours to prove that the eleClric fluid is not diftributed among conduCliirg bodies in con¬
taCl by chemical affinity, but merely by its repulfive motion.
When two bodies, equal and fimilar, placed in contaCl; are tolerably perfeCl conduClors, fuch as the metals; the
eleClricity communicated from one to the other is in an inftant divided equally between them ; but when one of
the bodies is an imperfeCl conductor, as a plain of paper, it will take fome time before the paper receives the half
of the electricity of the metal. In all cafes,, however, the electricity is equally divided. Vid. Mem. de PAcad*
Roy. de Paris, pour 1786, p. 69.
hap.
If.
ELECT
heoryof Suppofe A to be a particle of filk, brought into
;6tricity. contaft with a particle of glafs, which I call B ; by the
~v increafe of attraftion eonfequent upon the union, the
combined bodies become capable of attra&ing a por¬
tion of the fluid, which I fay, is equal to five. Now
A is no fooner feparated from B, than another particle
of filk comes in contact, and produces a fimilar effedt.
The portion accumulated is now ten. A third comes
into fucceflive contad with B, and adds to the accumu¬
lation ; and while the rubbing goes on, a feries of fuc¬
ceflive effeds is produced by a feries of fucceflive unions
and feparations j for A i& no fooner feparated from B,
than it is brought into that Hate in which it was be¬
fore the union, and confequently difpofed to part with
what it gained by the union. Now if you fuppofe A
and B, inftead of being Angle particles, to be furfaces,
all of whofe parts operate at the fame time, you may
eafily perceive how the effed would be increafed.
In the preceding cafe, I deferibed the capacity of
A and B to be enlarged by their union. If it had
been leffened, the fubfequent effeds would have been
fufficient $ for, in fuch a cafe, after the diffolution of
their contad, they would be difpofed to receive or re¬
take what they had loft by their union. But I will
fpeculate no longer on the confequences of fridion, as
f elucidated from the fuppofed corporeal nature of the
^^’'dedric fluid, and from the changes fuppofed to take
; place on the attradive force of different bodies when
365 brought into very clofe contad with each other
gnatelli Sig. Brugnatelli, from the chemical properties of the
^thededric fluid, and from feveral experiments which he
to be ^as Ina^e uPon the fubjed, concludes that it ftiould be
cid. ranked among the acids. This fluid, fays be, red¬
dens the tindure of turnfole, which as the fluid difli-
pates returns again to a blue colour $ it penetrates the
metals, oxidates them, and produces hydrogen gas.
In fine, it pofiefies all the properties of an acid. He
therefore denominates it the eleSlric or oxi-eleElric acid,
and of courfe the falts which are formed by its combi¬
nation with falifiable bafes, are called e/eEirats. On
fome of thefe he makes the following obfervations.
1. The eleBrat of gold is formed of fmall, brilliant^
and tranfparent points.
2. The eleBrat of filver confifts of fmall prifmatic
cryftals, terminated by fix-fided pyramids, which are
limpid and tranfparent, and ftrongly refled the light.
They are taftelefs and infoluble in water.
3. The eleBrat of copper confifts of cubical tranfpa¬
rent cryftals, which diflblve in the acid with effervef-
cence. The cryftals are of a beautiful green colour.
4. The eleBrat of iron is of a reddifh yellow colour,
and opaque.
5. The eleBrat of zinc is opaque and of a grayifli
colour.
The eleBric acid, according to this author, is not de-
compofed, when it oxidates the metals, but the oxygen
required for their oxidation, is derived from the water
employed in his experiments.
Having thus confidered pretty fully the chemical na¬
ture of the eledric fluid, we fliall return to its mechani¬
cal properties, and endeavour to afeertain the law by
which its particles ad on each other, and how it is
diftributed in bodies of various figures, and in various
relations.
It was long a defideratum among eledricians to dif-
3
66
i of _
li of the
r
CXCI.
fig. 72.
R I C I T Y. t 759
cover the law of adion according to which the particles Theory of
of the eledric fluid attrad and repel each other. Al-Electricity,
pinus, we have feen, ftates no other law than that the v——v~—'
adion decreafes according as the diftance increafes.
Mr Cavendifti fufpeded, but did not prove either by
demonftration or experiment, that the adion of eledri-
city was, like that of gravitation, inverfely as the fquare
of the diftance.
Lord Stanhope attempted to prove that this was the
law of eledric adion, both experimentally and mathe¬
matically, and concluded from the refult of both his
experiments and reafoning, that the fuppofition was juft.
But Dr Robifon did not confider the experiment of
Lord Stanhope as fufficiently accurate, or fufficiently
detailed, to warrant the conclufions that his Lordftiip
had drawn *. * Mahon's
That eminent philofopher, nearly 40 years ago, made Princ‘ples
a fet of experiments for afeertaining this law, and they
were attended with refults fimilar to thofe of Lordfv.'v. anT
Stanhope. vi.
Dr Robifon’s experiments were made with the afiif-
tance of his excellent eledrometer, which we have de¬
feribed in N° 206. The mode of ufing this inftrument
is as follows. ^67
The body whofe eledricity is to be examined is con-AfGfrtained
neded with the eledrometer by a wire, the end 0fexPerimen-
which is inferted into the hole at F, fig. 72. and madeDr
to touch the end of the needle. Now the index is to piate
be turned to the right by the handle I, till it come to
90. In this pofition LA, and confequently CB, is ho¬
rizontal j and the moveable baM B refts on A and moves
with it. The balls being now eledrified, the handle
is turned back till the index arrive at o, from which it
fet out. If during this motion the balls be noticed, it will
be found that in fome pofition of the index they will fe-
parate. Bring them again together and again feparate
them, till the exad point of feparation be afeertained.
This will give their repulfion when in contad, or at the
diftance of their centres. Then turn the index ftill
more to the vertical pofition, and the balls will fepa¬
rate ftill more. Let an afliftant now move the long
index till it become parallel to the ftalk of the elec¬
trometer, which Avill be known by its hiding the latter
from his view. If the ftalk be poifed, by laying a
weight of fome grains on the cork ball D, till the ftalk
become horizontal and nicely balanced, we know ex-
adly the weight that denotes the degree of repulfion
that will caufe the balls to feparate when in the horizon¬
tal pofition, by computing for the proportional lengths
of BC and DC. Then, by a very fimple computation,
we (hall find the weight denoting the degree of repulfion
with which they feparate in any oblique pofition of the
ftalk, and again, by the refolution of forces, we find
the degree of repuliion with which the balls feparate
when AL is oblique, and BC makes with it any given
angle.
The intention of Dr Robifon’s experiments was to
afeertain the law of repulfion of two fmallfpheres, as
whatever was the law of diftribution of the particles
in a fphere, which we {hall confider prefently, the ge¬
neral adion of its particles on thofe of another fphere
will not differ materially from the law of adion be¬
tween two particles, if the fpheres are very fmall in pro¬
portion to their diftance.
The refult of the experiments was, that the mutual
repulfion
7(5°
Theory of repolfion of two fmall fplieres, eleftrified either pofi-
Tledtricity. tively or negatively, was very nearly inverfely as the
fquare of the diftance of their centres, or a little great¬
er. Thus, if vve exprefs the diftance of x, the law of
repulfion was as nearly as poffible . One of the
balls being much larger than the other appeared to
caufe no difference in the refults.
Repeating the experiment with balls ele&rified op-
pofitely, and which of courfe attrafled each other, the
refults obtained were not quite fo regular j but the ge¬
neral refult wras a deviation from the above law rather
lefs than in the preceding cafe, this being in defeft,
while that was in excefs.
Sir Ifaac Newton has demonftrated, (Prwcip. lib. i.
pr. 74.) that if particles of matter a£l: on each other
with a force in the inverfe duplicate ratio of the dif¬
tance, fpheres compofed of fuch particles, and of equal
denfity at equal diftances, will aft on each other ac¬
cording to the fame law. He has demonftrated that
the fame holds in the cafe of hollow fpherical (hells,
and that thefe aft on each other in the fame manner as
if all their matter were crowded into their centres j and
he has farther demonftrated, that if the law of aftion
between the particles be different from what has been
ftated, the aftion of fpheres or fpherical fhells will alfo
be different.
M. Coulomb of the French academy made a num¬
ber of moft valuable experiments for the purpofe of af-
certaining this point, and obtained the fame refults.
This diftinguifhed academician has publifhed in the
memoirs of the Royal Academy at Paris for I784>
1785, 1786, and 1787, papers which rank him very
high among thofe who have contributed to advance the
fcience of eleftricity.
In the Memoirs for 1785 appeared the papers that
contain the experiments by which he proved the law of
eleftric aftion. Thefe we cannot here pretend to de¬
tail, but the refult is highly fatisfaftory. They were
made with the affiftance of a very delicate eleftrome-
ter, the conftruftion of which we (hall defcribe under
,6S the article Electrometer.
Approxi- The reader may fatisfy himfelf very nearly of the
mating ex- truth of this law by the following fimple experiment,
periment. fig. 102, is the convex extremity of an excited
Fig. 102. farface. BC is a metallic rod, delicately fufpended on
the point E. CF is defigned to contain any weight
which may be applied to the extremity of the rod.
The apparatus fhould be as light as poflible, and is beft
made of reed and cork covered with tinfoil.
While the furface A is in an excited ftate, B is
brought within a certain diftance of it, and the weight
moved by its influence is carefully obferved. A fimilar
obfervation is then made at a fecond, a third, and a
fourth diftance.
Varieties will be difcovered in the refult of thefe ob-
fervations, proceeding from the impoffibility of keeping
the furface for any confiderable time in the fame ftate
of excitation. Thefe varieties, however, are trifling ;
and in a vaft number of experiments, the weight will
diminifti very nearly in the duplicate ratio of the in-
creafed diftance.
We may now fafely conclude that the law of eleftric
aftion is like that of gravitation, fo that eleftrified bo-
Part IV
dies attraft or repel each other with a force that is in- Theory 0f
verfely as the fquare of the diftance. The afcertaining Eleftricitj
of this important law is of infinite confequence. It af- .
fords us a full conviftion of the truth of the propofi-
tions refpefting the aftion of bodies that are over¬
charged at one end, and undercharged at the other.
It renders certain what we could formerly infer only
from a reafonable probability. We now fee that the
curve defcribed in N° 338. muft really have its con¬
vexity turned towards the axis, and that will al¬
ways be greater than Z'-f 2:. ^
We now proceed to confider the manner in which tftftribu- j
the eleftric fluid is diftributed, when it is redundant or tel10ena, the fluid will be prefled clofe ——v—1—'
together, fo that its particles (hall touch each other i
the fpace B/fl will be entirely deprived of fluid ; and in
the {pace C Z>, and all the reft of infinite fpace, the
matter will be exaflly faturated.
Cor. i.—If the globe BDE is undercharged, every
thing elfe being the fame as before, there will be a
fpace BZ>, in which the matter will be entirely deprived
of fluid, and a fpace B^in which the fluid will be
prefled clofe together \ the matter in B being equal to
the whole redundant matter in the globe, and the redun¬
dant fluid in B/$ beingjuft fufficient to faturate the mat¬
ter in B b: and in all the reft of fpace the matter will
be exa£Hy faturated, exaftly fimilar to the foregoing.
Cor. 2.— The fluid in the globe BDE will be dif-
pofed in exa£tly the fame manner, whether the fluid
without is immoveable, and difpofed in fuch a manner
that the matter fhall be everywhere faturated, or whe*
ther it is difpofed as above defcribed •, and the fluid with¬
out the globe will be difpofed in juft the fame manner,
whether the fluid within is difpofed uniformly, or whe¬
ther it is difpofed as above defcribed.
Let BC, fig. 106. be a cylindrical conducing body, General re*
and A an overcharged body. Draw be parallel to BC, prefenta-
and draw B £, C c. Pp, 8tc. perpendicular to BC, trt tion lhe
reprefent the uniform denfity of the fltfid, when
is in its natural ftate ; and let P>d,C r, P j, &c. re- vjj4
prefent the unequal denfities at different points, while 106.
it is oppofed to the overcharged body A. Now thefe
ordinates will be bounded by a line dnr, cutting the
line b c in «, a point in the line «N drawn perpendicu¬
lar to N, the neutral point of the conductor. The
whole quantity of fluid in BC will be reprefented by
tbe parallelogram b c, CB •, but this mull be equal to
the fpace P> C r n d; again, the redundant fluid in any
portion, as PC or PN, may be reprefented by the fpac es
ptre, or tpn, and the deficient fluid in any portion BG
may be reprefented by the fpace bdvq. Now, the ac¬
tion of BC on any body placed near it, will entirely
depend on the fpace contained between the curve line
and the ax:s b e. With refpeft to this curve, the only
circumflance that we can afeertain, is that variations of
curvature' at every point are proportional to the forces
exerted by the fpherical body A \ and are, therefore,
inverfely as the fqilares of the diftances from A, as will
be ffiewn prefently. The exa£t place of the point
and the length of the ordinates, will vary according to
the diameter of the conductor. We fiiall at prefent
confider only the fimpleft cafe, or that where, the con*
du£!or is of no fenfible diameter, like a very fine wire. ^^
Let fuch a llender conducing canal be reprefented Diflnbu-
by AE, fig. 107. and let B Z>, C c, Ee, &c. reprefent tion in a
the denfity of the contained fluid, this being kept in a very^fmall
ftate of unequal denfity by its repulfion for feme over-
charged body. Now, a particle at C is impelled in Fig. 107. *
the dire&ion CE by all the fluid that is on the fide of
A ; and it is impelled in the direction CA by all the
fluid on the fide of E. The moving force will arife
from the difference of thefe repelling forces. When
the diameter of the canal continues the fame, this will
arife from the difference of denfity only. Therefore, the
force of the element at E may be expreffed by the excefs
of D ^ above C c the a&ion at the diftance CD.
5 D Draw
762 ELECT
Theory of Draw fret parallel to AE $ then the force of the
Ele&ricity ^ •
element E may be exprened by the formula .v,
and this is the force repelling the particle in the direc¬
tion CA.
Take CF=CD $ the force at F will be exprdTed by
x* or ^—x, and this force alfo impels the par-
cp c' '
tide in the dire&ion CA. The joint adlion of the two
is If bee were a ftraight line, d^-\-fQ
cdz
would always be proportional to c%, and might be ex-
preffed by ^ denoting fome number that ex-
preffes what part of the ium of d^ and fty is equal
to, fuppofe T'^, -5-%-, &c. But in the prefent cafe
d^-\-f(p is not always proportional to c j, for r/S does
nor increafe fo fall as cJ, while ftp increafes falter.
We may, however, without any fenlible error, exprefs
the accelerating force tending towards A, in the neigh¬
bourhood of any point C, by —- x, that is, by
m
X
—, which is the fluxion of the area of a hyperbola
X
HD'G, of which CO and CK are aflymptotes. The
whole aftion of the fluid between F and D may be ex*
prefled by the area C'CDD'H. Hence, the aflion of
the fmaller conceivable portion of the canal that ad¬
joins to C on either fide, or the difference of the adlions
of the two adjacent elements, is equal to the adlion of
all beyond it. The ftate of compreflion is therefore
fcarcely affected by any thing at a fenfible diltance
from C, and the denfity of the fluid in an indefinitely
fmall canal is uniform.
Having thus found that the fluid in very fmall canals
is very nearly of an uniform denfity, we may now pro¬
ceed to examine the communication of ele£lricity by
means of conducing canals 5 which forms one of the
375 moll important parts of the theory.
Communi- Let us foppofe that the body A communicates by
Ration by cana] ]?F,
with another body D, placed on the con-
canalJ trary fide of it from B, as in fig. 108, and let thefe
Fig. 108. two bodies be either faturated, or over or under¬
charged ; and let the fluid within them be in equili-
brio. Let now the body B be overcharged: it is
plain that fome fluid will be driven from the nearer
part MN to the further part RS ; and alfo fome fluid
will be driven from RS, through the canal, to the
body D; fo that the quantity of fluid in D will be in-
creafed thereby, and the quantity in A, taking the
whole body together, will be diminifhed ; the quanti¬
ty in the part near MN will alfo be diminifhed j but
whether the quantity in the part near RS will be dimi-
niflied or not, does not appear for certain j but proba¬
bly it will be not much altered.
Cor.—In like manner, if B is made undercharged,
fome fluid will flow from D to A, and alfo from that
part of A near RS, to the part near MN.
By crooked Suppofe now that the bodies A and D communicate
canals. by the bent canal MPN npm (fig. 109.) inflead of
Fig. 109. the
raight one EF : let the bodies be either faturated
or over or undercharged as before •, and let the fluid be
st reft } then, if the body B is made overcharged, fome
R I C I T Y. Part IV.
fluid will ftill run out of A into D ; provided the re- Theory 0f
pulfion of B on the fluid in the canal is not too great. Eleftridty.
The repulfion of B on the fluid in the canal, will at •
firft drive fome fluid out of the leg MPpm into A,
and out of NP p n into D, till the quantity of fluid in
that part of the canal which is neareft to B is fo much
diminifhed*. and its repulfion on the reft of the fluid in
the canal is fo much diminifhed alfo, as to compenfate
the repulfion of B : but as the leg NP p n \s longer
than the other, the repulfion of B on the fluid in it
will be greater j confequently fome fluid will run out
of A into D, on the fame principle that water is drawn
out of a veflel through a fyphon : but if the repulfion
of B on the fluid in the canal is fo great as to drive all
the fluid out of the fpace GPH/)G, fo that the fluid
in the leg MG/>/«does not join to that in NH jy «
then it is plain that no fluid can run out of A into D j
any more than water will run out of a veflel through a
fyphon, if the height of the bend of the fyphon above
the water in the veflfel, is greater than that to which
water will rife in vacuo.
This is Mr Cavendifh’s reafoning ; but Dr Robifon
objefts to it, that in thefe cafes the fluid does not move
on the principle of a fyphon, and that there is nothing
to prevent the fluid from expanding in GPH. He was
therefore of opinion, that it would always move from
A to D over the bend.
Cor.—If AB is made undercharged, fome fluid will
run out of D into A $ and that though the attraflion
of B on the fluid in the canal is ever fo great.
We (ball now confider the adlion of eleflrified bodies ^ftK)nofa
on the canal of communication, in fome of the moil pi reona
important cafes. But, as we are confined in our limits,
and have much important matter yet to treat of, wecana*‘
muft content ourfelves with enumerating fadls without
proving them by rigid demonftration.
Let AC« (fig. no.) reprefent a thin conducing Fig, nci
plate, feen edge wife, to the centre of which the {lender
canal CP is perpendicular. It is required to determine
the adlion exerted by the fluid, or matter, uniformly
difpofed over the plate, on the fluid moveable in PC ?
I. To find the adlion of a particle at C on the fluid
in the whole canal. Join AP, and let CP be denoted
by x, AP by y, and AC by r. Alfo, let f reprefent
the intenfity of action at the diftance I of the feale
from which the lines are meafured.
. f .
The action of h.mV is and it may be demon-
V
ftrated that the action of A on the whole of CP is
yj \ ry
2. To find the action of the plate whofe diameter is
A on a particle at P.
Let a denote the area of a circle whofe diameter is
= 1. The action required will be expreffed by the
fluent 2
fa
Cor.—If PC be very fmall in comparifon of AC,
the action will be nearly the fame as if the plate was
infinite.
3. To find the action of the plate on the whole
column. This will be expreflfed by the fluent 2f a
O+r—y).
Our
4
;hap. II. ELECTRICITY.
’heoryof 0'jr mathematical readers, who are familiar with
763
ledricity. the method of fluxions, (and to no others will thefe
'theorems be intelligible), will readily fee the meaning
of thefe expredions.
The following geometrical conftru£Hon will render
the adlion of the plate for the whole column, or its parts,
more familiar, and more eafily remembered.
Produce PC till CK is=-CA, and with the centre
P, defcribe the arch AI, eroding CK in I. Then the
ele&rical a&ion will be expreffed by 2/*rtXlK j and
this exprefiion reprefents a cylinder whofe radius is 1 of
the fcale, and whofe height is rz 2 IK.
Again, about the centre p, with the diftance p A,
defcribe the arch A 2, cutting CH in i. Then we have
2/flXfK, exprefling the a&ion of the plate on the
column C p, and X I 4 exprefling its aflion on P p.
By the formula 2/'tf X IK, is meant, that the action
exerted by the whole plate on PC is the fame as if all
the fluid in the cylinder exprefled by «X2lK were
placed at the diftance from the a&ing particle denoted
by 1.
Cor. 1.—If PC is very great compared with AC,
the a£fion is nearly the fame as it would be if the
column were infinitely extended.
Cor. 2.—If, befides, another column y; C is very
fmall when compared with AC, the action on PC will
be to that on ^7 C, as p C to AC nearly.
The redundant fluid cannot be uniformly diffufed
over the whole plate, as we have hitherto fuppofed,
fince the muLual repulfion of its particles will render it
denfer at the circumference. As it is difficult to de¬
termine the variation of denfity, we fhall only ftate the
rifult of the extreme cafe, where the whole redundant
fluid is crowded into the circumference of the plate.
The a&ion of the fluid in the canal is now
37s
379
380
and the whole action of the fluid crowd¬
ed into the circumference will be far
58i
r This maybe thus reprefen ted geo¬
metrically. Defcribe the quadrant C b BE, crofting
AP in B, and A. p in b. Draw BD and bd parallel
to PC. Now, PB is —y—r, and DC—^ The
expreflionfar —-'j will therefore denote a cylin¬
der whofe radius is 1, and height DC, multiplied by^i
Again d C will be the height of the cylinder expref-
fing the a6lion on p C, and D d that of the cylinder ex¬
prefling the action on P p.
Cor. I.—-If CP be very great compared with CA,
D is very near to A, and I to C, and CD has to IK
very nearly the ratio of equality.
Cor. 2.—But if the column /> C is very fhort, the
aftion of the fluid uniformly diffuied over the plate, is
to the aftion of the fluid crowded into the circumference
nearly as 4 AC to p C.
From this corollary we fee that the recefs of the
fluid towards the circumference, has a much lefs efft ft
on fhort columns than on /or/g ones, i. e. the adlion in
the former cafe will be much lefs diminifhed. Any
external force that tends to impel fluid along the canal,
and from thence to diffufe it over the plate, will impel
a greater quantity to the plate when the fluid of the Theory of
plate is crowded into the circumference, than if it were Ele&ncity.
uniformly diffufed over the plate, and this difference -v-——
will be greater when the canal is Ihort.
Laftly, When KL is equal to AP, or PL to KI, 383
the repulfion exerted by the whole fluid of the plate,
colledled in K, on the fluid in the canal CL, is equal
to the repulfion of the fame fluid, when crowded into
the circumference, on the column CP.
Cor. 1.—When CP is very long in comparifon with
AC or KC, the adtions of the two fluids in both the
above fituations is nearly equal.
Cor. 2.—The adlion exerted by the whole fluid on
the column CP, when uniformly diffufed, is to its adtion
when colledled in K, as 2 IK to CD.
Cor. 3.—If CNO be a fpherical furface, ora fphe- 3?^
rical ffiell, of the fame diameter and thicknefs with the
plate A a, and containing redundant fluid of uniform
denfity, the adtion exerted by this fluid on the column
CL is equal to twice the adtion of the fluid on the
column CP, when the fluid is uniformly diffufed over
the plate, and to four times its adtion on the fame
column, when it is crowded into the circumference.
Let there be two circular plates, reprefented eclge'vil*e Adtfon of
at DE, de, fig. ill. or two fpherical fliells ABO,two plates
a bo, of the fame diameters and thicknefs with the or fpberes
plates, containing redundant fluid of uniform denfity,
and let them communicate with ftraight canals OP, 0p, C
infinitely extended, perpendicular to their furfaces and m,
paffing through their centres, and let the fluid in thefe
canals be of uniform denfity and equally diffufed.
It may be demonftrated that the repulfions exerted
by the fluid in the plates or fpheres on the canals are
as the diameters of the plates or fpheres.
Cor. i.—When the canals are very long compared ^85
to the diameters of the fpheres or plates, the repulfions
are nearly in the fame proporton.
Cor. 2.—-The more the length of the canals dimi- 387
nifties when compared with the diameters of the plates
or fpheres, the more the repulfions approach to equa¬
lity.
COR. 3.—When the denfily of the fluid in two fphe- ^
rical ftiells is inverfely as their diameters, the repul¬
fions of the contained fluid on a column of fluid infi¬
nitely extended, will be iqual.
Cor. 4.—When the quantities of redundant fluid in -gj
two fpheres are proportional to their diameters, the re¬
pulfions exerted by them on a canal infinitely extended
are equal.
Cor. 5.-—If there be two overcharged fpheres, or . 39°
fpherical {hells, as ABO, 0 ab, fig. 112. that com mu- FiS‘ Il2>
nicate by a conducing canal infinitely extended, the
quantities of redundant fluid they contain are propor¬
tional to their diameters ; and they will be nearly fo if
the canals be very long.
Cor. 6.—When the fpheres of conducting matter 39*
are in equilibria, the preffures exerted by the fluid on
their furfaces are nearly proportional to their diame¬
ters.
It follows from this corollary that the tendency of
fluid to efcape from fuch fpheres is, cceteris paribus, in¬
verfely as the diameters. 392
Let there be four circular plates, as HK, AB, DF,b^portant^
LM, fig. 113. equal and parallel to each other, and"a^°_ 0U)’
let two of them, AB and HK, communicate by an in-Fig,
3 D 2 definite
764
ELECTRICITY.
Theory of definite canal GC perpendicular to their planes and
Eleclrkity. palling through their centres 5 let DF and LM commu-
' * ‘ nicate in like manner hy the canal EN, both canals be¬
ing in the fame ftraight line : let HK be overcharged,
and LM juft faturated. It is required to determine
the dilpofition of-the fiuid, and its proportion in the
plates, fo that the above condition may be puffible and
permanent, while all is in equilibria ?
As HK and AB communicate and^are equal, as
HK is overcharged, AB will be fo al/o, and in the
fame degree, and the fluid will be fimilarly difpofed in
both. HK and AB being in this fituation, if DF and
LM be brought near them to within the diftance CE,
as in the figure, the redundant fluid in AB will a f y — i-L
—fnx :fy(n—i)1—/z* : n—i*.
Let r denote the repulfion of f, and a the attraftion
of m ; then r : a—: («—1)* j and r : (r—a^—n1 : n*
—(/;—x)*—/i2 : (2/2—1).
But the repulfion of f'~r—a; therefore «2 :
(2 « —1 ):=/:/', and f—fy ) J or/=/'
*<&>
If we fuppofe n* much greater than 2«—I, we (hall
have the quantity of redundant fluid in AB much great¬
er than that in HK.
When EC is very fmall in proportion to AC, it will Prodigious
appear, on referring back to N° 582. that I is to naccumula-
r b J tion and
39J
nearly as CE : CA : and confequently «— nearly.^‘®Pat'un
? 1 J C E ^ of redun-
When this is the cafe, « is a confiderable quantity ^ant ^lU^*
by repeatedly touching LM to take off the fluid driven
into it from DF, or by allowing LM to communicate
with condufting bodies, an equilibrium will be produced;
and when this is the cafe, HK contains a certain quan¬
tity of redundant fluid, AB contains redundant fluid in
a greater degree, DF contains redundant matter, and
LM is in its natural ftate. The problem may now be
reduced to this. To find what proportion the redun¬
dant fluid in HK bears to that in AB, and what pro¬
portion this latter bears to the deficient fluid in DF ?
To determine thefe proportions it is neceffary that,
ift, The repulfion exerted by the redundant fluid in
AB on the fluid in EN be precifely equal to the at¬
traftion exerted by the redundant matter of DF on the
fame canal.
2d!y, The repulfion exerted by the redundant fluid
in HK on the whole fluid of the canal GC, balances
the excefs of the repulfion of the redundant fluid in AB
on GC above the attraftion of the redundant matter of
DF on the fame canal.
If we call the redundant fluid in AB,/V the redun¬
dant matter in DF, w; and the redundant fluid in HK,
f • as the fluid in HK and AB is fimilarly difpofed,
(they being equal), and as it is probable that the re¬
dundant fluid in AB, and the redundant matter in DF,
are fimilarly difpofed, it follows, that their actions on
the 'fluid in the canals will be fimilar, and proportional
to their quantities nearly.
Let 1 be to «, as the repulfion exerted by the fluid in
AB on the fluid that umuld occupy CE, to the repul-
fion exerted by the fluid in AB on the fluid in EN or
CG.
and there is fo little difference between — and
in 2/2-
that we may take the former for the latter without any
material error.
Now we have f— f X ~ very nearly.
Suppofe AC to reprefent 6 inches, and CE x^th of an
inch, we fhail have n— 1 2 a and f—&of\ or more ex-
iaiy/'= (—^—, = 11425. _ \6o,_
\in — 1 239 / 4
T his, it will be remembered, reprefents the redundant
fluid in HK j hence it will appear how great muft be
the redundancy in HK.
Again, when AB and DF are very near, « is a
large number, and the deficiency in DF is nearly equal
to the r/dundaney in AB. In the above example rn is
||ths ofy', as m—fy{n—1).
But though there is this great deficiency in DF, and
redundancy in AB, DF is not eleftrical on the fide
next LM, nor is AB more eleftrical than HK j in
fhort, this cafe affords another example of bodies being
neutral while redundant or deficient, in addition to
what was advanced in N° 313, 314.
It will readily occur to the reader, that cafes exaft-without
ly fueh as wTe have now ftated never happen in the any
coune of experiment: but when the canals are very
long in comparifon of the diameters of the plate, and
when AB is very near DF, the proportions will not
greatly vary. .
We have been very particular in the examination-of Mode ofre
this cafe, becaufe it is of great importance, and willftonngthe
alTilt us in explaining iome of the principal phenomena. f:lu^briuC
To prepare for fuch an explanation of it,, we fhail here ye^"
ftate8 "
394
39*
t once.
hap. II. ELECT
heoiy cf ftate ^ome firnple confequences of this combination of
ectriciiy. plates.
-^v If AB be touched by any body, this body will re¬
ceive from it a pLart of its redundant fluid, but only a
part ; for only fo much fluid will quit AB as is fulhci-
ent to render it neutral, while the touching body com¬
municates with the ground. This will happen till the
redundant matter in DF attra&s fluid on the remote
fide of AB as much as the redundant fluid in AB re¬
pels it. The repulfion of AB on EN is now diminifh-
ed, the attraction of DF will therefore prevail, and this
will be no longer neutral. If now DF be touched, it
may again be made neutral with refpedt to EN ; but
AB will again repel the fluid in CG, and being re¬
dundant on that fide will again become eleftric. AB
being touched again, lofes more fluid, and DF .be¬
comes ele£tric by deficiency. Thus by alternately
touching AB and DF, the redundancy in AB may be
exhaufled, and the deficiency in DF fupplied..
But the equilibrium that is gradual/y produced
may be effe&ed at once. If we fuppofe a (lender con¬
ducing canal a b d, brought very near the plates on
the outfide, fo that the end a is near to A, and ^ to D j
the firft effeC of the vicinity of a to A, will be to
caufe the fluid in a b \o recede a little from a, by rea-
fon of the repulfion of the redundant fluid in AB..
Thus, redundant matter will be left at «, and this will
flrongly attract redundant fluid from A, and a may
receive a fpark. Should the fluid approach ftill nearer
the furface at A, the correfponding part of DF will be
rendered more attraflive, and by the fluid retiring from
a along a b, fome of the natural fluid of this canal will
be pufhed towards d; this increafes the difpofition of
A to part with fluid, and of d to receive it, while a is
difpofed to give out and D to receive. Thus all con¬
tributes to favour the paflage of almoft the whole of the
redundant fluid in AB to rufh from AB, by A, along
a b d into DF.
It is alfo. clear that, without the canal a b d, there
is a ftrong tendency of the fluid in AB for the matter
in DF, and that, of courfe, thefe plates will ftrongly at-
tra£l each other.
The theorems we have now given refpe£Iing the dif¬
pofition of the eleflric fluid are the refult of mathema¬
tical reafoning, founded on the hypothetical nature of
the fluid, and its aflumed law of af another body be brought near it, this latter be-
eomes ekanfied by pofition.
I C I T Y. Part IV
We fliall illuftrate this propofitien by the following Theory (>f
Eleftricity
fimple experiment
Let there be provided three metallic conduaors,
each fupported on an infulating ftand, fuch as A,
C,. t t ...c_; CXCV
HI,
fig- 115.
%. 115- Set thefe in a row, with their extremities
touching each other, and at one end of the row, as at c,
place a ftand, to which is hung a ball eledirometer
with filk threads. On bringing an excited electric
near a, the oppofile end of the conductor, the pith ball
will approach the end c. Care, muft, however, be
taken not to bring the electric fo near a, as to make
the ball ftrike the oppofite extremity j as in that cafe
the experiment would come under our fecond propo-
fition. When the excited electric is removed, the ball
retires to its perpendicular fituation. The fame effect
wiH be produced if the electrometer be placed at
the fide of the conductor, inltead of its extremity,
clearly (hewing that it is affected by the conductor,
and not immediately by the excited electric.
I his is an inftance of induced electricity, and is esfily
explained on the principles mentioned in N° 344. The
approach of the excited electric to the end a of the
compound conductor, renders this end deficient, if the
electric be overcharged, or redundant if it be under¬
charged ; and the oppofite extremity is in the contrary
ftate, and hence attracts the ball of the electrometer.
Although the oppofite extremities of the conductor
are in oppofite ftates, the fluid is varioufly difpofed in
various parts of the conductor j as may be proved in
the following manner. While the excited electric re¬
mains near a, take awray the two extreme conductors,
A and C, or, if only two have been employed, take
away the remote one ; remove the excited electric, and
examine the parts of the conductor feparately. The
part A will be found entirely negative 5 if the electric
were overcharged, C will be entirely pofitive j and if
three pieces have been employed, the middle piece B
will be faintly pofitive. If the pieces be again united,
they will be found devoid of electricity. The fame ap¬
pearances will be more completely feen by forming a
conductor of a feries of metallic balls, fufpended by
filk threads, one of which will be found fcarcely elec¬
trical.
Prop. II.—‘-When an infulated body is brought very
near an eledtrifitd body, a fpark paffes between them,
and the infulated body becomes eleiffrified permanently
by communication, while the eleftricity of the ele&ri-
fied body is diminiflied.
In this cafe the eledlricity imparted is of the fame
kind as that of the eleftrified body, pofitive if this were
pofitive, and vice verfa. The propofition may be il-
luftrated by the fame apparatus of the condudlors and
eledrometers, and Icarcely requires an explanation.
When the eleftricity is in a fmall degree, the fpark
is either very fmall or fcarcely perceptible, but there is
no doubt, that it takes place'in all cafes. The fpark
is oufing to the fudden transference of a portion of the
fluid from the elearified body to the unelearified body.
Prop. III.—When an elearified body has com-Repulfion
municated part of its electricity to another body, tliisof bodies!
latter is repelled, unlefs it has communicated its acquir-1^
ed ftore to other bodies. *
The flying feather, the cork balls, and many other
experiments related in the firft chapter of Part III.
amply
400
401
fame
ftate*
40 i
404
(Lap. IT.
»ory of amply illuflrate Inis propofitlon, which expreffes one of
jlitricity. the molt general fads in eledricity.
. -v"' Before the electrified body has communicated part
of its electricity to the body prefented to it, this latter
is in its natural ftate 5 but after the communication,
both are either redundant or deficient, and confequent-
ly repel each other, as appears, from N° 323, 324.
From thefe general propofitions we may deduce the
following corollaries, an application of which will ferve
ftill further to illuflrate and explain the phenomena of
electric attraction and repulfion.
Cor. I.—The vivacity of the appearances produced
by a transference of fluid will be proportional to the
quantity of fluid transferred.
Cor. 2.——The phenomena of communicated electri¬
city will be more remarkable, the greater the conduct-
ing power of the bodies to which it is communicated.
It will have appeared from numerous experiments re¬
lated in Part III. efpecially that of the dancing balls in
N° 94. that an imperfect conductor, fuch as glafs, permits
the communication of electricity only in the point pre
fented to an electrified body ; whereas when electricity
is communicated to one, point of a tolerably perfect con¬
ductor, fuch as the prime conductor of a machine, the
whole conduftor is inltantly pervaded, and becomes
electrical in every part.
Cor. 3.—When an eleCtrified body has a free com¬
munication with a perfeft conductor, its deCtricity can¬
not apparently be communicated to a body touched
by it.
For the mafsof the earth, with which the body com¬
municates, bears fo great a proportion to the body it-
felf, that when the eleCtricity of the latter is communi¬
cated to the former, it becomes imperceptible in both.
Cor. 4.—When an uneleCVrified body is prefented
to an eleCtrified body, the former is firft attraded,
comes in contaCt with the eleCtrified body, and is then
repelled.
This corollary has been illuftrated by numerous ex¬
periments \ we may inftance the dancing figures, &c.
and the appearances are eafily explained. The unelec¬
trified body becomes eleCtrical by induction $ in con-
fequence of this, it is attracted to the eleCtrified body,
from which it receives a fpark, becomes eleCtrified by
communication, and being now in the fame Itate with
the eleCtrified body, is repelled by it.
It will probably have been obferved, in making the
experiment of prefenting a feather, or a pith ball, fuf-
pended by a firing, to the prime conductor, that they
cling to the conductor, and are not repelled for fome
time. The reafon of this is, that thefe bodies are im¬
perfect conductors, efpecially when very dry, and hence
their influence is not eafily pervaded by the fluid j when
this becomes equally diffufed, they are repelled. The
lame circumftance explains why the balls of the com¬
mon electrometer fometimes adhere together, and then
feparate with a jerk.
Cor. 5.—Electrical attraction and repulfion are not
prevented by the interpofition of unelectrified non-con¬
ducting fubftances.
A thin plate of glafs may be interpofed between the
conductor and the pith-ball in the experiment of N°
399. and ftill, though the plate be very extenfive, the
electrometer will be affected.
Nay, an infulated electrified body may be covered
ELECTRIC! T Y.
67
405
4 off
with a glafs bell, and it will yet attract a ball prefent- Theory of
ed to it. Eiedlricity,
As this Angle circumflance affords one of the beft
arguments againft the hypothefis of material electric pjyp0thef15
atmofpheres, which has been maintained, and is ftillot eieftric
maintained, by fome of our moft eminent electricians; atmo-
we fhall take this opportunity of giving a brief account !t:^eres“
of this hypothelis, and ftating the rtafons which induce
us to reject it.
It has been fuppofed, that the electric fluid is collec¬
ted around the furface of an electrified body, forming
a kind of atmofphere j and that on thefe atmofpheres
depended the action of thefe electrified bodies. If the
reader will examine the plates of Lord Stanhope’s Prin¬
ciples of EleBricity, he will fee the figures of conduc¬
tors furrounded with a fliining margin, like the line of
coafts and iflands in a map.
This idea of electric atmofpheres was firft held at a
very early period of the fcience by Otto Guericke, and
afterwards by the academicians del Cimento, who con¬
trived to render the electric atmofphere vifible, by means
of fmoke attracted by, and uniting itfelf to a piece of am¬
ber, and gently rifing from it, and vaniftiing as the am¬
ber cooled. But Dr Franklin exhibited this electric
atmofphere with great advantage, by dropping rofin
on hot iron plates held under bodies electrified, from
which the fmoke rofe and encompaffed the bodies, giv¬
ing them a very beautiful appearance. He made other
obfervations on thofe atmofpheres : he took notice that
they and the air did not feem to exclude one another j
that they were immoveably retained by the bodies from
which they iffued ; and that the fame body, in different
circumftances of dilatation and contraction, is capable of
receiving and retaining more or lefs of the electric fluid
on its furface. However, the theory of electrical at¬
mofpheres was not fufficiently explained and underftood
for a confiderable time j and the inveftigation led to
many very curious experiments and obfervations. Mr
Canton took the lead, and was followed by Dr Frank¬
lin. Meffrs Wilcke and yEpinus profeeuted the in¬
quiry, and completed the difcovery. The experiments
of the two former gentlemen prepared the way for the
conclufion that was afterwards drawn from them by the
latter, though they retained the common opinion of
electric atmofpheres, and endeavoured to explain the
phenomena by it. The conclufion was, that the electric
fluid, when there is a redundancy of it in any body, re¬
pels the electric fluid in any other body, when they are
brought within the fphere of each others influence, and
drives it into the remote parts of the body, or quite out
of it, if there be any outlet for that purpofe.
By atmofphere, M. TEpinus fays, no more is to be un¬
derftood than the fphere of action belonging to any bo¬
dy, or the neighbouring air electrified by it. Sig. Bec-
caria concurs in the fame opinion, that the electrified
bodies have no other atmofphere than the electricity
communicated to the neighbouring air, and not with
the electrified bodies. And Mr Canton likewife, hav¬
ing relinquifhed the opinion that electrical atmofpheres
were compofed of effluvia from excited or electrified bo¬
dies, maintained that they only refult from an alteration
in the ftate of the electric fluid contained in, or belong¬
ing to the air funounding thefe bodies to a certain dif-
tance j for inftance, that excited glafs repels the elec¬
tric fluid from it, and confequently beyond that diftance
makes
7!o8
elect
Theory of makes it rtlore denfe j wbsreas excited wax attrafts tbe
.Electricity, electric fluid exitting in the air nearer to it, making it
v rarer than it was before.
Among the fupporters of this doftrine is Dr Peart of
Gainfborough, who has diftinguilhed himfeif as a zeal¬
ous opponent of the chemical theory of Lavoifier, the
fallacy of which he has, in his own opinion, fully de-
monifrated. But Dr Peart’s atmofpheres are not thofe
of mod electricians ; they confift of chemical elements,
of ether and phlogijion, by the union and reciprocal
action of which all the phenomena of electricity are
cfFeCted. We are afraid of doing more than dating this
Spading principle of Dr Peart’s hypotheds, led we
fhould fliare the fate of Mr Read, with whom the Doc¬
tor is very angry for only partially agreeing with
him.
We mud therefore refer fuch df our readers, as with
for more fatisfa6tion on this head to the Doctor’s pam¬
phlets on eleStricitij and magnetifm, and on elcciric at-
^oS mofpheres.
-Refuted. It is perhaps a diffident refutation df this doCtrine
of material atmofpheres, that eleCtric attraction and
repuldon may take place, where thefe atmofpheres can¬
not, according to the general opinion, be formed. Thus,
in the indance given above, it is fcarcely conceivable,
that the excited electric oh one fide of the glafs pane,
or bell, (hould fo fpeedily extend its atmofphere to the
other fide of the pane, or, in the’cafe of -the bell, that
it diould extend it at all, fo as indatitafieoUlly to aflVCt
ah eleClrometer prefented to the other fide. Nay, it is
well known, that an ele&rified body will affeCt a con¬
ducting wire, fo as to render it pofitive at one end, and
negative at the other, though the wire be completely
enveloped in fealing-wax, or fome other eleCtric fub-
dance. It therefore becomes a quedion, how, if the
jnterpofed body be impermeable to the eleCtric fluid,
(and we fee no reafon to thiiik that glafs and other per-
feCt eleCtrics are not fo), the eleCtric atmofphere can
be produced ? The one atmofphere can, in this indance,
produce the other only by aCting at a didance on the
particles of which this latter is to be formed. Even
fuppofing that the one atmofphere could produce the
other in this way, we ffiould gain nothing by the fup-
pofition. It only fupprtfes innumerable attractions and
repulfions in place of one.
Dr Franklin whirled an eleCtrified ball, fufpended
by a filk thread, many times about his head with great
rapidity, and found that its eleCtricity was not fenfibly
diminifhed by the motion. Now it is fcarcely conceiv¬
able, that the eleCtric atmofphere could remain attach¬
ed to the ball under thefe circumdances, or that it could
be fo indantaneoudy formed, or renewed in every point
of its revolution, as to be capable of aCting the moment
the motions Were ended •, for the eleCtricity of the ball
mud in this way have been greatly leffened, or nearly
exhauded j whereas Dr Franklin found that, when the
air was very dry, the eleCtricity of th& revolving ball
was, when the ball was dopped, not lefs than that of a
fimilar ball that had remained for the fame time in u
date of red.
Fermeabili- We have faid that we fee no reafon to think, that
ty of glafs glafs is permeable to the electric fluid. We are aware,
fuppofed by permeability is fupported by fome electricians,
*?me' and that experiments have been related in proof of their
opinion. Among the mod plaufible of thefe, are the
It I C I T Y. Part IV
experiments of Mr Lyons of Dover, tvhicn may all be T,
reduced to the following. A wire is brought from the
outfide of a phial charged by the knob, and terminates
iri a fharp point at a Itnali didance from a thin glafs
plate it is commonly introduced into a glals tube, ha¬
ving a ball at the end, and the point of the wire reaches
to the centre of the ball ; and another wire is connect¬
ed w'ith the difeharging rod, and alfo comes very near,
and frequently clofe to the other end of the glafs, oppo-
fite to the pointed wire. With this apparatus he ob¬
tains a difeharge, and therefore fays that the glafs is
permeable to the electric fluid.
Dr Robifon repeated mod of Mr Lyons’s experi¬
ments, and found that, in the above way, he did indeed
procure difeharges, but that thefe were very incomplete,
and very unlike the full and audible difeharge ufual-
]y obtained j they were always very faint, except when
the glafs was perforated. ^rs
To terminate this long digreffion, it mud be remark-Electrics
cd, that the impermeability of electrics fuppofed in our onb'Ip lu-
theory, fliews that the redundancy or deficiency indu- Per®cia^,l
ced in an overcharged or undercharged electric, does
not extend beyond the furface; for, when the furface is
rendered electrical by excitation in any way, the im¬
permeability of the body prevents the redundant fluid
from penetrating to any depth, or from expanding to
fiipply the deficiency on the furface. Hence we find,
that an excited electric, when plunged into water,
quickly lofes its electricity by communication with this
conducting medium.
We mull now return to our corollaries, of which we
fliall deduce one more.
Cor. 6.— As non-electrics are conductors, and as |
fome electrics are excited by rubbing them with non-fate(l elec,
electrics, it will follow, that if the non-electrics be in-tricity. |
dilated and feparated from the electric, the former will
fliow figns of electricity as well as the latter, but that,
while they remain together, no figns of electricity can
be exhibited by eithen
This corollary may be illudrated by numerous facts
that have been related in the preceding parts of this ar¬
ticle.
The ffieets of paper in N° 19. fliowed no figns of
electricity while in contact with the table ; the fulphur
in the experiments of Wilcke and Aipinus, was not
electrical while within the metallic cups, &c.
When cafes of-this kind occur, in which two bodies,
that would, when feparated after mutual contact, fliow
flgns of oppofite electricities, are, when united, faid to
cbmpenfate each other, the circumdance is eafily ex¬
plained.
Ln whatever way excitation is produced by friction
or other means, which we do not pretend to explain, it
mud happen that the adjoining furfaces of two bodies
rubbed together, mud be in oppofite dates, and the
one overcharged in the fame degree as the other is un¬
dercharged. When the bodies, which we fliall fuppofe
to be two plates, are joined, fo that the one exactly co¬
vers the other, they mud be inactive ■, becaufe a par¬
ticle of moveable fluid in any part of one furface of the
overcharged plate, will be as much attracted by the un¬
dercharged fiurface of the farther plate, as it is repelled
by the overcharged furface of the nearer plate. As the
furfaces are fuppofed equal, coincident, and equally
electrical^ their actions mud balance each other. The
action
:hap. If. ELECTRICITY.
0f aftlon of the united bodies will be expreffed by FW X
eSty. (*--*') or F'"1' '> beIng here =ro.
769
4U
edtrical
ell ex-
ained.
4T3
eftrified
n and
But now again, if the plates be feparated, a confider-
able part of the redundant fluid will fly back from the
one furface to the other, being impelled thither by the
repulfion of its own particles, and drawn by the attrac¬
tion of the redundant matter in the other lurface. But,
as the electric is a non-condu6tor, it will retain a por¬
tion of fluid, or will remain deprived of a portion, in a
ftratum a little way within the furface, the two plates
tnuft, after feparation, be in oppofite ftates, and the non-
ele&ric plate, if it has been infulated before reparation*
will, after feparation, appear eleftrified.
We (hall clofe our confideration of eleflrical attrac¬
tion and repulfion, by explaining two very beautiful
experiments of Dr Franklin •, one of which, the elec¬
trical well, has been defcribed in N° 79. 5 the other
(hall be defcribed prefently.
It appears from Mr Cavendifli’s account of the dif-
pofition of fluid in a fphere, given in N° 372. that
when the fphere is overcharged, all the redundant fluid
is crowded into the furface, leaving the internal parts
in a neutral (fate. Now the veflel that reprefents the
ele&rical well is exactly in this condition-, the electro¬
meter, therefore, when let down within the cavity of
the veflel, cannot be affcCted, becaufe all that fpace is
neutral j but when the balls are raifed above the
brim of the veflel, they are affeCted, becaufe they
come within the fphere of adtion of the redundant fur¬
face.
The other experiment to which we allude, is that of
the ele&rified can and chain, which is thus made.
Infulate a metallic can, or any other concave piece
of metal, and place within it a pretty long metallic
chain, having a filk thread tied to one of its ends. At
the handle of the can, or to a wire proceeding from it,
fufpend a cork-ball eleftrometer j then eledrity the can,
by giving it a fpark with the knob of a charged phial,
and the balls of theeleclrometer willimmediatelydiverge.
If, in this fituation, one end of the chain be gradually
raifed up above the top of the can, by the filk thread,
while the lower end of the chain remains in it, the balls
of the eleClrometer will converge a little, and more or
lefs in proportion to the greater or lefs elevation of the
chain above the top of the vefiel. A fimilar experi¬
ment was made by Mr Ronayne, w'hich is as fol¬
lows :—He excited a long (lip of white flannel, or a filk
ribband, by rubbing it with his fingers *, then, by ap¬
plying his hand to it, took off as many fparks as the
excited ele£lric would give -, but when the flannel, &c.
had loft the power of giving any more fparks in this
manner, he doubled, or rolled it upj by which operation
the contrafted flannel, 8tc. appeared fo ftrongly elec¬
trical, that it not only afforded fparks to the hand,
brought near, but it threw out fpontaneous brufties of
light, which appeared very beautiful in the dark.
To explain this experiment, we muft have recourfe
to an inference, that is eafily deducible from the fame
theorem of Mr Cavendifti: namely, that in overcharged
bodies of all (hapes, the redundant fluid will be much
more denfe near the furface than in the more internal
parts; and that it will be alfo denfer in all elevated or
protuberant parts of thefe bodies, as alfo near the ex¬
tremity of oblong bodies; and in general, that the re¬
dundant fluid, or redundant matter, will bear a much
Vol. VII. Part II.
nearer proportion to the furfaces of bodies, than to their Theory of
quantities of matter. Flence we may perceive, that Eie&ridty.
when the chain, in the above experiment, is lifted up, " v J
it will attract to itfelf a part of the denier fluid, leav¬
ing that of the furface of the veflel, to which the elec¬
trometer is attached, more rare ; and confequently, the
divergence of the balls will decreafe, in proportion
as the chain is more elevated above the rim of the cup.
Mr Honayne’s experiment admits of a fimilar explana¬
tion. 414
The well known effects of points, in caufing a quick A., and all the deficient in Ed and Eyfaturated; then as the eleCtric repul-
fion is inverfely as the fquare of the diftance, a particle
of fluid placed anywhere in the plane bd, except near
the extremities b and d, will be E(ttraCIed with very
near as much force by the redundant matter in e
are eleCtrified L.
■The air e
The theory of coated glafs naturally leads us to that Tjie'|)ry 0f
of the electrophorus ; for though this apparatus is not the eleCtro-
exactly fimilar to a charged plate, as has been fuppo-phorus.
fed by fome ; there is yet a confiderable refemblance
in the phenomena.
We have given a defcription of the electrophorus,
and of its effects, in Chap. X. of Part III. where we al-
fo ftated, that, for illuftrating the theory, it was proper
774 ELECT
Theory of to make the feveral parts of the apparatus of confidera-
Eie&ricity. ble thicknefs, as the more inftrufHve but minute changes
' v “ are thus greatly increafed, though the fliovvy and bril-
Fig. 121. liant phenomena are not fo remarkable. Fig. 121. re-
prefents a fedfion of the three parts of the apparatus in
contaft, where ABCD is the ele£tric cake, CDEF the
foie, and ABHG the cover. They are here reprefent-
ed lying horizontally on each other; but for experi¬
ment, it will be moft convenient to have them fixed
vertically to glafs fupporters, furnilhed with leaden feet
to keep them fleady.
We might here give a mathematical explanation of
the phenomena of the eleclrophorus $ and the aftions of
every part of the apparatus might eafily be ftated by
means of the propofitions in N° 308 to 314, and the
correfponding ones in N° 228—335, taking into con-
fideration the true law of a£Hon. But as this would
be going over again much of the ground that we have
already trodden, where our readers might not be pleaf-
ed with being obliged to follow us, we (hall treat the
fubjeft in a manner fomewhat more popular, the refult,
however, of ftrift mathematical reafoning.
Difpofnion Having related the general phenomena in N° 207,
of fluid in we have now to confider only the difpofition of fluid in
the ele«ftro-the various parts of the apparatus in various fituations,
and the mutual forces that operate between them.
We {hall confider the inftrument under various fiates,
I. When the cake is left to cool after being made, it
becomes negative by cooling ; and if it were by itfelf,
the furface on both fides would be negative to a confi-
derable thicknefs near the edges ; and the fluid would
probably grow denfer by degrees towards the middle,
where it would have its natural denfity. This difpofi¬
tion may be inferred from N° 371, 372. But as it cools
in conjun&ion with the foie, the attra&ion of the re¬
dundant matter in the cake for the moveable fluid in
the foie, muft diflurb its uniform diffufion in the foie, and
caufe it to approach the cake. And as this probably
happens while the cake is ftill in a conducing ftate,
the difpofition of its fluid will be different from what is
defcribed above, and the final difpofition of the fluid in
the cake and foie will referable that given in N0 371.
where the plates may reprefent the cake and foie. It
will be fufficient at prefent to confider the cake and
foie as divided into only two ftrata j one containing re¬
dundant fluid, and the other deficient, neglecting the
neutral ftratum interpofed between them in each. The
cake then confifts of a ftratum AB ba A, containing
redundant matter, and a ftratum a b CD containing re¬
dundant fluid ; and the foie of a ftratum DC n m con¬
taining redundant fluid ; that is, all that belongs natu¬
rally to the fpace DC FE, and of a ftratum tn n FE,
containing redundant matter. We may call this the
primitiveJiate of the cake and foie j and if this is once
changed by communication with uneleCtrified bodies, it
can never be recovered without new excitation.
426 2. If the foie is touched by a body that communi-
3. Common cates with the ground, fluid will enter it, till the repul-
fion of the redundant fluid in the foie for a fuperficial
particle is equal to the attraClion of the redundant
matter in the cake for the fame particle. What we
have faid concerning infinitely extended plates rendered
neutral on one fide, may fuffice to give a notion of the
prefent difpofition of the fluid in the foie. The infe-
3
4*5
1. Its pri¬
mitive
ftate.
4*7
R I C I T Y. part ly
rior furface will be neutral; and the denfity of the fluid T{,
will increafe towards the furface DC. The foie con- Elfc&r?cjf
tains more than its natural quantity of fluid, but is neu-v—^
tral by the balance of oppofite forces. Let it now be
infulated. This may be called the common Jlate of the
ele&rophorus.
3. Place the cover GHBA on the cake. A particle
Z, at the upper furface of the cover, muft be more at¬
tracted by the redundant matter in the ftratum AB b a
than it will be repelled by the redundant fluid in the
remoter ftrata ; for the fluid in the cake is lefs than
when it is in its natural ftate, and therefore Z is at¬
tracted by the cake. The redundant fluid which has
entered the remote fide of the foie is lefs than what
would be fufficient to faturate the redundant matter of
the cake, becaufe it only balances the excefs of the re¬
mote aCtion of this matter above the nearer aCtion of
the compreffed fluid in the foie, and this fmaller quan¬
tity of redundant fluid aCts on Z at a greater diftance
than that of the redundant matter in the cake. There¬
fore the particle Z, lying immediately within the fur¬
face GH, is on the whole attraCled j fome fluid will
move towards the cake, and its natural ftate of uniform
diffufion in the cover will be changed into a violent
ftate, in which the fluid will be compreffed on the fur¬
face AB, and abflraCled from the furface GH. There
will now be a ftratum GgpYi, containing redundant
matter, and another g p BA containing redundant
fluid. But this difpofition will difturb the arrangement
that had taken place in the foie, and had rendered it
neutral on the inferior furface. The particle Z fituated
in that furface, will be more repelled by the compreffed
fluid in the ftratum g p C A then it will be attraCled by
the equivalent more remote redundant matter in GH
pg. Fluid is now therefore difpofed to quit the fur¬
face EF, and the foie will appear pofitively eleClric, but
in a fmall degree only, if the cover be thin. All this
may be obferved by attaching a fmall ball eleClrometer
to the lower furface of the foie, or touching the foie
with it, and then trying its eleClricity by excited glafs,
or fealing-wax.
4. A particle of fluid Z, placed immediately with¬
out the furface GH, is more attracted by the deficient
ftratum GH^ q and by AB b 0, than it is repelled by
the redundant ftrata beyond them, and hence the cover
muft be fenfibly negative. This is the common ftate
of the whole apparatus after fetting on the cover.
1 he lower furface of the foie is {lightly pofitive, and
the upper furface of the cover more fenfibly negative.
A fmart fpark will be feen between the apparatus and
the finger, and fluid will enter till the attraction of
the redundant matter in AB b a balances the repulfion
of the redundant fluid in DC FE.
5* A fpark may now be obtained from the foie; for Its neuUl
it was faintly pofitive before, and there is now the ad-Rate,
ditional action of the fluid that has entered into the
cover. Part of the fluid in the foie is therefore difpo¬
fed to fly to any body that is prefented to it. But when
this transference has taken place, the equilibrium at the
furface GH is deftroyed, and this furface again becomes
negative, and will attract fluid, although the cover con¬
tains already more than its natural quantity. A fmall
fpark will therefore be feen between the cover and any
conducting body prefented to it. By touching it, the
neutrality
42S
43®
ite.
hap. II. ELECT
Atmo- neutrality or equilibrium may be reftored at GH ; but
pherical it will be deftroyed again at EF, from which a pofitive
e&ncity. fpark may be obtained, leaving GH negative in its
turn. This would go on for ever, in a feries of com¬
munications continually diminilhing fo as at lad to be¬
come infenfible, if the three parts of the eleftrophorus
be thin. This (hows the neceflity of making them
otherwife, if the inftrument be intended for illuftrating
the theory.
The equilibrium is at length completed at the fur-
faces GH and EF, both of which are neutral with re-
fpe£t to furrounding bodies, although both the cover
and foie contain more than their natural (hare of elec¬
tric fluid. This date of the apparatus may be called
its neutralJlate ; and it may be produced at once, in¬
dead of doing it by thefe alternate touches of GH and
i charged EF. If we touch at once both thefe furfaces, we (hall
have a bright, pungent fpark, and a fmall fliock. If
this be the objeft of the experiment, the date N° 428.
which gives occafion to it may be called the charged
/late of the ele&rophorus.
When the apparatus has been thus rendered neutral
with refpeft to furrounding bodies, it may continue in
this date for any length of time, without its capability
of producing the other phenomena being diminifhed,
provided that no fluid pafs from the cover to the
cake.
6. Now, if the cover be removed to a didance, both
parts of the apparatus will exhibit drong marks of elec¬
tricity. For the cover contains much redundant fluid,
and mud therefore appear drongly pofitive*, it will give
a brilk fpark, which may be employed for any purpofe,
particularly for charging a jar pofitively by the knob,
if we jud touch the cover with the knob. Again, the
foie will attraft fluid, or it will be negative, though it
contains more than its natural quantity of fluid j it will
therefore take a fpark. The foie, therefore, in the ab-
fence of the cover, may be employed to charge a jar
negatively by the knob. By being touched with the
finger, or with the knob of a jar held in the hand, it
will be reduced to the common date defcribed in
N° 426. *, and now all the former experiment may be
repeated. We may call this the aBive or the charging
Jlate of the ele&rophorus.
7. If the ele&rophorus be not infulated, a Ihock may,
however, be obtained, by touching fird the foie, and
then the cover, without taking off the finger ; but will
not be fo fmart as when the negative cover is touched
43i
s charg-
g ft ate.
43*
R I C I T Y. 775
at the fame time with the foie. The difference will, Atmo-
however, be fcarcely perceptible when the pieces are fpherkal
thin. Eledlricity,
8. If the apparatus has not been infulated, the cover ' v
when put on will afford a fpark, in the manner already
mentioned, and this will be rather drojiger than when
it is infulated j for the fluid being allowed to efcape
from the foie, does not obdru£l the entry of fluid into
the cover. If then, without removing the finger from
the cover, we touch the foie, we feel nothing ; but if
we fird touch the foie, and then, without removing the
finger from it, touch the cover, we (hall obtain a fliock.
By this feries of alternate touches, the period of the
ele£trophorus is completed. For it is fird charged or
rendered neutral, by touching the plates in contaft j
then, by touching both when feparate, the whole is re¬
duced to the common date. When after having been
in the neutralJlate they are feparated, they have oppo-
fite eledtricities, the foie having that of the cake. When
brought together, each in the common fate, they have
oppofite eledlricities, the cover having that of the
cake. . ^4
9. By being long expofed to the air without the Method of
cover, the eledlrophorus gradually lofes its adlivity. renewing
This may however be again redored in feveral ways. ^ts a r • r
<——y-— Sect. II. Of the Phenomena and F.jjeEts of Light
* Priejlley's ning.
Hifl- part v,
fedt. I.
445
Pro^iefs
of a thun¬
der-It orm.
* Becarria rain
Lett, del
Elettncif-
tno.
44fi
Form of
the liafli.
Hie circutndances to be noticed as attending a thun-
der-ftorm, chiefly refpeft the form and colour of the
lightning, the found of the thunder, and the devafta-
tions produced when an explofion takes place between
a cloud and forae imperfe£tly conducing body on the
furface of the earth.
The form of the flafh is various, but in ordinary
lightning it is generally angular, or %ig-ttag ; this zig¬
zag is fometimes larger than at others, and in fome in-
ftances the flafti is divided into feveral diftindl currents.
Thefe diverfities might be expected from the heteroge¬
neous nature, and various conducing power, of the fe¬
veral fubftances which float in our atmofphere. As
thefe fubftances are placed in no certain order, the elec¬
tric fpark, in pafling through the air, and ftriking fuc-
ceflividy from one of thefe bodies to another, as fo
many ftepping ftones irregularly placed, can feldom
obferve the fame track, and hence its zig-zag appear¬
ance.
R
A thunder-ftorm commonly commences in the fol¬
lowing manner. At firfl: a low denfe cloud begins to
form in a part of the atmofphere which was previoufly
clear ; this cloud increafes fall, but only from its upper
part, and fpreads into an arched form, appearing like
a large heap of cotton wool. Its lower furface is ge¬
nerally level, as if it refted on a fmooth plane. The
wind is all this time very gentle, and frequently it is
imperceptible.
Numberlefs fmall ragged clouds, like teazled flakes
of cotton, foon begin to make their appearance, moving
about in various dire&ions, and perpetually changing
their irregular furface, appearing to increafe by gradual
accumulation. As they move about, they approach
each other, and appear to ftretch out their ragged arms
towards each other ; they do not often come in contact,
but after approaching very near each other, they evi¬
dently recede, either in whole, or by bending away their
ragged arms.
While this irregular motion continues, the whole
mafs of fmall clouds gradually approaches towards the
large cloud which fir ft appeared, and with which they
finally coalefce ; frequently, however, uniting with
each other into larger mafles, before the general coalef-
cence takes place. The upper cloud often increafes
by acceffion of frelh vapour, without any afliftance from
the fmaller maffes. When this happens, its lower fur¬
face, which was before level and regular, becomes rag¬
ged, and ftretches out its irregular tatters towards each
other, and towards the earth. The clouds now thick¬
en faft, moving about fwiftly in all diredlions, and
fiafhes of lightning are feen to dart from one cloud ta
another; the wind now rifes or increafes, generally
blowing in fqualls. The lightning becomes more fre¬
quent, ftriking between the clouds and the earth, often
in two places at once ; flafltes of various ftiapes and
various brilliancy are produced, and frequently a vaft
expanfe of horizon appears in one blaze of light. The
thunder is now heard to roar at a diftance, gradually
approaching nearer, and foon fucceeded by heavy
I c I T Y. Part V.
Sometimes the flalh appears as one denfe ball of Atmo
fire, efpecially when it ftrikes from a cloud to any part fpherjcai
of a building, when it is generally defcribed as a globe Ele&ricity,
of fire falling on the building.
The colours of the flafti are alfo various ; pale ftraw Colours of
colour, vivid yellow, and various ftiades of blue, are the the flafh.
moft prevailing tints. Thefe various colours probably
depend on the different denfity of the air through which
the light has paffed, or perhaps, on its different nature.
We found, when relating the experiments of Mr Mor¬
gan on the appearance of the eleftric light in rarefi¬
ed air, that its colour varied with the degree ef rarity
produced in the exhaufted receiver; and from the
experiments on pafling the eledtric fpark through vari¬
ous gafes, we found that the colour of the light varied
confiderably with the nature of the gas through which
it paffed. _ ^
Lightning very often appears without being fucceed- Clap of
ed by thunder, but we believe there is fcarcely an in-t^un^er d-
ftance where the latter is not preceded by the former
xve hy,fcarce/y an inflance, for w e have on record in fla(h 0f
the 77th volume of the Philofophical Tranfadlions, an lightning,
account of a thunder-ftorm that happened on the banks
of the Tweed in 1785, in which an explofion took
place that killed a man and two horfes, but was not
preceded by any flafti. The refpedtable recorder of
this account, Mr Brydone, was not himfelf a witnefs of
this accident^ but could not learn from the perfons
whom he interrogated, (two Scotch peafants), who had
feen the accident, that there was any preceding flafti of
lightning. In fuch Angular circumftances,. and with
fuch doubtful authority, we ftiould be fuppofed to fuf-
pend our belief, and, until fome fimilar inftance better
authenticated ftiall occur, to take it for granted, that
a clap of thunder is always preceded by a flafti of light-
ning* r . . 44!)
The found which attends the explofion of the light-Sound of
ning, varies according to the diftanee from which it istheexplo*
heard, and the nature of the country where the ftorm^1011,
takes place. At a little diftance, it is generally a
hoarfe grumbling noife, which appears to extend through
a confidtrable part of the atmofphere, and gradually
dies away. If it be heard very near, the crafh is in-
ftantaneous, and exafHy fimilar to the explofion of a
cannon, when we are very near it at the time of its be¬
ing fired.
When the explofion begins very near, the fnap be¬
gins with great fmartnefs, and for fome time refembles
the violent tearing of a piece of ftrong filk ; but it be¬
comes more mellow as it proceeds to a greater dif¬
tance.
If the country where the ftorm happens be high and
irregular, where there are numerous objedts capable of
reverberating the found, the explofion confifts of a long
and broken fucceffion of claps, the loudnefs of which
varies more according to the nature and circumftances
of the reverberating objects, than according to the
length of time which intervenes between the claps. In
a level and low country, where there is no diverfity of
reverberating objedls, and particularly at fea, the feries
of explofions is regular, and their loudnefs decreafes as
the length of time increafes.
The explofion of thunder differs from the fnap pro¬
duced by the eledlric fpaik, or even the explofion of a
jar or a battery, not only in its degree of loudnefs, but
, in
mm
hap.
45° „
Isthod of
afuring
: diftar.ee
f the ex-
fion.
451 .
inner in
i ith the
)lofion
;es
I. ELECT
^tmo. in its nature j it is a long-continued, rumbling, une-
herical quable noife. The long-continued roar of thunder, is
■dlricity. certainly owing to the commencement and termination
0f the explofion reaching our ears at different periods
of time j and the unequally loud rumbling noife is ow¬
ing to the different parts of the explofion ftriking the
ear in a different manner.
It will not be improper here to mention the method
by which the diffance of a thunder-ftroke may be afeer-
tained. By obferving the flafh, and counting, by means
of a watch with a fecond hand, the number of feconds
which elapfe between the appearance of the flafh and
the commencement of the roar, this may be eafily ef-
fefied ; for we know that found travels at the rate of
186,768 feet in a minute : by reducing the time obfer-
ved between the flafh and the report, into feconds, and
allowing for each its proper number of feet, we obtain,
with fuffieient accuracy, the diftance of the ftroke from
the place of obfervation.
To underftand the manner in which the explofion of
thunder is produced, we mufl. obferve, that the air of
11°nr the atmofphere is often arranged in ftrata, and thefe
^ ~ flrata are bounded by clouds. That the clouds are flra-
tified, is very evident. From various caufes, to be ex¬
plained hereafter, thefe flrata, or the oppofite furfaces
of a particular flratum, are pofleffed of oppofite flates of
ele&ricity, or the flratum becomes charged as the plate
of air between the two coated boards, deferibed in N°
235. Numberlefs experiments have proved, that du¬
ring a thunder-ftorm, there is a contemporaneous accu¬
mulation and deficiency of the electric fluid, or that
there are two parts in the atmofphere, that are in the
oppofite flates of pofitive and negative eleflricity. Hence
we may eafily conceive the nature of the explofion *, for
when the accumulation and deficiency, on the oppofite
furfaces of the flratum of air, have attained a certain
height, a difeharge mufl take place, fimilar to the fpon-
taneous difeharge of a Leyden phial.
The explofion commonly takes place in the heavens,
fined to an(i is merely the refloration of the equilibrium between
heaven?.0pp0gte cjoucjg. ^ut jn fome inflances, the explofion
happens between the clouds and the earth. In this lat¬
ter cafe, it is believed by fome ele£lricians, that the
earth is in the negative flate *, but Mr G. Morgan is of
opinion, that the deficiency is never in the earth, but
in fome other cloud to which an eafier pafiage is found
through fo good a condudlor as the wet earth, than
through the air, which is an imperfect conduftor. Mr
Morgan brings a great many arguments in fupport of
his opinion, but for thefe we mufl refer to his leflures.
It is of little confequence to our prefent purpofe,
whether the deficiency is in the earth or in fome adja¬
cent cloud ^ it is fufficient to know, that lightning
fometimes flrikes from the cloud to the earth, or from
the earth to the clouds. When this happens, and when
the accumulated fluid comes in contadl with any body
that is an imperfeft condu6lor, fuch as trees, buildings,
&c. it produces thofe devaflations which are fometimes
the attendants of fevere thunder-florms } thefe, there-
453 fore, we are now to confider.
edt» pro- Lightning, when it flrikes a building, for the mofl
htnin^ part attacks the highefl parts of it, as the chimneys, or
abuiid- fptres5 efpecially if thefe are furmounted by any metal-
lie work, which is always the cafe with fpires of
churches, and not unfrequently on chimney-tops, where
R I C I T Y.
779
452
nerally
iron machines have been placed to prevent fmoking. Atmo-
In mofl of the cafes which have been recorded of fpherical
houfes being damaged by lightning, it has entered by k'crtr)cit}\
the chimney, down which it feems to be conducted by
the fmoke and foot. Having entered the houle, it com¬
monly proceeds to the beft and nearefl conductors in its
paffage, particularly bell-wires, gilt cornices, frames of
pictures, and other gilded furniture j thefe it common¬
ly deflroys, fufing, and very often oxidating, the metal
as it paffes along. Some very remarkable inflances are
related of the power of lightning in fufing metals j we
have heard of the fufion of bells, of large chains, and
of iron conduCting-rods near an inch in diameter ; but
the authority on which thefe fads are related does not
feem worthy of our implicit confidence. There are in-
itances, however, fufficiently credible, where the point¬
ed end of a conduClor has been rounded, parts of leaden
fpouts melted, and the edge and point of a knife com¬
pletely fufed. But in general the bell wires of a houfe
fuffer the mofl j thefe are always fhortened and very
commonly melted in fome parts : while in others, they
are entirely diflipated in oxide, marks of which are very
commonly vifible on the walls.
It has been difputed, whether the fufion of metals by
lightning be fuch a chemical fufion as is occafioned by
fire, or what is called a co/d fvjlon. Dr Franklin was Fufion of
of the latter opinion ; the principal arguments for which nietals by
are, that money has been melted in a perfon’s pocket,
and a fword within its fcabbard, without the pocket orfuf1(,n.
the fcabbard being defiroyed. We confefs- ourfelves at
a lofs to conceive what is meant by a coldfujion, as we
have no idea of a metallic body being fufed at all, i. e.
reduced into thofe globular forms which metals that have
been fubjefledto the a6lion of lightning and eleflricity
ufually aflume, but by the power of a degree of heat,
which would, when applied to bodies fufficiently inflam¬
mable, fet thefe on fire. 455
That the explofion of lightning frequently does thisjl'igbtninj
" ' ' _ . - _ fets fire to
is fufficiently certain
a building’s being flruck by lightning, inflammation
In the ordinary cafes, indeed, nf.'e^
J infia Da¬
does not enfue, becaufe the parts of the building through bodies,
which the fluid pafles, are either in their nature very
little inflammable, or are fohard and denfe in their tex¬
ture, that they are not eafily inflamed. But when the
building attacked contains matters of a very combufli-
ble nature, fuch as hay, ftraw, and more efpecially
gun powder, a fire is very commonly the conieqnence;
and accordingly, we every now and then hear of inflances
of flables being burned, and powder magazines blown
up by lightning. ^ ^ _ 4s5
When the lightning in its courfe meets with any ob-Tears fuch
flruflion, as in pafling through a body which is an im-bodies as
perfect condu^or, it overcomes this obllrudlon by for-re^^ *ts
cing a paflage through the refifling body: hence we veryP'll1a£e'
commonly find large beams fhattered, and {tones and
bricks either driven from their places, or fplit and per¬
forated in an unequal manner. Frequently, the light¬
ning will forfake one conducing body, as the handle of
a bell-wire, and flrike through the wall of the room, at¬
tracted by fome conduClor, either of greater power or
larger dimenfions, fuch as a kitchen grate, on the other
fide. This effeCt of lightning is exaCtly fimilar to the
perforation and rending of bodies by eleClricity, as we
related when treating of the mechanical effeCts of that
power j it is undoubtedly owing to the fudden expanfion
5 F 2 of
780
Atmo-
fpherical
Eledlricity.
457
Deftroys
animal life.
458
Death of
Profeffor
Richman
by light¬
ning.
ELECTRICITY. Part V
of the air or moifture contained within the pores of the
refilling body.
We havefeen that animals are deftroyed by lightning j
but the effe6ls of this power on the animal body come
to be explained with more propriety in a future part of
this work, where we fiiall treat of the effects of eleftri-
city on vegetable and animal life.
We (hall here only relate the unfortunate death of
the celebrated Profeffor Richman of St Peterfburgh.
This happened on the 6th of Auguft 1753, as he was
making experiments on lightning drawn into his own
room. He had provided himfelf with an inftrument for
meafuring thequantity of eleffricity communicated to his
apparatus ; and as he flood with his head inclined to it,
Mr Solokow an engraver, who was near him, obferved
a globe of blue fire, as big as bis fid, jump from the
inftrument, which was about a foot diflant, to Mr Rich-
man’s head. The profeflor was inftantly dead, and Mr
Solokow was alfo much hurt. The latter, however,
could give no particular account of the way in which
he was affected •, for, at the time the profeffor was
ftruck, there arofe a fort of fleam or vapour, which en¬
tirely benumbed him, and made him fink down to the
ground, fo that he could not even remember to have
heard the clap of thunder, which was a very loud one.
The globe of fire was attended with an explofion like
that of a piflol $ the inflrument for meafuring the elec¬
tricity (called by the profeffor an eleSlriculgnomon} was
broken to pieces, and the fragments thrown about the
room. Upon examining the effedls of the lightning in
the profeftor’s chamber, they found the door-cafe half
fplit through, and the door torn off and thrown into
the room. They opened a vein in the body twice, but
no blood followed •, after which, they endeavoured to
recover life by violent fridlion ; but in vain : upon turn¬
ing the corpfe with the face downwards during the
rubbing, an inconfiderable quantity of blood ran out
of the mouth. There appeared a red fpot on the fore¬
head, from which fpirted fome drops of blood through
the pores without wounding the fkin. The fhoe be¬
longing to the left foot was burft open, and uncovering
the foot at that part, they found a blue mark ; from
whence it was concluded, that the electric matter hav¬
ing entered at the head, made its way out again at
the foot. Upon the body, particularly on the left
fide, were feveral red and blue fpots, refembling leather
(hrunk by being burnt. Many more alfo became vi-
fible over the whole body, and particularly over the
back. That upon the forehead changed to a brownifh
red, but the hair of the head was not finged. In the
place where the fboe was unripped, the flocking was
entire : as was the coat everywhere, the waiftcoat on¬
ly being finged on the fore flap where it joined the
hinder : but there appeared on the back of Mr Solo-
kow’s coat long narrow ftreaks, as if red hot wires had
burned off the nap, and which could not well be ac¬
counted for.
When the profeffor’s body was opened- next day, the
cranium was very entire, having neither fiffare nor con-
tra-fiffure : the brain was found •, but the tranfparent
pellicles of the windpipe were exceflively tender, and
eafily rent. There was fome extravafated blood in it,
as alfo in the cavities below the lungs. Thofe of the
breaft were quite found ; but thofe towards the back of
a brawnifh black colour, and filled with more of the
I
blood above mentioned. The throat, the glands, and Atmo-
the fmall inteftines, were all inflamed. The finged-lea- fpberical
tber-coloured fpots penetrated the fkin only. In 48 kb&ricny.
hours the body was fo much corrupted, that they could 'r""w
fcarcely net it into a coffin.
From the dangers to which perfons and buildings are Diitance at
expofed from lightning, it becomes an objedl of im-which the
portance to afcertain the diflance at which they may beexPio^on
confidered as fecure from its influence. The following
obfervations of Mr G. Morgan on this fubjefl are re- an^8'0^s,
plete with ingenuity and good fenfe.
“ The greatefl danger of a thunder-ftorm lies between Morgan’s
the two neareft extremities of the correfpondent partsobferva-
of the charged atmofphere, or in that interval of un-tl0r4,
ele£lrified air which is always found to feparate the pofi-
tive from the negative portion of the loaded cloud: but
on either fide of this interval, the further you get into
the pofitive or the negative, the more does the power-
of injuring diminifh.
“ The idea which I now wifh to imprefs, will be illuf-
trated by the following circumflances of fa£l.
“ Take a Leyden phial, five inches in diameter, and
thirteen or fourteen inches in height. On the infide,
let the coating rife till its upper edge be two inches and
a half from the rim of the veffel. On the outfide, let
the coating rife no higher than one inch from the bot-
tam. When the phial is thus coated, let it be charged,
and a fpark will pafs from the tin-foil on the outfide to
that on the infide j but its form will refemble that of a
tree, whofe trunk will increafe in magnitude and bril¬
liancy, and confequently in power, as it approaches the
edge, owing to ramifications which it collefls from all
parts of the glafs. Within two inches of the edge it be¬
comes one. body or dream, and along that interval it»
greateft force a£ls.
“ When two clouds, or the two correfpondent parts of
a cloud, have their equilibrium reftored by a difcharge,
the appearances are exaftly fimilar to thofe of the pre¬
ceding experiment. Each extremity of the flafh is
formed by a multitude of little ftreams, which gather
into one body, whofe power is undivided in that in¬
terval only which feparates the pofitive from the ne¬
gative.
“ In this country thefe appearances are frequently
feen j but they are mod commonly hidden by interven¬
ing clouds. While I was paffing over Mount Jura, one
night during a thunder ftorm, the flaffies fucceeded
each other fo rapidly, that about thirty ftruck within
each minute, but owing to the height of my fituation
at that time, not one of them appeared other wife than
partially or generally, according to the defcription I
have juft given. Sometimes a lower cloud would hide
one of the two charged parts, and in this cafe the light¬
ning affumed the form of a tree, whofe trunk and branches
only appeared. Sometimes the trunk was hidden, and
then the ramifications on each fide were alone vifible.
Frequently intervening clouds would hide all but the
trunk, and the lightning then appeared as it commonly
does to a fp.e£lator in a low fituation.
“ It muft be obvious from the preceding ftatement of
eircumftances, that the greateft devaftation of lightning
muft take place in that interval through which the
whole body of the fluid pafies, and that as you penetrate
further and further into the cloud, the ftream that is
formed becomes lefs and lefs, like a river which dimi-
nilhes
:
hap. I. ELECT
Atmo- nifhes by entwlfting itfelf as you approach its fountain,
pherical Hence to us placed on the ground, no danger can ever
jsftricity. occur) till the clouds are fo low, that the ftriking dif-
tance through air, or the aerial interval between the
charged parts, refills the paflage more powerfully than
the body of earth, and any additional portion of atmo-
fphere which may lie in the dire&ion of the earth from
the ftriking interval.
“ If the charged cloud lies in contaft with the ground,
its paflage to the earth will be that of feveral ftreams,
and the danger will be great, in proportion to the mag¬
nitude of that feparate ftream which paflfes through any
given part of the earth j and feveral diftind! fituations
may be thus unequally endangered at the fame time.
He nee it happens, that the fame ftroke will frequent¬
ly injure feveral diftindl buildings, which are very near
to each other, and that different degrees of injury are
always obferved in the different tracks.
“ The ftriking diftance, or the length of the interval
of greateft danger, will vary with the height of the
charge, and not with the dimenfions of the charged bo¬
dy. This is clear from a multitude of fadfs already il-
luftrated and applied. We may hence fafely conclude,
that the longer any charged cloud is in the vicinity of
the wet ground, the more will the length, and con-
fequently the danger, of its ftriking diftance be dimi-
niftied, provided the points and prominences, which
are a£live on the ground, difeharge the fluid more
abundantly than it is accumulated by the producing
eaufe.
“ From what I have already faid, it is clear that all
the parts of the circuit, through which a thunder cloud
may difeharge its contents, are not equally dangerous,
and that the maximum of danger is confined within
much narrower limits than thofe of the interval, within
which it may be felt in one inferior degree or another.
You muft however perceive, that as the cloud en¬
larges, the number of additions inert afes, by which the
great body of the flafti is formed, and that the length of
the moft dangerous interval will always inereafe with,
and bear a certain proportion to, tin? diameter of the
cloud. In our attempts to eftimate this diameter, we
may follow two methods, which have been recommend¬
ed ; but I cannot fay that either of thefe methods has
any great pretenfions to accuracy.
“ ift, If you meafure the fpace on which the thunder-
ftiower falls, it is faid that you meafure what is com-
menfurable with the dimenfions of the thunder-cloud.
In a mountainous country this meafurement is very
poflible ; for the body of the Ihower may be feen at a
fmall diftance, well deferibed upon the elevated grounds
Avhofe parts it feparates from the eye. Its diameter,
therefore, may be correflly eftimated from the di¬
ftance of thole wrell-known objefls by which it is
bounded.. Tbofe thunder Ihowers, which I have ob¬
ferved, have varied in their diameter, from five hundred
yards to two miles. It is, however, to be obferved,
that the partial vacuum, produced by the collapfe at¬
tending the removal of the ele
L vol. u.
a-
73:
E L E C T R
Atmo-
fpherical
Elecflricrity.
* . ..i,
461
Danger
from di-
ftant thun¬
der.
462
Lord Stan¬
hope’s
theory of
the return¬
ing ftroke.
Fig. 122.
a flafh of lightning, when the perfon or building ftruck
has been at a very confiderable diftance from the cloud
in which the difcharge appeared to take place. A per¬
fon at Vienna received a terrible tliock from a thunder-
rod, on which his hand refted during an explofion that
happened at the diftance of three miles from the place
where the conductor was erefted } and it is fuppofed
that a fhock might be felt, or even a perfon killed, at
a diftance “ prodigioufty greater.” It is certain that
during a thunder-ftorm, the infulated condu&or is af-
fefted at every explofion, however great, fo as to emit
fparks.
It is fuppofed by moft eleftricians that no direB
ftroke is adequate to the produ&ion of thefe effedls, and
they have therefore had recourfe to what Lord Stanhope
calls the returning Jlroke. The following is an abridge¬
ment of this theory.
Let BC, fig. I 22. reprefent a conduftor charged pofi-
tively ; and AB a conductor in its natural ftate, placed
fo that one of its extremities. A, may juft enter the at-
mofphere of BC. In this cafe Lord Stanhope fays, that
the fuperabundance of BC will caufe fome of the natu¬
ral (hare of AB to pafs from A to B, where it is flop¬
ped and accumulated. By this change A is left in a
different or negative ftate, and B by the addition it has
received becomes pofitive. But when the fuperabun-
dar.ce at B is taken off, the pofitive fluid at B rulhes
back to its natural place at A, and this reftoration is
called the returning Jlroke.
Again, let us fuppofe BC to be negative; and A
placed as before juft within its atmofphere. Now part
of the fluid in AB will rufti from B to A, and there
being {topped will produce an accumulation ; but when
BC is drfcharged, this accumulation will difappear, and
the returning ftroke will be from A to B *.
To apply this to the prefent cafe. Let us fuppofe
two clouds horizontally diftant, A and
B (in the annexed diagram), the one A
electrified pofitively and the other B ne¬
gatively, to be incumbent over the fur-
face of the earth at a and b ; they will
here tend to produce the oppofite ftates, or the part of
the furface a will be negative and b pojitive. If now
a difcharge take place between the clouds A and B,
the fluid will rufti back from b to a ; and if conductors
are fixed at thefe places, the fluid will rufti down the
condu&ors at b, and up that at a. The fame effects,
though in a Itrfs degree, will be produced, if we fup¬
pofe the negative cloud B placed above the pofitive
cloud A. By this theory, Lord Stanhope undertook to
explain how the man and two horfes were killed in the
thunder-ftorm defcribed by Mr Brydone, and his Lord-
fhip prefented a very able paper on this fubjeCt to the
Royal Society f.
This theory of Lord Stanhope has been well receiv¬
ed, and it is no fmall teftimony in its favour that it has
obtained the fupport of fo able a philofopher as Profef-
for Robifon. Mr G. Morgan, however, ftrenuoufly
objeCts to this theory, on the very ferious grounds that
its principle is erroneous, its ejfeBs overrated, and its ap-
. Mor an'jplication tinneceffary Our limits will not permit us
LcEtures, to deta'1 all Mr Morgan’s objections, but we muft con-
fefs they do not convince us of the fallacy of the theory,
although they certainly tend to invalidate the ejfeBs
attributed to the returning ftroke.
* Mahon'.
Principles
•/ EleElri-
city, p. vii.
A-f
—B
+t>
f Phil.
Tranf.
*ol. Ixxvii.
vol. ii.
B-
I C I T Y. Party.
“ Let us allow (fays Mr Morgan), that the force Atmo-
required by the theory is rendered aCHve in the manner fpherical
which I have juft defcribed, what reafon have we for Ele(ftricityt
believing that it would be aCtive to the degree fup-
pofed ? Lord Stanhope has eftimated, that what is fe-Effe^f
parated from our natural (hare without injuring us, and the return,
what may be abjent for hours without being felt, is foing ftroke
great in quantity as to deftroy us by its motion in re.overrate^
turning. But what are the grounds of this eftimate ?
As yet it has been juftified by no appeal, either to fad
or experiment ; and the perfon who could fay, that the
greateft poflible lofs from our natural {hare is little or
nothing, would certainly ftand upon equal, I think
rather better, grounds, than thole who would make it
adequate to the fufion of metals and the deftruCtion of
life. I would add, that when the power of the return¬
ing ftroke is magnified as it is in this theory, the ra¬
tionale ©f this bold eftimate is not only negleCted, but
it is negleCted where it might have been made without
much trouble.
“ If the returning ftroke of a thunder-cloud will de¬
ftroy large edifices, furely artificial eleftricity could pro¬
duce a fimilar ftroke which would deftroy a bird or a
moufe, or aCt on fome fcale analogous to that which
it is faid to refemble. If I fay, the returning ftroko
in nature will melt the irons of a waggon wheel, furely,
with the grand machines which we are now able to con-
ftruCt, fuch a returning ftroke might be caufed as
would melt a capillary thread of metal. But nothing
of this kind has ever been done or attempted by thofe *
who fupport the theory, and I am bold enough to pro-
phefy, from the details of my own experience, that no¬
thing of the kind ever will be done j|.” jj Morgan
nbi fupra,
Sect. III. Of the means of preventing Accidents from
•Lightning.
It has been well obferved, that knowledge is va-inventf0n
luable chiefly in proportion as it is ufeful; a maxim of conduc-
which no man ever exemplified better than Dr Frank-1?™ agami*
lin. No fooner was the real nature of lightning afcer-
tained by experiment, than it was naturally fuggefted Franklin,
that this grand difcovery might be rendered beneficial
to mankind, by affording means for preferving build¬
ings from the formerly inevitable devaftations of that
powerful inftrument of nature. Here too, the genius
of Franklin led the way ; and as he certainly deferves
the greateft {hare of the merit due to the difcovery of
the identity of lightning and eledricity, we are a If©
chiefly indebted to him for the means of applying this
knowledge to advantage. He was led to propofe the
ufe of pointed metallic condudors attached to the
building, as a fecurity againft the effeCts of lightning ;
and this propofal, like moft of Dr Franklin’s ingenious
contrivances in eleCfricity, was the refult at once of
acute reafoning and accurate obfervation.
Dr Franklin confidered the earth as performing the H!S^|rgC.
office of a condu&or, in reftoring to the atmofphere tbetlonsfor
ele£trical equilibrium, that had been difturbed by the their cob.
caufes which tend to produce atmofpherical electricity.ft:ruC^10I1,
In its ceurfe, he obferves, that the lightning will com¬
monly ftrike the beft conductors \ and accordingly, as
a metallic rod is a much more perfeCt conductor than
the (tones, bricks, &c. of which buildings are chiefly
compofed, the lightning will ftrike the rod in prefer¬
ence
Shap. I.
455
Lequifites
0 be ob-
srved.
467
hould be
468
hbuld be
f lufficiei t
iameter',
nd
469 ,
erfefty
antinuous
470
'hunder-
aufe
Atmo ence to the materials of the building. He therefore
fpherical advifed, that a metallic rod fliould be fixed to fome
yedtricity. part of the building, penetrating for fome diflance into
the moift earth, and, as lightning does not in every cafe
ttrike the higheft parts of a building, that the rod
fhould extend for fome feet above thefe, in order, as it
■were, to folicit the lightning. As lightning has been
found to deilroy metallic rods of a confiderable dia¬
meter, he advifes, that thefe conductors {hould be at
leaft half an inch thick, that they may the better refiit
the deftruCtive power of the lightning.
From a comparifon of numerous experiments and ob-
fervations, the following rules have been laid down for
the con(truction of conductors.
1. That the rods he made of fuch fuhjiances as are in
f the belt their nature the be/} conduBors of eleEincitij.
anfludors. jt js founcJ B\\ metals do not conduCt equally
well, and that lead and copper are the bed fitted to
ferve as conductors againd lightning ; but as lead is
exceedingly deitruCtible by eleCtricity, and therefore
would require to be of a very confiderable diameter,
copper is to be preferred, as well on account of its
greater conducting power, as from its being lefs liable to
contraCt rud than irgn, w'hich is commonly employed.
2. That the rods be of a fujfcient diameter.
3. That they be perfectly uninterrupted, or, if formed
off ever al pieces, that their junBions be as nearly in con-
taB as p ffible.
The effeCt of interruptions in conductors, as well as
the effeCts of lightning in general on buildings, may be
illudrated by the following experiments.
Evper. 1.—Fig. 123. thews an inftrument repre-
fenting the fide of a houfe, either furnifhed with a
metallic conductor, or not ; by which both the bad
effeCts of lightning driking upon a houfe not proper¬
ly fecured, and the ufefulnefs of metallic conductors,
may be clearly reprefented. A is a board about
three-quarters of an inch thick, and (haped like the
gable end of a houfe. This board is fixed perpen¬
dicularly upon the bottom board B, upon which the
perpendicular glafs pillar CD is alfo fixed, in a hole
about eight inches diftant from the balls of the board
A. A fquare hole, ILMK, about a quarter of an
inch deep, and nearly one inch wide, is made in the
board A, and is filled with a fquare piece of wood,
nearly of the fame dimenfions. We fay nearly of the
fame dimenfions, becaufe it muft go fo eafily into the
hole, that it may drop off by the leaft fhaking of the
inftrument. A wire, LK, is faftened diagonally to
this fquare piece of wood. Another wire, IH, of the
fame thicknefs, having a brafs ball, H, fcrewed on its
pointed extremity, is faftened upon the board A ; fo
alfo is the wire MN, which is fhaped in a ring at O.
Prom the upper extremity of the glafs pillar CD, a
crooked wire proceeds, having a fpring focket F,
through which a double-knobbed wire flips perpendicu¬
larly, the lower knob G of which falls juft above the
knob H. The glafs pillar DC muft not be made very
faft into the bottom board ; but it muft be fixed fo as
to be pretty eafily moved round its own axis, by which
means the brafs ball G may be brought nearer or farther
from the ball H, without touching the part of EFG.
Now when the fquare piece of wood LMIK (which
may reprefent the fhutter of a window or the like) is
fixed into the hole fo, that the wire LK fiands in the
ELECTRICITY.
dotted reprefentation IM, then the metallic communi-
783
Atmo-
‘S- id¬
eation from FI to O is complete, and the inftrument re- fpherical
prefents a houfe furnifhed with a proper metallic con-
du£tor j but if the fquare piece of wood LMIK is
fixed lo, that the wire LK ftands in the dirediion LK,
as reprefented in the figure, then the metallic conduc¬
tor HO, from the top of the houfe to its bottom, is in¬
terrupted at IM, in which cafe the houfe is not proper¬
ly iecured.
Fix the piece of vrood LMIK, fo that its wire may
be as reprefented in the figure, in which cafe the me¬
tallic conductor HO is difcontinued. Let the ball G
be fixed at about halt an inch perpendicular diftance
from the ball H, then, by turning the glafs pillar DC,
remove the former ball from the latter: by a wire or
chain conned! the wire EF with the wire Q of the jar
P, and let another wire or chain, faftened to the hook.
O, touch the outfide coating of the jar. Conned! the
wire with the prime condudlor, and charge the jar ;
then, by turning the glafs pillar DC, let the ball G
come gradually near the ball H, and when they are
arrived fufficiently near one another, you will obferve
that the jar explodes, and the piece of wood, LMIK,
is puftied out of the hole to a confiderable diflance from
the thunder-houfe. Now the ball G, in this experi¬
ment, reprefents an eledlrified cloud ; which, when it
is arrived fufficiently near the top of the hnufe A, th©
eledlricity ftrikes it, and, as this houfe is not fecured
with a proper condudlor, the explofion breaks part of
it, i. e. knocks off the piece of wood IM. .
Repeat the experiment with only this variation, viz.
that this piece of wood IM is fituated fo, that the wire
LK may ftand in the fituatidn IM j in which cafe the
condudlor HO is not difcontinued j and you will ob¬
ferve, that the explofion will have no effedt upon the
piece of wood LM; this remaining in the hole unmoved j
which (hews the ufefulnefs of the metallic condudlor.
Further : Unfcrew the brafs ball H from the wire
HI, fo that this may remain pointed, and, with this
difference only in the apparatus, repeat both the above
experiments; and you will find that the piece of wood
IM is in neither cafe moved from its place, nor any
explofion will be heard; which demonftrates the pre¬
ference of condudlors with pointed terminations to thofe
with blunted ones.
Exper. 2.—This apparatus is fometimes made in the pov^der.
drape of a houfe, as reprefented fig. 124. where, for thehoufe.
fake of diftindlnefs, the fide and part of the roof next^g. 134..
the eye are not reprefented.. The gable end AC re¬
prefents that of the thunder-houfe, and may be ufed in
the fame manner with that above defcribed, or more
readily by the following method. Let one ball of the
difcharging rod touch the ball of the charged jar, and
the other the knob A of the condudlor AC of the
thunder-houfe ; the jar will then of courfe explode, and
the fluid will adl upon the condudlor jull mentioned.
The condudling wire at the windows h h muft be placed
in a line. The fides and gable AC of the houfe are
connedled with the bottom by hinges; and the build¬
ing is kept together by a ridge on the roof. To ufe
this model, fill the fmall tube a with gunpowder, and
ram the wire c a little way into the tube ; then conned!
the tube e with the bottom of a large jar or battery.
When the jar is charged, form a communication from
the hook at C, on the outlide, to the top of the jar, by
diicharging
7S+
ELECTRICITY
Atmo-
fpherical
Klc6ti icily
47*
EfTedli of
breaks in
eonduftors,
illuftrated
by a pyra¬
mid.
Plate
CXCIX.
H- 1*5
-475
JEffetft of an
intcrrup-
tsion ex¬
plained.
474
Should be
properly
connedled
Trith the
ffarth,
A
difehargmg the rod j the difcharge will fire the powder,
and the explofion of the latter will throw off the roof,
with the fides, back and front, fo that they will all fall
down together. The figures f and g in the fide of
the houfe reprefent a fmall ramrod for the tube and
a pricker for the todch-hole at C.
Mr Jones of Holborn makes the front of the com¬
mon thunder-houfes, as well as the powder-houfe above
defcribed, with two pieces of wood or windows h h,
which, by being placed in proper fituations, the one
to condudf and the other to refill; the fluid, will illu-
ftrate by one difeharge the ufefulnefs of good conduc¬
tors for fecuring buildings or magazines from the ex¬
plofion of thunder, as well as the danger of ufing im¬
perfect ones.
Exper. 3.-^-Fig. 125. reprefents a wooden pyramid*
made in feveral pieces, with a wire through each, fo
that their ends may touch, as at j j- s. I^et one corner
of the pedeftal d be loofe, and have the fafety wire pafs
almofl: but not quite through it. Let the wire pafling
through the reft of the pedeftal join by a chain the out-
fide coating of a Leyden phial. If the cloud x be fup-
,ported by a wire from the prime conductor, and hang
half an inch from the knob q of the pyramid ; when
the phial is difcharged, a flalh will take place between
x and g ; the fpark will pafs along the wires s s sy till
it comes to the break at d> there an explofion will take
place, that will drive out the corner-ftone and over^
throw the fabric.
Abundant obfervation has proved the danger of hav¬
ing difcontinuous conduftors either attached to a build¬
ing, or forming part of the materials. About the mid-
•dle of the laft century, the fteepleof St Bride’s church
in London was ftruck by lightning, and greatly injured;
-In the conftruCIion of this fteeple a great deal of iron
work had been employed ; the ftortes having beien fafU
ened together in many places by iron cramps, the ends
of which were covered with fmall ftones. The light¬
ning feemsfirft to have ftruck the vane of the fpire*
from which it was fafely conduced down the fliaft by
which the vane was fupported j from the extremity of
this (haft, it leaped to two crofs iron bars which were
«t the bafe of the obelilk, {battering the obelifk in its
way. Hence it paflfed to one of the above-mentioned
cramps, and thus from cramp to cramp throwing out or
demolifhing the ftones as it paffed along.
The principles of electricity afford us an eafy expla¬
nation of the manner in which the interruption of con¬
ductors acts-. We know that at the extremity of all
long rods there is a confiderable accumulation of elec¬
tricity, and this has here a tendency to fly off with
great force, efpCcially if there is another eonduftor at
hand. This other condu&or alfo aflifts the accumula¬
tion in the former, by acquiring at its adjacent extremi¬
ty the oppofite ele&ricity. Suppofing a pofitive cloud
to be over the upper condudlor, this conduflor will be
feleflrified pofitively at its lower extremity, and this ac¬
cumulation being increafed by the negative eheflricity
of the upper end of the lower conduflor, will tend to
fly off with great violence into the air, or if any ob-
ftruflion oppofe its paffage, this will be removed by
the burfting or difplacing the refifting body.
4. It is necejjhry that the connexion between the con-
duiior and the common Jhoch, oY the earth, be as complete
as pojjible.
fart V,
It has been faid, that tire lower extremity of the con- ^tmo.
dmftor fliould be inferted fome feet below the furface of fpWical
the ground : it is alfo proper that it fliould be turned El£Arifit)r.
in a dire mads, and from their being fuch infulated conducing
objefts as mud neceflariiy attraft the lightning from
a cloud that is very near, are peculiarly expofed to dan¬
ger. It is, therefore, dill more necedary to guard vef-
fels by proper conductors. Chains are very commonly
employed for this purpofe, from their being more con¬
veniently difpofed among the rigging ; but it is found,
that from the want of continuity in the links, chains
are very imperfeCt conductors, and have not unfrequent-
ly been broken by a fevere fhock. Strips of lead are,
therefore, to be preferred, both as they are cheaper,
and lefs liable to be injured by the weather and ialt
water, than iron chains. One drip fhould furround the
deck, and another the bottom or fide of the keel, and
thefe fhould be connected with other drips, embracing
the {hip in various parts. If the fliip be copper-
bottomed, it will only be neceflary to conneCt the
copper with the deck j but in every cafe a drip (hould
Vox,. VII. Part II.
785
pafs on each fide from the red of the drips to each mad. Atmo-
I he mad may be protefted by extending a metallic fphetical
body along the days to as great a height as poflible, Eledtricity.
and connecting this with the top of the mad, and with ^
the red of the conductors furrounding the fhip.
I he principles of eleCtricity, applied to the explana- Means^of
tion of the phenomena of lightning, alfo afford us fame preventing
ufeful hints for our perfonal fecurity during a thunder- perfonal
dorm. Thefe naturally divide themfelves into twodanset’
heads, fird, the confideration of the figns of approach¬
ing danger, andfecondly, the rules to be obferved, when
we find ourfelves within the driking diflance of the
cloud.
1. Approaching danger may be dreaded from thesigmof ap»
following circumdances. preaching
a. yf rapid approach of the charged clouds. The long- danger,
er time any given portion of charged air remains over
a certain fpace, the more it is affeCted by points and
prominences ; but when a cloud feems to be over our
heads almod as foon as it is formed, we are expofed to
the utmod of its fury. When a cloud grows darker
and darker while it is near us, it is alfo a mark of
great danger, for we may be certain the accumula¬
tion is not materially lelTened by an exhaudion, and
that the charge mud foon attain its driking height.
b. The perpendicular direciion of the flufhes. This is
a certain evidence that the charged clouds are at that
height from which they can drike into the ground.
The appearance of two flaflies at the fame time, has
been confidered as an evidence, that the earth is afting
as a difcharging rod but this may often happen, as
the two extremities of the fladi, when paffing behind a
cloud which partly hides it, may often give out the
fame appearance j the fign, therefore, is not fufliciently
accurate, and cannot be confidered as denoting more
than a certain degree of probable danger.
c. In making experiments with the kite, if very flrong
fparks are emitted from the fring, or if a fenfation like
a cobweb paf/ing over the face be felt, it is time to de~
ff. This will be fully illudrated in the experiment*
which we are about to relate on atmofpherical eleftri-
city.
d. In making experiments with an infulated conduBor,
if a torrent of fparks Jhould flow from its interruptions,
or iffuch a torrent, after having continued for fotne time,
Jhouldfuddenly fop, and foon after reconmience with an
oppofite eleBricity, there is confderable danger in being
near the conduBor.
2. Having afcertained, that we are within the limits
of danger, our next objedl is to feek proteddion 5 it is
therefore neceffary to know how the threatened dan¬
ger may be avoided. ^
In a houfe, it is necefiary to place one’s felf at a flif-Rules for
tance from all good conductors, fuch as chimney places, prote&ios
gilt mirrors or pictures, ludres, or burning candles.In vadous
It is thereftre proper, to withdraw into the middle O£lltuatlous-
a room, where no metallic body is fufpended from the
ceiling, and here, according to Dr Franklin, almod
all poflible danger may be avoided, by bringing a bed
or matrafs, and placing on it the chair on which we
fit.
If we are in the open air, and overtaken by a thun¬
der-dorm, it is proper to avoid all high and pointed
objeCts, except trees perhaps 5 but we mud not come
very near thefe, keeping only at fuch a didance as may
5 G prevent
ELECTRICITY.
786
Atmo-
fpherical
Electricity,
482
Experi¬
ments on
atmofpheri-
cal electri¬
city, by
Monnier.
4$3
Abbe Ma-
zeas*
ELECT
prevent our being Injured by the fplinters of wood, if
the tree ftiould be ftricken. It Is particularly necef-
■ fary to avoid rivers and brooks, as thefe are excellent
conductors.
Perhaps the belt protection in the open air, is a car¬
riage made fo large, as that a perfon may fit in it at a
diftance from the fides, efpecially if it be furrounded at
the top and bottom with metallic fillets connected with
each other by a ftrip of the fame fubftance.
If overtaken in a ftorm, it is fafer to be completely
wet than dry.
Ghap. II. Experiments and Obfervations on the Spon¬
taneous Electricity of the Atmofphere.
The firft perfon who obferved the fpontaneous elec¬
tricity of the atmofphere, was M. Monnier, who found
that even when there was no appearance of lightning,
fome degree of eleClricity might generally be obferved
in the atmofphere. His experiments were made at St
Germaine en Laye, and publifhed in a memoir read at
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1752.
But more accurate experiments were made upon the
eleftricity of the air by the abbe Mazeas, at Chateau
de Maintenon, during the months June, July, and Oc¬
tober, of 1753, and communicated to the Royal So¬
ciety in a letter to Dr Hales.
The abbe’s apparatus confifted of an iron rod, 370
feet long, raifed 90 feet above the horizon. It came
down from a very high room in the caftle, where it
was faftened to a filken cord fix feet long ; and was
carried from thence to the fteeple of the town, where
it was likewife faftened to another filken cord of eight
feet long, and flieltered from rain. From the extremi¬
ty of this rod, a large key was fufpended to receive the
cle&ric fluid.
When he began his experiments, viz. on the 17th of
June, the ele&ricity of the air was fenfibly felt every
day, from funrife till feven or eight in the evening,
except in moift weather, when he could perceive no
figns of ele&ricity. In dry weather, the rod attra6>ed
minute bodies at no greater diftance than three or four
lines. He repeated the experiment carefully every
day, and conftantly obferved, that in weather void of
ftorms, the ele&ricity of a piece of fealing wax of two
inches long, was above twice as ftrong as that of the
air. This obfervation inclined him to conclude, that
in weather of equal drynefs, the electricity of the air
was always equal.
It did not appear to him that hurricanes and tempefts
increafed the eleCtricity of the air, when they were not
accompanied with thunder; for that during three days
of a very violent continual wind in July, he was obliged
to put fome duft within four or five lines of the con¬
ductor, before any fenfible attraction could be per¬
ceived.
No fenfible alteration in the eleCtricity of the air
was obferved under different directions of the winds,
except when thefe were moift.
He could obferve rio eleCtricity in the air during the
drieit nights of fummer, but it returned in the morn¬
ing with the fun, difappearing again foon after fun-
fet.
The ftrongeft common ekCtricity of the atmofphere
It I C I T Y. Part V.
during that fummer, was obferved in July, on a very ^trri0_
dry, clear, warm day. fphencal
On the 27th of June, about noon, he perceived fome Eledricity.
ftormy clouds rifing above the horizon, and obferved >
that the eleCtricity of the atmofphere occafioned by
them, was increafed as the clouds reached the zenith.
He at this time drew confiderable fparks from his ap¬
paratus, though there was neither thunder nor light-
ning* - • r - ,
The eleCtricity obferved during the appearance ot«Phil.
thefe ftormy clouds, was not diminifhed by a very
vy rain, till the clouds began to diflipate *. vo**
Mr Kinnerfley obferved, that when the air was in Mr
its drieft ftate, there was always a quantity of eleCtrici-nerfley.
ty in it, and which might be eafily drawn from it.
This, he fays, may be proved by a perfon in the nega¬
tive ftate of eleCtricity extending his arm into the air
in the dark while holding a pointed needle in his hand j
this, however, can only be obferved when the air is
very dry.
Whether the eleCtricity in the air, in clear dry
weather, be of the fame denfity at the height of two
or three hundred yards, as on the furface of the earth,
Mr Kinnerfley thought might be eafily afcertained by
Dr Franklin’s old experiment with the kite. The
twine, he fays, (hould have throughout a very fmall
wire in it, and the ends of the wire, where the feveral
lengths are united, ought to be tied down with a wax¬
ed thread, to prevent their aCling in the manner of!
. . r 0 voLlui.
points f. . . . 4ss
Mr Canton made feveral ingenious experiments on j\{r Canton
atmofpherical eleClricity, by means of his pith-ball elec¬
trometer, defcribed in N° 66. According to this phi-
lofopher, deficcated atmofpheric air, when heated, be¬
comes negatively eleClric, and when cooled, the elec¬
tricity is of the pofitive kind, even when the air is not
permitted to expand or contraCi ; and the expanfion or j Phid.
contraction of atmofpheric air occafions changes in itsvols. xlviii,
eleCtrical ftate J. an
afterwards 495
From his experiments with the kite, Mr Cavallo de-Cavallo’s
duces the following conclufions. conclufions,
1. The air appears to be eleClrified at all times;
its electricity is conflantly pofitive, and much flronger
in frofly, than in warm weather ; but it is by no means
lefs in the night than in the day-time (X).
2. The prefence of the clouds generally leffens the
eleftricity of the kite ; fometimes it has no effeCl upon
it; and it is very feldom that it increafes it a little.
3. When it rains, the eleClricity of the kite is gene¬
rally negative, and very feldom pofitive.
4. The aurora borealis feems not to affeCt the eleClri¬
city of the kite.
5. The eleCtrical fpark taken from the firing of the
kite, or from any infulated conduCtor connected with
it, efpecially when it does not rain, is very feldom long¬
er than a quarter of an inch ; but it is exceedingly pun¬
gent. When the index of the eleflrometer is not high¬
er than 20®, the perfon that takes the fpark will feel
the effeCl of it in his legs ; it appearing more like the
difcharge of an eleClric jar, than the fpark taken from
the prime conduClor of an eleClrical machine.
6. The
ELECTRICITY.
W I" a11 Ws experiments, it happened only °n<* ^
was one afternoon, when the weather was warm, and the howeve’r the wind, which in the day-time had
and could hardly be kept up for a few minutes ; in the even g, > hein? hal^
been north-weft, drifted to the north-eaft, blowing a little ftronger: be then ta.fed the kite agatn, betng halt,
pafl ten o’clock, and obtained, as ufual, a pretty flrong pofitive electricity.
790 ELECT
Atmo- 6. The ele&ricity of the kite is in general Wronger
fpherical or weaker, according as the ftring is longer or ftiorter j
pedtncity joeg not keep any exact proportion to it: the
eledlricity, for inftance, brought down by a ftring of a
hundred yards, may raife the index of the eledlrometer
to 20° ; when, with double that length of ftring, the
index of the eledlrometer will not go higher than 250.
7. When the weather is damp, and the eledlricity is
pretty ftrong, the index of the electrometer, after taking
a fpark from the ftring, or prefenting the knob of a
coated phial to it, rifes furprifingly quick to its ufual
place; but in dry and warm weather, it rifes exceed-
496 ingly flow.
Application ]\fr Bennet obferved with his eledlrometer, that in
eleftrorne5 VeiT c^ear weather, when no clouds were vifible, on ap-
ter to the ^ inftrument to the infulated ftring of kites
kite. without metal, their pofitive eledlricity caufed the flips
of gold-leaf to ftrike the fides of the glafs; but when a
kite was raifed in cloudy weather, with a wire in the
ftring, and when it gave fparks about a quarter of an
inch long, the. eleftricity was fenfible by the eleftrome-
ter, at the diftance of about ten yards from the ftring $
but when placed at the diftance of fix feet, the gold-
leaf continued to ftrike the fides of the eledlrometer for
more than an hour together, with a velocity increafing
and decreafing with the denfity or diftance of the unequal
clouds that pafied over.
Sometimes the eledlricity of an approaching cloud has
been fenfible without a kite, though in a very unfavour¬
able fituation for it, being in a town furrounded with
hills, and where buildings encompaffed the wall on
which the ele&rometer was placed. A thunder cloud
pafling, caufed the gold-leaf to ftrike the fides of the
glafs very quick at each flafti of lightning.
Mr Bennet relates the following inftance of the dan¬
ger fometimes incurred in making experiments with the
kite. Having on the 5th of July 1788, raifed a kite
with two hundred yards of ftring $ when it had been
flying for about an hour, a dark cloud appeared at a
great diftance, and changed the eledlricity from pofi¬
tive to negative. The electric power increafed till the
cloud became nearly vertical, when fome large drops of
rain fell j and Mr Bennet attempting to fecure the
ftring from wet, received fuch a ftrong fhock in his arm,
as deprived it for a few feconds of fenfation. The ex-
plofion was heard at the diftance of forty yards, like the
497 loud crack of a whip.
Curious The following curious phenomenon was obferved by
nonokferv Baldwin, while raifing an ele£trical kite
ed by Mr!' i77ij during the approach of a fevere thunder-
Baldwin. ftorm. He obferved himfelf to be furrounded by a rare
medium of fire, which, as the cloud rofe nearer the ze¬
nith, and the kite rofe higher, continued to extend itfelf
with fome gentle faint flafhes. Mr Baldwin felt no o-
ther effett than a general weaknefs in his joints and
limbs, and a kind of liftlefs feeling ; all which, he ob-
ferves, might poflibly be the effeft of furprife, though
it was fufficient todifcourage him from perfifting in any
farther attempt at that time. He therefore drew in his
kite, and retired to a fhop till the ftorm was over, and
then went to his houfe, where he found his friends much
more furprifed than he had been himfelf j and who, after
exprefling their aftoniftiment, informed him, that he ap¬
peared to them (during the time he was raifing the
kite, to be in the midft of a large bright flame of fire,
R I C I T Y. Part v.
attended with flaftiings j and, that they expelled every Atmo
moment to fee him fall a facrifice to the flame. The fpherlcal
fame was obferved by fome of his neighbours, who lived ^e<^r‘city,
near the place where he flood *. £ ^ ^
Fig. 129. reprefents a very Ample inftrument, contri-0/-^^n
ved by Mr Cavallo for making experiments on atmo- rican Aca-
fpherical electricity, and which, on feveral accounts,*"2.)',
feems to be the moft convenient for that purpofe. vo^
AB is a common jointed fiftiing-rod, without the laftcav^,s
or fmalleft joint. From the extremity of this rod pro-atmofpheri.
ceeds a flender glafs tube C, covered with fealing-wax,cal eleftro.
and having a cork D, at its end, from which a pith-ball"}etcr-
electrometer is fufpended. HGI is a piece of twine faf-n^'I2?'
tened to the other extremity of the rod, and fupported
at G by a fmall ftring FG. At the end I of the twine
a pin is fattened, which when puftied into the cork D,
renders the eleCtrometer E uninfulated.
When he would obferve the eleCtricity of the atmo-
fphere with this inftrument, he thrufts the pin I into the
cork D, and holding the rod by its lower end A, pro-
jefts it out from a window of the upper part of the
houfe into the air, raifing the end of the rod with the
eleftrometer, fo as to make an angle of about 50° or
6o° with the horizon. In this fituation he keeps the
inftrument for a few feconds, and then pulling the twine
at H, difengages the pin from the cork D •, which opera¬
tion caufes the ftring to drop in the dotted fituation
KL, and leaves the ele&rometer infulated and electri¬
fied, with an electricity contrary to that of the atmo-
fphere.—This done, he draws the inftrument into the
room, and examines the quality of the electricity, with¬
out obftruClion either from wind or darknefs.
With this inftrument he made obfervations on the
eleCtricity of the atmofphere, feveral times in a day for
feveral months, and from them he deduces the follow¬
ing general obfervations, which feem to coincide with
thofe made with the eleCtrical kites.
1. That there is in the atmofphere, at all times, a
quantity of eleCtricity ; for, whenever he ufed the above-
defcribed inftrument, it always acquired fome eleCtricity.
2. That the eleCtricity of the atmofphere, or fogs, is
always of the fame kind, namely pofitive j for the elec¬
trometer is always negative, except when it is evidently
influenced by heavy clouds near the zenith.
3. That in general, the ftrongeft eleCtricity is obfer-
vable in thick fogs, and alfo in frofty weather j and the
weakeft, when it is cloudy, warm, and very near rain¬
ing : but it does not feem to be lefs by night than in
the day time.
4. That in a more elevated place, the eleCtricity is
ftronger than in a lower one j for, having tried the at-
mofpherical eleCtrometer, both in the ftone and iron
gallery on the cupola of St Paul’s cathedral, Mr Caval¬
lo found that the balls diverged much more in the lat¬
ter than in the former lefs elevated place j hence it ap¬
pears, that, if this rule takes place at any diftance from
the earth, the eleCtricity in the upper regions of the at¬
mofphere muft be exceedingly ftrong. • ^
Mr Cavallo has alfo contrived an inftrument, which His eletfr®
he calls his eleEirometer for the rain ; this is merely anmfter^or
infulated inftrument to catch the rain, and, by means ofrain‘
a pith-ball eleCtrometer, to (how the degree and quality
of its eleCtricity.
At fig. 130. is reprefented an inftrtiment of this Fig,
kind, which Mr Cavallo frequently ufed, and after
feveral
Lap. II.
tm0. feveral obfervatxons, found to anfwer very well. ABCI
lexical is a (trong glafs tube about two feet and a half long,
ftricity. having a tin funnel, DE, cemented to its extremity,
-v ' which funnel defends part of the tube from the rain.
The outfide furface of the tube from A to B is covered
with fealing-wax ; fo alfo is the part of it which is co-
vered by the funnel. FD is a piece of cane, round
which feveral brafs wires are twifted in different direc¬
tions, fo as to catch the rain eafily, and at the fame
time to make no refiftance to the wind. This piece of
cane is fixed into the tube, and a {lender wire proceed¬
ing from it goes through the bore of the tube, and com¬
municates with the ftrong wire AG, which isthruft into
a piece of cork faftened to the end A of the tube. The
end G of the wire AG is formed into a ring, from
which is fufpended a more or lefs fenfible pith-ball elec¬
trometer, as occafion requires.
This inflrument is faftened to the fide of the window-
frame, where it is fupported by ftrong brafs hooks at
CB, which part of the tube is covered with a filk lace,
in order to adapt it better to the hooks. The part FC
is out of the window, with the end F a little elevated
above the horizon. The remaining part of the inftru-
ment comes through a hole in one of the lights of the
fafh, within the room, and no more of it touches the
fide of the window than the part CB.
When it rains, efpecially in pafting {bowers, this in-
ftrument, {landing in the fituation above defcribed, is
frequently ele6trified *, and, by the diverging of the
electrometer, the quantity and quality of the eleClricity
of the rain may be obferved, without any danger of a
miftake. With this inftrument, he obferved, that the
rain is generally, though not always, eleftrified nega¬
tively, and fometimes fo ftrongly, that he has been able
to charge a fmall coated phial at the wire AG.
This inftrument ftiould be fixed in fuch a manner,
Jthat it may be eafily taken off from the window, and
replaced again, as occafion requires ; for it will be ne-
ceffary to clean it very often, particularly when a ftiower
of rain is approaching.
e of his Mr Cavallo has alfo (hewn how the eleClricity of the
iltiplier. atmofphere may be obferved by means of his multiplier,
defcribed in N° 2^5.
In order to examine the eleClricity of the atmofphere,
he at firft ufed to fix a long pointed wire into the focket
of the plate A, and then expofed it to the open air.
But he has lately ufed a much better method of accom-
plifhing that objeO. He expofes, out of the window,
an inful ate d ftick of about five feet in length, and co¬
vered with tin-foil ; and while he holds this apparatus
by the extremity of its infulating handle, he touches
with the other hand, for about two or three feconds,
the low7er part of the ftick. By this means, the ftick
being free from points, acquires an eleClricity contrary
to that of the furrounding air. Mr Cavallo then brings
it within the room, and communicates that eleftricity
to the plate A of the multiplier, &c. But the eleClri-
city fo acquired by the infulated ftick, is generally
fufficient to affeCl an electrometer without the ufe of the
multiplier. To examine the eledlricity of the rain,
fnow, hail, &c. the fame apparatus muft be expofed out
of a window, but the ftick muft not be touched, for in
this cafe, it acquires the fame fort of eleCIricity as that
of the rain, fnow, &c. and not the contrary fort, as
when expofed to the air.
7 91
Mr Read, in his “ Summary View of the Spontaneous Atmo-
EleClricity of the Earth and Atmofphere,1’ obferves, Ipherical
that the eleClricity of the atmofphere, in moderate wea- ^e<^r'lc*ty‘
ther, was always found to be politive j in ftorms and " "
difturbed ftates of the air frequently negative 5 and fud- Obferva-
denly and repeatedly changing from the one ftate to the tions by Mr
other. Warm fmall rain, was found to be very {lightly Readre
increafe and diminifh twice in 24 hours. The moments^u*1°bler*
of its greateft force are fome hours after the rifing and ^ eie&i
fetting of the fun} thofe when it is weakeft, precede the city of the
rifing and fetting thereof. This will be farther explain-
ed in the following pages.
M. SaulTure has given an inftance of this periodic flux
in eleClricity, on the 22d of February, 1785, (one of
the coldeft days ever remembered at Geneva) } the hy¬
grometer and thermometer were fufpended in the open
air, on a terrace expofed to the fouth-weft } the electro¬
meter, from its fituation, indicated an eleClricity equal
to what it would have fhewn if it had been placed on
an open plain* The height of the barometer is reduced
to what it would have been if the mercury had been
conftant’y at the temperature of 10 degrees of Reau¬
mur’s thermometer. The place of obfervation was ele¬
vated 60 feet above the level of the lake. The ob¬
fervations of the day preceding and following this great
cold, are inferted in the following table } becaufe it is
pleafing to have the obfervations which precede and fol¬
low any Angular phenomena. There was a weak fouth-
weft; wind during the whole three days} and it is rather
remarkable, that moll of the great colds, which have
been obferved at Geneva, were preceded by, or at leaft;
accompanied with, a little fouth-weft breeze.
TABLE.
Feb. 21ft, 9
11
2
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
2 2d, 1
2
6
7
8
15 M
10 M
10 E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
M
M
15 M
30 M
10 M
9 10 M
10 10 M
11 1 o M
1 10 E
2 20 E
Barometer
feet in height.
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26 6
26 6
26
6
26 j 15
26 6 o
6
5
5
5
26
26
26
26
26 4 15
26 4 13
4 3
4 o
26
26
26 3 14
Thermometer.
— 8
— 4
— o
— 2
— 5
— 6
— 10
— 10
— 9
— 12
— 12
— M
— 14
— J5
— M
— 14
— 10
— 8
— 4
— 4
+ o
Hygrom.
89 3
83 9
69 6
77 2
85
89
95
97 5
95
99 1
loarfroft
Idem
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
Id.
82
Eledtrom.
Pale fun, cloudy.
Bright fun.
The fame.
Setting fun.
Cloudy in the S. W.
PerfeClly clear.
Idem.
Idem.
Little cloud at horizon S.
Idem more to S. W.
Idem.
Idem.
Clouds increafe and approach.
Clear.
Light fog.
Idem.
Idem.
Thicker fog.
Idem.
Idem.
Weak fog, pale fun.
ELECTRICITY.
lap. II*
Vtmo-
iherical
■dhicity.
:f the vari¬
ous cafes of
precipita¬
tion.
. 5l7
M'xture of
a colder
with a
wanner air.
* Vide
Read on
Jpontaneous
lileclricity.
ELECT
that the moft dreadful thunder-florins would take place.
This is really the cafe ; for there is fcarcely a region in
the vaft circle furrounding the immeafurable fands of
Africa, which is not remarkable for dorms and tempods.
On the fide of Abyflinia, when the warm winds that
have paffed over the neighbouring deferts are condenfed
on its mountains, thofe deluges are colltfted, which
form the inundations of the Nile.
On the coad of Guinea, the harmattan, which is a
current of air fo dry, as to wither and pulverize, by a
complete abforption of all its juices, every fubdance
that occurs in its paflage, is no fooner mixed with that
body of air which is cooled by the ocean, than it forms
mod terrific hurricanes of wind and lightning that are
defcribed by navigators. Along the Syrian regions,
we learn from facred authority, that the dorms gather
with fuch rapidity, that a cloud, which this indant
might be covered with the hand, is within the interval
of a few minutes, charged with water adequate to the
inundation of a whole country.
The thunder that attended thefe impetuous dorms,
provoked the fublimed expredions of their poets. In¬
deed, whenever their minds attempt the defcription of
eeledial greatnefs, or the fudden and overwhelming Ap¬
proach of divine power in its triumph, or in its fury,
they have recourfe for imagery to thofe thunder-clouds,
which they judly reprelented as extinguifhing the light
of the fun, and as involving the world in a few indants
in the darknefs of midnight.
Having fpecified the two mod general caufes of eva¬
poration on the furface of this earth, let us now attend
to the poffible changes of the atmofphere, when by the
operation of either, or both, it is charged with the elec>-
trie dbid. All thefe changes are but different degrees
of the fame effeft, viz. the condenfation of moidure, and
this condenfation is in every cafe produced by an alter¬
ation of temperature, which may proceed,
I. From a mixture, or even the contaft of a colder
with a warmer air. When the fmalled clouds are
formed by fuch a mixture, an eleftric charge takes
place, fo that one part of the cloud has more, and the
other lefs, than its natural diare. Fogs, dews, and the
flighted change of clear for hazy weather, commonly
arife from a warmer atmofphere coming in contaft with
one of a lower temperature •, but even thefe trifling de¬
grees of condenfation are always followed by figns of
ele£lricity *.
In this country, from its infular fituation, which ex¬
po fes it to the perpetual influence of varying winds, the
air changes its appearances often many times in one day.
But there is no degree of thick cloudinefs or perfect
clearnefs, of feattered clouds fucceeding embodied maf-
fes of clouds, of finall rain increafing to heavy, or vice
verfa, that is not attended with changes in the expref-
fio ns of the elevated conduflor, which never fails to
vary with all the atmofpheric condenfations and rare-
fa£lions that take place.
It is, however, obvious that the effefl muft be in
proportion to the quantity and rapidity of the condenfa¬
tion. When, therefore, any body of air has been for
a long time fufpended over a furface of ground previ-
cufly drenched with fhowers, and at the fame time ex-
pofed to the violence of the fun’s rays, a change in the
direflion of the wind, or fuch a change in the weight
«f the air as mixes the upper with the lower regions
I
R I Cl T Y. Paitv
of the air, is almoft always attended with a thunder- Atn]o
Form. fyluricalt
In tropical climates, for months together, fcarcely a Eieftriatv.
day pafles, in which the calm atmofphere is not loaded ~
by fucceflive additions of moiilure, till at laft it be¬
comes the refervoir of vaft rivers and lakes, and of all
the moifture that is fpread over whole continents. But
when this drought has reached its crifis, the fun croffes
the line, the wind takes a new direfilon, a colder air
mixes with that which is thus charged with vapours,
and the condenfation becomes fo copious, as to inundate
all the fuhjacent country } but the deluge is not more
drftrutlive than its attendant Form •, for, according to
the reports of fpeftators, our imaginations, confined to
the proceedings of nature in this frozen region, have
no images from which any fuch comparifon can be
made, as will communicate the leaf! idea of the thunder
attending a tropical hurricane.
The caufe which we are now applying to the expla¬
nation of thefe natural appearances, will furnifh us with
an eafy folution of a difficulty which has opprefied feveral
theories of electricity, namely, that rapid generation
and increafe of the eleCtric fluid which takes place in
fome thunder-ftorms. Even in this country, the fuc-
ceffion of flaflres is fometimes fo quick, that one hun¬
dred and twenty have been known to follow, each other
in a minute. In Afia, this celerity of accumulation
and difeharge was fo great, that Homer ufes it as part
of a fimile, by which he paints the quick repetition
of Agamemnon’s iigbs and pantings in an hour of dif-
trefs.
It may be afked, if each diftinfl cloud is loaded with
a diftinCt charge, and if each flaffi is a feparate dif¬
eharge of fuch a cloud, what is there, in our know¬
ledge of natural powers, that will account for an in¬
numerable repetition of thefe accumulations and dif-
charges within a very fliort fpace of time, more efpeci-
ally when each of them is conneCled in our minds with
the neceffity of a diftir.Cl part of that time for its pro-
cefs ? In other words, do we know of any caufe that is
adequate to the filling and emptying of the fame por¬
tion of air every inftant, for hours together ?
On a hot fummer’s day it not unfrequently happens,
that a fine blue flty will, within five feconds, be chan¬
ged into one rnafs of clouds. If the caufe which pro¬
duced fo great an effe£l, wrere fuppoftd to be doubled
in its power of condenfation, the degree of ele£lricity
Flown by the elevated cnndu<5lor would be rather more
than doubled, and its figns would be much Fronger
than in a common Form •, we may hence conclude, that
the whole mafs which might be thus formed in five fe¬
conds, would be loaded fo as to have every part of it
at the difeharging height ; but the mafs might confiF
of hundreds of diftin£t clouds all in the fame Fate, and
confequently adequate to the pruduflion of feveral hun¬
dred flaFies within a minute.
The collapfe of aqueous particles, which would ne-
ceflarily follow fuch a rapid fucceflfion of difeharges as
have been now' proved to be poffible, would produce a
partial vacuum of great extent, and on all Fdes the
heavier air would ruffi into it, and the upper and cold¬
er regions would prefs downwards, and by their con-
denfing temperatures, would renovate all the accumu¬
lations and difeharges which have been already defcrib¬
ed : a fecund collapfe would follow a fecond feries of
thunder-FrokeSj,
siS .
eated air
raing in
ntadl
ith the
Id earth
hap. II. ELECT
Atm0_ thundA-ftrokev and a partial vacuum additional to
,herical the former ; a frdh portion of warm air would again
edrinty. ru(h ;n from all quarters, and a frefh mixture of cold
v“" air from the upper regions. It is fcarcely neceffary to
fltow that this repetition of condenfations may continue
for hours, or till the air, which rufhes in laterally, be¬
comes of fuch a temperature, that its mixture with the
colder air will not produce the condenfations adequate
to the colleflion of that quantity of eledlric fluid which
is neceffary for a difcharge.
From this explanation, it is obvious that a central
point mud exift, at which the violence of every ftorm
begins, and from which it is fpread in all diredlions.
A hurricane in the Weft Indies, though ruinous to
many, is generally the diftinguiftiing calamity of one
iiland, at which alone the wind is defcribed as blowing
from every point of the compafs ; while in every other
ifland, it is reprefented as bearing down decifively from
one quarter.
2. The precipitation of aqueous particles when fuf-
pended by heat in air, is frequently the confequence of
the loaded atmofphere’s coming in contadl with portions
of the earth that are colder than itfelf. Such, particu¬
larly, are the fummits of mountains, whofe effedl is
great in proportion to the degree of their cold and the
extent of their furface. It is, however, certain that
condenfations, when thus produced, are invariably at¬
tended by thunder-ftorms.
The uproar, and the fplendour of the innumerable
lightnings, which dart through all the entangled cir¬
cuits of an abyfs of thunder-clouds, are the immutable
attributes of grandeur which belong to the Cordilleras ;
for they dam up, as it Were, an immenfe flow of air,
which is almoft faturated rvith moifture by pafting over
feveral thoufand leagues of land, expofed to the fury of
a tropical fun.
In fummer, the north-wefterly winds that pafs over
France, are always condenfed by the Alps j and in the
night, during fuch a ftate of the atmofphere, to all thofe
who live along the Saone and the upper part of the
Rhone, thefe mountains are always brightened by elec¬
trical flafties and corufcations.
All ridges or chains of very high grounds, efpecially
thofe which terminate extenfive plains lying in the di-
reflion of their moft common winds, are perpetually
beclouded •, and with a good conductor fixed on their
fummit, we fhould find that the figns of ele&ricity were
as conftant as the condenfations by which they are en¬
veloped. But in proportion to the coldnefs, fo is the
fubfequent change of temperature on the eminences di-
minifhed, and the eledlrical effefl dependant on that
change. It hence happens, that there are countries in
the northern parts of Europe, the gloom of whofe mifts
is never difperfed by a thunder-ftorm, excepting in the
hotteft feafon of fummer.
3. When the fun, by dire&ing its rays with force
the fun’ an<^ Sundance upon the earth for any length of time,
Suence. produced a confiderable evaporation, the mere in¬
terruption of its influence will be attended with a dif¬
charge of the eledlric fluid ; for the great fource of
change in our atmofphere is the ready influence of its
upper regions, which are cold, on its lower regions when
warmed j and any canfe which mixes thefe together,
fimf! bring on a condenfation of aqueous vapour. This
R I C I T Y.
797
dden in-
mixture, however, takes place on the mere approach of Atmo-
night, as is evident from the change of temperature ex- fpherical
preffed by the thermometer, and the ufual fall of the£lc *n attempting to aflign its proper caufe
to the aurora borealis. Their imaginations have
kindled bonfires in the poles of the earth, and they
have reprefented the northern lights as the effedts of
flames, to which thofe lights have fcarcely any fimilari-
ty, and from which they are diftinguifhed by number-
lefs diverfities.
“ The falt-pits of the north were at one time re¬
garded as emitting a luminous effluvium from their en-
- - trails, copious enough to pervade the whole of our
northern atmofphere. The difcoveries of electricians
have configned all thefe reveries to a (hade, whence
Mbrsvj/z’jthey would never return to excite the wonder of mo-
Rwts. dern philofophers, if the authors of them had not
brought forth other productions, whofe merits have
made even their miftakes immortal*.”
idence The evidence which we have for confidering the
its elec- aurora borealis as an effrCt of eleCtricity, chiefly con-
j.al ori- tjie following arguments.
I. If lightning be an effeCt of eleCtricity, the fame
caufe muft, at a certain height in the atmofphere,. pro¬
duce fuch an appearance as is exhibited by the aurora
borealis. The paflage of the eleCtric matter through
air rarefied to a certain degree, is attended with all the
undulating corufcations of this meteor. Indeed there
is fcarcely a fingle cireumftance attending the paflfage
of a fpark or a charge through an exhaufted tube, that
does not bear a refemblance to fomething obferved in
the northern lights. The fame peculiar motion, the
fame variety of colour, the fame rapid alternations of
flalhes, occur both in the experiment, and in the natural
phenomenon 5 the ftreams of light in both are vivid
and pointed ; and if, in th j experiment, the exhauftion
has been properlv managed, fome parts of the light
Will be marked with that reddifli tinge, which in the
aurora borealis has fo often ftruck the vulgar mind
with terror and confternation. The experiments to
which we particularly allude are thofe of the conclucling
glafs tube, the luminous conduRor, and the aurora bore¬
alis defcribed in I\° 138—190.
2 The flriking diftance of a charge of eleCtric fluid
pafling through the air, increafes according to the rare¬
faction of that medium. II, therefore, two clouds in
oppofite ftates of eleCtricity have no other circuit, it is
799
probable that they will be difcharged through the high- Atmo-
er regions of the atmofphere, more efpecially if they fpherical
are at fuch an elevation, as renders their communica- E^Ctricity.
tion with the earth impracticable. v
3. I he fame caufes which tend to produce fuch an
accumulation of eleCtricity in the atmofphere as will
bring on a thunder-ftorm, have been found, in certain
feafons, and in the more northern climates, to be at¬
tended with an aurora borealis.
It muft be confeffed, however, that Mr Brook and
Mr Bennet, in their obfervations on the eleCtricity of
the atmofphere during an aurora borealis, could obferve
no particular figns of increafed eleCtricity, more than
would have occurred in a ferene Iky without any fuch
appearance.
4. A magnetic needle commonly appears a little dif-
turbed during a ftrong aurora borealis.
We have already hinted at the connection between
magnetifm and eleCirieity, and we (hall fully illuftrate
this in the article Magnetism. Till this connection
is fully explained, the force of this laft argument can
fcarcely be feen.
A confiderable difficulty attends even the moft re-Theory of
eeived theories of the aurora borealis, viz. the light thefe ap-
appearing always to ftnke from the poles towards the pearances.
equator, rather than in the contrary direction. Per¬
haps this may be explained in the following manner.
We (hall aflume the three following axioms.
1. That all ele&rics ivhen conjiderabhj heated, become
conduRors of eleRricity.
2. That, e converfo, non-eleRrics when fubjeRed to
violent degrees of cold, ought to become eleRrics.
3. That cold mujl atfo inereafe the eleRric powers of
fuch fubfances as are already eleRric.
The air, all round the globe, at a certain height
above its furface, is found to be exceedingly cold, and,
as far as experiments have yet determined, exceedingly
eleCtrical. The inferior parts of the atmofphere be¬
tween the tropics, are violently heated during the day¬
time, by the reflection of the fun’s rays from the earth.
Such air will, therefore, be a kind of conductor, and
much more readily part with its eleCtricity to the clouds
and vapours floating in it, than the colder air towards
the north and fouth poles. Hence the prodigious ap¬
pearances of eleCtricity in thefe regions, fflewing itfelf
in thunder and other tempefts of the moft terrible kind.
Irnmenfe quantities of the eleCtric fluid are thus com¬
municated to the earth \ and the interior warm atmo¬
fphere having once exhaufted itfelf, muft nectffarily be
recruited from the upper and colder region. This be¬
comes very probable from what the French mathema¬
ticians obferved when on the top of one of the Andes.
They were often involved in clouds, which, finking
down into the warmer air, appeared there to be highly
eleCtrified, and difcharged themfelves in violent tempefts
of thunder and lightning *, while in the mean time, on
the top of the mountain, they enjoyed a calm and ferene
fkv. In the temperate and frigid zones, the inferior
parts of the atmofphere, never being fo itrungly heated,
do not part with their eleCtricity fo eafily as in the tor¬
rid zone, and confequently do not require fuch recruits
from the upper regions ; but notwithftanding the dif¬
ference of heat obferved in different parts of the earth
near the furface, it is very probable that at confiderable
heights the degrees of cold are nearly equal all round
ELECTRICITY.
Boo ELECT RICIT Y. Part VI.
Atmo- the globe. Were there a like equality in the heat of
fpheiical the under part, there could never be any confiderable
EleflxicitT. ]0fs 0f equilibrium in the eleflrieity of the atmofphere ;
but as the hot air of the torrid zone is perpetually
bringing down vaft quantities of eleftric matter from
the cold air that lies about it j and as the inferior parts
of the atmofphere lying towards the north and fouth
poles do not conduct in any great degree ; it thence
follows, that the upper parts of the atmofphere lying
over the torrid zone will continually require a fupply
from the northern and fouthern regions. This eafily
(hews the neceflity of an ele£lric current in the upper
parts of the atmofphere from each pole towards the
equator ; and thus we are alfo furnifhed with a reafon
why the aurora borealis appears more frequently in
-winter than in fummer •, namely, becaufe at that time
the ele&ric power of the inferior atmofphere is greater
on account of the cold than in fummer •, and confe-
quently the abundant ele&ricity of the upper regions
muft go almoft wholly off to the equatorial parts, it
being impoffible for it to get down to the earth ; hence
alfo the aurora borealis appears very frequent and blight
in the frigid zones, the degree of cold in the upper
and under regions of the atmofphere being much more
nearly equal in thefe parts than in any other. In fome
parts of Siberia particularly, this meteor appears con-
flanlly from O&ober to Chriftmas, and its corufcations
are faid to be very terrifying. Travellers agree that
here the tft/rord foraj/zr appears in its greateft perfec¬
tion } and it is to be remarked, that Siberia is one of
the eoldeft countries in the world. In confirmation of
this, it may alfo be obferved, that from the experiments
hitherto made with the kite, the air appears confider-
ably more eleflrical in winter than in fummer, though
the clouds are known to be often moft violently elec-
^ trifled in the fummer time 5 a proof, that the electricity
naturally belonging to the air, is in fummer much more
powerfully drawn off by the clouds'than in winter, ow¬
ing to the excefs of heat.
A confiderable difficulty, however, {till remains from
the upright pofition which the ftreams of the aurora atmo.
borealis are generally fuppofed to have j whereas, ac- ffiherkal
cording to our hypothefis, they ought rather to run di-^‘e^ro‘ty*
reCtly from north to fouth. Dr Halley anfwered this 'r"i
difficulty by fuppofing his magnetic effluvia, (to which
he attributed this phenomenon), to pafs from pole to
pole in arches of great circles, arifing to a great height
above the earth, and confequently darting ftom the
places whence they arofe like the radii of a circle 5 in
which cafe, being fet off in a direCHon nearly perpendi¬
cular to the furface of the earth, they rouft neceffarily
appear ereft to thofe who fee them from any part of
the furface, as is demonftrated by mathematicians. It
is alfo reafonable to think that they will take this di¬
rection rather than any other, on account of their meet¬
ing with lefs refiftance in the very high regions of the
air than in fuch as are lower.
But the greateff difficulty {till remains j for we have
fuppofed the equilibrium of the atmofphere to be broken
in the day time, and reftored only at night; whereas,
confidering the immenfe velocity with which the elec¬
tric fluid moves, the equilibrium ought to be reftored
in all parts almoft inftantaneoufly ; yet the aurora bore-
alis never appears except in the night, although its
brightnefs is fuch as muft fometimes make it vifible to
us did it really exift in the daytime.
In anfwer to this it muft be obferved, that though
the paffage of eledftricity through a good conduflor is
almoft inftantaneous, yet through a bad condu&or it
takes fome time in paffing. As our atmofphere, there¬
fore, unlefs very violently heated, is but a bad conduc¬
tor of electricity : though the equilibrium in it is brok¬
en, it can by no means be inftantaneoufly reftored.
Add to this, that as it is the aCtion of the fun which
breaks the equilibrium, fo the fame aCtion, extending
over half the globe, prevents almoft any attempt to re-
ftore it till night, when flafties arife from various parts
of the atmofphere, gradually extending themfelves with
a variety of undulations towards the equator.
PART VI.
OF THE EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETABLE LIFE.
526
Ixperi- IT has been much difputed whether eleflricity pro-
ments on duces a/zy effe&s on vegetables; and the experiments
vegetation ]iave been made with the view of afcertaining this
^ c;27 point are moft contradiClory.
Mr Maim- The firft eleCtrician who feems to have attended to
bray. this fubjeCl of enquiry was Mr Maimbray of Edinburgh,
who, in the year 1746, eleftrified two myrtles during
t the whole month of October (i. e. we fuppofe, for
V'ffl'ftl'y Tome hours every day). The confequenee was, that in
Pint viii. the following fummer, thefe eleCfrifled myrtles put forth
teift. 4. buds and bloflbms fooner than their neighbours who
[5**7] had been left to nature *.
Abbe .Nol- Mr Maimbray was foon followed by the Abbe Nol-
let, who made fome comparative experiments on the
germination of feeds under fimilar circumftances, ex¬
cept that one plot was electrified three or four hours
every day for fifteen days. The refult of thefe experi-
ments was fimilar to that of Mr Maimbray’sf.
Similar experiments were made by M. Achard of M. Achardl
Berlin, and feveral other philofophers, but {till with the 525>
fame refult ; till Dr Ingenhoufz inftituted a very com-^^6""
plete fet of experiments on the electrification of plants,
which were communicated to the world through the
medium of Rozier’s Journal, at firft by M. Swankhardt,
and afterwards by Dr Ingenhoufz himfelf, in confe-
quence of fome fevere animadverfions which the com¬
munication of M. Swankhardt had called from M.
Duvernier. By thefe experiments the faith of philofo¬
phers with refpeCt to the effeCt of eleCtricity on vegeta¬
tion was daggered, as they were attended with refults
very oppofite to thofe of Maimbray, Nollet and A-
chard. n
Experiments
Part VI. ELECT
Effects of Experiments have alfo been made by Dr Carmoy
Electricity and the abbe D’Ormoy, rather more favourable to the
on Vege,;a-frft opinion ; but the manner in which the eledlricity
L was applied appears very equivocal, as it is found that
530 even (hocks do not pafs through the body of the plant,
by Dr Car- but merely over its furface *.
moy and But the moft complete fet of experiments on this
1’abfce Or- fubje& has been made by the Abbe Bertholon, and
Tljorgan'stllde we ^a11 ^ive niore in detail.
tenures, “ the firft place (fays the Abbe), there is continu-
vol. m ally and everywhere difFufed in the atmofphere (parti-
S3‘ cularly in the upper regions) a confiderable quantity of
By the dearie fluid. 4 ^
Ion. “ This principle being granted •, in order to reme-
532 dy the deficiency of eleflric fluid which is fuppofed hurt-
Eledtro ful to vegetation, we mud ereft in the fpot which we
twdefcd" 'vant t0 tecundatc the following new apparatus, which
bei has had all poflible fuccefs, and which I fliall call by
the name of the eleBro■ vegetometer. This machine is
as fimple in its conflruftion as efficacious in its manner
of aiding $ and I doubt not but it will be adopted by
all thofe who are fufficiently inftru&ed in the great
principles of nature.
Fig. 131. “ This apparatus is compofed of a maft AB, fig. 131.
or a long pole thrufl jult fo far into the earth as to (land
firm and be able to refill the winds. That part of the
mart which is to be in tire earth muft be well dried at
the fire ; and you mud take care to lay on it a good
coat of pitch and tar after taking it from the fire, that
the refinous particles may enter more deeply into the
pores of the wood, which will then be dilated* at the
fame time that its humidity will be expelled by the
heat. Care mud likewife be taken to throw around
that part fixed in the earth a certain quantity of coal
dud, or rather a thick layer of good cement, and to
build befides a bafe of mafon-work of a thicknefs and
depth proportionable to the elevation of the inflrument,
fo as to keep it durable and folid. As to the portion of
it above the ground, it will be fufficient to put upon it
fome coats of oil paint, except one choofes rather to lay
on a coat of bitumen the whole length of the piece.
“ At the top of the mad there is to be put an iron
confole or fupport C j whofe pointed extremity you
are to fix in the upper end of the mad, while the other
extremity is to terminate in a ring, in order to receive
the hollow glafs tube which is feen at D, and in which
there is to be glued an iron rod rifing with the point E.
This rod, thus pointed at its upper extremity, is com¬
pletely infulated, by reafon of its keeping a drong
hold of a thick glafs tube, which is filled with a quan*
tity of bituminous matter, mixed with charcoal, brick-
dud, and glafs-powder \ all together forming a fuf¬
ficiently good and drong cement for the obi eft in view.
“ To prevent rain vvetting the glafs tube, care mud be
taken to folder to the rod E a funnel of white-iron 3
which confequently is entirely infulated. From the
lower extremity of the rod E hangs a chain G, which
enters into a fecond glafs tube H, fupported by the
prop I. The lower end of the above-mentioned chain
reds upon a circular piece of iron wire, which forms a
part of the horizontal condmflor KLMN. In L is a
breaker with a turning joint or hinge, in order to move
to the right or left the iron rod LMN 5 there is like¬
wife another in £), to give dill greater effeft to the
circular movement. O and P are two fupports termi-
Vol. VII. Part II.
R I C I T Y. got
nating in a fork, where there is fixed a filken cord Effe&sof
tightly dretched, in order to infulate the horizontal Eletfricity
condu&or : in N are feveral very (harp iron points. on Yegeta-
“ In fig. 132. you fee an apparatus in the main like t'l0i:1, f
the former, but with fome difference in the condrudlion. ^
At the upper extremity of the mad ab there is bored Another
a hole into whic h enters a wooden cylinder c, which f°rrn dus
has been carefully dried before a great fire, in order t0il)ftrument»
extract its humidity, dilate its pores, and faturate it*12'1,3**
with tar, pitch, or turpentine, applied at repeated
intervals. The more heat the wood and bituminous
matter receives, the more the fubdance penetrates, and
the infulation will be the more complete. It is more¬
over proper to befmear the circumference of the little
cylinder with a pretty thick coat of bitumen. This
preparation being made, we next infert the cylinder c in¬
to the hole b of the mad; and it is eafy to join together
thefe two wooden pieces in the mod perfetd manner.
“ At the upper extremity of the Cylinder c we drong*
ly attach an iron rod gf; which, indead of one, is
terminated by feveral Oiarp points, all of gilded iron.
In e you fee a branch of iron rtfembling the arm of
an iron crow, from whence hangs an iron chain h t,
at the end of which there is hooked a piece of iron re-
fembling a mafon’s fquare, and ending in a fork. The
piece of iron / is a ring with a handle entering a little
into the glafs tube m filled with madich, in the fame
manner as does the iron rod n. The conductor p 0
is to be confidered as an additional piece to aid in that
marked y?. There are likewife put iron fpikes in <7;
the fupport s refembles thofe of O and P in the former
figure. In this new machine you can lengthen or
diorten the horizontal conduidor as you pleafe ; and as
the iron ring / turns freely in a circular gorge made in
the mad, the conduidor is enabled to deferibe the entire
area of a circle.
“ The condruflionof this eleBro-vegetometerox\ce Well Effedtfof
underdood, it will be eafy for us to conceive its effeids. thefeinftnu
The eleidricity which prevails in the aerial regions willriients*
foon be drawn down by the elevated points of the upper
extremity.
“ The eleidric matter brought down by the point E,
or by thofe marked will be neceffarily tranfmitted
both by the rod and chain ; becaufe the infulation
produced at the upper extremity of the mad complete¬
ly prevents its communication with the timber. The
eleidric fluid paffes from the chain to the horizontal
conduidor KM or no : it then efcapes by the points at
Pan.d^* . . . 53S
“ The manner of ufing this indrument is not more Method of
difficult than the knowledge either of its condruidion orllfinS d16™*
effeids. Suppofe, for example, we are to place it in
the roidd of a kitchen garden. By making the ho¬
rizontal conduidor turn round fucceffively, you will be
able to carry the eleidricity over the whole furface of
the propofed ground. The eleidric fluid thus drawn
down, will extend itfelf over all the plants you want
to cultivate ; and this at a time when there is little or
no eleidricity in the lower regions nigh the furface of
the earth.
“ On the other hand, when it happens that the elec¬
tric fluid ffiall be in too great abundance in the atmo¬
fphere, in order to take off the effeid of the appa¬
ratus in K, fig. 131. and in «, fig. 132. you have only
to hang to it an iron chain reaching to the ground, or
• 5 I elfe
\
802 ELECTRICITY. Pait VI.
Effects of elfe a perpendicular iron rod, which will have the fame
Electricity effeft, vi*. that of deltroying the infulation, and of
en Vegeta jnfenfibiy tranfmitting the electric fluid in the fame
. proportion as it is drawn by the points ; fo that there
{hall never be an overcharge of this fluid in the inftru-
ment, and its effe£l (hall be either fomething or nothing,
according as you add or remove the fecond chain or the
additional rod.
“ There will be nothing to fear from the fpontaneous
difeharge of this apparatus, becaufe it is terminated
below by proper points in P and q of both machines :
However, it will be eafy to furnifti one, by means of
which we may approach the apparatus with perfect
fecurity j it is only neceffary to hold the hand before it.
This has the form of a great C, and is of a height equal
to the diftance that takes place betwixt the horizontal
conductor and the furface of the earth. This difeharger
near the middle mult be furnilhed with a glafs handle;
and at that extremity which is directed towards the con¬
ductor, there mult hang an iron chain made to trail on
the ground. This inltrument is an excellent fafeguard.
Fig. 133. See fig. 133.
536 “ By means of the electro-vegetometer juft now de-
Great ad- fcr||)ecJ, one may be able to accumulate at pleafure
to be ex* this wonderful fluid, however diflfufed in the regions
pedted from above, and conduit it to the furface of the earth, in
thefc in- thofe feafons when it is either fcantily fupplied, or its
ftrunients. qUantity js infufficient for vegetation ; or although it
may be in fome degree fufficient, yet can never pro¬
duce the effefts of a multiplied and highly increafed
vegetation. So that by thefe means we {ball have an
excellent vegetable manure or nourifhtnent brought
down as it were from heaven, and that too at an eafy
expence j for after the conftruflion of this inftrument,
it will coft nothing to maintain it: It will be more¬
over the moll efficacious you can employ, no other
fubftance being fo ailive, penetrating, or conducive to
the germination, growth, multiplication, or reproduc¬
tion of vegetables. This heavenly manure is that
which nature employs over the whole habitable earth ;
not excepting even thofe regions which are efteemed
barren, but which, however, are often fecundated by
thofe agents which nature knows fo well to employ to
the moft ufeful purpofes. Perhaps there was nothing
wanting to bring to a completion the ufeful difco-
veries that have been made in ek&ricity, but to fhow
this fo advantageous an art of employing electricity
as a manure ; confequently, that all the effeCls which
we have already mentioned depend upon eleftrici-
ty alone 5 and laftly, that all thefe effeCts, viz. accele¬
ration in the germination, the growth, and production
of leaves, flowers, fruit, and their multiplication, &c.
will be produced, even at a time when fecondary caufes
are againft it : and all this is brought about by the
eleCtric fluid, which we have the art of accumulating
over certain portions of the earth, where we want to
raife thofe plants that are molt calculated for our ufe.
By multiplying thefe inftruments, which are provided
at little expence (fince iron rods of the thicknefs of one’s
finger, and even lefs, are fufficient for the purpoft), we
multiply their beneficial effeCts, and extend their ufe ad
infinitum.
This apparatus having been raifed with care in the
midlt of a garden, the happielt effeCts were perceived,
viz. different plants, herbs, and fruits, in greater for-
3
wardnefs than ufual, more multiplied, and of better Effects 0f
quality. At the fame time it was obfervable, that, Ele&ricity
during the night, the points P and y, as well as the011 Vegeta-
upper extremities, were often garnilhed with beautiful tlon'
luminous fparks. Thefe fads are analogous to an ob- v ^
fervation which I have often made, viz. that plants
grow bell: and are moll: vigorous near thunder-rods, ^
where their fituation favours their developement. They Vegetation
likewife ferve to explain why vegetation is fo vigorous molt vigo.
in lofty forefts, and where the trees raife their heads ™iS"ear
far from the furface of the earth, fo that they feek, as*0j3" ”
it were, the e.leClric fluid at a far greater height than
plants lefs elevated ; while the fharp extremities of their
leaves, boughs, and branches, ferve as fo many points
granted them by the munificent hand of nature, to draw
down from the atmofphere that eleClric fluid, which is
fo powerful an agent in forwarding vegetation, and in
promoting the different functions of plants. 5„g
“ It is not only by means of the eleClricity in the How to
atmofphere collected by the above apparatus, that augment
one can fupply the eleClric fluid, which is fo ne-t^e Powels
ceffary to vegetation; but the eleClricity named flT-°io^yaa*
tficial anfwers the fame purpofe. However altonilh-tjficjai eiec.
ing the idea may be, or however impoffible it may ap-tricity.
pear to realize it, yet nothing will be found more eat’y
upon trial. Let us fuppofe that one wants to augment
the vegetation of trees in a garden, orchard, &.c. with¬
out having recourfe to the apparatus deltined to
pump down as it were the eleClricity from the atmo¬
fphere, it is fufficient to have a large infulating Hook
This may be made in two ways ; either by pouring
a fufficient quantity of pitch and melted wax up¬
on the above ilool, whole borders being more raifed
than its middle, will form a kind of frame ; or more
limply, the Ilool (which is likewife called the infula-
tor} lhall only be compofed of a plate longer than
broad, fupported by four glafs pillars, like thofe
ufed for eleClrical machines. One mull take care to
place above the infulator a wooden tray full of wa¬
ter, and to caufe mount upon the {tool a man car¬
rying a fmall pump in the form of a fyringe. If you
eltablifh a communication between the man and an
eleClrical machine put in motion (which is ealily done
by means of a chain that conneCts with the conductor
of the machine), then the man thus infulated (as well
as every thing upon the Ilool) will be able, by pulhing
forward the fucker, to water the trees, by pouring
upon them an eleClrical ffiower ; and thus diffufing
over all the vegetables under its influence a principle of
fecundity that exerts itfelf in an extraordinary manner
upon the whole vegetable economy; and this method
has moreover this advantage, that at all times and in
all places it may be praCtifed and applied to all plants
whatever.
“ Every one knows that the eleClricity is communi¬
cated to the water thus employed ; and it would be eafy
to obtain the moll ample conviction (if any one doubt¬
ed it), by receiving upon his face or hand this elec¬
trical ihower ; he immediately feels fmall punctures or
Itrokes, which are the effects of the fparks that iffue
from each drop of water. This is perceived moll fenfi-
bly if there is prefented a metal dilh to this electrical
dew ; for at the very inftant of contact, brilliant flalhes
are produced.
“ That the electricity received by the man from the
chain
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Part VI. ELECT
Effeftsof C^ain may commun'cale(l to tray, we muft put
Eleflrieity a fmall cake of white iron, upon the end of which he
on Vegeta-may place his foot. The tray filled with water is a
tio^ (kind of magazine or refervoir to ferve as a continual
fupply to the pump. After watering one tree, you
tranfport the ftool to a fecond, a third, and fo on fuc-
ceflively j which is done in a Ihort time, and requires
very little trouble.
“ Inftead of the chain, it is better to employ a cord
or twill of pinchbeck or any other metal: by means of
which there can be no lofs of the eledlric matter, as
there is in the cafe of the chain by the ring points.
Moreover, this metal cord or thread being capable of
being untwifted and lengthened, there will be no occa-
fion for tranfporting fo often the eledlrical machine. It
is almoft needlefs to add, that this firing or metallic
cord, which is always infulated, may refi upon the
fame kind of fupports with thofe which have been ex¬
hibited in OP and x of fig. 131, and 132. This method
is fimple, efficacious, and nowife expenfive, and cannot
jjp be too much employed.
Eafyme- “ If one wants to water either a parterre or com-
thodof ap- mon garden, beds and platforms of flowers, or any
plying eke-other plots in which are fown grain or plants of differ-
■ . ent ages and kinds, no method is more eafy and ex-
this man
ncr.
peditious than the following : Upon a fmall carriage
with two wheels there is placed a framed infulator in
form of a cake of pitch and rofin, as we have mentioned
before in N°538. The carriage is drawn the whole
length of the garden by a man or horfe fixed to it. In
proportion as you draw the carriage, the metallic cord
winds itfelf upon a bobbin, which turns as ufual. This
laft is infulated, either becaufe the little apparatus that
fuftains the bobbin is planted in a mafs of rofin (when
you choofe the axle to be of iron), or elfe becaufe
this moveable axis is a tube of folid glafs. There
muft alfo be a fupport, which ferves to prevent the
gold thread or the metallic cord from trailing on the
ground, and thus diffipating the electricity ; and,
moreover, it ferves as an infulator. To accompliih
this laft purpofe, it is neceffary that the ring into which
it paffes be of glafs. One may likewife employ the
infulators and fupports marked OP and s, in fig. 131.
and 132. If a gardener, mounted upon an infula¬
tor, holds in one hand a pump full of water, and
with the other takes hold of a metallic cord, in order
to tranfmit the eleftricity which comes from the
conduCtor ; in this cafe, the water being eleCtri-
fied, you will have an eleCtrical fhower j which fall¬
ing on the whole furface of the plants which you
want to eleCtrify, will render the vegetation more
vigorous and more abundant. A fecond gardener is
to give additional pumps full of water to him who is
upon the infulator, when he {hall have emptied thofe
he holds 5 and thus in a little time you will be able to
eleCtrify the whole garden. This method takes hardly
longer time than the ordinary one; and although it
fhould be a little longer, the great advantages refult-
ing from it will abundantly recompenfe the fmall addi¬
tional trouble.
“ By repeating this operation feveral days fuccefiive-
ly, either upon feed fown or plants in a fiate of growth,
you will very foon reap the greateft advantages from it.
This operation, equally eafy with the preceding de¬
ferred upon the fubjeCl of watering trees, has been put
R 1 c I T Y. 803
in pra&ice with the greateft fuccefs. Several other EffV&s of
methods, anfwering the fame purpofe, might be de- Eledlriciiy
Vifed ; but they are all of them pretty fimilar to that011
juft deferibed. ft°n-
“ I cannot finiffi this article without mentioning* ^
another method relative to the prefent objedl, although To eledtri-
it be much lefs efficacious than the preceding ones, fy water
It confifts in communicating to water kept in bafons,in.
reservoirs, &c. (for the purpofe of watering), the elec-£ce.rVOir?'
trie fluid, by means of a good eleClrical machine. To
this end, one muft plafter over with a bituminous
cement all the interior furface of the bafon deftined to
receive the water that ferves for irrigation ; the na¬
ture of this cement anfwering the purpofe of infula-
tion, will prevent the ele&ric fluid that communicates
with the water from being diffipated ; and the water
thus charged with eleClricity will be the more fitted
for vegetation.
“ If the deficiency of the electric fluid, or rather a Vegetables
fmall quantity of it, is apt to be hurtful to vegetables, injured by
a too great abundance of this matter will likewife
fometimes produce pernicious effects. The experi- l°L
ments made by Meffrs Nairne, Banks, and other learn¬
ed men of the Royal Society of London, prove fuffi-
ciently this truth. An eleftric battery, very ftrong,
was difeharged upon a branch of balfam ftill holding
by its trunk. Some minutes after, there was obferved
a remarkable alteration in the branch, of which the
lefs woody parts immediately withered, dropped towards
the ground, died next day, and in a ffiort time entirely
dried up ; at the fame time that another branch of the
fame plant that had not been put under the eleftric
chain, was not in the fmalleft degree aftefted.
“ This experiment repeated upon other plants (bowed
the fame effedls ; and it was remarked that the attrac¬
tion, occafioned by a ftrong difeharge of the feledlricity,
produced an alteration different according to the dif¬
ferent nature of the plants. Thofe which are lefs
woody, more herbaceous, more aqueous, experience in
proportion, impreffions that are ftronger and much more
fpeedy in their operation.
“ A branch of each of the following plants, com-
pofing an eleftrical chain, it was obferved by thefe
able philofophers, that the balfam was affes experiments on the tourma¬
lin, 21
on fulphur, 27
theory of eleClricity, 294—347
defeCt in, fupplied, 320
defended, 321
Air, effeCt of, in eleCtricity, 63
decompofed by eleCtricity, 165
rarefied by an explofion, 168
when hot, a conductor, 227
how excited, 229
by friCtion, 230
evaporation, 231
of a room, to eleCtrify, 234
plate of, to charge, 235
efiential to eleCtrical phenomena, 237
Afmalgam, eleCtrical, 13
preparation of, ib.
Amber, eleCtricity of, known to
Thales, page 645, note (a).
gives name to eleCtricity, 1
Ammonia decompofed by eleCtricity, 166
Apparatus, eleCtrical, Part II.
Atmofphere, eleCtric, vifible, 191
eleCtricily of, conftant, 493
always pofitive in
dry weather, ib.
ftrongeft in foggy
weather, 503
table of obferva-
tions on the, p. 792
periodical flux and reflux
obferved in the, N° 504
caufes affeCting the elec¬
tricity of the, 511—520
Atmofpheres, eleCtric, hypothefis of,
refuted, 108
AttraEiion and repulfion, eleCtrical,
illuftrated, Part III. Ch.i.
through glafs explained, 292
Aurora auftralis, 522
borealis, phenomena of, 521
attributed to polar
fires, 523
evidence for the e-
leCtrical origin of, 524
theory of, 525
experiment of, 190
Axioms on atmofpherical eleCtricity, 510
B
Baldwin, curious phenomenon obfer¬
ved by, 497
Battery, eleCtrical, 101
how conftruCted, no
2
1
ELECTRICITY.
INDEX.
eleCtrical, compendious, N° no
rules for, n 2
origin of, 113
Van Marum’s, 114
charge of, how efti-
mated, 204
Beccaria^s fubftitute for glafs, 105
vindicating eleCtricity, 422
obfervations on atmofphe¬
rical eleCtricity, 486
idea of the production of
hail, 488
Bells, eleCtrified, 61, 80, 126
Bennet's eleCtrometer, 69
advantages of, 71
defeCts of, 74
how remedied, 75, 216
applied to kites, 496
doubler, 247
mode of remedying the de¬
fects of the doubler, 252
Berthollet's remarks on the fufion of
metals by eleCtricity, 328
Bertholon's obfervations on eleCtrify-
ing vegetables, 531
eleCtro-vegetometer, 332
Bo%e introduces the prime conductor,
page 660, note (1).
Brooke',s method of making batteries, in
of coaling jars, 108
of repairing jars, 115
experiments on the Leyden
phial, 140
on the force of bat¬
teries, 202
mode of conftruCting gages, 239
Brugnutelli fuppofes the eleCtric fluid
to be an acid, 365
C
Can and chain eleCtrified, 413
Canals, communication of eleCtricity
by, explained, _ _ 374~392
uniformity of fluid in, very
flender, 374
Canton firft employs an amalgam, 13
Caw/ow’j-experiments on glafs, 16
eleCtrometer, 66
Capillary fyphon, 77
Carbonic acid decompofed by eleCtri¬
city, page 694, note (1).
Carmoy's experiments on eleCtrifying
vegetables, 530
Cavallo's experiments on glafs tubes, 16
on exciting powders, 31
improvement of Bennet’s e-
leCtrometer, 75
pocket eleCtrometer, 76
directions for fufing metals, 171
experiments on colours, J93
240
246
254
255
coo
492
493
495
498
499
^5
348
414
416
420
37
n5
28
18
Cavalle's experiments on the eleCtro-
phorus, N° 208
on the non-conduCting
power of a vacuum,
improvement of the conden-
fer,
colleCtor of eleCtricity,
multiplier of eleCtricity,
ufe of, in obfervations
on atmofpherical
eleCtricity,
conftruCtion of kites,
means of avoiding danger
from the kite,
conclufions from his experi¬
ments with the kite
atraofpherical eleCtrometer,
eleCtrometer for rain,
Cavendijh',s experiments on air,
theory of eleCtricity,
of the aCtion of points,
of charged glafs,
method of meafuring the
charge of a jar,
Cement for eleCtrical apparatus,
for broken jars,
Chocolate, eleCtricity of,
Cigna'1 s experiments on filk,
with charged plates, 151
Coating for cylinders and globes, 40
for jars and plates, 107
ColleBor of eleCtricity, 254
Colours, experiments on, 193
Compenfated eleCtricity, 411
Condenjer of eleCtricity, 245
improvement of, 246
ConduBors, table of, 5
diitinguiflied from elec¬
trics by Grey, page 646,
note (e).
all imperfeCt, 4
prime, of a machine, 39
introduced by Boze, page
660, note (1).
capacity of, 243
conjugate, 244
againlt lightning, invented
by Dr Franklin, 4^4
(hould be of the beft con¬
ducting materials, 467
of fuffieient diameters, 468
perfectly continuous, 469
interrupted, effeCt of, 473
fliould be as Itraight as pof-
fible, 475
pointed, 47^
Configurations, curious, produced by
eleCtricity, 2i75
Copper forms the. belt conductors
againft lightning,
467
CottAt
Index.
Cette's axioms on atmofpherical elec¬
tricity, N° 510
Cotton, ele£lrified, 84
Coulomb afeertains the law of ele&ric
aftion,
finds that conduflors are e-
ledlrical only at the fur-
face,
Coulomb'? experiments on the denfity
of the ele£tric fluid,
Cuneus's experiment,
Cuthbertfon's proofs of the oxidation
of metals by ele&rici-
ty,page 701,note (z).
eleftrometer,
experiments on the effe£t
of breathing into jars,
mode of eftimating the
power of machines,
method of diftinguiflnng
the two electricities,
Cylinder, advantages of,
directions for choofing,
ftate of the infide of, during
excitation, 212
367
359
397
98
203
205
224
266
39
ib.
D
Dalibard's experiment proving the
identity of lightning
and eleCtricity, 442
Dancing balls, 61
Danger from lightning, means of
avoiding, 469, 481
from atmofpherical eleCtrici-
ty, inftances of, 494, 496, 497
approaching, figns of, 480
Darwin's moveable doubler, 249
Difcharger, Henley’s univerfal, 117
Difcharging rod, conftruCtion of, 116
Morgan’s, 119
Doubler of eleCtricity, 247
manipulation of, 248
moveable, by Darwin, 249
revolving, by Nicholfon, 250
defeCts of, 251
how remedied, 252, 253
Du Faye's theory of eleCtricity, 280
E
Eiffr, illuminated, 176
Eleftric fluid, nature of, 281, 355
materiality of, proved, 356
differs from caloric, 358
from light, 360
- probably a compound, 361
generally confined to
the furface, of con¬
ductors, 359
fuppofed to be an acid, 365
law of aCtion of, 366
difpofition of, in two
parallel plates, 371
in a fphere, 372
power, caufe of eleCtric phe¬
nomena fo called, 2
ELECTRICITY,
E/eflrita/power, attracts and repels, N° 60
makes liquids flow
through capillary
fyphons, 77
communication of, to
eleCtrics, 93
paflage of, (hewn, 136—139
mechanical effeCts of,
Part III. Ch. viii.
velocity of, 270
See EleEiric Fluid.
Eleftrical apparatus deferibed, Part
II.
machine, general conftruCt-
tion of, Part II. Ch. i.
different parts of, 34
various, 46—51
directions for ufing,
Part II. Ch. iii.
power of, how efti-
mated, 221
with filk, 226
horfe-race, 84
orrery, 85
jack, 155
air thermometer, 168
EleElricity, general idea of, I
origin of the name, ib.
properly the fcience, 2
applied to the eaufe of
phenomena, ib.
produced in various ways, 10
by friCtion, 11
heating and cooling, 21, 24
melting, 25—28
breaking, 29
evaporation, 32
of wood (havings, 30
powders, 31
fmall degrees of, how af-
certained, 258—261
theories of, Part IV. Ch. i.
difeovered to come from
the earth, 282
direction of, doubts con¬
cerning, 284.
phenomena of, depend on
redundancy of fluid or
matter, 305
induced, 344
compenfated, 411
vindicating, 422
pofitive and negative, 7
how diftin-
guifhed, 128
obfervations
on, 130
attraCt each
other, . 325
produced in
the fame
conductor, 215
vitreous and refinous, 8
EleBrics, what, 1
table of, 5 .>
• 805
Eleflrics, all imperfeCt, N° 4
ufed as infulators, 6
coated, effeCts of, 93
refinous, when melted be¬
come conductors, 268
nature of, ^6
only fo fuperficially, 410
EleElrometer, Nollet’s, 65
Canton’s, 66
ftand of, ib.
quadrant, 67
fcale of, how belt divid¬
ed, 68
Bennet’s, 69
fenfibility of, 71
rendered more fen-
fible by a candle, 73
defeCts of, 74
improvement of, 75
Cavallo’s pocket, 76
Lane’s, 199
by Adams fimilar to
Brooke’s, 201
Cuthbertfon’s, 203
Robifon’s comparable, 206
mode of ufing, 367
Cavallo’s atmofpheri¬
cal, 498
for the rain, 499
Ele&rophorus deferibed, 207
phenomena of, ib.
experiments on, by Ca-
vallo, 208
by Morgan, 209
theory of, 423
primitive flate of, 425
common ftate of, 426
neutral ftate of, 429
charged ftate of, 430
charging ftate of, 431
aClivity of, how renew-
ed, 434
EleElrofcopes. See EleBrometers.
EleElro-vegetometer, deferibed, 332
Evaporation produces eleCtricity, 32, 231
increafed by eleCtricity, 233
experiments on, by Sauf-
fure, . 509
a caufe of atmofpherical
eleCtricity, 3x2
Excitation, 4
modes of producing, 10—31
of powders, 31
remarks: on, by Mr Ni¬
cholfon, 210—220
mode of increafing, 219
how perforated without
the fiik flap, N° 217
velocity neceflary to pro¬
duce the greateft de-
\ ’ < gree of, 214
Experiments on glafs by Hawkefbee^ 13
by Cavallo, 14
on filk by Symmer, 17
by Cigna, 18
Experiments
8o6 E
Experiments on paper, N° 19
on the tourmalin, 24
on fulphur by Wilcke, 25
by ^pinus, 26
on powders by Cavallo, 31
on attra£Hon and repul-
fion, Part III. Ch. i.
on points, 80—-84
on the Leyden phial, 96, 122
ctfeq.
on the ele&ric fpark, 130
on inflammation, 158
on the gafes, 164—166
on decompofing water, 169
on fufing metals 171—173
on ele6frie light, 175—190
on colours, 193
on the eledlrophorus, 208, 209
on evaporation, 231—233
on the non-condu£ting
power of a vacuum, 238
—240
on the capacity of con-
duflors, 243
on the velocity of the
ele&ric fluid, 271
proving the identity of
lightning and eleflri-
city, _ 441, 442
on atmofpherical eletffri-
city, Part V. Ch. ii.
on evaporation by Sauf-
fure, 509
Experiments, entertaining.
Dancing figures, 61
Capillary fyphon, 77
Ele&rical well, 79
horfe-race, 81
orrery, 82
Eleftrified cotton, 84
Drawing fparks, 86
Dancing balls, 94
Leyden phial, 96
Ele&rified fpider, 126
Lateral explofion, 127
LECTRICITY.
Leyden vacuum,
Double jar,
Magic pi&ure,
Eleftrical jack,
Self-moving wheel,
To fire rofin,
fpirits,
hydrogen gas,
gun-powder,
Inflammable air lamp,
Eleftrical air thermometer,
To fufe wires,
To burn wire by ele&ricity,
To illuminate water,
eggs>
*0°
139
J54
*55
138
!59
160
162
161
168
I7I
*73
175
176
Canton’s phofphorus, 178
Spiral tube, 180
Luminous word, 181
conductor, 188
Conducing glafs tube, 189
Aurora borealis, N° 190
Vifible eleffric atmofphere, 191
To perforate a card, &c. 196
To eleftrify the air of a room, 234
To charge a plate of air, 235
To imitate the planetary motions, 264
To fpin fealing-wax into threads, 272
To form curious configurations, 275
Eleftrified can and chain, 313
Thunder-houfe, 470
Powder-houfe, 471
F
Flame, a conductor, 265
Fogs have a fmell like an excited glafs
tube, 489
Frank/in difcovers the feat of the
charge in the Leyden
phial, 124
Franklin's experiments on metals, 171
theory of ele&ricity, 287—292
difficulty to explain the at¬
traction between nega¬
tive bodies, V 288
theory of the Leyden phial, 291
conjecture on the identity
of lightning and electri-
city, _ _ . 438
comparative view of their
effects, 439
propofal for proving their
identity, 440
experiment proving their
identity, 441
invention of conductors a-
gainft lightning, 464
directions for their con-
flruction, > 465
Fri&ion excites electrics, 11
obfervations on its mode of
aftion, 364
G
Gafes decompofed by electricity, 133
Gilbert, Dr, difcovers glafs to be an
electric, 12
Glafs, when firfl fhown to be an elec¬
tric, ib.
excited, phenomena of, Part I.
Chap. i.
durability of its electricity, 16
belt electric for machines, 35
fubftitute for, 105, 225
red hot, a conductor, 268
porvdered, a conductor, 269
impregnable to the electric
fluid, 409
Gralath firft employs a battery, 113
Grey diftinguifhes electrics from con¬
ductors, p. 646. note (b).
difcovers filk to be an electric, 16
fuppofes a perpetual electricity
in fulphur, 27
Index,
Hail, Beccaria’s idea of the forma¬
tion of, N° 488
Haldane's, Colonel, mode of eftima-
ting the charge of a
battery, 2c>4
Hawkejbee's experiments on glafs,
renders fealing-wax tranf-
parent,
Henley's experiments on chocolate, 28
quadrant electrometer, 67
univerfal difcharger, ny
obfervationson charged plates, 15s
atmofpherical
electricity, 493
Houfes, beft means of protecting from
lightning, 477
I
Ice, when free from air, a non-con-
, ductor, j
Induced electricity, 344
illuflrated, 395
may become per¬
manent, 347
Ingenhouf%'s electrical machine, 417
fubfiitutes for glafs in
machines, 225
denies the effect of elec¬
tricity on vegetation, 529
Infulation, what, 6
K
Kienmayer's amalgam, p. 659, note (k).
Kinnerjley's electrical thermometer, 168
obfervations on atmofphe¬
rical electricity, 484
Kite, Franklin’s experiment with, 441
Cavallo’s conftruction of, 492
directions for making experi¬
ments with, 493
Bennet’s electrometer applied
to, 496
Kleifi's, Van, difcovery of the elec¬
tric fhock, 97
Klincock's method of eftimating fmall
degrees of electricity, 242
i h
ik
H
Hail, fuppofed to be produced by e-
lectricity, 487
Lamp, inflammable air, 161
Lane's electrometer, 199
Lateral explofion, 127
Leyden phial, conftruction of, 95
charging and difcharging, 96
difcovery of, 97
progreffive improvement, 100
beft form of, 103
infulated, cannot be
charged, 122
charge of, Avhere feated, 123
gradually difcharged, I2j
lateral explofion of, 127
Brooke’s experiments
on, 14°
Milner’s experiments
on, 141
felf-charging, J57
ftatesofitsfurfaces, 134—140
Leyden
Index.
\leyden phial, charged without fric¬
tion, N° 148
when damped within,
receives a higher
charge, 205
Franklin’s theory of, 291
phenomena of,iiluilratcd, 415
theory of, 416
charge of, how ascer¬
tained, 420
Lichtenberg*s method of eftimating
fmall degrees of e-
ledtricity, 242
curious experiment with
the eledlrophorus, 274
Ught differs from eledricity,
eledric, varieties of, 91
fir ft feen by Olto Gue¬
ricke, p. 672, note (o).
ftar and pencil.of, 129
appearance of, on paper, 133
experiments on, by Mr
Morgan, 182—187
may become vifible in
all bodies, 182
more vifible in imper-
fed condudors, 183
more vifible in rare
than in denfe media, 184
more brilliant in fmall
bodies, 185
like folar light in re-
frangibility, 186
affeded like folar light
by various media, 187
invifible in a perfed
vacuum, 237
Lightning and eledriciiy, fimilar ef-
feds of, 439
identity of, proved
by l)r Franklin, 441
flafti of, form of, 446
colours of, 447
effeds of, on a building, 453
fufion of metals by, not a
cold fufion, 454
fets fire to inflammable bo¬
dies, _ _ 455
tears refifting bodies, 456
kills animals, 457
Luminous vi ox A, 181
condudor, 188
Lyncurium, the tourmalin fo called by
Theophraftus, N° 20
Lyons's experiments to prove the per¬
meability of glafs, 409
M
Machine. See Eleflrical.
Magic pidure, 154
Magnetifjn given to needles by elec¬
tricity, 276
Maimbray firft eledrified plants, 526
Mjarum's, Van, ekdrical machines, 48.49
batteries, 114
ELECTRICITY.
Marum's, Van, exp imeats with the
gales, N° 166
experiments with me¬
tals, 172
experiments on mag¬
netic needles, 278
Mazeas's, abbe, experiments on at-
mofpherical eledricity, 483
Mercurial phofphorus, 14
Metals fufed and oxidated by eledri-
dty, 171
fufibility of, comparative, by
heat and by eledricity,
N° 172. and p. 700. note
(Y)-
oxides of, reduced, 174
fufion of, by lightning not a
cold fufion, 454
Milner's obfervations on the Leyden
, r- phial, 120
Monnier's experiments on atmofphe-
rical eledricity, 482
Morgan's rules for conftruding bat¬
teries, 112
for difcharging rods^ 118
difcharging rod, 119
experiments on eledric
light, 182—187
experiments on the infula-
ted eledrophorus, 209
experiments on the non¬
conducting power of a
vacuum, 238
obfervations on the effect
of friction, 364
obfervations on the diftance
at which thunder may
ftrike, 460
propofal for preventing dan¬
ger to buildings from
lightning, 477
Multiplier of electricity, 255
Multiplying wheel, its ufes, 41
N
Nairne's electrical machine, 50
method of fecuring jars, 121
Neutral points, feveral in an imp>er-
fect conductor, 346
Neutrality of bodies that are redun¬
dant or deficient, 313
Nicholfon's obfervations on the elec¬
tric fpark, 130
inftrumentfor diftinguifh-
ing the two electrici¬
ties, 132
remarks on excitation, 210
—220
revolving doubler, 250
fpinning condenfer, 257
improvement of Bennet’s
electrometer, 262
remarks on the glafs cafe
of ditto, 263
Nitric acid formed by electricity, 165
Nitrous gas decompofed by electri¬
city, 166
80-7
Nollet'sy abbe, electrometer, N° 65
theory of electricity, 285
conjectures on the identity
of lightning and electri¬
city, , . 437
experiments on electrifying
plants, _ 527
Non-conduElors. Vid. EleBrics.
O
Opaque bodies made tranfparent, 13, 179
Otto Guericke firft conftruets an elec¬
trical machine, p. 656, note (jF).
P
Paper, electricity of, 19
a good rubber, 43
ufe of, as a coating, 108
Pearfon's directions for decompofing
water by electricity, 170
Peart's idea of electric atmofpheres, 407
Phofphorus, Canton’s, illuminated, 178
Planetary motions imitated, 82, 264
Plate machine fuperior to one with
a cylinder, 223
Piates of glafs, their inconveniences, 38
Points, action of, 1 80—84
explained, 414
Polarity of magnetic needles reverfed
by an electric (hock, 276
Powder-houfe, experiment, 471
Priejlley's electrical machine, 46
experiments on tourmalins, 24
gafes, 165
R.
Rain fuppqfed to be owing to electri¬
city, 487
Read denies hot air to be a conductor, 228
Read's obfervations on atmofpherical
electricity, 5CI
Reid's portable electrical machine, 51
Repuljion between negative bodies un¬
accounted for by Frank¬
lin, 288
attempts to account for, 389
explained, 401
Returning ftroke, theory of, 462
effects of, over-rated, 463
Ribbons, experiments on, by Cigna, 18
Rickman's experiment with coated
plates, _ 153
death by lightning, 458
Robifon's electrometer, 206
improvement of Bennet’s
doubler, 253
afcertains the law of electric
action experimentally, 367
Ronayne's obfervations on atmofpheri¬
cal electricity, 489
Rouland's filk electrical machine, 226
Rubber, firft employed by Winckler
P; 657,.note (G:).
cdnftruction of, 42
improvement of, 43
filk fiap of, the principal caufe
of exci tation, 211
Rujfel's hypothefis, 362
3o8
Salts, when dry, non-condu£Ws, N° 5
Saturation defined, 301
SauJ/ure's, Theodore, experiment with
carbonic acid, p, 694.
note (1).
baujjure's, Horace, obfervations on
atmofpherical ele&ri-
city, 502—508
experiments on evapora-
tion, ^ 509
Sealing-wax excited by breaking, 29
fpun into threads, 272
Shavings, wood, ele&ricity of, 30
Ships, how beft protected from light-
ning» 4 478
Shod, elettric, difcovered, 98
perforates cards, 196
giwes polarity to needles, 276
Silk, ele&ric power of, 16
excited, phenomena of, Part I,
Chap. ii.
experiments on by Symmer, 17
Cigna, 18
firft employed as a rubber by
Nooth, p. 657, note (h).
Smoke, a conductor, 267
Snow, fuppofed to be owing to elec¬
tricity, 487
Spark, ele&ric, figure of, 87
length of, 88
found of, 89
force of, 90
light of, 91
peculiar odour of, 92
pofitive and negative
diitinguiihed, 114
chemical effefts of,
Part III. Chap. vii.
Spider, ele&rified, 126
Spiral tube, . 180
ELECTRICITY.
Spontaneous ele&ricity, N° 25
Stanhope's, Lord, theory of the re¬
turning firoke, 462
Steam, a condu&or, 267
Sulphur, excited, phenomena of, Part I.
Chap. v.
experiments on, by Wilcke, 26
by ./Epinus, 27
durability of its eleftricity, 28
Swindon's, Van, experiments to (how
that powdered glafs is a
condudor, 269
Summer's experiments on filk, 17
on charged
plates* 131
on the perfora¬
tion of pa¬
per, 196
T
Talc, a good eleflric for charging, 106
Theory of the ear.y electricians, 279
of Du Faye, 280
of Dr Watfon, 283
of Abbe Ndllet, 285
of Mr Wilfon, 286
of Franklin, 287
of iEpinus, 294—347
of Mr Cavendifh, 348
of two fluids, 349
expetiments mili¬
tating againfl, 352
of Profeflbr Ruflel, 362
of Mr Wilkinfon, 363
Thunder, always preceded by light¬
ning, 448
found of, 449
diftance of, how meafured, 450
explofion of, explained, 431
.generally confined to the
heavens, 452
ftorm, progrefs of, 445
Ihdex,
Thunder, diftant, danger from, ^
explained, 462
rods, mode of conftrudting, 44.
houfe, experiment of the, 47